311 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c33bf5a0581e859f7e99e42437aad1c.pdf 0a1a789e393d3bd71a86d35e8ac56c51 PDF Text Text Mentoring SYSTEM: An Evaluation by English Mentors and Efl StudentTeachers Suna AKALIN Cüneyt ÖZATA İrem ÖZBAY Atatürk University Turkey sakalin@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The system of mentoring has first been applied in England and is being used in Turkey’s educational system, too. The aim of the study is evaluating the mentoring system of Ataturk University, School of Education, and English Language Teaching Department in training pre-service English teachers during their teaching experience at schools. Questionnaires were applied to mentors, student-teachers and supervisors. Data have been collected through questionnaires which include Lykert type items and collected data have been analyzed statistically using mean scores of the participants. The purpose of this study is to make student teachers and mentors aware of mentors’ importance in teaching experience, to attract the interest of teachers who have never taken part in mentoring. The aim which is to reach mass of mentors has been achieved. However, it is essential to state that this study is a kind of starting point to develop new research in this context. Introduction The mentoring system has been applied in various countries and its positive results have been in the Literature. The aims of this study are to make student teachers and mentors aware of mentor’s importance in teaching experience and to draw the attention of teachers’ who have never taken part in mentoring. The study aims at evaluating the system of mentoring at Atatürk University, School of Education, English Language Teaching Department in training pre-service English teachers during their teaching experience at schools. Mentors are the ones we, Department of English Language Teaching, send our student-teachers to get training through working with them at primary and high schools, during teaching experience. The student-teachers interact with ELT mentors and get information and training from them both on the ways of teaching English and also on classroom management during their teaching experience in the fourth year of their education (two terms) in ELT department, School of Education, at Ataturk University. At this point the mentors are the only means of having our student-teachers apply the knowledge they have acquired to the real-life situations and finding practical solutions to them. Therefore, the mentors should be well-trained and equipped with the necessary information in order that they may guide and help our student-teachers. The mentors in this sense act as a bridge between the schools and our department back at the university, since they pass information about the skills needed in real classrooms to our student-teachers. All the information given in the department cannot go much further beyond a theoretical framework; except for the micro and macro teaching sessions during Methodology classes in the third year. Background Upon reviewing the Literature on mentor evaluation, there appeared a lot of research, both national and international in this field. As for the departmental scope, a handbook (Akalin, 1998) composed of feedback and comments on a three-day seminar held in ELT department at Ataturk University was first published and it has been the major source of collected data of this study. Furthermore, Hussein (2007) outlines the deficiencies of the traditional mentoring system and sets up a new approach to mentoring. Rajuana et al. (2007) focus on a group technique to bring the expectations of the participants concerning the role of the cooperating teacher to awareness and articulation. The student teacher group held more expectations for a personal relationship than the cooperating teacher group. Suggestions are given for bridging the gap in expectations between cooperating teachers and student teachers in the initial stage of the practicum program. Smith (2007) using a case study approach, examines the challenges faced by a 298 �cooperating teacher and student-teacher during their collaborative planning conversations. The article concludes that cooperating and student-teachers could engage in more educative planning conversations if they broadened their understanding of their roles as expert and novice planners and of the definition of expertise itself. Varghese and Wilberschied (2002) explore mentee- mentor relationships, which illustrate the tensions and difficulties that arise when this simplistic dichotomy breaks down, a situation that is becoming more and more prevalent when teachers pursue secondary certifications, validations or endorsements. The study finds that the mentoring relationship was mainly coloured by the discourse used by the mentors, the specific backgrounds and goals of the mentees, as well as the different understandings each mentor and mentee had of the TESL profession and their roles in the practica. Time and opportunities need to be allowed for these factors to be discussed and negotiated. Rush et.al. (2008) examined two in-service English teachers and two preservice English teachers, who participated in a shared mentoring relationship during the student-teaching semester, shared their experiences, conflicts, and how they were resolved. The authors provided first-person narratives of all four teachers and suggestions for improving mentoring experiences for both mentor teachers and student-teachers. Friedman and Wallace (2006) document a three-year complex case study that addressed the question: What happens when English, education, and high school faculty cross borders to prepare secondary English teachers to teach in urban schools is the central concern of the article. Bullough (2005) implements a case study constructed of a secondary school teacher's struggle to move beyond her identity as a teacher to assume a mentor's identity in her year-long work with two English-teaching interns. Based on the data, the author argues for the importance of attending to identity in teacher education and and the education of mentors describes conditions that would facilitate mentor identity formation. The literature amply proves that the importance of mentoring in bringing up novice teachers is not diminishing, just the opposite, it is saliently gaining a momentum requiring of the revision of every such program. Method This study aims at assessing the current situation so that what can be done in the next step should be known. So this study is limited to the Turkish mentors preparing student-teachers as secondary school English language teachers in the Turkish National Educational System. The subjects were chosen randomly, so, caution should be taken in making generalizations for further research. The questionnaires have been applied to the mentors, the student-teachers and the supervisors. But supervisors were reluctant to respond the questionnaire. (Only three supervisors have responded). Therefore the supervisors have been left out of the evaluation. The following research questions were generated to guide the research: 1- What role do the mentors have in preparing the student-teachers for their future career? 2- How do the mentors, supervisors and student teachers perceive the mentors? 3- Are there problems hindering the mentors from being better mentors? What are they? A total of 32 English mentors and 142 EFL student-teachers participated in the present study. The student-teacher participants have to attend school experience and training program two semesters at local state schools under the guidance of mentors of English who are the subject matter of this study as well. The senior students have been charged with attending different high schools in Erzurum. In the schools, since the number of the mentors is high, each mentor becomes responsible of 12 students. That is why, the number of the mentor participants may be argued to be low in contrast to student- teacher participants. A questionnaire was applied at different 9 state high schools In May, 2007, the questionnaire consisting of 37 items was conducted on both mentors and EFL student-teachers in which the mentors evaluated themselves and the student-teachers evaluated the mentors. The answers were taken in the form of Likert Scale (from 1= never to 5= always). In preparing the questionnaire the author has carried out seminars (1998) with the same local English mentors and school administrators and published a guide book (1999) underlying the qualities of the mentors. Data Analysis In both groups (mentors& student-teachers), the participants completed evaluation forms. These forms have been prepared both for mentors and student-teachers separately but both of the questionnairies aimed at evaluating the mentors. The questions in both questionnairies can be grouped as follows: 299 �Question#1 is about the process of observation. Questions# 2, 3, 4, 5, 19, 20 and 21 ask about how much self-evaluation opportunities and feedback the mentor gives to the student-teachers. Questions# 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 investigate what problems mentors face when dealing with the student-teachers. Questions# 12, 13 and 14 discuss about the duties of the mentors. Questions# 22, 23, 24, 26, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36 and 37 try to get information about the level of interaction and communication between the student-teachers and the mentors. Question# 25 asks how much reinforcement the mentors give to the student-teachers. Questions# 15, 16, 17, 18, 27, 28, 29, 35 ask the mentors about how they find themselves as mentors, and the same questions in the student-teachers’ questionnairies ask the student- teachers how they find mentors. Written comments by student-teachers: One of the student-teachers comments on his mentor: “A very good model for me.” Another one says: “He is a perfect teacher in both teaching and communicating.” Next comments go: “I like her. She is professional in her job.” “I am glad with her.” One last general comment: “I think it is necessary for us to experience in the schools and it is efficient and will be efficient.” Written comments by mentors: One of the mentors’ comments: “Students-teachers should be taught that this is one of the university lessons, and they should care for it as much as their university lessons. Moreover they should attend the lessons, and be more eager to teaching.” One other mentor points out the student-teacher’s responsibility to make English lessons more enjoyable by saying: “English lesson should be fun for the studentteacher.” Another one says: “The schools should be introduced to the student-teacher before they begin their apprenticeship. The education payment which is paid to the student-teacher should be increased.” One last mentor is dissatisfied with their own payment, for he says: “It’s urgent that the mentor is to be paid regularly and highly.” Findings and Results This study has achived its objectives. It is inevitable to get some fake results but they indicate that evaluation of mentors should be revised more deeply. It might be seen as a mirror which reflects reality in that case. It has gained success and made participants of the questionnaire think about their professions, process of learning and teaching with a peaceful atmosphere. The questionnaire is the central collector of the results. It was applied to the mentors in more than 9 schools in Erzurum and student-teachers at English Language Teaching Department of Ataturk University. In that questionnaire, thirty seven questions were asked to student-teachers. Moreover, thirty seven different questions were asked to mentors. The questions are all related to teacher training system, its tiring process with all its difficulties and benefits. Within this process, both student teachers and mentors might have faced with many problems or inadequate communication between each other. So, thanks to this study they try to convey their feelings, ideas and experiences in an unbiased observation. It is the main objective of this study to construct an unbiased platform for all professions in teaching language and teacher training programs. So, they can give what they have faced or experienced within this whole term period. In order to get the best results, this study lasts not in limited time but enough time to observe. Because participants have their own responsibilities apart from teacher training program so they need enough time to think and write down objective explanations. Besides evaluating the mentors, this study has tried to reply how one becomes a good and well qualified teacher, because to become a good teacher is as important as training a student teacher. Teacher’s awareness of methods, techniques which are used in classroom activities should be taken into consideration. Hence, mentors are asked about their teaching background, field knowledge and their own value system oriented to what they teach in classroom. Whether they receive accurate feedback or they encourage student teachers to build self-esteem and their value system. Self-evaluation for both studentteachers and mentors is necessary. It can be inferred from the results that they do not have enough knowledge about self-evaluation. Thanks to this study, it is tried to make them conscious. This study gives some heavy burdens for mentors. It is argued that the syllabus is not appropriate for all instruction contexts. It consists of limited time and lots of subjects should be taught in this limited time. It is regarded as an inevitable situation for teachers. It brings heavy workload for both mentors and student teachers. Hence, the time devoted to student teachers is not enough to build reciprocal training and experience. A question may be asked: “Is there a good relation between the supervisor at the university and the mentor?” It is important to interact effectively in order to observe student-teachers objectively. The 300 �results indicate that most of the mentors go and meet supervisors about the recent developments, studentteachers’ attendance to training (whether regular or not). And also supervisors visit schools to monitor student-teacher’s performance in the light of some criteria. During these observations, supervisors generally contact with school administrations. Some mentors prefer sending the recent report or message via student-teachers going back to the department. This study also examines mentors’ methods they are using in the classroom. It is asked to student-teachers to discover this reality, of whether student centered instruction or teacher centered instruction is dominant. But less than half of the mentors use different approaches for their class and students. They use either a course book or series of the book. They rarely benefit from different language resources apart from course books, teacher’s book and audio cassettes. Most mentors depend on group teaching rather than individual learning. Mentors are inclined to provide comfortable school atmosphere and condition for student teachers. Thanks to school administration, student teachers can use teachers’ room for conferencing sessions with mentors. Briefly, this study has achieved its overall objectives. Its aims are making student-teachers and the mentors be aware of mentors’ importance in teaching experience; attracting the interest of teachers who have never taken part in mentoring. The aim which is to reach mass of mentors is achieved. However, it is inevitable to tell that this study is a kind of starting point to develop new research in this context. Further study would require the restructuring of the whole system to represent the voices and experiences of the student-teachers. Towards this end, a new mentoring framework that potentially encourages studentteachers to become critical practitioners should be offered. The model proposed should emphasize the professional agency of the student-teacher. Such a model holds the position that to transform their views of teaching and learning, student-teachers as well as their trainers should be empowered to seek justice and emancipation from the traditional model of evaluation. Finally, it should attempt to leave readers with the impression that if we prefer our zone of comfort at the expense of our student-teacher’s growth we must know that we are jeopardizing the fate of teacher education. Given the ANOVA analysis, the fourth question examining the frequency and quality of getting feedback from the mentors to the student-teachers, the finding (sig. 0.030) shows that there is a significant difference between the answers of mentors and student -teachers at the level of p< 0.005. While the mean of mentors is 2.91, the mean of the student- teachers is 2, 35. The means suggest that mentors do not sufficiently give feedback to the students. As for the question 7, a significant difference about mentor’s language proficiency (sig. 0.022) at the level of p<0.05 is seen. It seems that student teachers do not see their mentors successful about language proficiency as much as their mentors consider. Question 19 examines the mentors’ approach towards self evaluation. However, both groups gave significantly different answers. While the mean of the mentors is 3.79, the mean of the student teachers is 2.80. Considering mentors’ achievement about reinforcement, there also seems to be a significant difference between the responses of the mentors and student-teachers (sig. 0.031) on question 25. While the mean of student-teachers was 2.886, the mean of the mentors was 3.54. In fact, it displays that mentors appear to reinforce their student though it is not seen sufficient by the student-teachers. Question 29 also indicates a significant difference between the responses of the mentors and student-teachers as to the perception of the mentor in terms of supportive aspects. While the mean of the student-teachers was 3.170, on the other hand for the mentors, mean turned out 4. 17. For the question 32, it can be argued that mentors consider themselves adequate about their affective and communicative functions (f. 9.299, sig. 0.003); however student-teachers are not certain of getting affective support. As to the interaction between the mentors and student-teachers (question 33), student-teachers pointed out that mentors do not consider student teachers’ ideas adequately in contrast to the mentors’ responses. There appears a significant difference at the level of p<0.005 (f.15.452, sig. .000). While the mean of mentors is 4.04, the mean of the studentteachers is 2.99. Likewise, question 34 suggests the same argument given the mean of student-teachers (3.37), the mean of the mentors (4.12). The findings show that there is a significant difference between the two parties about communicative situation (f.7.892, sig. 0.006). Question 35 has examined the mentors’ function as a scaffolder; regarding the former findings this item suggests the same result. As to the sufficient pedagogical support to the student-teachers by the mentors, while the mean of the mentors is 3.79, the mean of the student-teachers is 2.80. This again states that the mentors and the studentteachers are not in a common opinion about mentor’s support. 301 �Variables How often do you give feedback in written form as well as verbally? How often do you face problems with your own English language proficiency/field knowledge? How often do you give the student-teacher the chance to self-evaluate himself/herself orally? How often do you give studentteacher the chance to selfevaluate himself/herself in written form? How often do you give reinforcement to the studentteachers? How often do you thing a mentor is a reflective friend? Is there a two-way interaction rather than a directive attitude of the mentor in these sessions? Is there a communicative atmosphere characterized by openness and caring? How often do you seek studentteachers’ ideas as well which could be discussed and enriched if needed? How often do you encourage and support the student-teachers so as to build up their confidence in planning and teaching English? How often do you believe you can give dynamic service by using other resources and methods and do you go step by step by having the student-teachers begin from what they can manage, for example groupteaching, with a trial-error learning approach? Sum of squares DF Mean Between Group Within Groups Between Group 6.543 1 6.543 224.228 164 1.367 8.293 1 8.293 Within Groups 254.984 164 1.555 Between Group 16.127 1 16.127 Within Groups 284.140 163 1.743 Between Group 17.790 1 17.790 Within Groups 230.649 162 1.424 Between Group 8.803 1 8.803 Within Groups 302.143 163 1.854 19.921 1 19.921 245.219 162 1.514 15.328 1 15.328 168.390 161 1.046 12.097 1 12.097 Within Groups 213.331 164 1.301 Between Group 22.558 1 22.558 Within Groups 237.951 163 1.460 Between Group 11.509 1 11.509 Within Groups 237.703 163 1.458 Between Group 19.859 1 19.859 Between Group Within Groups Between Group Within Groups Within Groups Within Groups 235.751 162 1.455 Table 1. Mentors and Mentees’ Responses 302 F Sig. 4.786 .030 5.334 .022 9.251 .003 12.495 .001 4.749 .031 13.160 .000 14.655 .000 9.299 .003 15.452 .000 7.892 .006 13.646 .000 �Variables How often does the mentor follow the process of pre-observation, observation and postobservation? How often does the mentor provide feedback to the student-teachers as a mentor? Is his/her feedback sufficient in depth How often does the mentor give feedback in written form as well as verbally? How often does the mentor give feedback immediately after the observation? How often does the mentor face problems with time constraints when providing feedback ? How often does the mentor face problems with his own English language proficiency/field knowledge? How often does the mentor face problems related with inadequate/no training given to the mentor? How often does the mentor face problems with school management? How often does the mentor face problems with heavy workload for mentors? Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Mean Standard Deviation 3,0219 1,1972 3,5000 ,78019 3,2887 1,15826 3,7500 ,89685 3,2214 1,18788 3,5417 ,93153 2,3521 1,16203 2,9167 1,21285 3,1773 1,22056 3,2917 1,12208 2,5357 1,14685 2,3750 ,96965 2,2606 1,30835 1,6250 ,76967 2,1786 1,16463 1,7391 ,68870 1,6929 1,03114 1,9167 1,10007 2,0073 1,01094 2,0870 ,90015 Table 2. Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Both Groups 303 �Conclusions and Implications Based on these data, the results show that it would be essential to train the mentors once again 10 years later the first training seminar in 1998(Akalın). It has been found out that a revision of the system is a Must. It seems also necessary to encourage the supervisors back in the department to be more attentive to the issue. Whenever necessary, mentors should be able to easily reach the department and get utmost support in their decisions. It is also highly recommended that mentors should be encouraged to give more feedback to the student-teachers. They should also be supported about getting more help from the department in upgrading their level of language proficieny. The mentors should be more willing to do self evaluation and they should be encouraged to use more reinforcement on student-teachers. The results also indicate that mentors should use a revised, less authorative and more communicative approach in dealing with student-teachers’ needs and they should be more supportive of the student-teachers’ new approaches to teaching. References Akalın, S. (1998). İngilizce Rehber Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet İçi Eğitimi, Erzurum: Bakanlar Media. Bullough, R. V. (2005). Being and Becoming a Mentor: School-Based Teacher Educators and Teacher Educator Identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 143155. Retrived August 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Hussein, J. W. (2007). A plea for a mentoring framework that promotes dialogic professional learning in the ELT teacher education context. International Journal of Progressive Education, 3, (2). Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Friedman, Audrey A; Elizabeth Kowaleski Wallace (2006). Crossing Borders: Developing an Innovative Collaboration to Improve the Preparation of High School English Teachers. English Article (EJ) 12 Equity & Excellence in Education, 39, (1), 15-26. Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Rajuana, M., Douwe Beijaardb and Nico Verloopc (2007), The role of the cooperating teacher: bridging the gap between the expectations of cooperating teachers and student. Mentoring & Tutoring, 15, (3), 223-242. Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Rush, Leslie; Sandra H Blair; David Chapman; Andrew Codner; Becky Pearce. (2008). A New Look at Mentoring: Proud Moments and Pitfalls. English Article (EJ) 5 Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 3, 128-132 Web site: http://www.heldref.org Smith, E. R. (12.04.2009), Negotiating power and pedagogy in student teaching: expanding and shifting roles in expert–novice discourse. Retrieved in March 13th, 2008, from http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a739048845? words=men Varghese, Manka M.; Lee Wilberschied (2002). Reconsidering the novice/expert dichotomy in the K-12 mentor-mentee relationship. Journal of In-Service Education, 28, 23-34. Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. 304 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2160ab2e6c19f4d0c353968f240cba9e.doc a34d3d97d2fc07142efed886bb3ec90d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 365 Title A name given to the resource Mentoring SYSTEM: An Evaluation by English Mentors and Efl Student- Teachers Author Author AKALIN, Suna ÖZATA, Cüneyt ÖZBAY, İrem Abstract A summary of the resource. The system of mentoring has first been applied in England and is being used in Turkey’s educational system, too. The aim of the study is evaluating the mentoring system of Ataturk University, School of Education, and English Language Teaching Department in training pre-service English teachers during their teaching experience at schools. Questionnaires were applied to mentors, student-teachers and supervisors. Data have been collected through questionnaires which include Lykert type items and collected data have been analyzed statistically using mean scores of the participants. The purpose of this study is to make student teachers and mentors aware of mentors’ importance in teaching experience, to attract the interest of teachers who have never taken part in mentoring. The aim which is to reach mass of mentors has been achieved. However, it is essential to state that this study is a kind of starting point to develop new research in this context. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0b17b64b0d419dc07cda69ad74477261.pdf 26793df5a5de20e5327261fea7c9cce7 PDF Text Text INDUSTRIALIZATION PROBLEM OF CULTURE IN THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION Dr. Abamüslim AKDEMİR Ataurk University Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty Philosophy Department akdemir@atauni.edu.tr Dr. Erdinç PARLAK Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Department of English Language erdincparlak@hotmail.com Abstract:The rapid changes and transformations in science, technology and mass communication have gave way to a new process. This recent phenomenon which made itself felt in almost every part of human life has, at the same time, caused debates in western cultural life on philosophy, literature, architecture, painting under the name of globalization. One of the debates was the one towards modern age under the domination of production and industrial capitalism. The valid value of industrialization, the “production”, has left its place to a new social understanding named “upper-reality”. This has emerged as a result of post-industrial viewpoints. On the other hand, “similarity” replaced the “reality”of modern cultural values. The process of globalization , again, transformed the aesthetic nature of cultural values into commercial meta identity together with post-industrial approaches. As the globalized industrial values made man mere consumer, there emerged the ideology of entertainment industry. This process has both produced meta and created mass culture or popular values before individuality. The rapid changes in information and communication due to the developments in science, technology and economy have put international borders aside. The world has turned into a large village where common values have been formed. This recent phenomenon which made itself felt in almost every field of life together with the last quarter of 20th century, emerged under the name of “new world order”, “postmodernity”, and “globalization”. It became the focal point of discussions in every field from art to philosophy. Human rights, also, became one of the main issues of discussion in every area. Globalizataion began to dominate almost all the world with the understanding of human rights, liberal economy and market economy. The political dimension of globalization made the leadership of USA felt, on the other and its economic dimension that of multi dimensional capital. On its cultural basis, the label hegamony of monotonus consumption culture came to the fore as universal and local were presented at the same time (Akdemir, 2004, p.43). This new era was defined by Fredric Jamesan as modernization, post-industrial, consumption society and show society. To him new economic order and social life have formed the beginning of new government in the cultures (Jameson, 1993, p.27). This new case has mingled cultural social and economic to each other with globalization. The borders have became much more ambigious in culture. With the process of globalization, the rationalization form of modernity was opened to discussion as meaning, order and content. Direct relationships were formed with the methods of bringing closer diverse lives ontologically not related to each other. According to Benjamin, man has lost his freedom and singleness. Every object is the mirror of another. Those objects eating, drinking, listening, watching the same things have now 124 �started to think and feel the same things exactly. Everybody is the same (Dellaoğlu, 2003, pp.21-22). Within this process, the postmodern view which adresses to the homogeuous mass has now created mass culture or popular culture. The products of mass culture do not give rise to creativity. It has made men an inactive object who can be directed and controlled instead of putting them into a mutual discussion atmosphere. Culture and entertainment have mingled to each other in the fantasy world of mass communucation tools (Swingewood, 1996, p.36). Its culture and works of art have now become meta and its function has been only to entertain and has reduced conscious totally to inactivity. Globalization considers eclecticism as the basis of culture. On the one hand it mixes everything to each other by mass culture and makes them global by loading them with homogenous. It, on the other hand, brings sub-cultures, localization, tradition and differences to the fore. For instance, man begins to listen to reggae music, watches cowboy film on tv, has his lunch at Mc. Donald’s, dinner at a local restaurant. He uses Paris perfume in Tokyo, wears redra clothes in Hong Kong (Appignanesi and Garrat, 1996, p.47). Elite and popular culture forms are have migled to each other. Mass culture has criticized aesthetic sensitivity with the concepts of imitation, irony and pastiche and rejected aesthetic elitism. It has demonstrated a populist attitude with the understanding of “Anything goes”. Money is the sole measurement in the lack of aesthetic criteria. Everything that the artist spits is money. There is nobody where everybody is the same. There no longer, exists such a thing as object. All those have been caused by “Culture Industry”. The concept of “Culture Industry” has been used for the first time by the thinkers Adorno and Harkheimer of Frankfurt School taking mass culture criticism as the basis in the “Dialectics of Illumination.”