310 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/67174917f6bd1315059f73679c731c87.pdf 8b2a795322c4a69316a7cc74f9c0e69d PDF Text Text The Substantive Universals in the Relationship between Language Ideology and Language Education Azamat Anvarovich Akbarov International Burch University/Sarajevo Abstract: While we need to problematize the notions of development and sustainable development, we are also faced by a particular challenge related to language: what models of language in the world are we using to understand the role of language education in development? I shall discuss a range of possible understandings of English in the world in order to see how they relate to questions of development. In recent years, work in critical linguistics has begun to have an impact on theory and practice in second language learning and teaching. Particularly influential has been work in language policy, the role of language in identity formation, and analyses of ideologies of language. One question that deserves particular attention is how implicit assumptions about language and about language learning and teaching impact language teaching practices. In part, this question foregrounds the importance of naming. Indeed, commonly accepted terminology can determine our experience. I do not mean this in the traditional sense of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis1, in which our language determines our sense of reality (though that may be true in some ways). What I mean instead is that our experience, particularly our emotional experience of events, is fundamentally shaped by our beliefs about these events and by the language we use to describe the events. In this paper, I will examine how our beliefs about language and second language learning and teaching shape our professional experience. The major claim explored here is that our beliefs about language fundamentally determine our interpretations of the reality of language classrooms, including students, teachers, what we should teach, how we should teach, and virtually everything that matters in language education. The search for underlying assumptions takes us into the study of ideology. Therefore I will briefly define what I mean by language ideology, and then I will examine some important ways that it shapes what we do in language education. I am especially interested in what I will call "standard language ideology,"2 which refers to a cluster of beliefs about the value of linguistic homogeneity. I explore the impact of standard language ideology upon common language teaching practices and how those practices often are in the service of social and political agendas. Finally I will consider one pedagogical alternative to standard language ideology. 1. Introduction The term language ideology refers to a shared body of commonsense notions about the nature of language in the world, including cultural assumptions about language, the nature and purpose of communication, and "patterns of communicative behavior as an enactment of a collective order" (Woolard,1992)3. This means that the ways we communicate play a crucial role in shaping and reflecting fundamental assumptions about identity, including who we are as members of collective identities. Ideology has become something of a buzzword, and it risks losing meaning 1 Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf developed a theory of linguistics which claims that language shapes thought. http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?SapirWhorfHypothesis 2 In his article "Critical Inquiries into Language in an Urban Classroom" Bob Fecho describes a scene in his urban Philadelphia high school English classroom where students engaged in a personal, open-ended exploration of language usage and language legitimacy in their lives as played out in the American academic setting. In his classroom, Fecho has his students use critical inquiry to explore the impact language and learning has on their lives. 3 In sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology, a language or linguistic ideology is a systematic construct about how languages carry or are invested with certain moral, social, and political values, giving rise to implicit assumptions that people have about a language or about language in general. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_ideology 32 �as it becomes so pervasive in our professional vocabulary. But it is important to keep in mind what the term tries to capture, namely the implicit, usually unconscious assumptions about reality that fundamentally determine how human beings interpret events. In her important book English with an Accent1, about linguistic discrimination in the United States, Rosina Lippi-Green (1997)2 defines standard language ideology as "a bias toward an abstract, idealized homogenous language, which is imposed and maintained by dominant institutions and which has as its model the written language, but which is drawn primarily from the spoken language of the upper middle class." An example of standard language ideology is the commonsense belief that communication is more efficient if everyone speaks a uniform language variety. Another example is the belief that uniform language varieties are typical and normal. I am interested in exploring some of the ways that language education (especially English language teaching) is shaped by standard language ideology. Many of the tools of the profession of language education are instruments of standard language ideology. Grammar books, dictionaries, most teaching manuals and methods textbooks generally sustain the illusion of a uniform standard language (a "target language"), "persuading English language teachers and learners against all evidence to the contrary that uniformity is normal and desirable"(Milroy and Milroy, 1985). The obsession with errors and error correction in language teaching is probably the most striking manifestation of standard language ideology, along with the related belief that students' lack of motivation, their carelessness, and merely their failure to learn are the reasons for the non-standard linguistic forms that learners produce. Standard language ideology shapes our work in many ways. For instance, when I teach, I notice that I often delete the auxiliary "have" in sentences such as "I have been thinking about language ideology for a long time." In other words, I often say "I been thinking about language ideology for a long time." In producing this structure, I am typical of speakers of American English in most informal and formal contexts, including university lectures. The current trend in American English is for the unstressed auxiliary "have" (even it's contracted form) to disappear altogether in normal spoken English. Yet in teaching English, virtually everyone continues to insist that students produce the full or the contracted form of "have." Any English language learner who deletes "have" is considered to have produced an error. In other words, most English teachers continue to insist that students produce forms that many teachers themselves no longer produce with any consistency. 2. Language Ideology A key component of standard language ideology is the myth of the uniformity of languages. In other words, standard language ideology entails an ideology of variation. Deborah Cameron3 points out that standard language ideology assumes that "variation is deviant; and that any residual variation in standard English must therefore be the contingent and deplorable result of some users' carelessness, idleness or incompetence" (Cameron, 1995: 39). This myth of uniformity has two parts. First, each separate world variety of standard English, such as British or American English, is assumed to be uniform, with any variation a form of deviance. Second, the output of learners is expected to conform to this uniform standard. The job of language teachers is to teach students to produce Standard English. I would like to examine each of these beliefs, beginning with the uniformity of standard languages. Everyone of course acknowledges dialect variation. That is not the issue. Many also recognize that everyone has an accent, even people who speak prestigious standard varieties, though the word "accent" in popular usage is usually limited to non-standard varieties. Yet virtually everyone also believes that standard varieties are essentially uniform, homogeneous and fixed. Despite this belief, all linguists agree that variation is normal and intrinsic to all spoken 2 English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States (1997) 3 Rosina Lippi-Green, née Rosina Lippi (b. January 14, 1956 in Chicago, Illinois, USA) is an American writer. She writes under the names Rosina Lippi-Green (linguistics). 4 Deborah Cameron (born 1958) is an English feminist philologist, who currently holds the Rupert Murdoch Professorship in Language and Communication at Worcester College, University of Oxford. She is mainly interested in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. A large part of her academic research is focused on the relationship of language to gender and sexuality. 33 �language, even to standard varieties. In William Labov's1 words, "heterogeneity is an integral part of the linguistic economy of the community, necessary to satisfy the linguistic demands of everyday life" (Labov, 1982). What this means is that human beings recognize and exploit variation in order "to send a complex series of messages about ourselves and the way we position ourselves in the world" (Lippi-Green, 1997: 30). We vary our languages, even standard languages, in order to mark social, geographical, and other forms of associations and identities. Human beings are remarkably attuned to variation. Seemingly miniscule linguistic features can have tremendous social importance. For example, in the city of St. Louis2, Standard English includes two variants: the difference between [u] and [ju] in words like "duke," pronounced either [duk] or [djuk]. This single difference is used consistently to distinguish socioeconomic classes (see Murray, 1986; also Lippi-Green, 1997), with the variable [u] marking lower socioeconomic status. Yet both forms are Standard English, and most residents are not consciously aware of this form of variation. All individuals also vary their speech style in Standard English as a way of expressing their position in relation to social groups that are not socioeconomic. For instance, studies of the speech style of upper middle class California teen-agers show that the use of the intrusive "like," as in "It was, like, a too crowded at the mall," increases when they are speaking about their friends and activities they enjoy, and it decreases when they are speaking about topics such as going to college (California Style Collective, 1993). Again, we find speakers using variation in Standard English in order to position themselves in a web of personal and collective relationships. There is no way to know in advance which particular features of a language will be used to mark the speaker's social position. Only members of the speech community know, and linguists who analyze the community can often figure it out. But it is significant, in my opinion, that the language teaching profession largely ignores these subtle yet powerful forms of variation. Rather than confront the issue and acknowledge the variational features that communities use for social purposes, particularly for creating social hierarchies, we act as though communities that speak Standard English are essentially uniform, with a uniform language. A second key component of the myth of uniformity is that language learners' output is the result of their success, or lack of success, in learning English. In other words, language learning is widely seen as the process of attempting to produce increasingly close approximations to Standard English. The measure of a learner's success is his or her ability to approximate standard forms. Is this an accurate picture of the process of language learning? Do learners produce non-standard forms because they fail to learn the correct ones? The answer to this question depends on one's perspective. If we view language learning as essentially something that individuals do, then perhaps it makes sense to view the language they produce as a measure of their relative success at learning the forms they are studying. But if we view language learning as a social phenomenon, a process in which groups of people are engaged, with consequences for social relations and identities, then we get a different picture. Jay Peterson at Portland State University in Oregon has been interested for several years in the KoreanAmerican community in the States, particularly efforts within the community to learn English. Peterson's research (Peterson, 1998) sees English language learning as a process affected by two competing forces in the KoreanAmerican community. One is the shift to English; the other is the effort to retain the community's ethnocultural identity. In order to understand language learning in this community, Peterson asks questions such as the following: How do Korean-Americans conceptualize their own ethnic and cultural identity? What attributes, including language, are important for the various ethnic and cultural identities central to Korean-American life? How are these identities linked with particular domains, such as the family, work, and school? What ethnic and cultural sub-groups are important within the community? Much of the existing research on language and identity assumes that individuals normally have a single dominant ethno-cultural identity, with secondary identifications being weaker add-ons, and with a relatively straightforward connection between particular languages and particular identities. In addition, most research assumes that language learning and language shift among immigrants involve cultural and psychological conflict and confusion, called "culture shock." Peterson argues that these beliefs reflect standard language ideology, what he calls "linguistic monism." 1 William Labov (IPA: /lə bo v/, lə-BOEV[1]; ) is an American linguist, widely regarded as the founder of the discipline of variationist sociolinguistics.[2] He has been described as "an enormously original and influential figure who has created much of the methodology" of sociolinguistics. http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/home.htm l 2 St. Louis is a city in the U.S. state of Missouri, located near the confluence of the Mississippi River and the Missouri River. http://stlouis.missouri.org/ 34 �An alternative approach is to expect complex, fluid, changing, and even contradictory identities, with different languages playing multiple and varying roles in these identities. Peterson has found that "Korean" is not always the most important aspect of identity for Korean-Americans. More central in some contexts is a sense of Asian appearance, Confucian family values, preference for living in the United States, or certain positive group attributes. He has also found that Korean identity entails several levels of abstraction, so that individuals have flexibility in the intensity and direction of their identities, depending on the demands of domain and circumstance. People can have multidimensional identities, such as English language with Korean culture, or Korean language with American culture. Moreover, different identifications may be simultaneously available, depending on particular domains, and identities may work at different levels of abstraction. Individuals may feel that they are Koreans, or Chinese, or more generally Asian, while simultaneously accessing multiple levels of American identity. 3. Language Education What does this have to do with language learning? One aspect of the process of identity formation taking place within the Korean-American community in the States is the creation of new varieties of English: Korean English1, if you will, that’s what I noticed in Korea as well2. These new varieties are not merely imperfect attempts to learn standard English. They are newly forming varieties of English that are appropriate for particular domains and identities. They are, in this sense, new target languages. Anyone teaching English in this Korean-American community must understand that many members of the community are involved in the process of learning and creating these new varieties of English, and this process fundamentally shapes the language that these learners produce in their English classes. Yet the picture is even more complex. While some learners are acquiring or creating new varieties of Korean English, other learners acquire existing non-standard varieties of American English. Many immigrants from Southeast Asia and Latin America live in city neighborhoods in close proximity to large populations of African Americans, who speak varieties of African American English, also called Ebonics. Many of the young people in these immigrant communities are powerfully affected by African American culture, both in terms of their interpersonal interactions day to day at school and in the neighborhood, and in terms of such cultural forces as popular music, video and film. As a result, many immigrants, particularly between the ages of five and twenty, acquire many features of African American English as their dominant language. This process has profound implications for language teaching. Consider two examples from pronunciation. Most varieties of African American English permit deletion of final consonants in word-final consonant clusters, when both consonants in the cluster are either voiced or voiceless. So "test" becomes [tos], and "fold" is pronounced [fol]. But "pant" remains [paent], because the cluster "n-t" has a voiced and a voiceless consonant. Vietnamese has no consonant clusters in final position, and Vietnamese learning English often have difficulty with these clusters in English. Therefore English teachers often spend a lot of time on this issue, assuming that the problem is interference from the Vietnamese language. But for some learners, what is really going on is acquisition of a variety of English that systematically deletes many final consonants in word-final consonant clusters3. Unless teachers understand this process, their students may simply not be able to make sense of their teacher's efforts. Another example is the interdental fricatives, spelled as TH- in English, both voiced and voiceless. In African American English, the initial TH- becomes either voiced [d] or voiceless [t]. So "those" becomes [doz], and "think" becomes [t I?k]. Many Vietnamese learning English make similar substitutions. But it would be a mistake for 1 Konglish (Korean: 콩글리시) is the use of English words (or words derived from English words) in a Korean context. The words, having initially been taken from English language, are either actual English words in Korean context, or are made from a combination of Korean and English words. Much Konglish appeared following the Korean War when US troops mixed with Korean troops and English vocabulary, real and slang, permeated Korean. ex.a-pa-teu (아파트; "apartment, te-re-bi (테레비; "television"; a-reu-ba-i-teu (아르바이트; "part-time job", from German Arbeit. 2 The author of this paper lived in South Korea, 2004-2009 years. 3 During my doctorate studies at Hanyang University, Seoul/South Korea my labmate was from Vietnam, and it was a great chance to discover peculiarities of English used by Vietnamese. . 35 �teachers to assume that the substitutions are simply due to the impact of Vietnamese phonology. Equally important may be the fact that the main target language for some learners is African American English. Examples from grammar also may be found. I mentioned deletion of the auxiliary "have," as in "I been running all day." In such sentences, "been" is unstressed. In African American English1, we find similar sentences, but "been" sometimes may be stressed, as in "He been running." The meaning of this sentence is "He has been running for a long time, and still is doing so." In other words, unlike many other varieties of American English, African American English marks aspect grammatically. Consider the sentence "She been married," with stressed "been." Most white Americans mistakenly interpret that sentence as meaning that she was married, but is no longer married, while nearly all African Americans correctly interpret the sentence as meaning that she is still married (Rickford, 1997). This difference is due to the fact that most varieties of English spoken by white Americans permit only the unstressed form, while African American varieties include both stressed and unstressed forms, with different meanings. Therefore when an immigrant to the United States is learning English, two kinds of complexity affect output: First, deletion of the auxiliary "have" by speakers of all varieties, including standard spoken English, and second, the two forms of "been" used by African Americans. When young immigrants learn English in settings with many African American speakers, they may acquire either or both systems. How do books about teaching pronunciation and grammar accommodate this sort of variation? In general, they ignore it. In reviewing some of the most popular books about teaching English pronunciation, I found that four types of variation are acknowledged. The first type includes different levels of achievement, as different learners achieve different levels of conformity to the standard. A second type of variation mentioned in texts is due to first language interference, which especially affects pronunciation. A third type of variation is degree of accent, which is often seen by teaching manuals as a measure of the learner's orientation to assimilation. Only the fourth form of variation is relevant to here: dialect variation. Yet even in this case, most textbooks about teaching mention only a few specific issues, such as differences between British and American English or matters such as the pronunciation of "cot" and "caught." Dialect is generally seen as quaint and interesting, but largely irrelevant to the task of teaching the uniform standard. One book says "Foreign accents can be very charming as long as the person speaking is able to communicate" (Orion, 1988: xxiii), a view that ignores the powerful role of accent and dialect in linguistic discrimination. 4. Language Variation and Dialects I am suggesting that a language ideology perspective reveals that pedagogical descriptions2 of English grammar and pronunciation are mechanisms for justifying conventions of language teaching and interpretations of those conventions. Grammar and pronunciation texts are two of the ways in which we as language educators forge norms that we follow in our work and in our programmatic roles. My concern is that language variation, dialects, and the status of different varieties of English are too often defined as being outside the core professional concerns of English language teaching. This is an important manifestation of the power of standard language ideology. The result is that we as language teachers may become enforcers of the dominance of standard English ideology and ultimately we may fail to serve as effectively as we can the needs of language learners, many of whom are involved not in the process of learning standard English, but rather in something quite different and profound, namely the learning or even the creation of other varieties of English that have enormous social value within their communities. 1 Bidialectalists postulate that Black English is equal to Standard English but not quite equal enough. They acknowledge that the language variety is not inferior linguistically or conceptually but, claiming to be pragmatic, they feel that Standard English must be mastered by Black children in the schools so that these children can keep the possibility of upward mobility alive. This latter option, code-switching (also known as bidialectism or bidialectalism), has become the teachers standard response to linguistic variety in the American college composition classroom. (Rebecca Moore Howard. The Great Wall of African American Vernacular English in the American College Classroom) 2 Within the critical framework of language and literary studies, disability becomes a representational system more than a medical problem, a discursive construction rather than a personal misfortune or a bodily flaw, and a subject appropriate for wide-ranging intellectual inquiry instead of a specialized field within medicine or science. (ROSEMARIE GARLAND THOMSON The New Disability Studies: Inclusion or Tolerance?) 36 �One of the most important consequences of standard language ideology is its impact on language policies. In the United States, England, Australia, and elsewhere, national language policies are adopted that explicitly invoke standard language ideology as their primary justification. Lippi-Green points out that policies requiring linguistic uniformity are no more rational or practical than a policy that requires everyone to be the same height. Certainly if everyone were the same height, much about life might be more efficient. Furniture, clothing, and buildings could be standardized. No doubt vast sums of money could be saved. But of course that policy goal is an irrational fantasy, because people cannot be the same height. A policy requiring linguistic uniformity is equally irrational, just as much a fantasy, because all people cannot speak the same language variety, even if they try to do so. Language variation is universal, inevitable, and necessary for complex social communication. Yet the power of standard language ideology makes such policies seem like a good idea, and quite practical if everyone who does not speak the standard would just try a little harder to learn it. The failure of the language teaching profession to incorporate an adequate notion of variation would not be too problematic, except that social agendas call our language ideologies into service. In other words, social agendas, which determine which groups get particular economic and political benefits, make use of language ideologies. The best example in the United States is the issue of language and race. Standard language ideology is used by dominant white social groups as a justification for restrictions on the use of the home language of African American children in the educational system. The rigid exclusion from most schools of African American vernacular English, as well as the home languages of most immigrants, is routinely justified by standard language ideology. When the Oakland California School Board in 1996 proposed a new policy requiring teachers to take their students' home language, African American English, into account when teaching standard English, there was a firestorm of protest that blocked the policy. Even this minimal effort to permit the schools to accommodate African American English was overwhelmed by the power of standard language ideology, which in this case was in the service of racism. A second way in which social agendas shape teaching practice is in programs for immigrants. In the United States, the overwhelming emphasis in immigrant language education1 is on employment, particularly on the imperative that immigrants get a job - any job - as quickly as possible. This imperative fundamentally determines curriculum, materials, teaching practices, program structures, and funding. Much of the pedagogy of English education in the United States is determined by the social agenda of keeping immigrants off welfare and moving them into low paid jobs in the peripheral economy. The English teaching profession has largely gone along with this agenda, producing a vast array of textbooks, materials, tests, and other artifacts in a new segment of the language education industry, called survival ESL. A third way that social agendas shape our work is in our notions of research and critical reflection on teaching practices. The rise of second language acquisition as a distinct discipline since the 1970s has been accompanied by the desire to ensure that the field is scientific. Thus we see a great concern for research methodology. As scientists, we like to believe that we challenge our assumptions, we argue with each other, and we work hard to meet the norms of the scientific method. As a result, current theories of second language acquisition and commonly recommended teaching practices appear to be based on a kind of scientific consensus. Concerns about equity, about the status of minority languages in schools, and about language rights are defined as outside the scope of the science of second language acquisition In effect, we have developed a narrative about our work (see Stephan, 1999). In this narrative, we work in a field in which claims about language and teaching are empirically tested. Weak ideas are rejected while the ones with solid foundation survive. This version of our history has an important social and political function. It limits the possible contexts that can be drawn upon to give meaning to teaching practices. The scientific process that creates theories and practices is the only context that matters. The wider social context in which immigrants, refugees, linguistic minorities, and speakers of non-standard dialects are fighting for full civil rights is not part of the core concerns of the field. Research and the professionalism of teachers are paramount. In other words, language teaching is separate from social action. Indeed, theories and teaching methods based upon the explicit social agenda of achieving economic, political or linguistic equality for language minorities are defined as "political" rather than 1 In a 1998 survey, the foundation Public Agenda posed the question: "With students who are new immigrants, which is more important for the public schools to do? Teach them English as quickly as possible, even if this means they fall behind in other subjects, or teach them other subjects in their native language, even if this means it takes them longer to learn English?" Foreignborn parents favored "English as quickly as possible" by 75 percent to 21 percent, while Hispanic parents supported that option by 66 percent to 30 percent. Read more: "Immigrant Education - UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL" http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2077/Immigrant-Education.html#ixzz0FxxnYcOZ&A 37 �"scientific" or "educational," and therefore they are suspect, unreliable, and not a legitimate source for decision making in the classroom. Teachers, we are told, have no right to impose their own political agenda on their students. 