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The Effects of Mycorrhizal Fungi and Trichoderma harzianum on
Verticillium dahliae in Cucumber
Hülya Özgönen
Süleyman Demirel University, Agricultural Faculty,
Department of Plant Protection, Turkey
hozgonen@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr
Murat Candan
Süleyman Demirel University, Agricultural Faculty,
Department of Plant Protection, Turkey
Ş. Evrim Arıcı
Süleyman Demirel University, Agricultural Faculty,
Department of Plant Protection, Turkey
Abstract: Verticillum dahliae is the important soil-borne pathogen and infects wide
variety of hosts. In this study, the effects of Trichoderma harziarum and
mycorrhizal fungi on Verticillium wilt caused by Verticillium dahliae in cucumber
was investigated. T. harzianum restricted the mycelial development in dual culture
in vitro. In the pot experiment, Glomus mosseae, mycorrhizal preparation and T.
harzianum reduced the diseases severity by 61.4%, 56.1% and 66.7%, respectively.
As a result of the study, bioagents could be used against Verticillium wilt and
detailed research are required to elucidate resistance mechanism
Key Words: Mycorrhizal fungi, Trichoderma harzianum, Verticillium dahliae, cucumber
Introduction
Verticillum dahliae is an important soil borne pathogen which has large host range and maintain viability
for 10-15 years in the soil as microsclerot. The disease prevent the exchange of plant nutrients and water in the
plant and cause wilting (Roustaee and Baghdadi, 2007). There is no effective control methods against diseases
including fungicides. Biological agents are used against diseases in recent years especially where good
agricultural treatments are practiced. Mycorhizal fungi are symbiotic organisms living with root of many plants
and by means of spores which exist in the soil enter into root and continue to colonize. Mycorrhizal fungi
enhanced the development of plants by water absorption and nutrients from the soil (Smith and Read, 1997). It
covers the root of plants so it makes protective physical barrier against diseases also (McAllister et al. 1997;
Karagiannidis et al, 2002)
Trichoderma harzianum is an important biological control agent effective to plant pathogents via
hyperparasitism. Trichoderma spp. also produce some bioactive substances has an antagonistic effect. It was
determined that some isolates of Trichoderma control effectively some fungal pathogens including Rhizoctonia
solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, Pythium spp. Trichoderma spp. enhanced the development of plats and induces the
resistance mechanisms by several ways (Harman, 2006; Akrami et al., 2009).
The aim of this study was to determined efficiency of mycorrhizal fungi and Trichoderma harzianum
against Verticillum dahliae in cucumber.
451
�The Study
Materials
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) cv. Beith Alpha F1 was used in the pot experiments. Verticillium dahliae
was isolated from diseased tissues of naturally infected plants on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). Trichoderma
harzianum was obtained from pepper grown area by soil isolation. Glomus moseae was bulked up on maize and
used as mycoorhizal fungal inoculum. The other biological fungal preparation contained 23.5% Mycorrhizae
(including 18 mycorrhizal fungi belongs to Pisolithus spp. Rhizopogon spp Scleroderma spp., Laccaria spp.,
Glomus spp., Gigaspora spp) and 27.0% Cross linked polyacrylamide polymer, 14.0% Cold Water Kelp Extracts,
10.0% Humic Acids, 9.0% Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C), 6.4% Dry Humus, 4.0% Amino Acids, 2.4% MyoInositol, 1.2% Thiamine (Vitamin B1), 1.2% Thickener, 1.0% Surfactant, 0.5% Alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E)
was used.
Methods
Dual Culture Tests Of Trichoderma Harzianum And Verticillium Dahliae In Vitro
First step of dual culture test were conducted using colonized plate method. V. dahliae and T. harzianum
were cultured on PDA at 24°C. 10ml PDA was prepared in test tubes and poured in 9cm-diameter Petri dishes
and signs were put 3cm from the edge at both side by measuring point at the bottom of Petri dishes. 6mm discs
of both fungi placed opposed in Petri dishes. For the control plates, V. dahliae was cultured without T.
harzianum. Cultures were incubated at 24°C. After 1 week inhibition zones were measured and developping area
was evaluated according to 1-5 scales (Bell et al., 1982)
Class 1: The hyperparasyte completely overgrown the pathogen (100% overgrowth)
Class 2: The hyperparasyte overgrown at least 2/3th of the pathogen
Class 3: The hyperparasyte and pathogen colonised on half of the Petri dishes
Class 4: The pathogen overgrown at least 2/3th of the hyperparasyte
Class 5: The pathogen completely overgrown the hyperparasyte (100% overgrowth)
At the same time, the effects of volatile compounds of T. harzianum was determined. 6 mm mycelial
discs of T. harzianum and V. dahliae were cultured on PDA singly. Lids of petri dishes were removed and
culture plates were immadiately placed over T. harzianum plates and sealed with parafilm. Cultures were
incubated at 24°C for 1 week and colony diameters measured. Control petri dishes were included in two
experiments. Experiments was repeated three times and 5 Petri dishes in each.
Pot Experiments
Cucumber seeds were surface disinfested in 1% NaOCl solution for 3 min and washed twice with sterile
distilled water. The mixture of soil, sand, and pumice (1/1/1, v/v/v) was autoclaved at121ºC twice for 1 h and
used as growth medium. Mycorrhizal seedling produced by incorporating the mycorrhizal inoculum including
soil infested with spores mixed with root fragments, 2-3 cm below the seeds (Menge and Timmer, 1982).
Inoculum amount was determined as 1000 spores 10 g -1 for each plant. Cucumber seeds were sown in containers
without mycorrhizal fungal inoculations. Containers were placed in growth room at 25±2ºC tempertures until 3-4
leaf stage. Plants with 3-4 leaves with ot without mycorrhizal fungi were transplanted into 15cm diameter pots
containing same mixture of soil. The treatments were as follows: Glomus mosseae, Mycorrhizal preparation,
Trichoderme harzianum, Verticillium dahliae, Control. Pots were maintained in in a growth room 25±2ºC 12 h
photoperiod. Experiments were designed as compeletely randomized block design with four replications and 5
plants in each.
Mycorrhizal colonisation was determined 4 week after transplanting and colonisation percentages (%)
were calculated . the roots were cleared and stained as described by Koske and Gemma (1989) and the
percentage of root colonisation (%) was determined by gridline intersection method (Giovannetti and Mosse,
1980).
T. harzianum was maintained on PDA at 24ºC for 1 week. Culture plates were scraped from the surface
using spatula for collecting the spores. Released spores were collected by filtering through two layers of cheese
452
�cloth and conidia concentration was adjusted to 106 conidia ml-1 using haemocytometer. 10 ml suspension were
applied to rhizosphere of plants.
Verticillum dahliae oat medium: Oat seeds were boiled to be used for inoculation. Boiled seeds were
placed into Erlen mayer and autoclaved at 121°C 1 kPa for 20 min. After cooling, V dahliae mycelial disc were
added and incubated at 24ºC for 3 weeks.
Plants were inoculated after 4 week with V. dahliae. For inoculation, 2g oat medium incorporated to soil
around roots. Disease severity was evaluated using the following 0-5 scale (Huang et al, 2006) which 0: Healty
plants, 1: <25% of the plant wilted and browning of crown; 2: 25-50% of plant wilted and slight browning; 3:
50-75% of the plant wilted and progressive browning; 4: ≥75% of plant wilted and complete browning 5: Dead
plant
Diseases index were calculated using scale value and disease severity (%) was determined (Karman,
1971)
Findings
In vitro studiesT. harzianum restricted the V. dahliae mycelial growth in dual culture (Table 1).
T. harzianum
Volatile compounds test
Mycelial Diameter (mm)
Control
45
T. harzianum + V. dahliae
15
Score of antagonistic activity
Scale 2
The hyperparasyte overgrown at
least 2/3th of the pathogen
Table 1: The characteristics of T. harzianum in dual culture test
In dual culture test T. harzianum overgrown at least 2/3th of the pathogen and placed Class 2. The
average mycelial diameter of V. dahliae was 15mm while T. harzianum covered the rest of the medium
completely. In volatile compound test, the average mycelial diameter of V. dahliae was 45mm while 15mm
together with T. harzianum application.
In a previous study, Trichoderma spp. results parasitation of the hypal growth of Sclerotium rolfsii by
different mechanisms and showed antagonistic effect (Shaigan et al., 2008).
Pot experiments
Biological control agents were used to determined the effects on Verticillium wilt caused by V. dahliae in
cucumber. Results shown in Table 2.
Treatments
Glomus mossea
Mycorrhizal
preparation
Trichoderma
harzianum
V. dahliae
Colonisation
(%)
Disease index
Diseases severity
(%)*
% Effect
60
1.10
22 ab
61.4
57
1.25
25 b
56.1
-
0.95
19 a
66.7
-
2.85
57 c
-
*Means within column followed by different letters are significantly different P (0.05)
according to Fishers LSD test.
Table 2: The effects of mycorrhizal fungi and Trichoderma harzianum on Verticillium
dahliae in cucumber.
453
�Root colonisation of G. mosseae and mycorrhizal preparation were found as 60 and 57% respectively
after 4 weeks. The diseases severity of V. dahliae inoculated plant was 57%, while the diseases severity of
mycorrhizal fungi and V. dahlia inoculated plant were 22 and 25%, respectively. The diseases severity of T.
harzianum applied plant was lower than other treatments and was 19%. In previous studies also revelaed that
Glomus species are good colonizer of many plants (Dell’Amico et al, 2002; Karagiannidis et al., 2002).
G. moseae, mycorrhizal preparation and T. harzianum reduced the disease severity of V. dahliae.
Especially, T. harzianum reduced external browning of crown effectively. Some investigations concluded that
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi could reduce the soilborme fungal plant pathogens (Azcon-Aguilar and Barea,
1996; Inbar et al, 1996; Akköprü et al., 2005; Arıcı, 2009)
Conclusion
The biocontrol agents could be used against Verticillium wilt caused by V. dahliae. Soil factors is the
basic elements for plant development in agriculture and disease are the main limiting factors in crop production.
In addition the traditional control method, application of biological agents provide the renewal of the soil as well
as supporting the control methods in integrated diseases management.
References
Arıcı, Ş.E., 2009. Determination of Antifungal Activity of Strains of Trichoderma harzianum in vitro, p: 71;
II.Entomopathogens and Microbial Control Symposium, 24-27 September Sarıgerme/Muğla
Azcon- Aguilar, C., & Barea, J.M. (1996). Arbuscular mycorrhizas and biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens – an
overview of the mechanisms involved. Mycorrhiza 6 , 457–464
Akköprü A., Demir, S. & Özaktan, H. (2005). Farklı Fluoresant Pseudomonas (FP) Đzolatları ve Arbusküler Mikorhizal
Fungus (AMF) Glomus intraradices’in Domates’teki Bazı Morfolojik Parametrelere ve Fusarium Solgunluğuna (Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici (Sacc) Syd. Et Hans.) Etkisi. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi, Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi,
15(2), 131-138.
Akrami, M., Ibrahimov, A. Sh., Zafari D. M., & Valizadeh, E. (2009). Control Fusarium Rot of Bean by Combination of by
Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum in Greenhouse Condition. Agricultural Journal. 4 (3), 121-123.
Bell, D.K., Wells, H.D., & Markham, J.R. (1982). In vitro antagonism of Trichoderma species against six fungal pathogens.
Phytopathology. 72, 379-382.
Dell'Amico J., Torrecillas A. Rodriguez P; Morte A., & Sanchez-Blanco MJ. (2002). Responses of tomato plants associated
with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus clarum during drought and recovery. Journal of Agricultural Science 138,
387-393.
Giovannetti M., & Mosse, B. (1980). An evaluation of techniques for measuring vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection
in root. New Phytol. 84, 489-500.
Harman, G.E. (2006). Overview of Mechanisms and Uses of Trichoderma spp. Phytopathology 96, 190-194.
Huanga, J., Lib, H., & Yuanb, H. (1992). Effect of organic amendments on Verticillium wilt of cotton. Crop Protection
25(11), 1167-1173
Inbar, J., Menendez, A., & Chet, I. (1996). Hyphal interaction between Trichoderma harzianum and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
and its role in biological control. Soil Biology and Biochemistry
28(6), 757-763.
Karagiannidis, N., Bletsos, F., & Stavropoulos, N. (2002). Effect of Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae Kleb.) and
mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae) on root colonization, growth and nutrient uptake in tomato and eggplant seedlings. Scientia
Horticulturae. 94 (1-2), 145-156.
Karman, M. (1971). Bitki Koruma Araştırmalarında Genel Bilgiler Denemelerin Kuruluşu ve Değerlendirme Esasları. Bölge
Zirai Araştırma Enstitüsü. Bornova Đzmir. 279 s.
Koske, R.E., & Gemma, J.N. (1989). A modified procedure for staining root to detect VAM. Mycological Research. 92, 486505.
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�Menge, J.A, & Timmer, L.W. (1982). Procedure for inoculation of plant with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae in laboratory,
greenhouse and field. In: Methods and Principles of Mycorrhizal Research N.C. Schenk, 244p.
McAllister, C. B., Garcia-Garrido, J. M., Garcia-Romera, I., Godeas, A., & Ocampo, J. A. (2007). Interaction between
Alternaria alternata or Fusarium equiseti and Glomus mosseae and its effects on plant growth. Plant and Soil. 24(3), 301305.
Roustaee A, & Baghdadi A. (2007). Study of interaction between plant nutrition (N,P,K and Ca) and verticillios wilt disease
(Verticillium dahliae) in cucumber. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci. 72(4), 1017-22.
Shaigan S, Seraji A, & Moghaddam SA. (2008). Identification and investigation on antagonistic effect of Trichoderma spp.
on tea seedlings white foot and root rot (Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.) in vitro condition. Pak J Biol Sci. 11(19), 2346-2350.
Smith, S., & Read, D.J. (1997). Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Second Ed. Academic Press. London, 605p.
455
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The Effects of Mycorrhizal Fungi and Trichoderma harzianum on Verticillium dahliae in Cucumber
Author
Author
Özgönen, Hulya
Candan, Murat
Arıcı, S. Evrim
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Verticillum dahliae is the important soil-borne pathogen and infects wide variety of hosts. In this study, the effects of Trichoderma harziarum and mycorrhizal fungi on Verticillium wilt caused by Verticillium dahliae in cucumber was investigated. T. harzianum restricted the mycelial development in dual culture in vitro. In the pot experiment, Glomus mosseae, mycorrhizal preparation and T. harzianum reduced the diseases severity by 61.4%, 56.1% and 66.7%, respectively. As a result of the study, bioagents could be used against Verticillium wilt and detailed research are required to elucidate resistance mechanism
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
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PeerReviewed
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Non-Linear Transverse Vibrations of A Simply Supported Multi-Stepped
Beam
Erdoğan Özkaya
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Celal Bayar University, TURKEY
erdogan.ozkaya@bayar.edu.tr
Ayla Tekin
Soma Technical Vocational School of Higher Education, Celal Bayar University, TURKEY
ayla.tekin@bayar.edu.tr
Abstract: In this study, the nonlinear vibrations of Euler-Bernoulli multiple-stepped
beam are investigated. The beam is simply supported at both ends. The equations of
motions are obtained using Hamilton’s principle and made non-dimensional. The
stretching effect induced non-linear terms to the equations. Forcing and damping terms
are also included in the equations. A perturbation method is applied to the equations of
motions. The first terms of the perturbation series led to the linear problem. Natural
frequencies for the linear problem are calculated exactly for different step cases. Second
order non-linear terms of the perturbation series behaved as corrections to the linear
problem. Amplitude and phase modulation equations are obtained. Non-linear free and
forced vibrations are investigated in detail. These analyses are repeated for different step
ratios and step numbers.
Keywords: Nonlinear vibration, multi-stepped beam, perturbation method
Introduction
In real life, many engineering problems can be modeled as stepped beams such as bridges, rails,
automotive industries, work pieces and machine elements. The most important aspect of vibration analysis is the
calculation of natural frequencies. If the system is forced with a frequency close to its natural frequencies, the
system comes to resonance state and the amplitudes increase dangerously. While computing the natural
frequencies of the systems, assuming the systems to be linear makes the calculations easier but the results are
usually not reliable. Because no system acts linearly obtained linear results may deceive us. Therefore, nonlinear
effects originated from the stretching during the vibration of the beam should be included in the computations as
well.
Many studies on beam vibrations, both linear and nonlinear, have previously been performed. The studies
prior to 1979 are summarized by Nayfeh and Mook(1979). Particularly, the nonlinear behavior caused by the
immobility of beam-ends has been analyzed by various researchers. Qaisi(1997) obtained the nonlinear
vibration of beams with simply and clamped supports by using a power series approach and compared the results
with existing solutions. Özkaya et al (1997) analyzed mass beam system for different boundary conditions. By
considering the effects of stretching, they solved the obtained problem with the method of multiple scales, a
perturbation technique. Özkaya(2002) considered a beam-masses system under simply supported end conditions.
The effects of positions, magnitudes and number of the masses are investigated. For slightly curved beams with
stretching, one may refer to Rehfield(1974) and Öz at al(1998).
Stepped beams are increasingly used in various branches of engineering, and so there are numerous studies
on the vibration analysis of stepped beams with circular, rectangular cross sections and shafts. The first study on
this subject is done by Taleb and Suppiger(1961). In their study, they obtained the frequency equation of a
stepped beam with simple support and found the natural frequencies via the solution of the equation. Levinson
(1976), on the other hand, listed the frequency equations for stepped beams with simple support but did not
acquire any numeric results. Sato (1980) performed non-linear free vibration analysis for stepped beams with
rectangular cross section and clamped and simple supports at both ends, and used the transfer matrix method for
the solution. Balasubramanian and Subramanian (1985) analyzed vibrations for beams stepped at the middle. In
another study, Balasubramanian et al (1990) acquired natural frequencies for high mode structures by using the
study of Balasubramanian and Subramanian (1985). Jang and Bert (1989) obtained the frequency equation for
749
�stepped beam under various boundary conditions and computed the smallest natural frequencies for a circular
cross-section beam. They compared the results with the results of Bert and Newberry (1986), who used a finite
element analysis. In another study, Jang and Bert(1989) obtained natural frequencies for high mode structures
using the frequency equation they acquired from the study by Jang and Bert (1989). Wang (1991) studied the
vibration of stepped beams on elastic foundations. Rosa et al (1995) presented the free vibration analysis of
stepped beams with intermediate elastic supports. Lee and Bergman (1994) submitted the vibration of stepped
beams and rectangular plates. In their study, the structure with discontinues is divided into elemental
substructures and the displacement field for each is obtained in terms of its dynamic Green’s function. Aydın
and Aksu(1981) used finite differences to estimate free vibration characteristics of regular changing beams and
regular and irregular stepped beams and shafts. Energy functionality is minimized based on translocation
elements and is computed as natural frequencies and mode forms. Krishnan at al(1998), studied the analysis of
stepped beams using finite difference method and a single differential equation. In a study performed by
Naguleswaran(2002), equations of motion of three different Euler-Bernoulli stepped beams with all states of
boundary conditions are obtained and three natural frequencies are computed using the equations of motion. In
another study, Naguleswaran(2002) considered three different types of stepped beams and investigated
vibrations of a beam with up to three step changes. The dynamic stability of a stepped beam carrying mass is
studied by Aldraihem and Baz(2002). The stepped beam equations of motion developed a discrete parameter
form and a finite element form. Aydogdu and Taskin(2007) explored free vibration of simply supported FG
beam and also they found the equations by applying Hamilton’s principle. They used Navier type solution
method in order to obtain frequencies. Kwon and Park(2002), focused on the effect of the position of the stepped
point and thickness ratio on the dynamic characteristics of the system. The equation of motion and boundary
equations are analytically obtained by using Hamilton’s principle. The exact solutions are compared with the
results obtained by FEM. Naguleswaran (2003) investigated the vibrations of beams with up to three step
changes in cross section and axial force. The frequency equation for classical boundaries is expressed and the
first three frequency parameters for the three types of beams are displayed. Kisa and Gurel(2007) represented the
free vibration analysis of uniform and stepped cracked beams with circular cross sections. They used the finite
element method and mode synthesis method and a non-linear problem separated into linear subsystems. Li
(2001) analyzed the natural frequencies and mode shapes of multi-step beam and non-uniform beam with an
arbitrary number of cracks and concentrated masses. Dong et al (205) investigated the natural frequencies and
mode shapes of a stepped laminated composite Timoshenko beam. Their developed method can be used to
deduce the frequency function of laminate stepped beams under other complex boundary conditions.
In this study, nonlinear vibration of an Euler-Bernoulli multi-stepped beam is considered. Natural
frequencies are calculated for different locations, magnitudes and number of the steps. Nonlinear vibration
analysis for multi-stepped beams is performed and the contributions of nonlinear terms on natural frequencies
are investigated. Phase-modulation equations are acquired and frequency amplitude graphs are plotted using
these equations.
Equation of Motion
For the system show in Fig. 1, the Lagrangian can be written as follows
x *m +1
x *m +1
x *m +1
n
2
2
1
1 * 2 2 *
*
*
*
*
*
ρA
&
′
′
′
′
−
−
+
w
dx
EI
w
dx
EA
(
u
w
)
dx
£=
1
m
+
m +1
m +1
m +1 m +1
m +1 m +1
2 m =0 *
2
x *m
x *m
x m
(1)
x 0* = 0,
x n* +1 = L
(2)
where L is the length, ρ is the density, Am+1 is cross sectional area of multi-stepped beam, E is Young’s modulus,
Im+1 is the moment of inertia of the multi-stepped beam’s cross-section with respect to the neutral axis, n is
number of steps, w is transverse displacement, ( . ) and ( )′ denote differentiations with respect to time t* and the
spatial variable x* respectively.
The terms in Eq. (1) are the kinetics energies due to transverse motion, elastic energies due to bending and
stretching of the beam, respectively.
Invoking Hamilton’s principle,
∑ ∫
δ
∫
t2
∫
∫
£ dt* = 0
t1
(3)
750
�and substituting the Lagrangian from Eq. (1), performing the necessary algebra and eliminating the axial
displacements between equations, one finally obtained the following non-linear coupled integro-differential
equations of motion:
n x *r +1
2
EA1
*
iv *
&& m +1 + EI m +1w m +1 = n
w ′r*+1 dx * w ′m′*+1
(m = 0,1,2....n)
ρA m +1 w
2 r =0 x*
*
*
2
(x r +1 - x r )/α r
r
∑ ∫
∑
r =0
(4)
There are n+1 equations in Eq. (4). In equation (4) α r = d r +1 / d1 and α o = 1 ( αr is the ratio of r+1 th diameter to
the first diameter). Note that viscous damping coefficient µ*, external excitation with amplitude F*m+1 and
frequency Ω* will be added to the equations. The boundary conditions can be written for this equation as follows
w*p ( x p , t * ) = w *p +1 ( x p , t * ) ,
w′p* ( x p , t * ) = w′p*+1 ( x p , t * ) ,
EI P w′p′ * ( x P , t * ) − EI P +1 w′p′*+1 ( x P , t * ) = 0;
EI P w′P′′* ( x P , t * ) − EI P +1 w′p′′+*1 ( x P , t * ) = 0
w1* (0, t * ) = w1′′* (0, t * ) = 0 , wn*+1 ( L, t * ) = wn′′+*1 ( L, t * ) = 0
(5)
p=1,2,3……n
The equations and boundary conditions are made dimensionless using the following definitions
x=
x*
,
L
w m +1 =
w m* +1
,
R m +1
η m +1 =
x m +1
,
L
1
t=
2
L
EI 1 *
t
ρA1
(6)
where Rm+1 is the radius of gyration of the stepped beam cross-section with respect to the neural axis.
Substituting the dimensionless parameters into the equations of motion yield for the general case
η r +1
n
1
2
'2
2
iv
w"
&& m +1 + α m w m +1 =
α
w
dx
m=0,1,2…..n
w
r
r +1
n
m +1
2
2 r =0
η
r
2α m
(η r +1 − η r ) / α r
∑
∑
∫
r =0
(7)
and boundary conditions are
w p (η p , t ) =
αp
α p −1
w p +1 (η p , t ) = 0 ,
w′p′′ (η p , t ) =
p=1,2,3……n
α 5p
α 5p −1
w′p′′+1 (η p , t )
w′p (η p , t ) =
αp
α p −1
w′p +1 (η p , t ) ,
w1 (0, t ) = w1′′ (0, t ) = 0 ,
w′p′ (η p , t ) =
α 5p
α 5p −1
w′p′ +1 (η p , t ) ,
wn +1 (1, t ) = wn′′+1 (1, t ) = 0
(8)
The equation of motion including damping and forcing is given below
η r +1
n
1
2
'2
2 iv
w " − 2µ * w
&& m +1 + α m w m +1 =
& m +1 + Fm* +1 cos Ωt
α
w
dx
w
m +1
r
r +1
n
ηr
2α m2
(η r +1 − η r ) / α r2 r =0
∑
∑ ∫
r =0
m=0, 1, 2…..n
(9)
In equations (7 and 9) α m = d m +1 / d1 , α o = 1 , η0=0 and ηn+1=1.
Approximate Analytical Solution
In this section, approximate solutions of Eqs. (8) and (9) are searched with the boundary conditions. The method
of multiple scales is applied to the partial differential equation systems and boundary conditions directly. Due to
the absence of quadratic non-linearities, one can assume expansion of the form
751
�wm+1 ( x, t ; ε ) = ε w( m +1)1 ( x, T0 , T2 ) + ε 3 w( m +1)3 ( x, T0 , T2 ) + ......
(10)
where ε is a small book-keeping parameter artificially inserted into the equations. This parameter can be taken 1
at the end upon keeping in mind, however, that deflections are small. We therefore investigated a weakly nonlinear system. T0=t and T2=ε2t are the fast and slow time scales. Let’s consider only the primary resonance case
and hence, the forcing and damping terms are ordered so that they counter the effect of non-linear terms
µ* = ε 2µ ,
Fm*+1 = ε 3 Fm +1
(11)
the time derivatives are written as
( . ) = D0 + ε 2 D 2 ,
( .. ) = D02 + 2ε 2 D0 D2 ,
Dn =
∂
∂Tn
(12)
Inserting Eqs. (10)-(12) into Eqs. (8) and (9), and equation coefficients of like powers of ε, one obtained
Order (ε):
D02 w( m +1)1 + α m2 w(ivm +1)1 = 0
(13)
w p1 (η p , t ) =
αp
α p −1
w ′p′′1 (η p , t ) =
α 5p
α 5p −1
w( p +1)1 (η p , t ) ,
w(′′′p +1)1 (η p , t )
w′p1 (η p , t ) =
αp
α p −1
w(′ p +1)1 (η p , t ) ,
′′ (0, t ) = 0 ,
w11 (0, t ) = w11
w′p′ 1 (η p , t ) =
α 5p
α 5p −1
w(′′p +1)1 (η p , t )
w( n+1)1 (1, t ) = w(′′n+1)1 (1, t ) = 0
(14)
Order (ε3):
D02 w( m +1)3 + α m2 w(ivm +1)3 = −2 D0 D 2 w( m +1)1 − 2µD0 w( m +1)1
1
+
n
∑
(η r +1 − η r ) / α r2
w( p +1)3 (η p , t ) ,
w′p 3 (η p , t ) =
2α m2
η r +1
n
α2
w (' 2r +1)1 dx w " (m +1)1 + Fm +1 cos ΩT0
r
r =0
ηr
∑
∫
r =0
(15)
w p 3 (η p , t ) =
αp
α p −1
w′p′′3 (η p , t ) =
α 5p
α 5p −1
w(′′′p +1)3 (η p , t )
w( n+1)3 (1, t ) = w(′′n+1)3 (1, t ) = 0
αp
α p −1
w(′ p +1)3 (η p , t ) , w ′p′ 3 (η p , t ) =
α 5p
α 5p −1
w(′′p +1)3 (η p , t ) ,
′′ (0, t ) = 0 ,
w13 (0, t ) = w13
(16)
3.1. Exact Solution To The Linear Problem
The linear problem is governed by Eqs. (13) and (14). Assuming solutions of the form
w( m +1)1 = [ A(T2 )e iωT0 + cc]Ym +1 ( x)
(17)
where cc stands for complex conjugate of the preceding terms and substituting Eq. (17) into Eqs. (13) and
(14), one obtains
Ymiv+1 −
1
α m2
ω 2Ym +1 = 0
(18)
752
�Y p (η p ) =
αp
α p −1
Y p′′′ (η p ) =
Y p′ (η p ) =
Y p +1 (η p ) ,
α 5p
α 5p −1
αp
Y p′ +1 (η p ) ,
α p −1
Y1 (0) =Y1′′ (0) = 0 ,
Y p′′′+1 (η p ) ,
Y p′′ (η p ) =
α 5p
α 5p −1
Y p′′+1 (η p ) ,
Yn +1 (1) = Yn′′+1 (1) = 0
(19)
One can assume
Ym +1 ( x) = C 4m +1 sin k m βx + C 4m + 2 cos k m βx + C 4m +3 sinh k m βx + C 4m + 4 cosh k m β x
(20)
for the solution of Eq. (18). Where β = ω and k m = 1 / α m . When the boundary and continuity conditions are
applied to the equation of motion, frequency equations can be obtained. The multi-stepped beam system with
simple end conditions is shown in the Fig.1.
X2
X1
Xn
w1 (0, t ) = w1′′(0, t ) = 0
wn +1 ( L, t ) = w′n′+1 ( L, t ) = 0
Figure 1: A simply supported multi-stepped beam
The transcendental equation is numerically solved for the first three modes. The natural frequencies are listed for
different α and η. Natural frequencies are given for one; two and three-step in Table (1-3).