. The most widely criticized feature of Adorno’s culture industry is its misleading aspect. On the basis of this criticism lies Marx’s meta fetishism. According to Adorno, those produced by culture industry are not the works of art that have become as meta but those metas produced for Market from the very beginning. The concept of culture, industry, starting from the time that culture became a thing and money in the classic term became a culture during the late capitalist era, struggles to form a theory of daily life with this concept (Dellaloğlu, 2003, p.23). Culture industry has reduced individuals to a living meta in the name of consuming to consume. The individual has formed a living area with the product. As Adorno says; “The typical cultural existence of culture industry are no longer product but has been turned into product besides other features” (Adorno, 2003, p.72). The culture industry is, in the simplest definition, the industrialization of culture and man has became as an industrial product within the industrial society and has became a thing. The individuals have created an area of living with the product. The main reason here is to gain satisfaction by kitch products without aesthetic. The imitation has replaced the real one. The society, on the other hand, consists of individuals totally consumers and of which behaviours have been determined in advance. Adorno explains it as: “Every one should behave suitable for their levels determined before and should move towards the mass production categories produced for certain types of consumers”(Adorno, 2007, p.51). In such a case, consumers have become materials of statistics. For the individuals, being adaptable has replaced consciousnes. Industrial mind suggests workers a model of mental cooperation. It spends effort in order to make them accustomed to the system. Though it seems at first sight that this gives man freedom both in their working life and cultural industry, men (individuals) in such case 125 �have always been a subject (Adorno, 2007, pp. 81-82). Culture industry, consciously, has been a barrier before the development of free individuals. Though the products of culture industry create a monotonus atmosphere, it has been successful in attracting men by its very nature. Similar and charming products do not alow their customers move out of the circle. As Adorno explains; the men who are now consumers became the ideology of entertainment industry which they cannot get rid of (Adorno, 2007, p.96). Cultural industry imposes an entertainment equal to thinking. Man, unconsciously and with no resistance , accepts this insistence (Adorno, 2007, p.56). The administrators have, according to Adorna, directed the mass and changed them into the means of propaganda and tourism. Thus, the artistic works that industry of culture created made art object and merchandising. In this context, the best way to merchandise and present all the products to consumption is advertisement. In the process of industrialization ion of culture, advertising appears to have formed an area of surrealism. Advertising not only creates desire but it also forms a reality of being an object. Adorna (2007, p. 96) states that advertising is the elixir of life of culture industry. Behind advertisement, the sovereignty of system is hidden. Everything having no mark of advertisement is regarded as meaningless economically. Adorno explains the success of advertising in the domain of culture industry in the light of the fact that though consumers know that advertisement is not true, they continue to purchase the cultural objects and sustain to use them with a strong desire. (Adorna, 2007, p. 107) While Adorna strongly defends modernist art, he criticizes the mass culture as a result of the industry of culture. He objects to capitalist and socialist totalitarian regimes since they intervene with the human freedom. He regards the culture that was created by means of technological facilities as a tool of mass manipulation. The process of being object that Hollywood, Broadway, Manhattan and Rock’n Roll directed and accelerated Adorno’s criticism who migrated to New York during the World War II ( Pelvanoglu, 2009). Adorner’s criticism towards the cultural industry that global world has created displays how he was contemporary. Culture’s industrialization changed it into an object carelessly. The mass culture or popular values towards particularity or individualism came front. The dominance of subject overwhelmingly became restricted and the power between subjectivity and culture declined. (Connor, 2005, p.364). In postindustrial culture, thus, high culture understanding integrated with commercial and mass culture. The standards of culture irresistibly lost and the cultural products made individual an ordinary carrier of the social tendencies. According to Adorno, the industry of culture occurred through the instinct of profit which has always been prevailing.(adorno, 2007, p. 112). This is the reason that made everything object and the changed the object itself into culture. Therefore, the individual who has become alienated towards effort in the phase of production become also alienated to life and the whole existence through consumption’s becoming aesthetic in the phase of consumption. Adorno’s subject which is his object of analysis is not the employee but the customer of consumption society. The subject’s meaning that he attributed while using culture industry is different from the meaning that mass culture or popular culture attributed. In mass culture, authentic people is mentioned , people’s culture has a role for the mass culture. However, Adorno cannot stand even their implication in that in culture industry people does 126 �not create culture. It includes in the industry culture. It is not the subject but the object. Today people have become more inactive than what Adorno stated. Today’s culture industry forces to consume more alienation and forget to be individual in the society. People have changed what they consume into fetishism. Brand sovereignty has occupied people’s life space. Thus, Adorno’s remark goes back to 50 years turned out to be true. References Adorno, T. W (2003) “Kültür Endüstrisini Yeniden Düşünürken”, çev. Bülent O. Doğan, Cogito, Sayı: 36, Yaz 2003, pp. 76-84. Adorno, T. W. (2007) Kültür Endüstrisi- Kültür Yönetimi, çev. N. Ünler, M. Tüzel, E. Gen, İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları. Akdemir, A. (2004) “Küreselleşme ve Kültürel Kimlik Sorunu”, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt:3, Sayı:1, 2004, Erzurum, pp. 43-51. Apigenes, R. And Garratt, C. (1996) Postmodenizm, İstanbul, Milliyet Yayınları. Connor, S. (2005) Postmodernist Kültür, çev. Doğan Şahiner, İstanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Dellalloğlu, B. F. (2003) “Bir Giriş: Adorno Yüz Yaşında”, Cogito, Sayı: 36, Yaz 2003, pp. 13-36. Jameson, F. (1993) “Postmodernizm ve Tüketim Toplumu”, çev. H. Güleryüz, V. Aytar, Edebiyat ve Eleştiri Dergisi, Ocak-Şubat 1993, İzmir. Swingewood, A. (1996) Kitle Kültürü Efsanesi, çev. Aykut Kansu, Ankara, Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. 127 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/19b708f68849576353eee4b6babfde47.doc fd68f84e1937e889d127d33f1e16d6ad Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 662 Title A name given to the resource INDUSTRIALIZATION PROBLEM OF CULTURE IN THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION Author Author AKDEMİR, Abamüslim Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. The rapid changes and transformations in science, technology and mass communication have gave way to a new process. This recent phenomenon which made itself felt in almost every part of human life has, at the same time, caused debates in western cultural life on philosophy, literature, architecture, painting under the name of globalization. One of the debates was the one towards modern age under the domination of production and industrial capitalism. The valid value of industrialization, the “production”, has left its place to a new social understanding named “upper-reality”. This has emerged as a result of post-industrial viewpoints. On the other hand, “similarity” replaced the “reality”of modern cultural values. The process of globalization , again, transformed the aesthetic nature of cultural values into commercial meta identity together with post-industrial approaches. As the globalized industrial values made man mere consumer, there emerged the ideology of entertainment industry. This process has both produced meta and created mass culture or popular values before individuality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/51d77364b63243cd6420b482dbfaa0ca.pdf 6e76307f14d5c2779db328c5358fbc0b PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Determinants of Bank Efficiency in Turkey: A Two Stage Data Envelopment Analysis Ahmet AKIN Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul akin@fatih.edu.tr Merve KILIÇ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul mervekilic@fatih.edu.tr Selim ZAĐM Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul szaim@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: Financial industry plays an important role in the economy and banks are indispensable players in the financial industry. Therefore, the evaluation of banks’ performance became a popular research topic in all over the world, and also in Turkey. There are different techniques to determine the banks’ performance. Among those techniques, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), which is a non-parametric technique, has been widely used in the banking sector. In this research, we analyzed the efficiency of Turkish Banking Industry with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) methodology between 2002 and 2007. All the banks that constantly operated in the years between 2002 and 2007, excluding investment and development, participation banks, get into the analysis. So there are four groups of banks in the research, those are state-owned deposit banks, privately-owned deposit banks, foreign banks founded in Turkey, and foreign banks having branches in Turkey. In the research model, number of employees, interest expenses, non-interest expenses and total deposit are determined as input, total credits, interest revenue and non-interest revenue are determined as output. This analysis aims to explain the variation in efficiency scores with a set of explanatory variables, such as size, ownership type, nationality, being publicly held. According to results, the efficiency levels do not change very much between 2002 and 2007. The efficiency scores reached top level in 2005 and 2006. The results of regression application denote that all of the explanatory variables have a significant effect on banks’ efficiency levels. According to regression analysis results, size negatively affects the efficiency levels of banks. Publicly listed banks operate more efficient than not publicly listed banks. Foreign owned banks operate more efficient than their domestic peers. Furthermore, state owned banks are less efficient than non-state banks. Keywords: Efficiency, Data Envelopment Analysis, Tobit Regression Model, Turkish Banking Sector. 1. Introduction With the changes in economical environment, financial institutions have an essential role in the developing countries’ economy. Especially banks are fundamental players in the financial industry. So the evaluation and assessment of banks’ performance, efficiency, and effectiveness have attracted considerable attention. Measurement of efficiency of banking institutions serves two important purposes. It helps to benchmark of an individual bank against the “best practice” banks and secondly, it helps to evaluate the impact of various measures on the efficiency and performance of these institutions (Das et al. 2009). But the performance measurement in banking sector is not so straightforward, because there are some difficulties in determining inputs and outputs of a bank for efficiency measurement. There is not consensus on that subject. Furthermore, banks may not be homogeneous with respect to types of output they produced. In Turkey context, some reforms were applied in banking industry after 1980s. The banking industry experienced some financial crises in November 2000 and February 2001. The efficiency level of banking sector decreased in those years. This situation required restructuring of banking sector in Turkey. There are some researches that investigate the performance of banking sector after liberalization policies in 1980s or the effects of financial crises on banking sector. There is not much study that investigates the recent efficiency of Turkish Banking Industry. 32 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo There are a lot of techniques to determine the banks’ performance. One of them is ratio analysis. In ratio analysis, measures such as return on assets (ROA), return on investment (ROI), liquidity ratios give only one dimension of performance. In this type analysis, different measures can give contradictory results. The regression analysis eliminates this disadvantage but it can only handle one output at a time. In the most of industries corporations especially in banking operate with many inputs and many outputs. Therefore there exists a requirement for efficiency measurement method besides ratio and regression analysis. Data envelopment analysis which was originally introduced by Charnes et al. (1978) is capable of solving multiple inputs and outputs and enables to see complete picture of performance of a company. This paper examines the efficiency of Turkish banking sector for the period 2002-2007. In this study the effects of size, ownership type, being publicly held on performance are also analyzed. There are two stages of this research. First stage is the analysis of efficiency levels of banks with Data Envelopment Analysis methodology and the second stage is determination of the effects of bank size, ownership type, nationality and being publicly held on bank efficiency scores by Tobit Regression. The paper is structured in the following way. Section 2 includes a brief review of the literature about bank performance and explanatory variables’ effects on banks’ efficiency levels. Section 3 denotes the research sample of this study, input and output variables that are used, and outlines the non-parametric Data Envelopment Analysis methodology. In the fourth section the results of the study are charted and the findings are discussed. And in the fifth section the conclusions of the study are presented. 2. Literature Review In a rapidly changing financial market worldwide, bank regulators, managers, and investors are concerned about how efficiently banks transform their expensive inputs into various financial products and services (Işık & Hassan 2002). So the investigation of the financial institutions has been motivated by academics, policy makers, bankers. There a lot of studies Sufian (2008), Işık (2008), Rezitis (2006), Işık and Hasan (2002), Das et al. (2009), Mercan et al. (2003) that examine the efficiency levels of banks with different methods. Some researchers investigated also the effects of some explanatory variables on bank efficiency, such as, size, type of ownership, bank configuration, being publicly traded or not. Bank size is generally measured by banks’ amount of assets. Jackson and Fethi (2000), Mercan et al. (2003), Rezitis (2006) analyzed the effect of the bank size on efficiency found a positive relationship between size and efficiency. Işık and Hassan (2002) determined a negative relationship between bank size and efficiency. Chen et al. (2005) indicated that large and small banks are more efficient than medium banks. Aly et al. (1990) investigated the effect of size on the overall efficiency, technical efficiency, allocative efficiency and pure technical efficiency of banks and they measured size as total deposits in thousand of dollars and number of bank branches. They found that size is positively related to efficiency, regardless of whether size was measured as total deposits or number of branches. There is no consensus on how bank size affects bank efficiency, but general view large banks are more efficient than small and medium sized banks. Hypothesis 1. Large sized banks are more efficient than small sized banks. The market hypothesis supposed that publicly traded banks should operate more efficient than not publicly traded. But studies that analyze the relationship between being publicly listed or not and bank efficiency generally indicate there is not a significant relationship. Sufian (2009) investigated the effect of being publicly listed on bank performance and did not find evidence of higher efficiency levels of the publicly listed banks. Havrylchyk (2006) studied on being publicly traded effect the performance of banks, but observed no impact of publicly traded on banks efficiency. Mamatzakis et al. (2008) discriminated the banks as publicly listed or not and analyzed the effect of being publicly listed on efficiency, the results do not reveal significant differences between publicly traded or not traded banks. Hypothesis 2. Being publicly held has no affect on bank’s performance. Jackson and Fethi (2000) analyzed the effect of ownership type on banks’ performance and according to their results state ownership worsens efficiency. Işık and Hassan (2002) found that private banks operate more cost efficient than banks in public sector. Mercan et al. (2003) classified the banks according to type of ownership as state-owned, private and foreign. State-owned banks had lowest performance in their study. Sufian (2009)’s study showed that the foreign banks are likely to be more efficient than domestically owned banks. Jackson et al. (1998) analyzed the performance of banks during the period 1992-96 in Turkey. Among three ownership types, private and foreign banks showed greater productivity growth compared to state owned banks. Chen (1998), Chen and Yeh (2000) analyzed the efficiency differences between private and public banks in Taiwan. The results indicated that private banks operate more efficient than public banks. Havrylchyk (2006) assessed the efficiency of foreign and domestic banks, showed that foreign banks are operating in a higher level of efficiency than domestic banks. Also, his study showed that state banks are more efficient than other domestic banks. Chen et al. (2005) grouped the Chinese banks as state owned commercial banks, national-joint 33 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo equity banks, regional-joint equity banks and investment banks to determine the relation between efficiency level and type of ownership. State banks showed a relatively higher efficiency level. Lensink et al. (2008) analyzed 2095 banks in 105 countries over the years 1998-2003 and found that foreign ownership negatively affects bank efficiency. Bonin et al. (2005) suggested that foreign-owned banks are more cost-efficient than other banks. Hypothesis 3. Private banks operate more efficiently than public banks. Hypothesis 4. Foreign ownership positively affects bank efficiency. 3. Research Methods 3.1. Sample The research sample of this study includes all the banks that operated in Turkey constantly between 2002–2007, excluding investment and development, and participation banks. This data set should be as homogeneous as possible to be meaningful for relative efficiency measurement for DEA application. So there are four groups of banks in the research, state-owned deposit banks, privately-owned deposit banks, foreign banks founded in Turkey, and, foreign banks having branches in Turkey. Total thirty-one banks from those groups are determined and get into the analysis. Table 1: The Banks in the Analysis B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 ABN AMRO Bank N.V. Adabank A.S. Akbank T.A.S. Alternatif Bank A.S. Anadolubank A.S. Arap Türk Bankası A.S. Bank Mellat Citibank A.S. Denizbank A.S. Eurobank Tekfen A.S. Finans Bank A.S. Fortis Bank A.S. Habib Bank Limited HSBC Bank A.S. JPMorgan Chase Bank N.A Millennium Bank A.S. B17 B18 B19 B20 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 B27 B28 B29 B30 B31 ING Bank A.S. Societe Generale (SA) Sekerbank T.A.S. Tekstil Bankası A.S. Turkish Bank A.S. Turkland Bank A.S. Türk Ekonomi Bankası A.S. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Ziraat Bankası A.S. Türkiye Garanti Bankası A.S. Türkiye Halk Bankası A.S. Türkiye Đs Bankası A.S. Türkiye Vakıflar Bankası T.A.O. Unicredit Banca di Roma S.P.A. WestLB AG Yapı ve Kredi Bankası A.S. 3.2. Measurement of Variables The necessary data set from the income statements and balance sheets of the banks is obtained from the annual issues of the Bank Association of Turkey. In the banking performance literature, there is no definite consensus on the determination of bank inputs and outputs. But there are two main approaches to determine the inputs and outputs that can be used for efficiency measurement; production approach and intermediation approach (Thanassoulis 1999; Sealey & Lindley 1977; Anthanassopoulos 2009). According to production approach, banks are regarded as using labor and capital to generate deposits and loans, and according to intermediation approach deposits are regarded as being converted into loans (Avkıran 2006). Avkıran (2006) summarized two approaches, and showed inputs and outputs for two approaches. Under production approach, number of employees, occupancy, furniture and equipment, other noninterest expenses are determined as input, number of demand deposits, time deposits, real estate loans, installment loans and commercial loans are determined as output. Under intermediation approach, deposits, debentures, other liabilities, shareholder equity, number of employees, physical capital, non-interest expenses are regarded as inputs, loans, securities, deposits with other banks, except central bank, non-interest income are regarded as outputs. Sufian and Majid (2007) employed DEA method to investigate the effects of merger and acquisitions on Singaporean domestic banking groups’ efficiency. They estimate two alternative models and they used total deposits as input, total loans and non-interest income as output in the first model, non-interest and interest income as output and interest and non-interest expense as input in the second model. Aysan and Ceyhan (2008) determined the inputs as labor, capital and loanable funds, outputs as short- and long-term 34 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo credits, off-balance sheet items, and other earning assets. Jackson et al. (1998) used number of employees and the sum of non-labor operating expense, the direct expenditure on buildings and amortization expenses as inputs, loans, demand deposits and time deposits as output under value-added approach. Wheelock and Wilson (1999) investigated the technical progress, inefficiency and productivity change between 1984 and 1993. They employed three inputs: labor, physical capital, purchased funds, five outputs: real estate loans, commercial and industrial loans, consumer loans, all other loans, total demand deposits by adopting intermediation approach. Oral and Yolalan (1990), Ayadi et al.(1998) determined inputs as interest paid on deposits, expenses on personnel, administration etc. and total deposits, outputs as total loans, interest and non-interest income. Aly et al. (1990) employed a non-parametric frontier approach in their study to calculate the overall, technical, pure technical, allocative and scale efficiencies of a sample of 322 independent banks. And, they determined the inputs as labor, capital, loanable funds, outputs as real estate loans, commercial and industrial loans, consumer loans, all other loans and demand deposits. Bergendahl (1998) applied DEA to Nordic Banks by using loan volumes, deposit volumes, and gross revenues as output, costs of personnel, cost of material and the volume of credit losses as input. Işık (2008) investigated the technical X-efficiency and productivity growth of novo banks and established banks by using a non-parametric frontier method. By employing intermediation approach the outputs that are used in his research are, short-term loans, long-term loans, and other earning assets, the inputs are labor, capital, and loanable funds. Havrylchyk (2006) investigated the efficiency of the Polish Banking industry between 1997 and 2001, and under intermediation approach he determined the inputs as capital, labor and deposits, outputs as loans, government bonds, and off-balance sheet items. Chen et al. (2000) analyzed the operating efficiency of 34 commercial banks in Taiwan banking sector. Under intermediation approach they determined outputs as provision of loan services, portfolio investment, and non-interest income, inputs as bank staff, assets and bank deposits for this analysis. Liu (2009) used slack-based efficiency measures to measure the efficiency of 24 banks in Taiwan; he employed deposits, interest and non-interest expenses as input, loans, interest income and non-interest income as output in his study. By taking into consideration the literature intermediation approach is used in the analysis. Number of employees, interest expenses, non-interest expenses, and total deposits are determined as input; total loans, interest income, and non-interest income are determined as output. All variables are measured in thousands of Turkish Liras, except number of employees. 3.3. Measurement of Efficiency The efficiency measurement is generally performed in several methods such as ratio analysis, parametric and non-parametric methods. In the ratio analysis, efficiency is measured with the calculation of several ratios of financial units. The financial unit with the highest output over input or lowest input over output is determined as efficient. But for the calculation of efficiency of financial units which operate multi-input and multi-output ratio analysis is not suitable. Another criticism about the ratio analysis is that some ratios denote that the firm has a successful level of performance but other may show the opposite. The regression analysis does not suffer from that disadvantage, but it assumes a priori form of functional relationship between inputs and outputs, in addition regression analysis can only handle one output at a time (Manadhar & Tang 2002). In the most of industries corporations especially in banking operate with many inputs and many outputs. Therefore there exists a requirement for efficiency measurement method besides ratio and regression analysis. There are another two techniques called as parametric and non-parametric enable efficiency measurement with many input many output. One of the nonparametric techniques which is widely used to measure efficiency is Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). 