5. Language Process Another way of saying this is that second language acquisition (SLA) theory and formal teaching methods are a set of rules for determining the situational meaning of teaching practices. SLA theory and teaching methods determine the pragmatic value of teaching acts in classroom contexts. This is the ideological function of theory and method: They combine with social values such as participation, student involvement, and individualism to enshrine particular practices as objective, as scientific, as effective, or, to use a currently popular term, as "best practice." Thus ideologies of language, including standard language ideology and ideologies about the English teaching profession, are fundamentally involved in the process of setting up contexts that construe meaning for particular teaching acts. Thus, for example, the teacher's job is to reduce errors, to move language learners' speech closer and closer to the ideal standard. Output that differs from the ideal standard is an error. Accepting these errors ultimately is bad teaching. Ideologies about standard language and about second language acquisition are not the only ideologies implicit in most English language teaching. Another is the assumption that language is a system divisible into parts that work in their separate ways, and that it is the semantic in language that supplies meaning and is the home of ideas (see Stephan 1999). This assumption is implicit especially in student centered approaches, which profess that students must be encouraged to express meanings that they intend to convey. The assumption is that the students have the meanings inside themselves, and the task of the teacher is to help the students find ways to express those meanings in the new language. This belief entails the central belief that teachers' regulation of language structure poses no restrictions on content. Within the bounds of good taste, we are told, students are free to express their own meanings. Yet is content neutrality of language structure really possible? Laurie Stephan (1999) examines Henry Louis Gates' examples of racist speech1. In the first example, a white professor says to his African American student: "LeVon, if you find yourself struggling in your classes here, you should realize it isn't your fault. It's simply that you're the beneficiary of a disruptive policy of affirmative action that places underqualified and often undertalented black students in demanding educational environments like this one." Gates' second example of racist speech is much shorter: "Out of my face, jungle bunny." "Jungle bunny" is an intensely negative expression used by white racists and directed against African Americans Only this second example is regulated by the U.S. legal system. As Stephan points out, the legal system, with its limits on hostile and inflammatory speech, cannot respond to the power of speaking that comes from a polished style. The first example of racist speech, which upper middle class and highly polished, is free from legal restrictions. The second example, which is more likely to be working class or lower class in origin, can be illegal in specific contexts. Indeed, the legal system in the U.S. in many ways protects some styles, particularly speech that is considered refined language, but not other styles. Yet power in speech is largely a function of style, not merely of propositional content, and style is one of the aspects of language that the English language teaching system is most ill equipped to teach. In this sense, the English teaching profession, despite its professed concern with empowering students through language learning, rarely provides the linguistic tools of power (mainly stylistic) recognized by the U.S. legal system and essential for real verbal authority. How might they offer language programs that provide the linguistic tools of power? Perhaps the most important effort is that of the participatory approach to teaching, an approach that places control of classrooms in the collaborative hands of students and teachers. A lot has been written about the participatory approach, but I fear that it is too often seen merely as a set of techniques for getting students involved in classroom decision making. It is, in my view, far more than this, with consequences for teachers and students that extend well beyond the classroom. The underlying ideology of the participatory approach is the antithesis of standard language ideology. The participatory approach is not merely about acknowledging students' native languages and cultures, or about involving students in decisions about course content and method. Rather, it entails a critique of theories and practices that value uniformity, and a critique of some of the key constructs in our field, including "target language," "native speaker," 1 In his 1925 dissent in Gitlow v New York, Justice Holmes wrote: If in the long run the beliefs expressed in proletarian dictatorship are destined to be accepted by the dominant forces of the community, the only meaning of free speech is that they should be given their chance and have their way 38 �and "error." It entails also an ongoing effort to undermine the forces of linguistic discrimination that require speakers of stigmatized varieties, including African American English, Korean-English or Vietnamese-English, and immigrant languages, to acquire the so-called standard. Of course learners have powerful practical reasons for learning standard languages, based upon the fact that languages are pervasively used to channel individuals unequally into different occupational, social, and economic groups. For those of us in the language teaching profession, a central concern should be our response to these forms of linguistic discrimination. Do we devise teaching practices that reinforce the power of standard language ideology? Or do we work actively to undermine that power? It is important to note that liberal notions about "valuing diversity" in education have little effect on standard language ideology. Lippi-Green argues that asking children who speak non-standard languages and dialects to come to school in order to find validation of their home communities and to speak their own stories in their own voices at school is a little like asking the fly to knock at the spider's door in hopes of having a rational discussion about changing the structure of the food chain. Standard language ideology in the schools entails two main processes: devaluing language varieties other than the dominant one and valuing the dominant language variety. The power of ideology is in the ability of the school system to present this process as necessary and good for the greater society. It is unrealistic to expect children to effectively alter this situation. Ultimately, I think that standard language ideology leads us to miss much of what is important in second language learning and teaching, namely the experiences of learners and teachers themselves. I mentioned earlier the role of research and theory in second language acquisition. Teachers are not necessarily thinking about where they stand in relation to a theory of second language acquisition or a set of teaching practices prescribed by methodology. They are concerned with how to get through each class, each day, and with how their participation in their profession might help them to make connections with other people around them. Similarly, outside of class, learners are not necessarily thinking about what learning strategies they should adopt or the type of motivation they exhibit or even the grammatical structures they do not know. They are concerned with how to produce utterances that accomplish their communicative goals. Unfortunately, theory and methodology too often seek to discover a kind of perfect world, an alternative to the messy everyday reality of real people in teaching and learning languages. In this search for the best theory or the right method, we often try to lay out rules that teachers should follow. In this quest, theory and method more closely resemble a religion than useful guidelines for practicing teachers. Theory and methodology should provide a steady and continual source of principles, ideas, suggestions, and inspiration. They should help teachers understand the fluctuating and contradictory experiences of their everyday teaching lives. In a sense, teaching is performance. Performance1 which entertains is an opportunity for spectators to think through and experiment with, that is, to play with, roles and identities. Language teachers are engaged in a performance not with an audience of spectators, but rather with an audience of language learners who in fact participate in the performance. For learners/performers, language is a fundamental determiner and reflection of individual and collective identities and of the social order in which they live. In this sense, language learners are being challenged to form new identities and new social relations by virtue of their participation in the language class. Daniel Cavicchi (1998) argues that theatrical performance presents times when the structure of society is temporarily suspended, and a new structure substituted that permits people to reconsider their roles, their institutions, and their social divisions. Language classes also provide this opportunity. But for most teachers, language teaching is more than theatre. It is not merely a temporary suspension of normal reality that ends when the class period is over. Many language teachers continually examine themselves and their place in the world by engaging in teaching and in the continual discussion of teaching practice that characterizes the profession. Many teachers, perhaps most, extend their roles as teachers beyond the classroom, into their daily life situations. Yet these teachers are continually urged to avoid imposing their values on their students, and thus separate their teaching from their social concerns and activism. It is here, in the intersection of the professional and personal lives of teachers, that the participatory approach offers a powerful alternative ideology. What is important about the participatory approach is that it explicitly tries to extend teachers' capacity for analysis and feeling beyond the classroom, into the rest of their everyday lives, so that teaching and learning are for both teachers and students a continual source of meaning, a 1 Performance-based assessments are based on classroom instruction and everyday tasks. You can use performance-based assessments to assess ELLs' language proficiency and academic achievement through oral reports, presentations, demonstrations, written assignments, and portfolios. These assessments can include both processes (e.g., several drafts of a writing sample) and products (e.g., team projects). You can use scoring rubrics and observation checklists to evaluate and grade your students. These assessment tools can help document your ELLs' growth over a period of time. Using Informal Assessments for English Language Learners By: Colorín Colorado (2007) 39 �continual force for the examination of values, and a continual catalyst for social action. Within the participatory framework, the profession of language teacher (that is, becoming a teacher and being a teacher) extends performance beyond the class period, so that language teachers are forever participating in activities in which personal, cultural, and social values are made explicit and subject to scrutiny. In this sense, teaching is not about the application of theories to specific situations or the use of particular techniques or practices. It is instead about devotion, about creating meaning out of daily life through sustained attention to teaching performance. Conclusion I do not believe that theory and research are unimportant, but I do believe that their capacity for having something significant to say depends upon an ongoing dialogue with and among teachers and learners. Academic theories must engage in a continual dialogue with teachers' and learners' own theories. Through the use of diary studies, intensive interviews, ethnographies, and other qualitative forms of action research, researchers can begin with the lived experience of teachers and students, moving then to scholarship that sheds light on and challenges that experience, and then back again to the participants themselves (see Cavicchi, 1998). We need theory that locates meaning in people rather than in research methodology or cleverness of interpretation. The field of language education needs to critically examine some of the key names we use in the language teaching profession, including native speaker, the standard norm, error and error correction, and achievement and progress. As this paper suggests, many of these names reflect standard language ideology. A new vocabulary is needed in order to alter our perceptions, our interpretations, our understandings of the work of language teaching and learning. Much of the challenge ahead is to develop this new vocabulary. I believe the best place to look for it is in the first person accounts of teachers and learners themselves. Of course, giving teachers and learners a central voice in their own representations, in theory and method, complicates matters of knowledge and truth. In many ways, researchers on the one hand and teachers and students on the other hand speak different languages. In addition, not all teachers agree on teaching practices. Who is qualified to speak about language learning and teaching? Whose knowledge of these processes counts? Addressing such messy issues is the only way to achieve knowledge of second language learning and teaching that is relevant, useful, and ultimately meaningful to those who find it intellectually significant and those who participate in it, including both learners and teachers. In Cavicchi's words, "we need fewer scholars speaking for others and more speaking with others" (Cavicchi 1998, p. 189). Only then will research, theory, and methodology become what teaching itself is for those who love it: a continual source of excitement and occasionally of frustration, of provocation and fulfillment, of identity and meaning, something that brings people together and makes sense of their world. References: California Style Collective. (1993). Variation and personal/group style. New Ways of Analyzing Variation (NWAVE) 22. Palo Alto: Stanford University. Cameron, D. (1995). Verbal hygiene. London: Routledge. Cavicchi, D. (1998). Tramps like us. New York: Oxford University Press. Labov, W. (1982). Building on empirical foundations. In W.P. Lehmann and Y. Malkiel (Eds.) Perspectives on historical linguistic (pp.17-92).Amsterdam:John Benjamins. Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge. Milroy, J., & Milroy, L. (1985). Authority in language. London: Routledge. Murray, T.E. (1986). The language of St. Louis, Missouri: Variations in the gateway city. New York: Peter Lang. Orion, G. F. (1988). Pronouncing American English. New York: Harper and Row. Paine, R. (Ed.), (1981). Politically speaking: Cross-cultural studies of rhetoric. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues. 40 �Peterson, J.O. (1998). Ethnic and language identity among a select group of Vietnamese- Americans in Portland, Oregon. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Portland State University. Rickford, J. (1997). Suite for ebony and phonics. http://www.stanford.edu/~rickford/papers. Stephan, L. (1999). Political correctness versus freedom of speech: Social uses of language ideology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington. Woolard, K.A. (1992). Language ideology: issues and approaches. Pragmatics 2/3, 235-250. 41 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/160eb867d43d891b07a5ebf5ac5995ed.doc b575e338673a9c0971fe3c6ef92453b2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 316 Title A name given to the resource The Substantive Universals in the Relationship between Language Ideology and Language Education Author Author Akbarov, Azamat Anvarovich Abstract A summary of the resource. While we need to problematize the notions of development and sustainable development, we are also faced by a particular challenge related to language: what models of language in the world are we using to understand the role of language education in development? I shall discuss a range of possible understandings of English in the world in order to see how they relate to questions of development Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5bfc207aa1595e229a3dedcc4a1e2424.pdf 5fd8c19b0c8b463aee0fe52e336a3ad8 PDF Text Text The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and Its Effects on Inland Waters and Living Areas Hasan Kalyoncu University of Süleyman Demirel, Faculty of Science & Arts, Department of Biology, Isparta, Turkey hasankalyoncu@gmail.com Đsmail Hakkı Kalyoncu University of Selcuk, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticultural Science, Konya, Turkey kalyon@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way and reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order for this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the use of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthened. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Key words: Agricultural activities, pollution, inland waters, sustainability Introduction Drinking water has been less and less for reasons, such as insufficient environmental awareness, fast increasing world population, excessive development of industry and technology. Beside these, pollution of water sources irresponsibly will cause problems unable to be solved (Haviland, 2002; Dağlı, 2005; Akın, 2007 ). Increasing demand on the food with increasing population makes that the quality and quantity must be increased. As a result of these demand, the usage of fertilizer and pesticide are increased in time (Huber et al., 2000; Causape et al., 2004). The chemicals used agricultural areas are classified in two groups to be fertilizers and pesticides (Alloway, 1995). They are very important issue since they are toxic, decomposition of them is very difficult, and they can be deposited in living organisms and environment (Egemen, 2006). Pesticides and chemical fertilizers are mixed into rivers which are one of the ecosystems mostly affected from environmental pollution (Huber et al., 2000, Causape et al., 2004; Taş, 2006 ). The pollutions caused by agricultural activities are firstly transferred into the rivers and then goes to lakes and seas throughout rivers. It can prevent the development of zoo and phytoplankton which have an important place on the feeding chain of aquatic livings even in the case of the existence of pesticides in trace level in the water (Aguilar et al., 1997). This pollution is badly affecting not only livings living in pollution but also it can reach human through feeding chain (Yılmaz, 2004). It is important to note that the determination of existence of DDT (pesticide) on the penguins, seal and people living in poles where no pesticides have never been used shows the power of circulation of chemicals used in agriculture over the world (Egemen, 2006). The harm given by the improper use with the increase of this improper use of pesticides and chemical 477 �fertilizers will have reached to high levels (Öztürk and Tosun, 2004). The production and use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers continue to in crease at present, and it must be taken under control in order to decrease the health and environmental problems (Atasoy and Rastgeldi, 2006). Agricultural Activities And Pesticide Since pesticides remain in nature for so long time without decomposition, they have no selectivity on the selected organisms and collected in some parts of food chain, they can cause destructions of some beneficial kinds and ecological balance and appearing of new kinds presenting resistance to these kind of products (Kambur et al., 2005). It has been well known that pesticides can reach ecosystem of water in several ways. For example, some several medicines can contaminate into water with direct application of pesticides to the buggies during fighting against wild grass in or around the canals of drainage and irrigation or vector insects such as mosquitoes. Some pesticides reach to aquatic plants and insects through the fact that the medicines in some places where pesticides were used mix into to river or ground water by rain water. The pesticides mixture into ground or surface waters have limit values for livings according to some structural properties presented in some receptors. The concentrations exceeding these limit values badly effect the life of livings. The first step of bio concentration mechanisms in aquatic systems is consisted of plankton. An important part of plankton in aquatic habitats consists of algae. Since algae are primary producer, they play a functional role in habitats on which algae exist. Algae which are primary produces in aquatic environment form the base of organic production and they are quite sensitive organisms for physical and chemical changes in an environment where they exist. Algae are key targets for pesticide contaminations since they haw echo physiological similarities (Kambur et al., 2005). The primary production presented by algae forms foundations of whole organic production in aquatic environment. Algae forming the first circle of chain of feeding in waters are organisms which are quite sensitive to the physical and chemical changes in environment where they exist (Round, 1984; Hutchinson, 1967). Sensitivity of algae, which is an important group in either plankton or benthic organisms in fresh water, is different toxic materials are different. Algae have an important role in determination and improvement of water quality and in rehabilitation of waste water. On the other hand, algae remove some elements such as nitrogen and phosphors, existing in quite large amount in aquatic environment, from environment using them as materials of feeding. Because of this, a change in quality and quantity of algae which is primary produces in aquatic environment cause a whole ecosystem to be destroyed (Turan, 2008). It has been understood that fishes are harmfully affected from the low level residues of several pesticides mixed into water in several ways and attitudes of fishes are changed. It has also been reported that babies of some kind of fishes are too sensitive to pesticides. The residues of pesticides even in minimal level, in stagnant waters uses up oxygen in water and destroy the feeding environment for fishes (Anonymous, 2004). The organisms dead by the effects of pesticides are deposited in the bottom of the water by sinking. CO2 or poison gases raised during the decay prevent aquatic organisms coming near to these areas (Anonymous, 2004). Pesticides transferred to aquatic ecosystems presents some different effects on organisms in receptor environments. These effects cause death of fishes, other vertebrates and in invertebrates and algae to be harmed, and also cause disappear from environment. In addition to this, pesticide residues cause chronic toxicity to be developed by food chain and drinking contaminated water (Turan, 2008). As a result of this, biological variety in ecosystems has been affected. Some increases in the pollutants cause some organisms to be increased too much while cause some organisms to be removed from environment or to be annihilated. Only the types which can tolerate pollution survive. Some damages, which cannot be reversed, appear as a result of destruction of the ecological balance (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). The gills of fishes first met pesticides and, therefore, the most series damages are taken place on that organ (Heath, 1987). On the other hand, it has some harmful effects on haematology depending on kind of fishes (Shakoori et al., 1991; 1996; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002a; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002b; Atamanalp and Cengiz, 2002; Atamanalp and Yanık, 2003). The specimens taken from liver have shown that some histopatological effects beside some changes on the colour and size (Atamanalp et al., 2002). The osmoregulation event which is very important event in either sea or fresh water fishes is badly affected by changes of permeability of the gills and skin (Heath, 1987). Attitudes of fishes exposed to chemicals present some differentiations from others. Especially some changes on the some staminal attitudes, such as feeding and adaptation, may cause the fish to loss health. The problems on the neural system appear to be problems on the central neural system as well as problems on the working systems of receptors (Heath, 1987). Pollutants have different effects in the each of different stages of pregnancy biology depending on the groups belonging to, active material contained, concentration and kind of fishes (Çelikkale, 1991; Heath, 1987; Dhawan and Kaur, 1996; Holcombe et al., 1976). It is well known that the s-triazine compounds, which comprise Atrazine and Terbuthylazine, are usually termed recalcitrant, and especially the first one, due to its asymmetric substituent 478 �groups, is particularly resistant to biodegradation (Varghaa et al. 2005). These two chemicals are furthermore herbicides which affects the photosynthetic electronic transport, inhibiting the algal growth in aquatic environment (Eullaffroy and Vernet, 2003), the primary level of the food web. In addition Atrazine even at low exposure concentrations (5µg l-1) affected significantly aquatic organisms (Steinbergi et al., 1995). Agricultural Activities And Chemical Fertilizers When we have looked the harmful effects of fertilizers on environment, it has been thought that mostly nitrogen and phosphors containing fertilizers have given harm on the environment; especially it is well known that it causes the water quality in the watery areas are destroyed as a result of that nitrogen and phosphors containing pollutant are transferred into rivers in anyway and then it also causes eutrophication with increases on the amount of nitrogen and phosphors (Ceran, 2001). The amount of nitrate mixed into drinking water and rivers through washing out process is increased as a result of usage fertilizers containing nitrogen in high level (Sencar et al., 1993). The compounds containing nitrogen has several effects in the view of water pollution, and the most harmful effect is known to be that of changing oxygen compositions, eutrophication, hygiene on the obtaining of drinking water and toxicity problems (Uslu and Türkmen, 1987). Approach of phosphor to surface water causes some undesirable effects in aquatic systems as a result of increase in the primary production. Too much increase in green plants and algae in some rich parts in oxygen of water (eutrophication), increase in the blurrily of water, increase in the light input of aquatic macrophytes, not enough oxygen and occurrence of anaerobic conditions as a result of an increase of amount of dead plants in the bottom of water are important factors affecting the quality (Muslu, 1985). Phosphor components broken up into orthophosphate by aquatic plants are important compositions of food materials. If too much phosphor is loaded, pH value of water and tampon systems are changed (Muslu, 1985). A layer on the water is produced by decreasing surface tension of the water. This layer reduces the