α1
η1
ω1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.8
1.0
2.0
3.0
ω2
4.76136
4.519872
5.154486
7.739925
7.913373
8.140749
8.813577
9.639997
9.869604
15.479851
10.308972
9.039745
9.522719
13.881543
7.831783
7.149344
8.747012
ω3
18.940256
23.954239
32.960370
28.929586
32.063323
34.989506
35.901440
37.244195
39.478417
57.859172
65.920741
47.908479
37.880512
74.798548
88.851217
46.586371
33.945355
λ1
45.241049
62.489572
59.994383
75.661069
73.589218
77.524216
81.710293
83.454455
88.826439
151.322138
119.988766
124.979144
90.482097
224.751695
136.674622
138.167797
85.829771
14.27798
9.10129
5.85852
2.86631
3.70809
3.20758
2.38701
1.79947
1.85055
0.35828
0.73231
1.13766
1.78475
0.28824
0.35699
0.58359
1.40013
Table- 1: The first three natural frequencies and the non-linear frequency correction coefficients of one-step beam for
different step ratios and step locations
α1
α2
η1
0.1
η2
0.3
ω1
ω2
5.953690
25.127266
753
ω3
59.138766
λ1
8.40157
�0.8
0.6
0.4
0.8
2.0
1.2
2.0
4.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.9
6.323862
7.174081
7.854582
6.256803
7.196704
7.934874
4.890838
3.714266
3.630831
3.875303
3.611960
3.265050
3.362330
11.466482
12.000198
14.794350
18.596803
10.380079
11.193682
12.166286
20.481951
17.494518
17.570170
18.800126
9.383658
11.159667
12.173198
28.201730
27.950965
31.031939
29.719228
29.455923
32.638595
23.486590
21.794759
15.493808
14.934684
23.322577
15.487205
15.177929
47.998109
58.546396
56.059170
65.717636
41.728688
41.884783
57.264207
111.238748
94.838302
69.802282
68.051795
104.081462
62.918320
59.990005
59.967335
66.279061
68.938398
64.978786
71.398037
74.188639
54.397537
46.113427
39.556262
32.864094
57.524918
57.356942
41.130527
110.501310
108.929445
134.507356
136.873060
107.578383
140.201020
141.771501
236.966957
211.264803
169.750578
145.611558
195.491493
167.058284
149.741932
6.45813
4.28819
3.49167
6.27273
4.19713
3.29743
9.90087
15.63241
24.40730
31.72566
11.02089
16.93990
19.45277
0.84014
0.55186
0.31517
0.18292
0.56262
0.42031
0.51229
0.11624
0.10834
0.15595
0.20869
0.30933
0.46987
0.58125
Table- 2: The first three natural frequencies and the non-linear frequency correction coefficients of two-step beam for
different step ratios and step locations
α1
α2
α3
0.8
0.6
0.3
2.0
1.0
0.8
2.0
4.0
6.0
η1
η2
η3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.9
ω1
ω2
2.672081
4.599781
3.421390
5.884991
6.558926
7.564975
8.737297
8.069798
8.686695
8.669208
18.078519
18.296694
12.185894
9.352935
7.798921
18.112328
19.681724
24.398166
25.159252
28.234674
36.586408
43.147793
41.320096
38.685370
38.341971
153.972235
112.443789
86.740381
103.998808
59.074062
ω3
41.765754
52.357778
50.468413
54.127598
60.753715
86.878086
99.166220
80.532388
87.109404
88.505866
271.133296
199.559828
260.992262
195.308334
192.978599
λ1
30.50196
13.61319
19.15705
5.92665
4.97262
2.02849
1.01868
0.89315
0.68235
0.67547
0.09026
0.10216
0.20382
0.30903
0.56567
Table-3: The first three natural frequencies and the non-linear frequency correction coefficients of three-step beam for
different step ratios and step locations
Non-Linear Problem
Solving order ε3, one obtains the non-linear corrections to the problem. Because the homogeneous Eqs.
(13) and (14) have a non-trivial solution, the non-homogeneous problem (15) and (16) will have a solution only
754
�if a solvability condition is satisfied. To determine this condition, we firstly separated the secular and nonsecular
terms by assuming a solution in the form of
w( m +1) 3 = φ m +1 ( x, T2 )e iωT0 + cc + W m +1 ( x, T0 , T2 )
(21)
By substituting this solution into Eqs. (15) and (16), the terms producing secularities are eliminated.
Hence the part of the equation determining φ(m+1) is as follows:
α m2 φmiv+1
3A2 A
2
− ω φm+1 = −2iω( A′ + µA)Ym+1 +
n
n
[
∑ ∫Y ′
η
∑
(ηr +1 − ηr ) / α r2 ] r =0
,
φ ′p′ =
2α m2 [
ηr +1
2
′′+1
r +1 dx]Ym
α r2
1
+ F(m+1)ei σT2
2
r
r =0
φp =
αp
α p −1
φ p +1 ,
φ ′p =
φ1 (0) = φ1′′ (0) = 0 ,
αp
α p −1
φ ′p +1 ,
α 5p
α 5p −1
φ ′p′ +1 ,
φ ′p′′ =
α 5p
α 5p −1
φ ′p′′+1
φ n +1 ( 1 ) = φ n′′+1 ( 1 ) = 0
(23)
In obtaining these equations, one emplayes the first order solutions (17). One can also assume that the external
excitation frequency is close to one of the natural frequencies of the system; that is,
Ω = ω + ε 2σ
(24)
where σ is a detuning parameter of order 1. After some algebraic manipulations, one can obtain the solvability
condition for Eqs. (22) and (23) as
3
2iω ( A′ + µA) +
n
2
∑ (η
r +1
A2 Ab 2 −
− η r ) / α r2
1 iσT2
fe
=0
2
r =0
(25)
where the equations are normalized by requiring
n
η r +1
∑ ∫
r =0
α r4 Yr2+1dx = 1,
n
∑ ∫
r =0
ηr
η r +1
α r2 Yr′+21dx = b,
n
∑ ∫α
r =0
ηr
η r +1
4
r Fr +1 Yr +1dx
=f
ηr
(26)
The complex amplitude A can be written in terms of a real amplitude a and a phase θ
A=
(27)
1
a (T2 )e iθT2
2
Substituting Eq. (27) into Eq. (25), and separating real and imaginary parts, one obtained finally phase and
modulation equations
ωa γ ′ = ωa σ −
(28)
where
3 2 3
1
b a Λ + f cos γ ,
16
2
ωa ′ = −ωµa +
1
f sin γ
2
Λ and γ are defined as
n
γ = σT2 − θ
Λ = 1/
∑[
r =0
(η r +1 − η r )
α r2
]
(29)
In this section amplitude and phase modulation equations are determined from the non-linear analysis for
multiple stepped.
755
(22)
�Numerical Results
In this section numerical examples are presented for different step numbers. Firstly, the linear natural
frequencies for different step numbers (n=1,2,3) for various α and η values are found and given in Tables 1-3.
As long as the beam supports are fixed nonlinearity is actually negligible though it has some cubic order of
perturbation. This effect which is well known as slenderness parameter is considered in the numerical results
presented. When the step number is increased, the natural frequency value decreased for diminishing step ratios.
The decrease is inclined to the value of cone’s natural frequency. When η = 1 , the natural frequency values are
obtained as straight simple supported beam. Also, the linear natural frequencies for various step ratios are
compared with those given by Naguleswaran (2002) and are observed similar results.
Then, the non-linear frequencies for free undamped vibrations are calculated similarly. In equation (28), by
taking µ=f=σ =0, one obtains
a′=0
(30)
and
a = a0 (constant)
Note that a0 is the steady-state real amplitude of response. Hence the non-linear frequency is
ωn1 = ω + θ ' = ω + λa0
2
(31)
where
λ=
3 Λb 2
16 ω
(32)
In this order of approximation, thus, the non-linear frequencies had a parabolic relation with respect to the
maximum amplitude of vibration. λ could be defined as the non-linear correction coefficient. For different α and
η, the nonlinear correction coefficients are listed in Tables 1-3 for the first mode for different step numbers. λ is
a measure of the stretching effect. The non-linearities are of hardening type. When the stepped ratio is increased,
the nonlinear frequency correction coefficient decreased for one step case. Similarly, as the step location
changed from left to right, the stretching effects decreased regardless of the step ratios.
The curves showing the relationships between nonlinear frequency and amplitude are given in Figures
2-4 for different α, η values and different step numbers. In figures 2, non-linear frequency-amplitude curve is
drawn for one step case and different step ratios. In figure-2, as η increased, the effects of stretching decreased.
In figure 3, non-linear frequency versus amplitude is plotted for two step case only when η1=0.3 and η2=0.5, 0.7,
0.9. For α 1 =2.0 and α 2 =4.0, as the stepped location (η2 ) increased, the stretching effects increased. Figs. 4
show non-linear frequency versus amplitude for three step case for the first mode only when η1-η2-η3: 0.1-0.30.5, 0.2-0.5-0.7, and 0.3-0.5-0.9. For α 1 =0.8, α 2 =0.6 and α 3 =0.3, as the step location shifted from left to right,
the stretching effects decreased. For all step cases, the stretching effects decreased as step ratios increased. The
results for one step, two steps and three steps are given in Figure 5-7 for different step parameters.
One now can consider damping and external excitation case. In Eq. (28), when the system reaches the
steady state region, a′ and γ′ vanish and hence one obtains the following equations.
σ=
3 a 2b2Λ
f2
−µ2
m
16 ω
4ω 2 a 2
(33)
The detuning parameter shows the nearness of the external excitation frequency to the natural frequency of
system. Several figures can be drawn using Eq. (33) assuming f=1 and damping coefficient µ=0.2. Frequency
response curves are presented in Figs. 8-11. In Figs. 8-9, the frequency–response curves for one step case are
shown when η1=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8. In Fig. 8, when η1 decreased and provided that other parameters are kept
constant, multi-valued regions increased drastically (α1=0.5). In Fig. 9, the effect of forcing is maximum when
η1=0.6 and, is minimum when η1=0.2(α1=3.0). Fig. 10 shows frequency–response curves for two steps case for
the first mode only when η1=0.1 and η2=0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9. When the step position (η2) is shifted from left to right,
the amplitudes decreased ( α 1 =0.8 and α 2 =0.6). Fig. 11 shows frequency–response curves for three steps case
756
�for the first mode only when η1-η2-η3: 0.1-0.3-0.5, 0.2-0.5-0.7, and 0.3-0.5-0.9. The effect of forcing is
maximum η1=0.3, η2=0.5 or η3 = 0.9, is minimum when η1=0.1, η2=0.3 or η3=0.5. Similar conclusions can be
drawn. The effect of stretching bends the curves to the right causing multi-valued regions for the solution. This
phenomenon is the well-known jump phenomena.
1
1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
η1=0.6
0.6
a
0.8
η1=0.4
0.6
η1=0.2
a 0.5
0.5
η1=0.8
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
η1=0.3
η2=0.5
0.4
0.4
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0
10
20
ωnl
10.5
η1=0.3
η2=0.7
11
η1=0.3
η2=0.9
11.5
12
ω nl
12.5
13
Figure 2: Non-linear frequency versus amplitude for
Figure 3: Non-linear frequency versus
step location
amplitude for different different step location values (first mode, one step α1=0.5)
values(first mode; two step α1=2.0, α2=4.0)
1
1
0.9
0.9
η =0.3
1
η2=0.5
η =0.9
0.8
0.8
η1=0.2
η =0.5
2
η =0.7
3
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.6
3
η =0.1
1
η =0.3
2
η3=0.5
a 0.5
0.7
a 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
0
5
10
15
ωnl 20
25
30
35
α1=0.5
4
8
10
α1=2.0
α1=3.0
12
14
16
18
20
ωnl
Figure 4:Non-linear frequency versus amplitude for different
amplitude for
step location values(first mode, three step α1=0.8,α2=0.6,α3=0.3)
step, η1=0.2)
1
1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
Figure 5: Non-linear frequency versus
different step ratio values (first mode, one
0.6
0.6
α = 0.4
1
α 2=0.8
a 0.5
0.4
α = 0.8
1
α =0.6
0.3
a 0.5
α = 2.0
1
α =1.2
α 1= 2.0
α =4.0
2
0.4
2
2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
6
α1=0.8
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0
22
α 1 = 0.8
α 2 =0.6
α 3 =0.3
0
5
α 1 = 2.0
α 2 =4.0
α 3 =6.0
α 1 =2.0
α 2 =1.0
α 3 =0.8
10
15
20
25
ωn1
ωn1
Figure 6: Non-linear frequency versus amplitude for different
amplitude for different
step ration values (first mode, two step η1=0.1, η2=0.3)
η1=0.2, η2=0.5, η3=0.7)
757
Figure 7: Non-linear frequency versus
step ration values (first mode, three step
�0.6
0.5
η1=0.6
0.4
a
η1=0.4
0.3
η1=0.2
0.2
η1=0.8
0.1
0
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
1.5
2
σ
0.35
η1 =0.4
0.3
η1=0.6
η1 =0.8
0.25
a
0.2
0.15
η1=0.2
0.1
0.05
0
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
σ
Figure 8: Frequency-response curves for different step
Figure 9: Frequency-response curves for different
step locations (first mode, one step, α1=3.0)
locations (first mode, one step, α=0.5)
0.3
0.45
η1=0.3
η2=0.5
η3=0.9
0.25
0.4
η =0.1
1
η =0.3
0.35
2
η1=0.2
η2=0.5
η3=0.7
0.2
η =0.1
1
η =0.5
0.3
2
0.25
a
η =0.1
1
η =0.7
a
0.2
0.15
η1=0.1
η2=0.3
η3=0.5
2
0.1
0.15
η =0.1
1
η =0.9
0.1
2
0.05
0.05
0
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
-4
3
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
σ
σ
Figure 10: Frequency-response curves for different step
different
locations (first mode, two step α1=0.8 α2=0.6)
α2=4.0, α3=6.0)
758
Figure 11: Frequency-response curves for
step locations (first mode, three step α1=2.0,
�Concluding Remarks
The non-linear response of multi-stepped beam is investigated. The beam is simply supported at both ends.
The non-linear equations of motion including stretching due to immovable end conditions are derived. Forcing
and damping terms are added to the equations. Linear and non-linear analyses are performed. Approximate
solutions are searched by applying the method of multiple scales directly to the partial differential equations. The
first term led to the linear problem. When the boundary conditions and continuity are applied to the equation of
motion, frequency equations are obtained and given for one step beam. Mode shapes and natural frequencies are
calculated for different step ratios, step locations and number of the steps. The second terms provided the nonlinear corrections to the linear problem. Non-linear frequency-amplitude and forcing frequency-amplitude
relations are investigated and plotted. For one step beam, when the step number is increased, the natural
frequency value decreased for diminishing step ratios. The decrease is inclined to the value of cone’s natural
frequency. As the step ratio is increased, the natural frequencies and nonlinear frequencies generally increased,
but after the step ratio value 2, we observed a decreasing trend in nonlinear frequencies. One can observe that the
stretching caused a non-linearity of the hardening type. When the step ratio is increased (α), the effect of
stretching on the non-linear frequencies generally decreased. For forced and damped vibrations, since the nonlinearity is of hardening type, the frequency-response curves bent to the right, causing an increase in the multivalued regions for the solution.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under project no
104M427.
References
Aldraihem, O.J. and Baz, A. (2002), “Dynamic stability of stepped beams under moving loads”, Journal of Sound and
vibration 250(5),2, 835-48.
Aydın, A.S. and Aksu, G. (1981), “Free vibration analysis of nonuniform and stepped thickness beams and shafts”, Metu
Journal of pure and applied sciences 14, 130-156.
Aydogdu, M. and Taskin, V. (2007), “Free vibration analysis of functionally graded beams with simply supported edges”,
Materials Design 28(5), 1651-1656.
Balasubramanian, S. and Subramanian, G. (1985), “On the performance of a four-degree-of-freedom per node element for
stepped beam analysis and higher frequency estimation”, Journal of Sound and vibration 99, 563-567.
Balasubramanian, T. S., Subramanian, G. and Ramani, T. S. (1990), “ Significance of very high order derivatives as nodal
degrees of freedom in stepped beam vibration analysis”, Journal of Sound and vibration 137, 353-356.
Bert, C.W. and Newberry, A.L. (1986),“Improved finite element analysis of beam vibration”, Journal of Sound and Vibration
105, 179-183.
De Rosa, M.A., Belles, P.M., Maurizi, M.J., (1995), “Free vibrations of stepped beams with elastic supports”, Journal of
Sound and Vibration 181, 905-910.
Dong, X., Meng, G., Li, H., Ye, L. (2005), “Vibration analysis of a stepped laminated composite Timoshenko beam”,
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Jang, S. K. and Bert, C. W. (1989), “Free vibrations of stepped beams: higher mode frequencies and effects of steps on
frequency”, Journal of Sound and vibration 132, 164-168.
Jang, S.K. and Bert, C.W. (1989), “Free Vibration of stepped beams: Exact and Numerical Solutions”, Journal of Sound and
Vibration 130(2), 342-346.
Kisa M., Gurel, M. A. ( 2007), “ Free vibration analysis of uniform and stepped cracked beams with circular cross sections”,
International Journal of Engineering Science 45, 364-380.
Krıshnan, A., George, G., Malathı, P. (1998), “Use of finite difference method in the study of srepped beams”, Journal of
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759
�Kwon, H.D. and Park, Y.P.(2002), “ Dynamic characteristics of stepped cantilever beams connected with a rigid body”,
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Lee, J., Bergman, L.A. (1994), “The vibration of stepped beams and rectangular plates by an elemental dynamic flexibility
method”, Journal of Sound and Vibration 171(5),617–40.
Levinson, M. (1976), “Vibration of stepped strings and beams”, Journal of Sound and Vibration 49, 287-291.
Li, Q. S., (2001), “Free vibration analysis of non-uniform beams with an arbitrary number of cracks and concentrated
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Li, Q. S., (2001), “Vibratory characteristics of multi-step beams with an arbitrary number of cracks and concentrated masses”,
Applied Acoustics 62, 691-706.
Naguleswaran, S. (2002), “Natural frequencies, sensitivity and mode shape details of an Euler-Bernoulli beam with one-step
change in cross-section and with ends on classical supports”, Journal of Sound and Vibration 252, 751-767.
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cross section”, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 44, 2541-55.
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and axial force”, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 45,1563-79.
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Özkaya E. (2002), “Non-linear transverse vibrations of a simply supported beam carrying concentrated masses”, Journal of
Sound and Vibration 257, 413-424.
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760
�
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Title
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Non-Linear Transverse Vibrations of A Simply Supported Multi-Stepped Beam
Author
Author
Özkaya, Erdoğan
Tekin, Ayla
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, the nonlinear vibrations of Euler-Bernoulli multiple-stepped beam are investigated. The beam is simply supported at both ends. The equations of motions are obtained using Hamilton’s principle and made non-dimensional. The stretching effect induced non-linear terms to the equations. Forcing and damping terms are also included in the equations. A perturbation method is applied to the equations of motions. The first terms of the perturbation series led to the linear problem. Natural frequencies for the linear problem are calculated exactly for different step cases. Second order non-linear terms of the perturbation series behaved as corrections to the linear problem. Amplitude and phase modulation equations are obtained. Non-linear free and forced vibrations are investigated in detail. These analyses are repeated for different step ratios and step numbers.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5e40a6b351499afe4e59919b3f4f50c5.pdf
2de135d22b767ef4eb00017a9d6af266
PDF Text
Text
The Research of Diesel Engine Performance Using Neutralized Safflower
Oil as Fuel
Hüseyin ÖĞÜT
Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture
42075 Kampüs /Konya/Türkiye
hogut@selcuk.edu.tr
Hidayet OĞUZ
Selçuk University, Technical Science College,
42075 Kampüs /Konya/Türkiye
hoguz@selcuk.edu.tr
Tanzer ERYILMAZ
Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture
42075 Kampüs /Konya/Türkiye
eryilmaz@selcuk.edu.tr
Fikret DEMĐR
Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture
42075 Kampüs /Konya/Türkiye
fdemir@selcuk.edu.tr
Murat CĐNĐVĐZ
Selçuk University, Technical Education Faculty
42075 Kampüs /Konya/Türkiye
mciniviz@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract: Vegetable oils for use as fuel are one of the methods of use of biofuels. However,
high viscosity of vegetable oils causes to some problems use long period. The problem was
either solved modified vegetable oil or by modified engine. The effect of some of the physical
properties of diesel fuel and safflower oil on the engine performance with kit were measured
and compared in the study. In this study funded by a project of TÜBĐTAK 108 O 419, fuel
properties of safflower oil was investigated and transforming safflower oil to standard fuel
(DIN V 51605) and its direct usage in the diesel engine with aid of a designed kit was studied.
Diesel engine which is a four-stroke, single-cylinder, 15 kW was used for laboratory tests.
The engine operated under 40-50% load for 1000 hours. According to the results of this
research, there was 10,18% change in torque and 22,43% power engine data in comparison
with diesel fuel when the safflower oil and diesel fuel were used.
Keywords: Diesel Engine, Vegetable oil, Neutralize, Safflower oil, Kit
Introduction
Diesel fuels play an important role in the industrial economy of a country. These fuels run major part of
the transport sector and their demand is increasing steadily, requiring an alternative fuel which is technically
feasible, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable, and readily available (Bouaid, et al, 2005).
Vegetable oils are widely available from various sources, and the glycerides present in the oils can be considered
as a viable alternative for diesel fuel. The heating value of vegetable oils is similar to that of diesel fuel.
Therefore vegetable oil which was the first fuel of diesel engines has become the focus point of all researches
again. Our country, as an agricultural country, has got great biomass resources. Renewable energy sources have
an importance by the point of using them as alternative engine fuels (Oğuz, 2004).
700
�Related to vegetable oils (DIN V 51605) the direct use as a fuel without appropriate standards occurs to
cause the problem to the fuel injection pumps, injectors and combustion chamber in engines. Therefore, to
reduce viscosity or to make the standards oil is to done investigations (Oğuz et. al, 2009)
Vegetable oils can be used directly as fuel engine without converted for biodiesel. In this case, running
the engine with diesel fuel and vegetable oil must be heated. Used as fuel directly of vegetable oil in is not notice
of the new oil or waste oil fries (Öğüt & Oğuz 2006). The standardized of vegetable oils were prepared by
researcher. This standard was given in Table 1.
characteristics/
units
substances
limiting values
min.
max.
930
test procedure
characteristic properties
Density (15ºc)
kg/m3
900
Flash point
°C
220
DIN EN ISO 3675 DIN
EN ISO 12185
DIN EN ISO 22719
Calorific value
kJ/kg
35,000
DIN 51900-3
Kinematic viscosity (40 °C)
Mm2/s
38
DIN EN ISO 3104
Behaviour at low temperatures
rotation viscosimetry
Cetane number
process is being evaluated
Coke residues
% by mass
0.40
DIN EN ISO 10370
Iodine number
G/100g
120
DIN 53241-1
Sulphur content
mg/kg
20
ASTM D 5453-93
Total contamination
mg/kg
25
DIN EN 12662
Neutralisation value
Mg KOH/g
2.0
DIN EN ISO 660
Oxidation stability
h
Phosphor content
mg/kg
15
ASTM D3231-99
Ash content
% by mass
0.01
DIN EN ISO 6245
Water content
% by mass
0.075
pr EN ISO 12937
100
Variable characteristics
5.0
ISO 6886
Table 1. Quality standard for rapeseed oil as a fuel (DIN V 51605)
Vegetable oils do not contain any sulphur, aromatic hydrocarbons, metals or crude oil residues. The
absence of sulphur means a reduction in the formation of acid rain by sulphate emissions which generate
sulphuric acid in our atmosphere. The reduced sulphur in the blend will also decrease the levels of corrosive
sulphuric acid accumulating in the engine crankcase oil over time (Almeida, et al.2002).
Procedure
Safflower Oil Was Neutralized
Natural oils physical properties vary widely, even though they are composed of the some or similar faty
acids. These differences result from differences in the proportion of the fatty acids and the structure of the
individual triglycerides. Among the factors that effective the vegetable oil fatty acid compositions are climate
conditions, soil type, growing season, plant maturity, plant health, microbiological seed location within the
flower, and the genetic, variation of the plant (Brien, 1998).
701
�The safflower oil was neutralized in this study. Therefore a pilot production plant was used. The Photo
of a pilot production plant was given in figure 1. For neutralized process raw safflower oil into reactor and was
heated up to 85 oC. Water was heated up to 85 oC other tank. Phosphoric acid is added to safflower oil at a rate
of 0,002 were mixed for 10 minutes. Than liquids of 5% diluted caustic were mixed with safflower oil for 5
minutes. Finally, with water up to 10% safflower oil was washed with a shower method. Phase expected to
occur by 60 minutes and the right bottom of the wash water and other substances that accumulated were taken.
Then the safflower oil and their blending dried under vacuum at 100 oC. Neutralizing the safflower oil is heated
up to 85 oC again. 0.01 percent of soil was given slowly bleaching and bleaching operations were. Soil taken
from the bottom of the oil in the bleaching process has been completed.
Fig 1: Pilot Production Plant
2.2 The determination of safflower oil properties and diesel fuel.
The properties of safflower oil and diesel fuel tested in Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture are
shown in Table 2. As shown in the table, diesel fuel has the higher calorific value and the lower viscosity.
Diesel Fuel
Raw
Safflower Oil
DIN V 51605
Density at 15 ºC (kg/m3)
826,4
925,3
900
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) at 40 ºC
pH
2,745
-
31,51
5,5
-
36
-
Copper Strip Corrosion (3 hours at 50 °C)
1a
1a
-
-
Flash Point (ºC)
60
158
220
Colour
1,7
2,0
-
-
Water Content (mg/kg)
29,168
419,17
-
750
Iodine value (g iyot/100g)
-
117,9
95
120
Min - Max
702
930
-
�Acid Value (mg KOH/g)
-
Calorific value (kJ/kg)
46581
38997
Cetane Number
58,38
49,31
Cloud point, ºC
-12
-13,3
Flow point, ºC
-28
-14
Phosphor content, mg/kg
-
2,0
36000
-
5,56
Table 2: The properties of neutralized safflower oil and diesel fuel and their comparison with standard values
Kit Is Installed in Diesel Engine and Working Together
The engine must be started in the diesel fuel position. After the engine has started you can over to
straight vegetable oil (SVO) immediately. The green led is on over the control panel now. After reaching the
engine operation temperature (70 °C), blue led is off, the system will switch really over to SVO-run, and the
yellow led is off. Until this time the engine will run on diesel fuel. Finally it needs two conditions to run on
SVO: first, the switch must be in position SVO and second, the engine must be warm. The engine should run
with diesel fuel before you stop it as log as it needs replace the SVO in the injection system with diesel fuel.
Radiator
Fuel
pump
Fuel
Filter
Heat convection
with water (Heat
exchanger)
Pre
filter
Mangnetic
Valve
Elektrical
Fuel
Pump
Injection
Pump
FUEL
TANK FOR
VEGETABLE
OIL
Injection
Nozzles
Fig. 2: Shape of kit with use of vegetable oil
703
Fuel return
FUEL
TANK
FOR
DIESEL
�Fig.3: The photos on shows the kit installed in a diesel engine.
Fig. 4: The engine test rig and control unit.
Experimental Study
Facilities to monitor and control engine variables, such as engine speed, torque, power, fuel
consumption, specific fuel consumption, water and lubrication oil temperatures etc., are installed on a fully
automated test bed (shown in Fig. 4), single cylinder, water cooled, Super Star, experimental standard engine
located at the first author’s laboratory which is supported The Scientific and Technological Research Council of
Turkey (TÜBĐTAK). On the test bed, the engine is coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer. General properties of
diesel engine are shown in Table 3.
Unit
Model
Cylinder Number
Type
Fuel
Cylinder Bore
Piston stroke
Volum
Compression ratio
Max. Power
Max. Torque
Fuel pomp
Cooling
mm
mm
liter
BG
Nm
Super Star
1
four stroke, direct injection
Diesel
108
100
0,92
17:1
15
60
Bosch Type
Water cooled
Table 3: General properties of diesel engine
704
�A plan was designed for the experimental investigation. The engine was ran once diesel fuel than its ran
safflower oil with kit on full loads and on different engine speed. The engine speed was controlled by the control
panel. During the tests, the parameters were recorded such as engine power, torque, fuel consumption, specific
fuel consumption, and emissions.
Result and Discussion
The experimental results show that the engine performance – power, torque, fuel consumption and
specific fuel consumption are comparable to diesel when fueled with safflower oil. The test results are shown in
the following figures 5-8. Figure 5. shows the test results of the engine power outputs for diesel fuel and
safflower oil with kit as fuels.
Researchers in various countries carried out many experimental works using vegetable oils as diesel engine fuel
substitutes. These results showed that thermal efficiency was comparable to that of diesel with 22,43% amounts
of power loss while using safflower oils and there was 10,18% change in torque (fig. 6). Safflower oil can be
used as fuel in diesel engines with kit.
Figure 5: The comparison of engine power of diesel fuel and safflower oil as fuels with kit.
705
�Figure 6: The comparison of engine torque of diesel fuel and safflower oil as fuels with kit.
Figure 7: The comparison of engine fuel consumption of diesel fuel and safflower oil as fuels with kit.
706
�Figure 8: The comparison of engine specific fuel consumption of diesel fuel and safflower oil as fuels with kit.
Specific fuel consumption increased with increase of engine speed. Because of the low calorific value of
safflower oil, specific fuel consumption is high up. The engine performance of the safflower oil was not similar
to that of diesel fuel and with higher fuel consumption reflecting their lower energy content.
707
�Figure 9: The comparison of CO, CO2, HC, O2, NOx, and SO2 emissions of diesel fuel and safflower oil
The fuel type on the gaseous emissions of CO, CO2, HC, O2, SO2 and NOx, are shown from Figure 9 at
1500 1/min of engine speed. The CO emission from the diesel fuels is higher than that from safflower oil. This is
possibly due to at the engine full load, the temperature in the cylinder of engine is higher, which makes the
safflower oil easier to atomize, a better air/fuel mixture and then a better combustion can be achieved; with kit
and the oxygen contents in the safflower oil makes it easier to be burnt at higher temperature in the cylinder.