3.3.1. The Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) Model Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is a linear based programming model which was first proposed by Charnes et al. in 1978 twenty years after Farrell’s seminal work for evaluating activities of not-for-profit entities participating in public programs. Recent years a variety of DEA applications have been seen for evaluating the performances of different kinds of entities engaged in many different activities in many different contexts in many different countries (Cooper et al. 2004). DEA assess the comparative efficiency of homogeneous organizational units, such as bank branches, schools, tax offices, and hospitals (Thanassoulis 1999). DEA responds to the need for satisfactory procedures to assess the relative efficiencies of multi-input multi-output production units (Cook & Seiford 2008). The efficiency score is usually denoted as either a number between zero and one or 0 and 100 percent. The efficiency score of one or 100 percent of a decision making unit shows that decision making unit is efficient relative to other units in the research sample. In addition to providing meaningful scalar efficiency values, DEA is designed to determine the sources and estimate the amounts of inefficiencies that might present in the various output and input vectors (Charnes et al. 1991). The most important advantage of DEA over other traditional econometric frontier method is that it does not require prior 35 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo assumption (such as standard forms of statistical regression analysis) about the analytical form of the production function (Avkıran 1999; Banker 1984; Cooper et al. 2004). In addition, DEA enable to calculate the efficiency of decision making units that operates multi-input and multi-output. DEA is a valuable benchmarking tool, because it identifies inefficiencies in decision making units by comparing them with similar decision making units regarded as efficient (Avkıran 2006). Unlike other benchmarking tools that rely on the managers’ observation, comparison, DEA enables to identify best practices that are too complex to be identified (Sherman & Ladino 1995). On the other hand, the main problem about DEA model is that, it is a non-parametric method, so it is sensitive to the measurement problems (Al-Sharkas et al. 2008). The relative performance measurement of DEA is a two-staged process (Mercan et al. 2003): (i) Determining the best performing decision making units that produces greatest output with the least input. Assigning a DEA performance-index value of unity (1) to such decision making units and placing them on the efficient frontier. (ii) Determining the DEA performance-index values for all other decision making units in the set. Such values are represented by the distance of the less efficient units from the above defined efficient frontier. The decision making units in this subset use more inputs given an output level or produce less output for a specific level of inputs. DEA determines, the most productive decision making unit, the amount of excess resources used by inefficient decision making units, the amount of excess capacity or ability to increase service outputs in lessproductive units, the set of best-practice service units most similar to the less-productive units, referred to as the best-practice reference set (Sherman & Ladino 1995). Mathematical formulation of DEA model can be stated as: m Max Z o = ∑u r =1 n ∑v i =1 ro y ro (1) io x io Subject to the constraints: m ∑ r =1 n u rj y rj ∑ ≤ 1 for j = 1, 2, k v ij x ij i =1 (2) u ,v ro io ≥0 for r =1, m; and i = 1, n (3) Where: Zo : Efficiency score of oth decision making unit. : Observed value of input i for the decision making unit j. x ij yrj : Observed value of output r for the decision making unit j. u rj , vij : Weights of input r and output i of decision making unit j respectively. k m n : Number of decision making units. : Number of outputs. : Number of inputs. Linear programming expression of the DEA model is like that: m Max Z o = ∑ u ro y ro r =1 (4) Subject to the constraints: n ∑v x i =1 36 io io =1 (5) �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo m ∑u r =1 n rj yrj ≤ ∑ vij xij for j = 1, 2, k (6) i =1 u ro , vio ≥ 0 for r =1, m; and j =1, n (7) 4. Results The efficiency scores of each bank included in the sample are shown in Table 2. The efficiencies of the banks are examined between the years 2002-2007 with input oriented CCR model. The banking sector operated higher than 0.8 of efficiency scores in the whole research period. The average scores are 0.87 in 2002, 0.89 in 2003, 0.84 in 2004, 0.91 in 2005, 0.92 in 2006, 0.88 in 2007. The efficiency levels increased after the 2002 and reached 0.92 point in 2006, and again decreased 0.88 in 2007. There is a recovery phase in banking industry performance. There are six banks that operated efficiently in the whole research period. So the 19% percent (six of thirty-one banks) operated constantly efficient from 2002 through 2007. Also, there are thirteen banks that operated inefficiently during all analysis period. So the 41% (thirteen of thirty-one banks) operated inefficiently between 2002 and 2007. Table 2: CCR-I Efficiency Scores (2002-2007) B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 B17 B18 B19 B20 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 B27 B28 B29 B30 B31 Average 2002 1,00 0,76 1,00 0,86 0,79 1,00 1,00 0,63 0,77 0,73 1,00 0,72 1,00 0,94 1,00 0,81 0,78 1,00 0,64 0,77 0,85 0,76 0,79 0,94 0,97 1,00 0,75 0,72 1,00 1,00 0,88 0,87 2003 0,88 1,00 1,00 0,79 0,99 1,00 1,00 0,65 0,91 0,66 0,90 0,83 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,49 0,84 1,00 0,59 0,91 0,85 0,87 0,97 0,99 1,00 1,00 0,75 0,90 1,00 1,00 0,99 0,89 2004 1,00 0,55 1,00 0,99 0,83 0,77 1,00 0,66 0,75 0,62 0,86 0,78 1,00 0,78 1,00 0,40 0,86 1,00 0,84 0,72 0,82 0,66 0,76 1,00 0,83 1,00 0,82 1,00 0,91 1,00 0,80 0,84 2005 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,90 0,78 0,87 1,00 0,98 0,90 0,65 1,00 0,83 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,68 0,86 1,00 0,92 0,85 0,81 0,79 0,88 1,00 0,96 1,00 0,94 1,00 0,93 1,00 0,78 0,91 2006 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,82 0,78 1,00 0,97 0,91 0,75 0,96 0,87 1,00 0,98 1,00 0,86 0,85 1,00 0,77 0,88 0,85 0,68 0,85 1,00 0,98 1,00 0,91 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,87 0,92 2007 0,75 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,85 0,60 1,00 0,67 0,81 0,99 0,85 0,69 1,00 0,80 1,00 1,00 0,82 1,00 0,73 0,87 0,66 0,67 0,77 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,86 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,83 0,88 Frequency of Efficiency 3 4 6 2 0 2 6 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 6 1 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 6 0 4 4 6 0 37 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The total efficiency, technical efficiency and scale efficiency of the banks are also analyzed and the findings are showed in Table 3. Input oriented CCR efficiency scores give the total efficiency of banks. Input oriented BCC results give the technical efficiency of banks. As CCR scores are divided by BCC scores, the outcome will give the scale efficiency of banks. The average technical efficiency levels of banks are higher than average scale efficiency levels within this period. It is observed that the increase in total efficiency level is mainly resulted from the increase in technical efficiency level. Given our results that Turkish banking sector suffered from scale inefficiency. Table 3: Total Efficiency, Technical Efficiency and Scale Efficiency of the Banks B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 B17 B18 B19 B20 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 B27 B28 B29 B30 B31 Average Total Efficiency 0,94 0,88 1,00 0,92 0,84 0,84 1,00 0,76 0,84 0,73 0,93 0,79 1,00 0,92 1,00 0,70 0,83 1,00 0,75 0,83 0,81 0,74 0,84 0,99 0,96 1,00 0,84 0,94 0,97 1,00 0,86 0,89 Technical Efficiency 1,00 0,97 1,00 1,00 0,89 0,98 1,00 1,00 0,92 0,80 1,00 0,98 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,83 0,93 1,00 0,92 0,95 0,85 0,87 0,95 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,99 0,95 0,98 1,00 0,99 0,96 Scale Efficiency 0,94 0,91 1,00 0,92 0,95 0,85 1,00 0,76 0,91 0,91 0,93 0,80 1,00 0,92 1,00 0,85 0,90 1,00 0,81 0,87 0,95 0,85 0,88 0,99 0,96 1,00 0,85 0,98 1,00 1,00 0,87 0,92 Table 4: Tobit Regression Results (n=176) Size Nationality Ownership Publicly Listed Constant 38 Coefficient -0.0697283 -0.0762108 0.1843663 0.0757398 0.9239495 Standard Error 0.0231161 0.0217101 0.0341993 0.0248959 0.0145359 t-ratio -3.02 -3.51 5.39 3.09 63.56 P-value 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.003 0.000 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The effects of bank size, ownership type, nationality and being publicly held on total efficiency are analyzed with Tobit Regression by STATA. Ownership type, nationality, size and being publicly held are employed as dummy variables. In this analysis, DEA efficiency score of a bank is determined as dependent variable. If the coefficient of an explanatory variable is positive, it increases the efficiency level of the bank. In spite of that if the coefficient of an explanatory variable is negative; it decreases the efficiency level of the bank. Significance level of the regression is 95%. The findings imply that all explanatory variables are significantly different from zero and have a significant effect on efficiency score of banks. Banks are grouped as large and small according to their assets levels in this study. Size has a negative effect on efficiency levels of banks, suggesting that the smaller the bank, the more efficient bank will be. There is a scale problem in Turkish banking sector, the banks can not use economies of scale advantage. There may be decreasing return to scale in Turkish banking sector. 1% percent increase in inputs results less than 1% increase in outputs. As the banks grow they become less efficient. Larger banks have lower efficiency which could be due to complex organizational structure and moral hazard behavior (Sufian & Abd. Majid 2007). In Turkey, smaller banks are typically newer and generally specialize in trade and finance and wholesale corporate banking and employ more professional and astute management teams (Işık & Hassan 2002). Because of competition small banks should operate efficient to survive especially in metropolitan markets. The results are accordance with Işık and Hassan (2002) on Turkish banking sector. To analyze the relationship between publicly traded and Turkish banks’ efficiencies a dummy variable is introduced as an explanatory data. Being publicly traded has a positive effect on efficiency levels of banks. So, the publicly traded banks operate more efficient than not publicly traded banks. That finding supports the market discipline hypothesis. According to this hypothesis banks whose shares are publicly traded should exhibit higher efficiency. Thus, the easily transferable ownership structure of firms creates incentives for both shareholders to monitor management performance and for bank management to improve their performance as it contains risks associated with moral hazard practices (Mamatzakis et al. 2008). Banks of different nations may have different outcomes with the same inputs. Thus, in this section the effect of ownership type and nationality on efficiency levels of banks are analyzed. Ownership dummy is determined as state and non-state banks. The positive sign of the coefficient on non-state ownership binary variable implies that non-state ownership improve the efficiency level of the banks. Non-state banks operate more efficient than state banks. There are two major reasons behind the efficiency difference between public and private firms. The first is while all private firms are profit maximizing, public firms would pursue whatever objectives the government demands. The second is while private firms are subject to relatively hard budget; public firms are subject to relatively soft budgets (Işık & Hassan 2002). Nationality has a positive effect on efficiency levels. The positive sign of the coefficient on foreign ownership binary variable implies that foreign ownership improve the efficiency level of the banks. Foreign banks operate more efficient than their domestic counterparts. This may be because of foreign owned banks have better risk management, operational, technological techniques which they enable from their parent banks abroad. The empirical observation that foreign banks perform better compared to domestic banks in developing countries. This suggests that technical ability of banks from developed countries overcomes the home field advantage in developing countries (Jeon & Miller 2005). Berger et al. (2000) explained the differences between home field advantages and global advantages. The global advantage hypothesis denotes that foreign banks might benefit from competitive advantages relative to their domestic banks. Foreign banks may also become more competitive when compared to domestic banks due to an active market for corporate control in the home country, and because they have access to an educated labor force that is able to adapt new technologies (Lensink et al. 2008). The results are accordance with Sufian (2008) on Malaysian banks, Jackson et al. (1998) on Turkish banks, Işık and Hassan (2003) on Turkish banks, Havrylchyk (2006) on Polish banks, Bonin et al. (2005) in transition countries. 5. Conclusion This paper aims to determine the efficiency of Turkish banks between 2002 and 2007. So, the efficiency levels of Turkish banking sector are analyzed during the period 2002-2007 with Data Envelopment Analysis. Then, multivariate regression analysis have been employed in order to detect the determinants of banking efficiency in Turkey. The sample includes thirty-one banks that continuously operated during this period. According to results, the efficiency level of Turkish banking did not change very much in the analysis period. The banking sector operated at stable efficiency level. The average performance values between 0.84 and 0.92 in this period. Additionally, the findings reveal that the average technical efficiency scores of banks are higher than average scale efficiency scores. There is a scale inefficiency problem in Turkish banking sector. The effects of some explanatory data on the banks’ efficiency levels are also analyzed in this research. Size, ownership type, nationality, being publicly listed are improved as dummy variables. Findings imply that 39 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo smaller banks are more efficient than larger banks. As the banks grow they become less efficient. The Turkish banking sector may experience decreasing returns to scale. Publicly listed banks are more efficient than not publicly listed banks. This finding is compatible with market discipline hypothesis which suggests stockholders of the banks can exert market discipline over bank management, so the publicly traded banks are expected to be more efficient. Non-state banks operate more efficient than their state counterparts. This may be because of the goals of those two banks differentiate. Private entities always aim to maximize their profit. The regression analysis results also denoted that foreign banks are more efficient compared to their domestic peers. Foreign banks might profit from better risk management and take advantage of technological improvements. References Al-Sharkas, A.A., Hassan, M.K., & Lawrence, S. (2008). The Impact of Mergers and Acquisitions on the Efficiency of the US Banking Industry: Further Evidence. Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 35, 5070. Aly, H.Y., Grabowski, C.P., & Rangan, N. (1990). Technical, Scale, and Allocative Efficiencies in U.S. Banking: An Empirical Investigation. Review of Economics and Statistics, 30, 211-18. Anthanassopoulos, A.D. (1998). Nonparametric Frontier Models for Assessing the Market and Cost Efficiency of Large-Scale Bank Branch Networks. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 30 (2), 172-192. Avkıran, K.N. (2006). Developing foreign bank efficiency models for DEA grounded in finance theory. SocioEconomic Planning Sciences, 40, 275-296. Avkıran, K.N. (1999). The Evidence on Efficiency Gains: The Role of the Mergers and Benefits to the Public. Journal of Banking & Finance, 23, 991-1013. Ayadi, O.F., Adebayo, A. O. & Omolehinwa, Eddy. (1998). Bank Performance Measurement in a Developing Economy: An Application of Data Envelopment Analysis. Managerial Finance, 24, 5-16. Aysan, A.F., & Ceyhan, Ş.P. (2008). Globalization of Turkey’s Banking Sector: Determinants of Foreign Bank Penetration in Turkey. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 15, (2008). Banker, R.D. (1984). Estimating Most Productive Scale Size Using Data envelopment Analysis. European Journal of Operational Research, 17, 35-44. Bergendahl, G. (1998). DEA and Benchmarks-an Application to Nordic Banks. Annals of Operations Research, 82, 233-249. Berger, A.N., Deyoung, R., Genay, H., & Udell, G. (2000). Globalization of financial institutions: Evidence from cross-border banking performance. Brookings-Wharton Papers on Financial Services, 3, 23-158. Bonin, J.P., Hasan, I. & Paul, W. (2005). Bank performance, efficiency and ownership in transition countries. Journal of Banking & Finance, 29, 31-53. Charnes, A., Cooper, W.W., & Rhodes, E. (1978). Measuring efficiency of decision making units. European Journal of Operational Research, 2, 429-444. Charnes, A., Cooper, W.W., & Thrall, R.M. (1991). A structure for classifying and chracterizing efficiency and inefficiency in data envelopment analysis. The Journal of Productivity Analysis, 2, 197-237. Chen, T.Y. (1998). A study of bank efficiency and ownership in Taiwan. Applied Economic Letters 5, 613-616. Chen, X., Michael S. & Brown, K. (2005). Banking efficiency in China: Application of DEA to pre- and postderegulation eras: 1993-2000. China Economic Review 16, 229-245. Chen, T.Y. & Yeh, T.L. (2000). A measurement of bank efficiency, ownership, and productivity changes in Taiwan. The Service Industrial Journal, 20 (1), 95-109. Cook, D. W., & Seiford, L.M. (2008). Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)-Thirty Years On. European Journal of Operational Research, 19, 1-17. Cooper, W.W., Seiford, L. M. & Zhu, J. (2004). Data Envelopment Analysis: History, Models and Interpretations, in W.W. Cooper, L. M. Seiford and J. Zhu (edi.), Handbook on Data Envelopment Analysis. Kluwer Press: Norwell. Das, A., Ray S.C., & Nag A. (2009). Labor-use efficiency in Indian banking : A branch-level analysis. Omega, 37, 411-425. 40 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Havrylchyk, O. (2006). Efficiency of the Polish Banking Industry: Foreign Versus Domestic Banks. Journal of Banking&Finance, 30, 1975-1996. Işık, I. (2008). Productivity, technology and efficiency of de novo banks: A counter evidence from Turkey. Journal of Multinational Financial Management, 18, 427-442. Işık, I., & Hassan M.K. (2002). Technical, Scale and Allocative Efficiencies of Turkish Banking Industry. Journal of Banking & Finance, 26, 719-766. Işık, I., & Hassan M.K. (2003). Efficiency, Ownership and Market Structure, Corporate Control and Governance in the Turkish Banking Industry. Journal of Finance & Accounting, 9 (10), 1363-1421. Jackson, M.P, Fethi M.D., & Đnal, G. (1998). Efficiency and Productivity Growth in Turkish Commercial Banking Sector: A Non-parametric Approach. European Symposium on Data Envelopment Analysis-Recent Developments and Applications. 10.02.09. <http://hdl.handle.net/2381/367>. Jackson, P.M., Fethi, M.D. (2000). Evaluating the technical efficiency of Turkish commercial banks: An Application of DEA and Tobit Analysis , University of Leicester, Mimeo. Jeon, Y., & Miller, S.M. (2005). Performance of domestic and foreign banks: The case of Korea and the Asian financial crisis. Global Economy Review, 34 (2), 145-165. Lensink, R., Meesters, A. & Naabag, I. (2008). Bank efficiency and foreign ownership: Do good institutions matter?. Journal of Banking & Finance, 32, 834-844. Liu, S.T. (2009). Slack-based efficiency measures for predicting bank performance. Expert Systems with Apllications, 36, 2813-2818. Mamatzakis, E., Staikouras, C., & Koutsomanoli-Filippaki, A., (2008), Cost efficiency of the banking industry in the South Eastern European region. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, 18, 483-497. Manandhar, R., & Tang, J.C.S. (2002). The Evaluation of Bank Branch Performance Using Data Envelopment Analysis: A Framework. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 13, 1-17. Mercan, M., Arnold R., Reha Y., & Ahmet B.E. (2003). The Effect of Scale and Mode of Ownership on the Financial Performance of the Turkish Banking Sector: Results of a DEA-Based Analysis. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 37, 185-202. Oral, M., & Yolalan, R. (1990). An empirical study on measuring operating efficiency and profitability of bank branches. European Journal of Operational Research, 46 (3), 282–294. Rezitis, N. A., (2007). Efficiency and Productivity Effects of Bank Mergers: Evidence from the Greek Banking Industry. Economic Modelling , 25, 236-254. Sealey, C. W. Jr., & Lindley, J.T. (1977). Inputs, Outputs, and a Theory of Production and Cost at Depository Financial Institutions. The Journal of Finance, 32 (4), 1251-1266. Sherman, H.D., & Ladino, G. (1995). Managing Bank Productivity Using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). Interfaces, 25, 60-73. Sufian, F. (2009). Determinants of Bank Efficiency During Unstable Macroeconomic Environment: Empirical Evidence from Malaysia. Research in International Business and Finance, 23, 54-77. Sufian, F. & Abd. Majid, M.Z. (2007). Bank Performance and the Determinants of Singaporean Banks’ Efficiency. Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business, 9, 19-39. Thanassoulis, E. (1999). Data Enevelopment Analysis and Its Use in Banking. Interfaces, 3, 1-13. www.tbb.org.tr Wheelock, D.C. & Wilson, P.W. (1999). Technical progress, inefficiency, and productivity change in U.S. banking, 1984-1993. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 31 (2), 212-234. 41 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9683e11e1eaf47673f32afb6f4b70b6d.doc 0034382326ea96da54d7ef03036daf29 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 132 Title A name given to the resource Determinants of Bank Efficiency in Turkey: A Two Stage Data Envelopment Analysis Author Author AKIN, Ahmet KILIÇ, Merve ZAİM, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. Financial industry plays an important role in the economy and banks are indispensable players in the financial industry. Therefore, the evaluation of banks’ performance became a popular research topic in all over the world, and also in Turkey. There are different techniques to determine the banks’ performance. Among those techniques, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), which is a non-parametric technique, has been widely used in the banking sector. In this research, we analyzed the efficiency of Turkish Banking Industry with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) methodology between 2002 and 2007. All the banks that constantly operated in the years between 2002 and 2007, excluding investment and development, participation banks, get into the analysis. So there are four groups of banks in the research, those are state-owned deposit banks, privately-owned deposit banks, foreign banks founded in Turkey, and foreign banks having branches in Turkey. In the research model, number of employees, interest expenses, non-interest expenses and total deposit are determined as input, total credits, interest revenue and non-interest revenue are determined as output. This analysis aims to explain the variation in efficiency scores with a set of explanatory variables, such as size, ownership type, nationality, being publicly held. According to results, the efficiency levels do not change very much between 2002 and 2007. The efficiency scores reached top level in 2005 and 2006. The results of regression application denote that all of the explanatory variables have a significant effect on banks’ efficiency levels. According to regression analysis results, size negatively affects the efficiency levels of banks. Publicly listed banks operate more efficient than not publicly listed banks. Foreign owned banks operate more efficient than their domestic peers. Furthermore, state owned banks are less efficient than non-state banks. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/21b01570502d6bcaa3d5fbf3aa3b2e5b.pdf 8fd14c215e3e0972fae1b8febdaebbc9 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo How Is the Market Size Relevant as a Determinant of FDI in Developing Countries? A Research on Population and the Cohort Size Mustafa Şeref AKIN Assist.Prof.Dr., Fatih University, Đstanbul, Turkey msakin@fatih.edu.tr Abstract : The small size of the market in developing countries is associated with non-market seeking FDI activities. Even though, GDP per capita is a poor indicator for the market seeking FDI activities in developing countries, both population and GDP are crucial. The findings of the study suggest that FDI is concerned with the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas rather than on an expansion through the country. In terms of cohort size, the size of middle age cohort promotes FDI, and old and young age cohorts weaken FDI. Keywords: Developing Countries; FDI; domestic market size; population; cohort size. Introduction How do multinational enterprises decide on the locations of their foreign direct investment (FDI)1? Market size has been the single most widely accepted as a significant determinant of FDI flows (Chakrabarti, 2001). The larger the host area’s (country, region, and sub region) total income and its potential for development, the greater the amount of the FDI investment (Billington, 1999). A large market is necessary for efficient utilization of resources and exploitation of economies of scale (Chakrabarti, 2001). On the other hand, Asiedu (2002) argues that market size is not a determinant for a developing country due to low income. In the FDI literature, not much research on the impact of the market size has been conducted yet for developing countries. The additional originality of this paper is to approach the market size framework from the population aspect and its cohort size. In this respect, this research is intended not just to review previous models dealing with the market size, but also to examine the significance of untested market size determinants of locations. The market size itself cannot be easily ascertained (Billington, 1999). Regressions of Schimitz and Bieri (1972) are estimated for U.S.A. FDI to Canada, the EEC and EFTA. Their market size proxy is GNP and growth of GDP2. Root and Ahmed (1979) identify unattractive, moderately attractive and highly attractive countries in terms of FDI per capita for 58 countries with 38 variables. The unattractive category represents FDI per capita as less than $1, the moderately attractive as between $1 and $4.1, and the attractive as more than $4.1. They use GDP, GDP per capita and growth per capita as a proxy for market size. They argue that the absolute size of GDP is more likely to reflect population size rather than per capita income. Their conclusion is that developing countries that have attracted FDI have a relatively advanced infrastructure, comparatively high growth rates and per capita GDP, and political stability. Culem (1988) tests the impact of market size for 14 countries for the period of 1969-1982. A bigger market allows the benefits of large-scale production to be more readily captured. Moreover, investors naturally prefer faster growing markets, which offer more promising prospects. Billington3 (1999) is the first author to consider population as a variable; she uses population density as a determinant of FDI. Population density implies a more concentrated consumer and labor market as well as a more integrated infrastructure (Billington, 1999). Chakrabarti (2001) states that absolute GDP is a poor indicator since it reflects the size of the population rather than the income per capita. Broadly, this paper aims to explore the impact of market size on FDI considering population size and its characteristics in developing countries in a theoretical and empirical framework. 1 Some major benefits of FDI are that FDI is a much better way than borrowing due to risk factor of repayment, and reforms for an increase of FDI may directly also promote growth (Gastanaga et al. ,1998). 2 Lunn (1980)’s findings support Scmitz and Bieri (1972) except the first lag growth, which is negatively correlated with FDI. 3 Billington (1999) uses GDP and growth rate of GDP. 425 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo This paper is structured in the following ways: In section 2, we define methodology and all the variables of interest. Section 3 provides an analysis of results. Finally, section 5 concludes by considering the implications of these findings. 2. Methodology We use average data from 1980 to 2000, and we apply cross-sectional OLS. The standard error is White Heteroskedasticity Consistent . FDI is a dependent variable. The list of data and countries is obtained from the World Bank (2003) and is reported in the appendix. FDI= α + β (Population Variables) + ∏ (Control Variables)+ ui (11) Where α is a constant coefficient, β and ∏ are the estimated coefficients on the independent variables and ui is an error term. The impact of population variables according to the model that we presented in section 2 is measured in several ways; size of population (n), life expectation (m) and young, middle and older population-cohort size (c). Further more, population growth rate can be also considered in the same framework. Higher population growth rates will more likely attract FDI. 2.1. Dependent Variable Billington (1999) considers total FDI, Culem (1988) uses the share of FDI in GNP, Chakrabarti (2001) prefers FDI per capita, and Asiedu (2002) uses the share of FDI in GDP. In this research, we consider FDI (% GDP) as a standard in the literature (Asiedu, 2002). Plus, Chakrabarti (2001) indicates that GNP refers to citizens who do not live in the country. So, they are not the part of the domestic market. 2.2. Independent Variables 2.2.1. Infrastructure Infrastructure increases the productivity of investments. The proxy for infrastructure varies. Billinton (1999) uses government expenditure on transportation and communications, and Asiedu (2002) chooses telephone mainlines (per 1000) as a proxy for infrastructure. In this research, we will use telephone mainlines (per 1000) as in standard in the literature (Asiedu, 2002) 2.2.2. Import A high level of imports into the host area may indicate a high level of penetration by foreign companies who may begin exporting to the host countries and switch later to FDI (Culem, 1988). 2.2.3.Manufacturing Industrialization will tend to encourage capital-intensive companies, so it should also attract FDI. The share of manufacturing in GDP represents the degree of industrialization (Wheeler and Mody, 1992). 2.2.4. Human Capital Multinational are distinguished from national firms in terms of four characteristics: high level of R&D, professional and technical workers, new and complex products and advertising (Markusen, 1995). From this perspective, we believe that human capital as well as physical infrastructure in a country is relevant to draw FDI to the country. The theoretical relationship between human capital and FDI is demonstrated by Zhang and Markusen (1995). Multinational firms are able to exploit factor-price differences in the world economy, locating skilledlabor intensive phases of operation in skilled-labor abundant locations and unskilled-labor-intensive in respective locations. (Zhang and Markusen, 1995). This correlation is tested the macro level by Akin and Vlad, (2004). The authors show that FDI flows to skilled-labor abundant countries. In this research, primary education enrollment is considered as a proxy for human capital (Barro, 1991). 2.2.6. Income We include income, since concepts such as total GDP, GDP per capita and growth are considered as proxies of the abundance of the market size. We are able to compare the population argument with the standard proxies (see more discussion in the introduction and the theoretical framework). 426 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Empirical Results Table 2 reports the results of the regression of Model 1 and 2, which compare population size and GDP. The results show that the population size is more relevant than GDP to measure the effects of domestic market. A more populated nation can have a more promising future for investors. However, a similar comparison is realized in model 4 and 5. In this case, both of the variables are positive and significant. This result suggests that GDP is a good proxy to measure the market size. However, in some cases GDP is not sufficient to take into account the population size. For instance, a country, which may currently have a low GDP, may have a high GDP in the future, thanks to growth of income and population. In this context, population reflects promising prospects. Variables Constant Telephone Mainlines Import (%) GDP Per Capita (PPP) GDP Growth (%) Pop Growth (%) Pop Density Pop Total Life Expectancy GDP (PPP) 0-14 Age Pop 14-65 Age Pop 65 Over Pop Primary Education (%) Manufacturing Value Added N R-square Table 2: FDI (%) is dependent variable: average 1980-2000 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 -.52 -.54 -.23 -.63 (-.36) (-.37) (-.16) (-.46) -.0047 -.0047 -.005 -.000457 (-1.42) (-1.42) (-1.52) (-0.09) .05 .05 0.05 0.04 (4.9)*** (4.7)*** (4.73)*** (5.03)*** -0.00000391 -0.00000155 -0.0000009 - 8.08 (E-08) (-.03) (-.134) (0.08) (-.61) -0.052 -0.049 -.05 -.05 (-.95) (-.88) (-1.09) (-1.27) -.37 -.37 -.44 -.51 (-2.48)** (-2.43)** (-2.89)*** (2.8)*** -0.002 -0.002 -.0024 -.0027 (-2.21)** (-2.129)** (-2.29)** (-2.3)** 11(E-10) 1.52 (E-09) (1.68)* (1.72)* 0.026 0.026 0.024 0.01 (1.001) (1.001) (.92) (.6) 45 (E-14) (1.01) -2.04 (E-08) (-1.27) 3.29(E-08) (1.81)* -2.52 (E-07) (-1.88)* .023 (2.92)*** -.064 (-1.57) 110 110 110 105 .32 .32 .33 .38 White Heteroskedasticity-Consistent Standard Errors * **t is statistically significant at 1% level ** t is statistically significant at 5 level *t is statistically significant at 10 % level Model 5 -.63 (-.45) -.000253 (-0.052) 0.04 (4.96)*** -.0000971 (-.73) -.06 (-1.29) -.51 (2.8)*** -.0026 (-2.2)** 0.01 (.6) 9.52(E-13) (1.75)* .022 (2.88)*** -.064 (-1.59) 105 .38 Asiedu (2002) argues that FDI flows with non-market seeking activities in developing countries. Even though GDP per capita and GDP growth are negatively correlated (not significant) in all models, GDP or population size is positively correlated with FDI and significant. This may indicate that FDI is taken into account the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas with relatively higher purchasing power rather than on an expansion throughout the country. 