transmission of light and oxygen transfer and effect biological activities destructively (Akman et al., 2000). The load of nitrogen and phosphor existing in the environment put pressure on the aquatic ecosystems. Although phosphor has some feeding properties for algae, the extremely high existence in the environment cause some algae to be removed from environment and some of them to be destroyed. This also results with extremely development of taxa tolerating the increase of feeding salts. This change taken place in aquatic ecosystem is not only effective on algae but also destructively affects other living groups (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). Results And Suggestions The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides unplanned and in extremely high amount in agricultural areas affect destruction on all ecosystems. Some cases must be considered before the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in order to completely prevent or minimize the destructive effects. - It must be note that the pesticides used in agriculture must be easily separable in nature. Beside this, biological fighting methods must be taken over instead of pesticides produced synthetically. - If applications of pesticide are un-exceptionally necessary, farmers must be educated and trained to apply enough and to avoid over use. The technical and sustainable production with plants, which is more economical and suitable for ecosystems, must be carried out for especially in areas near basins and sources of water. -It is well known due to the human health and environment that the chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agricultural areas are important source of pollutants and reaches to aquatic system with surface water. In order for types of kinds in the aquatic systems to be protected, attention must be applied for application of them in suitable time and dose. The effects of chemical components applied on the aquatic ecosystems must be studied and sustainable control must be carried out. - The ecological agriculture together with advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. Technical and environmentalist agriculture must be carried out for ecological balance to be saved. Some types suitable against diseases and for dried climate must be produced and mechanical and biological techniques for pest management must be developed and then suggested for common use. - Instead of too much water, enough water applications must be desired, wild and surface irrigations must be left. System must be turned to pressurized irrigation, irrigation time for plants must be determined. Irrigation policies must be put into the agricultural irrigation programs of governments. - On the other hand, system must be changed from opened system to closed systems. The usage of water and fertilizer applied by farmers must be planned, controlled and sustainable. - Refinery system for wastewater must be constructed legally in cities. Water and wastewater must be 479 �transmitted through different waterworks and leakages from the system must be minimized. Purified water must be used in green areas and urban agricultural areas. - Especially the problem of drainage must be solved by completing the foundation of irrigation. The regulation for price of irrigation must be made in the most suitable manner. Economical and efficient irrigation must be supplied and direct-indirect encouragement must be applied. - More advantageous against erosion, desert condition, dried climate, more environmentalists, sustainable advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. - As a result, harmful materials reaching to aquatic areas as a result of agricultural activities affect all of livings from algae to fishes living aquatic areas. The importance of agriculture for humanity is unquestionable. But, the aquatic systems are as important as agricultural areas. The chemicals reaching to aquatic areas coming from agricultural areas returns back to people with usage and drinking waters and causes series destructive effects in health. The fresh and clean water sources have gained more importance because of the changes on the global climate. The environmental pollution must be stopped by protecting aquatic ecosystems. The ecology must be kept to be sustainable and carefully followed. References Akman,Y., Ketenoğlu, O., Evren, H., Kurt, L., Düzenli, S., (2000). Çevre Kirliliği (Çevre Biyolojisi). Palme Yayıncılık, Ankara . Akın, G., Akın, M., (2007). Suyun Önemi, Türkiye’de Su Potansiyeli, Su Havzaları Ve Su Kirliliği. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi; 47, 2 ,105-118s. Alloway, B.J., (1995). Heavy Metals in Soils. Blackie Academic & Professional, London. Aguilar, C., Borrull, F., Marce, R. M., (1997). “Determination of Pesticides Đn Environmental Waters by Solid-phase Extraction and Gas Chromatography With Electron-capture and MassSpectrometry Dedection”, Journal of Chromatography, Jan., Vol. 771, pp. 221–231. Anonymous, (2004). Türkiye Çevre Atlası. Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı, Ankara. Atamanalp, M., Güneş, M., (2002a). Tuzla Çayı’nda (Tercan-Erzincan) yaşayan C. capoeta umbla Heckel, 1843’ nın bazı hematolojik parametreleri (MCV, MCH ve MCHC) üzerine kentsel atıkların etkileri. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Dergisi, 17(3): 5-10. Atamanalp, M., Güneş, M., (2002b). Tuzla Çayı’nda yaşayan C. capoeta’ nın hemoglobin seviyesi, eritrosit ve toplam lökosit sayıları üzerine bir araştırma. Atatürk Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Dergisi, 33(3): 297-300. Atamanalp, M., Cengiz, M., (2002). Bir sentetik piretroit insektisit (cypermethrin)’ in subletal dozlarının Capoeta capoeta capoeta (Güldenstaedt, 1772)’ da hemoglobin, hematokrit ve sediment seviyeleri üzerine etkilerinin belirlenmesi. Ege Üniv. Su Ürünleri Derg. 19 (1-2): 169-175. Atamanalp, M., Keleş, M.S., Haliloğlu, H. Đ., Aras, M. S., (2002). The effects of cypermethrin (a synthetic pyrethroid) on some biochemical parameters (Ca, P, Na and TP) of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Turk. J. of Vet. Anim. Sci. 26: 1157-1160. Atamanalp, M., Yanık, T., (2003). Alterations in hematological parameters of rainbow trout, (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to mancozeb. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 27:1213-1217. Atasoy D., Rastgeldi, C., (2006). Şanlıurfada Pestisit Kullanımı GAP V. Mühendislik Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı. 26-28 Nisan 2006, Şanlıurfa.1462-1467s. Ceran, Y., (2001). Kimyasal Gübreler ve Sulak Alanlar, Çevre ve Đnsan. T.C. Çevre Bakanlığı Yayın Organı, sayı: 50. 14-19 s. Çelikkale, M. S., (1991). Balık Biyolojisi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Sürmene Deniz Bilimleri ve Teknolojisi Yüksekokulu, Trabzon, s. 250-251. Dağlı, H., (2005). “Đçmesuyu Kalitesi ve Đnsan Sağlığına Etkileri” Bizim Đller. Đller Bankası Aylık Yayın Organı. Sayı 3: 1621s. Dhawan A., Kaur, K., (1996). Toxic effects of synthetic pyrethroids on Cyprinus carpio eggs. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 999-1002. 480 �Egemen, Ö., (2006). Çevre ve Su Kirliliği. Ege Üniv., Su ürünleri Fak. Yayınları. No. 42, Đzmir. 120 s. Havıland, William, A., (2002). Kültürel Antropoloji (Çev: Hüsamettin Đnaç, Seda Çiftçi). No: 143. Sosyoloji Serisi: 3. Đstanbul: Kaktüs Yayınları. Heath, A., G., (1987). Water Pollution and Fish Physiology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 201-215. Holcombe, G. W., Benoit, D. A., Leonard, E. N., McKim, J. M., (1976). Long-term effects of lead exposure on three generations of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 33:1731-1734. Huber, A., Bach, M., Frede, H.G., (2000). Pollution of Surface Waters With Pesticides Đn Source Đnputs. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 80, 191-204s. Germany: Modeling Non-point Hutchinson, G.E., (1967). A Treatise on Limnology. Vol. Π. John Wiley and Sons. Kalyoncu H., Barlas, M., Ertan, Ö.O., (2009). Aksu Çayı'nın Su Kalitesinin Biotik Đndekslere (Diyatomlara ve Omurgasızlara Göre) ve Fizikokimyasal Parametrelere Göre Đncelenmesi, Organizmaların Su Kalitesi ile Đlişkileri. Türk Bilim Dergisi, 2(1): 46-57. Kumbur, H., Özer, Z., Özsoy, H.D., (2005). Tarım Đlaçlarının (Pestisitlerin) Çevresel Etkileri ve Mersin ili'nde Kullanım Düzeyleri. In: GAP, IV. Tarım Kongresi, 21-23 Eylül 2005, Şanlıurfa, 702-707s. Muslu,Y., (1985). Su Temini ve Çevre Sağlığı. ĐTÜ Matbaası, Cilt III, Đstanbul. Öztürk, Ġ., Tosun, N., (2004). Famoxadone ve Cymoxanil Etkili Maddeli Bir Fungisitin Domates (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Bitkisi Üzerine Fizyolojik Etkisi. Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg. 41: 77–87s. Round, F.E., (1984). The Ecology of Algae. Cambridge University Press. Sencar, Ö., Gökmen, S., Yıldırım, A., (1993). Tarımsal Ekoloji. GOP Üni. Ziraat Fak. Ders Notları, Yayın No:l, Tokat. Shakoori, A. R., Iqbal, M. J., Mughal, A. L., Ali, S. S., (1991). Drastic biochemical changes following 48 hours of exposure of Chinese grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, to sublethal doses of mercuric chloride. Proc 1. Symp. Fish & Fisheries, Pakistan.81-98. Shakoori, A. R., Mughal, A. L., Iqbal, M. J., (1996). Effects of sublethal doses of fenvalarate (a synthetic pyrethroid) administered continuously for four weeks on the blood, liver and muscles of a freshwater fish, Ctenopharyngodon idella. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 487-494. Steinbergi, C. E. W., Lorenz, R. and Spieser, O. H. (1995). "Effects of Atrazine on Swimming behaviour of Zebrafish, Brachidanio rerio." Water Research 94: 981-985. Taş. B., (2006). Derbent Baraj Gölü (Samsun) Su Kalitesinin Đncelenmesi. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Ordu Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi, Biyoloji Bölümü, 52750, Perşembe-Ordu. 15, 61, 6-15s. Turan Z., (2008). Bazı Pestisitlerin (Dıazınon Ve Dıchlorvos) Scenedesmus Acutus (Meyen) Chodat’ In Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkilerinin Đncelenmesi. Fırat Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Biyoloji Anabilim Dalı yl., 26s. Uslu, O., Türkman, A., (1987). Su Kirliliği ve Kontrolü (Water Pollution and Control). T.C. Başbakanlık Çevre Genel Müdürlüğü. Eğitim Yayınları Dizisi 1, Đzmir. Yılmaz, F.,( 2004). Mumcular Barajı (Muğla-Bodrum)’nın Fiziko-Kimyasal Özellikleri. Ekoloji, 13, 50: 10-17s. Varghaa, M., Takàtsc, Z. and Màrialigeti, K., (2005). "Degradation of atrazine in a laboratory scale model system with Danube river sediment." Water Research 481 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 553 Title A name given to the resource The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and Its Effects on Inland Waters and Living Areas Author Author Kalyoncu, Hasan Kalyoncu, İsmail Hakkı Abstract A summary of the resource. Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way and reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order for this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the use of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthened. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0c177b35f83c9c542fc2514d3ef22fc6.pdf 4ff23257dd5e83045424fbe9e87b7c2c PDF Text Text The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and its Effects on Internal Waters And Living Areas Hasan Kalyoncu Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Science Art, Department of Biology, Isparta, Türkiye. Ismail Hakkı Kalyoncu Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Garden Plants, Konya, Türkiye. Abstract:Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way they reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order to this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the usage of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthen. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Introduction Some reasons, such that the environment knowledge of population has not been well developed, the world population has increased very fast, and the industry and technology have developed too fast, cause that the drinking water is decreased in time. Beside these, pollution of water sources irresponsibly will cause problems can not be solved (Haviland, 2002; Dağlı, 2005; Akın, 2007 ). Increasing demand on the food with increasing population makes that the quality and quantity must be increased. As a result of these demand, the usage of fertilizer and pesticide are increased in time (Huber et al., 2000; Causape et al., 2004). The chemicals used agricultural areas are classified in two groups to be fertilizers and pesticides (Alloway, 1995). They are very important issue since they are toxic, decomposition of them is very difficult, and they can be deposited in living organisms and environment (Egemen, 2006). Pesticides and chemical fertilizers are mixed into rivers which are one of the ecosystems mostly affected from environmental pollution (Huber et al., 2000, Causape et al., 2004; Taş, 2006 ). The pollutions caused by agricultural activities are firstly transferred into the rivers and then goes to lakes and seas throughout rivers. It can prevent the development of zoo and phytoplankton which have an important place on the feeding chain of aquatic livings even in the case of the existence of pesticides in trace level in the water (Aguilar et al., 1997). This pollution is badly affecting not only livings living in pollution but also it can reach human through feeding chain (Yılmaz, 2004). It is important to note that the determination of existence of DDT (pesticide) on the penguins, seal and people living in poles where no pesticides have never been used shows the power of circulation of chemicals used in agriculture over the world (Egemen, 2006). The harms given by the improper usage with the increase of this improper usage of pesticides and chemical fertilizers will reach to so high level (Öztürk and Tosun, 2004). At present, as the production and usage of pesticides and chemical fertilizers continue to increase, in order to the health and environmental problems the 641 �production to be decreased, this case must seriously be taken under control (Atasoy and Rastgeldi, 2006). Agricultural Activities And Pesticide Since pesticides remain in nature for so long time without decomposition, they have no selectivity on the selected organisms and collected in some parts of food chain, they can cause destructions of some beneficial kinds and ecological balance and appearing of new kinds presenting resistance to these kind of products (Kambur et al., 2005). It has been well known that pesticides can reach ecosystem of water in several ways. For example, some several medicines can contaminate into water with direct application of pesticides to the buggies during fighting against wild grass in or around the canals of drainage and irrigation or vector insects such as mosquitoes. The medicines in some places where pesticides were used several pesticides reaches to aquatic plants and insects in a way of mixturing these pesticides to river or ground water by rain water. The pesticides mixture into ground or surface waters have limit values for livings according to some structural properties presented in some receptors. The concentrations exceeding these limit values badly effect the life of livings. The first step of bioconsantration mechanisms in aquatic systems is consisted of plankton. An important part of plankton in aquatic habitats consists of algae. Since algae are primary producer, they play a functional role in habitats on which algae exist. Algae which are primary produces in aquatic environment form the base of organic production and they are quite sensitive organisms for physical and chemical changes in an environment where they exist. Algae are key targets for pesticide contaminations since they haw echophysiological similarities (Kambur et al., 2005). The primary production presented by algae forms foundations of whole organic production in aquatic environment. Algae forming the first circle of chain of feeding in waters are organisms which are quite sensitive to the physical and chemical changes in environment where they exist (Round, 1984; Hutchinson, 1967). Sensitivity of algae, which is an important group in either plankton or benthic organisms in fresh water, to different toxic materials is different. Algae have an important role in determination and improvement of water quality and in rehabilitation of waste water. On the other hand, algae remove some elements such as nitrogen and phosphors, existing in quite large amount in aquatic environment, from environment using them as materials of feeding. Because of this, a change in quality and quantity of algae which is primary produces in aquatic environment cause a whole ecosystem to be destroyed (Turan, 2008). It has been understood that fishes are harmfully affected from the low level residues of several pesticides mixed into water in several ways and attitudes of fishes are changed. It has also been reported that babies of some kind of fishes are too sensitive to pesticides. The residues of pesticides even in minimal level, in stagnant waters uses up oxygen in water and destroy the feeding environment for fishes (Anonymous, 2004). The organisms dead by the effects of pesticides are deposited in the bottom of the water by sinking. CO2 or poison gases raised during the decay prevent aquatic organisms coming near to these areas (Anonymous, 2004). Pesticides transferred to aquatic ecosystems presents some different effects on organisms in receptor environments. These effects cause death of fishes, other vertebrates and in invertebrates and algae to be harmed, and also cause disappear from environment. In addition to this, pesticide residues cause chronic toxicity to be developed by food chain and drinking contaminated water (Turan, 2008). As a result of this, biological variety in ecosystems has been affected. Some increases in the pollutants cause some organisms to be increased too much while cause some organisms to be removed from environment or to be annihilated. Some types can only be left which can tolerate pollution. Some damages, which cannot be reversed, appear as a result of destruction of the ecological balance (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). The gills of fishes first met pesticides and, therefore, the most series damages are taken place on that organ (Heath, 1987). On the other hand, it has some harmful effects on haematology depending on kind of fishes (Shakoori et al., 1991; 1996; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002a; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002b; Atamanalp and Cengiz, 2002; Atamanalp and Yanık, 2003). The specimens taken from liver have shown that some histopatological effects beside some changes on the colour and size (Atamanalp et al., 2002). The osmoregulation event which is very important event in either sea or fresh water fishes are badly affected by changes of permeability of the gills and skin (Heath, 1987). Attitudes of fishes exposed to chemicals present some differentiations from others. Especially some changes on the some staminal attitudes, such as feeding and adaptation, may cause the fish to loss health. The problems on the neural system appear to be problems on the central neural system as well as problems on the working systems of receptors (Heath, 1987). Pollutants have different effects in the each of different stages of pregnancy biology depending on the groups belonging to, active material contained, concentration and kind of fishes (Çelikkale, 1991; Heath, 1987; Dhawan and Kaur, 1996; Holcombe et al., 1976). It is well known that the s-triazine compounds, which comprise Atrazine and Terbuthylazine, are usually termed recalcitrant, and especially the first one, due to its asymmetric substituent groups, is particularly resistant to biodegradation (Varghaa et al. 2005). These two chemicals are furthermore 642 �herbicides which affects the photosynthetic electronic transport, inhibiting the algal growth in aquatic environment (Eullaffroy and Vernet, 2003), the primary level of the food web. In addition Atrazine even at low exposure concentrations (5µg l-1) affected significantly aquatic organisms (Steinbergi et al., 1995). Agricultural Activities And Chemical Fertilizers When we have looked the harmful effects of fertilizers on environment, it has been thought that mostly nitrogen and phosphors containing fertilizers have given harm on the environment; especially it is well known that it causes the water quality in the watery areas are destroyed as a result of that nitrogen and phosphors containing pollutant are transferred into rivers in anyway and then it also causes eutrophication with increases on the amount of nitrogen and phosphors (Ceran, 2001). The amount of nitrate mixed into drinking water and rivers through washing out process are increased as a result of usage fertilizers containing nitrogen in high level (Sencar et al., 1993). The compounds containing nitrogen has several effects in the view of water pollution, and the most harmful effect is known to be that of changing oxygen compositions, eutrophication, hygiene on the obtaining of drinking water and toxicity problems (Uslu and Türkmen, 1987). Approach of phosphor to surface water causes some undesirable effects in aquatic systems as a result of increase in the primary production. Too much increase in green plants and algae in some rich parts in oxygen of water (eutrophication), increase in the blurrily of water, increase in the light input of aquatic macrophytes, not enough oxygen and an increase of amount of some death of plants in the bottom of the water starts anaerobic conditions and reduces the quality of the water are the most important factors on the reduction of the water quality (Muslu, 1985). Phosphor components broken up into orthophosphate by aquatic plants are important compositions of food materials. If too much phosphor is loaded, pH value of water and tampon systems are changed (Muslu, 1985). A layer on the water is produced by decreasing surface tension of the water. This layer reduces the transmission of light and oxygen transfer and effect biological activities destructively (Akman et al., 2000). The load of nitrogen and phosphor existing in the environment put pressure on the aquatic ecosystems. Although phosphor has some feeding properties for algae, the extremely high existence in the environment cause some algae to be removed from environment and some of them to be destroyed. This also results with extremely development of taxa tolerating the increase of feeding salts. This change taken place in aquatic ecosystem is not only effective on algae but also destructively affects other living groups (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). Results And Suggestions The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides unplanned and in extremely high amount in agricultural areas effect destruct on all ecosystems. Some cases must be considered before the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in order to completely prevention or minimization of the destructive effects. - It must be note that the pesticides used in agriculture must be easily separable in nature. Beside this, biological fighting methods must be taken over instead of pesticides produced synthetically. - If applications of pesticide are un-exceptionally necessary, farmers must be educated and trained to apply enough and to avoid over use. The technical and sustainable production with plants, which is more economical and suitable for ecosystems, must be carried out for especially in areas near basins and sources of water. -It is well known due to the human health and environment that the chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agricultural areas are important source of pollutants and reaches to aquatic system with surface water. In order to types of kinds in the aquatic systems to be protected, attention must be applied for application of them in suitable time and dose. The effects of chemical components applied on the aquatic ecosystems must be studied and sustainable control must be carried out. - The ecological agriculture together with advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. Technical and environmentalist agriculture must be carried out for ecological balance to be saved. Some types suitable against diseases and for dried climate must be produced and mechanical and biological techniques for pest management must be developed and then made suggested for common use. - Instead of too much water, enough water applications must be desired, wild and surface irrigations must be left. System must be turned to pressurized irrigation, irrigation time for plants must be determined. Irrigation policies must be put into the agricultural irrigation programs of governments. - On the other hand, system must be changed from opened system to closed systems. The usage of water and fertilizer applied by farmers must be planned, controlled and sustainable. 643 �- Refinery system for wastewater must be constructed legally in cities. Water and wastewater must be transmitted through different waterworks and leakages from the system must be minimized. Purified water must be used in green areas and urban agricultural areas. - Especially the problem of drainage must be solved by completing the foundation of irrigation. The regulation for price of irrigation must be made in the most suitable manner. Economical and efficient irrigation must be supplied and direct indirect encouragement must be applied. - More advantageous against erosion, desert condition, dried climate, more environmentalists, sustainable advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. - As a result, harmful materials reached to aquatic areas as a result of agricultural activities effects on all of livings from algae to fishes living aquatic areas. The importance of agriculture for humanity is unquestionable. But, the aquatic systems are as important as agricultural areas. The chemicals reaching to aquatic areas coming from agricultural areas returns back to people with usage and drinking waters and causes series destructive effects in health. 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Mumcular Barajı (Muğla-Bodrum)’nın Fiziko-Kimyasal Özellikleri. Ekoloji, 13, 50: 10-17s. Varghaa, M., Takàtsc, Z. and Màrialigeti, K., (2005). "Degradation of atrazine in a laboratory scale model system with Danube river sediment." Water Research 645 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 612 Title A name given to the resource The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and its Effects on Internal Waters And Living Areas Author Author Kalyoncu, Hasan Kalyoncu, Ismail Hakkı Abstract A summary of the resource. Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way they reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order to this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the usage of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthen. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fccba2c5a2f3c41325185b5a7c3b813b.pdf f71c5441f43dc5921cf7ca8ec30746e7 PDF Text Text The Sustainability Problems of Irrigation in Turkey Prof.Dr. Nizamettin Çiftçi Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey nciftci@selcuk.edu.tr Assist.Prof.Dr. Bilal Acar Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey biacar@selcuk.edu.tr Assoc.Dr. Ramazan Topak Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey rtopak@selcuk.edu.tr Assist.Prof.Dr. Muhittin Çelebi Selçuk University Çumra MYO –Konya/Turkey mcelebi@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Water, a vital source for humanity and all living things throughout the history, has contributed to the formation of civilizations. It has the economical value as well as social and cultural characteristics. The land and water potentials have reduced due to rapid growing in urbanization and industrialization in Turkey. Water quality has begun to deteriorate as a result of environmental factors. Irrigated land also has been increasing every year. Turkey has arid and semi-arid climate characteristics and annual average precipitation is almost 643 mm. The total annual available surface and groundwater potential is 110 km3. Annual water potential per capita is 2565 m3, and available water potential is 1517 m3 in Turkey. According to the water per capita, Turkey is a waterstress country. Turkey covers a total land area of 78 million hectares, of which 28 million hectares is cultivated land. The economically irrigable land is 8.5 million hectares under the present condition. According to the 2009 records, irrigated land is 5.1 million hectares. Presence of large number of fragmented and small farm lands, scant water supplies, poor and insufficient infrastructures in irrigation networks, deficiency in irrigation water management and drainage problems have affected negatively to the sustainability of irrigation in Turkey. Keywords: Water, land and water potentials, available water potential, sustainable irrigation. Introduction Water is the prime element for human life on earth but, it is not exist in every place, amount and time on earth. It is the strategic natural resource and will be also very important. The utilization of water resources and related studies are as old as human history. In general, agriculture is the most water user sector in the world. The increase of the population has resulted more water requirement. There is a serious water scarcity and water stress problems in 80 countries with 40% of population. It is estimated that the world population will reach about to the 8.5 billion in the year of 2025. This shows that population will increase as 35-40% between current and 2025 year. Food problems associated by irrigation will be very serious in future. In present, water scarcity problems have been observed mainly in African and Middle East Countries as well as highly populated Asian Countries (Çiftçi et al 2009a; Çiftçi et al. 2009b). 