HC and SO2 emissions of safflower oil are lower than that of diesel fuel. The safflower oil produced NOx
emissions that were 7 % higher than the diesel fuel.
The use of safflower oil as diesel engine fuels can play a vital role in helping the developed world to reduce the
environmental impact of fossil fuels.
As a conclusion, safflower oil, in diesel engines can be used as an alternative fuel with kit. The advantages are
biodegradability, their emission values are low; in addition they can be supplied by means of the energy in
agriculture sector with their own facilities.
708
�Acknowledgement
This study has been supported by Selcuk University’s Scientific Research Unit (BAP) and The Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (TÜBĐTAK)
References
Almeida, S.C.A., Belchior, C, R,. Nascimento M. V.G., Vieira, L.S.R., Fleury, G., (2002). Performance of a diesel generator
fuelled with palm oil Fuel 81 p.2097–2102
Ammerer, A., Rathbauer, J., Wörgetter, M., (2004). Rapeseed Oıl as Fuel for Farm Tractors, Iea Bioenergy Task 39, Liquid
Biofuels. Wieselburg.
Bouaid, A., Diaz, Y., Martinez, M., Aracil, J., (2005). Pilot plant studies of biodiesel production using barssica carinata as
raw material. Catalysis today 106 p 193-196
Brien, O, Richard D., (1998). Fats and Oils Formulating and Processing for Applications. U.S.A.
Number of DPT Project: 2004-7 (2007). Biodiesel Production Processes From Some Oil Seed Crops in Turkey And Its Use in
Diesel Engines: Technological Impacts On Agriculture, Environment, Food And Chemistry.
Oğuz H, Eryılmaz T, Öğüt H, Demir F, Ciniviz M, (2009). A Research on the Direct Utilization of Standard Vegetable Oils
as a Fuel in Diesel Engine. Journal of Agricultural Machinery Science. Volume 5, Number 1 Page:15-20 ISSN 1306-0007
Oğuz, H. (2004). The Investigation of The Possibilities of Using Hazelnut Oil Biodiesel as Fuel In Diesel Engines Which Use
Widespread on Agriculture Sector. Ph.D. Thesis, Selcuk University,Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences
Department of Agriculture Machinery, Konya, Turkey
Oğuz, H., Öğüt, H., Turcan, H., (2004). “Use Of Three Different Vegetable Oils For Alternative Fuel By Engine
Modification” 2nd World Conference and Technology Exhibition on Biomass for Energy, Industry and Climate Protection
10-14 May Rome Italy
Ögüt, H., and O˘guz, H. 2006. The third millenium’s fuel: Biodiesel. No. 745, Ankara Nobel
Öğüt, H., Eryılmaz, T., Oğuz, H., (2007). Bazı Aspir (carthamus tinctorius l.) Çeşitlerinden Üretilen Biyodizelin Yakıt
Özelliklerinin Karşılaştırmalı Olarak Đncelenmesi. 1. Ulusal Yağlı Tohumlu Bitkiler Ve Biyodizel Sempozyumu 28-31 P:
Mayıs SAMSUN
Öğüt, H., Oğuz, H., Mengeş, H.O., Eryılmaz, T., (2006). Biyodizelde; Standart Dışı Üretim ve Kullanımının Motorlar
Üzerindeki Etkileri, Biyodizel Teknik Gelişim ve Tedarik Çalıştayı, 21-22, Nisan ANKARA
Öğüt, H., ve Afacan, T., (2009). Enerji Tarımı, Biyoyakıtlar ve Konya. Konya’da Tarım ve Tarımsal Sanayi Sorunlarının
Tespiti Sempozyumu s 203-210 Konya Publishing. ISBN: 975-591-730-6 190 p
709
�Friction Welding And Its Applications In Today’s World
Mehmet UZKUT
Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Turgutlu MYO, Makine Bölümü, Turgutlu, Manisa, Turkey
Bekir Sadık ÜNLÜ
Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Turgutlu MYO, Makine Bölümü, Turgutlu, Manisa, Turkey
Selim Sarper YILMAZ
Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Turgutlu MYO, Makine Bölümü, Turgutlu, Manisa, Turkey
Mustafa AKDAĞ
Gediz Üniversitesi, Đzmir, Turkey
Abstract :By developing technology of today, the necessity of using different materials by
joining came out. The most suitable method in joining two different alloyed steel is to weld.
The fact that the properties of welding zone are naturally different from the properties of
steels in different alloyed at post welding process has came up and these differences occur
some important problems. Among many kinds of welding methods, using the melting welding
methods has also increased the number of these problems. However, in the connecting zone,
many different zones come out by depending on composition and properties of the connecting
materials. Deposite remain of the melting welding methods, welding faults of porosity and
inside tightens of cooling are the important disadvantages of these methods and they
decreases the strength of welding. For this reason, solid state welding methods are more
suitable due to these melting welding faults. The most important and applicability of these
methods are friction welding. For these reasons, in this study importance and application areas
of friction welding were explained.
1. Introduction
The ideas of using heat obtained by friction in welding and forming of materials are not new. Friction welding
obtained by frictional heat is a commercial process, which has found several applications in different parts of the
world with the advancement in technology. First, simple devices having lathe machine type and metal rods have
been used in butt welding trials. However, these studies can onl be regarded as preliminary technical trials with
little practical importance. The firts trial of friction welding goes back to the 15th century and the first patent was
granted to J.H. Bevington, who then was a machinist. Bevington first applied friction welding in elding of metal
pipes. Friction welding which was first applied to cutting tools in metal processing industry has found several
applications. W. Richter patented the friction welding process in 1924 (in England) and 1929 (in Germany) and
H.Klopstock patented the same proces in the USSR (1924). H. Klopstock and A.R. Neelands obtained a patent
for friction welding of cylindrical parts. Studies on welding of plastic materials were carried out in the 1940s in
the USA and Germany [1, 2]. A Russian machinist named A. J. Chdikov has realized scientific studies and
suggested the use of this welding method as a commercial process. He has successfully done a welding process
between two metal rods and patented this process in 1956. Vill and his colleagues have further investigated the
process with a number of studies. Researchers of American Machine and Foundry Corporation named Holland
and Cheng have worked on thermal and parametrical analysis of friction welding [3]. By the way, the first
studies of fricton welding in England were carried out by the Welding Institute in 1961. By modifying the
friction welding, the Caterpillar Tractor Co. in the USA developed the method of inertia welding in 1962. After
this study, conventional friction welding has been regarded as the Russian type process and inertia welding as
the Caterpillar type process. With these advances, applications of friction welding have found several
applications throughout the world. Friction welding is one of the most widely used welding methods in the
industry after electron beam welding [4].
This study addresses friction welding, its significance and types, welding capability, welding parameters and
their applications.
710
�2. Friction Welding
All welding methods can be investigated in one of the two main categories; melt and pressure welding. Friction
welding is a type of pressurized welding method. Friction welding is a solid state process, where no electric or
other power sources are used, mechanical energy produced by friction in the interface of parts to be welded are
utilized. Using heat efficiently in the welding region is only possible by efficiently distributing heat on surfaces,
to which welding will be applied. During the welding process, surfaces are under pressure and this period called
the heating phase continues until plastic forming temperature is achieved. The temperature in the welding region
for steels is between 900 and 1300 oC. Heated metal at the interface accumulates by incerasing pressure after
heating phase. Thus, a type of thermomechanical treatment occurs in the welding region and this region has
stable particle structure. Metals and alloys, which cannot be welded by other welding methods, can be welded
using friction welding. In order to obtain welding connection between parts, untreated surfaces need to be
contacted to one another. This contact is efficient because friction corrects contacting problems. The melting
process does not normaly occur on contacted surfaces. Even though, a small amount of melting may occur,
accumulation caused by post-welding process makes it invisible. Figure 1 gives the stages of friction welding.
One of the parts is stationary while the other one rotates (Figure 11). When the roational speed rises to a certain
value, axial pressure is applied and locational heating occurs in parts at the interface. Then, rotation is stopped,
heated material at the interface accumulates (Figure 13) [5, 6]. The stages of friction welding during the welding
process are given in Figure 2 [7].
Figure 1. The schematic stages of friction welding [7].
711
�Figure 2. Actual look of friction welding process [11].
Applications of friction welding are generally used in the welding of pipes and circular rods. The basic
movement in this kind of application is the rotational movement causing friction [8]. Figure 3 shows
conventional friction welding methods in joining of certain size rods and pipes.
712
�Figure 3. Applications of friction welding [9, 10].
Figure 3-a shows the most simple and used application. In this application, the axes of parts to be welded are the
same and rotate around other axes. Under the rotational pressure, friction forces occur on cotact surfaces. Figure
3.b suits best to the small size samples requiring higher rotational speed. It is used in applications where higher
relative rotational speeds are required. Figure 3.c is for the applications where parts being very long are
efficiently joined. Even though it could not find widespread applications, Figure 3.d is mainly used in welding of
pipes rotating under radial forces [9, 10].
It needs to be known that a high quality welding connection can only occur in parts having claen and smooth
surfaces. Several inclusions, oxides formed on the surface, films absorbed by the surface are always present and
negatively affects bond formation and welding quality. These problems are removed from welding connections
by wearing off surfaces during friction [8].
In friction welding, orbital movement as well as rotational movement, linear vibration movement and angular
vibration movement can be applied. Orbital movement is fr the welding of non-cylindrical parts. Application
shown in Figure 4 is between a stable part and a part rotating circularly [5].
Figure 4. Friction welding including orbital movement [5].
One of the parts in figure 5 moves forward and backward in linear vibration movement. This method has firs
been suggested by Vill. In angular vibration movement, one of the parts makes an orbital movement under
applied pressure [3].
Figure 5. Friction welding including linear rotation movement [3].
713
�2. 1. Types of Friction Welding
Friction welding can be applied by using one of the two methods depending on the source of mechanical energy.
With current advances, a combined welding method including both of the methods aforementioned has been
developed. These are continuous driven friction welding, flywheel driven friction welding and a combination of
the two [1, 5].
2.1.1. Continuously Induced Friction Welding
A inducement driven group provides the necessary energy for rotation. Mechanical energy is converted to heat
by applying pressure from rotating part to non-rotating part. This method is generally mentioned in the literature
for friction welding. One of the parts is connected to the engine inducement unit and rotates at a constant
velocity; a constant axial force is applied to parts. Working parts interact with each other during welding or until
axial shortening occurs. Then, braking system stops the process. Pressure applied during welding is increased
and stays at a certain value until weld cools down. The essential welding parameters are rpm, friction force on
the surface, the length of friction period, forging force and forging time [1, 5].
A schematic of continuous inducement friction welding machine is given in Figure 6 and process parameters in
Figure 7.
Figure 6. A schematic of continuous inducement friction welding machine [1, 5].
(1.Inducement engine, 2. Brake 3 a. Spindle of rotating working part, 3 b. Spindle of stationary working part, 4 a.
Rotating working part, 4 b. Stationary working part, 5. Accumulation cylinder)
Figure 7. Process Parameters versus time in friction welding [1, 5].
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�2.1.1. Flywheel Induced Friction Welding
In this welding method, flywheel induced system constantly rotates and is joined to flywheel shaft system to
achieve a certain speed. After reaching a certain speed, engine flywheel is separated from shaft flywheel. Shaft
flywheel having a low moment of inertia stops without braking. Therefore, this welding method is known as
welding of inertia in the literature. One of the parts is connected to the flywheel and accelerates at a certain speed
and thus mechanical energy is stored in the flywheel. Then, the two parts are contacted and a certain welding
pressure is applied. Parts under this pressure interact with each other and energy stored in the flywheel is spent
for friction. The speed of flywheel decreases as welding region heats up. In some circumstances, pressure is
increased before flywheel completely stop and the effect continues for some time. Flywheel induced friction
welding has better seam, narrower ITAB region, better serial production, lower power need and more simple
apparatus than continuous induced friction welding. The essential welding parameters are rpm, forging force on
the surface, the mass of flywheel, and forging time [1, 5].
A schematic of flywheel induced friction welding machine is given in Figure 8 and process parameters in Figure
9.
Figure 8. A schematic of flywheel induced friction welding machine [1, 5].
(1.Inducement engine, 2. Changeable Flywhell, 3 a. Spindle of rotating working part, 3 b. Spindle of stationary
working part, 4 a. Rotating working part, 4 b. Stationary working part, 5. Accumulation cylinder)
Figure 9. Process Parameters versus time in flywheel induced friction welding [1, 5].
715
�2.1.3. Combined (Hybrid) Friction Welding
This method is a combination of aforementioned the two methods of friction welding. It has advantages in
joining parts with high capacity. This method is also sometimes termed as flywheel induced friction welding.
The essential welding parameters are rpm, friction force on the surface, the length of friction time, and forging
time on the surface, forging time and time of brake [1, 5]. Process parameters for the combined friction welding
is given in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Process Parameters versus time in combined friction welding [1, 5].
The process of welding includes friction and accumulation stages as given in Figures 7, 9, and 10. Moment
curves are essential to understanding of process parameters in all the welding methods studied. Dry friction
between parts exists in the beginning of process and moment curve stabilizes after reaching the maxima.
Naked surface interactions increase due to disintegration of oxide layers among contacted surfaces and strong
atomic bonding occurs as a result of these interactions. These bonds are forced to be broken due to friction.
However, strong adhesion forces occur, moment increases and temperature reaches to the desired level. Velocity
decreases quickly due to braking and moment becomes zero [1, 5].
2.2. Expected Properties of Friction Welding Machine
Friction welding machines are generally similar to lathe and drill. The first friction welding machines are
modified forms of these machine tools. The schematic of friction welding machine is given in Figure 6 or Figure
8. As can be seen from the figures, a friction melding machine has the main body, joining parts, rotate and
accumulate mechanisms, brake system, power supply, control unit and control panel. Fricton welding machines
are all-mechanized machines. Joining and releasing of parts, turning of capaklar produced due to accumulation
after welding are automatically accomplished. The main functions in friction welding are joining, compressing
and releasing of parts, rotation and friction under pressure, braking, accumulation and meticulous adjustments of
required processing times.
Sample joining apparatus needs to have a certain rigidity, must resist increased moments, must eliminate
vibrations and leaks. Especially, possible vibrations during welding process need to be taken into account while
designing the friction welding machine. In addition to vibrations, other radial and axial forces have to be
accounted for. Therefore, joining apparatus has to have a design which will counter compressing forces. For this
process, V type two chaps or special chaps are used [6].
716
�All stopping apparatus used to hold friction equipment must be highly dependable. A slight deformation in parts
to be joined may result in a low quality welding and may also damage brake system. Brake systems
automatically centerd are used in most of the applications. Friction welding machines have certain particle size
and material limitations. For example, a machine having 120KN compressed force and 15KW electric engine
can be used in the welding of stells with cross-sectional areas of 130-800mm2. All machines can be adjusted to
meet certain specifications and can automatically be controlled. This process is sometimes done by just manually
turning off the switch or protectors [11].
2.3. The Suitability of Friction Welding and Friction Welding Capability of Materials
Knowledge on material properties and applicability of metallic materials and material combinations for friction
welding is not completely clear. Experimental studies and practical applications have been giben to address this
problem. Preliminary trilas have been carried out in order to determine optimum parameters of welding, the
applicability of welding process for every new material or material combinations. The results of these studies are
not concrete since they are experimental. They can be modified or redefines as new facts come out [12, 13].
The citeria needed for other welding methods are not valid for friction welding because friction welding is
applied to materials which can not be processed with other welding methods [10].
The strength of a material and its deformation capacity under heat are the two parameters needed for the test of
suitability of a material to welding. The strength of material has to be high enough to resist axial pressure and
torque, which may occur due to excessive deformation. Morover, the material to be joined needs to exhibit
enough heat treatment deformation behavior for the quality of joining process [12].
Materials and their combinations can be categorized into two groups depending upon the characteristics of
materials to be joined. The first group of materials are the ones showing the same type of heating behavior and
the second group includes materials having different hor material strength and melting temperatures. The direct
welding process is applied to the first group of materials. But, preliminary trials are carried out for the second
group of materials before applying welding process [10].
Several iron based and non-iron materials can be joined using the friction welding. In addition, friction welding
can be used in joining of metals exhibiting different thermal and mechanical properties. Most of the time, these
materials can not be processed using conventional welding methods. Friction welding method is more preferred
than any other conventional welding method because metals can be joined at temperatures lower than their
melting point and welding time is a lot shorter. Friction welding of metals having different thermal amd
mechanical properties causes asymmetrical deformations. A higher welding strength is generally achieved for
the materials giving symmetrical deformations. To achive this, Vill suggested a 15 to 25% increase in ductile
parts during the welding process [11].
Any material not having good friction properties but forgable with friction welding can easily be welded. Alloy
elements supplying dry oiling prevent the joining section from reaching welding temperature.
Ferrous based material from soft steel to high alloyed steels can be processed using friction welding. Steels with
lower strength can be more easily joined with a large parameter range. High alloyed steels, on the other hand,
requires critical processing parameter range and higer axial forces. Heat-treated stainless steels can be welded in
a more sensitive parameter range just as in high alloyed steels. For high alloyed steels, higher forces on the
surface and long friction time are needed due to their lower deformation capability. Especially for “air watered
steels”, a suitable ITAB region is required to minimize cooling rate of welding region. Since crack formation is
very fast in high strength materials, joined surfaces have to be rid of crack effects [11].
Sintered materials, Al, Cu, Ti, tr, Mg alloys, heat resistant Ni and Co alloys and refractory materials such as Ta
and Mo alloys can successfully be joined by friction welding [13].
- Austentistics steels due to their higher ductility and heat deformation capability need lower friction time and
pressure,
- Higher stregh alloys due to their lower heat conductivity and higher heat strength capability need higher
friction time and lower friction pressure,
717
�- Cu, Al, Ti and their alloys are subjected to friction welding at higher rpm and lower friction pressures.
A successful friction welding can not be achived in some metals and alloys due to their inherent metallurgical
properties.
These are as follows:
- All pig iron due to its friction temperature limitation caused by free graphite,
- bronze and grass having Pb concentration of more than 0.3% and automat steels having S or Pb concentrations
more than 0.13%,
-highly anisotropic materials due to their high fractureability in the transtition region
-materials having graphite, Mn, S and free Pb in their structure [10, 13].
2.4. Preparation of Materials for Friction Welding and the Design
Parts to be processed using griction welding method have different design considerations from those processed
with conventional welding methods. Paint, oil and other impurities do not pose a problem in friction welding.
Though not preferred, surfaces cut by oxygen can be welded. Moreover, additional layer on the surface such as
corrosion layer does not affect welding process. However, thick oxide layers, pin sand needles on the surfaces,
deep cuts and holes habe to be avoided. A poor heat distribution may occur if too many indent and bulge are
present. Bulges behave as bracket beam when surface roughness is very high. Inner layers occur and addition
layers occur even with deformation because root (base) structure is cold. Deformation in welding region must
remove these structures. In addition, surface pre-teratment of different metals and alloys is significant. A special
form of a material on surfaces to be weld is not needed as in the case of traditional welding processes. However,
spherical or conical mouth may be necessary in high diameter parts to assit in friction. Mininum axial loss is
required in parts to be welded. The tolerance of welding depens on not only defects in working parts but also the
welding machine itself [12, 14]. The tolerance value for lenth is given as 0.203 mm. Begg and Humpreys have
reported 0.2mm axial KACIKLIK tolerance and 0.001 rad angular tolerance [15].
Basic design of friction welding includes rod-rod, pipe-pipe, pipe-sheet, rod-sheet and pipe-disc combinations.
Based on friction welding theory, at least one of the parts has to be able to rotate. Mixed type parts and difficult
to be forged parts can be joined using more than one friction welding machine. The angular range in friction
welding is given to be between 30 and 45 or 45 anf 600. D. L. Kuruzar suggested an angle more than 30°. In
some of the designs, welding joints are specifically designed to account for problems in removing metal parts
after welding [14].
2.5. Parameters of Friction Welding
Apart from traditional welding methods, several welding parameters can be controlled in friction welding. These
parameters include diameter of experimental rod, rpm of the part, rpm of parts in to lathe, friction contact time,
forging delay time, forging time, time of increased friction pressure, friction pressure. Moreover, other
parameters such as geometry of parts and material properties are also significant. The rpm of rotating parts,
friction time, friction pressure, forging pressure and time are the parameters needed to be take into account while
optimizing the welding process. A successful welding process can occur if parameters are optimized [8].
The lower rpm of roating parts causes enormous moments and nonuniform heating results in. On the other hand,
lower rpm values minimize formation of intermetallic compounds. With higher rpm of rotating parts, ITAB
widens, and power supply is not affected. To prevent overheating in the welding region, friction pressure and
friction time have to be carefully controlled.
Pressure values applied in welding is very significant bcause it controls temperature gradient and affects
rotoational torque as well as power.
Friction and forging pressure are directly related to geometry and material properties of parts to be welded and
have a wide range.
Over applied pressure values increase power needs accordingly. Due to increased energy input, higher pressures
decrease the width of ITAB, accelerate metal displacement ratio and reduces welding time resulting in heat band
on the boundary. The variable of pressure can be controlled by the temperature in welding region and decrease in
718
�axial length. Optimum pressure must be applied to materials in order to get uniform deformations throughout
[13].
Friction pressure has to be high enough to allow the removal of oxides, to get uniform heating throughout and to
interrupt the affinity between surfaces and the air. The application of forging pressure especially during friction
process improves welding properties.
Forging pressure depends on the heat yield stress of the material. It should neither be high enough to cause
welding accumulation nor is it low enough to cause under welding. Forging pressure in some materials are
determined depending on the lower strength material. The diffusion of macro particles from surfaces to surfaces
occur during forging. Bonds continuously form and break down during friction at interface locations. In the
beginning of forging maximum bonding have to occur on the surface because permanent bonds are these lastly
formed bonds. Parts need to interact with each other under pressure and this pressure should not be reduced until
welding heat cools down. [11].
Friction and forging times are directly related to material properties. The friction time should allow plastic
deformation to occur or remove possible residuals and particles. For a high quality welding joint, minimum
friction time needs to be exceeded. Lower friction times as well as nonuniform heating result in nonjoined areas
at the interface and inadequate plastic deformation. This brings the problem of low quality weld. Higher friction
times, on the other hand, causes rough structure and wide ITAB region formation. This is especially important to
the welding of different materials because poor mechanical properties may be obtained due to formation of
undesirable substances. Moreover, overheating and material loss are also possible [13].
2.6. Applications of Friction Welding
This method is especially useful for the serial production. Relatively high overhead cost is balanced with higher
production rate and lower labor requirement. Process has several dimensions and hardware could easily be
adjusted. Thus, the method also becomes useful for the production of relatively smaller parts. With these
advantages, friction welding has found widespread application in the industry. Friction welding can generally be
applied in the following industries with listed applications:
-Machine production and spare part industry: cogwheels, piston rods, hydraulic cylinders, radial pomp pistons,
shaft with worm screw , crankshafts, drill bits, valves.
-Automative industry : valves, clack valve, drive shafts, gear levers, axle fasteners, break spindles, transmission
mechanisms, preheat rooms, pipe spindles, banjo axles.
- Aviation and space industry: repulsion jets, combustion chambers, spindles, turbines, rotors, pipes, fittings,
flanges.
- Work set industry: Spiral drills, milling cutters , borers, reamers, cutting tools.
- Electrical, electronics, and chemical industry: receiver camera for gas analysis, segregation columns
forchromatograph, Electrical connectors, continuous solder top, swing contacts, pipe fittings [16].
719
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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620
Title
A name given to the resource
The Research of Diesel Engine Performance Using Neutralized Safflower Oil as Fuel
Author
Author
ÖĞÜT, Hüseyin
OĞUZ, Hidayet
ERYILMAZ, Tanzer
DEMİR, Fikret
CİNİVİZ, Murat
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Vegetable oils for use as fuel are one of the methods of use of biofuels. However, high viscosity of vegetable oils causes to some problems use long period. The problem was either solved modified vegetable oil or by modified engine. The effect of some of the physical properties of diesel fuel and safflower oil on the engine performance with kit were measured and compared in the study. In this study funded by a project of TÜBĐTAK 108 O 419, fuel properties of safflower oil was investigated and transforming safflower oil to standard fuel (DIN V 51605) and its direct usage in the diesel engine with aid of a designed kit was studied. Diesel engine which is a four-stroke, single-cylinder, 15 kW was used for laboratory tests. The engine operated under 40-50% load for 1000 hours. According to the results of this research, there was 10,18% change in torque and 22,43% power engine data in comparison with diesel fuel when the safflower oil and diesel fuel were used.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b7235e306e879235350c1d13c830de70.pdf
eec286239922ec9ef413d4e7a25b9843
PDF Text
Text
Evaluating of Total Antioxidant and Total Oxidant Capacities in
Organic and Non-Organic Apples and in the Blood of Their Producers
Serdal ÖĞÜT1
Mümin POLAT2
Erdoğan KÜÇÜKÖNER3
1,2Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Medicine, Blood Bank
3Suleyman Demirel University, Food Engineering
Abstract: In this study there are two aims determined. Initially, the total
antioxidant, and oxidant capacities will be compared in apples which are
produced by using the pesticides including various effective chemicals and the
apples produced in an organic way by using natural animal fertilizers and
commercial organic fertilizers. Secondly, the antioxidant, and oxidant
capacities of the workers’ blood samples who are applying the pesticides, and
the ones who are working in producing the organic apples.
The total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the blood samples taken from
30 workers who were applying the pesticides, and 30 workers who were
producing the 30 organic apples at least for 3 years, and of the apples they
produced were analysed.
The total antioxidant and oxidant capacities were measured using direct
measurement kits for spectrophotometry.
As a result of the spectrophotometric analyses, no significant difference
(p>0.05) between the total antioxidant, and oxidant levels of the organic and
non-organic apples was determined. Besides, the antioxidant capacity of the
workers applying the agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a
significant decline compared to the workers who were producing the organic
apples (p<0.05). In addition, the oxidant capacity of the workers applying the
agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a significant increase
compared to the workers who were producing the organic apples (p<0.05).
These results indicate that pesticide applications do not cause a change in the
total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the apples. However, the workers
who are applying the pesticides can be affected negatively by these chemicals,
in the mean of the decreased total antioxidant capacity, and increased total
oxidant capacity.
Keywords: Pesticides, organic apple, non-organic apple, total antioxidant
status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS).
Introduction
Today in Turkey the use of chemicals and chemical fertilizers although not yet as high as in European
countries, the amount is not to be underestimated. The amount of chemical fertilizer used in our country 1-4
kg / ha, but ranged in total 9.8 million tons / year at the level (1).
Ecological conditions suitable for organic production and a large production potential of our countries,
organic produce and food market share in the world, unfortunately, is too low (2). However, organic
agriculture in Turkey is increasing every year, around 20% (3).
62
�Isparta, Karaman, especially to our country and in many provinces are in intensive apple production.
Appropriate in terms of the Isparta ecology of apple cultivation and has considerable potential. In Turkey,
nearly one-fifth of the apple offered for consumption are produced in Isparta (4). Plant-origin food
consumption as a result, only the important antioxidant vitamins (vitamins C, E, A), but also the
antioxidant properties of natural compounds as well (flavanoller, catechin, flavonoids, etc.), nutrition can
assure you. Recent studies showing the antioxidant activity of substances that occur because of oxidative
stress, cataracts, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurological diseases, such as playing a significant role in
the prevention of many degenerative diseases has revealed that (5–7). Apples, contain phytochemicals that
have powerful antioxidant activity. A large part of these phytochemicals are phenolic components. Phenolic
components of apple flavonoids; flavonoller (quercetin and glycosides) that are specific only to Apple
dihidrokalkonlar (floridzin and floretin) is composed from. Most of the other phenolic compounds
chlorogenic acid in apples are (8–10). Pesticides in our country use every day increases, but the
practitioners' (producers, workers, or paid agents make those), drug preparation and during application take
precautions not or extra doses of medication to do because of some health and environmental problems
arise. Isparta in terms of agricultural workers in the state is consistent with our country's problems (11).
Agriculture in the widely used pesticides, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide (O2) and hydroxyl radical
(-OH) as reactive oxygen species formation or by causing oxidant and antioxidant capacity changes may
cause. These radicals can react with biological macromolecules such as enzyme inactivation, and can also
cause DNA damage (12).
Two targets have been identified in this study. The first of these goals, and pesticides with organic apple
production in the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total antioxidant capacity (TOC), and the second in
the TAC that the blood of persons producing apples and compare TOC.
Materials and Methods
Apple samples in the study due to Isparta Gelendost within the boundaries of the district were collected
from apple orchards. The blood samples, taken from the person who produced these apples. This purpose,
the pesticides used (diazinon, chlorpyriphos, thiacloprid, phosalone, methidation, deltamethrin,
cypermethrin, Carbaryl, 98% copper sulfate) produced 30 apple samples and these apples for at least 3
years use pesticide that 30 person's blood taken. 30 apple producers also produced by means of the organic
(natural organic manure and commercial fertilizers), 30 samples with Apple is that Apple produces at least
three years, 30 people were taken from the blood. An evaluation questionnaire to participants in the study
was performed, and those with any chronic illness, or non-alcohol-dependent individuals are not included
in the study. Apples used in the study, the average weight of 140 g apples Starking are denominated.
Apple in the blood in the TAC and TOC values in 2004 and Erel (13, 24) developed by the TAC and TOC
direct measurement kit using [(Total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS) - Rel AssayTurkey)] spectrophotometrically determined.