427 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Model 3 includes the population by cohort size: young (0-14 age), middle (14-65) and old (65 and above) ages. Our regression suggests that the middle age1 cohort is positively and significantly correlated with FDI. However, the older cohort size is negatively and significantly correlated with FDI. This suggests that a society where the age demography consists heavily of old people will receive less FDI because old people have a shorter life span and are more likely to be maturated in consumption2. The coefficient of young cohort size is negative and not significant. Contrarily, a young cohort size can be very eager to purchase all goods. On the other hand, they may not earn income or receive sufficient allowances from their parents to fulfill their aspirations. Model 4 and 5 indicate that human capital acquisition is important to attract more FDI (Akin and Vlad, 2004, Walkirch 2003). However, telephone mainlines as a proxy of infrastructure and manufacturing as a proxy of industrialization are negatively correlated but insignificant. Further more, high population growth and population density are not promoting FDI. However, Billington (1999) suggests that the concentration of the human resources in one region is more attractive for FDI. This result suggests the importance of the balanced in population density. None of the regression results finds an enhancement of FDI due to life expectation. 4. Conclusion We have presented a model in which population and its characteristics have a systematic effect on FDI in developing countries. The small size of the market due to the low income argument in developing countries is associated with non-market seeking FDI activities. Even though GDP per capita is a poor indicator for the market seeking FDI activities in developing countries, both population and GDP are crucial. This result suggests that FDI is taken into account the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas with relatively higher purchasing power rather than an expansion through the country. We also hypothesize that higher life expectation and young cohort size will attract more FDI. The result shows that life expectation has a slight impact on FDI. An overwhelmingly young or old cohort size impedes FDI; however a moderate age composition attracts FDI. Human capital acquisition promotes FDI. The weak association between the level of manufacturing and FDI suggests that FDI in developing countries barely flows to industrial sectors. References Akin, M and V. Vlad (2004). The Relationship between Human Capital and Foreign Direct Investment Testing ZhangMarkusen Theory (ZM). Working paper. Asiedu, E. (2002). On the Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment to Developing Countries: Is Africa Different? World Development, vol. 30 (1), 107-119. Barro, R. (1991). Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 106 (2), 407-443. Billington, N. (1999). The Location of Foreign Direct Investment: An Empirical Analysis. Applied Economics, 31(1), 65-76. Culem, C.G. (1988). The Location Determinants of Direct Investments: Among Industrialized Countries. European Economic Review, 32 (4), 885-904. Chakrabarti, A. (2001). The Determinant of Foreign Direct Investment: Sensivity Analysses of Cross-Country Regression. Kyklos, 54 (1), 89-114. Haufler, A. and I. Wooton. (1999). Country Size and Tax Competition for Foreign Direct Investment. Journal of Public Economics, 71 (1), 121-139. Friedman, J, D. Gerlowski, and J. Jilberman (1992). What Attracts Foreign Multinational Corporations? Evidence From Branch Plant Location in the U.S.. Journal of Regional Science, 32 (4), 403-18. Gastanaga, V., J. Nugent, and B. Pashamova (1998). Host Country Reforms and FDI Inflows: How Much Difference Do They Make? World Development, 26(7), 1299-1314. Lunn, J. (1980). Determinats of U.S. Direct Investment in the EEC. Euiropean Economic Review, 13 (1), 93-101. Markusen, J. (1995). The Boundaries of Multinational Enterprises and the Theory of International Trade. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9 (2), 169 1 Our theoretical model favors the young cohort size rather than the middle age cohort. A similar argument can be made in terms of traditional and modern consumption patterns, since relatively young people can be more eager of new items. 2 428 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Root, F and A. Ahmed (1979). Empirical Determinants of Manufacturing Direct Foreign Investment Developing Countries. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 27, 751-767. Schmitz, A and J. Bieri (1972). EEC Tariffs and U.S. Direct Investment. European Economic Review, 3 (3), 259-270. Wheeler, D. and A. Mody (1992). International Investment Location Decisions. Journal of International Economies, 33, 5776. World Bank (2003). Social Indicators. (CD-ROM). Zhang, K.H. and J.R. Markusen (1999). Vertical Multinationals and Host-Country Characteristics. Journal of Development Economics, 59 (2), 233-252. 429 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/af7135c6897f6637fcf6741a26f6cc3e.doc 9002aa75ef16112b5c1884514f996c04 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 286 Title A name given to the resource How Is the Market Size Relevant as a Determinant of FDI in Developing Countries? A Research on Population and the Cohort Size Author Author AKIN, Mustafa Seref Abstract A summary of the resource. The small size of the market in developing countries is associated with non-market seeking FDI activities. Even though, GDP per capita is a poor indicator for the market seeking FDI activities in developing countries, both population and GDP are crucial. The findings of the study suggest that FDI is concerned with the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas rather than on an expansion through the country. In terms of cohort size, the size of middle age cohort promotes FDI, and old and young age cohorts weaken FDI. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d553df72c0706f584d9470ffd36b4c84.pdf 4db6b4af4080e1c6984daad736a0e7be PDF Text Text Effects of Knowledge on Nutrition and Eating Habits of Bilecik University Students Alev AKPINAR BORAZAN, Caglayan ACIKGOZ Engineering Faculty, Chemical and Process Engineering Department, Bilecik University, Bilecik-Turkey e-mail:alev.akpinar@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: A problem facing youth today is the lack of available healthy fast foods or easily prepared foods. During adolescence, young people are assuming responsibility for their own eating habits, health-related attitudes and behaviours and their growing independence is often associated with unconventional eating patterns. The aim of this study was detecting the effect of knowledge on nutrition and affecting healthy food choices in Bilecik University students. Researching data were collected from 471 of Bilecik University students in 2 campuses. In the present study which was done the method of simple randomized sampling and completed questionnaires to nutritional knowledge, eating habits and behaviours of them. 209 (%44.4) of male students and 262 (%55.6) of female students were examined. It was found that the average weights of the male and female students, who were at the ages of 17-23, were 60.85 kg and the average heights of them were 168.03m.Applied questionnaires before and after giving nutritional training, the results demonstrated that students improved their eating habits and behaviours; consumption ratio of fruits-vegetables for everyday was increased from %36.7 to%46.2; sugary foods consumption ratio was decreased from %91.7 to %88.7. At breakfast, drinking tea-coffee ratio was also decreased from %81 to %73.9; drinking fruits / vegetable juices -milk ratio was raised to %26.1 from %19 .The lunch and dinner choices of students were seemed to develop; eating nick nack frequency was reduced from%18.1 to % 15.8, consumption meat with unhealthy fats was down %38.3 to %27.7. On the other hand eating vegetables frequency was getting increase %9.8 up to %16.6. Nutrition education for students should incorporate self-efficacy, relevant health values and barriers-to-change, education about nutrients, and improved access to healthy foods. Student smoking and drinking should also be targeted. Keywords: Nutrition, knowledge, eating habits, University student Introduction University students living away from home had developed more unfavourable eating habits than students living at the family home. These findings suggest that moving away from the family home and assuming responsibility for food preparation and purchasing for the first time affect dietary habits in this sample of University students. Students living at home did not show major changes in their eating habits since starting University [1,2]. University students living away from the family home have little time and space when it comes to meal preparation within the confines of dorms, apartments, or shared housing. An additional concern is the knowledge needed to determine which food items to select[3,4]. Students living away from the family home had made some changes; they decreased their weekly consumption of fresh fruit, cooked and raw vegetables, oily fish, seafood, pulses and olive oil, and increased their sugar, wine, alcohol and fast food intake [5-7]. During adolescence, young people are assuming responsibility for their own eating habits, health-related attitudes and behaviours and their growing independence is often associated with unconventional eating patterns[8,9]. Healthy eating related negatively to television watching and alcohol, and positively to selfefficacy, nutrition knowledge, considering weight control [10,11]. Recognition of barriers to change, the extent of social support and the development of skills, e.g. in selecting low-fat foods, are among enabling factors affecting food choices. Assessment of the costs and benefits of dietary change and dealing with feelings of deprivation from restriction of favourite foods also influence dietrelated behaviour [12-15]. Sufficient knowledge about diet is needed for an individual to assess the quality of their own diet and their perception of dietary norms, particularly in regard to people whose opinions they 256 �consider significant, influences their classification with regard to stage of change. Motivation to adopt healthy eating patterns and self-efficacy are important determinants of behavioural change . The aim of this study was detecting the effect of knowledge on nutrition and affecting healthy food choices in Bilecik University students. Materials and Method In this study was chosen one faculty and one Higher Education School of Bilecik University. A selfreported questionnaire was administered to 471 students, ranging in age from 19-23 years. 209 (%44.4) of male students and 262 (%55.6) of female students were examined. It was found that the average weights of the male and female students, who were 60.85 kg and the average heights of them, were 168.03cm. An interviewing form consisting of 15 questions about eating habits and nutrition was applied to these students. Questionnaire data were analysed with the method of simple randomized sampling and completed questionnaires to nutritional knowledge, eating habits and behaviours of Bilecik University students. Results Applied questionnaires before and after giving nutritional training, the results demonstrated that students improved their eating habits and behaviours. Figure1. shows that the consumption ratio of fruitsvegetables for everyday. It was increased from %36.7 to %46.2 . Consumption ratio of vegetables-fruits For everday 80.0 60.0 % 40.0 20.0 0.0 Before Knowledge After Knowledge yes no Figure 1. The consumption ratio of fruits-vegetables for everyday Sugary foods consumption ratio data is given in Figure 2 as a block diagram. As you seen, the sugary foods consumption ratio was decreased from %91.7 to %88.7. Sugary foods consumption ratio 100.0 80.0 % 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 yes no Before Knowledge After Knowledge Figure 2. Sugary foods consumption ratio 257 �As drinking tea-coffee ratio was decreased from %81 to %73.9 , drinking fruits / vegetable juices -milk ratio was raised to %26.1 from %19 at breakfast. (Fig.3.) Which drink do you prefer for the breakfast? 80 70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 tea coffee or any dairy fruits- products vegetable other cafein juices drink Figure 3. Most preferred beverages at breakfast The lunch and dinner choices of students were seemed to develop; eating vegetables frequency was getting increase %9.8 up to %16.6, on the other hand eating nick nack frequency was reduced from%18.1 to % 15.8 (Fig.4(a)), and also consumption meat with unhealthy fats was down %38.3 to %27.7(Fig.4(b)) What kind of foods do you prefer to consume to healthy digestive system for body? 35.0 30.0 25.0 % 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 a b a) always eating of rice/macaroni for three times per a week c) always eating of fresh fruits for twice per a day e) eating nick nack frequently 258 c (a) d e f b) always eating of cereals at least two times per a week d) always eating of fresh vegetables for three times per a day f) eating vegetables frequently �What kind of foods do you prefer to consume to keepaway to be cancer? 50.0 40.0 % 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 a b c (b) a) always eating of fruits-vegetables at least five times for everyday b) reject or reduced the meat with unhealthy fats c) always prefer to seafood, poultry, cereals Figure 4(a,b) Most preferred foods to healthy body To enable the young generations to gain healthy dietary practices and to provide the access to healthy food are the main measures. Conclusion Although students have adequate knowledge about nutrition, they eat frequently junk food. But the best thing is that the students prefer mostly healthy food after knowledge on nutrition and eating habits. Habits involving regular eating patterns and vegetable intake were reported and represent practices that ought to be encouraged. Knowledge about healthy food choices can be a predisposing factor for the adoption of a healthy diet but it is insufficient to motivate healthy eating and psychosocial factors must also be considered. Nutrition interventions in this young population should be encouraged to promote healthier diets and lifestyles, as well as adherence to the traditional Mediterranean diet. Current research indicates that as the students’ knowledge increases, nutritional quality of food choices improves. References • http://www.Find-Health-Articles.Com/Rec_Pub_17368642.Htm, “Eating Habits Of University Students Living At, Or Away From Home In Greece” ,Research Article Summary (Published 9 Feb 2007) • Gracey, D., N., Stanley, V.B., Cortil, B. and Beilin, L.J.( 1996), Nutritional Knowledge, Beliefs And Behaviours In Teenage School Students, Health Education Research Theory & Practice, 11(.2), 187-204 • Debra http://www.Thesportjournal.Org/Article/Nutrition-Knowledge-And-Attitudes-College-Athletes, Dunn, R.N., B.S.N., M.S., C.N.O.R., Lori W. Turner, Ph.D., R.D. & George Denny, Ph.D., “Nutrition Knowledge and Attitudes of College Athletes” ISSN: 1543-9518 • Orak, S., Akgün, S., Orhan, H.( 2006), Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Öğrencilerinin Beslenme Alışkanlıklarının Araştırılması , S.D.Ü. Tıp Fak. Dergisi.:13(2)/5-11 • Kızıltan, G., Karabudak, E., Ünver, S., Sezgin, E., Ünal, A. (2005), Nutritional Status Of University Students With Binge Eating Disorder, Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Mecmuası ; 58:167-171 • Turconi, G., Guarcello, M., Maccarini ,L., Cignoli, F., Setti, S., Bazzano, R. and Roggi, C. (2008), Eating Habits and Behaviors, Physical Activity, Nutritional and Food Safety Knowledge and Beliefs in an Adolescent Italian Population, Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 27(1), 31-43 • Mazıcıoğlu. M.M., Öztürk, A. (2003), Dietary Habits And Influencing Factors In University Students At 3rd And 4th Grades, Erciyes Tıp Dergisi (Erciyes Medical Journal) 25 (4) 172-178 259 �• Sakamaki, R., Amamoto, R., Mochida, Y., Shinfuku, N., Toyama, K.(2005), http://www.nutritionj.com/content/4/1/31, A Comparative Study Of Food Habits And Body Shape Perception Of University Students In Japan And Korea, Nutrition Journal, 4:31doi:10.1186/1475-2891-4-31 • Sakamaki, R., Toyama, K, Amamoto, R., Liu, C. and Shinfuku, N.(2005), Nutritional knowledge, food habits and health attitude of Chinese university students –a cross sectional study, Nutrition Journal, 4: 4. Published online 2005 February 9. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-4-4 • Türk, M., Gürsoy, Ş.T., Ergin, I. (2007),Kentsel Bölgede Lise Birinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Beslenme Alışkanlıkları, Genel Tıp Dergisi;17(2): 81-87 , İzmir • Golan, E., Unnevehr, L. (2008), Food Product Composition, Consumer Health, And Public Policy: Introduction And Overview Of Special Section, Food Polic,y 33 ,465–469 • Directorate General Health and Consumer Protection (SANCO D4), European Commission (2001), http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm, Discussion Paper On Nutrition Claims And Functional Claims, SANCO/1341/2001 • Miller, J. C., Coble, K.H. (2007), Cheap Food Policy: Fact Or Rhetoric?, Food Policy 32, 98–111 • İşleten, M., Yüceer, Y.K., Yılmaz, E., Mendeş M. (2007), Consumer Attitudes And Factors Affecting Buying Decision For Functional Foods, Gıda, 32 (1) ,: 25-32 • http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html, The Nutrition Source, Healthy Eating Pyramid 260 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9394e9b95567b92ebf5a2b6fbd95b869.doc 8abd42564ee41acaa8de416daa7bf1cf Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 424 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Knowledge on Nutrition and Eating Habits of Bilecik University Students Author Author AKPINAR BORAZAN, Alev ACIKGOZ, Caglayan Abstract A summary of the resource. A problem facing youth today is the lack of available healthy fast foods or easily prepared foods. During adolescence, young people are assuming responsibility for their own eating habits, health-related attitudes and behaviours and their growing independence is often associated with unconventional eating patterns. The aim of this study was detecting the effect of knowledge on nutrition and affecting healthy food choices in Bilecik University students. Researching data were collected from 471 of Bilecik University students in 2 campuses. In the present study which was done the method of simple randomized sampling and completed questionnaires to nutritional knowledge, eating habits and behaviours of them. 209 (%44.4) of male students and 262 (%55.6) of female students were examined. It was found that the average weights of the male and female students, who were at the ages of 17-23, were 60.85 kg and the average heights of them were 168.03m.Applied questionnaires before and after giving nutritional training, the results demonstrated that students improved their eating habits and behaviours; consumption ratio of fruits-vegetables for everyday was increased from %36.7 to%46.2; sugary foods consumption ratio was decreased from %91.7 to %88.7. At breakfast, drinking tea-coffee ratio was also decreased from %81 to %73.9; drinking fruits / vegetable juices -milk ratio was raised to %26.1 from %19 .The lunch and dinner choices of students were seemed to develop; eating nick nack frequency was reduced from%18.1 to % 15.8, consumption meat with unhealthy fats was down %38.3 to %27.7. On the other hand eating vegetables frequency was getting increase %9.8 up to %16.6. Nutrition education for students should incorporate self-efficacy, relevant health values and barriers-to-change, education about nutrients, and improved access to healthy foods. Student smoking and drinking should also be targeted. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/58d6501f5e07eb436dc10c0371636642.pdf f7f14dea20ba4db41baacbe4012e46fe PDF Text Text The Effects of Globalisation and Technological Improvements on Vocational and Technical Education Birol AKYÜZ Bilecik University Faculty of Engineering TÜRKİYE birol.akyuz@bilecik.edu.tr Gülşen ÇETİN AKYÜZ Bilecik University Vocational and Technical Education TÜRKİYE gulsen.cetin@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: At the beginning of the 21st century, it’s seen that countries find themselves in a competition of information and technology and that they have taken a long distance on the way of becoming communities of knowledge. In line with the added to the importance of the need for education “Globalisation”, “re-construction” and “integration with the world” are among concepts which are used to describe especially post-industry information societies. The fact that information gains importance adds to the responsibilities of the whole educational organisation from the sources where information is produced to the structure, operation, administration and programs of educational institutions. Educational organisations must lead to the modernisation of the society because educational organisations have the chance to have influence on other systems by the way they lead. Main condition of rapidly improvements of developing countries depends on improving education qualifications and training qualified person. In this study, the effects of globalisation and technological improvements on the quality of vocational and technical educations were examined and given some suggestions about the subject. Introduction Today the world is in a process of rapid change and development. The main force of the improvement is the industrial technology which is changing every day related to knowledge (TÜBİTAK 1990). Human, education and technology are in a harmony today. In the 21st century, the professional human source will be the main rivalry reason for the companies (MESS 1997). The most significant features of the companies which are not effected from these rapid changes having the high quality workforce (Ceyhun ve Çağlayan, 1997). It is a fact that in the developing world, the education system should meet the new demands of technology, economy and the structural changes and it should assist to these processes. Today the innovations in the communication and transportation areas accelerate the international rivalry (Erkan, 1997). For the reason of the others before they join the cost of knowledge that has an economic value. For this reason, the investment on the education is the most expensive investment (Drucker, Trans.:Üçcan,1996). Technology is the mass of knowledge that changes raw materials, energy and information into goods and it serves to people. global developments, the vocational and technical education schools should give their students the ability of rivalry skill and the necessary knowledge (TİSK, 1997). In today's world, there is a very close relation between the success in education and the increase in economy (The Economist, 1997). The main condition of development for the developing countries is that they have to give more importance to the quality of education and to educate skilful personnel for the industry. Knowledge is one of the important values in the developing world (Erkan, 1997). Steam machines are the engines of industrial society and the computers are the main devices of knowledge and technology. New computer technologies are developed to use, store and create new information (Balkır, 1992). 234 �Today, the knowledge is the biggest force. The countries that produce technology and knowledge do not give these two elements to Technology and qualified work force are two main factors in production (Kozlu, 1996). The Innovations of the Knowledge Period and Globalisation Globalisation means the grooving interdependence and interconnectedness of modern world. Economic globalization is precisely defined within international trade theory as the ever increasing integration of national economies into a giant one size fits all global economy through trade and investment rules and privation, aided by technological advances, and driven by corporate power (Woodin and Lucas, 2004; Beck, 2000). Global integration has led to substantial economic growth and, at the same time, an uneven allocation of the fruits from economic growth. Supporters of globalisation focus on productivity and growth (Homann et al., 2007; Williams, 2001). Globalisation is the process of corporate structuring that focus a company’s core competency on a single worldwide market, creating growth and profit opportunities (Held, 2004). According to globalisation, in the worldwide market, customer requirements and satisfactions are getting improved day by day. Customer’s expectations are always bigger than customer’s perceptions. Because of this, customer satisfactions are important for competitive economies or firms (Özevren, 1997). The developments in the communication technologies not only make the knowledge transfer quicker and simpler for industrial production but also it increases the effectiveness and efficiency of production (Cooper, 2000). For this reason, the companies management systems are changed, too. The use of robots in industry are became widely-known by microelectronic and computer technologies. All these developments are also effected the mechanic technologies used in industry (Erkan, 1997). Within the innovations in technology, new materials (plastics, ceramics), new processing methods (Computer Numerical Control CNC, Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing CAD/CAM) and new jobs are appeared, too. Some qualities of workforce have changed in the period of knowledge if we compare it within the past. The qualities that are wanted in the workforce of producing goods and services are increased the level of skills and responsibilities. It is important to give a necessary education. These determine the human force profile: To be in a harmony with the technological developments and the changes and always renew yourself, To have life-long learning, To have good relation with others, To join the group works, To take responsibilities and risks, To have not only the job qualifications but also the knowledge of socials subjects. The developments in communication technology caused some changes in the methods, techniques, principles and the sources of education. The main targets of vocational and technical education schools are to create a high performance workforce (Moran and Rumble, 1996). The industry of future is needed qualified workforce (The Economist, 1997; Güleç, 1994). The past three decades have seen a dramatic transformation in the world of work, changing not only the foundations of economies and social life but also the knowledge, skills and competencies that people require in almost very field of endeavour (Şimşek, 2002). Vocational and technical education occupies a central place in social and economic policy throughout the world (Moran and Rumble, 2004). The driving forces are familiar; dramatic shifts from agrarian or industrial eras to a knowledge age, accompanied by equally dramatic changes in the nature and structure of work; the progressive globalisation of trade and communications; technological advances that encourage constant and rapid change in economic and social life (Şimşek, 2002). As the world moves ineluctably into a technology dominated knowledge age the nature of work is changing profoundly. The skills of learning, the ability to process information, and the capacity to adapt rapidly change, are fast becoming determining factors in personal, corporate and national survival and prosperity (Uzun ve Vatansever, 2005; Moran and Rumble, 2004). The constant state of turbulence in employment and the world of work, means that education system cannot educate and train people in the expectation that their work activities will remain stable or that they will remain in the one job throughout their working life (Moran and Rumble, 2004). The World Competitiveness Scoreboard presents the 2008 overall rankings for the 55 economies covered by the WCY. The economies are ranked from the most to the least competitive and the results from the previous years scoreboard (2007) are shown in brackets. The Scores shown 235 �to the left are actually indices (0 to 100) generated for the unique purpose of constructing charts and graphics, seen Fig.1. Figure 1: World Competitiveness (The World Competitiveness Year Books, 2008) Defining Vocational And Technical Education In this study, we use the term “vocational and technical education”, or VTE, to describe the acquisition of knowledge, skills and competences for job performance. Use of this term is different for the countries, such as South Africa and the United Kingdom “further education and training”, Pacific “technical and vocational education and training”, an Australian “technical and further education” and elsewhere, terms such as “technical education”, and “training” are common vocational and technical education is the preferred appellation of bodies such as the World Bank and European Union (Moran and Rumble, 2004).. Vocational and technical education comprises all more or less organized or structured activities, whether or not they lead to recognized qualification, which aim to provide people with knowledge, skills and competences that are necessary and sufficient in order to perform a job or set of jobs (Özsoy, 2007). Trainees in initial or continuing training thus undertake work preparation or adapt their skills to changing requirements. Vocational and technical education is independent of its venue, the age or other characteristics of participants, and of their previous level of qualification. The content of vocational and technical education could be job specific, directed to a broader range of jobs or occupations, or a mixture of both, vocational and technical education may also include general elements (Moran and Rumble, 2004). The Factors That Effects the Quality on Vocational and Technical Education What can be done to improve the quality of education in vocational and technical education schools? First of all, we have to define the word quality: the property of a product qualification that reacts to the customer needs at the present or future. According to this definition, the customer determines the dimensions of quality (Öztürk, 1996). The qualities in vocational and technical education schools are that to educate the technical educated employers for the needs of industry (Güleç, 1994). The present or the new knowledge used in industry should be easily used by these people. The success of vocational and technical education schools are correlated with the qualifications gained with the help of education and the qualification that the job required. 