191 �Water resources are 1.36 billion km3 in the world. Of this amount, 97 % is saline water with only 35 million km3 of this is fresh water (3%). The 68.3% of this is in poles as a freeze form and 31.4% of is as soil moisture or groundwater form. The 0.3% of total fresh water in the world is streams, lakes and swamps areas (Çiftçi & Kutlar 2007). Presence of non-uniform water distribution in world causes some problems. The reason of it water distribution is difference in hydrological cycle in different places. The development level of countries has very important role in water consumption. As we mentioned above in most countries, agriculture is the highest water user. Water is used for three different purposes. These are; - drinking and usage (in residents) - agriculture, and 3- industry . The averages of water use in the world are 70%, 20% and 10% in agriculture, industry and drinking and usage, respectively. Increase in water use has lead to reduction in water quality. Human activities may cause two type of contamination of water resources. It is very important for human health, especially for children, to use the fresh water at present. In the world, almost one million people in 40 countries have used the poor quality water. Increment in irrigated lands will also increase the water consumption. Turkey is situated in 36o-42o North latitude and 26o-45o East longitude so that it has a unique geographical and cultural position. The length of the land border is 2949 km and coastal boundary of 7816 km with total of 10765 km. The neighbors are Greece and Bulgaria in West; Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran in East and ; Iraq, Syria in South. Ankara, capital city of Turkey, is 875 m above the sea level (Ulus) (Anonymous 2009). The construction of huge irrigation networks started after 1950's and had very importance. These big irrigation projects are irrigated by Menderes, Gediz, Seyhan, Ceyhan, Yeşilırmak, Kızılırmak, Fırat and Dicle Rivers. The project consisted of Dicle and Fırat is called as Southeastern Anatolian Project (SAP) and is one of the huge projects in the world (Kara 2005). Turkey can be considered a ` water-stressed ‘country according to the water resources. It is estimated that available water potential of Turkey will be fully used after 20 years. Land and Water Potential in Turkey Land Potential of Turkey Agricultural production is the function of arable land and soil fertility in such area. It means that not only land size is important but also fertility of soil is very important. Turkey covers 28 million hectares of cultivated land. To make an irrigation project, arable land and water supply as well as suitability of arable land for irrigation are necessary. The land potential with the slope lower than 6% is 16.5 million hectares in Turkey. The 8.5%of this is economically irrigable land. The irrigated land at present is 5.1 million ha (Çiftçi et al. 2008) are presented in Table 1 (Kara 2005, Çiftçi & Kutlar 2007). Land Status 1. 2. 3. 4. • • • • Area (million ha) Arable land Land for field crop production Land for vineyard and Horticulture Land for meadow Irrigable Land Economically irrigable land Land suitable for irrigation after the some improvement Currently irrigated land 26.6 16.0 2.6 8.0 16.5 8.5 8.0 5.1 Table 1. The utilization patterns of lands in Turkey 192 �As seen from the Table 1 that almost 8 million ha land is exposed to fallow. As a result of this, although arable land potential is 26.6 ha, only 18.6 ha of it is under cultivation. Water Potential of Turkey In general, the climate is semi-arid in Turkey. Due to the surrounding with three directions of Turkey by seas, high mountains lies on parallel to the sea costs, rapid changes in elevation and distance to the coasts result in climate changes in small distances. Turkey has different climate characteristics due to the geographical position. In the exception of the East Black Region, the climate varies from arid to semiarid. The climate changes depend upon the seasons and regional differences. There are total 26 big river basins in Turkey. There is difference between the basins in respect to the rainfall. The annual rainfalls are 350mm and 2400m for Middle Anatolia Region and East Black Sea, respectively. Water potential of a country is the sum of surface and groundwater. As it is known that source of the water in earth is rainfall. The annual average precipitation in Turkey is almost 643 mm, corresponding to a volume of 501 km3 and the annual runoff is 186 km3. The 274 km3 of total precipitation is lost by transpiration and evaporation. Another 41 km3 of total precipitation feeds the underground water system and 186 km3 end up as surface runoff. The annual consumable surface water potential is computed as 98 km3 and extractable groundwater potential of 12 km3 should be added to this, bringing the total annual consumable potential to 110 km3 (Figure 1) (Kara 2005; Çiftçi et al. 2009b). A nn ual average precipitation: 501 k m 3 Groun dwater: 69 km 3 From precipitation : 158 km 3 Surface run off (dom estic): 186 km 3 Con sumable: 12 km 3 C on sumable: Consumable: 95 km 3 95 km 3 Flow from n eigh boring countries: 7 km 3 C on sumable: 3 km 3 Total surface run off: 193 km 3 Con sumable: 98 km 3 T otal con sumable water resources: 110 k m 3 Figure 1. Water Potential of Turkey. 193 E vaporation: 274 km 3 �Water supply is used for different purposes such as energy production, irrigation, and others. By considering increase in population requirement to the water due to the irrigation, drinking and usages with demands to water in developed industry and tourism sector, water consumption estimation has been performed in Turkey. The water consumption estimation performed by sector base, economically irrigable land potential of Turkey (8.5 million hectares) will be completely opened to the irrigation by construction of irrigation networks in the year of 2030 and also estimated that irrigation water uses will reach the 71.5 km3. On the other hand, the main target is to minimize the water uses as 65% in total water uses by using the modern irrigation technologies in 2030. Thus, in sector base, all 110 km3 water will be used completely in 2030 (Table 2). Usages of fresh water potential and situation in the future are given in Figure 2 (Anonymous 2009). Year Total water use, km3 35.645 38.900 39.300 40.000 110.000 1999 2000 2001 2002 2030 Development, % irrigation % 34 35 36 38 100 26.415 29.200 29.300 32.000 71.500 75 75 75 75 65 Water Use (km3) Drinking% usage 5.520 15 5.700 10 5.800 15 6.000 15 25.300 23 industry % 3.710 4.000 4.200 4.300 13.200 11 11 10 10 12 Table 2. The Usage of Water in Sector Base in Turkey (Anonymous 2002) water usage, km3 80 irrigation drinking-usage 60 industry 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 Years Figure 2. Water Usage Ratios in Turkey Water-rich country can be defined as the country that has the water potential of 10 000 m3/person per year. According record of 2009, it is estimated that the population is about to the 72.5 millions in Turkey. The annual water potential per capita is 2565 m3. The available water potential per capita is 1375 m3/person/year. Thus, Turkey can be considered a ` water-stressed ‘country by comparison to the some countries. According to the Government Statistical Institute records, it is estimated that the population will reach about to the 80 millions in Turkey in the year of 2025 year. The available water potential per capita will reduce to the 1375 m3/person/year. It is possible to estimate the importance of water potential by considering some factors such as present growth rate and variations in water consumption habits. This estimation is valid under the conditions of transferring the present resources without any destruction up to 2025. Therefore, in order to transfer the water resources properly and sufficiently to the next generation, water resources should be conserved best and used efficiently. 194 �Water Management and Sustainability Problems in Turkey The residential and industrial water uses are getting increasing and there is a competition between these two sectors and agricultural use. To improve the efficiency of irrigation, there is a need a irrigation method covered high crop yield, elements of modern irrigation technologies. Water Management Water management is defined as development , distribution and uses of water resources. Main goal in water management is improvement of the farmers income. This can be obtained by effective water distributions and uses. Water management is briefly described as the distribution and uses of water. The number of organizations are responsible in water management at Turkey. Similar responsibilities may result conflict and problems in practice. However, there are two important organizations for water management namely General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) and City Private Management (CPM) are two government organizations. According to 2008 records, the area for opened to the irrigation is about 5.1 million hectares, and 2.9 million hectares and 1.3 million hectares have been irrigated by GDSHW and General Directorate of Rural Services and Public (GDRS), respectively. The rest 0.9 million hectare has opened to irrigation by farmers. The 6.5 million hectors of the total 8.5 million economically irrigable land will be managed by GDSHW in 2030. The other 1.5 and 0.5 million hectare land will be irrigated by other government organizations and public sector (Anonymous 2009). There are different management types in Turkey. These are; Government irrigation management: The first big government irrigation manager is a GDSHW and responsible for constructions of dams. These dams are not so much so that the organization has managed, maintenance-repair of such dams. Due to the not transfer of huge structures and difficulty in management those structures have only managed by GDSHW. Management with local managers; In small places where the not availability of irrigation cooperatives and water user associations (WUA) or even making the organization but not properly managed small areas, municipal or local managers or community have managed the systems. In local management, poor management of irrigation structures and not having the sufficiently information and use the irrigation systems as financial sector are the deficiency of local management. The efficiency of this management is low. Public Irrigation; Farmers are the manager in this system and is small or medium scale irrigation management. There is transfer problem in this management. Farmers solve their problem by using their facilities. They are responsible for them and effectiveness is parallel with the their experiences. Irrigation Cooperatives- Water management; Irrigation cooperatives were built with 1163 number by cooperative policy. The components of cooperative are General Community, Management Community and Control Unit. In addition, Irrigation Cooperative Superior Community and Irrigation Cooperative Central Association are available (Çiftçi et al. 2008). The purposes of irrigation cooperatives are determined by negotiations and these are follows (Çiftçi 1991) ; • These cooperatives may construction of irrigation structures for agricultural uses, management, maintenance-repair, land consolidation if necessary, supply credit in water obtaining points. • The number of the irrigation cooperative was 2386 in 2006 in Turkey and members in cooperatives, number of the association and central association were 280043, 7 and 1, respectively (Anonymous 2006). The areas served by cooperatives (1307852 ha) are presented in Table 5. • Irrigation cooperatives have appropriate management model for small-medium sized farms as well as farmers' self-government democratic management, ease of self- 195 �regulatory and public administration by the control status and have the capacity of meeting maintenance and repair expenses. However, they have the some disadvantages such as members of farmers in cooperatives could not detect the purposes of these organizations, having financially, legally and technically inadequacy. Water Use Associations (WUA) ; WUA is built by local management permission and it has the government characteristics. Personal are employed like the government criteria. However, the members of the decision makers and managers are selected by farmers in WUA. WUA can be built by required village and municipality. Each WUA has the special procedures. WUA community and community members are present in accordance of their procedures. The general secretary must be agriculture engineer and organizes works as if head of the WUA. The management of WUA is conducted by legislation, management and official decisions. GDSHW has transferred 2.090.330 ha areas of total opened irrigation of 2.9 million ha according to the 2008. The 1.883.702 ha area has transferred to the 362 WUA. GDSHW has transferred 90% of opened irrigation to the WUA (Anonymous 2008). Water Supply Irrigated Land (ha) % Small Dam 143385 10.96 Surface 858837 65.67 Groundwater 30563 23.37 Total 1307852 100 Table 3. Areas Served by Cooperatives In considering the total 5.1 million irrigated areas in Turkey, 37% of it has transferred to the WUA. There is some problems during transferring of irrigation Networks in Turkey. These are mostly legislation, financial and technical problems. Problems in irrigation management Development and management policies in soil and water resources should be rereviewed in Turkey. For sustainable irrigated agriculture, water management and management policies of government, irrigation cooperatives and WUA should be reviewed and required regulations should be performed. In recently, government is the exception for water management and it can be responsibilities of contributions to the water users and guide. The purposes of transferring irrigation water management are follows: • Facilitates farmers attendance and responsibility in management • Local management in determined rules by farmers, • Self inspection by own members, • Reduction in management-maintenance and meeting the outcomes by farmer organizations. Cooperatives are mostly ignored in irrigation water management. However, in small-scale production countries cooperatives are much more effective. Number Ratios (%) Area (ha) Ratios (%) WUA 362 42,7 1 883 702 90,1 Irrigation cooperative 100 11,8 94 148 4,5 Municipal 154 18,2 70 612 3,4 Village Community 225 26,5 40 198 1,9 Organizations 196 �Others 6 0,8 1 670 0,1 TOTAL 847 100 2 090 330 100 Table 4. Transferred Areas and Organizations (Anonymous 2008 ) Water management has transferred to the Village Community, Municipal, WUA, Services performed helps to villages, Cooperatives and Universities. The top rank is WUA between these. Various problems may be observed in irrigation water management in Turkey. These are as follows; • Deficiency in attendance of farmers to the irrigated agriculture investments and problems in re obtaining of charges, • Deficiencies in water conveyance, distribution and applications and excess water losses, • Postpone problems such as in land leveling, consolidation, electrification, • Observation of some problems in reduced yield, salinity and drainage, • Surface and groundwater contaminations via agricultural chemicals, food nutrients and industrial wastes, • Low irrigation efficiency and irrigation ratios, excess water losses and low irrigation performance due to the surface irrigation methods, • Incorrect crop patterns in region, • Maintenance-repair problems in irrigation networks, • Postpone in maintenance-repair works after the transfer or irrigation management to the WUA and irrigation cooperatives, • Financial, legislation, management and education problems in irrigation cooperatives and WUA. References Anonymous. (2002). General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ (in Turkish). Anonymous. (2006). Teşkilatlanma ve Destekleme Genel Müdürlüğü TEDGEM - Ankara Turkish). www.tedgem.gov.tr (in Anonymous. (2008). General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ (in Turkish). Anonymous. (2009). General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ (in Turkish). Çiftçi, N., Acar, B., Şahin, M., Yaylalı, I., & Yavuz, D. (2009a). Land and Water Potentials of Turkey and Major Problems in Irrigated Agriculture, Proceedings International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 2009, Pocradec. 305-310. Çiftçi, N., Acar, B., Yaylalı, I & Çivicioğlu, N. (2009b). Groundwater Potential Usage and Contamination Problems in Turkey under Global Warming Period, Proceedings International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 2009, Pocradec. 456-462. Çiftçi, N & Kutlar, Đ. (2007). Water potential and water resources of Konya Plain. Journal of Konya Ticaret Borsası, 24, 34-37 (in Turkish Çiftçi,N.,Kutlar,Đ., & Demir, N. (2008). Konya Đli Sulama Kooperatiflerinin Sulamadaki Etkinliği. Konya Kapalı Havzası Yer Altı Suyu ve Kuraklık Konferansı, 11-12 Eylül, 2008. S. 57-66. Konya (in Turkish) Çiftçi, N. (1991). Orta Anadolu Toprak ve Su Kooperatifleri Sulama işletmelerinde Görülen Sorunlar, Karınca Kooperatif Postası, No. 653, Ankara. Kara, M. (2005). Irrigation and irrigation systems. Selçuk University. Agricultural Faculty, ISBN 975-448-177-6: Konya-Turkey (in Turkish). 197 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 378 Title A name given to the resource The Sustainability Problems of Irrigation in Turkey Author Author Çiftçi, Nizamettin Acar, Bilal Topak, Ramazan Çelebi, Muhittin Abstract A summary of the resource. Water, a vital source for humanity and all living things throughout the history, has contributed to the formation of civilizations. It has the economical value as well as social and cultural characteristics. The land and water potentials have reduced due to rapid growing in urbanization and industrialization in Turkey. Water quality has begun to deteriorate as a result of environmental factors. Irrigated land also has been increasing every year. Turkey has arid and semi-arid climate characteristics and annual average precipitation is almost 643 mm. The total annual available surface and groundwater potential is 110 km3. Annual water potential per capita is 2565 m3, and available water potential is 1517 m3 in Turkey. According to the water per capita, Turkey is a waterstress country. Turkey covers a total land area of 78 million hectares, of which 28 million hectares is cultivated land. The economically irrigable land is 8.5 million hectares under the present condition. According to the 2009 records, irrigated land is 5.1 million hectares. Presence of large number of fragmented and small farm lands, scant water supplies, poor and insufficient infrastructures in irrigation networks, deficiency in irrigation water management and drainage problems have affected negatively to the sustainability of irrigation in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 973 Title A name given to the resource The Syntax of Prenominal Cel Author Author Mona-Luiza , Ungureanu Abstract A summary of the resource. This presentation accounts for the syntax of the prenominal determiner-like free morpheme cel in Romanian, which introduces definite DPs. Importantly, the prototypical definite article in Romanian is a suffix that attaches to prenominal adjectives and nouns, (1). Conversely, cel is a free morpheme that must immediately precede prenominal quantifiers, (2). Although the definite suffix and cel are different, their absence in the DP renders the DP indefinite, (3). Moreover, the presence of prenominal cel in the DP renders it definite, even in the absence of the enclitic definite article, (2). In order to account for the correlation between prenominal cel and definiteness, Cornilescu (1992, 2004) proposes that prenominal cel is a definite article in D0 inserted as a last resort when agreement between D0 and the noun or a prenominal adjective is blocked by an intervening numeral or quantifier phrase. (1) fete-le destepte (2) cele *(doua) (destepte) fete (3) doua fete girls-the pl.f. smart cel-pl.f. two smart girls two girls “the smart girls” “the two (smart) girls” “two girls” Conversely, we claim that cel is not a definite article in D0; cel and the XP following it form a constituent, celP, that is adjoined below D0 in the same position as demonstratives; and celP can license a [+def.] feature in D0, a mechanism independently needed to account for demonstratives. Evidence comes from the syntactic distribution and properties of cel relative to other elements in the DP and their movement. Crucial pieces of evidence are provided by new data, which are not in the literature, to my knowledge. Insight into the syntax of prenominal cel contributes a better understanding of the syntactic structure, constituents and movement in the higher domain of the DP, particularly head movement of A0/N0 as proposed by Ungureanu (2004, 2009) and Travis and Ungureanu (2008). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/53f0d5d42d52f4aebda592f1e226a7d3.docx ad5e8483551d45ba750177aac888535f https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d0c34badc6bdb90c74410584b3283207.pdf 13590a672df6a788fc1eefd6a359187c PDF Text Text The System Dynamics Model of Turkish Incentives in Cattle Livestock Cihan AYIZ Fatih University Turkey cihanayiz@yahoo.com NizamettinBayyurt Fatih University Turkey bayyurt@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The system dynamics of recent Turkish Incentives policy in cattle livestock is analyzed and defined. These dynamics are useful to find a system’s stable and equilibrium situations. In Turkish Incentive system, because of blow off the dynamics of Cattle Livestock there is still no sustainable and stable policies. Turkish incentive system that is urgently needs to be redesign and the optimum points through government livestock policies urgently needs to be redefine is investigated. We methodologically used System Dynamics Modeling as a tool which is widely used to define and simulate and analyze the systems to find the dynamics those effects and are parts of the systems. Keywords: cattle livestock, incentive, system dynamics. 96 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2550 Title A name given to the resource The System Dynamics Model of Turkish Incentives in Cattle Livestock Author Author AYIZ, Cihan BAYYURT, Nizamettin Abstract A summary of the resource. The system dynamics of recent Turkish Incentives policy in cattle livestock is analyzed and defined. These dynamics are useful to find a system’s stable and equilibrium situations. In Turkish Incentive system, because of blow off the dynamics of Cattle Livestock there is still no sustainable and stable policies. Turkish incentive system that is urgently needs to be redesign and the optimum points through government livestock policies urgently needs to be redefine is investigated. We methodologically used System Dynamics Modeling as a tool which is widely used to define and simulate and analyze the systems to find the dynamics those effects and are parts of the systems. Keywords: cattle livestock, incentive, system dynamics. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a8fe24b8aa1beaa4d02922362bc6a14a.pdf a59cf6886c7a60903c0f8a30326d4b25 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Teaching of [θ] and [ð] Sounds in English Ali KARAKAġ* Ecehan SÖNMEZ** Department of English Language Teaching Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Turkey akarakas@mehmetakif.edu.tr Abstract: Pronunciation teaching has its unique place in the curricula of most of the European countries though it has been neglected in Turkey so far. Mispronunciation of some core sounds is among the fundamental problems in the speech of both nonnative pre-service and in-service teachers in Turkey. The [θ] and [ð] sounds constitute the biggest trouble for Turks, for they do not take place in the Turkish sound system. To remedy this case, a sample lesson plan on teaching these problem causing-sounds has been developed according to the audio articulation method, which is claimed to be a fossilized pronunciation mistake breaker. It is hoped that the sample lesson plan on the [θ] and [ð] sounds will correct the pronunciation mistakes of non-native English teachers and teacher-trainees in Turkey. Key Words: [θ] and [ð] sounds, corpus, pronunciation mistakes, the audioarticulation model. INTRODUCTION According to HiĢmanoğlu (2009, p. 1697) ‗‘Pronunciation is a significant part of foreign language teaching‘‘, since having a good pronunciation is one of the most important signs of getting mastery in foreign language learning and teaching. However, the fossilized pronunciation errors may be a barrier for learners who are trying to get mastery in foreign language (FL) and second language (L2) in that such errors harm the learners‘ speech fluency and prevent them from speaking English in the way native speakers do. Of all the fossilized pronunciation errors, the phonemes /θ/ and / ð/ have always been problematic not only for Turkish learners of English but also for Turkish teachers of English who are already on the job (HiĢmanoğlu, 2009). These sounds cause severe pronunciation problems to the Turkish learners of English during the articulation process. That‘s why, they need an urgent remediation, which is going to be provided with a model lesson on teaching the /θ/ and / ð/ contrasts through the audio-articulation method (AAM) developed by Demirezen (2004) as fossilized pronunciation error breaker. Besides the AAM, some principles of the Audio-lingual Method (ALM) will be employed in the activities of the sample lesson plan to supplement the teaching of TH sounds. The Nature of Difficulty of /θ/ and / ð/ for Turks The main reason of difficulty of these phonemes lies under the fact that these sounds [θ] and [ð] do not exist in the sound system of Turkish. As it is seen in figure 2, the [θ] sound, which is named theta, is a voiceless interdental fricative sound while the [ð] sound, which is called eth, is a voiced interdental fricative sound as it is seen in figure 1. They are among the problem-causing consonants for Turkish learners of English, for they are not coded in modern standard Turkish (Demirezen, 2007, 2010). The voiceless [θ] sound can be heard clearly in such words like thick /θɪk/, ethnic /ɛθnɪk/ and sheath /ʆiθ/. The voiced [ð] sound can be heard in such words like thus /ðʌs/, within /wɪðɪn/ and lathe /leɪð/. Both [θ] and [ð] are highly frequent sounds in English language. Therefore, they require a special attention if the aim is to properly teach these sounds at the micro level and English at the macro level. As can be seen apparently above, these sounds occur word initially, word medially and word finally. To be able to get the bottom of the problem, it is beneficial to investigate the articulation of these sounds. After that, it is necessary to diagnose the problem and find out a remedy for the treatment. Figure 1: The mouth position of the /ð/ phoneme Figure2: The Mouth Position of the /θ/ phoneme (Adapted from Baker and Goldstein, 2008) 74 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Articulation of the /θ/ and / ð/ Phonemes Since these sounds are non-existent in Turkish sound system, difficulty arises in the production of them. The most common tendency is that Turkish learners replace the phoneme /θ/ with the phoneme /t/ and the phoneme /ð/ with the phoneme /d/. The word pairs below can be given as examples to the above statement:       /θɔt/ team /tim/ vs. theme /θim/ mat /mæt/ vs. math /mæθ/ boot /but/ vs. booth /buθ/ taught / tɔt/ vs. thought   dose /doʊs/ vs. those /ðoʊz/ dough /doʊ/ vs. though /ðoʊ/ dare /dɛər/ vs. there /ðɛər/ sued /sud/ vs. soothe /suð/ The reason of this tendency to replace the non-existent unvoiced and voiced [θ] and [ð] sounds stems from ‗‘the establishment of mother tongue interference‘‘ (Demirezen, 2008). As these sounds are not coded in the Turkish consonant chart, they are converted to into the closest sounds in the mother tongue; in this case they are mostly /t/ and /d/ to compensate for the lack of exact sounds in the target language (Dalton, 1997). To remedy these two fossilized pronunciation errors, a model lesson plan will be presented below, which has been organized by taking the principles of the AAM method and some ALM principles into account. AN APPLICATION OF THE AUDIO-ARTICULATION PRONUNCIATION REHABILITATION MODEL ON TEACHING THE /Θ/ AND /Ð/ PHONEMES Time limit: 45-50 minutes. Model: Audio Articulation Model & Audio-lingual Method. 