Erel TAC test (13), a technique developed by the fully automated and powerful body against free radicals is
a method for measuring the total antioxidant capacity. Fe2 +-o-dianisidine complex with hydrogen
peroxide by Fenton-type reaction generates OH radicals. This powerful, low pH, colorless reduced reactive
oxygen species react with o-dianisidine molecules to yellow-brown dianisidin radical form. Dianisidin
radicals advanced oxidation reactions by participating in the formation of color is increasing. However,
examples of antioxidants that stop the oxidation reaction suppressed the formation of the access to the
colors. Automated analyzers used in this reaction results are given as measured spectrophotometrically.
Traditionally used as a standard of the water soluble vitamin E analogue, Trolox was used, and the results
mmol Trolox equiv. / L is expressed as. TOC measurement again Erel (24) by a colorimetric method
developed fully automated. Ferrozine-oxidants found in the sample ions are oxidized to o-dianisidin
complex ferric ions. Accelerate the reaction medium contained glycerol is about three times out. Ferric ions
in acidic media "xylenol orange" color with a complex form. Oxidants found in samples of the color
intensity is related to the amount as measured spectrophotometrically. Perkin Elmer brand
spectrophotometric analysis (UV / Vis spectrophotometer model lambda 20 - USA) spectrophotometer was
carried out.
Tubes were taken to study biochemistry in the blood. Within days of the cold chain reached the laboratory
has been the blood centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10 minutes. After taking blood samples until analysis and
63
�stored at -80 ° C freezer. Primarily on analysis of blood was transferred to the refrigerator at +4 ° C, then
melted at 37 ° C hot water bath is used for analysis spectrophometric.
Spectrophotometric TAC and TOC measurements in blood and apples in the bathtub for the first of three
separate spectra were taken and their 800'er mL in reagent 1 (R1) has been applied. Then a 50 mL standard
on one of these containers, standard and sample were added 2. Spectrophotometer at 660 nm and then the
absorbance readings were recorded. 125 mL of these reagents to them, then two (R2) were added at room
temperature for 10 minutes was expected. Finally, also the second 660 nm absorbance was read and
recorded.
OSI values, the TOS value is calculated by dividing the value of the TAS (24). SPSS 15.0 statistical
evaluation of data entered into the program, calculations were made using t-test.
Results
Demographic characteristics of study participants are given in Table 1.
Male
Those who do drugs
Those organic
production
Total
Female
Total
n
%
n
%
n
%
27
90
3
10
30
100.0
26
86.6
4
13.4
30
100.0
53
88.3
7
23.4
60
100.0
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of study participants
Applied pesticides in apples and organic apples in the TAC, TOC, and p values in Table 2 are given.
Apples produced with pesticides (TAC)
(n=30)
Average
(µmol
equivalent/g)
1,74
1,75
Organically produced apples (TAC) (n=30)
Apples produced with pesticides (TOC )
(n=30)
1,58
1,60
trolox
p value
>0,05
>0,05
Organically produced apples (TOC ) (n=30)
Table 2 Applied pesticides in apples and organic apples in the average TAC, TOC and P values.
As can be seen in Table 2, produced with pesticides, and organic apples in a significant difference
compared to TAC and TOC values was found (p> 0.05). But not significantly higher TAC of apples
produced in the organic way, as determined TOC lower. The person who made pesticides and organic apple
production in the blood of the person making the TAC, the TOC and p values are given in Table 3.
Average
(µmol
equivalent/g)
64
trolox
p value
�Pesticides in the blood of the person who made TAC
(n=30)
1,59
1,63
<0,05
Organic production in the blood of the people TAC
(n=30)
Pesticides in the blood of the person who made TOC
(n=30)
1,65
1,60
<0,05
Organic production in the blood of the people TOC
(n=30)
Table 3. The person who made pesticides and organic apple production in the blood of the person making
the TAC, TOC and p values.
Table 3 with the results that can be seen pesticides using the apple production of the person who made the
blood of the TAC on the average, organic apple production the person who made the blood of the TAC
values than the average significantly (p <0.05) lower TOC values, the average is significantly (p <0 , 2005)
were higher. TAC and TOC values of each group of oxidative stress index (ODI) was calculated to make
the pesticides from the other group of people OSI (OSI= TOS/TAC × 100) significantly (p <0.05) were
higher (Table 4).
People who made pesticides (n=30)
People who makes organic production
(n=30)
Average OSI value (OSI= TOS/TAC ×
100)
103,7
98,7
p value
<0,05
Table 4. Using pesticides and organic apple production to production of individuals in the OSI and the p
values of the blood of the people.
As shown in Table 4, apple production in persons with pesticides, OSI, compared with those of organic
produce a significant increase (p <0.05) was observed. As with pesticides, and organic apple production
OSI values of men and women who make a significant difference was found compared (Table 5). However,
although not statistically significant for both pesticides and organic produce in the group who were higher
in OSI.
Men who make pesticides (n=27)
Women who make pesticides (n=3)
The men's organic produce (n=26)
The women's organic produce (n=4)
Average OSI value(OSI= TOS/TAC ×
100)
104,2
103,5
99,3
98,2
p value
>0,05
>0,05
Table 5. With pesticides, and organic apple production of the women and men TAC, TOC, and p values.
Discussion
Like many other fruit apples high amounts of vitamin C, vitamin E and the risk of cancer by reducing DNA
damage and contains valuable antioxidants. Apple contains vitamins and antioxidants with the diet is an
important fruit. Apple radical trapping tests showed high antioxidant activity (14).
A study in Finland, kuersetin'den rich apple consumption increases have been reported to decrease coronary
mortality (15). In a study conducted in Hawai'i with apple consumption has been identified a negative
relationship between lung cancer and its relationship with Apple that may stem from antioxidants have
65
�been reported (16). In our study, the organic way (natural animal manure and commercial organic fertilizer)
is produced, as well as several effective chemicals containing (diazinon, chlorpyriphos, thiacloprid,
phosalone, methidation, deltamethrin, cypermethrin, Carbaryl, 98% copper sulfate), pesticides produced by
Apple in the TAC significant values were higher. The cause of the apple produced in these two groups and
that the antioxidant properties against free radicals consumed in diseases such as cardiovascular disease and
cancer can be said to show a protective effect. This study produced using pesticides and organic apple
production in the TAC and TOC was determined by the two groups, and TAC - TOC Apple found a
significant difference between values (Table 2).
In 2005 study conducted by Karadeniz and colleagues, pomegranate, quince, apples and grapes in the
morning as the highest antioxidant activity was determined. The same study, Cooper kind of apples average
antioxidant activity mean% 14.7 Golden Delicious type apple mean antioxidant activity% 20.7, our
research we also used Starking kind of apples average antioxidant activity while 19.5% have been reported
(9).
Production of organic products in research on food quality and environmental health has revealed positive
effects (17, 18). In our investigation, the apples in organic apple production was not due to a significant
increase in TAC. Organic apple production in the same way, Apple does not cause a change in the TOC
(Table 2).
Live in the TOC, external to the body directly can be received, or in the body, some reactions during the
open can crop up and to DNA affecting the genetic damage, lipid effects by cell membrane dysfunction or
protein by acting on the enzymes in the loss of function which may lead to radicals occurs. The body
against oxidative stress TAC various substances such as enzymes and vitamins is a defense mechanism
consisting of (19). Plasma and body fluids found in the TAC reflects the total effect of all antioxidants.
This is why the blood antioxidant status in determining individual antioxidants, rather than giving them the
value of the total antioxidant measurement is widely TAC (19).
Approximately one fifth of apples produced in Turkey are produced in Isparta (4). Apple production in the
region is quite high, brings extensive use of pesticides. But the research about the use of the pesticide
manufacturers in the region has revealed the inadequacy of (11.20). The results of this lack of research has
proven once again. Because pesticides do people with TAC values, the organic produce of the people TAC
values when compared with significantly (p <0.05) reduced, the TOC values were compared, a significant
increase (p <0.05) is true (Table 3).
In a survey of pesticides to people mainly organophosphorus insecticides (diazinon, chlorpyrifos,
thiacloprid, phosalone, methidation) were used. Piretroit this group of synthetic insecticides (deltamethrin,
cypermethrin) and carbamat insecticides (Carbaryl) follow (11). Drugs for at least three years of our work,
including the person who has been. Therefore, some pesticide applicators in the history of our country in
2008, prohibited the use of endosulfan pesticide active ingredient have been identified in their survey. This
study pesticides made of people (producers, workers, or paid agents of the person making the) blood in the
TAC and TOC values and organic apple production of the employees (producers, workers, or paid agents
of the person making the) blood in the TAC and TOC values compared to Apple Contrary significantly (P
<0.05) difference was found. TAC and TOC results in terms of these pesticides did not affect the quality of
apples, but in terms of reduced TAC and increasing TOC pesticides adversely affect the health of the
person making the shows.
In our survey of women and men who do drugs and TOK TAK average men and women produce and
organic apple compared to the average of the TAC and TOC was significantly (p <0.05) difference was
found (Table 5). Although not statistically significant, men have more than OSĐ'lerinin longer than men do
these jobs and their studies may have resulted in heavy work (Table 4).
Excessive formation of reactive oxygen compounds, for whatever reason or lack of antioxidant defense
systems and repair systems are developed as a result of oxidative stress (21).
Pesticides reduce antioxidant capacity, by increasing antioxidant capacity, causing oxidative stress have
been many studies showing that (22.23). This current study also yielded results consistent with the
literature data. People who make pesticides OSI (increased oxidant capacity, decreased antioxidant
capacity) OSI of organic production compared with the person who made a significant increase (p <0.05)
was determined.
Altuntas and colleagues at work, in the Mediterranean region is widely used organophosphate pesticide
fasolonun in vitro lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defense systems were examined on the effects.
Fasolon, malondialdehyde (MDA) formation increased, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione
peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT) has led to a decrease in activity. Fasolonun very high
66
�concentrations but these effects are only lethal dose level were observed (23). SOD, GSH-Px and CAT
antioxidant enzymes in our body is called. In this study, blood taken from these enzymes, including the
PAC were measured and Altuntas and colleagues working in parallel with the pesticides to the victim in the
TAC was significantly lower than was found. TAC and TOC in our body is in balance. TOS / TAS is OSI’s
rate (24). In this study, an increase TOC, TAC’s reduction, direct and may be caused by an increase OSI.
OSI increased atherosclerosis in people with a pesticide application, may increase the risk of cancer and
premature aging.
During five years of agricultural workers exposed to pesticides total of 41 healthy men, age and economic
status of the 21 individuals with the same free radical formation, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant status and
the cellular enzyme activity determination were compared. Compared with the control group significantly
increased MDA in agricultural workers. Glutathione, α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid and ceruloplasmin
concentrations of antioxidants, such as the control group significantly decreased compared with (25).
Participated in this study, a large portion of the 30 pesticide applicators (n = 15) consisted of agricultural
workers. Pesticide applicators, while the remaining 12 were producers, 3 are doing this job for payment.
TAC of 15 agricultural workers is calculated separately as this value was 1.60. Kisby and his colleagues
working in the orchards in their study of pesticides on farm workers, the negative impact of oxidative stress
and DNA have been put forward. The results in the context of a relationship between pesticides and cancer
incidence may be increasing attention was (26).
As a result, the use of pesticides in growing the food, the environment and human health is threatened. The
person who made this study of pesticides in blood TAC and TOC reduction in growth and therefore
increase the value determined OSI, the long-term adverse effects of exposure to pesticides have been found
out once again. TAC and TOC in pesticide applications, but Apple did not cause significant change in the
value produced as organic pesticides applied to apples with apples produced in the TAC and TOC values
were found to show similarities. Organic farming practices that have an impact on Apple is not in the TOC
or TAC, the apples that produce a positive impact on the health of people suggest.
References
[1] Er C. (2002) Organik Tarım Bir Lüks müdür?. Türk Tarım ve Köy Đşleri Bakanlığı Yayınları 145:16–20.
[2] Demiryürek K. (2004) Dünya ve Türkiye' de Organik Tarım, Harran Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi
Dergisi 8(3–4):63–71.
[3] Tozan M, Ertem A. (1998) Ekolojik Tarımın Ve Ürünlerin Dünü, Bugünü, Ekolojik (Organik,
Biyolojik) Tarım. S:7, Bornova, Đzmir.
[4] Anonim 2004. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations (FAO) http://www.fao.org
[5] Riemersma RA. (1994) Epidemiology and the role of antioxidants preventing coronary heart disease: a
brief overview. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 53: 59-65.
[6] Halliwell B. (1996) Antioxidants in human health and disease. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 16: 33-34.
[7] Schwartz JL. (1996) The dual roles of nutrients as antioxidants and prooxidants: their effects on tumor
cell growth. J. Nutr. 126: 1221-1227.
[8] Linda MR, Colm PO, Kelly JD, Downey K. (2004) Preliminary Studies for the Differentiation of Apple
Juice Samples by Chemometric Analysis of Solid-Phase Microextraction−Gas Chromatographic Data. J.
Agric. Food Chem 52 (23): 6891–6896.
[9] Karadeniz F, Burdurlu HS, Koca N, Soyer Y. (2005) Türkiye’de yetişen bazı sebze ve meyvelerin
antioksidan aktiviteleri. Turk J Agric For. 29: 297-303.
[10] Gök V, Kayacıer A, Telli R. (2006). Hayvansal ve Mikrobiyal Kaynaklı Doğal Antioksidanlar. Gıda
Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi 2: 35-40.
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�[11] Öğüt S, Küçüköner E. (2007) Isparta’da kullanılan tarım ilaçlarına karşı üreticilerin tutum ve
davranışları. Tarım Đlaçları Kongre ve Sergisi Bildiri Kitabı S: 378–385.
[12] Reiter RJ, Pablos M, Agapito TT, Guerrero JM (1996) Melatonin in the context of the free radical
theory of aging, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 786, 362-378.
[13] Erel O. (2004). A novel automated method to measure total antioxidant response against potent free
radicals reactions. Clin Biochem 37: 112–9.
[14] Heinonen IM. (2002) Antioxidants in fruits, berries and vegetables. In: Fruit and Vegetable Processing,
1st ed. (Ed. W. Jongen), CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, pp. 23–44.
[15] Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Reunanen A, Maatela J. (1996) Flavonoid intake and coronary mortality in
Finland: a cohort study. Br Med J. 312: 478–481.
[16] Le Marchand L, Murphy SP, Hankin JH, Wilkens LR, Kolonel LN. (2000) Intake of flavonoids and
lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 92: 154–160.
[17] Demir H, Topuz A, Gölükçü M, Polat E, Özdemir F, Şahin H. (2003) Ekolojik üretimde farklı organik
gübre uygulamalarının domatesin mineral madde içeriği üzerine etkisi. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Ziraat
Fakültesi Dergisi 16(1): 19-25
[18] Kumbur H, Özsoy HD, Özer Z. (2008) Mersin ilinde tarımsal alanlarda kullanılan kimyasalların su
kalitesi üzerine etkilerinin belirlenmesi. Ekoloji 17(68): 54-58.
[19] Ghiselli A, Serafini M, Natella F, Scaccini C. (2000) Total antioxidant capacity as a tool to assess
redox status: critical view and experimental data. Free Radic Biol Med 29:1106-1114.
[20] Öğüt S, Çetin GN, Küçüköner E. (2008) Isparta ve çevre ilçelerde tarımsal üretimde kullanılan
pestisitlerin uygulayıcılar üzerindeki akut etkileri. Toksikoloji Dergisi 6 (1-2): 69-72.
[21] Kökoğlu E. (1998) Oksidatif stres ve yaşlanma, Yaşlanmaya Biokimyasal Yaklaşım Uluslararası
Sempozyumu, Ankara
[22] Gökalp O, Buyukvanlı BE. Cicek M, Kaya Ö, Koyu A, Altuntas Đ, Koylu H. (2005) The effects of
diazinon on pancreatic damage and ameliorating role of vitamin E and vitamin C. Pesticide Biochemistry
and Physiology 81: 123–128.
[23] Altuntaş Đ, Delibaş N, Doğuş DK, Özmen S, Gültekin F. (2003) Role of reactive oxygen species in
organophospat insecticide poasalone toxicity in erythrocytes in vitro, Toxicology in vitro 17: 153-157.
[24] Erel O. 2005. A novel automated colorimetric method for measuring total oxidant status. Clin
Bioche 38: 1103–1111.
[25] Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Lalitha S. (2001) Plasma and RBCs antioxidant status in occupational
male pesticide sprayers, Clinia Chimca Acta 310: 107-112.
[26] Kisby GE, Muniz JF, Scherer J, Lasarev MR. (2009) R Oxidative Stress and DNA Damage in
Agricultural Workers, Journal of Agromedicine 14: 206–214.
68
�
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330
Title
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Evaluating of Total Antioxidant and Total Oxidant Capacities in Organic and Non-Organic Apples and in the Blood of Their Producers
Author
Author
ÖĞÜT, Serdal
POLAT, Mümin
KÜÇÜKÖNER, Erdoğan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study there are two aims determined. Initially, the total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities will be compared in apples which are produced by using the pesticides including various effective chemicals and the apples produced in an organic way by using natural animal fertilizers and commercial organic fertilizers. Secondly, the antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the workers’ blood samples who are applying the pesticides, and the ones who are working in producing the organic apples. The total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the blood samples taken from 30 workers who were applying the pesticides, and 30 workers who were producing the 30 organic apples at least for 3 years, and of the apples they produced were analysed. The total antioxidant and oxidant capacities were measured using direct measurement kits for spectrophotometry. As a result of the spectrophotometric analyses, no significant difference (p>0.05) between the total antioxidant, and oxidant levels of the organic and non-organic apples was determined. Besides, the antioxidant capacity of the workers applying the agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a significant decline compared to the workers who were producing the organic apples (p<0.05). In addition, the oxidant capacity of the workers applying the agricultural chemicals in producing the apples showed a significant increase compared to the workers who were producing the organic apples (p<0.05). These results indicate that pesticide applications do not cause a change in the total antioxidant, and oxidant capacities of the apples. However, the workers who are applying the pesticides can be affected negatively by these chemicals, in the mean of the decreased total antioxidant capacity, and increased total oxidant capacity.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/78d71a100b6e0c9e0ba41d8ce463c467.pdf
09f9e5a62eb3a5579b1de16a19447bc0
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
The Effect of Turkish Culture on Bosnian Culture Exemplified by Food
Culture
Fatih Đyiyol
International Burch University, Sarajevo
fiyiyol@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: This paper discusses the effect of Turkish Culture, which enhanced its existence in
Bosnia-Herzegovina during the historical period, on Bosnian Culture by providing examples
from the food culture. The purpose of this paper is to discover Turkish food that continues to
exist in Bosnia-Herzegovina till today. Paper, being a folkloristic study, made use of
dictionary resources apart from the written resources. Paper was examined with the
functional method which is one of the methods of Folklore. At the end of study, it is seen that
dishes, soups and desserts kind belonging to the Turkish culinary culture continues to function
even today.
Key words: Turkish cuisine, Bosnian cuisine, folklore, effect
Introduction
The presence of Turkish culture in the Balkans extends to the ancient period. Before the Ottoman
conquest of the Balkans, Turks settled here and left significant traces in this region. It is known that Turkic tribes
like Bulgarians, Pechenegs, Oghuz and Kumans lived in the Balkans Bulgari (Hamzaoğlu, 2004:105-106).
Before the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, the Turkic tribe, which left significant traces in the Balkans and
Bosnia-Herzegovina, is Avars. Avars’social and cultural effect on the societies living in the Balkans before the
Ottoman period can be clearly seen in the later centuries too****************** (Malcolm, 2002:6;
Hamzaoğlu, 2000: 391-397). After Ottoman’s conquest of the Balkans, a new era has started with regard to the
relationship between the communities living in the Balkans and Turks and Turkish culture. Balkans fall under
the Ottoman rule helped the Turkish culture to get into direct contact with the settled communities. Situated at a
significant junction point, Bosnia-Herzegovina’s considerable part was conquered by Sultan Mehmet the
conquer in 1463 (Âşık Paşazâde, 2007: 210-212). Along with this conquest, the cultural interaction between
Turkish culture, Bosnian residents’ and Bosnian culture came to a more effective point. After the conquest, the
Islamization of Bosnia-Herzegovina occuring in masses enabled Turkish culture to enhance its effect in this
region (Imamovic, 1998: 138-181). Embracing Islam through Turks, Bosnians, with their new religion, entered
into a basin of a new culture and civilization. With the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia-Herzegovina and
Islamization, several elements of Turkish culture had moved to Bosnia-Herzegovina. Staying under Ottoman rule
that lasted almost four and half centuries, the deep traces of Turkish culture and Islamic civilization, in BosniaHerzegovina, settled here in many areas ranging from architecture to art; culture to literature; religious tradition
to food culture. Until Austro-Hungarian Empire’s conquest of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1878 (Friedman, 1996: 5758), this cultural interaction continued directly.
Turkish Cuisine
Having an important place among the world cuisines, “Turkish Cuisine” took its current state after
passing through three significant periods. One of these; the period which carries the traces of Central Asian
Turkish culture,where pre-Islamic Turkish culture and sosyal life and cavalry nomadic are seen. In this period,
meaty foods were common, especially horse and sheep meat were eaten roasted. Again in this period, beside
The title “Ban”given to Croatian and Bosnian Presidents passed on to these communities from Avar Turkish.
Again, the word “Obri” in Serbian Language was used for Avars. Even today the toponyms, such as “Obravac” which means
a place where Obris live, is seen in the Balkans (Malcolm, 2002: 6).
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food of nomadic life like yoghurt, milk and cheese, the viniculture and grape molasses are among the dishes seen
in residental life (Kafesoğlu, 2009: 318-319).
The second period in Turkish cuisine is a period which started with Karahans and ended with Seljuk
Empire. Turks, after introduction to Islam, entered into communication with Arab and Persian cultures. Entering
into communication with these cultures, Turks adapted various dishes from the mentioned cultures. Besides,
many dishes belonging to Turkish culture are called with the words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. For
example, included in Turkish folklore; for the meals “the meat, with no water, roasted inside a pan directly in
fire” they used the name “Kebab” which was borrowed from Arabic (T.S, 2005: 1124). Again, for a meal that is
cooked, with no water, in tandoor, the word “Biryan” which entered in to Turkish from Persian was used (T. S,
2005: 284). Dishes and dish names, taken from Arab and Persian cultures, were reshaped in Turkish social life
and established a deep-rooted rich cuisin. The Arabic-origin word “Kebap” revealed twenty-three confirrmed
dish varities in Turkish cuisine like; döner kebabı, şiş kebabı, yoğurtlu kebap, Adana kebabı, bostan kebabı,
buğu kebabı, çağ kebabı, çoban kebabı, çömlek kebabı, çöp kebabı, fırın kebabı, kağıt kebabı, oltu kebabı,
orman kebabı, patlıcan kebabı, saç kebabı, talaş kebabı, tandır kebabı, taş kebabı, testi kebabı, Tokat kebabı,
Urfa kebabı, yufka kebabı (T.S, 2005: 1124).
The third period is the Ottoman era Turkish cuisine. During this period, Turkish cuisine, which became
the imperial cuisine, have received several dishes from all communities within its structure but; also left a
significant effect on the food folklore of these communities. Empire's vast geography and the vast opportunities
enriched the Turkish cuisine and food supplies arriving from different regions turned the Turkish culinary
culture, during the period and for later, into a major kitchen. Enriched with different sub-cultures in this period,
Turkish cuisine helped the formation of a deep-rooted kitchen like “Palace Kitchen”. In the Ottoman court a unit
called “Matbah-ı Âmire” was created, and this unit; a large building where meals, sweets, grout and drugs like
“Has mutfak, Ağalar mutfağı, Divan mutfağı” were prepared (Haydaroğlu, 2003).
Turkish cuisine comprised of the three major phases from steppe period, the Seljuk and Ottoman
periods till today (Artun, 2008: 401); it acquired the main characteristics of these periods in its structure and
Turkish food culture, considering the basic features, has meat, onions and paste in terms of materials; cooking in
charcoal
and
copper
pots
in
terms
of
cooking(Artun,
2008:
399-402;
http://www.kultur.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx).
Turkish Cuisine in Bosnia-Herzegovina
One of the most important indications of the effect of Turkish culture in Bosnia-Herzegovina is the
appearance of the words belonging to Turkish culinary and Turkish nutrition cultures. With Ottoman Empire’s
conquest of Bosnia-Herzegovina, since XV. century various food kind had been moved to Bosnia-Herzegovina
(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2005: 162).
Some of the meals belonging to Turkish cuisine directly entered into Bosnian culture and were called
by the same names. In some other Turkish meals, with the historical and geographical effect, changes occurred
either in their names or dish's material. For example, ''Sarma'', one of type of dish in Turkish cuisine, settled in
the same way in Bosnian folk culture and arrived until today. However, the word 'bey' which passed from
Turkish to Bosnian, gained a new identity as in Begova Çorba (Gentleman's soup).
The names of some of the food kind, carried from Turkish cuisine to Bosnian cuisine, either partly
changed or were completely unaltered. Beside this, various dishes, which are seen almost in every cultures and
in Turkish culture, are also available in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Soups
Begova čorba (Tur., Bey çorbası; Ing. entleman's soup), is a type of soup consisting heavily of chicken
meat and ladyfinger, made for special guests or significant organizations in transition periods. The word
beg>bey in Turkish emerged in Bosnia-Herzegovina as a result of the structure of Bosnian community during
Ottoman period (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007:41).
Šehrija çorba (Tur., Şehriye çorbası; Ing., Noodle soup),is “a kind of soup made from oil, solt, water
and noodles'', received its name with the adaption of the word ''Şe'riyye'' in Arabic into Turkish and emerged as
a result(T.S, 2005: 1857). The noodle soup is one kind of soup, which is seen in the traditional Bosnian cuisine,
is had in daily life (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 57; Škaljić, 1965: 584).
Škembe-çorba (Tur., Đşkembe çorbası; Ing., Tripe soup), is a kind of soup made from tripe. It continues
its functionality in Turkish cuisine today, but; it also continues its functionality in Bosnian cuisine (Škaljić,
1965: 591).
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Tarhana, tarana (Škaljić, 1965: 601); mixed cereal soup, prepared with mixed cereals,is one of
the important soup in Turkish cuisine, entered into Bosnian folk culture in the same way. It is a soup
kind which is seen in every phase of daily life specially in village and town communities (Hadžıosmanovıć,
2007: 52-57).
Tutmać is a kind of “soup with yoghurt made from the squarely-cut dough pieces” (T.S, 2005: 2012).
Tutmaç, with its style of preparation and its Turkish name, passed into Bosnian culture (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007:
46).
Dishes
Sarma (Tur., Sarma; Ing., stuffed vine leaves), is a kind of dish “made from cabbage, chard and grape leaves
wrapped with the filling prepared'' (T.S, 2005: 1706). Sarma, with its name and style of preparation, is seen,
unaltered, in Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 61-65; Škaljić, 1965: 551). In addition to its consumption
in daily life in Bosnia-Herzegovina, it is one of the socially significant dishes prepared in special occasions.
Sarma, specially in iftar (fast-breaking) tables in Bosnia-Herzegovina, is among indispensable dishes. There is a
kind of dish called jalan Sarma or jalandži dolma found in the Herzegovina region. This sarma type is preared
by putting rice inside the vine leaf. It is called jalan(bare) sarma because it does not contain any meat inside (R1,
R2, R4, R6, R10, R15).
Đmam-bajildi (Tur., Đmambayıldı), is a sort of dish made from “the eggplant fried in whole, split in the
middle and stuffed inside with the filling consisting of onions, garlic and tomatoes(T. S, 2005: 960). This dish,
belonging to Turkish cuisine, can be seen in traditional Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 69; Škaljić,
1965: 345). Consumed at every phase of daily life, this dish type, specially seen; Zenica,Travnik and
Herzegovina regions (R1, R4, R9, R14, R15, R16, R17).
Kadun-butući (Tur., Kadınbudu köfte), is a kind of “meatball made from either one sort of rice or
pounded wheat by frying them in oil after dredging them in eggs” (T.S, 2005: 1027). This dish, belonging to
Turkish cuisine, can be seen in traditional Bosnian cuisine with the same name. Reshaped according to Bosnian
taste, this dish is, specially, seen in tradition life in Bosnia-Herzegovina(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 82; Škaljić,
1965: 379).
Sogandolma, sagandolma (Tur., Soğan dolma; Ing., Stuffed onions), It is a kind of stuffed vegetable
dish made by empyting onion’s inside and filling it with rice and minced meat(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 69;
Škaljić, 1965: 569). Although this dish is not very common in Turkish cuisine, its name comprises of two
Turkish words’ combination and it became national dish of Bosnia. It is a kind of dish which is consumed,
specially, at the introduction of national meals, at the tables of Ramadan and weddings.
Ćevapčić (Tur., Kebab), is a kind of meatball resembling to meatball from Inegol among Turkish
dishes. It is widely consumed in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Within Turkish popular culinary culture, in terms of
functionality, presentation and generality, ćevapčić meets the function of “Döner” in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In
Bosnia-Herzegovina’s publicity, touristic and folkloristic organizations, it is a dish which comes in the
foreground.
Šišćevap, Šišćevap (Tur., Şiş kebab; Ing., shish kebab), is a sort of kebab made by arranging in kebab in
skewers (T.S, 2005: 1871). It is seen in Bosnian traditional cuisine, particularly in restaurants that serve Bosnian
traditional dishes. It is consumed in dially life as well as in special occasions (Hadžiosmanovıć, 2007: 90;
Škaljić, 1965: 590). This dish is eaten widely in Sarajevo and it is called Sarajevski mač (Saraybosna KılıcıSword of Sarajevo) when prepared with vegetables.
Bungur, Bulgur Pilav (Tur., Bulgur pilavı; Cooked pounded wheat), is a sort of rice made from the
pounded wheat. Various sorts are prepared in Bosnia-Herzegovina by adding different materials to pounded
wheat. For this sort of rice, the word “Bulgur”, which was taken from Turkish, is used and the word “Bungur” is
made use of (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 163; Škaljić, 1965: 154).