236 �‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ The quality of the students and the teachers The quality of technical equipments and the physical environments The management system The capacity of social-cultural academic activities Finance. The Effects of Technologic Developments to the Quality of Vocational and Technical Education To improve of the vocational and technical education quality, the following subjects are important: ‰ The machines and devices used in workshops and laboratories must be developed and renewed according to the new technologies, ‰ Use the computer technologies for the new product signs and their productions (Computer Aided Engineering CAE, Computer Aided Design/manufacturing CAD/CAM, Computer Numerical Control-CNC, and Computer Integrated Manufacturing-CIM) to search the new production methods and to teach its usage, to use the new technologies about the production design, ‰ Reaching the knowledge by using the communication technologies, ‰ The development in educational devices (TV, Video, Computer, CD-DVD etc.), ‰ The developments in education technologies (Internet, Tele-Conference, Simulation Programs), ‰ Determining the standards of job, ‰ Changing the management system, ‰ Improving the opportunity of using libraries and the sources. Suggestions Some suggestions for improvements of the quality on vocational and technical education quality are those: • Duties, authorities and the responsibilities should be determined, • The problems of titles should be solved, • The standards of job should be determined, • It should be given importance to the system of certificate, • Industry should be participate in all steps of education training, • The system of education should be changed according to the changes at work and also the possibilities of finance should be provided, • Seminars should be held, • The physical quality of education properties should be developed, • The changing education methods should be followed, • There should be information offices or foundations that is made up off representatives of industry, • To form a database and have to cooperate with other vocational and technical education schools should be financed by the companies The personnel of education should be used in industry as on advisor, • Have to make necessary changes in the curriculum of colleges that is available for the expectations of industry, • The teachers should be encouraged to make researches, • The quality systems that are used by the companies should be also used in education, • The students should make practices in industry, • The graduates of technical colleges should be followed by a central system. 237 �Result Knowledge is the main factor of production in today's world. The companies that are using the technology created by knowledge on the companies which have the personnel using the technology should stay forever in the global world. If the vocational and technical education schools are interested in more closely to the developments of technology and develop suitable education programs and methods that they should easily graduate the personnel that is looked for the companies. The developed societies are called the society of knowledge. For this reason it is necessary to educate a human who knows the universal values, works and uses the technology in useful way for the knowledge society. Education is the most important factor in becoming developed society. As a Vocational and Technical Education schools, we have to go forward to become a developed society by using the knowledge and technology. References Balkır, N.(1992). Türkiye’de Çağdaş Eğitim ve Çağdaş Üniversite, T.C Başbakanlık Yayınları. Beck, U.(2000). What is Globalization?, Polity, UK. Ceyhun, Y. ve Çağlayan, M.U. (1997). Bilgi Teknolojileri Türkiye İçin Nasıl Bir Gelecek Hazırlamakta, Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, Ankara. Cooper, R. G. (2001). Winning at new products: accelerating the process from idea to launch, New York, Basic Books, USA. Drucker, F.P.(1994). Gelecek İçin Yönetim, (Çev: Üçcan, F.)Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları. Erkan, H. (1997). Bilgi Toplumu ve Ekonomik Gelişme, Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, Ankara. Güleç, K.(1994). Türkiye’de ve Dünyada Teknolojik Gelişmeler, DPT, Ankara. Held, D.(2004). A globalizing world? Culture, economics, politics, Routledge, UK. Homann, K.; Koslowski, P. and Luetge, C. (2007). Globalisation and Business Ethics, Ashgate UK. Kozlu, C.(1996). Türkiye Mucizesi için Vizyon Arayışları ve Asya Modelleri, Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, Ankara. Moran, L. and Rumble, G.(2004). Vocational Education And Training Through Open And Distance Learning, RoutledgeFalmer, New York, USA. Özevren, M. (1997). Toplam Kalite Yönetimi ve Temel Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar, Alfa Basım, İstanbul. Özsoy, C. (2007). Türkiye’de Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitimin İktisadi Kalkınmadaki Yeri ve Önemi, A.Ü. Yayın No.1780, Eskişehir. Öztürk, S. A. (1996). Hizmet İşletmelerinde Kalite boyutları ve Kalitenin Artırılması, MPM yayını, 1996/2. Şimşek, M.(2002). Toplam Kalite Yönetiminde Başarının Anahtarı, Babıali Kültür Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Uzun, A. ve Vatansever F.(2005). Eğitimde Kalite ve Sanayicinin Beklentileri, MTET2005, İstanbul. Williams, O. F.(2000), Global codes of conduct, University of Notre Dam Pres, Woodin, M. and Lucas, C. (2004), Gren alternatives to Globalisation, Pluto press, London. -----: (1990). TÜBİTAK, 1.Bilim ve Teknoloji Şurası, 1990. -----: (1997). MESS, Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Rekabet, Mayıs 1997 -----: (1997). The Economist, “Education and The Wealth of Nations”, Vol:342, March 29th- 4 April 1997. -----: (1997). Türkiye’de ve Dünyada Mesleki Eğitim, TİSK Raporu , İnceleme Yayınları, No:20, Ankara. -----: (2008). The World Competitiveness Year Books, USA. 238 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 406 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Globalisation and Technological Improvements on Vocational and Technical Education Author Author AKYÜZ, Birol ÇETİN AKYÜZ, Gülşen Abstract A summary of the resource. : At the beginning of the 21 st century, it’s seen that countries find themselves in a competition of information and technology and that they have taken a long distance on the way of becoming communities of knowledge. In line with the added to the importance of the need for education “Globalisation”, “re-construction” and “integration with the world” are among concepts which are used to describe especially post-industry information societies. The fact that information gains importance adds to the responsibilities of the whole educational organisation from the sources where information is produced to the structure, operation, administration and programs of educational institutions. Educational organisations must lead to the modernisation of the society because educational organisations have the chance to have influence on other systems by the way they lead. Main condition of rapidly improvements of developing countries depends on improving education qualifications and training qualified person. In this study, the effects of globalisation and technological improvements on the quality of vocational and technical educations were examined and given some suggestions about the subject. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/efce99bc7010265c099920cf53b46c17.pdf f2c31f69d22220b93a75ec5ef4db29f2 PDF Text Text Teachers’ Automatical Thoughts Birol ALVER Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey balver@atauni.edu.tr Şükrü ADA Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey sukruada@atauni.edu.tr Mücahit DILEKMEN Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey dilekmen@atauni.edu.tr Sırrı AKBABA Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey sakbaba@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: In this study it was aimed to analyze automatic thoughts of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of ErzurumTurkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding automatic thoughts of teachers was obtained through Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) which was designed by Hollan and Kendal (1980) and adapted to turkish first by Aydın ve Aydın (1980) and then by Şahin and Şahin (1992) to measure the occurance the frequency of automatic negative thoughts associated with depression. It is a 30-item with 1-5 score margin likert type scale (ATQ-30). Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that above mentioned assumed precursor variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. Introduction Automatic thoughts are repetitive, automatic self-statements that individuals always say to themselves in certain situations. They can be positive or negative. Psychological problems develop when an individual’s automatic thoughts are consistently negative (Franklin, 2002) In related literature, eleven irrational beliefs or opinions have been defined. Some of those beliefs and opinions are stated below : • Past experiences are the determinants of today’s behaviors of an individual. Things/events having strong effects on our past lives will definitely have similar effects in future life. • Some people are evil-minded and baleful and that’s why they deserve to be blamed and punished. • Unhappiness is caused by external factors which individuals have little control of. • I must be liked and approved by everyone in society. • I must be perfectly successful, efficient and competent to consider myself as a “gem”. 266 �• There are the definite and perfect solutions to human problems. If they cannot be found, the result is disaster (Ellis, 1962; Ellis, 1973; Jones, 1982; Dryden ve Ellis, 1988). Having positive thoughts plays important role for mental health. It is widely believed that those thoughts are developed within childhood period. Individuals who cannot develop proper cognitive behavioral skills within socialization process, develop feeling of helplessness, fail to succeed academically and socially and tend to develop negative automatic thoughts and depression. Positive automatic thoughts are important attributes that give an individual the opportunity arranging negative feelings and behaviors such as; anxiety, depression, anger, loneliness and poor self-worthiness (Güloğlu ve Aydın, 2007). In a study conducted by Çiçek, Tatari, Kasap and Karaırmak (2009) on university students, a positive relation between psychological symptoms and automatic thoughts of students was found at a significant level. Furthermore, it was also revealed within the scope of the same study that females’ automatic thoughts are higher than that of the males at a significant level. In one of his studies, Özgüven (1999) revealed that frequency of negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes observed in crisis cases are significantly higher than other cases. Özgüven (1999) revealed in his study that negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes were significantly higher when compared to control group. Moreover, falling apart of the family; losing someone dearest; experiencing mental traumas; verbally, physically and sexually have been or being harrassed and having committed suicade before are asserted to be the risk factors in developing negative automatic thoughts. It was also emphasized that automatic thoughts ascertain long term thoughts and attitudes; not the immediate behaviors. Frequency level of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes in crisis cases are observed to be significantly higher compared to other cases. Furthermore, there are those finding which have revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes tend to be more depressive and anxious (Palabıyıkoğlu et al. 1995; Azizoğlu 1993; Tschacher 1996). In two other different studies it was also revealed that improper automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes should be accepted as a risk factor for crisis rather than be considered as the result of crisis (Abramson, L.Y.,Seligman, MEP., Teasdale, J.D. 1978; Peterson and Seligman 1984). Karahan, Sardoğan and Özkamalı (2006) revealed in their study that individuals with poor social competence expectancy and with dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts, needs more psychosocial support than the others. It is attained as result that automatic thoughts do not vary in accordance with gender. In the study conducted by Bulut (2007) there was found a negative relation between life satisfaction and negative automatic thoughts of guidance counselors; whereas a positive relation was found between avoidance and negative automatic thoughts. Problem Statement In this study it was aimed to analyze automatic thoughts of teachers from the aspect of different variables. The following question is tried to be answered in parallel with this purpose. “Do the automatic thoughts of teachers differentiate in accordance with the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication ?” Method Population and Sampling Population of this study consist of the teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. 215 teachers were chosen randomly out of the population as the sample of the study. Data Collection Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) Data regarding automatic thoughts of teachers was obtained through Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) which was designed by Hollan and Kendal (1980) and adapted to turkish first by Aydın ve Aydın (1980) and then by Şahin and Şahin (1992) to measure the occurance the frequency of automatic negative thoughts associated with depression. It is a 30-item with 1-5 score margin likert type scale (ATQ-30). It can be applied to both teenagers and adults. Internal consistency cronbach alfa reliability coefficient of the original questionnaire was found as. 94, .89, and .91 in turn; split half reliability coefficient for depressive group was found as r=.91, and for 267 �nondepressive psychopatological group was found as r=.59 and for other patients as r=.87. Internal consistency cronbach alfa reliability coefficient of the adapted questionnaire was found as. 93, .95, .94, .89 and .91 in turn; split half reliability coefficient for depressive group was found as r=.91, and for nondepressive psychopatological group was found as r=.59 and for other patients as r=.87. Re-test test reliability was found as r=.77. Correlation of the original form of the questionnaire with Beck Depression Inventory was found as .87 and the correlation with MMPI-D scale was found as .85. Correlations of the adapted form of the questionnaire with Beck Depression Inventory was found as .75, .70, .87 and the correlation with MMPI-D scale was found as .85. Correlation of the adapted form with Multiple Depression Scale was found as .60 whereas its correlation with Dysfunctional Attitude Scale was found .27. Each item of the scale is viewed one by one and all 30 items were found to have validity discriminate between depressed and nondepressed subjects (Şahin ve Şahin, 1992). Personal Information Form Teachers of the sample group were given Personal Information Forms developed by the researchers concerning information about the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach at, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through this form. Data Analysis SPSS 16.0 packaged software was used for statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. Findings Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Genders t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their gender were given in table 1 below : Gender n X sd Female 100 44,51 12,82 Male 115 47,86 14,76 t p -1.764 .079 sd: 213 p>0.05 Table1. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Gender As seen in table 1 above, there was found a significant difference between automatic thought scores of male and female teachers (t213= -1.764, p=.079). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status were given in table 2 below : 268 �Marital Status n X sd Single 65 47,04 14,22 Married 150 45,98 13,88 t p 0.513 . 608 sd: 213 p>0.05 Tablo 2. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values Of Automatic Thought Scores Of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status As seen in table 2 above, there was found a significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status (t213=0.513, p=.608). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type Institution They Teach In Or They Work For Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the type of institution they teach in or they work for were given in table 3 below : n Type of Institution They Teach At X sd Automatic Thoughts Primary Education 92 45.73 14.68 Secondary Education 106 46.43 13.70 Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğü 17 48.52 11.92 Total 215 46.30 13.96 Table 3. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type of Institution They Teach At The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding the type of institution they teach at are shown in table 4 below : Automatic Thoughts Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 115.337 41618.012 41733.349 s d. 2 212 214 Mean of Squares 57.668 196.311 F .294 p .746 Table 4. Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Type Institution They Teach At As seen in table 4, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the type institution they teach at (F(2,212)= 0.294, p=.746). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their service period were given in table 5 below : 269 �n X Sd 122 81 12 215 45.36 48.27 42.58 46.30 13.52 14.40 14.76 13.96 Service Period Automatic Thoughts 1-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years Total Table 5. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding their service period are shown in table 6 below : Automatic Thoughts Sum of Mean of Source of Variance Squares s d. Squares F p 588.276 2 294.138 1.516 .222 Inter-groups 41145.073 212 194.081 In-groups 41733.349 214 Total Table 6. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding Their Service Period As seen in table 6, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their service period (F(2,212)= 1.516, p=.222). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving ınservice training were given in table 7 below : n X sd 32 67 18 98 215 47.90 44.89 50.61 45.94 46.30 15.53 13.35 16.86 13.27 13.96 Status of Receiving Inservice Training Automatic Thoughts Never received Received only once Received twice Received three times and more Total Table 7. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding the status of receiving inservice training are shown in table 8 below : 270 �Automatic Thoughts Sum of Mean of Source of Variance s d. F p Squares Squares 561.339 3 187.113 .959 .413 Inter-groups 41172.010 211 195.128 In-groups 41733.349 214 Total Table 8. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers Regarding The Status of Receiving Inservice Training As seen in table 8, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving inservice training (F(3,211)= 0.959, p=.413). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught o For The Longest Period Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught o for the longest period were given in table 9 below : n sd X The Settlement They’ve Taught o For The Longest Period Automatic Thoughts Village 19 52.21 15.70 Town 29 45.96 13.24 City 60 45.65 12.58 Metropolis 107 45.71 14.50 Total 215 46.30 13.96 Table 9. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught oFor The Longest Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period are shown in table 10 below : Automatic Thoughts Source of Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 729.557 41003.792 41733.349 s d. 3 211 214 Mean of Squares 243.186 194.331 F 1.251 p .292 Table 10. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period As seen in table 10 above, there was found no significant difference between nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period (F(3,211)= 1.251, p=.292). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing are given in table 11 below : 271 �Sports Playing n X sd Playing Sports 91 46.73 13.69 Not Playing Sports sd: 213 p>0.05 124 45.98 14.20 t p 0.390 .160 Table 11. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing As is seen in table 11 above, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing (t213= 0.390, p=.160). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with artiness are given in table 12 below : Artiness n X sd Sanatla Uğraşanlar 168 46.82 13.70 Sanatla Uğraşmayanlar sd: 213 p>0.05 47 44.42 14.86 t p 1.043 .298 Table 12. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness As seen in table 12, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with artiness (t213= 1.043, p=.298). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication are given in table 13 below Perceived Communication Style Olumlu Algılayanlar (insancıl, yapıcı ve anlayışlı) Olumsuz Algılayanlar (eleştirel, yargılayıcı, duyarsız) sd: 213 p>0.05 n X sd 179 45.83 13.84 36 48.63 14.51 t p -1.101 .272 Table 13. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication As seen in table 13, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication (t213= -1.101, p=.272). Findings Regarding Precursor Variables of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers The results of multiple regression analysis applied to determine the nonfunctional attitude score predictive strength of the variables of gender, marital status, type of institution they teach at or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived type of communication are given at table 14 below : 272 �Precursor Variables Gender Marital Status Type of institution they teach at or work for Service Period Status of receiving inservice training En Uzun Süreyle Görev Yapılan Yerleşim Yeri Sports playing Artiness Perceived Communication Style B Predictive Error β t p 3.112 -.736 1.234 1.880 .097 1.947 1.159 1.627 1.727 .884 .111 -.049 .055 .081 .008 1.599 -0.635 0.758 1.088 0.109 .111 .526 .449 .278 .913 -1.263 1.029 -.088 -1.228 .221 .123 2.070 .004 0.059 .953 -2.277 2.411 -.068 -0.944 .346 2.362 2.647 .063 0.892 .373 2 R=.197 R =.039 F(9-205)=0.916 p=.512 Table 14. The Results of Multiple Regression Analysis Regarding Precursor Variables of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Considering the findings obtained from table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (R=0.143, R2=0.039, F(9-205)=0.916, p=.512). This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 3,9% of variance of the nonfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.111) is the strongest variable to predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers yet without being at significant level (t=-1.599, p=.111) whereas other variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at significant level. Discussion Considering the findings obtained from table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 3,9% of variance of the nonfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.111) is the strongest variable to predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers yet without being at significant level (t=-1.599, p=.111) whereas other variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at significant level. Negative automatic thoughts’ not varying significantly from the aspects of variables of this study, demonstrates their having almost no effect on varying them from. According to Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) theory, individuals inherit most of the opinion/belief structures leading their lives in their childhood period, imitating the persons they’ve perceived to be respectful (Corey, 2001). This assumption makes the reserchers to think that participative teachers developed automatic thoughts in their childhood period and that marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and their communication styles have had no effect on developing or changing automatic thoughts in their adulthood period. Overall score margin obtained from automatic thought scale is 30-150. Considering this range, there are those automatic thoughts of teachers at a certain level despite its not varying in accordance with above mentioned variables. Karahan, Sardoğan and Özkamalı (2006) revealed in their study that individuals with poor social competence expectancy and with dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts, needs more psycho-social support than the others. Negative automatic thoughts are ascertained to be significantly higher in crisis cases than other cases. There are also findings obtained, revealing that people having nonfunctional attitudes tend to be more depressive and anxious (Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; Azizoğlu 1993; Tschacher 1996). Considering the scores obtained pertaining automatic thoughts together with automatic thoughts score range, it can be inferred that teachers may need psycho-social support to a certain extent and that they might experience some problems with social competence expectancy and tend to experience crisis as well as their becoming depressed and anxious to a certain extent. 273 �Conclusions and Recommendations Considering the findings obtained from table 14, it can be affirmed that despite teachers’ having negative automatic thoughts, assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.111) is the strongest variable to predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers yet without being at significant level (t=-1.599, p=.111) whereas other variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at significant level. Overall score margin obtained from automatic thought scale is 30-150. Considering this range, there are those automatic thoughts of teachers at a certain level despite its not varying in accordance with above mentione variables. Going through literature review, it has been ascertained that automatic thoughts result from erroneous cognitive schemas formed within the childhood period of an individual and that it may cause some certain psychological problems afterwards. Considering those assignations, following recommendations could be suggested : 1. Particular inservice training programs should be arranged in order to raise teachers’ awareness on automatic thought, its sources and its effects. Different effective authorities such as Guidance Research Centers (GRC) and guidance counselors should be made use of in this studies. 2. Informative education pertaining automatic thoughts should be given to families. 3. Studies on automatic thoughts and their effects in life can be conducted in educational faculties on behalf of prospective teachers. 4. Confirming teachers with negative automatic thoughts, necessary therapeutic studies could be conducted. References Abramson LY, Seligman MEP, Teasdale, J.D. (1978) .Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformu- lation. Journal Abnormal Psychology, (87, pp. 49-74). Aydın,G. ve Aydın, O. (1990). Otomotik düşünceler ölçeğinin geçerlilik ve güvenilirliği [Reliability and validity of automatic thoughts questionnaire (ATQ-30)]. Psikoloji Dergisi (7 (4), pp.51-57) Azizoğlu S (1993) Psikolojik yardım arama davranışını etkileyen bazı faktörler açısından kriz merkezine başvuran ve başvurmayan bireylerin karşılaştırılması. Kriz Dergisi (1(3), pp. 143-149). Bulut, N. (2007). Okul psikolojik danışmanlarının yaşam doyumu, stresle başa çıkma stratejileri ve olumsuz otomatik düşünceleri arasındaki ilşkiler. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, (27, pp. 11-13). Corey, G. (2001). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotheraphy. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Çiçek, P., Tatari B., Kasap, S. ve Karaırmak, Ö. (2009). Üniversite öğrencilerinin gösterdikleri psikolojik belirtiler ile sahip oldukları otomatik düşünce arasındaki ilişki. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Bölümü Öğrencileri Poster Bildirileri. http://egt.kocaeli.edu.tr/bolum/ebb/pdr/otom.ppt Eisen, A.R.& Kearney, C.A. (1995). Practitioner's Guide to Treating Fear and Anxiety in Children and Adolescents: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach, Jason Aronson, Northvale. Dryden, W. ve Ellis, A. (1988). Rational-emotive therapy. (Ed. Keith S. Dabson.) Handbook of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (pp. 214–272), London: Hutchinson. Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and Emotion in Psychotheraphy. New York: Springer. _____ (1973). Rational-emotive psychotheraphy. (Ed: Patterson, C.H.) Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy (pp. 49– 57). New York: Harpe and Row Publishers Franklin, D. J. (2002). Cognitive therapy for depression. http://www.psychologyinfo.com Güloğlu, B., Aydın, G. (2007). İlköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin öğrenilmiş güçlülük ve otomatik düşünce biçimi arasındaki ilişki. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education) (33, pp. 157-168) Jones, N. (1982). The theory and practice of counseling psychology, (Çev: F.Akkoyun ve ark.), Ankara. Karahan, T.F., Sardoğan, M.M.ve Özkamalı, E. (2006). Lise öğrencilerinde sosyal yetkinlik beklentisi ve otomatik düşüncelerin, yaşanılan birim ve cinsiyet açısından incelenmesi. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, (26, pp. 3545). Özgüven, H.D.( 1999). Psikiyatrik kriz vakalarında hatalı otomatik düşünceler ve fonksiyonel olmayan tutumların sıklığı. Kriz Dergisi, (7(2), pp. 9-16). Palabıyıkoğlu, R.,Berksun, O.E., Güney, S.,Yaza, H, Duran, A. (1995) Krize müdahale merkezine başvuranların değerlendirilmesi: Demografik özellikler, sorun alanları, yaklaşım. Kriz Dergisi, (3(1-2), pp. 118-123). Peterson, C, Seligman MEP. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and Evidence. Psychological Review; (91, pp. 347-374). Şahin, N. H. & Şahin, N. (1992). Reliability and Validity of the Turkish Version of the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire. Journal of Clinical Psychology, (48, pp. 334 – 340). Tschacher, W. (1996) The dynamics of psychosocial crises: Time courses and causal models. J Nerv Ment Dis, (184, pp. 172179). 274 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cc3d1b2637ad02a9867ade8974caefe3.doc 1ed3180e94aa1ff5962910705ef9d4d8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 426 Title A name given to the resource Teachers’ Automatical Thoughts Author Author ALVER, Birol ADA, Şükrü DILEKMEN, Mücahit AKBABA, Sırrı Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study it was aimed to analyze automatic thoughts of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of ErzurumTurkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding automatic thoughts of teachers was obtained through Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) which was designed by Hollan and Kendal (1980) and adapted to turkish first by Aydın ve Aydın (1980) and then by Şahin and Şahin (1992) to measure the occurance the frequency of automatic negative thoughts associated with depression. It is a 30-item with 1-5 score margin likert type scale (ATQ-30). Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that above mentioned assumed precursor variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46bcb0863afadfcba97a271de7780597.pdf 0caed0c4f940d55485f593669ba9db48 PDF Text Text Ortaöğretim Edebiyat Derslerinde İşlenecek Metinlerin Eğitim Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Kübra ANDI Üsküdar İmam Hatip Lisesi, İstanbul kubraandi@gmail.com Özet: Ortaöğretimde öğrencilere verilen derslerin elbette herbirinin ayrı ve gerekli işlevleri ve yerleri vardır. Ancak bunlar içerisindeki edebiyat derslerinin fonksiyonları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, dersin yeri ve önemi bir kat daha öne çıkar. Edebiyat dersleri, hem edebî bilgi, hem estetik eğitim, hem de içerdiği konular ve açılımlarla öğrenci için bir “hayat bilgisi ve tecrübesi” edinme dersi niteliğindedir. Bunun için bu derslerin, Türk eğitim sistemi içerisinde maruz kaldığı sorunların ciddiye alınması, aksaklıkların giderilmesi eğitim adına şarttır. Bunların başında ise TC Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı edebiyat dersi müfredatı içerisine alınan edebî metinlerin seçimi ve bu metinlerin eğitim açısından daha da dikkate alınması gelmektedir. Ortaöğretim kademesinde yer alan derslerin her biri, şüphesiz ki ayrı ayrı önemli ve doğru aktarım sağlandığında öğrenciyi hayata hazırlayacak, donanımlı hale getirecek derslerdir. Fakat bunların içinde edebiyat, dil ve anlatım derslerini biraz daha ayrı bir yere koymak ve bu noktada daha da hassas davranmak gerekir. Bu dersleri ayrı bir yere koymak zorundayız, çünkü anadili öğrenme ve bu dil aracılığıyla oluşturulmuş edebî eserler yoluyla kültürel mirasın nesillerden nesillere aktarımını sağlama ve öğrencinin ruhsal ve sosyal gelişimine katkıda bulunma noktalarında bunların ayrıcalıklı bir yeri vardır. (Türk ortaöğretim programı içerisinde bugün bu ders grubu Türk Edebiyatı ve Dil ve Anlatım adlı iki başlık altında ele alınmaktadır.) Fakat maalesef bugün bu edebiyat ve dil ve anlatım dersleri öğretmenler tarafından yeterli özeni, önemi görememekte, öğrencinin gözünde hâlâ sıkıcı dersler sıralamasında ilk başlarda yer almaktadır. Bunun çok çeşitli sebeplerini sayabiliriz. Fakat bunların en başında yer alan problem ders kitaplarıdır. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Eğitim Bakanlığının 2005 yılında yaptığı müfredat değişiklikleri doğrultusunda yeniden hazırlanan edebiyat kitaplarıyla ilk etapta bu sıkıcılığın ortadan kaldırması hedeflenmiştir. 2005’ten bu yana hazırlanan bu yeni kitaplarla yürütülen edebiyat eğitiminin öncekine oranla daha iyi olduğunu söyleyebiliriz, ama bu kitaplarda da çeşitli aksaklıklar söz konusu olmaktadır. Bu konuyu gündemine alan TC Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı da, yenilenen lise ‘Türk Edebiyatı’ dersindeki eksikleri, branş öğretmenlerine sorarak müfredata ve hazırlanan kitaplara yönelik sıkıntıları ortaya koymaya çalışmıştır. Türkiye’nin 28 ilindeki 310 Türk dili ve edebiyatı öğretmeni, ‘Türk Edebiyatı’ dersinin müfredatı ile ders kitabını inceleyip, program ve kitaplara dair eleştirilerini ortaya koymuşlardır. MEB Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu müfredata dönük bir eleştiri almadıklarını, eleştirilerin ‘yerinde görülenler’ine dair değişikliklerin mümkün olabileceğini bildirerek yerinde bir adım atmıştır. Öğretmenlerin, Türk Edebiyatı dersine ilişkin eleştirilerinden bazıları şunlardır: - Aynı dönemden seçilen ve hemen hemen aynı tür eserlerin verilmesi gereksiz. Örneğin Danişmendname, Battalname… Öğrencilerin ilgisi dağılıyor, hatta bıkıyorlar. - Şairleri ve yazarları tanıtan metinler, sanatçının edebî kişiliğini yansıtmıyor. Meselâ Bakî ve Fuzulî’den alınan gazeller, bu şairlerin daha maruf gazelleri ile değiştirilebilir. - İlköğretimden mezun olup dokuzuncu sınıfa başlayan bir öğrencide sanat zevki ve estetik duyarlılığı yok denecek kadar az. - Verilen metinlerde dil ağır olduğu için öğrenci metni anlamıyor ve karşılaştırma yapamıyor. - Programın içerdiği yeni yaklaşımların tam olarak gerçekleştirilebilmesi için öğrencinin, öğretmen, idareci ve velilerin hâsılı toplumun bir zihniyet değişimine ihtiyacı var. - Metinler, öğrenci seviyesinin üstünde ve öğrenciler anlamıyor. - Kimi metinler çok uzun. Kazanıma uygun bazı bölümler alınmalı. Buna göre, derste işlenen 100 metin, ‘çok uzun ve dili ağır, öğrenciler anlamıyor, öğrenci seviyesine uygun değil, ilgisini çekmiyor, seçilen parça konuyu yansıtmıyor, değiştirilmeli’ gibi eleştirilerin muhatabı. Öğretmenleri, özellikle divan edebiyatı metinlerinin ağırlığı ve yanlış metin seçimi nedeniyle öğrencilerin ‘sıkıldığını’ belirtiyor. Bazı öğretmenler ise edebiyat ders kitaplarında ‘akademik düzeyde bilgi ağırlığı’ olduğunu, ‘ilköğretimden gelen öğrencinin bu bilgilerle Türk edebiyatını sevmesinin mümkün olmadığını’ savunuyor. 417 �Türk orta eğitim sisteminin temel derslerinden biri olan ‘Türk Edebiyatı’nı öğrencilerin gözünde sıkıcı gösteren zannımca sadece kitaplara seçilen metinlere dönük eleştirilerin yansıttığı gerçekler değildir. Önemli problemlerden biri budur. Fakat bunun yanı sıra - Ders işleme biçimlerinin sıradanlığı, - Her ne kadar öğrenci odaklı bir eğitim amaçlansa da kitaplarda hiç bir bilginin yer almaması, her konuyla ilgili bilginin öğrencinin araştırma sonuçlarından beklenmesi, ancak öğrenci seviyesinin ve hali hazırdaki kaynakların beklenilen/istenilen araştırma sonucunu sağlamanın çok gerisinde kalması, - Anlatımın görsel materyallerle zenginleştirilip pekiştirilmesi gerekirken okullarda teknik alt yapının buna müsait olmayışı, Velhasıl öğretmen, öğrenci, veli ve okul şartlarının bu müfredatı olması gereken şekilde uygulama noktasında yetersiz kalışı henüz Türkçe dersi mantığından yeni çıkan sanat ve estetik zevki yeteri kadar gelişmemiş öğrencilerin dersi sıkıcı ve zor bulmalarının belli başlı sebepleri arasında sıralanabilir. Bütün bu söylediklerimizden hareketle Türk Edebiyatı ve Dil ve Anlatım derslerinin öğretimi açısından ortaya çıkan problemleri dört başlık altında toplayabiliriz: 1.Velilerin, öğrencilerin, okul yöneticilerinin ve kamuoyunun gözünde dersin ehemmiyetine dair giderilmesi gereken sıkıntılar 2. Eğitim kurumlarının teknik alt yapı sorunları 3. Eğitimcileri ve okul yöneticilerini ilgilendiren problemler 4. Ders kitaplarına alınan metinlere dönük problemler Şimdi bunların üzerinde biraz duralım: 1. Her ne kadar çeşitli toplantılarda, panel, sempozyum gibi etkinliklerde ve medya ortamlarında, Türkçeyi doğru kullanmanın ne kadar önemli olduğunun altı çizilmekte ise de iş, üniversite eğitimine gelince zihinlerin yanlış yönlendirilmesiyle sözel dersler ve bilhassa edebiyat dersleri ‘önemsiz’ sıfatını üzerine alır. Bunun sebeplerinin başında toplumumuzda paraya ve maddî kazanca endeksli eğitim anlayışı doğrultusunda, tıp, mühendislik gibi dallardan birinde eğitim gören kişinin daha iyi bir iş imkânı ve yaşam kalitesi yakalayacağına dair zan gelir. Bu nedenle veliler çocuklarını ders seçimi konusunda yönlendirirken sayısal derslerin yoğun işlendiği alanlara yöneltir. Bunun doğal bir sonucu olarak edebiyat dersi ‘laf kalabalığı’ ile dolu lüzumsuz bir ders görüntüsü kazanır. Çoğu kez okul idarecileri de sayısal alanlardaki öğrenci başarısını daha öne çıkararak belki de farkında olmadan sözel derslerin üzerindeki bu olumsuz etiketi pekiştirir. Mühendis olan, tıpta okuyan hayatını kurtarmıştır. Bu yanlış zan dolayısıyla çocukların da itibar etmediği bir ders konumuna düşen edebiyatı el birliği ile yeniden ayağa kaldırmalı ve onu bu olumsuz sıfatlardan kurtarmalıyız. Bugün sözel zekâların ülke yönetimindeki katkılarını -devletin her kademesinde sözel alanlarda eğitim almış yararlık gösteren şahsiyetleri de örnek göstererek- eğitim aşamasındaki genç zihinlere anlatmalı, onları bir yanlış değerlendirmenin eşiğinden geri çevirmeliyiz. Bu konuda sadece velilere değil, okul yöneticilerine ve bilhassa okul rehberlik servislerine önemli görevler düşmektedir. Velev ki öğrenci sayısal alanlarda daha başarılı olsun ve bu alanlara yönelik üniversite tercihlerinde bulunsun. Sanat ve estetik bilinci kazanmış, yüksek duyarlık sahibi, sanatın biricik müsebbibi insanı ve insanî değerleri idrâk edebilen mimarların, mühendislerin, doktorların ülkelerine ve insanlığa hizmet noktasında diğerlerinden çok daha farklı bir duruş sergileyecekleri de gözden kaçırılmaması gereken gerçekler arasındadır. 2. Problemlerin içinde belki de en kolay aşılabilecek olanı, okullardaki teknolojik yetersizliklerdir. Öğrencilerin görerek öğrenmekten zevk aldıkları bir dönemde görsel ve işitsel materyallerle zenginleştirilmiş bir ders çok daha keyifli olacaktır. Maalesef okullarımızın pek çoğunda teknik yetersizlikler sebebiyle öğrenciler bu imkânlardan mahrum kalmaktadır. Şüphesiz ki teknolojinin imkânlarının, eğitim araç ve gereçlerinin kullanıldığı bir ders sıkıcı olmaktan daha kolay kurtulacak ve dersin kalitesi artacaktır. 3. Edebiyat dersini ‘ sıkıcı’laştıran bir diğer unsur ise dersin işleniş biçimidir. Hiç şüphesiz ki burada en büyük pay öğretmene düşmektedir. Her ne kadar bu durumun bir ucu, -bir kısır döngü olarak- yine eğitime gelip dayansa da; okumayan, yazmayan, yayın dünyasından haberi olmayan, sanat ve edebiyat faaliyetlerine kayıtsız, aktüelle bağlantısını koparmış, teknolojik gelişmelerden uzak ve öğretmenliği sadece bir meslek olarak yapan edebiyat öğretmenlerinin sıkıcı ve tek düze ders anlatımları maalesef bu olumsuzluğu pekiştirmektedir. Öğretmenlik mesleği, yapısı gereği vericiliği gerektirir. Öğrenciye en doğruyu, en kolay biçimde verebilmek için öncelikle öğretmenin verilecek bilgiyi özümsemiş olması ve öğrettiği alanın güncel seyrinin izleyici ve belki de oluşturucusu olması gerekir. Öğrenciyi ders sırasında kolayca yönlendirebilmek, ders süresini etkin bir şekilde kullanabilmek için öğretmenin dersi önceden hazırlayıp, programlaması, derse uygun anlatım teknikleriyle eğitim ve öğretimi daha kalıcı hale getirmesi şarttır. Bunun yanı sıra sadece ders kitabına bağlı kalmayan, zevkli, nitelikli, farklı metinleri derse taşıyan, çeşitli sosyal etkinliklerden öğrencileri haberdar eden, sanatsal faaliyetlere zaman zaman öğrencileriyle birlikte iştirak eden öğretmen elbette ki öğrencinin gözünde farklı bir yer tutacaktır. Edebî zevke sahip, bu zevki seslendiği öğrenci kitlesine de yansıtmayı başaran idealist öğretmenlerin elinde edebiyat dersi hak ettiği ilgiyi yeniden bulacaktır. 4. Ders kitaplarına alınan metinlere dönük problemler: 418 �Hiç şüphe yok ki en çok eleştirilecek ve çözüm önerisi getirilecek hususlar bu konuda yoğunlaşmaktadır. Çünkü seçilen metinlerin ve bu metinlere yaklaşım tarzının edebiyat dersinin sıkıcı olup olmamasında katkısı büyüktür. Ders kitaplarına alınan metinlerde öncelikle amaç iyi belirlenmelidir. Edebi metnin amacı okuyucunun iç dünyasını zenginleştirmek, ona estetik bir duyarlık kazandırmak olmalıdır. Her ne kadar metinler üzerinden sözcük bilgisi, dil bilgisi, teorik edebiyat bilgisi, edebiyat tarihi bilgisi aktarımı yapılsa da temel espri asla gözden kaçırılmamalıdır. Edebiyat eğitimi her şeyden evvel bir sanat eğitimi olarak algılanmalıdır. Ortaöğretimde edebiyat derslerinde öğrenciye kazandırılması gereken, edebiyatla, yazarla ve edebiyat tarihiyle ilgili bilgileri öğretmek değil; öğrenciyi metinle muhatap kılabilmek, metnin estetik değerini algılatabilmek olmalıdır. Bu nedenle ders kitaplarına alınacak parçalarda öncelikle bu kıstas göz önünde bulundurulmalı, öğrenciye bu zevki aşılatabilecek metinler seçilmelidir. Ders kitaplarına alınacak metinlerde şu kriterlere özellikle dikkat etmek gerekir: 1. Seçilen metinler öğrenciyi ana dili doğru kullanabilme ve dil zevki kazandırabilme özelliği taşımalıdır. 2. Öte yandan edebi metinler yazıldığı dönemin sosyokültürel ortamının tanığı, kültürel bir birikimin aktarım aracıdır. Seçilen metinlerin kendi devirlerini iyi yansıtması, bağlı bulunduğu edebî geleneğin özelliklerini iyi temsil etmesi gerekir. 3. Türünü, devrini, temayı en iyi örnekleyebilecek kaliteli metinler seçilmelidir. 4. Seçilen metinlerin aynı zamanda yazarın edebî serüveni göz önünde bulundurulduğunda yazarı ve onun edebiyat anlayışını doğru aktarması gerekir. 5. Metinler hayata hazırlayıcı, bireylerin ve toplumun içinde yaşadıkları çevreye duyarlılıklarını arttırıcı nitelikte olmalıdır. 6. Sınıf içerisinde öğrencilerin derse hep birlikte katılımını sağlayacak ilgi çekici temalar seçilmeli, özellikle zihinsel gelişimleri ve ilgi duyacakları konular göz önünde bulundurmalıdır. 7. Öğrencinin bilgi birikimi, okuma alışkanlığı ve yaş düzeyi göz önüne alınmalıdır. 8. Seçilen metinlerin, yeteneği olan öğrencileri harekete geçirebilecek etkiye sahip olması gerekir. Yazma, okuma ve ifade kabiliyetlerini güçlendirebilmelidir. 9. Kültürümüzün inanç, bilgi ve zevk inceliklerini kavratarak duygularını terbiye edecek, ahlakî açıdan ve kişiliğinin gelişimi açısından öğrencinin eğitimine katkıda bulunabilecek metinler seçilmelidir. 10. Kitaplara alınacak metinlerin çok uzun olmaması, bütünlüğünün muhafaza edilmesi, dilinin anlaşılır olması; metinlerin hem tema, hem yapı, hem de dil ve üslup açısından kavranabilmesi için son derece önemlidir. Sonuç olarak şunu yeniden belirtmeliyiz ki edebiyat eğitiminin pek çok kazanımı olmakla birlikte hedefi öğrenciye bir sanat ve estetik bilinci kazandırmaktır. Her sanat eğitimi alan elbette ki sanatçı olamaz. Zaten sanat eğitimindeki temel amaç daha iyi sanatçılar yetiştirmek değil, estetik zevki yüksek, duyarlık sahibi insanların oluşturduğu daha sağlıklı toplumlar; düşünen, sorgulayan, mücadele eden, yaşamın bizzat içinde yer alan sağlıklı nesiller yetiştirebilmektir. Bunun pek çok yolu vardır. Tam da bu noktada üzerinde durduğumuz konunun ehemmiyeti artmaktadır. Sanat ve estetik eğitim yanı sıra edebiyat dersleri öğrencinin ahlakî ve kültürel eğitimi ve farklı alanlarda bilgi edinimi için de bir araç olarak devreye girmektedir. Bu nedenle edebiyat eğitimi göründüğünden çok daha ciddiye alınmalıdır. Kaynakça Akçay, Tahsin, Hayalimdeki Öğretmen, Yağmur Yayınları, İstanbul 2008. Aktaş, Şerif, Edebiyatta Üslup ve Problemleri, Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara 1986. Başar Hüseyin, Sınıf Yönetimi, MEB Yayınları Öğretmen Kitapları, İstanbul 1999. Bilkan, Ali Fuat, “Liselerde Divan Edebiyatı Öğretimi”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/ali.pdf Büyükkantarcıoğlu, Nalan, “Bilgi Toplumu Oluşturma Bağlamında Türk Edebiyatı Dersleri Üzerine Düşünceler”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/nalan.pdf Coşkun, Menderes, “Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretimindeki Sorunlara Batı Üniversiteleri Temelinde Çözüm Önerileri”,http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/DILBILIM/menderes_coskun_turk_dili_ve_edebiyati_ogretimi_sorunlar.pdf 419 �Çalışkan, Nihal, “Edebiyat Ders Kitapları Üzerine Edebiyat Eğitimi Açısından Bir Değerlendirme”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/nihal.pdf Çetişli, İsmail, “Edebiyat Eğitiminde Edebi Metnin Yeri ve Anlamı”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/ismail.pdf Dökmen, Üstün, İletişim Çatışmaları ve Empati, Sistem Yayınları, İstanbul 2003. Ertuğrul, Halit, Öğretmenlikte Yeni Teknikler, Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul 2002. Filizok, Rıza, “Edebiyat Eğitim ve Öğretiminde Terim Sorunu”, http://www.ege-edebiyat.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=60 Gökalp, G.Gonca, “Derslikten Günlük Yaşama Edebiyat Eğitimi”, http://www.turkbilig.hacettepe.edu.tr/index.php?sayfa=dergi&islem=yazigoster&islem=yazdir&no=55 Küçükahmet, Leyla, Sınıf Yönetimi, Nobel Yayıncılık, İstanbul 2003. Saraç, Cemal, “Sözlü İletişim Becerileri Açısından Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Eğitimi”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/cemal.pdf Sartre, J.Paul, Edebiyat Nedir?, Tayel Yayınları, İstanbul 1982. UÇAN, Hilmi, “Edebiyat Eğitimi, Estetik Bir Hazzın Edinimi, Okumanın Alışkanlığa Dönüştürülmesi ve Yazınsal Kuramlar”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/hilmi.doc 420 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b3e2f09e1925115fd9ad6f6e35dc2ac2.doc 936705d6bfe3fa42eb388c392d291024 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 434 Title A name given to the resource Ortaöğretim Edebiyat Derslerinde İşlenecek Metinlerin Eğitim Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Author Author ANDI, Kübra Abstract A summary of the resource. Ortaöğretimde öğrencilere verilen derslerin elbette herbirinin ayrı ve gerekli işlevleri ve yerleri vardır. Ancak bunlar içerisindeki edebiyat derslerinin fonksiyonları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, dersin yeri ve önemi bir kat daha öne çıkar. Edebiyat dersleri, hem edebî bilgi, hem estetik eğitim, hem de içerdiği konular ve açılımlarla öğrenci için bir “hayat bilgisi ve tecrübesi” edinme dersi niteliğindedir. Bunun için bu derslerin, Türk eğitim sistemi içerisinde maruz kaldığı sorunların ciddiye alınması, aksaklıkların giderilmesi eğitim adına şarttır. Bunların başında ise TC Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı edebiyat dersi müfredatı içerisine alınan edebî metinlerin seçimi ve bu metinlerin eğitim açısından daha da dikkate alınması gelmektedir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6c4c808e860f83d2cdd97dc335ff0f14.pdf fdb1ff193142f5e49dbee70ef1165751 PDF Text Text Sanat, Ahlâk Ve Eğitim İlişkisine Dair M. Fatih ANDI Edebiyat Fakültesi İstanbul Üniversitesi Türkiye andifatih@gmail.com Özet: Sanat, ahlâk ve eğitim üç toplumsal etkinlik alanıdır. Bunlardan sanat “güzelçirkin”, ahlâk ise “iyi-kötü” kavram ikilisine dayanır ve kendi ilkeleri ve zeminleri üzerinde oluşur. Ancak her iki alan da birbirleri hakkında kendileri açısından değer yargıları geliştirebilirler. Dolayısıyla bu durum, “ahlâk açısından sanat” yahut “sanatın gözüyle ahlâk” gibi yaklaşımları mümkün kılar. Bu iki alanın aralarındaki bu ilişki, eğitim için de geçerlidir. Bilhassa ahlâk ve eğitimin kesiştiği “ahlâk eğitimi” alanında sanattan faydalanma gereklidir. Bu “iyi”nin “güzel”le örtüşmesi olacaktır ki, etkisi de daha kuvvetli ve kalıcıdır. Ahlâk ve sanat iki toplumsal etkinlik alanıdır. İkisi de kurallar, kabuller ve normlar üzerine inşa edilirler. Bütün toplumsal kurum ve faaliyetler gibi birbirleriyle kesiştikleri alanlar vardır. Fakat bu kesişme kümeleri belki de diğer pek çok alana göre daha fazladır. Bu biraz da üzerinde yükseldikleri temel kavram ve kriterlerin birbirine yakınlığından ve aralarında kolayca kurulacak etki-tepki mekanizmasından neş’et etmektedir. Sanat “güzel ve çirkin”, ahlâk ise “iyi ve kötü” temel kavram kutupları etrafında teşekkül eder. Bu temel kavramlar, insanlık tarihi boyunca tartışılmış, toplumlara yön vermiş, çevresinde saflar tutulmuş kavramlardır. İnsanlar hayatı bu kavram kutupları çevresinde tuttukları saflara, bu kavramları algılayış tarzlarına göre yaşarlar demek yanlış olmaz. Bu açıdan, aynı zamanda bunlar hayatı yaşayış ve algılayışta çok önemli değer yargılarıdır. Ve bu ikili kavram kümesi, birbirlerinin alanlarına sarkmaya, müdahil olmaya, daha doğrusu birbirlerinin yerine konmaya, karıştırılmaya çok müsaittirler. İnsanoğlu güzeli isteyip çirkinden yüz çevirmeye, iyiyi isteyip kötüden uzak durmaya fıtraten yatkındır. Bu yatkınlık onun yapıp ettiklerine, tercihlerine ve kabullerine de yansır. Bu kavramlar ve besledikleri değer yargıları, geleneksel toplumlarda inancın/dinin şekillendirdiği bir kriterler süzgecinden geçerek oluşmaktaydı. Bu kriterleri yapan, daha doğrusu kontrol eden temel kavram “kutsal” idi. Geleneksel sanat ve ahlâk telakkileri Mutlak Hakikat’in belirleyiciliği ile bu iki alanın kurallarını oluşturmakta ve kabullerini bu mutlak ölçü ile yoğurmaktaydılar. Bu noktada ya Mutlak Hakikat’e uygunluk yahut daha ideal bir hedef olarak, bizde Necip Fazıl’ın dediği gibi, “Mutlak Hakikat’i arama” ana gaye olmaktadır. Ancak Batı’da Aydınlanma Çağı ve sonrasında bu durum değişmeye başladı. Bu, Batı’nın tarihi içerisinde “kutsaldan kopuş” süreci idi ve bu süreçte yukarıda andığımız kavramlar ve bunların dayandırılacağı ölçüler de sıkı bir şekilde sorgulanmaya, bu sorgulayış sonrasında ise değişmeye başladı. Yani iyi-kötü, güzel-çirkin kavramlarına da yeni anlamlar yüklenmeye çalışıldı. Yüklenmeye çalışılan yeni anlam yüklerini belirleyici üst ölçütler olarak da modern düşüncenin önemli bir yanını teşkil eden “yenilik” ve “özgünlük” kavramları rölativist ve ilerlemeci mantığa paralel bir biçimde öne çıktı. Rölativizm, bağlanılacak mutlak, değişmez ve evrensel bir ölçünün bulunmadığı düşüncesidir.. Bu düşünceye göre “doğru” ve buna bağlı olarak, güzel ve çirkin, iyi ve kötü kişiden kişiye, toplumdan topluma, çağdan çağa değişmektedir. Bu ise değerler skalasının sınırlarını çizen mutlak bir ölçünün bulunmadığını kabul etmek demektir. İlerlemeci anlayış ise insanlık tarihinin, “zaman” içinde her zaman basitten mükemmele uzanan bir seyir takip ettiğini söyler. Bu durum, gelişmeci ve değişimci zihniyeti doğurur. Burada insanın gelişme yolunda değişimini sağlayan tek etken zaman/çağdır. Zamanın akışı içinde "yeni" şeyler daima iyi, eskiden kalan veya eskiye ait olanlar ise kötüdür. Bu takdirde denilebilir ki, norm'ları belirleyen zamandır. İyiye ve kötüye anlam veren de odur. Modern dünya görüşlerinin sırtını dayadığı bu iki yaklaşım tarzı, geleneksel toplumların süregelen sanat kriterlerini de değiştirmiş, tartışılır kılmıştır. Bunun neticesinde meselâ sanatta aykırının, kötülüğün, çirkinin bir değer olarak öne çıkarıldığı örnekler görmemiz mümkün olmaya başlamıştır. Buna paralel bir tutumla geleneksel ahlâk telakkileri de tartışılmış, ahlâkın göreceliliği ele alınmış, ahlâkî kural ve kabullerin uyulması gereken şeyler olup olmadığı üzerinde durulmaya başlanmıştır. 376 �Geçmişlerinden itibaren mahiyetleri ve algılanışları itibarıyla zaten birbirine yakın ve geçişken iki kavram kutbuna sırtını yaslayan bu iki alan, yani ahlâk ve sanat böylelikle modern zamanlarda daha kaypak bir zeminde kaymaya, çok daha “farklı ve değişken” görünüm ve yaklaşımlarla ortaya konmaya, bunun bir uzantısı olarak da birbirinden çok farklı teorik yorumlara, pratik uygulamalara ve kabuller yelpazesine sahip olmuştur. Baştan itibaren söylediklerimiz çerçevesinde, sanat ve ahlâk ilişkisini bugünün modern(leşmiş) toplumunun bir mensubu sıfatıyla, sanata ve ahlâka muhatap olan modern bireyler olarak, her şeyden önce bu değişken ve kaypak ilgi, beklenti ve yorumlar eşliğinde ele almamız gerektiği vurgulanmalıdır. Modern toplumlarda tek bir sanat ve ahlâk anlayışı ve modern düşüncede tek bir iyi-kötü ve güzel-çirkin kutuplaşması yoktur. Bu durum, tartışacağımız konuyu çok boyutlu, çok yönlü ve yoruma fazlasıyla açık bir hale getirmektedir. Nitekim bu konuda kendisini gösteren teorik çeşitlilik her iki alanda da göze hemen çarpar. *** Sanat ve ahlâk geçmişten bugüne sürekli bir etkileşim ve alışveriş içinde bulunmuştur dedik. Geleneksel toplumlarda, ahlâk ve onu yapan inanç sistemi sanatın da belirleyici üst kurallarını ortaya koymuştur. Yani sanat, ahlâka uygunluğu ölçüsünde değer taşımıştır, ahlâk ise kutsala... Bizde ve Müslüman-Doğu sanat geleneği içerisinde bu durum kendisini en fazla edebiyatta belirgin olarak ortaya koyar. Bu, biraz da edebiyatın İslâm sanatının ağırlık noktasını teşkil etmesiyle de ilgilidir. Edebiyat bizde sürekli, kelimenin iştikakından da hareketle, ahlâklı olmanın bir vasfı olan “edeb”le ilişkilendirilmiş, edebiyata edepli olmayı öğreten, “ahlâka hâdim” bir sanat alanı gözüyle bakılmıştır. Genel toplumsal ahlâkın dışına çıkmayan bir edebiyat anlayışı, bizim klasik edebiyatımızın yaygın ve baskın niteliği idi. “Şairiz, şeyn verir şânımıza Giremez fâhişe dîvânımıza.” diyen eski şair, bunu dile getiriyordu. XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren, modernleşme süreci içerisinde, edebiyatta en çok üzerinde durulan konulardan birisi bu olmuştur. Fakat ilginçtir ki, bu süreçte Batılı Romantizm, özellikle de Realizm ve Naturalizm akımlarının gölgesinde sahiplenilen “yeni” ahlâkîlik anlayışı eşliğinde en çok sorgulanan ve çoğu kez de dışlanan Divan Edebiyatının metinleri ve geleneksel temâşâ sanatları olmuştur. XIX. yüzyılın edebiyatçı aydını, değiştirmek istediği toplumsal yapıyı, oluşturmak istediği “yeni insan” modelini edebiyatın yardımı ile ortaya koymaya çalışıyordu. Edebiyatın adeta entellektüel olmanın vazgeçilmezlerinden kabul edildiği bu çağlarda, modernleşmeci Türk entellektüeli edebiyata da bu doğrultuda bir pay biçiyor ve yaptığı tanımlamalara, misyon ve vizyon belirleme çabalarına hep eskinin edebiyat-edeb, edebiyat-ahlâk bağlamında, fakat “yeni”nin ahlâk ve insan modelleri arkasından bakmaya çalışıyordu. Ne de olsa “dualite” dönemin aydınının genel karakteristiğiydi. Sözgelimi Yeni Türk Edebiyatının öncülerinden Şinasî, yapmaya çalıştığı edebiyat tanımının belirleyici paydası olarak “edeb” kavramının üzerine bastırıyordu: “Fenn-i edeb bir marifetdir ki, insana haslet-âmûz-ı edeb olduğu için edeb ve ehli edîb tesmiye kılınmıştır.” Devrin bir başka önemli ismi Ahmed Midhat Efendi, pek çok yazısında edebiyata ahlâk noktainazarından bakmış ve bilhassa romanları ve romancılığı bu açıdan sorgulamıştır. 1297 (1880) tarihli “Romancı ve Hayat” adlı yazısında sorduğu soru ve aradığı cevap şudur: “Roman ve hikâyeler ahlâk-ı umûmiyye için muzır mıdır, müfîd midir?” (Bu arada, bu dönem içinde, ucu XX. yüzyıla kadar sarkan bir dilimde, edebiyat-ahlâk ilişkisinin kendisini en çok da modern birer tür olan roman ve tiyatroda gösterdiğini vurgulayalım). Midhat Efendi’nin bu konudaki yaklaşımı, devri için oldukça kapsamlı ve dikkat çekicidir. Bu hususta iki farklı görüşten söz açar: Bazı üdebaya göre romanlar eğer insanların “ahlâk-ı hasene ve melekiyyesi”ne dair olursa faydalı, “ahlâk-ı seyyie”sine dair olursa muzırdır. Bir başka görüşe göre ise, insan ahlâkındaki kötülük ve çirkinlikler roman suretinde insanlara sunularak insanların bu çirkinliklerden sakındırılması mümkündür O, bir romancı olarak tavrını bu ikinci görüşten yana kor ve şöyle der: “Eğer ahlâk-ı umûmiyye yine kendisi için nâfi veyahut yine kendisi için muzır ise, bu iki rengin ikisi dahi muharrir tarafından bi-hakkın tasvir edilmek ahlâk-ı umûmiyyeyi yine olduğu gibice kendi erbabına irae eylemek demektir. Beğendiğine imtisal, beğenmediğinden ictinab o romanları okuyanlara ait olup…” Edebiyat-ahlâk ilişkisine dair benzer bir tutum da Namık Kemal’de görünür. O da “Lisân-ı Osmanînin Edebiyatı Hakkında Bazı Mülâhazâtı Şâmildir” başlıklı meşhur makalesinde edebiyatı “nef’-i nâs ve hayr-ı nâs” işleviyle muttasıf kılar, edebiyatın milletin ‘hüsn-i terbiyetine’ hizmet etmesi gerektiğini iddia eder. Şöyle der: “Hakikat-i hâlde lafzen edebiyatın me’haz-ı iştikâkı edeb ise, ma’nen edebin masdar-ı intişârı edebiyattır.” Mizancı Mehmed Murad’dan Muallim Naci’ye dönemin diğer edebiyatçılarında da durum pek farklı değildir. Bu dönem edebiyatçılarının ortak özelliği edebiyatı ahlâkîlik açısından değerlendirmeleri ve ona toplumsal değişim açısından bir misyon yüklemeleridir. Bu misyon yükleme çabası özellikle Servet-i Fünûn (1896-1901) ve ardından gelen II. Meşrûtiyet nesilleri içerisinde değişir. XX. yüzyıla böyle gireriz. XIX. yüzyıl sonu, XX. yüzyıl başının Servet-i Fünûn ve Fecr-i Âtî gibi edebiyat oluşumları için artık edebiyat, ağırlıklı olarak, “tehzîb-i ahlâka hâdim” bir araç değil, yalnızca estetik ilkeler ile gerçekleştirilen bir amaçtır. Onlar “poesie pure” (saf şiir) ve “san’at-ı hakîkî”nin peşindedirler. Millî Edebiyat akımı bu gidişten farklı bir tavırla, bir bakıma tekrar XIX. yüzyıl edebiyatçılarının görüşüne yakınlaşır. Ziya Gökalp, Mehmed Emin Yurdakul gibi kimi milliyetçi yazarların kaleminde “litterature engage” (angaje 377 �edebiyat) kavramına yakın duran bir tutumla edebiyatı ideolojik düşüncelerin “şârih”i, millî ahlâkın yayıcısı olarak görürüz. Âkif, sanatını inancının ve milletinin emrine veren, bu uğurda hatta sanatını ikinci plana atan bir “misyoner” ve idealisttir. “Ne irfandır veren ahlâka yükseklik, ne vicdandır Fazilet hissi insanlarda Allah korkusundandır.” çığlığı tam da bu noktada dilimize takılmalıdır. Cumhuriyetin ilânıyla birlikte, yeni kurulan rejim, ilkelerini ve sosyal, siyasal düşüncelerini yaymak için edebiyatı da önceki dönemlerden çok daha fazla önemser ve hatta “kullanır”. Bu doğrultuda, edebiyat, eğitimde önemli bir görev üstlenir, yeni nesillerin “yeni ahlâk ve bilinç”le yetişmeleri için edebiyata ve edebiyatçıya biraz daha eğilinir. CHP Halkevleri bünyesinde gerçekleştirilen edebî yarışmalar, ödüllendirmeler, ortaöğretim kurumlarında gerçekleştirilen ve önemsenen mektep temsilleri, şiir, hikâye yarışmaları, müfredatı belirleyen metinlerin niteliği bize bunu çok açık bir şekilde gösterir. 