1. Warm up – motivation The teacher of the course starts up with a poem including the problem causing-sounds. This session lasts nearly 3 or 4 minutes. If there occurs a probability of exceeding the time limit, the teacher has the right to keep the warm up session short by skipping the last part of the poem. T: Good afternoon everybody. How are you today? You all look very lively. Ss: Good afternoon, sir. We‘re all fine. T: Ok, friends. I wonder who likes poetry in the class. Ss: (Students who like poetry raise their hands.) T: Great. Today, we are going to read a poem. Who wants to read the poem? I need two volunteers. One will be the mother while the other will be the child. Hülya: I can be the mom, sir. ġeniz: And, I can be the child. T: Thanks, ladies. Ok, then. Let us start. Here is the poem. Enjoy it! My Thumbies Child: I have two thin thumbies They're with me day and night. My favorite thumb is on my left. The other's on my right My thumbies always soothe me when I am feeling sad. They help me to protect myself when I am feeling mad. My thumbies help me fall asleep when I am feeling tired. I do not know how better friends could ever be desired. My mother says it's time to quit-that sucking thumbs is bad. And every time I suck my thumbs, my mom gets very mad. Mom: You've got to quit. Don't suck thy thumbs--your left one or your right. It's pushing all your front teeth out. It's ruining your bite. It might take years to get straight teeth, with braces on your mouth. It isn't fun. Believe me, son. So keep your thumbs down south. Child: I'm 5 years old It's time to quit-of all the silly habits. I don't want people thinking that my teeth look like a rabbit's. 75 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hùlya and ġeniz read the poem loudly and the other students listen to them. The teacher notices that they have some problems with voiced and voiceless TH sounds. But, the teacher does not make any correction of pronunciation and does not warn any of them, either. T: All right ladies. Thanks a lot. Ok, class. Let‘s remember what we did in our former class. 2. Reviewing the previous topic T: Friends, do you remember what we did in our former lesson? Ss: Yes, sir. We studied on the articulation of [t] and [d] sounds. T: Well done. Who can give the phonetic identifications of these sounds together with sample words? Ufuk: Sir, the [t] sound is a voiceless alveolar stop consonant and, the [d] sound is a voiced alveolar stop sound in English. (Barlow, J.A. & Gierut, J.A., 2002, Demirezen, 1987). We can see the [t] sound in such words tin /tɪn/, tank /tæŋk/, tease /ti:z/, and the [d] sound in the words day / dey/, and dice /daɪs/. T: Very good, Ufuk. Thanks. Now, it is time for today‘s topic. 3. Stating the aim of the lesson The teacher sets the goal of the lesson and writes the topic on the board, by saying: T: Dear friends, today we will study the articulation of [θ] and [ð] sounds in English, which were mispronounced by your friends during the poetry session in such words as they and teeth. Your friends tended to pronounce the [θ] as [t] and the [ð] sound as [d]. Please, be careful [t] and [d] sounds are mostly employed instead of the [θ] and [ð] sounds by Turkish students. In fact, [t] is a voiceless alveolar stop fortis sound and the [d] is a voiced alveolar stop lenix sound (Kelly, 2001, p. 49). However, the [θ] and [ð] sounds have different phonetic identifications which do not exist out language. After stating the aim of the lesson, the teacher gets ready to present his/her corpus that includes 50-100 words including the [θ] and [ð] sounds. The teacher arranges the words in the order of word-initially, wordmedially and word finally positions so that students can discriminate how they are articulated in all positions. Besides this, the teacher puts the transcriptions of these words into the corpus. After doing so, the teacher makes sure that students know all the words, otherwise it is better for the teacher to handle the unknown words in the corpus. a) Presenting the corpus The corpus prepared by the teacher should be given to the students in the class. It is important that students should also be provided with the sounds of the words in the corpus. Table 1: The corpus of the [θ] sound Word-Initially thigh /θaɪ/ thread Word-Medially /θrɛd/ ether /iθər/ /ɛθnɪk/ thou /θoʊ/ theorem /θiərəm/ ethnic thus /θʌs/ therapy /θɛrəpi/ method /mɛθəd/ thistle /θɪsəl/ thicken /θɪkən/ athlete /θif/ thicket /θɪkɪt/ pathetic /pəθɛtɪk/ thief Word-Finally bathtub /bæθtʌb/ breath /brɛθ/ toothpick /tuθpɪk/ sheath /ʆiθ/ length /lɛŋkθ/ month /mʌnθ bathrobe /bæθroʊb/ teeth /ti:θ/ fourth /fɔrθ/ panther loath /loʊθ/ broth /brɔθ/ bathroom /bæθrum/ wreath /riθ/ math /mæθ/ /iθɑs/ cathedral /kəθidrəl/ mouth /maʊθ/ worth /bɜrθ/ beneath /bɪniθ/ /æθlit/ /pænθər/ theme /θim/ thimble /θɪmbəl/ ethos thesis /θisɪs/ thug /θʌg/ apathy /æpəθi/ mouthful /maʊθfʊl/ sooth thick /θɪk/ thrift /θrɪft/ earthy /ɜrθi// bathmat /bæθmæt/ bath /bæθ/ faith /feɪθ/ thud /θʌd/ thorn /θɔrn/ ethic /ɛθɪk/ cloth /klɔθ/ booth /buθ/ thrift /θrɪft/ thumb /θʌm/ ethereal /ɪθɪriəl/ lethal /liθəl/ lath /læθ/ myth /mɪθ/ pithy zither /zɪθər/ birth /bɜrθ/ wrath /ræθ/ thrash /θræʆ/ thrill /θrɪl/ /pɪθi/ stealthy /stɛlθi/ /suθ/ 76 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo To compare the [θ] sound with the [ð] sound, the teacher needs to present another corpus including the [ð] sound in the words. This type of contrastive analysis will help students discriminate the difference between two sounds. Table 2: The corpus of the [ð] sound Word-Initially Word-Medially Word-Finally this‘ll /ðɪsəl/ thereof /ðɛərʌv/ either /ˈiðər/ smoother /smuðər/ breathe /brið/ thus /ðʌs/ thereby /ðɛərbaɪ/ mother /mʌðər/ northern /nɔrðərn/ bathe /beɪð/ scathe /skeɪð/ thou /ðaʊ/ therefor /ðɛərfɔr/ father /fɑ:ðər/ clothe/kloʊð/ blythe /blaɪð/ thy /ðaɪ/ therefore /ðɛrfɔr/ tether /tɛðər/ together /təgɛðər/ lathe than /ðæn/ they‘ll /ðeɪl/ dither /dɪðər/ southern /sʌðərn sheathe /ʆið/ those /ðoʊz/ then /ðɛn/ feather /fɛðər/ heather /hɛðər/ withe gather /gæðər/ /leɪð/ /wɪð/ the /ðə/ theirs /ðɛrz/ bother /bɑðər/ rhythm /rɪðəm/ soothe /suð/ these /ðiz/ them /ðɛm/ brother /brʌðər/ weather /wɛðər/ teethe they /ðeɪ/ their /ðər/ neither /niðər/ bathing/ /beɪðɪŋ/ wreathe /r:ið/ that /ðæt/ thence/ /ðɛns/ within /wɪðɪn/ further /fɜrðər/ mouth/maʊð/ there /ðɛr/ thee / ði/ other rather /ræðər/ loathe /loʊð/ though /ðoʊ/ this /ðɪs/ worthy /wɜrði/ /ʌðər/ another /ənʌðər/ lithe blithe /blaɪð/ scythe /sið/ seethe /sið/ tithe /taɪð/ writhe /raɪð/ /ti:ð/ /laɪð/ After the presentation of the corpus, students are asked to repeat these words in small doses individually or in group. Since over-repeating may be boring for the students, the teacher should avoid creating a parrot-like repetition phase and should keep the phase as lively as possible. The teacher should target those students who have trouble in articulating the words correctly. Having done all these chores, the teacher can establish the minimal pairs by exposing the [θ-ð] differences. b) Establishing the minimal pairs The teacher firstly handles the unknown words. It is also advisable to establish the minimal pairs with related pictures so that students can see the differentiations in meaning. The teacher tries to specify the words into minimal pairs with contrastive analysis (Baker and Goldstein, 1992). Students are asked to repeat the minimal pairs in single, group or choir. During the repetition phase, the teacher gets closer to the students to see the students‘ mouth positions, and to observe whether they can articulate the sounds correctly or not. The frequently encountered voiceless and voiced TH minimal pairs are as follows: [θ]             vs. sheath (n) /ʆi:θ/ thigh /θaɪ/ teeth (n) /tiːθ/ ether /i:θər/ loath (adj) /loʊθ/ wreath (n) /ri:θ/ mouth (n) /maʊθ/ thou /θaʊ/ sooth (adj) /su:θ/ thus /θʌs/ thistle /θɪsəl/ with /wɪθ/ [ð] sheathe (v) /ʆi:ð/ thy /ðaɪ/ teethe (v) /tiːð/ either (Am.)/i:ðər/ loathe (v) /loʊð/ wreathe (v)/ri:ð/ mouth (v) /maʊð/ thou /ðaʊ/ soothe /su:ð/ thus /ðʌs/ this‘ll /ðɪsəl/ withe /wɪð/ 77 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo c) Establishing near-minimal pairs Sometimes an exact minimal pair contrasting two phonemes may not exist in a language. Linguists then look for near minimal pairs. In a near minimal pair only the sounds surrounding the phonemes are identical.     [θ] bath /bæθ/ cloth /klɔθ/ breath /brɛθ/ lath /læθ/ [ð] bathe /beɪð/ clothe /kloʊð/ breathe /brið/ lathe /leɪð/ d) Tongue twisters The tongue twisters are practiced individually, in pairs or chorus in class after the teacher exhorts them first. The teacher can also make use of audio files of the tongue twisters. 1. A sheath A sword sheath A sheathed sword sheath A leather sheathed sword sheath 5. Breath Breathing the breath Breathing the toothy breath Breathing the toothy breath with a thief 2. Either Either of these Either of these ethers Either of these third-rate ethers 6. A bath A filthy bath Bathing in a filthy bath Bathing the baby in a filthy bath 3. Teeth Healthy teeth Healthy teeth in the mouth Healthy teeth teething in the mouth 7. A cloth A wool cloth A thicker wool cloth A thicker wool cloth to clothe 4. Thigh Thick thigh Thy thick thigh Thy thick thigh in a pie 8. Wreathing Wreathing Thomas Wreathing Thomas in a wreath Wreathing Thomas in a wreath with wrath e) Giving the rule The teacher should give the rule in a way that will enable students to capture it in clear details. For this reason, the teacher can use figures or charts illustrating the mouth position in the articulation of the problemcausing sounds. The teacher claps his/her hands to catch students‘ attention by saying: T: Dear students, it is RULE TIME now. Wide open your eyes and lend me your ears, please. As you can see in the figure below, we stick out our tongue a bit between the upper and lower teeth (Demirezen 1987: 39) and then we blow out air. Both sounds are inter-dental fricatives (Ladefoged, 2001). Please, pay attention to the [ð] sound; for it is a voiced consonant while the [θ] sound is a voiceless one. 78 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 3: The articulational positinioning of of the [ð] and [θ] sounds in the mouth (Figures taken from http://englishgoes.com/en/english-pronunciation-lesson-2-th/) Kelly (2001) gives us some suggested ways of explaining how to form these two consonants: For the articulation of the [ð] and [θ] sounds: ―Put the front of your tongue against the back of your top teeth. Let the air pass through as you breathe out. Don‘t use your voice. Hold the sound, and add your voice‖ (p. 55). After giving the rule, the teacher shows a video to the students, in which a native speaker models how to articulate these sounds with sample words. Then, the teacher can do further exercises. 4. Doing Further Exercises In this part, the teacher does further articulations of the problematic sounds with different activities by creating a game like atmosphere. For example, the teacher can establish minimal sentences for students. A. Minimal Sentences (The teacher practices minimal sentences without boring students. First, s/he reads the sentences, and then s/he gets students to repeat in isolation, pairs or choir. It is advisable that the teacher should create his/her own minimal sentences by appealing to students‘ areas of interest.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Elizabeth can easily spell the word THY / THIGH. I don‘t like EITHER / ETHER. My father makes a good LATHER / LATHER. How do you say the word LOATHE / LOTH? They will SHEATHE / SHEATH the blade. (Nilsen & Nilsen, 1973) Rachel doesn‘t know the meaning of SOOTH / SOOTHE. Liz told me that she found THOU / THOU on the street yesterday. TEETHE / TEETH is a difficult word to pronounce. Does the word WREATHE / WREATH have two ‗e‘ letters? Here is an example word including TH: BATH / BATHE. LATH / LATHE is an unknown word for many students. B. Sentences with contextual clues (After the teacher exhorts the sentences, s/he practices the following sentences without boring students, in single or in pairs.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Julia will EITHER get ETHER or novocain. Please SHEATHE your knife in a SHEATH. The baby‘s TEETH will soon TEETHE. They will WREATHE him in a WREATH. Michael is LOTH to LOATHE anyone in the class. (Nilsen & Nilsen, 1973) Don‘t MOUTH a speech when your MOUTH is full. The three children BATHE in the same BATH. My daughter couldn‘t find a CLOTH to CLOTHE her doll. A SOOTH herbal tea will SOOTHE her. Mine, THOU lord of life, send me a THOU again Does THY THIGH hurt a lot after the operation? 79 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo   (voiceless Thou / /θaʊ/ /slang, one thousand dollars, pounds, etc.) (voiced Mouth /maʊð/ v. to utter in a sonorous or pompous manner) C. Oral Reading (The teacher prepares or finds an interesting paragraph including the problematic sounds. S/he makes students read the paragraph and want them to find the number of the TH sounds in the text. S/he can also invite the students to the stage, and gets him/her show the voiced or unvoiced TH sounds in the paragraph. An example is shown below.) Instruction: Listen to the speaker carefully and note down the words that have /ð/ and /θ/ in it. How many voiced and unvoiced TH sounds can you find? Even though my father is a weatherman, he can't predict with absolute certainty whether it will rain or not. Neither can the other people who work with him. They say there's only a thirty per cent chance of rain, and the next thing you know, it's pouring. They predict snow, and there's nothing for another five days. Then, there's a blizzard. So rather than trust my father's weather forecasts, I use a more reasonable approach. I ask my mother. (Taken from: www.eslgold.com/pronunciation/voiced_sound_th.html) Students listen to the speaker and note down the words including voiced or unvoiced TH sounds. Then, the teacher shows them the answer key so that the students can compare their own answers with the right ones. D. Sound Discrimination Exercise (The teacher presents an exercise in which students need to choose the sound they hear.) 1. "_____ be good medicine for you." the doctor said. a. This'll b. Thistle 2. Hospitals smell like ____. a. either b. ether 3. He could not speak. He couldn't even ______ the words. a. mouthe b. mouth 4. In 1620, the Pilgrims believed in "love _____ neighbor". a. thy b. thigh 5. Swords and rapiers are kept in a ______. a.sheathe b.sheath 6. The baby is crying. He must be cutting his _______. a. teethe b. teeth 7. Babies usually start to _______ around 6 months of age. a. teethe b. teeth 8. The carpenter is an excellent ____. a. lather (/laythe-^r/) b. lather(/lath-^r/) 9. This shampoo doesn't produce enough _. a. lather (/laythe-^r/) b. lather(/lath-^r/) 10. You hate him very much. In fact, you _____ him a. loathe b. loth E. Sentence Level Tongue Twisters (The teacher can present sentence level tongue twisters that include both voiced and unvoiced TH words. S/he practices the twisters carefully without boring the students. The order of the tongue twisters should be from simple to complex. The teacher should be on alert to correct the committed mistakes immediately in class.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. They threw three thick things. Is this the thing? - Yes, this is the thing. Father, mother, sister, brother - hand in hand with one another. I thought a thought. But the thought I thought wasn't the thought I thought I thought. The thirty-three thankful thieves thought that they thanked the other thirty three thankful thieves throughout Thursday. Three thin thieves thought a thousand thoughts. Now if three thin thieves thought a thousand thoughts how many thoughts did each thief think? Thirty thousand thoughtless thieves thought they would make a thundering noise, so the thirty thousand thumbs thumbed on the thirty thousand drums. (The teacher gets students to repeat these tongue twisters in single, pair or choir without boring them. S/he can praise students after the practice by saying: very good, well done, great job and the like.) Then, the teacher ends the lesson by giving homework.) 80 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 5. Making Summary T: Dear friends, today, we have learnt how to articulate the [θ] and [ð] sounds in English. Don‘t forget that you must practice these sounds in front of a mirror two times a day: one before the breakfast and the other after dinner. You should do this in order to see your articulatory improvement. (Then, the teacher can go back to his/her rule again and can summarize it using the same charts, figures or videos s/he used during the rule-giving section.) • • • • T: Ok! Let‘s have a brief look at our rule again. To articulate the voiceless TH sound, put the tip of your tongue between your front teeth. blow out air between your tongue and top teeth. do not use your use. to articulate voiced TH, just use your voice. That‘s all you have to do. It is a piece of cake, isn‘t it Gizem? Gizem: Yes, sir. I am more comfortable with these sounds now. I think it will be rather better after I have practiced them in front of the mirror. T: Sure! We all love you and believe that you can achieve this. 6. Giving Assignment The teacher gives students their assignments and warns them not to be negligent in doing these at home. The teacher should not forget to recollect the assignments in the following lesson for evaluation. After making necessary suggestions and correction, s/he can give them back to the students. 1. In which of the alternatives is there an articulation of the voiced TH sound? a. think b. thumb c. thus d. thud e. thistle a. ether b. bath c. cloth d. thank e. either a. that b. month c. broth d. tooth e. path 2. In which of the alternatives is there an articulation of the voiceless TH sound? a. three b. thee c. thy d. thou e. bathe a. though b. feather c. father d. these e. ether a. other b. method c. neither d. together e. gather 3. Prepare 5 tongue twisters including both voiced and unvoiced TH. 4. Write down 3 sentences with contextual clues using the sounds we have learned today. 5. Write a poem including voiced and unvoiced TH sounds. 6. Consonant sound pair: voiced [ð] and unvoiced [θ]: clothe_____ bath_____ that_____ thought_____ cloth_____ whether_____ them_____ father_____ think_____ three_____ mouthe_____ teeth_____ this_____ thorough_____ soothe_____ together_____ though_____ mouth_____ thousand _____ theater_____ breath_____ brother_____ bathe_____ those_____ wealthy_____ thread_____ weather_____ these_____ breathe_____ thumb_____ healthy_____ mouth_____ bathe_____ fourth_____ through_____ smooth_____ month_____ birth _____ 81 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo CONCLUSION The consonants [ð], named as eth, and [θ] named as theta, are among the problem causing sounds for both Turkish students and teachers in pre-service and on the job. That‘s because of the fact that Turkish language has no [θ] and [ð] sounds (although Arabic and Spanish speakers do). Therefore, students tend to replace them with [s] and [z] word-finally and [t] and [d] sounds word initially. ―The difficulty of /θ,ð/ lies not so much in their articulation, which most learners can perform correctly in isolation, as in combination with other fricatives, especially, /s/ and /z/‖ (Cruttenden, 2008: 196-197). They must be practiced with combinations of other sounds in phrases, sentences or paragraphs as done in the above exercises but not in isolation. To cure these problematic sounds, a sample lesson was prepared according to the AAM model in this paper. While applying the sample lesson plan, the teacher should adapt the activities according to the level of students. There should not be over-repetition in order not to bore students. The success of the model mostly depends on teacher‘s creativity and classroom performance. The teacher should be very active by using his/her body in class. Although some teachers and students may think that replacement of /θ,ð/ with sounds in the mother tongue can be tolerated, it is not favorable to do so. Because as teachers and learners of English, we should pave the way leading us to the correct pronunciation, since having a correct pronunciation is a sign of both professionalism and phonetic intelligence. 82 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Baker, A. 1992. Introducing English Pronunciation, A Teacher‘s Guide to Tree or Three and Ship or Sheep. Cambridge University Press, New York, the U.S.A. Baker, A. & Goldstein, S. 2008. Pronunciation Pairs, an Introduction to the Sounds of English. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press, New York, the U.S.A. Barlow, J.A. & Gierut, J.A. (2002). Minimal Pair Approaches to Phonological Remediation. Seminars in speech and language, 23 (1). Cruttenden, A. 2008. Gimson‘s Pronunciation of English. 7th Edition. Hodder Education, London, England. Dalton, D.F. (1997). Some Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol.3 Demirezen, M. (2010). ―The principles and applications of the audio-lingual pronunciation rehabilitation model in foreign language teacher education.‖ Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies. Vol. 6 - No: 2, October 2010, 127-148. Demirezen, M. (1987). Articulatory Phonetics and the Principles of Sound Production. Ankara: Yargı Publications. Demirezen, M. (May 2004). Ġngilizce‘nin peltek-d (ETH) sesbiriminin Türkler için çıkardığı sesletim sorunları ve çözümler. Journal of Arts and Sciences vol 1.: Çankaya University Hismanoglu, M. (2009). The Pronunciation of the interdental sounds of English: an articulation problem for Turkish learners of English and solutions. Procedia social sciences 1, 1697-1703. http://englishgoes.com/en/english-pronunciation-lesson-2-th/ Kelly, G. (2001). How to Teach Pronunciation. Oxfordshire: Pearson Education Limited. Ladefoged, P. (2001). Vowels and Consonants. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: (2004). The Living Dictionary. International Edition , 2004. Essex: Pearson Education Limited Longman Dictionary of American English. (2009). Pearson. Nilsen, D. L. F & Nilsen, A. P. (1973). Pronunciation Contrasts in English. Regents Publishing Company, New York, the U.S.A. www.eslgold.com/pronunciation/voiced_sound_th.html 83 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 15 Title A name given to the resource The Teaching of [θ] and [ð] Sounds in English Author Author KARAKAŞ, Ali SÖNMEZ, Ecehan Abstract A summary of the resource. Pronunciation teaching has its unique place in the curricula of most of the European countries though it has been neglected in Turkey so far. Mispronunciation of some core sounds is among the fundamental problems in the speech of both nonnative pre-service and in-service teachers in Turkey. The [θ] and [ð] sounds constitute the biggest trouble for Turks, for they do not take place in the Turkish sound system. To remedy this case, a sample lesson plan on teaching these problem causing-sounds has been developed according to the audio articulation method, which is claimed to be a fossilized pronunciation mistake breaker. It is hoped that the sample lesson plan on the [θ] and [ð] sounds will correct the pronunciation mistakes of non-native English teachers and teacher-trainees in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a933aa72e72cfcc3c0bf3b4ed17b594c.docx f56eee9ed0045fd5c216b444bf000205 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08bde4efc8ca8ad30398721787da7a3e.pdf 0ac880b73a4098e6bd7f52fb0555960c PDF Text Text The Teaching of German as a Foreign Language in Consideration with The New Reforms in Turkey Gönül Karasu & Fatma Şükran Kürkçüoğlu Anadolu University/ Eskisehir, Turkey Key words: Turkish language policy, EU language policy, multilingualism, foreign language teaching, Education ABSTRACT To develop international relationships in the fields of social, political, economic, educational and cultural, the communities are in need of people who speak a foreign language. As a result, multilingualism is an inevitable fact throughout the world. To be able to take place and compete with the developed countries, high and qualitative foreign language education in Turkey must be in the level of the developed countries. Within the framework of this understanding, the purpose of this study is to describe “Turkey's approaches to education goals towards multilingualism". First, the curriculum that the new program covers on the teaching of foreign languages through 4 + 4 + 4 compulsory education reform will be described. As is well known, after the Education Reform in 1997, the teaching of German as a foreign language kept its secondary place following English in our country. In this study, the revision and comparison of both the early 1997 reform and new 2012 reform will be presented and discussed. Students begin learning a foreign language at an early age in accordance with the law published in March 30, 2012 in the Official Gazette No. 6315 27728. Although this new regulation in “primary education and training” law builds an important ground for the teaching of foreign languages, it hinders the teaching of German as foreign language for it is placed among many selective courses. This research aims at finding the place of German as a foreign language in the national education in Turkey through legal supports and its structural arrangements. In addition to the qualitative and quantitative applications from the Ministry of National Education, scientific research on the issue is also be benefited to depict the current case. On account of the fact that 2012 education reform has been so recent, this research will only focus on the schools of `Eskişehir` in understanding the situation of German language teaching. What kind of precautions and requirements are needed in increasing the interest in German courses will specifically be discussed and described. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1806 Title A name given to the resource The Teaching of German as a Foreign Language in Consideration with The New Reforms in Turkey Author Author KARASU, Gönül KURKCUOGLU, Fatma Şükran Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Intercultural Comminication ABSTRACT In recent Key words: Turkish language policy, EU language policy, multilingualism, foreign language teaching, Education ABSTRACT To develop international relationships in the fields of social, political, economic, educational and cultural, the communities are in need of people who speak a foreign language. As a result, multilingualism is an inevitable fact throughout the world. To be able to take place and compete with the developed countries, high and qualitative foreign language education in Turkey must be in the level of the developed countries. Within the framework of this understanding, the purpose of this study is to describe “Turkey's approaches to education goals towards multilingualism". First, the curriculum that the new program covers on the teaching of foreign languages through 4 + 4 + 4 compulsory education reform will be described. As is well known, after the Education Reform in 1997, the teaching of German as a foreign language kept its secondary place following English in our country. In this study, the revision and comparison of both the early 1997 reform and new 2012 reform will be presented and discussed. Students begin learning a foreign language at an early age in accordance with the law published in March 30, 2012 in the Official Gazette No. 6315 27728. Although this new regulation in “primary education and training” law builds an important ground for the teaching of foreign languages, it hinders the teaching of German as foreign language for it is placed among many selective courses. This research aims at finding the place of German as a foreign language in the national education in Turkey through legal supports and its structural arrangements. In addition to the qualitative and quantitative applications from the Ministry of National Education, scientific research on the issue is also be benefited to depict the current case. On account of the fact that 2012 education reform has been so recent, this research will only focus on the schools of `Eskişehir` in understanding the situation of German language teaching. What kind of precautions and requirements are needed in increasing the interest in German courses will specifically be discussed and described.years, with the development of technology and transportation facilities people of different languages and cultures communicate with each other more and more because of such reasons education, trade, tourism, etc. Nowadays, national borders lose its significance. An event anywhere in the world can affect the lives of people who live in the other parts of the world. According to Marshall McLuhan, the world turned to a global village. To know foreign languages has become a necessity to keep pace with the developments and changes in the world. As a parallel to this situation, the methods developed for the teaching of a foreign language have increasingly diversified. For language teaching, it is not enough to teach specific words and grammar structures. In order to use a language in a competent manner, the language of the dominant culture is also required. A behavior adopted as appropriate in a culture may not be considered appropriate in another culture in accordance with the behavior of a culture, customs, traditions, social experiences, belief systems, etc. Non-verbal communication behavior does not express the same meaning in all cultures. Language learners should have cultural awareness and ability to deal with different cultures. With these needs of foreign language teaching, the concept of intercultural competence came to the fore. Intercultural competence is ability to communicate effectively among individuals from different cultures. These individuals can learn about different cultures and accept them while gaining awareness of their own culture. The approach of intercultural competence in foreign language teaching aims to get language learners’ curiosity towards the target culture, to understand the others by emphasizing and to tolerate the differences. This situation avoids misunderstandings and conflicts due to the features of different cultures. For effective communication of people learning a foreign language, intercultural competence is of great importance. In this study, on the basis of the importance of foreign language teaching intercultural competence, the proficiency of the students who learns Turkish as a foreign language in Gazi University TÖMER is tried to be determined. In the survey, some questions are directed to students about Turkish culture and the links between their own culture and Turkish culture as a target culture have been tried to determine. For the interpretation of the questionnaires, Milton Bennet’s Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity is used as a sample. In this study, the concepts of intercultural competence have been introduced and the importance of cross-cultural competence, cultural interaction in teaching Turkish as a foreign language is discussed. It is stated that it is necessary to promote the acquisition of intercultural competence in foreign language teaching. In recent years, the number of people who want to learn Turkish as a foreign language has been increased and thus, the studies in the field of teaching Turkish as a foreign language are speeding up. In this study, it is tried to make a contribution to the studies conducted in this area. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0a2579c0e669b4c8925245155b57819c.pdf 400faf19bb39049b6feb94dadcce7c4b PDF Text Text INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE IN PARADISE LOST GRADUATE PROJECT by Nedžad Gudić Project Supervisor Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat Akbarov SARAJEVO April, 2011 �THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE IN PARADISE LOST Nedžad Gudić MA, English Literature, 2011 Submitted to the Graduate Study Unit in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English Literature INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY APRIL, 2011 �1 APPROVAL PAGE Student : Nedžad Gudić Faculty : Faculty of Education Department : English Language and Literature Thesis Subject : The Theme of Freedom and Independence in Paradise Lost Date of Defense : I certify that this final work satisfies all the requirements as a graduate project for the degree of Master of Arts. Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat Akbarov Head of Department This is to certify that I have read this final work and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a graduate project for the degree of Master of Arts. Assist. Prof. Dr. Shahab Yar Khan Supervisor Examining Committee Members Assoc. Prof. Dr. International Burch University …………... Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sarajevo University …………... Assist. Prof. Dr. International Burch University …………... It is approved that this final work has been written in compliance with the formatting rules laid down by the Graduate Study Unit. Assist. Prof. Dr. Head of Graduate Study Unit �THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE IN PARADISE LOST 1 Abstract In the Paradise Lost, John Milton tried to explain how evil is seductive. It is one of the reasons why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II. And what makes Satan so heroic is not the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his magnificence comes from the inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one reading these speeches can miss their power and eloquence. It is no accident that when Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British people after the military disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing in English literature to match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy manifested here and throughout Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately energized.At very end Paradise Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political treatise, a poetic explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken. Key words: John Milton, Independence, Freedom, Evil �Acknowledgements There are many people who helped to make my years at the graduate school most valuable. First of all, I thank to almighty God, my major professor and supervisor. I also thank to Asst.Prof.Dr.Shahab Yar Khan who contributed much to the development of this research starting from the early stages of my graduate project. Asst.Prof.Dr. Shahab Yar Khan provided valuable contributions to this Graduate project and I thank him for his insightful suggestions and expertise. Many thanks to Department computer staff, who patiently answered my questions and problems on word processing. I would also like to thank to my graduate student colleagues who helped me all through the years full of class work and exams. My special thanks go to Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat Akbarov whose friendship I deeply value. The last words of thanks go to my family. I thank my parents Ibrahim, Suada and my brother Fedža for their patience and encouragement. Lastly I thank Amra Gekić for her endless support through this long journey. �To my family, friends and girlfriend �Table of Contents 1. ....................................................................................................................... Abstrac t..................................................................................................................................... ii 2. ....................................................................................................................... Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ iii 3. ....................................................................................................................... 1. Inroduction ........................................................................................................... 1 2. Epic ....................................................................................................................... 5 4. ................................................................................................................ 2.1 What is an epic ? ......................................................................................................... 5 5. ................................................................................................................ 2.2 The Paradise Lost as an epic and Homer's and Virgil infulence on Milton…7 3. The Theme of Freedom and Idenpendence in Paradise Lost ......................... 11 3.1 The significian of English Puritanism ........................................................11 3.2. Civil war in England and Milton's part in it .......................................... 16 3.3. The Theme of Fredoom and Indenpence in Paradise Lost....................17 4. The role of Adam, Eve and the Son of God in the Paradise Lost...................25 4.1 The importance of Obedience to God ........................................................... 25 4.2 The role of Archangels loyal to God ...................................................... 28 4.3. Satan's followers and idea of ―Happy fall‖ .........................................30 �5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 33 References ................................................................................................................. 35 Curriculum Vitae ..................................................................................................... 36 �Chapter 1 Introduction One of the greatest poets of the English language, best-known for his epic poem PARADISE LOST. Milton's powerful, rhetoric prose and the eloquence of his poetry had an immense influence especially on the 18th-century verse. Besides poems, Milton published pamphlets defending civil and religious rights. John Milton was born on december 9, 1608, in London. His mother, Sarah Jeffrey, a very religious person, was the daughter of a merchant sailor. Milton's father, also named John, had risen to prosperity as a law writer - he also composed music. The family was wealthy enough to afford a second house in the country. Milton's first teachers were his father, from whom he inherited love for art and music, and the writer Thomas Young, a graduate of St Andrews University. His father had left Roman Catholicism and Milton was raised Protestant, with a heavy tendency toward Puritanism. As a student, he wanted to go into the ministry, but was disillusioned with the scholastic elements of the clergy at Cambridge. Cambridge, however, afforded him time to write poetry. After Milton’s graduation, he did not consider the ministry. Instead, he began a six-year stay at his father’s recently purchased country estate of Horton with the stated intention of becoming a poet. Milton made his move to Horton, a village of about 300 people, in 1632, saying that God had called him to be a poet. One of his first great works, Comus, a Masque, was written around this time. In 1637, Milton’s mother died, �possibly of the plague. That same year, one of his Cambridge friends, Edward King, a young minister, was drowned in a boating accident. Classmates at Cambridge decided to create a memorial volume of poetry for their dead friend. Milton’s poem, untitled in the volume but later called Lycidas, was the final poem, possibly because the editors recognized it as the artistic climax of the volume. Whatever the reasoning, the poem, signed simply J. M., has become one of the most recognized elegiac poems in English. Milton toured the European continent in 1638-1639 and met many of the great Renaissance minds, including Galileo and Grotius. The beginning of the Puritan Revolution found Milton back in England, fighting for a more humanist and reformed church. For more than twenty years, Milton set aside poetry to write political and religious pamphlets for the cause of Puritanism. At this time, Milton began writing prose pamphlets on current church controversies. The political climate was charged as Charles I invaded Scotland, and the Long Parliament was convened. Milton wrote pamphlets entitled Of Reformation, Of Prelatical Episcopacy, and Animadversions in 1641, and The Reason for Church Government in 1642. For the young poet, the Puritan aspect of his work, at least in the public eye, began to take precedence over his poetry. Milton more and more sided with the idea that the church needed ―purification‖ and that that sort of reform could not come from a church so closely connected to the king. In 1642, the Civil War began, and its effects touched Milton directly. That same year, he married Mary Powell, daughter of a Royalist family from Oxford. A month after the marriage, Mary returned to Oxford to live with her family. The precise reasons for her leaving Milton are not known. Personal problems, political differences, or simple safety (Oxford was the headquarters for the Royalist army) may have motivated her. Milton’s brother, Christopher, also announced as a Royalist at about this same time.Whatever the reason for Mary Powell’s desertion of Milton, he published the pamphlet On the Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce in 1643, followed by On Education and Areopagitica in 1644. Each of these works centered on the need for individual liberty. The ideas that Milton expressed in these writings are commonplace values today, but in the 1640s, they were so radical that Milton acquired the nickname, ―Milton the divorcer.‖Around 1645, Mary Powell returned to Milton. Once again, the reasons for her return are unclear. Charles I had lost the Battle of Naseby and any hope for military victory. �The Powell family, avowed Royalists, were now in danger. They were ejected from their home in Oxford as Charles’ power waned. Within a year of Mary’s return to Milton, her entire family had moved in with the couple.With the return of Mary and the arrival of her family, Milton was suddenly the head of a large household. His first collection of poetry, entitled Poems, was published in 1646. The volume included Lycidas, Comus, and ―On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity.‖ In July, seven months after Poems was published, Milton’s first daughter, Anne, was born. The marriage that had begun inauspiciously now seemed, if not perfect, at least sound. Shortly after the reunion of Milton with his wife and the birth of his first child, both his father-in-law, Richard Powell, and his own father died. Milton was left with a moderate estate. He complained at this point that he was surrounded by ―uncongenial people,‖ a problem that was resolved a few months later when all the Powell relatives moved back to Oxford. Milton and his wife and daughter then moved into a smaller house in High Holborn. For the first time, the couple had a reasonably normal life and family. In 1648, a second daughter, Mary, was born. The year 1649 marked a decisive change in Milton’s life. Charles I was executed, with Milton probably in attendance. The murder of a king was shocking to the people of a country that had always lived under a monarchy and for whom the king had an aura of divinity. Milton attempted to justify the situation with his Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. This pamphlet, along with Milton’s other work for the Puritans, resulted in his being offered the position of Secretary for the Foreign Tongues. For a time, he served as Secretary for Foreign Tongues under Cromwell. Milton now assumed full-time political office, corresponding with heads of states or their secretaries in Latin, the lingua franca of the day. Among other duties, he also responded to political attacks on the new Cromwellian government, particularly those attacking the philosophy and morality behind the violent overthrow of the monarchy. Milton was a "passionate fighter" (Šentija, 1979) for freedom of press and mixed product of his time. On the one hand, as a humanist, he fought for religious tolerance and believed that there was something inherently valuable in man. As a Puritan, however, he believed that the Bible was �the answer and the guide to all, even if it went against democracy itself. Where the Bible didn't afford an answer, Milton would turn to reason. John Milton ( 1608-1674) Milton himself was married three times, all of which were rather unhappy affairs. He defended divorce in "The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce" in 1643. With this and other treatises, Milton often came in conflict with the Puritanism he advocated. At the end of the war, Milton was imprisoned for a short time for his views. In 1660, he emerged blind and disillusioned with the England he saw around him. Nevertheless, he was yet to write his greatest work. Paradise Lost was published in 1667, followed by Paradise Regained in 1671. Milton's ability to combine his poetry with his polemics in these and other works, was the key to his genius. The classical influences in his work can be clearly delineated: Homer, Ovid, but especially Virgil. Shakespeare was the leading playwright of his day, and there are some references to his works in Milton's own poetry. The style and structure of the Spencer's "The Faerie Queen," was another influence on Paradise lost.. Milton died from "gout" in 1674 and was buried in the Church of St. Giles in London. �2 Chapter 2 3 Epic �2.1 What is an epic? An epic in its most specific sense is a genre of classical poetry originating in Greece. The conventions of this genre are several: (a) It is a long narrative about a serious or worthy traditional subject. (b) Its diction in elevated in style. It employs a formal, dignified, objective tone and many figures of speech. (c) The narrative focused on the exploits of a hero or demigod who represents the cultural values of a race, nation, or religious group. (d) The hero's success or failure will determine the fate of that people or nation. (e) The action takes place in a vast setting, and covers a wide geographic area. The setting is frequently some time in the remote past. (f) The action contains superhuman feats of strength or military prowess. (g) Gods or supernatural beings frequently take part in the action to affect the outcome. (h) The poem begins with the invocation of a muse to inspire the poet, a prayer to an appropriate supernatural being. The speaker asks that this being provide him the suitable emotion, creativity, or words to finish the poem. (i) The narrative starts in medias res, in the middle of the action. Subsequently, the earlier events leading up to the start of the poem will be recounted in the characters' narratives or in flashbacks. (j) The epic contains long catalogs of heroes or important characters, focusing on highborn kings and great warriors rather than peasants and commoners. (k) The epic employs extended similes (called epic similes) at appropriate spots ofthe story, and a traditional scene of extended description in which the hero arms himself. A long narrative Poem in elevated Style, presenting characters of high position in a series of adventures which form an organic whole through their relation to a central figure of heroic proportions and through their development of Episode important to the history of a nation or �race. According to one theory, the first epics took shape from the scattered work of various unknown poets, and through accretion these early Episodes were gradually molded into a unified whole and an ordered sequence.Though held vigorously by some, this theory has generally given place to one which holds that the materials of the epic may have accumulated in this fashion but that the epic poem itself is the product of a single genius who gives it structure and expression. Epics without certain authorship are called Folk epics, whether the scholar believes in a folk or a single authorship theory of origins, however. Epics, both Folk and Art epics, share a group of common characteristics:  the hero is a figure of imposing stature, of national or international importance, and of great historical or legendary significance;  the setting is vast in scope, covering great nations, the world, or the universe;  the action consists of deeds of great valor or requiring superhuman courage; supernatural forces—gods, angels, and demons--interest themselves in the action and intervene from time to time;  a style of sustained elevation and grand simplicity is used; and the epic poet recounts the deeds of his heroes with objectivity. Some of the most well known, and most important, works of literature in the world are examples of epic poetry. These heroic adventure tales have often had surprising durability over time, such as Homer's story of love and heroism, The Illiad, which continues its life in the modern film Troy. Also Milton's Paradise Lost is called an epic of Christian culture. Epic poems are more than simply a lengthy story told in poetic form, and their ability to remain accessible, relevant, and remembered over time owes a significant debt to their roots in an oral tradition and to their cyclical pattern of events. �The term applies most directly to classical Greek texts like the Iliad and the Odyssey but it is clear that Roman authors like Virgil intentionally imitate the genre in works like the Aeneid.However, some critics have applied the term more loosely. The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf has also been called an epic of Anglo-Saxon culture, Milton's Paradise Lost is called an epic of Christian culture, El Cid is an epic of Spanish culture, Longfellow's Hiawatha is an epic of American culture, and Shakespeare's various History Plays have been collectively called an epic of Renaissance Britain. Contrast with the mock epics of Alexander Pope and later Enlightenment writers to see its influence in humorous form. 2.2 The paradise lost as an epic and Homer′s and Virgil influence on Milton: Professor Khan wrote in his book From Renaissance To Classicism "an epic is a long narrative, adventutous poem. With its embellished, hyperbolic, bombastic language it deals with the conflict between good and evil. The subject of en epic is normally ancient and nacional, having its roots in history and legend. Milton′s subject is also ancient, more ancient �than any other epic- poet. Homer and Virgil and other epic –poets have taken their subjects from the history and legend of their country. Milton, on the contrary, has taken his subject from scriptures. His theme belongs to a time before the nations were born. He deals with the history of man kind itself. He deals with creation of the universe and fall of Man, a subject of interest not to any one nation, but to all man kind. Its action moves from heaven to hell and from hell to heaven through chaos in which lies the newly created world of man. It concerns itself with the fortunes, not of a city or an empire, but of the whole human race and with that particular event in the history of the race which has moulded all its destinies. This epic is the history of Heaven and Earth and Hell". (Khan, 2006) Paradise Lost is written in blank verse. A long poem constructed throughout in iambic pentametre(each line consisting of five feet and ten syllables, the accent being on the second syllable), would be infinitely wearisome; and hence Milton introduced endless variation, such as trochees and spondees, in metre. Following the invocation and prologue, Milton continues in the epic style by beginning in medias res, in the middle of things. Satan is first seen lying in the pit of Hell. That a great religious epic focuses on Satan, presents him first, and in many ways makes him the hero of the poem is certainly surprising and something of a risk on Milton’s part. Milton does not want his audience to empathize with Satan, yet Satan is an attractive character, struggling against great odds. Of course, Milton’s original audience more than his modern one would have been cognizant of the ironies involved in Satan’s struggles and his comments concerning power. The power that Satan asserts and thinks he has is illusory. His power to act derives only from God, and his struggle against God has already been lost. To the modern audience, Satan may seem heroic as he struggles to make a Heaven of Hell, but the original audience knew, and Milton’s lines confirm, that Satan’s war with God had been lost absolutely before �the poem begins. God grants Satan and the other devils the power to act for God’s purposes, not theirs. "The catalogue of demons that follows Satan’s escape from the burning lake follows an epic pattern of listing heroes—although here the list is of villains. This particular catalogue seems almost an intentional parody of Homer’s catalogue of Greek ships and heroes in Book II of the Iliad" (Lewis, 1961). The catalogue is a means for Milton to list many of the fallen angels as well as a way to account for many of the gods in pagan religions—they were originally among the angels who rebelled from God. Consequently, among these fallen angels are names such as Isis, Osiris, Baal, and others that the reader associates not with Christianity but with some ancient, pagan belief. Of the devils listed, the two most important are Beelzebub and Belial. The council of demons that begins Book II recalls the many assemblies of heroes in both the Iliad and the Aeneid. Further the debates also seem based on the many meetings that Milton attended in his various official capacities. In his speech, each devil reveals both the characteristics of his personality and the type of evil he represents. For example, Moloch, the first to speak, is the unthinking man of action. Like Diomedes in the Iliad, he is not adept in speech, but he does know how to fight. He is for continued war and unconcerned about the consequences. But, moreover, the attitude toward violence exhibited by Moloch reveals a particular type of evil. In the Inferno, Dante had divided evils into three broad categories: sins of appetite, sins of will, and sins of reason. In the Renaissance, these categories still dominated much thought concerning the nature of evil. In Moloch, the reader sees a straightforward example of the evil that comes from the will. Unthinking violence is the result of lack of control of the will. And for Moloch, the ―furious king‖ (VI, 357), violence defines his character. In Book VI, Milton presents his description of epic warfare. He follows many of the conventions of the great classic epics, such as the Iliad and the Aeneid, by giving graphic descriptions of battles and wounds, highlighting the boasting give and take in individual battles, and developing massive scenes of chaotic violence. However, Milton goes beyond his classical models and, in a sense, mocks the nature of the warfare he describes. The reasons that lie behind this sense of mockery in Book VI have been frequently discussed and disputed �by critics and commentators. The general sense of those who see a kind of mocking humor in the battle scenes is that Milton was dealing with two difficulties. First, the combat in Heaven is between combatants who cannot be killed, and second, there is no doubt as to the outcome of the battle. In relating his warfare metaphor, Raphael, either wittingly or unwittingly, creates the feel of a mock-epic rather than true dramatic epic. The individual encounters have a cartoonish aspect about them. Abdiel, whose heroism in standing up to Satan receives deserved praise from God, first confronts Satan and knocks him backwards. Next, Michael splits him down the middle. In the Iliad, such a wound would be the end of the warrior. But, in Paradise Lost, Satan cannot be killed so the wound, like wounds in cartoons, heals. In the prologue to Book IX, Milton says that his work must now take a tragic tone and that this Christian epic, though different, is nonetheless more heroic than earlier epics like the Iliad and the Aeneid. Again, he calls on Urania as the muse of Christian inspiration to help him complete his work and show the true heroism that lies in the Christian idea of sacrifice. Then Milton returns to his story. Yet for all of these connections to tragedy, Paradise Lost is not a tragedy; it is a Christian epic with a tragic core. Adam is a noble hero, but as Milton notes in this prologue, he is not a hero like Achilles, Aeneas, or Odysseus. Satan continue his intention to struggle against God, saying, ―Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven‖ (263). Homer's Odysseus says that when he interviewed Achilles in the underworld, Achilles expressed an attitude opposite to Satan's: "I would rather be a paid servant in a poor man's house and be above ground than king of kings among the dead" (Odyssey, 11.363-65). "Paradise lost is a classical epic, having all the common features of the Homer and Virgil. It is a long narrative poem in XII books, with grandeur and majesty of the classical epic, it is unity of themeand treatment of every episode lead to the the central theme-"the fall of man" and "the lose of paradise". Alongwith wars and heroic exploits there is supernatural-God and his angles, and Satan and his followers. There are only two human characteres, Adam and Eve. �In fact, unlike a classical epic which deals with a subject of nacional importance, with the war- like exploits of some hero of nacional stature, the theme of Milton′ s epic is vaster and of a more universal human intrest. It concerns itself with the fortunes, not of a city or an empire, but of the whole human race, and with that particular event in the history of the race which has moduled all its