Keške, ćeške, kekšek (Tur., Keşkek; Ing., Pounded meat and meat), is a kind of dish made from “boiling
well-pounded wheat with meat for a long time”(T. S, 2005: 1148). It passed from Turkish traditional cuisine to
Bosnian traditional cuisine but the functionality of this dish decreased. Today, it became a sort of dish prepared
rarely in Central Bosnia mostly (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 151; Škaljić, 1965: 407).
Pirjan (Tur., Biryan; Ing., Pit roasted lamb),is a sort of meat dish cooked in tandoor and is seen in
Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 127; Škaljić, 1965: 518). Nowadays, meat dishes, prepared in electric
and stone ovens, too, are called pirjan.
Dolma (Tur., Dolma; Ing., Vegetable stuffing),is a kind of dish prepared by putting rice, minced meat or
other materials into either bell pepper or tomatoes. Dolma is also a general name for the dishes like leaf-filling,
leaf-wrapping and bell pepper-stuffing (T.S, 2005: 557). Dolma dish is a widely eaten dish in BosniaHerzegovina (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 61-65; Škaljić, 1965: 223). The most widespread region of Dolma is
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Travnik and its surroundings (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2005: 162). Common in daily life as well as in transition
periods, dolma is one of the main dishes of ceremonies.
Đulbastija, ćulbastija(Grilled cutlet), is dish made from the boneless meat cooked on embers and grills(T.S,
2005: 1280). Although this is the same dish in Bosnia-Herzegovina, it is also prepared with bony or boneless
meat (Škaljić, 1965: 254).
Ćufte (Tur, Köfte; Ing., Meatball), is a kind of dish “generally made from minced meat, and sometimes
chicken, fish and potatoes.k türüdür (T.S, 2005: 1227) It is pretty common in Bosnian culture (R1, R2, R3, R4,
R5, R8, R9, R10, R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, R7).
Sweets
Baklava (Tur., Baklava; Ing., Sweet pastry), is a sort of sweet, which is made by various dry fruits
wrapped in dough sheets and by pouring grout over it (T. S, 2005: 155). Baklava, is a sweet kind which is
functional in traditional life in Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is offered to people coming for a visit during Ramazan
festival. In Bosnian weddings, “The girl, who is about to get married, would enter with her veil into a room full
women, sit in front of a femal teacher to recite verses from the Qur’an. Then grout was offered to the women in
the room. The Marriage ceremony would come to an end after coffee and baklava were offered”
(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2005: 164-166) It is a kind of sweet specially consumed in weddings, religious festival and
was offered to special guests(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 262; Škaljić, 1965: 116).
Kadaif (Tur., Kadayıf; Ing., Shredded pastry), is a kind of sweet “made from flour and consumed as
sweet” (T. S, 2005: 1026). The most consumed kind in Turkish cuisine are, shredded pastry and bread pastry.
The word “Kadaif” in Bosnia-Herzegovina is used for shredded pastry. Apart from this shredded pastry kind,
bread pastry,too, is also kind of sweet found in Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 273; Škaljić, 1965:
378). In terms of importance, shredded pastry, although not as significant as baklava, is one of the crucial sweets
of the transition period and special occasions. (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R8, R9, R10, R11, R12, R13, R14, R15,
R17).
Halva, alva, halvuša, alvuša (Tur., Helva; Ing.; Halwa), is a sort of sweet made from oil, sugar, flour,
and sometimes, from semolina (T.S, 2005: 875). Halwa is a sort of sweet widely seen in Bosnian traditional
cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 290; Škaljić, 1965: 306). Halwa is definitely prepared during Prophet’s Birth
Ceremony and it is made sure that the smell surrounds the entire house. (R2, R4, R8, R12, R15, R16, R17).
Gulač (Tur., Güllaç; Ing., Stuffed rice wafers), is a kind of sweet made from starchy thin dough sheets.
Although quite known in Bosnia-Herzegovina; it is a type of sweet which is rarely made(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007:
294).
Đulbešečer (Tur., Gulbeşeker; Ing., Rose Jam), is a type of sweet prepared with rose and sugar(T.S,
2005: 805). Although quite known in Bosnia-Herzegovina; it is a sort of sweet whose functionality decreased at
a great deal (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 301; Škaljić, 1965: 255).
Tulumbe, Tulumba (Tur., Tulumba; Ing., Fried pastry with Syrup), is a dessert made by“giving shape to
dough” (T.S, 2005: 2007). Fried pastry with Syrup, is widely consumed dessert kind in Bosnian cuisine. It is
eaten in Religious Festivals and weddings as well as in daily life (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 301; Škaljić, 1965:
255).
Hurmadžik, hurmašica, hurmadžici (Tur., Hurmacık; Ing., Date Sweet); is a type of dough sweet made
by “shaping dough like a date” (T.S, 2005: 904). Beside traditional community life, it is a kind of sweet
consumed in the cities too (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 278).
Ašure, hašure (Tur., Aşure; Ing.,Noah’s Pudding), is a type of sweet made by “boiling ingredients like
wheat, chickpea etc., and dry fruits along with sugar” (T. S, 2005: 139). It is a type of sweet prepared on the 10th
day of the month of Moharrem to commemorate the martydom of Excellency Hossain (Prophet’s grandson) and
with the same function and ingredients it is also made in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 301;
Škaljić, 1965: 255).
Conclusion
Starting to become active in the Balkans before the Ottoman and with the Ottoman’s conquest of
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Turkish culture left a significant effect on Bosnian culture. Remaining under the Ottoman
rule nearly 450 years and with the effect of Islamization, Bosnia-Herzegovina has become a major carrier of
Turkish culture. Many soup, dish and dessert kind of Turkish cuisine passed on to Bosnian cuisine. Some of the
kinds of dish in Turkish cuisine have entered into Bosnian cuisine with their own names and densities and others
with different names. Nowadays, various dish types, belonging to Turkish cuisine, were adapted by Bosnian
cuisine and these dishes constituted a significant part of Bosnian cuisine. In our study, a major part of the
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Turkish dishes found in Bosnia-Herzegovina are seen to perform functions in the transition periods of Bosnian
folkloristic culture like important occasions and events, increasing holiness, showing the significance of things
done.
References
ARTUN, Erman (2008), “Adana Mutfak Kültürü ve Adana Yemeklerinden Örnekler”, Halk Kültürü Researches,
Kitabevi Pub., p.399-433.
Âşıkpaşazade (1882), Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmân, Prepared by; Prof. Dr. Kemal Yavuz- Prof. Dr. A. Yekta Saraç,
Gökkubbe pub., Đstanbul.
HADŽIOSMANOVIĆ, Lamija (2007), Bosnian Cook, Sejtarija pub. Sarajevo.
HADŽIOSMANOVIĆ, Lamija (2005), “Geçmişten Günümüze Bosna Mutfağı”, Mostar Magazine, Trans.,
Emini Şentürk, Year.1, Issue. 6, p., 162-166.
HAYDAROĞLU,
Đlknur
(2003),
http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/18/30/210.pdf
“Osmanlı
Saray
(Date of access: 3.05. 2010).
Mutfağından
Notlar”,
http://www.kultur.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx (Date of access: 3.05. 2010).
FRĐEDMAN, Francine (1996), The Bosnian Muslims Denial of a Nation, Westview press, Oxford.
HAMZAOĞLU, Yusuf (2004), Sırbistan Türklüğü, Lagosa Pub., Üsküp
HAMZAOĞLU, Yusuf (2000), Balkan Türklüğü, Kültür Bak. Pub., Ankara.
IMAMOVIÇ, Mustafa (1998), Historiya Bošnjaka, Bošnjančka Zajednica Kulture Preporod, Sarajevo.
KAFESOĞLU, Đbrahim (2009), Türk Milli Kültürü, Ötüken Pub., 28.edition, Đstanbul.
MALCOLM, Noel(2002), Bosnia A Short History, Pan Book, London.
ŠKALJĐĆ, Abdullah (1965), Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom Jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo.
TURKISH DICTIONARY; 2005, Türk Dil Kurumu pub., Ankara
Oral Resources
Resource No, Name and Surname,
Date of Birth,
Place of Birth,
Education,
Profession
(R1),
Sanela ARDOVĐĆ,
29.03. 1969,
Butmir- Sarajevo,
High School,
Typist
(R2),
Aziza KADRĐĆ,
6. 5. 1935
Sjenica-Sancak,
illiterate,
Housewife
(R3),
Berina TĐRO
08.07.1963,
Sarajevo,
High School,
Typist
(R4),
Teacher
Ruvejda BĐLĐÇ,
31.01.1943,
Ljubuşki,
(R5),
Zümreta PEPĐ Ć,
1. 1. 1959,
Sjenica- Sancak,
(R6),
Samiya KARĐÇ,
17.03.1937,
Sarajevo,
473
University,
High School,
…
Retired
Housewife
Housewife
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
(R7),
Mehrima PALJEVAC, 10.05.1962,
Sarajevo,
High School,
Housewife
(R8),
Taiba BUDNJO,
26.12.1964,
Olovo,
University,
Businessman
(R9),
Amra BIRZINA,
27.09.1985,
Stolac,
University,
Journalist
(R10),
Dentist
(R11),
(R12),
Member
Hatica HASĐÇ,
25.12.1935,
Mehida UVEYZOVIÇ, 20.07.1978,
Hanifa OBRALIĆ,
Sarajevo,
College,
Retired
Bratunac/Srebrenica, High School,
21.05.1954,
Mrkonjić Grad,
Housewife
University,
(R13)
Nera BARUČĐJA,
29.11. 1951,
Kotorsko,
(R14),
Šerifa SMRIKO,
16.02. 1952,
Zenica,
High School,
Housewife
(R15),
Špago DINKA,
Mostar,
High School,
Broker
(R16),
Mehmed MUJKĐĆ,
Žepa,
Madrasah,
Imam
(R17),
Nasiha ALĐĆ-KLĐPĐĆ, 09.09.1960,
Kozarac,
High School,
Housewife
18. 12. 1951,
1928,
474
High School,
Faculty
Housewife
�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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736
Title
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The Effect of Turkish Culture on Bosnian Culture Exemplified by Food Culture
Author
Author
İYİYOL, Fatih
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This paper discusses the effect of Turkish Culture, which enhanced its existence in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the historical period, on Bosnian Culture by providing examples from the food culture. The purpose of this paper is to discover Turkish food that continues to exist in Bosnia-Herzegovina till today. Paper, being a folkloristic study, made use of dictionary resources apart from the written resources. Paper was examined with the functional method which is one of the methods of Folklore. At the end of study, it is seen that dishes, soups and desserts kind belonging to the Turkish culinary culture continues to function even today.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3356e0a9689c3dfd2e93865f4006dcdd.pdf
f918112ae91f6158dd269648e157b330
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
To Examine Sustainable Development Through The Historical Applications of
Foundations
Fatma ġENSOY
fatmasensoy@yahoo.com
Abstract: Sustainable development is one of the contemporary concepts. If we move
from today‘s definition of this concept, the solutions for the global problems can be
obtained from the foundation‘s applications in the past. Sustainable development concept
is generally referred to the 1987 report of World Commission on Environment and
Development. The Brundtland Commission reported the slogan, ―Our Common Future:
From One Earth to One World‖. The Commission conceptualized sustainable
development as ―paths of human progress, which meet the needs and aspirations of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs‖. The goals of sustainable development are far-reaching and have as their
objective the transformation of contemporary development theory and practice. They
include the formulation of new paradigms of social, economic, political, cultural, and
ecological development. More and more rational approaches are improved to the concept
of ―development‖ which takes into account the long-term costs associated with short-term
improvements. The judicious use of the planet‘s non-renewable physical resources; a
balance between economic, social, cultural and physical development; and the realization
of fully integrated development strategies that bring together all relevant sectors and
actors into a common framework of local, national, regional and international action.
Foundations (Waqf) are Non Governmental Organizations. Current approaches to the
definition of a waqf includes; local administration and free economic rules in
management. In addition, democracy and volunteerism are essential for the definition.
These are weld from the Islamic law. Foundations with the social policy functions had
provided the continuity of social life. Waqf functions include almost all stages of social
life. Such as; increasing recruitment rates and employment, income and wealth
redistribution, social security formation, infrastructure development, expansion of
education… The aim of the settler, colleteur is the continuation of this functions for
infinitum. It indicates that they think not only for needs of future generation but also the
needs of all humanity. According to the facts mentioned above, economic and social
resources were available to all humanity. Community life has a constantly changing
dynamic character. We are the heirs of the finest examples of the foundation of
civilization. In other words, we as the heirs must attribute a new, fresh and modern
mission to the third sector or civil society organizations. Sustainable development
concept includes different dimensions. Such as ecological, economic, political, cultural,
social sustainability. This study‘s aim is to indicate that the applications of foundation
were serving the same purposes of sustainable development. The treatments applied
today to strengthen the social structure exactly overlaps with the services performed by
the awqaf throughout history. The given example in this case will emphasize the
importance of each term. The traces of good experiences are which created in the past
have lived for centuries. The orphans, widows, elderly people, children and the others
joined economic and social life through endowed charity. However, it is clear that
foundations must have found new solutions and different policy instruments for today‘s
problems.
The Concept of Sustainable Development
Sustainable development has become a buzzword in development thought. Indeed, sustainable development
appears to have replaced such venerable concepts as ―growth‖, ―modernization‖, ―progress‖ and even ―accelerated
development‖ as the unifying concept for worldwide development activities. The concept of ―human development‖,
that has been promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1992) since 1990. Thus, it
represents a serious challenge to the primacy of sustainable development in the new hierarchy of development
concepts.
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The fact is that the sustainable development has succeeded in uniting widely divergent theoretical and
ideological perspectives into a single conceptual framework.
The goals of sustainable development are far-reaching and have as their objective the transformation of
contemporary development theory and practice. They include: 1) the formulation of new paradigms of social,
economic, political, cultural, and ecological development; 2) more rational approaches to development that take into
account the long-term costs associated with short-term improvements; 3) the judicious use of the planet's nonrenewable physical resources; 4) a balance between economic, social, cultural and physical development; and 5) the
realization of fully integrated development strategies that bring together all relevant sectors and actors into a
common framework of local, national, regional and international action.(Estes,1993) Inside the Brutland Report:
Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development is summarized that ―In essence, sustainable
development is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the
orientation of technological development; and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and
future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.‖(UN-Documents net)
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1992:17) identifies the following outcomes as
minimum additional requirements for achieving the goal of sustainable development: 1) the elimination of poverty;
2) a reduction in population growth!; 3) more equitable distribution of resources; 4) healthier, more educated and
better trained people; 5) decentralized, more participatory government; 6) more equitable, liberal trading systems
within and among countries, including increased production for local consumption; and 7) better understanding of
the diversity of ecosystems, including locally adapted solutions to environmental problems and better monitoring of
the environmental impact of development activities.
Since 1990, annual Human Development Reports have explored challenges including poverty, gender,
democracy, human rights, cultural liberty, globalization, water scarcity, climate change, and mobility. 2010 marks
the twentieth anniversary of the human development report and offers an opportunity to reappraise its contribution
and to make the case for a new human development vision to meet the challenges and opportunities of the twentyfirst century. This concept note, based on a series of valuable discussions with colleagues in different parts of the
UNDP, sets out the basic approach to tackle this task, which will focus on the implications of the human
development approach for development policies and strategies.
The Human Development Report has been a major force in thinking about development, not only by
highlighting the inadequacy of per capita income as the sole measure of a society‘s progress, but also by exploring
how a people-centered approach affects the way we should think about key challenges. The reports have covered
subjects as diverse as participation, cultural liberty and financing, as well as larger global challenges like cooperation
and climate change. The human development approach has influenced many strands of development thinking and the
ways that most policymakers and researchers think about human progress. The 2010 report aims to take this
contribution significantly further by showing how placing human development at the center of our priorities changes
the ways in which we think about, formulate, implement and monitor development policies designed to promote
empowerment, address inequality and tackle sustainability.(Human Development Report 2010).
The Concept of Waqf
Waqf is a charitable foundation. In Arabic language, means forbidding movement, transport or exchange of
something. Awqaf is the plural of Waqf. (Öztürk, 1983) The word Waqf is used in Islam with the meaning of
holding certain property and preserving it for the confined benefit of certain philanthropic use and prohibiting any
use or disposition of it outside that specific objective. On the other side, as an approach for ―ownership‖; a property
converts from private ownership to social ownership category. It improves by the effect of moral and religious
motivation. Due to the fact that Allah encourage human beings to help each other in his holly Qur‘ân and in the
example of his prophet, waqf is prominently improved in the Muslim World and plays a significant role in social,
political, and economic life in the Muslim society.(Zaim)
―When a human being dies, his work for Allah comes to an end except for three things:
a lasting charity (sadaqa jaariya), knowledge that benefits others, and a good child who calls on Allah for
His favour.‖ (Related by Muslim in his Sahih, the book of ―Al-Wassiya‖. Related also by Abu Daoud, At-Tirmidhi
and An-Nasaii.) Commenting on this Hadith that the ‗lasting charity‘ is generally recognized as referring to Waqf
endowments.(Ali, 2009)
There are three main kinds of waqfs. The first kind is the Khairy Waqf or charitable waqf, which
means withholding one‘s property and directing its revenues towards different philanthropic goals. The second kind
of waqf is the Ahli Waqf or the family waqf. Family vakıfs (vakıf-ı-ehli) were made in favor of one‘s relatives and
descendants with the final stage being the dedication of the vakıf to charitable purposes.(Peters,2002) Family awqaf
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were used as a source of income for offspring and for slaves, ensuring the transmission of family wealth from
generation to generation. In contrast, a vakıf-ı hayri was dedicated to pious, religious or charitable causes, or for
public utilities or the poor.(Yediyıldız, 1982) Family awqaf were divided into two categories; family and semi-family
awqaf Semi-family awqaf had the characteristics of both public and family awqaf and were the most preferred type
in the Ottoman Empire. In eighteenth-century Anatolia, 82% of the awqaf were family awqaf with the ratio of semifamily awqaf reaching 75 %.(Yediyıldız,1982). Upon the death of the last descendant the endowment reverted to the
poor.The founder, called as the ―vâkıf‖ appointed himself to the position of Ģeyh if he created a dervish convent;
müderris or professor if he established a medrese; and mütevelli or adminisrator of the waqf, whether it be a mosque,
soupkitchen, inn, hospital, or any other instutions that was created. It hardly need be stressed that this last office
enabled the vâkıf and his posterity to exercise virtually absolute control over the waqf and its revenues. (Yediyıldız,
1982; Barnes,1986)
Vakfiyes(deed of trust) give us various kinds of information about the donor, but they also allow us to
hear their individual voices, demonstrate the kind of founder and the purposes for which these foundations were
established, and the differences in their size. Unlike vakfiyes, court registers give information when a legal issue
arose. These registers rather record the problematic nature of the awqaf . We can only learn the location and nature
of the waqf in addition to some other information, from these records.
Safiye Sultan, in her deeds of trust: ―For as long as she lives, her royal majesty shall be entitled to receive
the surplus of the foundation‘s revenues and after her death, so shall her children, and the children of their children,
and the children of the children of their children, and from generation to generation shall they and the right to make
use thereof…Let whichever of the manumitted servants and of their children, and of their children‘s children is the
most intelligent and capable serve as trustee of the endowment and let whoever is trustee share equally in the surplus
revenues with the others. Should their line be wholly extinguished; let the trustee of the mortmain estates of Medina
become trusteeof this endowment; let him receive this surplus; and each year let him ensure that it reaches the poor
of Medina and is distributed to them…‖(Duran,1990)
Waqf action gained prominence because it provided the dead posthumously with permanent reward and the
living with an endowment of lasting benefit.
The development of waqf foundation in Islamic states peaked and highly improved from aspects of variety,
quantity and content. Waqf is the prominent institution, which develop social law, economic and political structure of
the society and Islamic state structure on a democratic ground and provide stability and balance in the development.
Social justice and equal opportunity and prosperity are result of waqf. Waqf which has been tried to improve, should
be examined from the different aspects in order to fulfill properly its functions along with the changing needs and
structure of society.(Zaim)
Waqf grew by leaps and bounds. This institution became an important pillar in the religious, social, cultural,
scientific, economic and political life of Islamic society. Even non-Muslims in Muslim countries established Waqf
for the benefit of their communities. For every conceivable enterprise of social benefit there was a Waqf. There were
awqaf for mosques, universities, schools, hospitals, orphanages, houses for the poor, food for the poor, the blind,
battered/abused women, soup kitchens, wells, aqueducts, fountains, public baths, watchtowers, bridges, cemeteries,
salaries, pensions, guest houses, libraries, books and animal welfare.
―The Ottoman society left the financing of health, education and welfare entirely to the Waqf system so much so that
the following saying does not exaggerate its central importance: ―Thanks to the Waqfs that flourished during the
Ottoman Empire, a person would have been born into a Waqf house, slept in a Waqf cradle, eaten and drunk from
Waqf properties, read Waqf books, been taught in a Waqf school, received his salary from a Waqf administration,
and when he died, placed in a Waqf coffin and buried in a Waqf cemetery.‖ (Arsebük, 1938)
Awqaf are classified in two categories. 1-Tangible (in the form of buildings or real estate) and 2-intangible
(cash…) In both cases, the essential point is the foregoing of individual property for the benefit of mankind.
Thereafter, that property belongs to Allah (s.w.t.). The main waqf is in the form of real estate, primarily agricultural
land and commercial buildings.(Tabakoğlu, 1992) Many sorts of assets such as fields, farms, mills, villages, shops,
khans, baths, pastures and springs…have been so bequeathed and the income from themhas been put to work
protecting and watching over the poor, serving the pursuit of knowledge, and performing numerous other social and
cultural functions.
The cash awqaf constituted a special category of Islamic endowment, and played a major role in Ottoman
economic –financial history. It can be considered such as an important Islamic financial institution which facilitated
the flow of funds from those who were able to save, to those who needed capital, primarily the entrepreneurs, but
also to the members of the general public. The well developed money market which legally sanctioned was emerged
by the cash awqaf. (Çizakça,1992)
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The voluntary institution of Waqf supplemented the state in fulfillment of its obligation towards the
provision of public goods. Public investment expenditures, which consist the main part of any modern budget, are
not contained in the Ottoman budgets. Because, such investments, together with education, health and other social
service expenditures were financed not through the treasury, but through private and especially awqaf which were
mostly exempt from taxation and other financial responsibilities. (Tabakoğlu,1992)
Awqaf and Sustainable Development
The Effectives of Awqaf on Economic Development
The Economic Power of Awqaf
The importance of the awqaf is seen in terms of the huge assets it controls, in its social expenditure, in the
number of people it employs, and in its significant contribution to the economy.In the history, In Otoman, the share
of waqf revenues in total public revenues was around 12 per cent in the sixteenth century with the surge in private
property. 20 per cent land of whole lands inside of waqf system too.(Tabakoğlu,1994) During the next two centuries,
from 1600 to 1800, the condition of awqaf changed and from two-thirds to three –fourths of the land of the empire
had by the nineteenth century been placed in waqf.(Barnes,1984) Today, waqf in some communities are governed by
Act of Parliament such as in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Kenya while many are operated under laws governing
Trusts, Foundations, Non-Profit Organisations, Non-Government Organisations and Societies.(Ali,2009)
United Kingdom, For over two decades, Islamic Relief has been providing emergency aid and long-term assistance
to some of the world‘s most deprived people. In 2000, it set up the Waqf Future Fund aimed primarily at reviving a
great tradition of setting up a charity that continues to benefit the needy for many future generations. The Fund
allows donors to support numerous ongoing charitable projects, not just for people who need immediate help but for
those who will continue to need help in the future (www.islamic-relief.com).
India, There are an estimated 250,000 Waqf properties in India, valued in excess of US$75 billion and with
a potential for generating approximately US$3 billion in revenue. Since 1913 a number of Waqf Acts were passed
by the central and state legislatures while the Waqf Act of 1954 was a major development in the history of Awqaf in
India.
South Africa With only a few exceptions, most of the Awqaf institutions in South Africa are related to
mosques and religious educational institutions. Among the few income-generating Waqf institutions in South Africa
is the Hajee Ahmed Mahomed Lockhat Wakuff, established in Durban in 1933. Another recent initiative is the
National Awqaf Foundation of South Africa Initiated in 2000, Awqaf SA was registered as a trust in 2003, as a NonProfit Organisation.(www.awqafsa.org.za)
Awqaf’s Influences on Consumption and Investment
Waqf causes transfer of the sources from luxury consumption to essential needs consumption. As a
result of consumption transfer to essential needs consumption, waqf causes increasing of marginal profit, total profit
provided by consumption in national economy and feeding of total satisfaction. Its influence on savings: waqf causes
to save the sources, which could be spent otherwise for luxuries and obstention consumption. Its influence on
investment: waqf encourage investing in a useful way the sources, which could be spent for luxuries and obstention
consumption or would not be used in an effective way.(Zaim) The discouragement and prohibition of luxury and
extravagance in Islam has limited the prospects fordisposable income. Thereby, such extra income had spent to the
enhancement of the social welfare through awqaf. Besides, the revenues appropriated by the producers of the
capitalist system through price differentiation are directed (in the Islamic system) towards furthering social welfare
by way of awqaf. Today the investment which are contained in the central budget revenues, such as religious affairs,
education, health, social aid and civil construction were financed generally by the awqaf.
Redistribution of Wealth and Income
The relationship of waqf with economic life differentiates in accordance with its periods from beginning to
the present. Waqf connects with the distribution of wealth in national economy because of that in its establishment
period, waqf provides the transfer of wealth for society.
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-In order to maintain a waqf successfully, waqf should be managed rationally. Therefore waqf
management must be based on rationality principle.
-In order to sustain and increase incomes waqf should implement the ratability principle.
-In order to maximize the service and the profit provided by waqf the expenditures should be accordance
with productivity principle.
In sum, waqf is a foundation, which effects redistribution of national wealth and should be managed as productive
and rantable.(Zaim)
Despite of this, in waqf the prosperity, which belongs to wealthy groups, doesn‘t transfer to the people
having low-level income, but rather to society. After wealth transfer, redistribution of revenue in favor of low-level
income people is provided thorough service fulfilling with income of this wealth. Wealth transfer becomes only for
one time, however revenue transfer continues during waqf is a going concern.
The Functions of Increasing Employment
The waqf system had a significant role in the economic development for several reasons. Firstly, the waqf
facilitated renting shops with low prices in the markets that had waqfs, which led to the decrease of prices and, in
turn, activated the commercial movement in these markets. Besides, the markets that had no waqfs had to decrease
their prices in order to be able to compete with the waqf markets to maintain their businesses. Secondly, the waqf
helped the decrease of the unemployment rate and the creation of job opportunities. Besides, the waqf helped the
poor to own money which increased the demand rate on numerous products and services that were going to be
confined only to the wealthy segments in the society if the waqf did not exist. On the other hand, the sabeel or the
water fountain that was built on the important commercial roads had significant roles in activating the trade and in
facilitating the movement of the commercial caravans traveling between the cities and the villages.
Social Policy Functions
Education
The waqf system had played a vital role in achieving development at the educational, social and economic
levels. The educational role of waqf started from the mosque, which was not only a place of praying and
worshipping, but was also a source of education where students used to come to learn from instructors specialized in
the different branches. Therefore, at the beginning of the Islamic civilization, the mosque used to play the role of the
school. However, the form of the educational waqf has evolved to the ―kottab‖, which was similar to a small school
where children are taught reading, writing, Quran, and mathematics. Despite the continuance of the kottab, the
educational waqf had developed to normal schools, which had widely increased allover the Islamic society.
Meanwhile, schools had direct relations with libraries which people started to put them as waqfs since they were
aware of the importance of the book and its role in education.
Social Services
As for the social development, the social services provided by the waqf system were various. A big number
of Muslims withheld their properties to build medical centers and hospitals, some of which were built to cure
animals. In fact, many of the waqf documents revealed the successful management of the endowed hospitals. Besides
the medical services, there were several kinds of social services provided by the waqf, including helping the poor do
their pilgrimage, helping poor girls get married, building homes for the orphans, the elderly, and the blind. Waqf‘s
health and education services causes to provide equal opportunity; moreover equal opportunity encourages social
justice advancing people according to their ability.(Kozak,1985)
The periods when the social service provided by waqf is doing properly it is provided services such as
education, health for law and middle stratum class thus they can save their sources and increase their prosperity. That
is, waqf causes that law and middle class have prosperity.
Waqf provides an equilibrium position in distributing sources between individual and society needs. The
important point in a society is to provide a balance between individual profit and social input, also, between private
and social marginal revenue. Waqf seeks to this aim in underdevelopment countries the cost of free-market economy
and rapid-development are unequal prosperity and spoiling social injustice.
Advancing of waqf plays a role providing balance in development process.
This social service fulfills a duty beyond the struggle of poverty to help to poor people. Waqf contributes to
upliftment of humanity and betterment of life and provides a life level which is proper with human dignity. As a
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result of these features of waqf not only low level income groups but also other income groups get benefited from the
service provided by waqf. The protector of waqf, which provides social service, is not only rich people. But rather,
the people from each social class (artisan, peasant, soldier and worker) contribute to the social service as a nation.
Social Insurance Function
Most of the waqf aims at providing a security for risks, which the people would undergo in economic life
and due to the fact that service is fulfilled by foundation waqf prevent from insulting the people‘s dignity.
The relationship between consideration and social insurance decreases in social insurance system and social
insurance considerations converts to social insurance payment. In waqf, as being different from contemporary
social insurance system solidarity feelings have improved between waqf and the people serviced, without insulting
their dignities. It causes joining together in society.
Waqf feels peace and satisfaction of raising help for charity. In social insurance system, there is no sharing
feeling between two sides.