1940’lı yıllardan sonra ise Türkiye’nin edebî, fikrî ve entellektüel ortamındaki renklenme ve çeşitlenmeye paralel bir şekilde, her düşünce, inanç yahut ideoloji kendi söylemini edebiyata da yüklemeye çalışmış, bu söylem içerisinde bir “bilinç ve ahlâk edinimi” vurgusu kendisini hep hatırlatagelmiştir. Fakat bir yandan bunlar olagelirken, bir yandan da edebiyat ve son dönemde onun yanı sıra müzik ve bilhassa, hâlâ hatırlardadır, heykeltraşlık gibi diğer sanat alanlarında da sanat-ahlâk ilişkisi; sanat ve özgürlük, sanat ve özgünlük, sanat ve gerçeklik, sanat ve müstehcenlik gibi başlıklar altında okur-yazar çevrelerde yeniden sorgulanmaya başlandı. *** Çok hızlı ve ana hatlarıyla bir dökümünü yapmaya çalıştığımız, tarihsel sürecini işaret ettiğimiz bu ilişki ve tartışmalar silsilesinde üzerinde durulan belli başlı sorular ve tartışma odakları şunlardır: - Sanat ahlâk kurallarına uymak zorunda mıdır? - Sanatın belirleyici ölçütleri arasında ahlakîlik vasfı da var mıdır? - Toplumun ahlâk anlayışı, sanatkârın özgürlüğünü ve eser ortaya koyma sürecini belirlemeli midir? - Sanat ve sanatkâr bu açıdan özgür olmalı mıdır? - Sanat, ahlâk için bir araç olarak kullanılabilir mi? - Ahlâk eğitimi açısından sanatın yeri ve rolü nedir? Tartışılmayı gerektiren sorular yahut başlıklar bunlardır ve bizce bu türden soruların arkasında ideoloji ve dünya görüşü angajmanları, sosyal fayda beklentileri, “kutsal”la irtibat, pratik hayatla örtüştürme gayretleri yatmakta, itirazları ise özgürlük ve özgünlük söylemleri, bohemlik ve dokunulmazlık arayışları, dünyayı ve hayatı algılayış farklılıkları, sanatı tabulaştırma tutumları gibi çıkış noktaları belirlemektedir. Bu tartışmaların ve konumuzla irtibatlı olarak sanat-ahlâk ilişkisinin işaret levhalarından birisini ise o meşhur ve bugüne kadar tartışılagelen “Sanat, sanat için midir, yoksa toplum için mi?” sorusu oluşturmaktadır. Bizce bu yaklaşımlar ve takınılacak tavırlardan biri de şu olmalıdır: Sanat ve ahlâk, birbirinden ayrı iki insanî etkinlik alanıdır. Her ikisinin dayandığı temel kavramlar, oluşum ölçütleri, kurallar ve ilkeler vardır. Bütün sosyal oluşumlar gibi birbirlerine yaklaştıkları, birbirlerini etkiledikleri alanlar mevcut ise de, her ikisi kendi sınırları içerisinde var olurlar. Sanatın temel ilkesi estetik olma, yani güzelliktir. Ahlâk ise toplumsal platformda “iyi”nin peşindedir. Sanat, ahlâkı sınırlayamadığı gibi, ahlâk da sanatı sınırlamamalıdır. Ancak elbette her iki alan da birbirlerini sorgulayabilirler. Kendileri açısından “değerli” veya “değersiz” hükümlerini verebilirler. Sanata, sanat (estetik) açısından baktığımızda değerli veyahut değersiz olma özelliği başkadır, ahlâk açısından baktığımızda başka. Bir sanat eseri, bir toplumda mevcut ahlâk kuralları çerçevesinde değerlendirildiğinde “sakıncalı” görülebilir, ancak bu onun estetik açıdan da değersizliği olarak anlaşılmamalıdır. Nitekim, bir sanat eseri bir toplumda carî düşünce kabulleri açısından değersiz, hatta sakıncalı olduğunda bu onun estetik kıymetini azaltmadığı gibi... Bakış açımız yahut çıkış noktamız ahlâk olduğunda durum başkadır, estetik olduğunda başkadır. Bu hüküm estetik ve ahlâk ilişkisinin tartışılmasını ortaya çıkarır. Güzel olan ahlâk dışı olabilir mi? Yahut ahlak dışı olan mutlaka çirkin midir? Her iki alanın temel kavramları ile ifade edersek, güzel olan her şey iyi midir? Çirkin olan her şey de kötü müdür? Estetik olma, çirkin olmayı dışladığı gibi, ahlâkî açıdan kötü olmayı da dışlayan bir ölçüt müdür? Göz önünde bulundurulması gereken sorular bunlardır. Ve bizce güzel, çirkinin; iyi de kötünün mefhum-ı muhalifi olarak ele alınıp, bunlar birbirine karıştırılmamalıdır. Ancak bu takdirde Van Gogh’un yırtık-pırtık, kokmuş postal tablosu yahut Boticelli’nin “Venüs’ün Doğuşu” tablosu “güzel” olarak değerlendirilebilir. Sanatkâr, ahlâkî açıdan kötü olan bir durumu veya olayı, estetik açıdan, işlediği sanatın kriterleri açısından (meselâ edebî bir eserde dil ve üslûp, yapı, biçim ve kurgu başarısı açısından) çok başarılı ve sanatsal bir nitelikle anlatabilir. O eser, sanat açısından başarılı bir eserdir. Fakat anlattığı olay, özü ve uyandıracağı etkileri açısından ahlakî (yahut siyasî, fikrî, pedagojik, yasal vs) bakımdan riskli ve hatta zararlı olarak değerlendirilebilir. O takdirde eserin sanat dışı faktörler tarafından değerlendirilmesi, kendi sınırları içinde ayrı bir kategori teşkil eder. 378 �Konuya tersinden baktığımızda da durum bir bakıma benzer özelliklerle karşımızdadır. Ahlâkî bir konu, durum veyahut olay, çok kaba, çirkin ve hiç de estetik olmayan bir tarzda, bir dayatma ve ilkel bir zorlama ile hayatımıza dahil edilmeye çalışılabilir. Bu da o olgunun “iyi” olmadığını bize göstermez. Yukarıda ortaya koyduğumuz sorunlardan birisi de sanatın ahlâkî ve pedagojik amaçlar için kullanılıp kullanılamayacağı idi. Bizce bu sanatın bizatihî kendisi ve gerçekleşme sürecinin dışında düşünülmesi gereken ikincil planda kalacak bir durumdur ve elbette eser ortaya konulduktan sonra insanlar onu günlük hayatın kabul ve istekleri doğrultusunda değerlendirir ve kullanırlar. Nitekim sanat da (meselâ bir roman veyahut tiyatro oyunu içerisinde) ahlâkı kendisi için kullanılabilen bir “malzeme”, bir tema yahut konu olarak ele alabilmektedir. Kaynakça Ayvazoğlu, Beşir, İslâm Estetiği ve İnsan, İstanbul 1989, Çağ Yayınları, 511 s. Kaplan, Mehmet vd., Yeni Türk Edebiyatı Antolojisi, c. I-IV, İstanbul 1974-1982, İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları. Koç, Turan, İslâm Estetiği, İstanbul 2008, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi Yayınları, 208 s. Kuçuradi, Ionna, Sanata Felsefeyle Bakmak, Ankara 1999, Ayraç Yayınları, 133 s. Redeker, Horst, Edebiyat Estetiği, Ankara 1986, Kuzey Yayınları, 256 s. Shiner, Larry, Sanatın İcadı, İstanbul 2004, Ayrıntı Yayınları, 496 s. Tunali, İsmail, Sanat Ontolojisi, İstanbul 1884, İstanbul 1974-1982, İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları. 379 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f09f30a0af53a0085290594f809d41a.doc b16b59657c4539b7ab1702236e8c4680 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 420 Title A name given to the resource Sanat, Ahlâk Ve Eğitim İlişkisine Dair Author Author ANDI, M. Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Sanat, ahlâk ve eğitim üç toplumsal etkinlik alanıdır. Bunlardan sanat “güzelçirkin”, ahlâk ise “iyi-kötü” kavram ikilisine dayanır ve kendi ilkeleri ve zeminleri üzerinde oluşur. Ancak her iki alan da birbirleri hakkında kendileri açısından değer yargıları geliştirebilirler. Dolayısıyla bu durum, “ahlâk açısından sanat” yahut “sanatın gözüyle ahlâk” gibi yaklaşımları mümkün kılar. Bu iki alanın aralarındaki bu ilişki, eğitim için de geçerlidir. Bilhassa ahlâk ve eğitimin kesiştiği “ahlâk eğitimi” alanında sanattan faydalanma gereklidir. Bu “iyi”nin “güzel”le örtüşmesi olacaktır ki, etkisi de daha kuvvetli ve kalıcıdır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0cea774458ca32b1fab5611672512b4b.pdf a374b24983ee910c5033c27aa74343f3 PDF Text Text Learning and Teaching Strategies for Technology Education in Turkey Ahmet APAY Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey, aapay@sakarya.edu.tr Ibrahim YUKSEL Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey, iyuksel@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The main power behind the development of a country can be considered as EDUCATION. Today, due to rapid industrialization, professional and technical education is regarded as locomotive in raising staff to industry equipped with necessary qualifications. Engineering education in developed countries is based on theory and it is design oriented. Engineers participate rarely in implementation, though in some countries they are directly involved. The engineering education in Turkey is given in the faculties of Engineering and it has been observed that the education is mostly theoretical. It has also been observed that there are important shortcomings in transferring the comprehensive theoretical engineering knowledge into practice and that there is a gap between the industry and the universities. An important shortcoming exists in technology education, which actually means the transfer of theoretical knowledge into practice. The Technical Training Faculties do not only give theoretical knowledge but they also provide an important amount of applied education; however the graduates are entitled as technical teachers without clearly defined roles and responsibilities, as a result of which the industrial institutions can not make use of them. The engineering and technology education in developed countries are given by Engineering Faculties, Technology Faculties and Technician Schools. The technology Faculties part of this process is missing in our country. This should be completed by the establishment of the Technology Faculties. 1. Introduction In Turkey, the occupational and vocational school which levels are same of the primary and middle school has been established by Mithat Pasa on 1860. The number of these school has been increased to meet the needed occupational power in the firstly year of the Republic. The first school of high technical teacher was established to meet the needed teacher in Ankara at 1937. And then these schools were arranged as vocational and technical education faculties in 1983. The number of this school was four at 1983. The number of this school has rapidly increased to 19 in 2007. These faculties have some problem about quality and employment. The basics missions of Technical Education Faculty are to meet the teacher, who would be teacher in Industry Occupational and Technical high school, education centers of the apprenticeship and a teacher graduated from these schools takes a title “Technical Teacher”. The employing of technical teacher is not intent to another working area. The number of the student in Technical Education Faculty is totally 28097 at 2006. However, from 1669 student only 19 students has been assigned to a civil servant. Also, there is no any assigning for years in some expertise area (Strategic report of YOK, 2007). In laws, title of “Technical Teacher” is not defined for industry, for example workmen, technician, engineer or another thing they have to face highly important problems. 2. Current Status of Technical Education Faculties in Turkey These faculties are unique in the world so that the accreditation of these faculties is impossible. It was seen that the attraction and qualification of student or people has reduced from this status. Discussion about the status of Technical Education Faculty, its graduates and solving this problem has highly increased in nowadays. Discussions are based on the four subjects; 111 �1. The employing problem of technical teachers and the increasing number of graduated student. 2. The title, authorization, and responsibility are not defined for technical teachers that have not been assigned as a teacher in industry. 3. Technical Education Faculties hasn’t been accredited by any international accreditation organization and the equality of its diploma is not defined in EU, USA and the other countries in the world. 4. The equality of its diploma is not defined in EU, USA and the other countries in the world changing programme for student and academician hasn’t been realized. In developed country, technology education has been given by Technology Faculty. The basic aim of this faculty is grow up technology engineer with skilled in applications for industry. A student has industry experiences and pedagogic formation graduated from University of Applied Science, School of Technology, College of Technology or Faculty of Technology could be assigned as a technical teacher in EU, USA and the other countries. In our country only conventional engineering education has been given. But, in industry has desire Technology Engineer especially in the application area. Because of this reasons in our country Technical Education Faculties should be revised as Technology Faculty. 3. Which Kind of Workman are Desired by the Place of Employments in Turkey? The result of the report made by ISO Occupation Committees (Istanbul Industry Associated) in May 2007 was shown that the profile of the workman desired from by the entire sector. Which kinds of workman are desired by the place of employments in Turkey was shown as a graph (Fig.1). Figure1. The needing status according to the occupational groups in Turkey (Source: Report made by ISO Occupation Committees in May 2007. As a result of the report according to the needing status based on the occupational group that the desired qualified technical person ratio is about 73% in Turkey. This result is so important for industry and education system in Turkey. . 4. Comparison of the Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Technology The researcher engineering graduated from faculty of engineering and engineering graduated from Faculty of Technology are named as “Chartered Engineer” and “Incorporated Engineer” respectively in EU countries, and USA. The most important different between the engineers is the first engineering education based on the knowledgetheoretical and conceiving the other one based on the skill and especially application in industry (Tab.1). 112 �Engineering Faculty Technology Faculty Knowledge and theatrical Skill and application Conceiving new product Application engineer Mathematical modeling and theory Applicable mathematic and application of science System arrangement and planning Applications of the current knowing in detailed Researching and Developing Advanced planning, using new technology and developing new product methods. Developing plans based on perspective in the middle and long period Management source and equip Create product quality and service processes Productiveness of product and product system, use of the current technology, developing secure and economical product methods To gain the aims in product developing plans based on the short and middle periods Management source and equip Table1. The differences of education area between faculties of engineering and faculties of technology The other important subject is the ratio of the occupational and other education. While the ratio of the occupational education is about 30-35% and the general education ratio is about 70-65% respectively in Turkey. However, the ratio of the occupational education is about 65-70% and the general education ratio is about 35-30% respectively in Europe and the other countries. . The quality is so important for growing up the qualified person in occupational school, vocational school and Faculty of Technology would be revised again. For this reason in our country; - The esteem of the occupational and vocational education should be increased. The integration of this intuition with the local employments sector should be ensured. The best students should be directed to this institutions, Best carrier for the stuff who is working in this intuitions should be ensured, Technical Education Faculties should be again revised as Technology Faculty 4.1 Differences Between Engineering and Engineering of Technology Differences between engineering and engineering of technology has been compared with together in scope of both generally and possibility of employment and summarized in below (Tab.2 and Tab.3). 113 �General Engineering Programme Programme of Technology Engineering İmpact of Programme Application of the daily engineering Developing new analysis, solving methods knowledge and expertise for solving for conceiving problems some technical problem Aim of the Experting Developing conceptual skills Title of employing The graduation is Engineer. Properties of Programme Engineering Programme Developing application skills The graduation is Engineering of Technology. Programme of Technology Engineering Impact on the Technical Lesson Engineering education is based on Engineering of technology is based on the theoretical and pointed out its potential the application and practice and Solving application in. the problems in industry and applications Impact on the Laboratory Lesson Experimental methods in laboratory lessons, and processing with theories are given In Laboratory for solving industrial problems the practice conceiving, producing and evaluation techniques are given. Impact on the Technical Conceiving General conceiving criteria and different methods are learned and new product, technology and system are developed The current conceiving methods are developed and applied a specific technique area, practice conceiving are made. Table2. Differences Between Engineering and Engineering of Technology (Source: Brochure of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,September 2000) İş imkanları The first typically employ position Technical interest Activity Mühendislik Programı Teknoloji Müh. Programı Works areas are conceptual conceiving in industry, engineering of system, research for product and developing process. Works areas are product and technical subject, developing product, testing, technical operations, service and quality control. Produce with analytical approach for solving technical problem in scope of wide. Experts for a specific area and produce of solving for the specifics problems especially application area. Usually has a management position Usually has industrial management positions After passed from some exam in USA, Acknowledge and membership could be taken Professional Engineer for occupational organization title. After passed from some exam in USA, could be taken Professional Engineer title. Could be studied in the other areas in engineering (Master’s degree or PhD). Could be studied in the other areas in engineering (Master’s degree or PhD). Master’s degree Table3. Comparing engineering and engineering of technology with together in scope of possibility of employment (Source: Brochure of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, September 2000) 114 �The occupational working and responsibilities of the Engineer and Engineer of Technology was shown on a schema (Fig.1). Figure1. Comparing the working area for Engineer and Engineer of Technology (Source: Brochure of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers September, 2000.) 5. Qualifiedness of Graduated from Faculty of Technology The graduated person should be authority by giving assigning authority for making project with your area, conceiving, management, application and control, developing products, testing, analysis, management of quality and production. The graduated person should be taken the title of Engineering of Technology in all of the world. The authorities for the Engineering of Technology could be summarized in below (Tab.4). Engineering of Technology Possible Employing Differences from Engineer Education Programme of Engineering of Technology Works areas are product and technical subject, developing product, testing, technical operations, service and quality control. Application of the daily Skill and application, engineering knowledge and expertise for solving some Application engineer technical problem Experts for a specific area and produce of solving for the specifics problems especially application area. Applicable mathematic application of science Usually has industrial management positions Applications of the knowing in detailed and Developing application skills current The graduation is Engineering of Technology. Engineering of technology is After passed from some exam in based on the application and Creates product quality and USA, could be taken practice and Solving the service processes Professional Engineer title. problems in industry and applications Could be studied in the other areas in engineering (Master’s degree or PhD). Productiveness of product and In Laboratory for solving product system, use of the industrial problems the practice current technology, developing conceiving, producing and 115 �secure and economical product evaluation techniques are given. methods To gain the aims in product The current conceiving methods developing plans based on the are developed and applied a short and middle periods specific technique area, practice Management source and equip conceiving are made. Table4. Qualified ness of Graduated from Faculty of Technology Carrier and positions of person graduated from Faculty of Technology and samples for the graduated degree of Technology Faculty accredited by the kind of accreditation institution in different countries was given below (Tab.6 and Tab.7). Applications Engineer Engineering Technologist Associate Engineer Hardware Engineer Automation Engineer Management Associate Management Trainee Manufacturing Engineer PCB Designer Engineer PCB Manufacturing Engineer Power Supply Test Engineer Product Change Coordinator Controls Engineer Control Systems Coordinator Display Design Engineer Electrical Applications Engineer Electrical Engineer Electronics Systems Engineer Project Engineer Quality Assurance Engineer Sales Engineer Service Engineer Shift Engineer Software Engineer Staff Engineer Systems Engineer Systems Integrator Production Supervisor Embedded Systems Engineer Test Engineer Product Support Engineer Programmer Engineer Field Engineer Validation Engineer Wireless Engineer Table 5. Carrier and positions of person graduated from Faculty of Technology Names of Programme Computer Engineering Technology Automotive Engineering Technology Manufacturing Engineering Electromechanical Engineering Technology Technology Mechanical Engineering Technology Design and Drafting Engineering Technology Electrical Engineering Technology Electronics Engineering Technology Architectural Technology 116 Engineering Mech. Technology Design Aeronautical Technology Engineering Engineering Marine Engineering Technology Telecommunications Technology Engineering Environmental Technology Engineering �Civil Engineering Technology Construction Technology Engineering Laser Technology Electro-Optics Engineering Aircraft Engineering Technology Table 6. Samples for the graduated degree of Technology Faculty accredited by the kind of accreditation institution in different countries 6. Result and Recommendations These faculties are unique in the world so that the accreditation of these faculties is impossible. It was seen that the attraction and qualification of student or people has reduced from this status From 1669 student only 19 students has been assigned to a civil servant in 2006. Also, there is no any assigning for years in some expertise area (Strategic report of YOK, 2007). In laws, title of “Technical Teacher” is not defined for industry, for example workmen, technician, engineer or another thing they have to face highly important problems. The result of the report made by ISO Occupation Committees (Istanbul Industry Associated) in May 2007 was shown that according to the needing status based on the occupational group that the desired qualified technical person ratio is about 73% in Turkey. This result is so important for industry and education system in Turkey. The researcher engineering graduated from faculty of engineering and engineering graduated from Faculty of Technology are named as “Chartered Engineer” and “Incorporated Engineer” respectively in EU countries, and USA. The most important different between the engineers is the first engineering education based on the knowledgetheatrical and conceiving the other one based on the skill and especially application in industry The other important subject is the ratio of the occupational and other education. While the ratio of the occupational education is about 30-35% and the general education ratio is about 70-65% respectively in Turkey. However, the ratio of the occupational education is about 65-70% and the general education ratio is about 3530% respectively in Europe and the other countries. The quality is so important for growing up the qualified person in occupational school, vocational school and Faculty of Technology would be revised again. The engineering and technology education in developed countries are given by Engineering Faculties, Technology Faculties and Technician Schools. The technology Faculties part of this process is missing in our country. This should be completed by the establishment of the Technology Faculties. References 16th National Education Conference Pre-Commission Reports Ankara, 1998. 16th.National Education Conference Pre-Commission Reports, Ankara, 1998. Vocational and Technical Education in National Education Conferences, Ankara, 1998. Çelik, H., Çıtak, R., Bay, Ö.F.,Ş Yücesu, H,S, ve Mahiroğlu,A., Reconstruction Activities for Technical Education Faculties, Gazi University, Technical Education Faculty, 2003. Yücesu, S.H., Bay, Ö.F., Technology Education and Technical Teacher Training in the World and in Turkey, Gazi Üniversity, Technical Education Faculty, 2004. Strategic Report of High Education Instition, 2007, Turkey. 117 �Report of the İSO (Istanbul Industry Association) Occupation Committee, May 2007. Brochure of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, September, 2000. 118 �The Value of Emotional Intelligence for EFL Settings M. Naci Kayaoğlu Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon (KTU) Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: In spite of the proliferation of emotional-intelligence-based research over the past few decades, this concept came only to receive sporadic attention from TEFL circles. The emphasis of the definitions ranges from “ability to engage in abstract thinking; general approach to new problems in life; adjustment to the environment; capacity for knowledge and knowledge possessed; general capacity for independence, originality, and productiveness in thinking; apprehension of relevant relationships; ability to judge, to understand, and to reason; deduction of relationships; and innate, general cognitive ability”. With this emphasis in mind, Emotional Intelligence appears to have potential to contribute substantially to our language students’ intellectual and emotional well-being and growth., which in return, helps create a very interactive, synergic atmosphere for EFL learners. This paper is a experimental follow-up study to investigate how English-majoring students develop emotional intelligence within the existing curriculum Introduction Emotional intelligence developed within the area of psychological research appears to have been well publicized within the business community to the extend that some companies employ people on the basis of test results of the emotional quotient and later popularized by Daniel Goleman’s 1995 known book, Emotional Intelligence: Why it Can Matter More Than IQ. Although emotional intelligence is theoretically a loose concept (Matthews et al 2002), given its practical implications, this can be considered an important reaction and response to the cognition-based approaches, mainly to IQ (intelligence quotient) in determining succes. IQ (intelligence quotient) was widely used for a long time and is still claimed by its advocates to be most effective predictor to account for academic achievement and performance at school. Attempts are painstakingly directed to find substantial relationship between success and IQ. Nevertheless, IQ testing which solely relies on cognitive abilities, reasoning and problem solving capacities fails to include several social, individual, affective, personal and interpersonal factors such as social structure, persistence, self-reliance, encouragement for success from family, teachers, and friends, interest and involvement in school, creativity, managing emotions and interpersonal skills. Intelligence testing, in real sense, began in France in 1904 with Alfred Binet, who was given the job by the French government to find a method to differentiate between intellectually normal children and inferior ones with a purpose to put the latter into special schools to receive more individual attention and subsequently to avoid their destruction to the education of other children. This testing was to be known as Binet-Scale. The scale was designed to serve as a guide for identifying students who need extra help in school. It was not intended to be used to define general intelligence of people. According to Binet, intelligence could not be measured with a single score as intelligence was not fixed and inborn ability. Later Binet Scale was revised, extended and turned to be the standard universally intelligence testing in the United States for the next several decades. There were also times when it was abused against certain groups of people (Siegler 1992; White 2000). As far as school achievement is concerned, IQ came out to detect children of lower intelligence in order to place them in special education programs. So a child’s intelligence was compared to what his or her expected intelligence should be as compared to the child’s age. If the child performed higher than a determined normal child of his or her own age, the child was given a higher score, and if the child scored lower than the expected for a child of his or her own age, the child received lower IQ score. Today IQ testing has been extended to adults with a view to determining an adult’s mental potential. Unlike yesterday, an adult’s test results are compared to other adults and intelligence is defined by comparing each test taker to all other test takers instead of an arbitrary age-based standard Intelligence. 119 �IQ has received strong criticism. From the very beginning the simplest definition that “intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure” fails to characterize the construct itself, the nature of intelligence and the ability assumed to be measured. Furthermore, there are many different intelligence tests, which seem not to all measure the same thing. From the literature review I have covered, prominent scientists, psychologists and educators appear not to be in line with the definition of intelligence. The definitions range from ability to engage in abstract thinking to understand and to reason; deduction of relationships. It is interesting to note that students, though having high IQ, may have serious problems in terms of interpersonal skills and may not be capable of regulating their emotions and promoting their intellectual growth. Typical example is that most autistic children have high IQ measurements, yet they are unable to communicate in other forms, indicating that IQ is not suitable to measure creative and emotional abilities (Tricia Ellis-Christensen 2009). IQ is also severely criticized for being-culturally-biased as conceptions of intelligence vary from setting to setting and from culture to culture. Western dominated-I.Q tests can not be applied to other cultures with different values and world views. So intelligence tests are claimed to have the capacity to measure only a portion of a person’s ability that could be related to the aspect of intelligence (Gardner 1983, 2008). IQ is considered to be more of a result of an individual’s own conditions and opportunities to acquire skills and learn information in consistent with a particular cultural context. IQ testing is claimed to be deceptive and inadequate as it solely relies on cognitive abilities, reasoning and problem solving capacities to a large extent, ignoring several social and personal factors such social structure, persistence, self-reliance, encouragement for success from family, teachers, and friends, interest and involvement in school, creativity, managing emotions and interpersonal skills (Gardner 1995). Emergence of Emotional Intelligence In response to the limited capacity of IQ to measure a person’s ability, new theories of intelligence have developed in such a way as to include the whole person. Historical roots of EI go back to 1920s when Thorndike (1920) introduced social intelligence as the person's ability to understand and manage other people, and to get involved in social interactions wisely, drawing a distinction between academic ability and social intelligence, which is an essential element in what makes people succeed in life. The concept of social intelligence led to the several kinds of intelligence including multiple intelligences to be formulated by Howard Gardner (1983) who theorized that there were seven intelligences but in recent years more have been added: Verbal Linguistic - the ability to use words and language Logical Mathematical - highly developed ability to use reason, logic and numbers Bodily Kinesthic - capacity to control body movement and handle physical objects Visual Spatial - strong visual capacity to think in pictures and create pictures in their mind Musical Rhythmical - heightened ability to appreciate and produce music and sound Interpersonal - advanced ability to relate to and understand other people Intrapersonal - exhibit a strong sense of self and ability to understand and share their inner thoughts and feelings Naturalist - recognition, appreciation and understanding of the natural world around us Important figures in this area such as John Mayer, Peter Salovey and Howard Gardner were also to highlight the crucial importance of considering the cultural and social context and elements for a better evaluation of performance. Instead of focusing on cognitive aspects of intelligence, social intelligence includes the whole range of mankind’s relationships with other humans and with the world in general. According to John Mayer and Peter Salovey , emotional intelligence "is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions" (Mayer & Salovey, 1993: 433), overlapping with Gardner’s Interpersonal intelligence which involves the the capacity to understand oneself-one’s strengths, weakness, desires, fears and understanding of other persons-how to interact with them, how to understand their personalities (Gardner, 2005). Goleman (1998) also views the concept as the capacity for recognizing one’s and others’ feelings as to manage emotions in relationships with others. In spite of variation and overlapping with similar concepts, emotional intelligence seems to encompass the following five characteristics: 120 �Self-awareness--knowing your emotions, recognizing feelings as they occur, using your feelings to make good decisions, observing yourself, understanding negative thought processes. Managing emotions--handling feelings in appropriate manners and acting and reacting appropriately to a current situation and you