destenies. Around this event, the plucking of an apple, are rage, according to the strictese rules of the ancient epic, the histories of Heaven and Earth and Hell. The scene of action is Universal Space. The time represented is eternity. The characters are God and all his creatures. And all these are exsibited in the clearest and most inevitable relation with the man and his destiny." Besides the allusions to classical literature and mythology, to Biblical tradition, and to the contemporary litertures of europe, Milton has introduced his humanist version of the fall of man in his greates work. Every critic admits that Paradise Lost is the biggest epic of English poetry and falls into the category of the biggest poet achievments in the world. In the end, Milton chose not to copy Homer and Virgil, but to create a Christian epic. His creation is still a work of great magnitude in an elevated style. Milton chose not to write in hexameters or in rhyme because of the natural limitations of English. Instead he wrote in unrhymed iambic pentameter, or blank verse, the most natural of poetic techniques in English. He also chose a new kind of heroism to magnify and ultimately created a new sort of epic—a Christian epic that focuses not on the military actions that create a nation but on the moral actions that create a world. �5 4 Chapter 3 The Theme of Freedom and Idenpendence in Paradise Lost 3.1 The Significance of English Puritansim Puritanism seems to have risen out of discontent with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which was felt by the more radical Protestants to be giving in to "Popery" (i.e., the Roman Catholic Church). While Protestant movements in Europe were driven by issues of theology and had broken radically with Catholic models of church organization, the English Reformation had brought the Church under control of the monarchy while leaving many of its religious practices intact. In the eyes of the Puritans, doctrine had been made unacceptably subservient to politics. Persecuted under Mary I of England ("Bloody Mary"), Protestants like Thomas Cartwright, Walter Travers, and Andrew Melville had gone into exile as Puritans in Europe, where they came into close contact with the magisterial reformers in Calvinist Geneva and Lutheran Germany. These contacts shaped their position towards Elizabeth's religious via media (middle way). Although all influenced by Calvinism, Puritans were not united on every issue. This reflects the origins of the movement, which developed through several phases. They shared a belief that all existing churches had become corrupted by practice, by contact with pagan civilizations (particularly that of Rome), and by the impositions of kings and popes. They all argued for a restructuring and "purifying" of church practice through biblical supremacy and shared, to one degree or another, a belief in the priesthood of all believers. However, they differed from one another on issues of church polity (organization of church power). By the 1570s, Puritans were arguing for a Presbyterian model or a Congregationalist model, but all were outspoken in their criticism of the structure and liturgy that the monarchy required. Attempts by the bishops of the Church of England to enforce uniformity of usage in the Book of Common Prayer turned the episcopal hierarchy into a specific target of their �grievances. Tracts such as the Martin Marprelate series lampooned the government and the church hierarchs. "These radicals were looked down on by the dominant faction in the Church of England and were given the name "Puritan", in mockery of the radicals' apparent obsession with "purifying the Church" (Morton, 1955) Contemporarily with the English Reformation, the Church of Scotland had been reformed on a Calvinist Presbyterian model which many Puritans hoped to extend to England. When James VI of Scotland became James I of England, he appointed several known Puritans to powerful positions within the Church of England and checked the rise in power of William Laud. Nevertheless, he was not a Puritan and regarded them with great suspicion, viewing the Puritan movement as potentially dangerous to the royal control of the Church. He authorized the King James Bible in part to reinforce Anglican orthodoxy against the Geneva Bible. Popular among Puritans, the Geneva Bible had anti-royalist translations and interpolated revolutionary notes. Luther had called for vernacular Bible translations and church services; for the Puritans, who believed in biblical supremacy, having an English-language Bible was of paramount importance. Each new round of political disappointments during this period faced each individual Puritan and the Puritan congregations with a new crisis. The question was whether they should continue in outward conformity with a distasteful religious regime, or should they take the separatist and illegal step of withdrawal from the state church? Each fresh controversy led to a new round of schisms, and, as such, the groundwork was set for the eventual heirs of Puritanism, from the "low-church" Protestant and Evangelical wing of the Church of England, to the various dissenting sects. 1625 to 1660 During the reign of Charles I, a committed High Churchman, relations soured and it is generally held among historians that religious tensions created by the dominance of the �Laudian faction during the Personal Rule were a major factor in the outbreak of the English Civil War. Puritans certainly agitated against the king, and reform of the religion was a rallying cry for the Parliamentary forces. However, Puritanism by this point had become not merely a religion, but a cultural entity. "By this time, Puritans were more often referred to as Dissenters. Since English Dissenters were barred from any profession that required official religious conformity, Puritans became instrumental in a number of new industries. They dominated the export/import business and were eager to colonize the New World. With the flourishing of the trans-Atlantic trade with America, Puritans in England were growing quite wealthy. Similarly, the artisan classes had become increasingly Puritan. Therefore, the economic issues of the English Civil War (tax levies, liberalization of royal charters), the political issues of the English Civil War (purchasing of peerages, increasing discontent between the House of Lords and the people, rebellion over the attempt to introduce a Divine right of kings to Charles I), and the religious tensions were all bound together into a general dispute that pitted Church of England Cavaliers against Puritan Roundheads" ( Morton, 1955). Puritan factions played a key role in the Parliamentarian victory and became a majority in Parliament, while Puritan military leader Oliver Cromwell became head of the English Commonwealth. In the Commonwealth period, the Church of England was removed from royal control and reorganized to grant greater authority to local congregations, most of which developed in a Puritan and semi-Calvinist direction. There was never an official Puritan denomination; the Commonwealth government tolerated a somewhat broader debate on doctrinal issues than had previously been possible, and considerable theological and political conflict between Puritan factions continued throughout this period. The label "Puritan" fell out of use when their movement became the status quo; it was replaced by the broader term Nonconformist, which was used after the English Restoration to refer to all Protestant denominations outside of the official Church. The pejorative name "Dissenter"3 (for nonConforming Protestants, as opposed to Catholics) was also used. �Many Puritans immigrated to North America in the 1620-1640s because they believed that the Church of England was beyond reform. However, most Puritans in both England and New England were non-separatists. They continued to profess their allegiance to the Church of England despite their dissent from Church leadership and practices. Emigration resumed under the rule of Cromwell, but not in large numbers as there was no longer any need to "escape persecution" in England. In fact, many Puritans returned to England during the war. From 1660 to present day The influence of the Puritan movement persisted in England in various forms. All official discrimination against Puritans in England ended in the 1640s when Puritan forces under Oliver Cromwell overthrew the monarchy in the English Civil War. With the Restoration of the monarchy in the 1660s the Church of England attempted to re-assert its authority as the official English church. However, respect for the Puritan Church's separatism and freedom of conscience won by them and other English Dissenters under Cromwell, continued despite the Restoration and the 1662 Act of Uniformity. The central tenet of Puritanism was God's supreme authority over human affairs, particularly in the church, and especially as expressed in the Bible. This view led them to seek both individual and corporate conformance to the teaching of the Bible, and it led them to pursue both moral purity down to the smallest detail as well as ecclesiastical purity to the highest level. On the individual level, the Puritans emphasized that each person should be continually reformed by the grace of God to fight against indwelling sin and do what is right before God. A humble and obedient life would arise for every Christian. �Like the early church fathers, they eliminated the use of musical instruments in their worship services, for various theological and practical reasons. Outside of church, however, Puritans were quite fond of music and encouraged it in certain ways. Another important distinction was the Puritan approach to church-state relations. They opposed the Anglican idea of the supremacy of the monarch in the church (Erastianism), and, following Calvin, they argued that the only head of the Church in heaven or earth is Christ (not the Pope or Archbishop of Canterbury). However, they believed that secular governors are accountable to God (not through the church, but alongside it) to protect and reward virtue, including "true religion", and to punish wrongdoers — a policy that is best described as noninterference rather than separation of church and state. The separating Congregationalists, a segment of the Puritan movement more radical than the Anglican Puritans, believed the Divine Right of Kings was heresy, a belief that became more pronounced during the reign of Charles I of England. Other notable beliefs include:  An emphasis on private study of the Bible  A desire to see education and enlightenment for the masses (especially so they could read the Bible for themselves)  The priesthood of all believers  Perception of the Pope as an Antichrist  Simplicity in worship, the exclusion of vestments, images, candles, etc.  Did not celebrate traditional holidays that they believed to be in violation of the regulative principle of worship.  Believed the Sabbath was still obligatory for Christians. � Some approved of the church hierarchy, but others sought to reform the episcopal churches on the presbyterian model. Some separatist Puritans were presbyterian, but most were congregationalists. In addition to promoting lay education, it was important to the Puritans to have knowledgeable, educated pastors, who could read the Bible in its original Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic, as well as ancient and modern church tradition and scholarly works, which were most commonly written in Latin, and so most of their divines undertook rigorous studies at the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge before seeking ordination. Diversions for the educated included discussing the Bible and its practical applications as well as reading the classics such as Cicero, Virgil, and Ovid. They also encouraged the composition of poetry that was of a religious nature, though they eschewed religious-erotic poetry except for the Song of Solomon, which they considered magnificent poetry, without error, regulative for their sexual pleasure, and, especially, as an allegory of Christ and the Church. In modern usage, the word puritan is often used as an informal pejorative for someone who has strict views on sexual morality, disapproves of recreation, and wishes to impose these beliefs on others. None of these qualities were unique to Puritanism or universally characteristic of the Puritans themselves, whose moral views and ascetic tendencies were no more extreme than many other Protestant reformers of their time, and who were relatively tolerant of other faiths — at least in England. The popular image is slightly more accurate as a description of Puritans in colonial America, who were among the most radical Puritans and whose social experiment took the form of a Calvinist theocracy. 3.2 Civil war in England and Milton′s part in it John Milton was one of the great poets of England whose life spanned the most turbulent period of English history. His youth was spent in the dissolving reign of Charles I who desperately held on to his power by dissolving Parliament. This foolishness could only last so �long, and civil war broke out in 1642. This war would elevate an intensely religious and unboundedly ambitious, charismatic, and the man named Oliver Cromwell to the height of power; in 1649, after overthrowing the monarchy and taking over England, Cromwell executed Charles I and thus ushered in a new state which he called the Commonwealth and Protectorate that was, nominally, Puritan. H e was such capable military officer that he became a high ranking general and great inspiration for his society.Cromwell nominally subscribed to Calvin's principles of civil government, in which the best form of government is either an aristocracy (rule by the best) or a combination of aristocracy and democracy (rule by the people)&emdash;the latter would become the basis of American government. Cromwell, however, wanted to be king and ruled harshly, calling himself "Protector of England" and setting up in effect a military government. When Cromwell died in 1658, his son, Richard, tried to lift the reigns of power and succeed his father as Protector, but did not have his father's iron heart or charisma. In 1660, Charles II, the son of Charles I, was recalled from France and put on the throne of England. By then, however, the English Parliament had gotten used to the power it had gained during the Protectorate, and Charles II and later his son, James II, would see their power gradually erode away and gather around the English Parliament.Concerned with the Puritan cause, Milton wrote a series of pamphlets against episcopacy (1642), on divorce (1643), in defense of the liberty of the press (1644), and in support of the regicides (1649). He also served as the secretary for foreign languages in Cromwell's government. After the death of Charles I, Milton published The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649) supporting the view that the people had the right to depose and punish tyrants.In 1651 Milton became blind, but like Jorge Luis Borges is our century, blindness helped to stimulate his verbal richness. "He sacrificed his sight, and then he remembered his first desire, that of being a poet." (Breda, 1973) After the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, he was arrested as a noted defender of the Commonwealth, but was soon released. Besides public burning of Eikonklastes and the first Defensio in Paris and Toulouse, Milton escaped from more punishment after Restoration, but he became a relatively poor man. In the 1660s Milton moved with his third wife to what is now Burnhill Row. He spent there the remaining years of �his life, apart from a brief visit to Chalfont St Giles in 1665, to avoid the plague. His late poems were dictated to his daughter, nephews, friends, disciples, and paid amanuenses. The causes of this turbulent, violent century can be easily summed up with a religious question and a political question: a.) how far should the reformation be taken in the Protestant church? and b.) how much authority should a king have? As the century progressed and more and more blood was spilled in England, a.) the answer to the first question was, "as far as any group wishes to take it," in other words, religious tolerance and freedom for all Protestant sects, and b.) the answer to the second was, "the king should have no authority." 3.3 The Theme of Freedom and Independence in Paradise Lost Milton meditated many subjects, from both British and biblical history, before he finally decided on the Fall as the theme for his great epic. In the begining there existed according to Milton God and Chaos. God is: "Thee Father first they sung Omnipotent, Immutable, Immortal, Infinite, Eternal King; thee Author of all being, Fountain of Light, thy self invisible" (Book III, 372-375) And Chaos is: "In the wide womb of uncreated night"(Book II, 150) "Eternal Anarchie, amidst the noise"(Book II, 896) "The secrets of the hoarie deep, a dark Illimitable Ocean without bound, Without dimension, where length, breadth, & highth"(Book II, 892-894) and where " Thir embryon Atoms; they around the flag" and where Chance governs all. Into this wilde Abyss. �"To the discription of chaos is devoted much of the Book II;from this description we realise that Chaos is "uncreated night" and "Eternal Anarchie", whereas God created order and light. But if the chaos is God′s opposer, he is still "His dark materials to create more Worlds"(II916)it is to say his primaray matter from which he create." (Puhalo, 1966) Why did war in the Haven begin in the first place? In the book V Raphael says that the rebellion began when God presented his newly ―begotten‖ Son to the angels as their new ruler. Many commentators have been troubled by Milton’s use of the word ―begotten‖ since it suggests that the Son was ―born‖ to God and thus denies the doctrine of the Trinity. However, Milton also uses the term ―anointed‖ as a synonym for ―begotten,‖ and so the generally accepted meaning for the passage is that the Son is now begotten or anointed as the Messiah or King of Heaven to rule over the angels.The rest of Raphael’s description of the rebellion gives the lie to Satan’s description of the rebellion in Book I. Satan was not heroic in his opposition to God; instead he sneaked away in the night. Further, he convinced other angels to follow him with sophistic arguments and the magnificence of his appearance in Heaven. The real hero of the last part of Book V is Abdiel who follows his own beliefs and challenges Satan in front of all the Devils’ hosts. Abdiel cannot be swayed by Satan’s arguments and taunts and heroically deserts Satan. Abdiel is the only one of Satan’s hosts who has the fortitude and moral character to oppose the mighty archangel. Milton here gives the reader a direct contrast between pomp without substance (Satan) and substance without pomp (Abdiel).The battle lasts two days. On the first day, the angels easily beat the rebellious angels back; on the second day, under the assault of a cannon that the demons have built, the angels’ victory is not so easy. In response to the cannon fire, the Heavenly hosts grab mountains, hills, and boulders and pelt the rebels, literally burying them and their cannon. The rebels dig out and begin to respond in kind, and the air is soon filled with the landscape. At this point, God, fearing for the physical safety of Heaven (he knows that Satan is no real threat to his power, but the rebels are literally uprooting the landscape), calls forth the Son, who attacks the rebels single-handedly in his chariot and �easily herds them into a gap that opens into Hell. Afraid to go forward or back, the rebels are eventually forced through the gap into Hell.Raphael concludes his narrative and tells Adam that Satan now envies Man’s position and will try to tempt the two humans into disobedience. Raphael reminds Adam of the fate of the rebellious angels and warns him not to yield to temptation. Probably the most famous quote about Paradise Lost is William Blake’s statement that Milton was ―of the Devil’s party without knowing it.‖ While Blake may have meant something other than what is generally understood from this quotation the idea that Satan is the hero, or at least a type of hero, in Paradise Lost is widespread. However, the progression, or, more precisely, regression, of Satan’s character from Book I through Book X gives a much different and much clearer picture of Milton’s attitude toward Satan. But we must addmit that we have sympaties for Satan especially in the book I and II. Gustave Dore′ Depiction Of Satan From John Milton's Paradise Lost �Milton′s imagery draws a contrast which helps us in understanding the Satan in the Book I. The Hell is portrayed as closely as possible to the nature of horror portrayed in Inferno. "A Dungeon horrible, on all sides round As one great Furnace flam'd, yet from those flames No light, but rather darkness visible Serv'd onely to discover sights of woe, Regions of sorrow, doleful shades, where peace [ 65 ] And rest can never dwell, hope never comes That comes to all; but torture without end Still urges, and a fiery Deluge, fed With ever-burning Sulphur unconsum'd", (Milton, 1667) Following the prologue and invocation, Milton begins the epic with a description of Satan, lying on his back with the other rebellious angels, chained on a lake of fire. The poem thus commences in the middle of the story, as epics traditionally do. Satan, who had been Lucifer, the greatest angel, and his compatriots warred against God. They were defeated and cast from Heaven into the fires of Hell. Lying on the lake, Satan is described as gigantic; he is compared to a Titan or the Leviathan. Next to Satan lies Beelzebub, Satan’s second in command. Satan comments on how Beelzebub has been transformed for the worse by the punishment of God. With effort, Satan is able to free himself from his chains and rise from the fire. He flies to a barren plain, followed by Beelzebub. From the plain, Satan calls the other fallen angels to join him, and one by one they rise from the lake and fly to their leader. As they come, Milton is able to list the major devils that now occupy Hell: Moloch, Chemos, Baalem, Ashtaroth, Astarte, Astoreth, Dagon, Rimmon, Osiris, Isis, Orus, Mammon, and Belial. Each devil is introduced in a formal cataloguing of demons. These fallen angels think that they have escaped from their chains through their own power, but Milton makes it clear that God alone has allowed them to do this. In the philosophy of politics, the idea of freedom comes up often. �Most people say they support most types of freedom. Of course, the word freedom has little meaning if we do not have a common definition. In this article, I will explain my definition of freedom. Freedom starts with a principle of self-control, also known as self-ownership. In a free society, each and every person has legal control (or "ownership") of their own body and mind. As such, the concept of freedom refers to a certain type of political empowerment. It refers specifically to equal empowerment. In other words, a free society is one with an equal distribution of legal rights and in which each and every person has as much legal rights as possible. Basically, a free person has the legal allowance to do whatever he or she wants insofar as he or she does not offensively harm or coerce other people against those other people's wills. Remember, the limitation is a logical requirement. Freedom obviously can not include the legal right to limit other people's freedom because that would be illogical. The theme of freedom and independence is perhaps the most controversial one in the poem because it portrays Satan as the very embodiment of heroic energy. This energy is constantly expressed in his oppositon to the will of god despite heavy odds. In fact, Milton′s own self esteem, pride and republicanism, are voiced by satan. Milton believed in Cromwell and the civil war at first, but would later have second thoughts about Cromwell (in fact, Satan in Paradise Lost is clearly Oliver Cromwell). Milton would spend his later years during the reign of Charles II blind and distressed over the social problems of the seventeenth century, a distress which gave rise to his two great epic poems. Milton's distaste for the monarchy led directly to his embracing the rule of Oliver Cromwell. From 1630 through 1658 Milton wrote at least 24 sonnets. Many of these celebrate the rise of "Lord General Cromwell" and "New Forcers of Conscience." When Cromwell's government collapsed and Charles II ascended the thrown, Milton was imprisoned, fined, and his property confiscated. Yet Milton steadfastly accepted his decisions and the consequences. �Three years after the fall of Cromwell's government, Milton began writing Paradise Lost. Readers of the epic often find Satan the most compelling character, especially at the beginning of the poem, which he dominates. Satan has used his free will to choose his role in the universe. The famous statement by Satan that it is "better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven" is an endorsement of individual rights and responsibility, versus serving authority. Satan describes his enemy as "the tyranny of Heaven." We can obviously see that Oliwer Cromwell had infulence on John Milton, because Cromwell proved most capable as a military leader and clothed conservatively , he possessed a Puritan fervor and a commanding voice, he quickly made a name for himself by serving in both the Short Parliament (April 1640) and the Long Parliament. Oliver Cromwell was known by his passionate speeches in the Parliament. And it is the most obvious that Oliver Cromwell was Satan from Paradise Lost. Oliver Cromwell 1599-1658 �"Ideology of the Paradise Lost has deep root in social situation of England and with realistic view mirrors state and political standpoint of its writer and his class of that time."(Puhalo, 1966) "Satan′s speeches brings out the salient traits of his character, resourcefulness and foresight. He is not coward; but his courage is not rash and unthinking. Like clever politician, he would like to think before he leaps". (Khan, 1966) A mind not to be chang'd by Place or Time. The mind is its own place, and in it self Can make a Heav'n of Hell, a Hell of Heav'n. What matter where, if I be still the same, And what I should be, all but less then he Whom Thunder hath made greater? Here at least We shall be free; th' Almighty hath not built Here for his envy, will not drive us hence: Here we may reign secure, and in my choyce To reign is worth ambition though in Hell: Better to reign in Hell, then serve in Heav'n. (Milton, 1667) We must admit how Satan is brilliant leader, he is telling his fallen angels that everything in our minds that we see in speech above. Satan motivates them to countinue their fight. Milton portrays the Satan as a rebel and God as a tayrant. It′s the war between an autocrat and democrates. Seeing Milton′s own literary career and the impact of the civil war on his writing, it would be far fatched to say that Milton did see a touch of glory in Satan. And Satan is introduced in this background- not as helpless victim, but as a character of ultra human dimensions. �After the fall soon discerns and sees Beelzebub weltering by his side and cries out: "If thou beest he; But O how fall'n! how chang'd From him, who in the happy Realms of Light Cloth'd with transcendent brightness didst out-shine Myriads though bright: If he Whom mutual league, United thoughts and counsels, equal hope And hazard in the Glorious Enterprize, Joynd with me once, now misery hath joynd In equal ruin" (Milton, 1667 ) Even in suffering Satan′s concern is about the others and theirs suffering is more important then his own. This is humantarian impuls. Although aware that he has lost the war Satan′s heroism is immediately brought to focus in his adress to fallen angles: "All is not lost; the unconquerable Will, And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield: And what is else not to be overcome?" (Milton, 1667) Milton puts many of these very same arguments in the mouth of his Satan. Satan uses the Protestant rhetioric of legitimate rebellion by "princes" or inferior magisrates" aganist a king and transform it into a rallying cry for overthrow of God himself. Satan continually refers to his compatriots as "Princes and Powers".