This situation prevents from the feeling alienation in urban life of industrial society. Helping field prevent from
alienation, being divided of personality and loneliness and feelings and depression in urban life. The profit for the
people organizing waqf, provides a unity human being and his social environment moreover, going beyond this limit
contains next generations and eternal life after death.
Social insurance system does not affect directly distribution of wealth in economy conversely waqf provides
distribution of wealth in the establishment time.
Conclusion
Throughout its history the most powerful vehicle for charitable and philanthropic endeavors was probably
the endowment, or waqf.. A waqf enables a Muslim to assign any proportion of his or her wealth, to designated
persons or public utilities. Persons, and institutions such as mosques, schools, bridges, graveyards and drinking
fountains, could be the beneficiaries of a waqf.
Waqf has always been associated with creating a balance between the local worries and finding solutions for
human sufferings in general, which made waqf a unique example of sustainable development. Thus waqf is a unique
example of sustainable development. If with the social policy functions had provided the continuity of social life.
Waqf functions include almost all stages of social life. Such as; increasing recruitment rates and employment,
income and wealth redistribution, social security formation, infrastructure development, expansion of education …
Permanence and irrevocability are two essential characteristics of the waqf. The aim of the settler, colleteur
is the continuation of this functions for infinitum. It indicates that they think not only for needs of future generation
but also the needs of all humanity. According to the facts mentioned above, economic and social resources were
available to all humanity. Community life has a constantly changing dynamic character. This condition of perpetuity
has led over the years to a considerable accumulation of societal wealth such that awqaf has become an important
sector dedicated to the social and economic improvement of the society.
References
Ali, B.Ġmtiaz. Waqf A Sustainable Development Institution
Tobago,2009,www.takaafultt.org-Last Access: May 9th, 2010 .
for
Muslim
Communities.
Trinidad
and
Arsebük, Esat. Medeni Hukuk, BaĢlangıç ve ġahsın Hukuku, Ġstanbul,1938, I,298,
Barnes, John Robert. An Introduction To Religious Foundations in The Ottoman Empire , Leiden,1986.
Çizakça, Murat. The Relevance of The Ottoman Cash Waqfs (Awqaf Al-Nuqud) For Modern Islamic Economics, Financing
Development in Islam, p.393-414 Ed.by M.A. Mannan, Kuala Lumpur, 1992.
Ed. Duran, Tülay.Tarihimizde Vakıf Kuran Kadınlar Hanım Sultan Vakfiyyeleri Deeds of Trust of the Sultans
Womenfolk,Ġstanbul, 1990.
Kozak, Erol. Bir Sosyal Siyaset Müessesesi Olarak Vakıf ,Ġstanbul, 1985.
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Öztürk, Nazif. MenĢe‘i ve Tarihi GeliĢimi Açısından Vakıflar, Ankara, 1983.
Peters, R. ―Wakf‖, EI² , p.60, v.XI, Leiden, 2002.
Tabakoğlu, Ahmet. The Role of Finance in Development, Financing Development in Islam, p.323-344. Ed.by M.A. Mannan,
Kuala Lumpur, 1992.
Tabakoğlu, Ahmet. Türk Ġktisat Tarihi,
2nd edition,Ġstanbul,1994
Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin. Türk Vakıf Kurucularının Sosyal TabakalaĢmadaki Yeri, 1700-1800, OA, II, Ġstanbul,1982.
Zaim, Sabahattin. The influence of Awqaf on economic development, www.awqafsa.org.za.
www.awqafsa.org.za/.../PROF%20SABAHATTIN%20ZAIM%2024082002.doc – last access: May 9th ,2010.
405
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The size or duration of the resource.
216
Title
A name given to the resource
To Examine Sustainable Development Through The Historical Applications of Foundations
Author
Author
ŞENSOY, Fatma
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Sustainable development is one of the contemporary concepts. If we move from today‘s definition of this concept, the solutions for the global problems can be obtained from the foundation‘s applications in the past. Sustainable development concept is generally referred to the 1987 report of World Commission on Environment and Development. The Brundtland Commission reported the slogan, ―Our Common Future: From One Earth to One World‖. The Commission conceptualized sustainable development as ―paths of human progress, which meet the needs and aspirations of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖. The goals of sustainable development are far-reaching and have as their objective the transformation of contemporary development theory and practice. They include the formulation of new paradigms of social, economic, political, cultural, and ecological development. More and more rational approaches are improved to the concept of ―development‖ which takes into account the long-term costs associated with short-term improvements. The judicious use of the planet‘s non-renewable physical resources; a balance between economic, social, cultural and physical development; and the realization of fully integrated development strategies that bring together all relevant sectors and actors into a common framework of local, national, regional and international action. Foundations (Waqf) are Non Governmental Organizations. Current approaches to the definition of a waqf includes; local administration and free economic rules in management. In addition, democracy and volunteerism are essential for the definition. These are weld from the Islamic law. Foundations with the social policy functions had provided the continuity of social life. Waqf functions include almost all stages of social life. Such as; increasing recruitment rates and employment, income and wealth redistribution, social security formation, infrastructure development, expansion of education… The aim of the settler, colleteur is the continuation of this functions for infinitum. It indicates that they think not only for needs of future generation but also the needs of all humanity. According to the facts mentioned above, economic and social resources were available to all humanity. Community life has a constantly changing dynamic character. We are the heirs of the finest examples of the foundation of civilization. In other words, we as the heirs must attribute a new, fresh and modern mission to the third sector or civil society organizations. Sustainable development concept includes different dimensions. Such as ecological, economic, political, cultural, social sustainability. This study‘s aim is to indicate that the applications of foundation were serving the same purposes of sustainable development. The treatments applied today to strengthen the social structure exactly overlaps with the services performed by the awqaf throughout history. The given example in this case will emphasize the importance of each term. The traces of good experiences are which created in the past have lived for centuries. The orphans, widows, elderly people, children and the others joined economic and social life through endowed charity. However, it is clear that foundations must have found new solutions and different policy instruments for today‘s problems.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Effects Of Potential Business Managers’ Risk Tolerance Level On
Entrepreneurship In Emerging Markets
ġermin ġENTURAN
Dr., International Balkan University,
International Economic Relations, Scopje, Macedonia.
charged by Zonguldak Karaelmas Universitesi,Zonuldak, Turkey
serminsen@hotmail.com
Engin DEMĠREL
Dr., International Balkan University,
International Economic Relations, Scopje, Macedonia.
charged by Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey
edemirel@mail.com
Abstract Entrepreneurs in emerging markets may not have much information about the
financial and market conditions of the economy and this may lead them not to be an
entrepreneur or have low financial risk tolerance level at the time when they start a new
business. This study aims to investigate the correlation between the financial risk taking
behavior of the people and the level of tendencies as entrepreneurship, managerial and
stock market decisions in the emerging economic conditions.
The Business Administration undergraduate students graduating from the public and
private universities in Skopje/Macedonia are chosen as the sample of this study. By
analyzing risk taking propensity and tolerance for ambiguity degree of the respondents, it
is aimed to provide insight into entrepreneurship education, as to which entrepreneurial
characteristics can be developed. Query dates‘ will be analyzed by using Pearson
correlation and ANOVA for explaining risk tolerance and entrepreneurship behaviors
related to emerging markets conditions.
Keywords: Risk tolerance, entrepreneurship, emerging markets.
Introduction
In a period of globalization and modernization of the economy and information, societies‘ development, the
tendency for business development is tightly connected with the use of the latest technology, by investing in the
human resources development with the most sophisticated working methods. The primary development factor in the
modern working conditions is knowledge-based economy enable of keeping economic development with more and
better workplace and bigger social cohesion.
Managing an investment firm (whether it is a financial investment firm or a physical investment firm)
involves selecting people with a high level of skill at counseling investors. Such a skill involves sensitivity to how
the investor thinks about and assesses risks, a task which is difficult if the advisor and the investor have different
values and risk attitudes. It might be argued that the problem is solved if everyone concerned acts in a rational
manner. However, rational decision making is an ideal that few human decision makers could experience (Sjoberg &
Engelberg, 2009)
�
Business development starts with the educational system. In almost all transitional economies, the education
reform is emphasized on every level, starting with the preschool, the primary, the secondary and the university
education. Within these reforms, people are becoming more conscious about spreading of the culture influence in the
society, and the attitude towards work, business and entrepreneurship. With the promotion of the entrepreneurship
attitudes and skills there is a great possibility of students‘ improvement as well as improvement of the whole society.
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Entrepreneurship is the main feature which can be very useful for all work and life activities. The education goal is
to nurture the young people‘s qualities, through the enforcement of creativity, initiative, responsibility, independence
and ability to take a risk. Encouraging the enterprise spirit is a key to achieve this goal. Education can help a lot in
the entrepreneurship‘s culture development of young people and make them be aware of the entrepreneurship,
developing their abilities and skills which will help them in their professional career as well as in life by becoming
responsible and active members of the society. The university education is an essential pillar of the social and
economic development of every country. The university education presents the most significant priority of the
emerging countries, considering the importance of the contribution of the staff with university education to the
economic development of the country and to the culture of the population.
In the university education of European countries, the entrepreneurship teaching is focused on creating new
businesses. At the level of tertiary education, ―entrepreneurship teaching provide the students with specific training
on how to start and run a business, including the capacity to draft a real business plan and the skills associated with
methods of identifying and assessing business opportunities. Also, it will encourage and support new business ideas
(for instance by providing special loans, business facilities, mentorship, etc.) By this way researched projects can be
put into practice.
Development of the students’ entrepreneurship skills
It is necessary for all young people to possess entrepreneurial skills, to advance their creativity, to improve
their talent and in that way to become more competent in achieving their professional ambitions and to be allowed to
consider the creation of business as a possible option in their career. In this way they are becoming more prepared to
conduct with innovative projects.
The education system has to have an assignment to:
Raise the consciousness of the youth strengthening their entrepreneurial spirit,
Put the world of business closer to them,
Wipe out the barriers between the educational system and the business,
Encourage the development of their entrepreneurial skills simultaneously with the development of their
education,
Enrich their experience for entrepreneurship,
Organize projects for the development of the entrepreneurship with the cooperation of the local companies,
in which all students will be included,
Give young people a chance individually to take part in the creation of the small business,
Create an open atmosphere for study in which the students will develop the necessary confidence and ability
for taking risks.
Young people need somebody to make them believe in their own creative forces. They should be educated
to realize and use the local resources as a foundation for the creative values. With their self-assurance, young people
can become more productive, can improve the workplaces and can take responsibility in their local community.
Education plays an important role in the development of the attitudes, working habits and activities which
improve the abilities for cooperation, creativity and innovation of young people, i.e. it is capable of stimulating the
development of their entrepreneurial activities.
The educational institutions and the government should support the net of teachers and trainers for
entrepreneurship in order to encourage the mobility of teachers and the cooperation between the educational sector
and the business and which will help them build a road of exchanging competence and knowledge. In this content
trainings, seminars, courses and studies for entrepreneurship should be arranged.
This will increase the participation of the professionals from this area in the educational process, because in
that way more direct, approachable and larger access of the students (as potential managers) to the world of business
will be achieved, their entrepreneurial attitudes and skills will be developed and the realization of their
entrepreneurial ideas will be encouraged and stimulated, which will directly be reflected in the development of the
economy and the whole society.ean experience shows that within the university education
Financial risk tolerance, defined as the maximum amount of uncertainty that someone is willing to accept
when making a financial decision, reaches into almost every part of economic and social life. Although the
importance of assessing financial risk tolerance is well documented, in practice the assessment process tends to be
very difficult due to the subjective nature of risk taking (Grable, 2000).
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Risk tolerance must be measured simply because it is an aspect of ―utility‖ and maximizing the expected utility is
considered to be the ultimate goal in any financial activity. If investment decisions are based on Expected Monetary
Value (EMV) alone, the decision is driven only by the nature of the investment and the optimal choice would be the
same for all potential investors. If the investment decision is based on Expected Utility, the attitude and risk
tolerances of the investor are incorporated too. Thus, the optimal choices are different for each investor because the
utility functions are different. Once the investment advisor understands some aspects of the client‘s utility function
and how risk averse is, this information can be incorporated in the selection of the right portfolio.(Ardehali, Paradi,
Asmild, 2005).
There is some evidence that the common factor reflects changes in investors‘ tolerance for risk. Although it
is impossible to ascribe precise economic meaning to the common factor, the high correlation between it and highfrequency measures of risk tolerance suggests that the common variation in emerging market debt spreads is largely
explained by changes in attitudes towards risk within the international investment community. Furthermore, to the
extent that changes in investor risk tolerance and expectations of future growth prospects are procyclical, this
hypothesis is supported by the negative correlation between the factor and US interest rate variables. (McGuire &
Schrijvers 2003)
Carducci and Wong (1998), reported the findings from a study that attempted to identify personality factors
that determine financial risk taking in everyday money matters. They concluded that persons fitting the Type A
personality trait tended to take greater risks than those more closely aligned with the Type B personality profile.
They suggested that socioeconomic factors, such as income, might have played a part in explaining their findings.
Specifically, it was determined that persons identified as Type A personalities were likely to maximize their
achievements through additional risk taking in the attainment of increased incomes, higher status occupations, and
increased educational attainment. The results of research conducted by investigators such as Carducci and Wong
(1998) and Grable and Joo (1997) suggests that the investigation of factors that determine financial risk taking and
risk tolerance can be expanded beyond the testing of purely psychological factors. Specifically, demographic,
socioeconomic, and attitudinal characteristics need to be examined to determine how these factors influence a
person's willingness to take financial risks in "everyday money matters." A review of current risk-taking and risktolerance research indicates that factors such gender, age, marital status, occupation, income, and expectations may
influence a person's level of risk taking in everyday money matters. Increasing levels of risk tolerance also have been
associated with being single. Increased levels of income and educational attainment also are considered to be
associated with increased levels of risk tolerance.
Researchers and practitioners have suggested that demographic, socioeconomic, and attitudinal factors can
be used to differentiate individuals into risk-tolerance or risk-taking categories. While there are research data to
support these beliefs, there is a need to examine these assumed relationships in more detail (Sung & Hanna, 1996).
Froot (2003) proposed a methodology for measuring investor confidence by decomposing investor demand for
international assets, examination of the cross-section of international portfolio holdings and flows of international
institutional investors over time. It was observed shifts in aggregate investor demand into expected risk and return,
wealth and risk tolerance components. The risk tolerance component turns out to account for a substantial portion of
variation in portfolio holdings and a smaller but meaningful amount of variation in equity returns. In addition, it
appears to be informative about future returns. It is argued by a number of researchers that the low correlation
between emerging equity returns and developed market returns. In an active portfolio strategy, this means that the
opportunity set has become larger, higher expected returns can be gained at lower volatility. (Harvey, 1994)
Analysis of risk tolerance of potential businesses managers
Risk is the potential for realizing low returns or even losing money, possibly preventing you from meeting
important objectives. But many financial advisers and other experts say that these days investors aren‘t taking the
idea of risk as seriously as they should, and they are overexposing themselves to stocks. The market has been so
good for years that investors no longer believe there‘s risk in investing, till 2008-2009 financial fluctuations. So
before the market goes down and stays down, be sure that you understand your tolerance for risk and that your
portfolio is designed to match it. Assessing your risk tolerance, however, can be tricky. You must consider not only
how much risk you can afford to take but also how much risk you can stand to take (Bodie, Kane, Marcus, 2003), .
Determining how much risk you can stand your temperamental tolerance for risk is more difficult. It isn‘t
quantifiable. To that end, many financial advisers, brokerage firms and mutual-fund companies have created risk
quizzes to help people determine whether they are conservative, moderate or aggressive investors. Some firms that
offer such quizzes include Merrill Lynch, T. Rowe Price Associates Inc., Baltimore, Zurich Group Inc.‘s Scudder
Kemper Investments Inc., New York, and Vanguard Group in Malvern, Pa. typically; risk questionnaires include
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seven to 10 questions about a person‘s investing experience, financial security and tendency to make risky or
conservative choices.
The benefit of the questionnaires is that they are an objective resource people can use to get at least a rough
idea of their risk tolerance. Many experts warn, however, that the questionnaires should be used simply as a first step
to assessing risk tolerance. The second step, many experts agree, is to ask yourself some difficult questions, such as:
the questions that related on ―How much you can stand to lose over the long term?‖.
In order to analyze of potential business managers which in our study those are 4th and 3rd class business
administration students on public and state universities in Skopje. Risk tolerance level quarry that used on the Wall
Street Journal 1998 by Dow Jones & Company in USA. Quarry has totally 16 questions. Each question has 3
answers. (a,b,c). Each answers related on numbers that a is 1, b is 2, c is 3. at the end of the questionnaire, to score
the risk tolerance, ad up the number of answers that given by questioners each categories‘ a-c, than multiply by the
shown table. Because each question answers 1 to 3 risk choices increases and 1 has the conservative answer on the
other hand 3 has the highest risk taker choice.
Total Score Number
(a) answers
x 1 = points
(b) answers
x 2 = points
(c) answers
x 3 = points
Table1: Calculation of total score number for risk tolerance
The score is total of all answers with related rates. The total number had been categorized as fallows which
were referred on Dow Jones Company questionnaire (1998).
Total Score Number
Questioner Risk Tolerance
Between 16- 26 points
Conservative Investor
Between 27-37 points
Moderate Investor
Between 38-48 points
Aggressive Investor
Table 2: Questioner risk tolerance according to total score number
In this paper we use 252 observations on total 16 questions. We had analyzed the total score numbers which
were mentioned that questionnaire. ―Conservative, moderate and aggressive investor, (1,2,3)‖ for analysis of
variance. We analyzed the potential business managers‘ opinions‘ who were undergraduate students that study in
transition economy in the Balkan region.
Affects of choices of risk tolerance at entrepreneurship capacity relation on their gender, marital status, age, class,
working condition, average monthly income (euro), and working status. To analyze age we use the scales (17-19, 2022, 23-25,26 and upper), on working condition (yes or no), status of working (no, part time, full time), on average
monthly income as Euro (100 and below, 101-200, 201-300,301-400, 401 and above).
On the regression analyze as an input Y range uses as total score number on risk tolerance, and as an input
X range was demographic conditions selected as mentioned above.
Regression Statistics
Multiple R
0,688986
R Square
0,474701
Adjusted R Square
0,463758
Standard Error
3,389823
Observations
252
Table 3: Regression statistics results
ANOVA
df
Regression
Residual
Total
Table 4: ANOVA results
7
336
343
SS
3489,055
3860,943
7349,997
709
MS
498,4364
11,4909
F
43,37661
Significance F
1,9E-43
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Intercept
Gender
Marital
Status
Age
Class
Working
Average
Monthly
Income
(Euro)
Status of
working
Coefficients
29,40065
-3,61627
Standard
t Stat
Error
2,046517 14,36619
0,467007 -7,7435
8,08E-37
1,15E-13
Lower
95%
25,37506
-4,53489
Upper
95%
33,42625
-2,69764
Lower
95.0%
25,37506
-4,53489
Upper
95.0%
33,42625
-2,69764
-0,19815
0,797532
0,150978
-3,27562
0,711239
0,409961
0,370683
0,544074
-0,2786
1,945386
0,407296
-6,02055
0,780721
0,052562
0,68405
4,55E-09
-1,5972
-0,00888
-0,57817
-4,34584
1,200889
1,603946
0,880129
-2,2054
-1,5972
-0,00888
-0,57817
-4,34584
1,200889
1,603946
0,880129
-2,2054
4,758799
0,318106 14,95979
3,91E-39
4,133069 5,384529 4,133069 5,384529
1,471514
1,020217 1,442355
0,150134
-0,5353 3,478331 -0,5353
Table5: Standard error, t-stat and p values.
P-value
3,478331
According to analyze of each demographic condition on total risk score, we used Pearson correlation
formula:
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
r6
r7
r8
Total risk tolerance score
Gender
Marital Status
Age
Class
Working condition
Average Monthly Income (Euro)
Status of working
1
-0,23113
-0,08375
0,169817
0,003724
-0,12903
0,402851
-0,055775
Table 6: Pearson correlation table
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (sometimes referred to as the PMCC, and typically denoted
by r) is a measure of the correlation (linear dependence) between two variables X and Y, giving a value between +1
and −1 inclusive. It is widely used in the sciences as a measure of the strength of linear dependence between two
variables. It was developed by Karl Pearson from a similar but slightly different idea introduced by Francis Galton in
the 1880s (Stigler, Stephen M, 1989).The correlation coefficient is sometimes called "Pearson's r." which in this
study total risk tolerance score numbers (r1), Gender (r2), Marital Status (r3), Age (r4), Class (r5), Working condition
(r6), Average Monthly Income (Euro) (r7), Status of working (r8).
Conclusion
The training for entrepreneurship must continue through life. It must cover the full range of knowledge:
knowing how to behave, how to handle knowledge, how to learn, knowhow, and how to innovate, do good and lead
others. The training system must be one which will encourage the spirit of entrepreneurship and innovation. This will
enable us to create an economy which is truly working for the people. As individual entrepreneurs, the students
should follow their wishes, they should be able to use the possibilities for their achievement and believe in the
possible success.
Test statistics were generated for the purpose of measuring the significance of the demographic,
socioeconomic, and attitudinal factors in differentiating between levels of risk tolerance. ANOVA results indicated
that gender, age, working status, income and education.
It was concluded that (a) males were more risk tolerant than females, (b) older respondents were more risk
tolerant than younger respondents, (c) married respondents were more risk tolerant than single respondents, (d)
respondents with higher incomes were more risk tolerant than those with lower incomes. In all but two cases, the
pattern of association between socioeconomic factors and financial risk tolerance was as expected. The association
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between age and risk tolerance is positive and marital status and risk tolerance is negative. But in either case, these
two results correlation values close to zero. The highest positive Pearson correlation value on total risk tolerance
score is found on average monthly income as Euro. The research has multiple R 0.688986, R square 0.4747 and
which has 3.3898 standard error value.
As the average monthly income increases, respondents` risk tolerance level becomes moderate investor
rather than conservative investor. With this demographic conditions of business administration students in Skopje
hasn‘t got the total score number refer to aggressive investor. Working conditions and status of working as a part
time and full time becomes negatively correlated on total risk score numbers.
References
Ardehali P.H., Paradi J.C., Asmild M. (2005), “Assessing Financial Risk Tolerance Of Portfolio Investors Using Data
Envelopment Analysis‖, International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making Vol. 4, No. 3 491-519
Bodie Zvi, Kane Alex, Marcus Alan J. , (2003), Investments 5th edition, The McGraw−Hill , USA.
Carducci, B. J., & Wong, A. S. (1998). Type A and risk taking in everyday money matters. Journal of Business and Psychology,
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The Effects Of Potential Business Managers’ Risk Tolerance Level On Entrepreneurship In Emerging Markets
Author
Author
ŞENTURAN, Şermin
DEMİREL, Engin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Entrepreneurs in emerging markets may not have much information about the financial and market conditions of the economy and this may lead them not to be an entrepreneur or have low financial risk tolerance level at the time when they start a new business. This study aims to investigate the correlation between the financial risk taking behavior of the people and the level of tendencies as entrepreneurship, managerial and stock market decisions in the emerging economic conditions. The Business Administration undergraduate students graduating from the public and private universities in Skopje/Macedonia are chosen as the sample of this study. By analyzing risk taking propensity and tolerance for ambiguity degree of the respondents, it is aimed to provide insight into entrepreneurship education, as to which entrepreneurial characteristics can be developed. Query dates‘ will be analyzed by using Pearson correlation and ANOVA for explaining risk tolerance and entrepreneurship behaviors related to emerging markets conditions.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/87efd43b43a1e2cf2629114604cbb018.pdf
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Competition Strategies for Tourism Industry in the Context of Sustainable
Development
Faruk Kerem ġENTÜRK
Akdeniz University Alanya Faculty of Business, Turkey
fksenturk@akdeniz.edu.tr
Abstract: The subject of competition started to be more important while we are facing with a
quick changeable enviroment and an uncertain future. All around the world in every sector people
who try to establish a new business will meet lots of rivals, lots of opportunities with high risks
and a competition which ends with death or life. Because of these reasons strategies which help
managements to compete with their rival are very important for a sustainable development. In the
Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report which presented by World Economic Forum, Bosnia
and Herzegovina and Herzegovina ranked 107th. among 133 countries in 2009 index. This report
shows us that Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina need to prepare new competitive
strategies for tourism industry. If Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina can market his
tourism industry effectively this development also will provide a new way for sustainable
development.
The purpose of this study is to determine which competition strategies are suitable for the
managements in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina to provide sustainable development. In
this context we will evaluate the strategies of Porter (Generic Strategies), D‘aveni
(Hypercompetition), Miles&Snow (Adaptation Strategies).
Key Words: Strategy, Competition Strategies, Sustainable Development
1. Introduction
In recent years general trends in management area attach importance to information more than physical
assets. Companies around the world started to transform themselves for competition with information tools(Kaplan
and Norton, 2007). Companies forced to transform themselves because of environment conditions which can change
anytime, communication speed is increasing day by day and managers can‘t see what they face with in the future.
In a world like this, people(poor or rich), companies(little or big), countries(developed or developing) have
to be dynamic and prudent against rivals to compete with them.
In this study we evaluate the competition from the view of tourism to provide sustainable development.
First we asked the question of ―Can Bosnia and Herzegovina use tourism to provide development?‖ and found the
place of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina economy. Then we checked the structure of tourism in Bosnia and
Herzegovina and identified some criterions for the tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Also we examined the rivals
of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the tourism sector. And finally we determined some suitable competition strategies for
tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina to provide development. And we presented some suggestions for Bosnia and
Herzegovina tourism to provide sustainable development.
2. Concept of Competition Strategies
Since the early 1990s firms have faced significant challenges in their operating environments, including
stagnant or decreasing market volumes, shorter product and technology lifecycles, and more demanding consumers
and competition driven by price that forces participants to rationalise resources wherever possible (e.g. human
resources or logistics)(Kotzab et al., 2009). In this new business environment, competitors aggressively introduce
new products, change distribution channels, implement cost-cutting programs, and imitate each other‘s innovations;
and companies regularly redraw the traditional boundaries of markets as they globalize their operations in response
to the changing regulatory and competitive climate(Akhter, 2003).
In this mercurial environment, some business scholars present some strategies from different perspectives to
compete against our rivals. In this study we will evaluate only three author‘s strategies. These strategies are shown in
the table 2.1.
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Authors
Michael E. Porter
Richard D‘Aveni
Raymond Miles& Charles Snow
Strategies
1. Cost Leadership (low cost)
2. Differentiation
3. Focus
1. Speed
2. Strategic Soothsaying
3. Stakeholder Satisfaction
4. Surprise
5. Shift the Rules
6. Signalling Strategic Ġntent
7. Strategic Thrust
1. Prospector
2. Analyzer
3. Defender
4. Reactor
Table: 2.1. Competition Strategies
D‘aveni (1994) described the environment of companies as hypercompetitive environment.
Hypercompetition is ―characterized by intense and rapid competitive moves, in which competitors must move
quickly to build [new] advantages and erode the advantages of their rivals‖ (D‘Aveni, 1994:217- 218).
Hypercompetition emerged from the dynamic manoeuvres of innovative and global rivals. A hypercompetition
environment caused companies to face with more uncertainty, dynamism and increased animosity between
heterogeneous rivals(Akın, 1999). According to D‘aveni(1994) companies cant provide sustainability in a
hypercompetition environment. Besides that D‘aveni(1994) emphasizes that ―sustaining your own advantage is not
enough to reach the top in business, also you should destroy the advantages of competitors through constantly
disrupting the equilibrium of the market‖. Within the framework of this view D‘aveni exposed some strategies to
compete against rivals effectively. These strategies shown in the table below which based on market disruptions and
performed with vision, capabilities and tactics.
Three Critical Factors for Delivery of a
Series of Disruptions
The New 7-S’s
Vision for Disruptions
* Envisioning disruptions that create Superior Stakeholder
Satisfaction
* Using Strategic Soothsaying as a meaning of seeing and
creating opportunities for disruption
* Buildinf the capability for Speed into the organization so
the disruptions are executed beter
* Creating the capability to Surprise opponents so that the
disruptions are more powerful
* Selecting actions that Shift the Rules used by competitors
in their dynamic strategic interactions
* Using Signals to influence future dynamic strategic
interactions
* Executing Simultaneous and Sequential Strategic
Thrusts as a meaning of molding the flow of the dynamic
strategic interactions that will ocur.
General Capabilities
Disruptions
for
Executing
Product/Market Tactics Used to Deliver
The Disruptions
Table: 2.2. Three Critical Factors for Disruptions and 7 strategies to make it real
Source: D‘aveni, 1994, p.244.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
D‘aveni emphasized that four driving forces are contributing to the new era of hypercompetition: customer
changes, including fragmenting tastes; rapid technological change; falling geographic and industry boundaries as
markets globalize, and deep pockets among competitors due to the rise of giant global alliances in a raft of
industries(Rifkin, 2000).
Porter(2000) indicated that the competition strategy is to have a tenable position to cope with five forces
succesfully thus firm can behave as aggressive or defensive to achieve investment return. These five force can be
sorted as threat of substitute products or services, threat of the entry of new competitors, intensity of competitive
rivalry, bargaining power of customers (buyers), bargaining power of suppliers.
According to Porter(2000), firms in the sector can choose one of the generic strategies to gain competitive
advantage and also can cope with five forces. Generic strategies known as differentation, overal cost leadership and
focus strategies.
According to Porter, a business can maximize performance either by striving to be the low cost producer in
an industry or by differentiating its line of products or services from those of other businesses; either of these two
approaches can be accompanied by a focus of organizational efforts on a given segment of the market(Parnell,
2006:1142). A firm that uses a differentiation strategy competes on the basis of its ability to do things differently
than its major competitors do. A firm that uses a low-cost strategy builds competitive advantage by producing goods
or services at the lowest possible cost. And if entrepreneurs persist in their ability to keep costs lower than others,
their organizations thrive. In contrast to the cost leadership and differentiation strategies, which are based on the
creation of competitive advantage over an entire market segment, Porter´s focus or a niche strategy recommends
focusing on market niches – on specific target groups, particular portion of the product spectrum or a narrower
geographical market(Papulova and Papulova, 2006).