react finding way to handle fears, anxieties, anger, and sadness. Self-motivation—Coordinating and channeling your feelings and directing yourself towards a goal, concentrating one’s emotions on the achievement of the goals, despite self-doubt, inertia, and impulsiveness Empathy— recognizing and being sensible to the concerns and feelings of others and taking their perspectives, understanding others, appreciating the differences in the way they take the things Handling relationships—handling interpersonal interaction, social competence, conflict resolution,and negotiations, being adept at managing the emotions and their interactions with others, being in harmony with people (Mayer & Salovey 1993, Goleman 1998). Emotional Intelligence and Turkish EFL Environment It is true to say that with astonishing speed in the advancement of telecommunication technologies and intercultural contacts in a modern global society today many foreign language programs and educational organizations in Turkey have been challenged to prepare students to develop communicative competence for the realization of this dynamic and conversational interaction with the cross-border environment. New policies and procedures set out by the Turkish Ministry of National Education in relation to teaching/learning of a foreign language in primary and secondary education over the last ten years are leading indicators of the efforts to meet this increasing need for the integration of our country with the world. To this end, the Ministry of National Education has designed new coursebooks promoting a communicative perspective. Similar trend can be observed in state-run or private language programs and in textbooks developed for young Turkish adults and university students. For example, Campus Life-English Course for Young Adults, recently designed by a team of Turkish lecturers at Çanakkale 18 Mart University, totally adopts the Common Eurpoean Framwork (CEF) guidelines, namely Erasmusoriented syllabus, most integral aspects of which is to foster the European mobility of students. To be more specific, it is the communicative vaue of the language mostly emphasized in the textbook. Considering the fact that the materials from a coursebook to smartboard are nothing but an aid to an end,which can be summarized as the use of target language for communicative purposes. The current comprehensive literature provides strong evidence that one of the most integral aspects of speaking in target language is to have selfconfidence, motivation and to feel at ease, far from from anxiety (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994, Daly 1991 Young, 1991 and Horwitz & Young 1991). All of these are affective factors on learning a second/foreign language, and very much to do with the concept of emotional intelligence. It is our everyday classroom observation, as supported by MacIntyre and Gardner, (1991) that learners may avoid taking the neceassary risks to acquire communicative competence in the target language or they may feel deeply insecure in anxiety-provoking language environment. Daly (1991) and Young (1991) find that most students are particularly anxious when they have to speak a foreign language in front of their class. Whether the cause or the result of language learning problems, language anxiety poses a serious barrier on the way to effective language learning/teaching. Without breaking down this seriously hindering psychological barrier, it is very difficult to create an environment for the language learning/acquisition to take place because anxiety is unpleasant emotional state or condition which is characterized by subjective feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry, and by activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system” (Spielberger, 1983, cited in Horwitz, 1986, p. 125). Anxiety is usually classified into three divisions: trait, state and situational. Trait anxiety is relatively stable personality trait. A person who is trait anxious is likely to feel anxious in a variety of situations. The source which creates anxiety is not the event or the state, but the personality. ”People with high levels of trait anxiety are generally nervous. They lack emotional stability.” (Goldberg, 1993 cited in McIntyre, 1999) Second type anxiety is classified as situation-specific anxiety, the most common examples of which are test anxiety, math anxiety, language anxiety, stage fright and communication apprehension. This anxiety recurs in specific situations and can be stable over time; nevertheless, it is not distinguishing personality characteristic but specific to a particular situation. For example, talking before audience, talking to a native speaker, taking an exam, taking an oral interview can be given examples of this type anxiety. State anxiety, on the other hand, is different from trait and situation-specific anxieties in that it shows fluctuation and its intensity changes over time. It is a temporary condition experienced at a particular moment. Situation specific anxiety reflects a trait that recurs in a specific situaton (MacIyntre, 1995). While people with trait and situation anxieties feel nervous in general or in certain situations, people with state anxiety are much more 121 �sensitive about what other people are thinking of them. The observable symptoms of this type of anxiety are sweaty palms, wringing hands or faster heartbeats. However, state anxiety is the anxiety itself. It is a temporary negative emotional change that affects emotions, cognition and behaviours. Anxiety can be either facilitating or debilitating. Facilitating anxiety motivates learners to adopt an approach attitude and is willing to confront the new learning task. Debilitating anxiety motivates learners to assume an avoidance attitude and therefore tends to escape from the learning task (Scovel, 1991). Krashen’s Monitor Model also provides further evidence for the role of affective factors in that learner raise their “filter” when they have anxiety and fear of making mistakes, preventing them from learning and acquiring the target language as fear and anxiety. A burgeoning body of literature has provided adequate evidence on the impact of language anxiety on language learning but failed to suggest sound ways to overcome this problem. Given the fact that people having EQ are assumed to exhibit common attributes such as managing emotions, self-awareness, self-motivation, empathy, interpersonal relationship skills., then, it would be possible to reduce language anxiety in teaching foreign through developing emotional intelligence as this concept primarily appears to focus on the relation between cognition and emotions. And “minds without emotions are not really minds at all. They are souls on icecold, lifeless creatures devoid of any desires, fears, sorrows, pain or pleasure” (LeDoux 1996: 25) People proficient, for instance, in managing emotions are well prepared to overcome negative feelings, anxiety, and irritability. Through EI implications an anxietyfree classroom atmosphere can be established. Techniques Developing Emotional Intelligence Drama is a very powerful tool to be utilized to develop emotional intelligence. Teachers tend to be skeptical about the role of using drama in classes although many are quite familiar with the uses of skits to teach and reinforce material. Drama offers the students a way to interact with the physical environment and interaction with other people, which is critical in cognitive and emotional development and this moves the learners outside of the limits of the normal classroom environment. This is where the traditional classroom system appears mostly to fail. As drama employs a multi-sensory approach to language acquisition by involving second language learners physically, emotionally, and cognitively in the language learning, students are led to explore and experiement with the boundary of their anxiety and emotions, developing a sense of awareness of self in the target language culture. Students get involved in free flowing extemporaneous conversations as they interact with one another prior to the dramatizations and during the improvisations working cooperatively to orchestrate the dramatizations and improvisations. This naturally creates immense opportunity for interaction and interrelation communication among students. It becomes a matter of realizing themselves and producing something which they would be very proud of. Students are able to channel their emotions to achieve a goal, generate initiative for their own will. Drama activities provide not only variety, curiosity and enthusiasm to traditional run of courses but also a unique chance for the students to overcome the sources of language anxiety summarized by Young (1994) as Low self-esteem, Competitiveness, Self-perceived low ability levels Communication apprehension, Social anxiety, Existential anxiety, Lack of second language group membership, Learners’ beliefs about language learning. Another technique which can be used to develop learners’ emotional intelligence is Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT), developed in the early 1950’s by Albert Ellis. The rationale behind this techniques is that most of emotional disturbances stem from our irrational beliefs, and human being is capable of cognitively controlling illogical emotional responses as there is a strong relation between our thoughts, beliefs and emotions whether they are based on facts or not. So, our emotional disturbances such as anxiety and depression can be reduced through the changes in the way of thinking. Rigid thoughts and beliefs may well lead us to unrealistic expectations, resulting in dissapointing outcomes. For example, people with anxiety disorders perceive situations more disturbing than their actual level. Their fear of failure poses a considerable obstacle that prevents them from making progress. According to the Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy, humans are capable to get rid of their irrational beliefs and thoughts and replace them with rational ones which establish and maintain being emotionally well (Avcı 2008). REBT is claimed to have an empirical evaluation of the events and consists of some therapeutic processes. In a study by Avcı (2008) aiming to reduce language anxiety through Rational Emotive Therapy techniques and Emotional Intelligence implications with 27 adult university students in an intensive English Program at Karadeniz Technical University in Turkey, REBT was found to reduce language anxiety and develop emotional intelligence. 122 �Research This is a follow-up study carried out one year after the original study done on the use of drama with English majoring 3rd year students at university level (Kayaoglu 2006). In the initial research a structured questionnaire was used to assess whether the incorporation of drama into the existing curriculum developed the students’ emotional intelligence. Quantitative data from the initial research gave strong support to the fact that getting students involved in performing drama was very effective in bringing about needed social changes that could result in a freer human development. This study followed the same procedure that a total of 46 English-majoring students were involved in performing drama as term Project. The students were again divided into groups of 5 to 9 and given freedom to perform any play in their own way. They were also allowed to use their creative imagination to modify the plays, creating an atmosphere for different ideas to be discussed. Having been encouraged, the students performed the plays in front of audience, most of whom were again students and teachers in the department. Instead of using a structured questionnaire, students were, this time, asked to keep diary of their experience and given an open ended questionnaire to gain more in-depth data for content analysis. This also served to provide triangulation. Findings Content analysis of students’ diaries and self-reports of the open ended questionnaire resulted in the following themes: Handling Feelings - I used to be anxious in speaking in front of my classmates but I have overcome this anxiety. At least there is no more excitement or blush that I felt once. Thanks to drama courses, I have found the opportunity to be more creative and productive, which let me be more self-confident and self- controlled. I think I was successful in overcoming my excitement after the first play. Acting as if there was no audience increases my motivation. Performing on the scene causes excitement; however, after experiencing this for many times, excitement turns into pleasure. It was impossible to experience such an excitement somewhere else rather than on the stage. Since no one considers the “grades”, there follows good performances. I gain the ability to overcome my excitement in front of a community and to develop self-confidence. It was very important for me to control my anxiety. By this way, we can get rid of the stress of being a student. I’ve acted 3 different characters in 3 different plays. I experienced their lives, their feelings and shared their cautions in a way; and this helped to me learn how to react in such conditions. I get excited easily; therefore, I cannot feel comfortable in a community. Thanks to these plays, I learnt how to behave in front of a community. Of course, there are disagreements among the group members but dealing with the disagreements isn’t too difficult for us. I am an excited person; I couldn’t perform as I wished to do. Yet, as the time passed I managed to overcome my excitement to a considerable extent. There was uncertainty and some obstacles at first… It was a two-person play. And we got excited. After the play started, we became so preoccupied with the performance that we didn’t recognize the crowd. You get tired and stressed. Also you have the chance to experience things yourself. It was impossible not to get excited when the time came. Yet after a while I overcame that anxiety. It will be more useful in the future as we are going to address students in classroom environment or to address a larger community. It is still not easy for me to control my excitement and stress. I thought that I would never overcome those. Yet after sometime I overcame that, as well. It is not easy to make a speech in front of a group yet we overcome this in time. I am not so excited when compared to the past. We get used to feel comfortable in a community. 123 �- I become more stressful in addressing a community. I can easily control my excitement I couldn’t behave in this way in front of anybody else before. Yet I overcame this in time. Generally, I don’t feel comfortable while speaking in front of the audience. This excitement causes me to make more mistakes. With the help of the drama courses, I can cope with this handicap. Although it is very a bit stressful to act alone in front of a community and to be aware that they are watching you, I learnt how to control this. It is very important to be patient in these plays. You learn that. In the following plays we overcome our excitement. We sometimes laughed, sometimes discussed. No matter how many presentations we made it is very different to act in front of our teachers and friends. Firstly, drama improved my ability to overcome my excitement. The rehearsals help us overcome stress. It helped me overcome my excitement. Drama is to control myself and construct unity. Drama helps me to become more self-confident and self-controlled. I got very excited yet what I expected didn’t come true. Acceptance of Others - Thanks to these plays that we had the opportunity to notice the real face of people. We have learnt to overcome some unimportant problems through these plays. We try to do our best in order to understand the way of group work and each other. I think it is very useful to know and develop ourselves. Knowing how to work in groups and have a voice in the group contributed to my personality very much. During our rehearsal of the first play we had some problems within the group and these problems, of course, were reflected in the play. However, all these were experiences for all of us. During our rehearsal of the second play, we didn’t have any problems. Unlike the first one, the rehearsals were enjoyable because we know each other better and we behave accordingly. By doing their duties in the group the individuals figure out what “responsibility” is. I can say that I see many people who obtained their self-confidence. There grew intimate relationship among the students in the classroom. We welcome correcting each other’s mistakes. We are tied to each other more closely. Sharing ideas among each other leads to the fact that people know and welcome each other better. I realized the importance of group work. As I was reading man (woman) I had more responsibility. I had to understand and motivate my friends. I learned how to behave in group, noticed my friends’ characteristics better and learned that I had to have social relationships with other people. It was enjoyable but difficult. It is not easy to work within group with different people. Everyone has different characteristics. While some do their best for their play some do nothing Sometimes there are some disagreements within group but this is quite normal because different people with different characteristics come together. We correct each other’s pronunciation mistakes. This is not an individual work but a group work. Despite problems, group work was fantastic. We learned how to be patient. This was difficult because different people have different perspectives in terms of perspectives. I sometimes observed that how some people can be irresponsible without thinking the others. If individuals have a sense of responsibility within a group there is success. The more sense of responsibility one has the more successful he will be. You have to work hard individually because the success can be obtained by group work. Self-confidence - 124 I used to have no self-confidence; however, I have it now I gained the ability and courage to speak in front of public. You learn how to overcome your anxiety and gain-self-confidence. It improved one’s self-confidence, since it put responsibility on individuals. I got very anxious in my first play but it was a great experience for my next play. It enabled me to have more self-confidence. It proved that we could be successful in different fields. �- It gives the opportunity to see your self-confidence since it leaves you alone on the scene. My self- confidence has improved much. It enabled me to have self- confidence. Before drama class, I used to be very anxious even in my presentations. Now, I am more confident. My self- confidence has improved very much The ability to speak in public has improved my self- confidence. Thanks to the drama classes, my self- confidence has improved, I think. Your self-confidence improves. I gained my self-confidence in time. These plays improved my self- confidence. I gained self-confidence. My self- confidence is improved very much Acting in front of audience and reflecting the emotion in the play are very challenging and achieving this enable me to gain self- confidence. I had no self- confidence in the first plays. Day by day I gained self- confidence. Social development - - I had no close relation to the majority of the class except “hi” and “good morning”. I had new close friends thanks to these plays. I gained a different perspective to look at my friends. I felt happier. We spent more time than ever. The more we shared the closer we got. We gained social status in front of the crowded class by performances. Although I have been in this department for five years, there were some people I did not communicate with, but by means of the play “Of Mice and Men”, I had the chance to improve my relations with them. I have five new friends thanks to this play. I had the chance to get to know the people to whom I only said “hi” by means of these plays and I was good with them. I got rid of all my prejudice about them. Working in groups helped us get rid of social fear and I was conscious not only for myself but also for my friends. Sometimes it was hard to come together by group but we succeeded. I followed my friends’ lines besides mine. We added things from ourselves. I think our relations improved a lot by these plays Students’ interaction with others has positive effects. It is a great opportunity in terms of creativity and sociability. You share something with others and improve social relations. We acted our first play with the failed students. We did not know each other before the plays but we became good friends with the help of these plays. We had the chance to get to know each other closely. We felt we were much interacted. The friendship ties got stronger thanks to these plays. We became close friends with the people to whom I only said “hello” before. Now I have many close friends. We used to do our rehearsals in canteens, homes, dormitories and outdoor places. These are suitable places to improve friendships. I believe that drama helped me to improve my creativity and sociability. A person may be anti-social but these kinds of performances give great chances. You can be very good friends with the people whom you did not know before. We had some problems as we first acted in a play. The disagreement resulted from working principles and not being able to come together. We had little arguments from nothing. By this way, we have the chance to know each other very well. However, we had no problem in the second plays. Contrary to the other play, the rehearsals were much more enjoyable because we knew each other and we behaved accordingly. It is hard to work with people whom you do not know and I think we succeeded this with drama. There were many people with whom I did not have any interaction although we were in the same class. We got good interactions by these plays. The people whop were anti-social had close relations and got rid of social fears with the help of these plays We worked day and night because we had to perform our plays in front of audience and had to do our best. I was a commander in the second play. I met a commander in the campus because we needed a uniform of a commander. We met new people and strengthened our relations. Friendship, expressing yourself in public and socialization. I think it strengthened our relations in the class. I got to know the people whom I said “hi” up to now more closely. 125 �- It improves friendship, teaches us the benefits of working as a group ( co-operatively). We improved our dialogues with our friends and experienced benefits of group work Beside all, it provides socialization. I got to know the people whom I had little sincerity before. We learned many things in terms of socialization. It enables us to work within a group Beside all, it provides socialization. I got to know the people whom I had little sincerity before It is easy to be successful individually but not in groups. I got to know the people whom I said “hi” up to now more closely. I got close interaction thanks to these plays. You can make new friends by working in groups. It helped us have new friends. We got close friendship with many different people. It provided social activities and enabled group work apart from the courses. First of all, it enabled me to be active and neat in a group. I reflected this into my social relations. Now I can be more active and successful in a social environment. I met new friends thanks to drama. Classroom interaction and social relations got better and better. We improved our friendship It affects relations in a positive way. It provides interaction in the department Individual development - Thanks to drama I am more creative. I have become more social. I think it affects everybody positively. To me, it enables us to speak comfortably to an audience and to improve our creativity when necessary. I had no idea that I would be able to perform in such an activity Working in groups has triggered our individual development. Feeling comfortable in community is the leading factor. In other words, you become a creative individual. We learned to work in groups. Drama has affected our success positively in other courses. The crucial contribution is self-development. Thanks to drama, I feel more creative. I discovered my capabilities. I’ve made progress. I’ve gained the ability and the courage to speak in public. I became more interested in drama after this play. Although I am not a social person, it has improved my individual development. Thanks to these performances, I became more creative. It is necessary to bring about creative ideas. I’ve seen that the sense of responsibility is an important virtue. Thanks to these performances, we are more creative. These performances have improved my personal development at a great degree. Unlike other courses, it contributes to my personal development It has an indispensable role in my self- development. I feel I‘ve developed myself in many respects. Conclusion Considering the fact that the statements under each category were recorded from individually different subjects, the use of drama within the traditional education system developed students’ emotional intelligence and enabled them to cope with stress and anxiety-provoking situations.The students were found to recognize, monitor and manage their emotions for positive change. Perhaps, one of the most significant results of the study was that the students, having improved their self-esteem and self-confidence, were able to develop social competence in their interpersonal relationships. This is likely to have very positive effect on their future performance in EFL classes as they appear to develop the ability to tolerate many disturbances. Using drama as a medium for developing emotional intelligence in EFL settings is a viable choice for us to recognize and monitor. 126 �References Avcı, Ö. (2008) An Experımental Study on Reducıng Language Anxıety in Speakıng Classes Through Ratıonal –Emotıve Behavıoural Technıques Wıth Reference To Emotıonal Intellıgence.Unpublished MA thesis, KTU. Trabzon, Turkey. Daly, J. (1991). Understanding communication apprehension: An introduction for language educators. In E.K. Horwitz & D.S. Young (Eds.) Language anxiety: From theory and practice to classroom implications. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on multiple intelligences. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(3), 200-208. Gardner, H. (2008). The 25th Anniversary of the Publication of Howard Gardner’s Frames on Mind: The theory of Multiple Intelligence. Retrieved May, 01, 2008 from http://pzweb.harvard.edu/PIs/HG.htm Gardner, H. (2005). Multiple Lenses on the Mind. Retrieved May, 01, 2008 from http://pzweb.harvard.edu/PIs/HG.htm Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Horwitz, E. K. (1986). “Preliminary Evidence for the Reliability and Validity of a FL Anxiety Scale” TESOL, Vol 21, No 21. pp. 559-62. Horwitz, E. & Young, D. (2001) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications. Englewood LeDoux, J. (1996). The Emotional Brain. New York: Simon and Schuster. Kayaoğlu. M. N. (2006) Incorporating “Drama” into Emotional Intelligence in EFL Classes.The 2nd International English Language Teaching Conference ELT Profession: Challenges and Prospects, May 2-5, 2006 Eastern Mediterranean University Famagusta, North Cyprus McIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The Subtle Effects of Language Anxiety on Cognitive Processing in the second Language. Language Learning 44:2, June 1994,pp.283-305. McIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Language anxiety: It’s relationship to other anxiety and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning 41 (2): 513-534. MacIyntre, P. D. (1995). On Seeing Forest and the Trees: A Rejoinder to Sparks and Ganshow. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 2, 245-48. MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). Language Anxiety: A Review of Literature for Language Teachers. Young, D. J. (Ed.). Affect In Foreign Language and Second Language Learning. Mc Graw Hill Companies, 24-43. Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2002). Emotional intelligence: Science and myth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Scovel, T. (1991). The Effect of Affect on FLL: A Review of the Anxiety Research. In Horwitz, E.K. and Young, D.J. Language Anxiety. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK), 15-23. Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1993). The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence,17, 433-442. Siegler, R. S. (1992). The other Alfred Binet. Developmental Psychology, 28, 179-190 Thorndike, E. L. (1920). Intelligence and its uses. Harper’s Magazine, 140, 227-235 Tricia Ellis-Christensen (2009) What is the Difference Between EQ and IQ? . Retrieved May, 10 from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-difference-between-eq-and-iq.htm 127 �White, S. (2000). Conceptual foundations of IQ testing. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6(1), 33-43. Young, D. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest?. Modern Language Journal 75 (4): 426-39 Young, D. J. (1994). New Directions in Language Anxiety Research. In Klee, C. A. Faces in a Crowd: the Individual learner in Multisection Courses. Issues in Language 128 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e727aa8df930d22ae88da0558f18a415.doc 5115c868c05a64f2e0d7498c2a2427aa Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 350 Title A name given to the resource Learning and Teaching Strategies for Technology Education in Turkey Author Author APAY, Ahmet YUKSEL, Ibrahim Abstract A summary of the resource. The main power behind the development of a country can be considered as EDUCATION. Today, due to rapid industrialization, professional and technical education is regarded as locomotive in raising staff to industry equipped with necessary qualifications. Engineering education in developed countries is based on theory and it is design oriented. Engineers participate rarely in implementation, though in some countries they are directly involved. The engineering education in Turkey is given in the faculties of Engineering and it has been observed that the education is mostly theoretical. It has also been observed that there are important shortcomings in transferring the comprehensive theoretical engineering knowledge into practice and that there is a gap between the industry and the universities. An important shortcoming exists in technology education, which actually means the transfer of theoretical knowledge into practice. The Technical Training Faculties do not only give theoretical knowledge but they also provide an important amount of applied education; however the graduates are entitled as technical teachers without clearly defined roles and responsibilities, as a result of which the industrial institutions can not make use of them. The engineering and technology education in developed countries are given by Engineering Faculties, Technology Faculties and Technician Schools. The technology Faculties part of this process is missing in our country. This should be completed by the establishment of the Technology Faculties. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)