STRATEGİC TARGET
STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE
Industry Wide
Multi-Segment
Particular
Segment
Uniqueness
Percieved by the Costumer
Low-Cost
Position
DIFFERENTIATION
OVERAL COST
LEADERSHIP
FOCUS
Figure; 2.1. Porter‘s Generic Strategies
According to Porter, firms that are capable of identifying one of the types of generic strategies will be
capable of producing superior results(Chathoth and Olsen, 2005).
Miles and Snow developed a comprehensive framework that addresses the alternative ways in which
organizations define and approach their product- market domains (the entrepreneurial problem) and construct
structures and processes (the administrative and technical problems) to achieve competitive advantage in those
domains(Slater and Olsen, 2009). Miles and Snow posit four basic managerial strategies – prospecting (innovative
and exploratory), defending (narrow and focused), reacting (waiting for environmental cues), and analyzing (a mix
of prospecting and defending) – and trace out the expected contingencies for the core strategies of prospecting and
defending(Andrews et al., 2008).
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Adaptive Strategies
Prospector (innovation)
Content
High research and development and market intelligence
investments
Lower level of controls and operational efficiency
Organic organisational structure
Low fixed asset intensity
Flexible technologies, processes, and skills
Analyzer
Maintains core products and adopts proven innovations
(minimise risk with proven opportunities)
Large matrix organisational structure
Mix of processes and technologies for efficiency and
flexibility
Reactor
Rapid, opportunistic responses to immediate market demands
(quick response to market demands)
Project-orientated processes and organisational structure
Negligible long-term planning
Inconsistent or uncoordinated responses to competitive
environment
Defender (operational efficiency)
High-quality standardised products and processes
Low prices achieved with economies of scale
Mechanistic organisational structure
High fixed-asset intensity
Highly cost-efficient but relatively few core technologies
Table: 2.3. Miles&Snow‘s Adaptive Strategies
Source: Mclaren et al., 2004:50.
These strategy typologies based on how a firm responds to three major problems facing it, i.e.
entrepreneurial, engineering, and administrative problems. According to them, the entrepreneurial problem defines
an organization‘s product-market domain; the engineering problem focuses on the choice of technologies and
process for production and distribution; and the administrative problem involves the formulization, rationalization
and innovation of an organization‘s structure and policy processes(Tan et al., 2006).
3. Competition Strategies in the Concept of Sustainable Development
Globalization brought lots of new trends such as removal of boundaries, new information technologies(cell
phones, internet e.t.c.), changes in the concept of human and personality, rapid changes in management approach and
competition conditions.
In this changeable world, countries and companies try to develop themselves. But the changes in the
competition conditions force them to think globally. Because twenty years ago companies could survive with
executing internal factors. But now countries and companies have to think both internally and externally to survive
against the global changes.
The report which is known as ―Our Common Future‖ highlighted three fundamental components to
sustainable development: environmental protection, economic growth and social equity(UNEP, 2002). Yet the
Travel&Tourism sector remains a critical economic sector worldwide and one that provides significant potential for
economic growth and development internationally. Also tourism gives people ―environmental awareness‖ and with
providing ―employment‖ it contributes to ensure the social equity.
According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), international tourist arrivals reached 880 million
in 2009, representing a decline of 4.3 percent compared with 2008(UNWTO, 2010).The World Travel&Tourism
Council (WTTC) estimates that, from direct and indirect activities combined, the T&T sector now accounts for 9.9
percent of global GDP, 10.9 percent of world exports, and 9.4 percent of world investment(WEF, 2009).
A growing national T&T sector contributes to employment, raises national income, and can improve the
balance of payments.Thus the sector is an important driver of growth and prosperity, and, particularly within
developing countries, it can also play a role in poverty reduction(WEF, 2009).
Approximately 1 billion people join tourism activities. Every country and company wants to benefit from a
big pie like tourism. As a result of this conflict of interest, countries and companies start to compete with each other
to grab the big slice. In global competition environment everyone has to find different ways to defeat their rivals. As
a result of this search some authors developed some competition strategies for companies ---from different sectors to
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
compete with their rivals and provide development. We mentioned about competition strategies above. But here we
will present some studies which will help us to understand that tourism is a effective tool to provide development.
Authors
Christina CRISTUREANU & Ana BOBIRCA (2006)
Studies
The competitiveness of Romania as a tourism
destination
Liljana ELMAZI & Jovan STOJANOSKI & An environmentally sustainable in viewpoint of
Alexandru NEDELEA
tourism market competitiveness in the global settings
K.S. TURSINBAEVA
Prospects of development tourism industry in the
Republic of Kazakhstan
Editors: Melih BULU & Ġ. Hakkı Eraslan (2008)
Tourism Sector to Obtain Sustainable Competition
Advantage: Sectoral Strategies and Practices
Tony BINNS & Etienne NEL (2002)
Tourism as a local development strategy in South
Africa
Donald SINCLAIR & Chandana JAYAWARDENA The development of sustainable tourism in the
(2003)
Guianas
Table 2.4. : Studies relevant to tourism development and competition
As we see from the table 2.4. tourism can be an effective tool to provide development if it can be used
properly. Countries or companies need to have enough information to implement their strategies. Because of that
they must analyse both internal and external environment. Therefore, first we determined the place of tourism in
Bosnia and Herzegovina economy.
4. The Status of the Tourism Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Different countries began to interact each other with some activities such as tourism. Tourism is a perfect
key for people to know different cultures, histories and life styles. Also tourism is an effective tool for countries to
provide added value for country economy.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is the heart shaped land that lies in the heart of southeast Europe with its cultural
and historical beauties. It is here that eastern and western civilizations met, sometimes clashed, but more often
enriched and reinforced each other throughout its long and fascinating history(www.bhtourism.ba). Bosnia and
Herzegovina tourism is specially based on nature and cultural tourism. Also Bosnia and Herzegovina has potential
specialy on winter tourism, thermal spring tourism, hunting tourism and natural sports.
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Number
of
Facilities
Hotels
Motels
Pensions and
Hostels
Others
Number
of
Rooms
Hotels
Motels
Pensions and
Hostels
Others
Number
of
Beds
Hotels
Motels
Pensions and
Hostels
Others
2007
Number
2008
Number
Chancing(%)
2009
Number
Chancing(%)
344
369
7.3
393
6.5
169
95
50
179
95
61
5.9
0.0
22.0
189
106
62
5.6
11.6
1.6
30
34
13.3
36
5.9
10,667
11,064
3.7
11,737
6.1
8,433
1,199
656
8,612
1,218
736
2.1
1.6
12.2
9,160
1,321
709
6.4
8.5
-3.7
379
489
29.0
547
11.9
22,149
23,015
3.9
24,402
6.0
17,449
2,539
17,823
2,554
2.1
0.6
18,952
2,775
6.3
8.7
1,342
1,547
15.3
1,483
-4.1
819
1,091
33.2
1,192
9.3
Table 2.5.: Accommodation capacity over the years in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Source: Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.ġ. Ekonomik ve Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Müdürlüğü. ―Bosna Hersek Sektör
Raporları: Turizm Sektörü‖, Ankara, 2010.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has 189 hotels, 106 motels, 62 pension&hostels and 36 other turism managements
in 2009. These managements have 11.737 rooms and 24.402 beds. Hotels have an important place in Bosnia and
Herzegovina tourism because they have 18.953 beds which reflects %78 of all accomodation facilities bed capacity.
In the period of 2007-2009 number of facilities increased %14, number of rooms increased %10 and number of beds
increased %10.2.
Bosnia and Herzegovina entertained 142.000 domestic guests and 213.000 foreign guests in 2008 which
makes totally 355.000 guests. %47 of these guests accomodated in Sarajevo, %1 of them accomodated in health spas,
%16 of them accomodated in seaside resorts and %36 of these guests accomodated in non-tourist places(different
facilities)(FOS, 2009).
B&H
CROATIA
MONTENEGRO
SERBIA
AUSTRIA
MACEDONIA
Tourism Sector
Number of Rooms
10,789
76,087
17,965
24,023
285,558
7,214
Number of Beds
22,442
163,171
42,778
52,547
646,915
17,124
9,307
984
696
20,766
3,903
Incoming Tourists (000) 306
Overnight Tourist (000)
Domestic
642
6,431
851
5,853
29,138
1,502
Foreign
695
49,575
6,443
1,476
71,507
516
Average Tourists Nights
Domestic
2.30
3,47
5.70
3.63
3.20
4.90
Foreign
2.30
5,33
6.55
2.12
4.30
2.30
9,576
457
1,011
21,292
219
Tourism Expenditures 798
(million $)
The Share of Tourism Expenditure
GDP (%)
5.3
18.7
2.4
5.6
2.9
Export of Goods
18.8
75.9
11.5
13.1
6.5
Export of Services
59.9
76.3
31.9
38.2
26.8
Table 2.6.: Tourism indicators for Bosnia and Herzegovina and neighboring countries (2007)
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Source: Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.ġ. Ekonomik ve Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Müdürlüğü. ―Bosna Hersek Sektör
Raporları: Turizm Sektörü‖, Ankara, 2010.
The important points of this table are;
1. Bosnia and Herzegovina is ranked last in terms of incoming tourists. (with 306.000 tourists)
2. Bosnia and Herzegovina is ranked 5.th in terms of bed capacity (with 22.442 beds).
3. Bosnia and Herzegovina is ranked 4.th in terms of tourism expenditure. (with 798 million $)
4. Average number of overnight of incoming tourists is too low in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In WEF(World Economic Forum)‘s ―Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009‖, Bosnia and
Herzegovina ranked 107th among 133 countries and ranked 42th between 42 european countries.
Rank (Out of 133) Score (1-7 scale)
2009 Index
107
3.4
2008 Index
105
3.4
T&T regulatory framework
96
4.1
Policy rules and regulations
119
3.4
Environmental sustainability
115
3.9
Safety and security
57
5.3
Health and hygiene
56
5.0
Prioritization of Travel & Tourism
126
3.0
T&T business environment and infrastructure
93
3.0
Air transport infrastructure
130
1.9
Ground transport infrastructure
126
2.2
Tourism infrastructure
57
3.7
ICT infrastructure
66
2.9
Price competitiveness in the T&T industry
100
4.2
T&T human, cultural, and natural resources
124
3.3
Human resources
109
4.4
Education and training
124
3.1
Availability of qualified labor
30
5.7
Affinity for Travel & Tourism
92
4.5
Natural resources
123
2.2
Cultural resources
81
1.9
Table 2.7.: Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index For Bosnia and Herzegovina
Source: WEF(World Economic Forum). ―Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009‖, Geneva, 2009.
From the table above we can see areas which can provide competition advantage or disadvantage to Bosnia
and Herzegovina tourism. Bosnia and Herzegovina has to focus both of side to sustain tourism sector. A very
important problem for Bosnia and Herzegovina which needs to be improved urgently is ―infrastructure‖(93th
between 133 country). Also Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strong potential about natural and cultural resources. But
goverments dont attach importance to tourism as needed and dont have strong policy rules and regulations for
tourism sector. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a qualified labor but they dont have enough employment opportunities
for them.
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Strenghts
*Climatic diversity and geographic structure is
conducive to different tourism activities,
*Rich flora and fauna,
* Cultural structure is suitable for the development of
the tourism sector,
*Potential of thermal resources
*Existence of national parks which can be used for
tourism,
* Rich historical and cultural assets,
*To have symbols and values which represent three
holy religion,
*To be organizer of the Winter Olympics in 1984,
*Reviving the domestic tourism with diversification of
tourism products
*Labor and energy costs are too low,
*Having a stable economic environment for
investments,
*Political administration supports the investments in
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Weaknesses
*Advertisements are insufficient and thats affect all
sectors,
* Ground transport infrastructure is insufficient,
*Accomodation facilities are weak both in terms of
quality and quantity,
*Tourism master plan has not been completed already,
*Other sectors are not improved enough to support
tourism,
*Weak competition power to compete other european
countries,
*Tourists accommodate too short time in Bosnia and
Herzegovina,
*Natural, cultural and historical values isn‘t protected
enough,
* Capital accumulation is too low and they have
already depended to outside assistance,
* Institutionalization and legal structures have
shortages,
*Management system can cause damages about
investment decisions.
Threats
*Unbalanced income distribution,
*Bad effects of war still can be feel by people in
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
* Political and economic instability,
*Winter tourism season becomes shorter due to global
warming,
*Insufficiency of infrastructure and transportation
investments,
*Competition of neighboring countries,
*Rivals are supported by EU with sharing information
and financial support,
*EU supports travels between EU members with new
policies,
*Insufficient airplane componies.
Opportunities
*Having an unspoiled environment,
*Sector needs lots of new invesments,
*Tourism started to be seen as a strategic development
area in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
*Technical and judicial changes can be arranged to
attract new entrepreneurs,
*People in Bosnia and Herzegovina welcome foreign
capital in nationwide,
*EU support projects which is about alternative
tourism types,
*New players start to show themselves in the sector,
* The development of world tourism,
*Population and average income level per person
increased,
*Having good opportunities to improve ―winter
tourism‖,
*1984 Winter Olympics brought Bosnia and
Herzegovina a touristic image around the world.
Table 2.8.: SWOT of Bosnia and Herzegovina Tourism
Source: Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.ġ. Ekonomik ve Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Müdürlüğü. ―Bosna Hersek Sektör
Raporları: Turizm Sektörü‖, Ankara, 2010.
The SWOT analysis is a tool for a situation analysis and when used in an appropriate way, it can be a good
foundation for strategy formulation(Božac and TipuriĤ, 2006:433). SWOT analysis aims to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of an organisation and the opportunities and threats in the environment(Dyson, 2004:632). SWOT
analysis also can help us to determine strategies for specific areas.
5. Competition Strategies for Tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Porter claims that to gain competition advantage and to cope with 5 forces(threat of new entrants, industry
rivalry, bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers, threat of substitutes companies) can choose one
of 3 general competition strategies.
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Bosnia and Herzegovina can apply differentiation strategy in tourism sector. World tourism trends are
showing us that people travel to see different cultures and historical places(cultural tourim), natural
beauties(ecotourism). Bosnia and Herzegovina has a perfect potential for cultural tourism, winter tourism and
ecotourism. If Bosnia and Herzegovina can show his unique natural resources and cultural values to world travellers,
tourists can flow through Bosnia and Herzegovina.
While trying to apply differentiation strategy, Bosnia and Herzegovina should focus specific markets.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has only 25 kms of beach. This area needs focus because tourists who choose Bosnia and
Herzegovina for its beaches are too few. Bosnia and Herzegovina should organize sea tourism according to tourists
whose income levels are higher and that considers to accomodate for a long time.
Bosnia and Herzegovina cant apply cost leadership strategy with having insufficient infrastructure, few
accomodation facilities, low market shares. Also the main need to apply cost leadership strategy is to have a large
market. But Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism start to improve recently and also accomodation facilities in Bosnia and
Herzegovina are damaged by enemies in war.
D‘aveni claims that companies can‘t provide sustainable improvement. Because companies environment
change too fast, to provide costumer satisfaction is too hard and the rules of markets can change suddenly.
Types
Approaches
1.Speed
of
2.Surprise
3.Stakeholder Satisfaction
4.Strategic Soothsaying
5.Shift The Rules
6.Signalling Strategic Ġntent
7.Strategic Thrust
Areas which Bosnia and Herzegovina can apply D’aveni’s Strategies
Bosnia and Herzegovina should move fast and surprise costumers and rivals
with innovation moves in tourism sector to manage disruptions on rivals.
Bosnia and Herzegovina can use unspoiled environment to surprise tourists
and in this area they can build different structures like ―Skywalk-Grand
Canyon USA.
To provide costumer satisfaction they should increase the quality and safety
in accomodation facilities and envision future costumer demands with
following global tourism trends.
First they should learn the rules of market between rivals. When they have
enough power in market they can set their own rules. And with innovative
services which spread market with short-ranges can block rivals to enter our
areas.
Tablo 2.9.: D‘aveni‘s Strategies and Suitable Areas to Apply
D‘aveni‘s strategies are used to disrupt rivals. Bosnia and Herzegovina can use his unique areas (untouched
environment, 25kms long beach and historical places) to disrupt rivals in tourism market. With innovative goods and
services they can be arbiter in market. But before all of these strategies they must try to build a strong infrastructure
and introduce Bosnia and Herzegovina to the world with effective advertising campaigns.
The most suitable strategy for general Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism among 4 strategies of Miles and
Snow is Prospector strategy. After war, Bosnia and Herzegovina started a new period to improve tourism and other
sectors. Because at war they lost lots of tourism facilities. And now Bosnia and Herzegovina has a chance to build a
new tourism market with lots of opportunities and resources. With applying prospector strategy Bosnia and
Herzegovina can create innovative services and explore new techniques to improve tourism in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. They can create new competencies which cant be imitate easily and provide sustainable competition
advantage.
6. Conclusion
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a favorable investment environment and financial stability for foreign
entrepreneurs. Also privatization process in country is proceeding in a positive way. Legal treatments to start a
business in Bosnia and Herzegovina are very appropriate for foreign entrepreneurs.
With all these positive developments, Bosnia and Herzegovina can be developed more quickly than
competitors. According to an estimation of the World Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the
third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020. With various tourism types (cultural,
historical, winter, spa, ecotourism) Bosnia and Herzegovina can provide competition advantages in tourism sector to
disrupt their rivals.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
In this study we determined some strategies for Bosnia and Herzegovina to improve tourism activities. We
determined that Porter‘s ―differentation and focus strategies‖, D‘aveni‘s ―New 7‘S strategies‖ and Miles&Snow‘s
―prospector‖ strategy are suitable to apply for Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism.
Porter‘s and Miles&Snow‘s strategies can help Bosnia and Herzegovina to create general tourism strategies
to compete with rivals. To apply these strategies first they need a strong location in market and for that they have to
build strong and qualified accomodation facilities and advertise their untouched natural beauties.
D‘aveni‘s strategies can help Bosnia tourism in specific markets. They can focus on markets which they are
stronger like ecotourism, thermal tourism and cultural tourism.
Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism can improve quickly if they follow these steps;
1. They need to revise and renew their old tourism facilities which are damaged at war.
2. They have to use their untouched environment within a strategic plan. To provide sustainable advantage
they should hinder the harmful side of tourism activities.
3. They need to announce the investment opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
4. Another advantage for Bosnia and Herzegovina is being close to countries which have people with high
income levels.
5. Tourism trends indicate that tourists often travel by airplane. To compete with rivals in tourism sector
Bosnia and Herzegovina need to build new airports and also need to make strategic alliances with foreign
airline companies.
6. To ensure economic stability they must take the necessary measures.
7. They have to expedite actions to become a member of EU. Because rivals are supported by EU. This cause
disadvantage for competition.
References
Akhter, S. H. (2003). Strategic Planning, Hypercompetition, and Knowledge Management. Business Horizons, Jan./Feb., pp. 1924.
Akın, H.B. (1999). Rekabetçi Üstünlük ve Teknoloji: Küresel Bir YaklaĢım. Verimlilik Dergisi, Sayı:4.
Andrews, R. & Boyne, G.A. & Meier, K.J. & O‘Toole, M.J. & Walker, R.M. (2008). Strategic Fit and Performance: A Test of the
Miles and Snow Model. Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process: A Reflection on the Research Perspective of Miles and
Snow, Cardiff University and the Economic and Social Research Council Conference, Wales.
Binns, T. & NEL, E. (2002). Tourism as a local development strategy in South Africa. The Geographical Journal, Vol. 168, No. 3,
p. 235-247.
Bozac, M. G.&Tipuric, D. (2006). Top Management‘s Attitudes-Based SWOT Analysis In The Croatian Hotel Industry.
Ekonomski Pregled, No:57, p. 429-474.
Bulu, M. & Eraslan, Ġ.H. (2008). Sürdürebilir Rekabet Avantajı Elde Etmede Turizm Sektörü: Sektörel Stratejiler ve
Uygulamalar, URAK Yayınları, Ġstanbul.
Chathoth, P.K. & Olsen M.D. (2005). Lodging Industry Competitive Strategies: Developing a Multidimensional
Causal Empirical Model to Test the Relationship between Strategy and Performance. Vol.2, No.2, p. 67–86.
Cristureanu, C. & Bobirca, A. (2006). The competitiveness of Romania as a tourism destination. Turk-Kazakh International
Tourism Conference. New Perspectives and Values in World Tourism & Tourism Management in the Future. Alanya, Turkey.
D‘aveni, R. & Gunther, R. (1994). Hypercompetition: Managing the Dynamics of Strategic Maneuvering. NY: The Free Press.
Dyson, R. G. (2004). Strategic development and SWOT analysis at the University of Warwick. European Journal of Operational
Research, No.152, p. 631–640.
Elmazi, L. & STtojanoski, J. & Nedelea, A. (2006). An environmentally sustainable in viewpoint of tourism market
competitiveness in the global settings. Turk-Kazakh International Tourism Conference. New Perspectives and Values in World
Tourism & Tourism Management in the Future. Alanya, Turkey.
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Review, July-August.
Kotzab, H. & Grant, D.B. & Teller, C. & Halldorsson, A. (2009). Supply chain management and hypercompetition. Logist. Res.,
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Auckland, New Zealand.
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Tourism Conference. New Perspectives and Values in World Tourism & Tourism Management in the Future. Alanya, Turkey.
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Sektörü‖, Ankara.
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597
�
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Title
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Competition Strategies for Tourism Industry in the Context of Sustainable Development
Author
Author
ŞENTÜRK, Faruk Kerem
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The subject of competition started to be more important while we are facing with a quick changeable enviroment and an uncertain future. All around the world in every sector people who try to establish a new business will meet lots of rivals, lots of opportunities with high risks and a competition which ends with death or life. Because of these reasons strategies which help managements to compete with their rival are very important for a sustainable development. In the Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report which presented by World Economic Forum, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina ranked 107th. among 133 countries in 2009 index. This report shows us that Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina need to prepare new competitive strategies for tourism industry. If Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina can market his tourism industry effectively this development also will provide a new way for sustainable development. The purpose of this study is to determine which competition strategies are suitable for the managements in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina to provide sustainable development. In this context we will evaluate the strategies of Porter (Generic Strategies), D‘aveni (Hypercompetition), Miles&Snow (Adaptation Strategies).
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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501a49b00f352f7bdf53fbda152f2c67
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Text
Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education
Caglayan ACIKGOZ, Alev A.BORAZAN
Department of Chemical&Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering ,
Bilecik University, Bilecik, TURKEY
Email: caglayan.acikgoz@bilecik.edu.tr
Abstract: With worldwide demand for energy increasing every day, the development of new, clean,
renewable energy sources is critical to Earth's environment. To use clean-energy technology to help
developing countries improve their quality of life and economies. Turkey is an energy importing
country. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important
renewable sources are hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. The use of renewable
energy as a topic to study energy and its forms permits a novel way to motivate students,
particularly those who energy topics taking conscience with the environment. We would like to
achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and
energy management methods in Universities and Vocational High Schools. This increases the
methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional
life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are
even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning
methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors.
Key words: Renewable Energy Education, Teaching Learning Material, Motivation
Introduction
Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life in all countries.
Availability of cheap and abundant energy with minimum environmental and ecological hazards associated with its
production and use is one of the most important factors for economic growth and also for the desired improvement in
the quality of life of the people living in developing countries. Because environmental problems result from energyrelated factors, energy and environment are closely related concepts. Studies in last 2 decades have predicted that
energy education will be a new discipline in both developed and developing countries. It is therefore especially
developing countries that should take into account those studies and make some decisions about their energy,
environment, and educational policy. Two important strategies are being adopted by a number of countries around
the globe. The first strategy calls for energy demand management, which effectively means promotion of various
energy conservation and efficiency measures, and the second approach is the development and large-scale
dissemination of renewable energy technologies. Many countries around the world took initiatives for the
development and dissemination of renewable energy technologies immediately after the first oil crisis. However, in
spite of ambitious programmes of many countries in this direction, the dissemination of these technologies has not
met the expectations of the planners and implementing organizations. There have been only a few successful cases of
the adoption of renewable energy technologies. The poor dissemination of renewable energy technologies may be
attributed to several factors. One of the important inhibiting factors is the lack of a structured framework for
providing energy education, in general, and renewable energy education, in particular. For example, in many
countries, the lack of indigenous technology development capacity in the area of new and renewable sources of
energy has often resulted in the promotion of very expensive and inappropriate designs. Similarly, in some other
places, owing to the unavailability of local technical manpower of proper repair and maintenance of the initially
installed systems, the users have decided to use some other energy resource – technology combinations. Some of the
renewable energy technologies were not accepted by the end-users as they were unaware of their potential benefits
and associated requirements. These and several other such problems are merely manifestations of the same root
cause - lack of proper renewable energy education.
145
�Many developed and developing countries have changed their energy policies to find and develop new,
clean, and renewable energy sources. These countries have also been aware of the importance of formal and informal
energy and environmental education to make their citizens aware of the problem. Therefore they have been planning
to make required changes in their educational programs to integrate some energy and environment-related concepts,
units, activities, etc. into their curricula at different levels.
As mentioned above, investments in the energy sector and development of this sector are vital for Turkey.
For this purpose, several new policies have been continuously produced and changed according to new growing
economic requirements in this sector. During this process, it is also important to take into consideration
environmental and educational factors. It is obvious that one of these policies produced must be related to studies
dealing with energy education to supply qualified employees to the sector, to increase energy efficiency, to prevent
energy extravagancy, and to make citizens aware of the need to protect their environment. It should not be ignored
that formal education institutions play the most important role in achieving all of these goals. Because energy is
closely linked to concern for the environment, energy education should also include environmental issues(Garg
2006, Keser et al. 2003, Dinçer 1991).
Renewable Energy Education in the World
The need for energy education increases depending on war and economic turmoil day by day. What is
important is to decide how teaching about energy education should be done and what should be taught without such
crises. However, the problem is that sources and studies on energy education are limited. For instance, in the late
1970s and early 1980s, energy curriculum-development projects were underway in the US. A search of the ERIC
database, using the key words “energy-education and local-studies,” reveals that in 1981 eleven documents or
articles met that criteria and the next year the number jumped to 19. The same ERIC search that identified almost 2
dozen articles in 1982 located no articles on those topics in either 1989 or 1990(Keser et al. 2003, Marker 1991). In
the last decade, besides a few studies dealing with energy education, it can be seen that the number of web sites on
this topic has been increasing due to developing technologies. Energy in itself has not been regarded as a separate
discipline of education since the students in other disciplines (e.g., mechanical, chemical, electrical engineering, as
well as physics) are just exposed to the relevant aspects (of energy extraction, conversion, transmission and
distribution, utilization, etc.) as a part of their curricula. In these disciplines, the subject of energy is not pictured with
all its own aspects. Thus independent courses dealing with energy-related issues are not offered to the students at any
level of formal education. This has necessitated that energy be considered a very special topic and all its relevant
dimensions be studied in considerable detail. Hence the need to establish a separate educational discipline for energy
is urgent as well made some suggestions for this purpose (Garg 2006). In their study, they offered levels and
desirable features of energy education programs. For creating awareness and interest among the public and also for
providing first-hand exposure to the basic concepts and their applications, relevant inputs will have to be introduced
at the school level. Short-term courses and the use of mass media techniques can also help in achieving the above
objectives. Diploma level courses will have to be introduced for training of personnel in fabrication, installation, and
maintenance of energy technologies and systems. Regular four-year bachelor degree courses in energy engineering
with specialization in the area of renewable energy and energy conservation may be required for providing the
required manpower for design development and evaluation of emerging technologies. Teaching and training
programmes at the postgraduate level can be useful in imparting advanced level inputs to engineering graduates or
science students preferably with certain specialization options. Finally, short-term mid-career training of scientists,
engineers, policy-makers, and administrators in certain specific aspects may also be required. It must be emphasized
that for effective and large-scale dissemination of Renewable Energy Technologies initiating and strengthening
efforts at all the above levels is equally important. In some developing countries, especially in rural areas, a primaryschool focus is particularly important, for this may be the only formal education children receive. The attitudes about
energy inculcated at this time might have a profound effect, not only on the students, but also on their parents if they
follow their children’s schoolwork. This can have a direct impact on the improvement of understanding among the
general public, for example of the fuel wood problem and the need for innovation in stove design and solar cropdrying techniques, and such other renewable energy issues.
In many developing countries, secondary education is used to impart job-related trade skills, as well as to
prepare for college. Programmes on the maintenance and repair of renewable-energy devices and the adaptation of
non-local designs to local needs and materials should be introduced into high-schools and technical schools. This
will not only provide societies with the skilled technical manpower needed to make introduction of renewable-energy
146
�technology feasible, but it will also impart income-earning skills for a new era of energy use. Here again, training
materials and equipment are needed and teachers must be trained in their use. It is probably desirable throughout the
educative process, but particularly at the university level, that renewable-energy considerations be presented as part
of the complete energy picture, and that energy considerations in general be placed in the development context, both
rural and urban. There are several reasons for this. Renewable energies are more likely to receive their proper due if
they are considered on a par with other supply options so as neither to exaggerate nor to underestimate their potential
importance to any locals. Beyond this, the impact of energy issues on each economic sector and on intersectional
coordination needs to be made clear and even emphasized.
Desirable features of an energy education program are as follows: It should include all energy resources
(renewable and non-renewable) with particular emphasis on some specific ones depending upon the local needs and
characteristics. It should cover all aspects of energy technologies such as resource assessment, technology,
economics and energetic, socio cultural issues, and ecological and environmental impacts. Separate curricula
should be developed for different levels (school, polytechnic, university) and for different audiences. Although to
some extent the energy education programs may cater to the local, site-specific needs, they should at the same time
be consistent with national, regional, and international priorities and requirements. It should be flexible and dynamic,
thus allowing for improvement in the future, if desired. It should provide a balance between theory and practical
aspects and should involve all aspects of teaching/training including lectures, laboratories, demonstrations, hands-on
skills training, design, manufacture, trouble-shooting, etc. It should be capable of providing energy education to all
in a minimum amount of time and should be economically viable so that the maximum number of people may be
educated within the existing financial resources. Energy education should also ensure employment/self-employment
for the students and should thus have a direct link with job requirements and responsibilities of the manpower
required in the area of energy. It should be compatible with the global efforts in this direction and should allow
effective and mutually beneficial experience sharing and interaction.
Renewable Energy Education in Turkey
The eighth Five-Year Development Plan of Turkey reports that the main objective in the energy sector is to
meet the increasing demand for energy, in line with economic development targets, population growth rate, transition
to industrialization, and taking into account the environment The options related to some energy and environmental
policies are the following General Policies:
• Measures to encourage wider use of natural gas
• Support the utilization of clean and renewable energy sources as well as passive solar
energy applications
• Decentralization in energy generation
• Optimizing sustainability of energy supply and environmental costs
• Setting integrated energy consumption targets for organized industrial zones
Education and Training:
• Organization of energy conservation training at adult education centres
• Introducing energy conservation in formal education
• Organization of training for households in mass housing and rural areas (WECTNC 1999).
As mentioned above, investments in the energy sector and development of this sector are vital for Turkey.
For this purpose, several new policies have been continuously produced and changed according to new growing
economic requirements in this sector. During this process, it is also important to take into consideration
environmental and educational factors. It is obvious that one of these policies produced must be related to studies
dealing with energy education to supply qualified employees to the sector, to increase energy efficiency, to prevent
energy extravagancy, and to make citizens aware of the need to protect their environment. It should not be ignored
that formal education institutions play the most important role in achieving all of these goals. Because energy is
closely linked to concern for the environment, energy education should also include environmental issues.
During the past decades or so, Renewable Energy Education efforts have primarily focused on postgraduate
level teaching / training programmes. Several other undergraduate engineering degree programmes on Renewable
Energy are offered. Short-term training and refresher courses are also being offered besides a large number of
seminars, workshops, symposia and conference being organized on Renewable Energy and related topics every year.
Some work has recently been initiated towards the development of vocational courses and courses for technicians
and mechanics.
147
�To Motivate Renewable Energy Education
We aims at improving the environmental and renewable energy awareness of young people for a sustainable
development, and also, at the development of innovative approaches for the analyses and solution of problems.
We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern
environmental and energy management methods in Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological
competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role
in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become
environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for
the students and instructors. Teachers are profoundly consulted and accompanied in the field of web-didactics. An
environmental and energy management system is a professional management instrument, which systematically
directs the school organization as well as the processes and activities in the schools towards an environmentally
friendly acting. All environmental media and material flows in the schools become transparent and the
environmental awareness of those involved is improved. Previous experiences with Environmental and Energy
Management System have shown that the consumption of resources and therefore costs can be reduced at the
schools. In their every-day surroundings the young people learn about an environmentally friendly handling of
resources and by means of out-of-school training forms they come to a positive attitude towards active citizenship
engagement. All students have undertaken the steps for the introduction of an environmental and energy
management system. Each step is described in detail and illustrated on the internal Learning Management System.
The implementation has been realized by environmental teams consisting of both students and teachers. The
necessary management skills have been transmitted in special compulsory optional environmental and energy
classes or in optional environmental and energy trainings. Moreover, the schools have been realizing environmental
projects involving different stakeholders such as students, teachers, parents and local organizations (environmental
organizations and experts, energy suppliers etc.). Thus for example renewable energy resources were introduced to
the students, whereby the environmental and energy groups provided necessary documentation and presented and
explained the new concept in school meetings to all members of the school. In order to establish the comparability in
the approaches, the teachers provided exemplary training units on the basis of a common pattern, which show how
an environmental and energy management system can be introduced with students. The development of the blended
learning approach (a mixture of face-to-face lessons and e-Learning) and the information-technological development
is realised by the Training and Project Network. The Pedagogical Seminary of the University accompanies and
evaluates the pedagogical development in the framework of the project on a European level. The environmental and
energy contest will be developed by Environmental and Energy Management. These Joint Actions are about the
possibility to do projects together in order to achieve synergy effects as it is intended in the resolutions of the
programmes Socrates (general education), Leonardo da Vinci (vocational training) and Youth. In general these Joint
Actions have to deal with subjects, which not exclusively are part of one of the areas general education, vocational
training or youth. They favour an increasing cooperation between stakeholders of different sectors and fields of
knowledge.
The learning material might be all kinds of office-files, like Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Pack and gopresentations, Access-data bases and other, but also small subprograms that do automatically start as web-basedtraining units on students computer, like flash-files. One further option to give illustrations is the provision of photofiles in all current formats, like jpg, gif-files. Further often used file-formats are PDF-files. Even small video
sequences can be enclosed attached, like mpg-files. By clicking the particular file symbol you open the material
online. In general it is advisable to save the learning material on PC, if necessary to print it as well.
Conclusion
It is essential to develop and implement a well-designed energy education program, including
environmental issues oriented to formal and non-formal education in cooperation with all foundations dealing with
energy before it is too late. A careful analysis of the course contents of many teaching / training programmes on new
and renewable sources of energy reveals that more often than not the curriculums are strongly driven by the expertise
148
�of available teachers rather than the inputs to be given to the students. A proper balance between theoretical and
practical inputs is crucial for any renewable energy education programme. The laboratory component of renewable
energy courses must ensure enough hands-on training of the students. There is an urgent need to develop suitable
experiments which can be offered at different levels.
References
H.P. Garg, Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education IX. World Renewable Energy Congress, Aug 2006, Florence,
ITALY
Kandpal, T. C., and H. P. Garg., Resources materials for renewable energy education. Renewable Energy 5:2362–2366, 1994.
Kandpal, T. C., and H. P. Garg, Energy education. Appl. Energy 64:71–78, . 1999.
Ömer F. Keser, Haluk Özmen, Fikret Akdeniz, Energy, Environment, and Education Relationship in Developing
Countries’Policies: A Case Study for Turkey, Energy Sources, 25:123–133, 2003
WECTNC, Web site of World Energy Council Turkish National Committee, Energy Report and Statistics of Turkey-1999, dated
searching from www.dektmk.org.tr/
Dinçer, I. Environmental issues: 1 Energy utilization, Energy Sources 23:69–81. 2001.
Marker, G. W., Has the time come to revive energy education? Social Studies 82(5):183–187, 1991.
149
�
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366
Title
A name given to the resource
Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education
Author
Author
ACIKGOZ, Caglayan
BORAZAN, Alev A.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
With worldwide demand for energy increasing every day, the development of new, clean, renewable energy sources is critical to Earth's environment. To use clean-energy technology to help developing countries improve their quality of life and economies. Turkey is an energy importing country. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. The use of renewable energy as a topic to study energy and its forms permits a novel way to motivate students, particularly those who energy topics taking conscience with the environment. We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and energy management methods in Universities and Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
-
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3317f9dd25d3e5c11e653aa7fbe88e4d
PDF Text
Text
Freshman Students’ Attitudes Toward Issues of Computer Ethics
Ali ACILAR
The Department of Business Administration
Bilecik University, Turkey
ali.acilar@bilecik.edu.tr;
Muzaffer AYDEMİR
The Department of Business Administration
Bilecik University, Turkey
muzaffer.aydemir@bilecik.edu.tr
Abstract: Computers and Internet have become a part of our life. Our dependence on these
technologies has been continuously and rapidly increasing. Computers and Internet use also has
become a necessity for instructional purposes in academic environments. Although the
widespread use of computers and Internet has many benefits for almost everyone, it has also
increased the use of these technologies for illegal purposes or unethical activities such as piracy
and privacy invasion. Taking these issues into consideration, the main purpose of this study is to
explore freshman students’ attitudes toward several issues of computer ethics. This study was
conducted using a survey method and data were collected among freshman students in the
Department of Business Administration at a public university in Turkey. Hypotheses were tested
for investigating whether age, gender and duration of computer usage in a week have a significant
impact on freshman students’ ethical judgments regarding computer and Internet usage.
Keywords: Computer ethics, freshman students
Introduction
Computers have become a part of society. Computers and internet change the way we live, the way we
communicate, the way we get education, the way we make business. Societies are changing with information and
communication technologies. Many businesses depend on computers and Internet for its operations. Computers and
Internet have increasingly become necessity in education and industry as well as in daily life. There is no doubt that
these technologies have had considerable impact on our lives. However, the tradeoff between the benefits and
dangers for a person or a society is controversial. Today’s advanced information and communication technologies
have enlightened many people but, also have increased the use of computers for illegal purposes or unethical
activities such as piracy, privacy invasion, unauthorized access and use of computer systems (Banerjee et al, 1998;
Mason, 1986; Sedlet, 1999, Lee and Chan, 2008; Maslin Masrom and Zuraini Ismail, 2008; Akbulut et al, 2008, a).
Technological developments create new opportunities for action and new sets of choices that are ultimately
of a moral nature (Mullen and Horner, 2004). As living in the information age, also known commonly as the
computer age or information era, we constantly confronted with important technological changes and the need to
create new attitudes towards new situations arose from the computer technology (Maslin Masrom and Zuraini Ismail,
2008). Technological changes penetrate societies faster than new attitudes are formed for them or legal and ethical
codes are adopted (Bercu, 1991).
As the use of computers and Internet has become widespread, misuses of these technologies have increased
dramatically (Banerjee et al, 1998). The easy of reaching, storing, changing and transmitting information provided by
Internet has made unethical behaviors much easier, particularly among students in academic settings (Abdul Karim,
Zamzuri, and Nor, 2009). Internet has provided a new dimension to human computer interaction. There is no doubt
that proper use of Internet is beneficial to both, students and academicians. However there is no code of ethics for
users in the Internet. There is an ethical vacuum in cyberspace (Laudon, 1995). According to Sackson (1996) as the
general public becomes increasingly ‘computer literate’, the gap between technology and peoples’ intellect
noticeably shrinks.
Students enter universities from different backgrounds and with different experiences. Many students are
unaware of ethical issues of computer usage such as software piracy (Cohen and Cornwell, 1989). According to
Calluzzo and Cante (2004) many if not most, students had misconceptions about what represented ethical and
unethical behaviors in the use of software and information technology and systems. It is important to measure the
213
�level of computer ethics awareness in the first year of undergraduate education to take necessary measures about
ethical computer usage among students before graduation.
Teaching computer ethics is a critical task in the Department of Business Administration. There are several
reasons computer ethics is an important issue for students in the Department of Business Administration. It is
possible that if college students are uncertain about what constitutes appropriate and inappropriate behavior then this
uncertainty will be carried forward into their workplaces after graduation (Calluzzo and Cante, 2004; King and Case,
2007). Employee abuse of company information technology resources can slow a system’s network, hurt the
productivity of all workers trying to access information on the system and even dangerous network can be infected
by a downloaded virus. These cases may generate huge losses for company and can result in lawsuit or dismissal
(Perreault and Keith, 2004). Even though some organization adopted code of ethics for members, not every computer
user and information system professional is a member of these organizations, and therefore does not necessarily
follow these codes (Harris, 2000). Computer abuse is widespread issue around the world. To prevent financial losses
from computer abuse, companies need to employ people who are aware of ethical computer usage (Pierce and Henry,
1996). Since many companies depend on people who are computer literate and computer users face ethical problems
everyday in the work-place. For these reasons college students should be aware of ethical computer usage before
graduation (Pierce and Henry, 1996; Calluzzo and Cante, 2004).
Given these issues, this study was conducted among freshman students in the Department of Business
Administration at a public university in Turkey to gain insight about their awareness and understanding of the
computer ethics issues.
Literature Review
Computer ethics awareness among undergraduate students in different fields of study has been the subject of
several studies. Different dimensions of computer ethics have been addressed by these studies. Cohen and Cornwell
(1989) conducted a study on college students to determine their attitude toward copying of computer software. They
determined that 58% of the college students, who are participated the survey, had personally pirated. Cohen and
Cornwell (1989) determined that an overwhelming majority of students feel that software piracy and other forms of
information system unethical behavior are acceptable, also many students feel that it is okay for them to pirate
software but they feel that piracy is normative behavior.
Athley (1993) surveyed sixty-five computer science and computer information systems students to
determine their ethical beliefs on seven scenarios and nineteen ethical problems. She found significant differences
between high-tech students and computer experts based on ethical beliefs in computer-related situations.
Harris (2000) investigated information systems ethical attitudes among college students with a survey
including ethical situations of 20 individual situations. He found that there is a difference in attitudes as students
mature through the educational process in 12 of the 20 individual situations, and between genders in 8 of the 20
individual situations.
Siegfried (2004) investigated student attitudes on software piracy and related issues of computer ethics. He
determined from the study that students generally felt that copying commercial software and downloading music
from the Internet was acceptable and found that there was no significant correlation between student attitudes and
their school’s religious affiliation or lack thereof. He found that a small but significant percentage of responding
students considered the other questionable behaviors as ethically acceptable. Students do not see any problem with
downloading music over the Internet. Siegfried (2004) determined that there is no sense among college students that
the unauthorized copying of commercial software is wrong.
Calluzzo and Cante (2004) conducted a research among graduate and undergraduate students to gain insight
into their attitudes, perceptions and understanding of ethics in information technology and software use. They found
that the sample were quite ethical in those behaviors associated with personal privacy, personal property or outright
theft. This study couldn’t find significant differences among genders based on ethical judgements.
McCarthy, Halawi, and Aronson (2005) studied to determine whether there are significant differences
between undergraduate and graduate students in their perception of information technology ethics. The study found
that significant differences do not exist between undergraduate and graduate computer information systems students
but significant differences existed between male and female computer information systems students in their ethical
beliefs related to information technology usage.
Gan and Koh (2006) examined perceptions of software piracy and studied to discover its underlying factors
in three universities at Singapore. They found that while age was negatively related to software piracy, computer
experience or computer usage demonstrated an ambiguous relationship to software piracy.
214
�Halawi and Karkoulian (2006) investigated ethical attitudes of business information systems student toward
information systems. They found that there is a difference in perception to ethical situations between undergraduate
and graduate students as well as between females and males in certain ethical situations.
King and Case (2007) investigated undergraduate student behavior and perceptions about e-cheating. They
founded that even cheating is common among undergraduates only four percent of students admit to cheating on
exams using information technology.
Masrom, Ismail, and Hussein (2008) investigated the ethical awareness of computer use among
undergraduate computer science students at two public Malaysian universities. They found that the ethical awareness
of computer use of the students differ most significantly on the basis of the university itself. They found no major
differences across gender, age and duration of computer use.
Namlu and Odabasi (2007) carried out a survey with 216 undergraduate students from Anadolu University,
Turkey computer engineering and computer and instructional technologies teaching departments and developed
unethical computer using behavior scale (UECUBS). Akbulut et al (2008, b) investigated influence of gender,
program of study and PC experience on unethical computer using behaviors of Turkish undergraduate students from
five different departments (not including the Department of Business Administration) at Anadolu University using
UECUBS. Akbulut et al (2008, a) explored the types and reasons of Internet-triggered academic dishonesty among
undergraduate students in department of education at Anadolu University and developed Internet-Triggered
Academic Dishonesty Scale (ITADS). Beycioglu (2009) conducted a study aimed to determine prospective teachers’
unethical computer using behaviors at a faculty of education in Turkey. Beycioglu (2009) in his study concluded that
prospective teachers undermine ethical computer use. The results revealed that female candidate teachers were more
concerned about ethical issues than male candidate teachers and that prospective teachers who had up to five years of
PC experience considered ethical computer use more than those with five years and beyond.
Research Methodology
Hypotheses
In this study three research hypotheses were stated to guide the research. These are as follows:
H0(1): 18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old students have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage.
H0(2): Female and male students have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage.
H0(3): Students with less computer usage (1-4 hours) and students with more computer usage (more than 4 hours) in a
week have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage.
Participants
The study was conducted in the spring semester in 2009. 143 full time freshman students in the Department of
Business Administration participated the study. The total number of questionnaires used after the exclusion of
missing values was 110. Respondent students (excluding missing values) consisted of 36% of all freshman students
in the Department of Business Administration (309). Sample characteristics are provided in Table 1.
215
�Frequency
Percentage
1) Male
49
44.5
2) Female
61
55.5
18-19
57
51.8
20-24
53
48.2
52
47.3
58
52.7
57
51.8
53
48.2
97
88.2
13
11.8
13
11.8
97
88.2
Gender
Age
Duration of Computer Usage in
a Week
1-4 hours
> 4 hours
Internet Experience
1-4 years
> 4 years
E-Mail Users
Yes
No
Internet shopping
Yes
No
Table 1. Participants’ characteristics
Instrument
The questionnaire used in this study consists of two parts. The first part was developed to collect
demographic information. The second part comprised of 28 items measuring computer ethics awareness. 10 items in
the second part of the questionnaire are adapted from “Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics”. Remaining 18
items are adapted from “unethical computer using behavior scale (UECUBS)” developed by Namlu and Odabaşı,
2009. Respondents answered each item in the survey on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree), 2
(Disagree), 3 (Neutral), 4 (Agree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).
Results
The results indicate sensitivity toward unethical behavior in various situations among freshman students.
The highest mean score (Q12: 2.44, with standard deviation (SD): 1.345) regarded “Copying licensed CDs, DVDs”,
second highest mean score (Q6: 2.15, with SD: 1.322) regarded “Copy or use proprietary software for which you
have not paid”. Other high mean scores were “Using crack programmes” (Q11: mean: 2.05, SD: 1.244), “Using
materials like pictures, animations, etc., without the consent of the owner” (Q14: mean: 2.03, SD: 1.207). The lowest
mean score (Q23: mean: 1.11, SD: 0.367) regarded “Sending pornographic mail to people without request”. Other
low mean scores were “Use a computer to steal” (Q4: mean: 1.13, SD: 0.386), and “Deliberately sending a virus by
e-mail” (Q24: mean: 1.15, SD: 0.473). Table 2 shows descriptive statistics of the items.
The results of the hypotheses testing are summarized in the following paragraphs. The results of t-test are shown in
Table 3 and the group means are presented in Table 4.
216
�Age Differences
The first hypothesis is about whether students in different ages have the same ethical beliefs about computer
usage. Respondent students were grouped according to age as 18-19 years old and 20-24 years old. The results show
that 5 of the 28 items resulted in differences between 18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old students. Table 3
shows where there was a difference among group means between 18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old
students for the items. In all cases but two, mean score of 18-19 years old students is higher than mean score of 2024 years old students. This finding coincides with the results to other studies (ie. Masrom, Ismael and Hussein,
2008). Age is an important factor for students to their understanding of ethics become mature. Two groups believed
that use a computer to harm other people is unethical (Groups’ mean scores are 1.26). There is no difference between
age groups regarding to “Copying licensed CDs, DVDs” and “Copy or use proprietary software for which you have
not paid” items. These items have the highest mean scores for these groups. “Sending pornographic mail to people
without request” item has the lowest mean score for two age groups. There is no statistically significant difference
between two groups regarding to this item.
Gender Differences
The second hypothesis is about whether female and male students have the same ethical beliefs about
computer usage. The results show that 15 of the 28 items resulted in statistically differences between male and
female students. Table 3 shows where there was a difference among group means between male and female students
for the items. In all cases, mean score of male students is higher than mean score of female students. Female students
are more sensitive than male students regarding to unethical use of computers. The lowest mean score of males is
1.12 (1.11 for females) related to “Sending pornographic mail to people without request” item. Male and female
students accept this as an unethical behavior. The highest mean scores of males are 2.78 and 2.71 related to
“Copying licensed CDs, DVDs” and “Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid” items. Female
students’ mean scores of these items are 2.16 and 1.7 respectively.
Duration of Computer Use in a Week Differences
The third hypothesis is about whether students with less computer usage and students with more computer
usage in a week have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage. The results show that 14 of the 28 items
resulted in differences between students with less computer usage and students with more computer usage in a week.
Table 3 shows where there was a difference among group means between students who use computer 1-4 hours in a
week and students who use computer more than 4 hours in a week for the items. In all cases, mean of students who
use computer more than 4 hours in a week is higher than mean of other group. These results indicate that more
computer experienced students show less ethical attitudes toward computer usage. The highest mean score for these
groups is also related to “Copying licensed CDs, DVDs.”. Mean scores of this item are 2.81 and 2.02 respectively.
The lowest mean score for more computer experienced students is 1.16 and it is related to “Use a computer to steal.”.
The lowest mean score for less computer experienced students is 1.02 and it is related to “Sending pornographic mail
to people without request.”.
In this study, we couldn’t find statistically significant difference between groups in 5 of 28 items regarding
all three hypotheses. These items are Q5, Q8, Q19, Q20, and Q25.
Conclusions
As computer and Internet use continues to grow, users and institutions face some ethical and legal issues
related with using these technologies. The aims of this study were to test three hypotheses regarding freshman
students’ attitudes toward issues of computer ethics. To achieve these objectives, authors collected data from one
hundred and ten freshman students in the Department of Business Administration.
The study found that there were significant differences in ethical attitudes about computer usage between
18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old students. 20-24 years old students were more aware about ethical
behavior using computer than 18-19 years old students.
In terms of gender factor, the results of this study indicated that significant differences existed between male
and female freshman students. It is found that, female students' attitudes about ethical computer usage better than
217
�male students in all 28 cases. The study showed 15 of the 28 items resulted in statistically significant differences
between male and female students.
The study shows that more computer experienced students show less ethical attitudes toward computer
usage. In all cases, mean scores of students who use computer more than 4 hours in a week is higher than mean
scores of students who use computer 1-4 hours in a week. The results show that 14 of the 28 items resulted in
statistically significant differences between students depending on duration of computer usage in a week.
There are some limitations of this study. The respondent sample of the study is composed students in the
Department of Business Administration. Students in other departments may show differences. Another limitation is
that study is conducted in a public university in Turkey. Besides all the limitations, this study makes meaningful
contribution to field of study in computer ethics awareness among undergraduate students.
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219
�Mean
SD
Q1) Use a computer to harm other people.
1.26
0.585
Q2) Interfere with other people’s computer work.
1.53
0.786
Q3) Snoop around in other people’s computer files.
1.41
0.782
Q4) Use a computer to steal.
1.13
0.386
Q5) Use a computer to bear false witness.
1.17
0.446
Q6) Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
2.15
1.322
1.50
0.843
Q8) Appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
1.50
0.886
Q11) Using crack programmes.
2.05
1.244
Q12) Copying licensed CDs, DVDs.
2.44
1.345
Q13) Selling licensed CDs, DVDs which are reproduced against regulations.
1.62
0.948
Q14) Using materials like pictures, animations, etc. without the consent of the owner.
2.03
1.207
Q9) Do not think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or
the system you are designing.
1.51
0.763
Q10) Do not use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your
fellow humans.
1.28
0.608
1.38
0.69
Privacy
Property
Q7) Use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper
compensation.
Social Impact
Q15) Disturbing people by using the advantage of virtual environment.
Q16) Carrying a propaganda in Internet that threatens social peace.
1.23
0.501
Q17) Allowing children to play computer games of violence.
1.53
0.936
Q18) Permitting children to enter inappropriate sites on Internet in Internet Cafes.
1.28
0.731
Q19) Web masters’ delivering the personal information of members to other people.
1.20
0.503
Q20) Deliberately damaging the hardware of computers designed for public use.
1.16
0.418
Q21) Copying the data in a computer without the consent of the owner.
1.27
0.573
Q22) Sending a private mail to others without the consent of the sender.
1.49
0.875
Q23) Sending pornographic mail to people without request.
1.11
0.367
Q24) Deliberately sending a virus by e-mail.
1.15
0.473
Q25) Using others’ personal information without permission.
1.23
0.553
Q26) Sending one’s personal information to a web page without permission.
1.19
0.459
1.91
1.253
1.60
1.051
Safety and Quality
Q27) Using the network of an individual or institution to access Internet without
permission.
Q28) Hacking through Internet.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Items
220
�Privacy
Ha(1)
Ha(2)
H(3)
p
p
p
Q1) Use a computer to harm other people.
0.993
0.002**
0.056
Q2) Interfere with other people’s computer work.
0.015*
0.019*
0.019*
Q3) Snoop around in other people’s computer files.
0.016*
0.032*
0.118
Q4) Use a computer to steal.
0.172
0.028*
0.426
Q5) Use a computer to bear false witness.
0.024
0.062
0.676
Property
Q6) Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
0.236
0.000**
0.001**
Q7) Use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper
compensation.
0.142
0.053
0.010**
Q8) Appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
0.915
0.332
0.520
Q11) Using crack programmes.
0.111
0.000**
0.037*
Q12) Copying licensed CDs, DVDs.
0.387
0.017*
0.002**
Q13) Selling licensed CDs, DVDs which are reproduced against regulations.
0.340
0.001**
0.012*
Q14) Using materials like pictures, animations, etc. without the consent of the
owner.
0.033*
0.170
0.022*
Q9) Do not think about the social consequences of the program you are
writing or the system you are designing.
0.043*
0.011*
0.106
Q10) Do not use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for
your fellow humans.
0.546
0.033*
0.605
Social Impact
Q15) Disturbing people by using the advantage of virtual environment.
0.147
0.000**
0.026*
Q16) Carrying a propaganda in Internet that threatens social peace.
0.051
0.478
0.022*
Q17) Allowing children to play computer games of violence.
0.424
0.002**
0.009**
Q18) Permitting children to enter inappropriate sites on Internet in Internet
Cafes.
0.034*
0.182
0.004**
Q19) Web masters’ delivering the personal information of members to other
people.
0.076
0.224
0.088
Q20) Deliberately damaging the hardware of computers designed for public
use.
0.221
0.184
0.817
Q21) Copying the data in a computer without the consent of the owner.
0.138
0.015*
0.036*
Q22) Sending a private mail to others without the consent of the sender.
0.046*
0.194
0.155
Q23) Sending pornographic mail to people without request.
0.141
0.734
0.011*
Q24) Deliberately sending a virus by e-mail.
0.084
0.080
0.036*
Q25) Using others’ personal information without permission.
0.078
0.520
0.090
Q26) Sending one’s personal information to a web page without permission.
0.009**
0.494
0.097
Q27) Using the network of an individual or institution to access Internet
without permission.
0.089
0.017*
0.086
Q28) Hacking through Internet.
0.493
0.001**
0.262
Safety and Quality
* indicates significant at the 0.05 level
** indicates significant at the 0.01 level
Table 3. The Results of t-test
221
�Ha(2)
Ha(1)
18-19
20-24
years old
years old
H(3)
Male
Female
1-4 hours
>4 hours
N
57
53
49
61
52
58
Q1
1.26
1.26
1.47
1.10
1.15
1.36
Q2
1.70
1.34
1.73
1.36
1.35
1.69
Q3
1.58
1.23
1.59
1.26
1.29
1.52
Q4
1.18
1.08
1.22
1.05
1.10
1.16
Q5
1.26
1.08
1.27
1.10
1.15
1.19
Q6
2.30
2.00
2.71
1.70
1.73
2.53
Q7
1.61
1.38
1.67
1.36
1.29
1.69
Q8
1.49
1.51
1.59
1.43
1.44
1.55
Q11
2.23
1.85
2.63
1.57
1.79
2.28
Q12
2.54
2.32
2.78
2.16
2.02
2.81
Q13
1.70
1.53
1.96
1.34
1.38
1.83
Q14
2.26
1.77
2.20
1.89
1.75
2.28
Privacy
Property
Social Impact
Q9
1.65
1.36
1.71
1.34
1.38
1.62
Q10
1.32
1.25
1.43
1.16
1.25
1.31
Q15
1.47
1.28
1.65
1.16
1.23
1.52
Q16
1.32
1.13
1.27
1.20
1.12
1.33
Q17
1.60
1.45
1.84
1.28
1.29
1.74
Q18
1.42
1.13
1.39
1.20
1.08
1.47
Q19
1.28
1.11
1.27
1.15
1.12
1.28
Q20
1.21
1.11
1.22
1.11
1.15
1.17
Q21
1.35
1.19
1.43
1.15
1.15
1.38
Q22
1.65
1.32
1.61
1.39
1.37
1.60
Q23
1.16
1.06
1.12
1.10
1.02
1.19
Q24
1.23
1.08
1.24
1.08
1.06
1.24
Q25
1.32
1.13
1.27
1.20
1.13
1.31
Q26
1.30
1.08
1.22
1.16
1.12
1.26
Q27
2.11
1.70
2.22
1.66
1.69
2.10
Q28
1.67
1.53
2.00
1.28
1.48
1.71
Safety and Quality
Table 4. Group Means
222
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ec9b8cdd49e4e6d4f698cbcab5b5aa35.doc
06471204d203c8f2497ab8a2d4287525
Dublin Core
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Extent
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402
Title
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Freshman Students’ Attitudes Toward Issues of Computer Ethics
Author
Author
ACILAR, Ali
AYDEMİR, Muzaffer
Abstract
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Computers and Internet have become a part of our life. Our dependence on these technologies has been continuously and rapidly increasing. Computers and Internet use also has become a necessity for instructional purposes in academic environments. Although the widespread use of computers and Internet has many benefits for almost everyone, it has also increased the use of these technologies for illegal purposes or unethical activities such as piracy and privacy invasion. Taking these issues into consideration, the main purpose of this study is to explore freshman students’ attitudes toward several issues of computer ethics. This study was conducted using a survey method and data were collected among freshman students in the Department of Business Administration at a public university in Turkey. Hypotheses were tested for investigating whether age, gender and duration of computer usage in a week have a significant impact on freshman students’ ethical judgments regarding computer and Internet usage.
Date
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2009-06
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)