(Puhalo, 1667) Satan′s optimsim is heroic. The main couse of his audacity lies in his immortality. "And this Empyreal substance cannot fail" (Milton, 1667) �Charles I We know that God can not kill angels, they are immortal. And this shows Satan′s role of the leader. As the leader he tries to motivate his fallen angels, trying to tell them that they must keep fighting. "Awake, arise, or be for ever fall'n"(Milton, 1667) Milton devotes much of the poem′s early books to devolping Satan′s character. We can even see him as an innocent victim, overlooked for an important promotion. The first impression of the book I leaves us with clear picture of autochracy and democracy. God is autochrat. His whole world whirles around him. He is the centar of his own world. On the other hand, satan is democratic. Democratic elements among the devils: they had a council, the unique idea and army to fight to God. Satan′s emphasis in his first speech the nature of equality of organization-equal hopes for everyone. Satan is more closer to Puritans who fought against the autochracy. Using adjectives as monarch, autocrat, tyrant how Satan desribe God, makes obvious that God is – Charles I. �So Milton uses Satan to critisize the tyranny. In the contex Satan′s war is ear for independence. At the end of Chapter III, I would like say that the speeches of Satan and his followers in book I and II are magnificient in their way, Miltonic. To see Satan as a hero because Milton goes out of his way to show the superficial seductiveness of this kind of evil is to show extraordinary naivete. Many readers and myself have argued that Milton deliberately makes Satan seem herioc and appealling early in the poem to draw us into sympathizing with him aganist our will, so that we may see how seducive evil is and learn to be more vigilant in resisting its appeal. Satan′s character or our perception of his character changes significantly from Book I to his final appearance in Book II. In Book I he is strong, imposing figure with great abilities as a leader and public statesman, whereas by the poem′s end he slinks back to hell in serpent form. Satan′s gradual degradation is dramatized by the sequence of different shapes he assumes. And then at very end Milton changes Satan from great wat-leader into smooth-tongued and specious politican. 9 6 7 8 Chapter 4 The role of Adam, Eve and God The Son in the Paradise Lost 4.1 The Importance of Obedience to God The first words of Paradise Lost state that the poem’s main theme will be ―Man’s first Disobedience.‖ Milton narrates the story of Adam and Eve’s disobedience, explains how and �why it happens, and places the story within the larger context of Satan’s rebellion and Jesus’ resurrection. Raphael tells Adam about Satan’s disobedience in an effort to give him a firm grasp of the threat that Satan and humankind’s disobedience poses. In essence, Paradise Lost presents two moral paths that one can take after disobedience: the downward spiral of increasing sin and degradation, represented by Satan, and the road to redemption, represented by Adam and Eve. While Adam and Eve are the first humans to disobey God, Satan is the first of all God’s creation to disobey. His decision to rebel comes only from himself—he was not persuaded or provoked by others. Also, his decision to continue to disobey God after his fall into Hell ensures that God will not forgive him. Adam and Eve, on the other hand, decide to repent for their sins and seek forgiveness. Unlike Satan, Adam and Eve understand that their disobedience to God does not know that their disobedience will be corrected through generations of toil on Earth. This path is obviously the correct one to take: the visions in Books XI and XII demonstrate that obedience to God, even after repeated falls, can lead to humankind’s salvation. Significant aspect of Milton’s description of the Garden is the role that Adam and Eve have there. Their duty is to tend Eden, to keep nature from running wild. The implication here is that Man brings order to nature. Nature is beautiful in itself but also without control. Left alone, the beauty of nature can be lost in weeds, unchecked growth, and decay. Eve mentions how difficult it is for the two humans to do all that is necessary. Some commentators see the struggle between Man and nature as one of the basic themes in all literature. Nature represents the Dionysian side of the universe, emotional, unrestrained, without law, while Man represents the Apollonian side, moral, restrained, lawfully structured. Nature runs rampant: Man civilizes. Milton’s description of the Garden and Adam’s and Eve’s duties within it bring this Dionysian / Apollonian contrast into play. Satan’s entrance into the Garden shows that both the natural and civilized aspects of the world can be corrupted by evil. �Adam Adam is a strong, intelligent, and rational character possessed of a remarkable relationship with God. In fact, before the fall, he is as perfect as a human being can be. He has an enormous capacity for reason, and can understand the most sophisticated ideas instantly. He can converse with Raphael as a near-equal, and understand Raphael’s stories readily. But after the fall, his conversation with Michael during his visions is significantly one-sided. Also, his self-doubt and anger after the fall demonstrate his new ability to indulge in rash and irrational attitudes. As a result of the fall, he loses his pure reason and intellect. Adam’s greatest weakness is his love for Eve. He falls in love with her immediately upon seeing her, and confides to Raphael that his attraction to her is almost overwhelming. Though Raphael warns him to keep his affections in check, Adam is powerless to prevent his love from overwhelming his reason. After Eve eats from the Tree of Knowledge, he quickly does the same, realizing that if she is doomed, he must follow her into doom as well if he wants to avoid losing her. Eve has become his companion for life, and he is unwilling to part with her even if that means disobeying God. Adam’s curiosity and hunger for knowledge is another weakness. The questions he asks of Raphael about creation and the universe may suggest a growing temptation to eat from the Tree of Knowledge. But like his physical attraction to Eve, Adam is able to partly avoid this temptation. It is only through Eve that his temptations become unavoidable. Eve Created to be Adam’s mate, Eve is inferior to Adam, but only slightly. She surpasses Adam only in her beauty. She falls in love with her own image when she sees her reflection in a body of water. Ironically, her greatest asset produces her most serious weakness, vanity. After Satan compliments her on her beauty and godliness, he easily persuades her to eat from the �Tree of Knowledge. The introduction of Eve even more obviously reveals her character and points to the future. Eve describes how she fell in love with her own image when she first awoke and looked in the water. Only the voice of God prevented this narcissistic event from happening. God turned Eve from herself and toward Adam. The suggestion here is that Eve’s vanity can easily get her into trouble. Eve’s weakness is further indicated in her relationship with Adam. Adam is superior in strength and intellect while Eve is the ideal companion in her perfect femininity. This relationship is sexist by modern standards but reflects the beliefs of Puritan England as well as most of the rest of the world at the time. Even so, Eve’s dependence on Adam suggests that she could be in trouble if she has to make serious decisions without Adam’s aid. Eve’s vanity and feminine weakness in conjunction with Adam’s warning about the Tree of Knowledge are a clear foreshadowing that Eve will eventually yield to temptation. Aside from her beauty, Eve’s intelligence and spiritual purity is constantly tested. She is not unintelligent, but she is not ambitious to learn, content to be guided by Adam as God intended. As a result, she does not become more intelligent or learned as the story progresses, though she does attain the beginning of wisdom by the end of the poem. Her lack of learning is partly due to her absence for most of Raphael’s discussions with Adam in Books V, VI, and VII, and she also does not see the visions Michael shows Adam in Books XI and XII. Her absence from these important exchanges shows that she feels it is not her place to seek knowledge independently; she wants to hear Raphael’s stories through Adam later. The one instance in which she deviates from her passive role, telling Adam to trust her on her own and then seizing the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, is disastrous. Eve’s strengths are her capacity for love, emotion, and forebearance. She persuades Adam to stay with her after the fall, and Adam in turn dissuades her from committing suicide, as they begin to work together as a powerful unit. Eve complements Adam’s strengths and corrects his weaknesses. Thus, Milton does not denigrate all women through his depiction of Eve. �Rather he explores the role of women in his society and the positive and important role he felt they could offer in the divine union of marriage. God The Son The merciful, compassionate side of God is presented in the Son, not referred to as Jesus because Jesus had not been born at this time in theological history. In Book III, God says that Adam and Eve will fall and must suffer death. However, death can be overcome for humans if someone in Heaven will sacrifice himself to death for Man. The Son says that he will become human and die in order to defeat death. This act clearly defines the Son. He is powerful and brave, merciful, and willing to act to help Mankind. God’s duty is to provide justice—the law has been declared. It is the Son who provides mercy to temper justice—the natural law. The Son’s power is also further revealed in Book VI when God decides to end the rebellion of the angels. God sends only the Son in a chariot against Satan and his hosts. The Son by himself is able to defeat the rebellious angels and cast them into Hell. Milton uses the Son as the acting hand of God’s decisions. God also uses the Son as the creator of Earth and the universe around it. Milton connects the Son closely to Mankind by making the Son the creator of the biblical account. Even though Milton refers to the Son as God in Book VII, it is, nonetheless, the Son who, with golden compasses, lays out the universe and creates Earth and Mankind. Once again, the Son carries out God’s plan. Finally, after the fall of Adam and Eve, the Son goes to Earth at God’s request and passes judgment on the serpent, Adam, and Eve. Beyond telling the humans what their punishment will be, the Son also pities them and clothes them in skins. God seems to be almost the embodiment of ideas while the Son converts those ideas to actions.At the end of Paradise Lost, Michael shows Adam a vision of Jesus, who is the Seed that will ultimately destroy Satan. This scene is the obvious close of the story. The Son, becoming human through Jesus, will live and die. Through resurrection from death, he will finally overcome Satan and save man from the results of the fall. If the reader finds God �difficult to comprehend, he finds the Son more compassionate and merciful. Through both characters combined, Milton presents a complete picture of God. 4.2 The role of Archangels loyal to God Michael an archangel, one of the fiercest fighters in the battle between the rebellious angels and those loyal to God. Michael’s name was a war cry of the good angels. In Paradise Lost, the fallen angels remember particularly the pain of Michael’s sword. At the end of the epic, Michael reveals to Adam the biblical history of the world through the birth of Jesus. Michael also leads Adam and Eve out of Eden. Raphael one of the archangels. According to tradition Raphael was the angel of Man and was supposed to deal with Earth. Milton seems to follow that tradition since Raphael, often called the ―affable archangel,‖ is sent to Earth to warn Adam and to answer any questions Adam has. Many scholars fault Raphael’s advice and find him complicit in the Fall of Man. The conversation between Raphael and Adam takes place in Books V—VIII. An interesting sidebar to Raphael’s visit to Adam is the fact that the angel can eat, in fact needs to eat, although human food is not his normal fare. The point of the scene is to show Adam that through obedience to God, he may rise to a higher spiritual level and become like the angels. However, the force of the scene comes from the gusto with which Raphael partakes of Eve’s meal. For a modern reader, Raphael is reminiscent of John Travolta’s portrayal of the angel Michael in the movie Michael. Raphael seems to enjoy human food a little too much. Beyond this unintentional humor though, Milton uses Raphael’s appetite for a brief discourse on how all the elements of the universe pass from one to the other in a large circle. The food that Man eats nourishes not only his physical body but also sustains his reason, Man’s highest faculty. In angels, a more sublime food produces the even higher faculty of intuition so that angels know with an immediacy that Man, relying on reason, cannot. �Gabriel In the Bible, the archangel Gabriel is the angel of mercy in contrast to Michael, the angel of justice. In the New Testament, Gabriel announces the coming of Jesus to Mary. In Paradise Lost, he is the angel who guards the gate of Eden. He captures Satan on his first attempt at corrupting Adam and Eve and sends him away. Abdiel Angel in Satan’s host who opposes Satan’s plan to rebel and returns to God. In the battle with the rebellious angels, Abdiel confronts Satan and pushes him backwards. Abdiel also stands as an example for both Satan and for Adam and Eve. That is, Abdiel responds appropriately when confronted with temptation. Had Satan resisted his own envious thoughts, he would not have rebelled. Had the other angels been like Abdiel, they would not have followed Satan; they would have remained true to God. If Adam and Eve had been like Abdiel, they would not have eaten from the Tree of Knowledge Disobey. 4.3 Satan′s followers and idea of "Happy fall" The council of demons that begins Book II recalls the many assemblies of heroes in both the Iliad and the Aeneid. Further the debates also seem based on the many meetings that Milton attended in his various official capacities. In his speech, each devil reveals both the characteristics of his personality and the type of evil he represents. For example, Moloch, the first to speak, is the unthinking man of action. Like Diomedes in the Iliad, he is not adept in speech, but he does know how to fight. He is for continued war and unconcerned about the consequences. But, moreover, the attitude toward violence exhibited by Moloch reveals a particular type of evil. In the Inferno, Dante had divided evils into three broad categories: sins of appetite, sins of will, and sins of reason. In the Renaissance, these categories still dominated much thought concerning the nature of evil. In Moloch, the reader sees a straightforward example of the evil that comes from the will. Unthinking violence is the result �of lack of control of the will. And for Moloch, the ―furious king‖ (VI, 357), violence defines his character. In contrast to Moloch, Belial as a character type is a sophist, a man skilled in language, an intellectual who uses his powers to deceive and confuse. His basic argument is that the devils should do nothing. Belial wishes to avoid war and action, but he couches his arguments so skillfully that he answers possible objections from Moloch before those objections can be raised. He, in fact, rises to speak so quickly that the assembly is not able to respond to Moloch’s idea. Belial also suggests the possibility that at some point God might allow the fallen angels back into Heaven, though these arguments seem specious at best and simply an excuse for cowardly inactivity. In terms of evil, Moloch uses reason for corrupt purposes. The use of reason for evil was theologically the greatest sin because reason separates man from animals. Belial’s sophistry is not as corrupting as Beelzebub’s and Satan’s fraud will be, but it is still a sin of reason. Milton, in fact, introduces Belial as fair and handsome on the outside but ―false and hollow‖ within (112). Milton makes the point about reason straightforwardly at the end of Belial’s speech by referring to it as ―words cloth’d in reason’s garb‖8 (226), as opposed to simply words of reason. Belial’s persuasive speech for nothing is followed by the practical, materialistic assessment of Mammon. Mammon sees the little picture. He finds no profit in war with God or in doing nothing. Hell, he argues can be made into a livable, even pleasurable place. In Heaven, Mammon always looked down at the streets of gold. In Hell, he sees the gem and mineral wealth and thinks that Hell can be improved. In terms of sin, Mammon exhibits the sin of the appetite. Here the basic instinct of appetite controls the person. Mammon’s desire for individual wealth controls his assessment of everything. The proverb that one cannot serve God and Mammon both easily translates to the idea that one cannot serve both God and one’s appetite. Finally, Beelzebub rises to speak—and he speaks for Satan. His argument to attack God by corrupting Man is Satan’s argument. Satan has intended this plan all along and simply uses �Beelzebub to present it. The entire council has been a sham, designed to rubber stamp Satan’s design, a design that also allows Satan to leave Hell. Beelzebub’s speech and actions are like those of Belial in that they pervert reason. But unlike Belial’s arguments, Beelzebub’s involve treachery against his fellow demons. All of the devils have involved themselves in treachery against God, but now Beelzebub and Satan compound this treachery by defrauding their own companions. The devils have seemingly been given a choice within a council, but in fact this seeming choice was illusion. They have been set up to do Satan’s bidding. For many Renaissance thinkers, this type of treachery would have been considered Compound Fraud, the worst sin of all.Milton’s stated purpose in the poem is to justify God’s ways to Man. By the end of Book X, Milton has been able to explain his concept of what God did and why, but he has offered little in the way of justification. Can the single instance of disobedience by Eve and then Adam justify death, war, plague, famine—an endless list of evil? To truly accomplish his goal, Milton needs to show the effects of the fall on Adam and Eve over a longer period and at the same time develop the notion that some greater good than innocence and immortality in Paradise could result from the fall. Books XI and XII represent Milton’s attempt at justification. The justification of God’s ways is developed in two ways. First, the justification of God’s acts is presented to Adam as a part of the plot structure. That is, through the visions Michael shows Adam, Adam gains a greater individual understanding of what he did, why it was wrong, what the consequences are for him and for all Mankind, and why those consequences are truly better than what would have happened if Adam and Eve had remained sinless in the Garden. Second, the justification for God’s ways is developed in a broader scope for the reader as a representative for all Mankind. Through Adam’s actions and consequences, the reader gets Milton’s explanation of why Man fell and why sin, death, and the myriad of other evils exist on Earth. Through Adam’s vision, the reader also sees how Adam’s sin will be repeated in various ways and various times throughout history. It is in these final two books that Milton completes his argument for his audience and either does or does not achieve the justification he set as his goal. The idea of the ―happy fall‖ stands in contrast to the more �common notion that Adam’s action simply created sin and death and destroyed Man’s chance for blissful, paradisiacal immortality. Both concepts of the fall existed in seventeenth-century theology, and Milton chooses to accentuate the felix culpa as part of his justification of God’s ways to Man. By emphasizing the good that will emerge from the fall of Man, Milton makes the end of Paradise Lost, if not triumphant, at least optimistic. Adam and Eve are no longer the beautiful, but strangely aloof, innocents of Books I through VIII. At the end of the epic, as they leave Eden, Adam and Eve are truly human. Their innocence has been transformed by experience, and they now approach the world with a greater knowledge of what can happen and what consequences can follow evil actions. The pride they had in their inability to do evil has been replaced with the knowledge of what evil is and how easy it is to give in to both pride and evil. �Conclusion Paradise Lost the greatest book of John Milton give me incredible pleasure of reading it that I have never felt it before. The powerful senteces that Milton provides give us unexplainable pleasure of reading of this Masterpiece. I must say that have enjoyed in every minute of writing and reading this finale work. We are dealing in the Paradise Lost with the begining of evil, and how to fight it. The begining of the "man′s first disobedience" and expulsion from Eden. In my opinion John Milton is trying show us how evil is seducive. It is one of the reason why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II and it is the reason why I have choosen freedom and idenpendence to write about it. We are actually talking about the begining of the world and issues related with freedom of speech. In my opinion, this is the root of the begining for freedom and independence in the human history. These opening questions we have raised above are enormously emphasized by the extraordinarily powerful depiction of Satan himself. And what makes Satan so heroic is not the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his magnificence comes from the inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one reading these speeches can miss their power and eloquence. What though the field be lost? All is not lost: the unconquerable will, And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield: And what is else not to be overcome? �It is no accident that when Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British people after the military disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing in English literature to match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy manifested here and throughout Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately energized: He spake, and, to confirm his words, out flew Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs Of mighty cherubim, the sudden blaze Far round illumined Hell. Highly they raged Against the Highest, and fierce with grasped arms, Clashed on their sounding shields the din of war. Hurling defiance toward the vault of Heaven. (1.663-669) At very end Paradise Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political treatise, a poetic explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken. �References Breda, Kogoj-Kapetanović (1973), Povijest Svjetske Književnosti, Mladost, pp. 84, Zagreb. Khan, Shahab Yar Khan (2006), From Renaissance to Classicism,Fakultet humanističkih nauka, pp. 136-155. Mostar. Lewis, C.S (1961), A Preface to Paradise Lost, Lectures Delivered at University College, pp. 12-14 North Wales Milton, John (1667), Paradise Lost, Line 1-796 Book I, London Morton, A.L (1955), Istorija Engleske, Veselin Masleša, pp. 116-214 Sarajevo Puhalo, Dušan (1966), Milon i njegovi tragovi u Jugoslovenskim književnostima, Mladost, pp. 198, Beograd. Šentija, Josip (1979), Opća enciklopedija, Jugoslovenski Leksikografski Zavod, pp.92, Zagreb. �Curriculum Vitae Nedžad Gudić was born on 9 October 1980, in Travnik. Primary school he finished in Gornji Vakuf and after that he finished ―Turkish Bosnian Sarajevo College‖ in Sarajevo. He received his BS degree in English Language and Literature in 2007 at the ―Džemal Bijedić― University in Mostar.He works as an English Teacher in High School Gornji Vakuf . As an interpreter he worked for OSCE (organization for security and cooperation in europe) and for company Saraj-komerc d.o.o He was official interpreter at international leading trade fair for automotive industry in Frankfurt am Main(part time job). He is also an official interpreter of Gornji Vakuf – Uskoplje Municipality. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 755 Title A name given to the resource THE THEME OF FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE IN PARADISE LOST Author Author Gudić, Nedžad Abstract A summary of the resource. In the Paradise Lost, John Milton tried to explain how evil is seductive. It is one of the reasons why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II. And what makes Satan so heroic is not the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his magnificence comes from the inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one reading these speeches can miss their power and eloquence. It is no accident that when Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British people after the military disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing in English literature to match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy manifested here and throughout Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately energized.At very end Paradise Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political treatise, a poetic explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken. Key words: John Milton, Independence, Freedom, Evil Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-04-22 Keywords Keywords. Thesis NonPeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/90f34e941eab23b1fc9b15373d5d39c8.pdf e97364ed5a3bcbf1c8bc78d5f31d60be PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The tragedy and the human being in Arthur Miller‘s play Death of a Salesman Marsela Turku Faculty of Education Aleksandër Moisiu University, Albania marselaturku@yahoo.com Abstract: So far a number of articles have dealt with the American dream and how it is developed in Arthur Miller‘s plays, especially in The Death of a Salesman. However, not enough attention has been paid to the tragedy and the human tragedy in these plays. In the essay ‗The Tragedy of the Common Man‘ Miller expressed his attitudes and beliefs about the nature of literary tragedy, its principles, the social status of the protagonist, what he understands as a human tragedy etc. This paper examines how this play could be interpreted and reread with a primary focus that of ―tragedy and the human being‖, it tries to answer to the question whether the protagonist‘s fall is a consequence of hamartia (a flaw in the character of the protagonist of a literary tragedy that brings about his or her downfall and a key element in tragedy) or whether he is a victim of the values of his community (the main theme of the social drama); which is the role of the American society‘s values and the conflict between the American dream and the idealization of this dream within the main protagonist; it will also answer the question if his plays are merely ‗social dramas‘ or ‗they challenge the tradition of tragedy from its first description in Aristotle‘s Poetics and the conventions of Shakespearian tragedy. Key words: tragedy, tragic hero, American Dream, archetype etc. Introduction American Drama was slower in reaching maturity than either fiction or poetry. A number of critics and literary historians criticized drama for its lacked quality, national originality and integrity when compared with other types of American literature. The gulf between drama and serious literature was not bridged until the beginning of the modern American Drama in 1920, the year of O‘Neill‘s Beyond the Horizon. (Heiney 1958, 324) Along with Tennessee Williams, Arthur Miller represents the culmination of the process of evolution in American Theatre and his play Death of a Salesman (1949) is often considered as one of the crucial American plays. The press wrote positive reviews about the drama premiere in 1949: Arthur Miller has written a superb drama. From every point of view ―Death of a Salesman,‖ which was acted at the Morosco last evening, is rich and memorable drama. It is so simple in style and so inevitable in theme that it scarcely seems like a thing that has been written and acted. For Miller has looked for compassion into the hearts of some ordinary Americans and quietly transferred their hope and anguish to the theatre. (Atkinson 1979, 21) ―But the theatre is an impure craft, and Death of Salesman organizes its impurities with an emotional effect unrivalled in postwar drama.‖ (Kenneth Tynan, 1933) Other critics praised Miller for the use of intermixed time-frames, the important themes; the subject focused controversial attitudes, for ‗the flow and spontaneity of a suburban epic that may not be intended as poetry but becomes poetry in spite of itself‘ (1976, 21), some went further by suggesting that this play would even open new direction for the evolution of American drama. Almost after sixty years, Kenneth Tynan observations still seem true ―[. . .] the theatre is an impure craft…‖ and it has been for this ‗impurities‘ that this drama has also been criticized a lot. The most persistent criticism concerns the issue of genre and its constituents: to what extends is it a tragedy? Miller himself considered the play to be the tragedy of the common man, but for a group of critics ―It is not a tragedy; nor is it rightly speaking, about any man, common or uncommon. It is, however pure Broadway . . .‖ (Morgan 1976, 32). This paper briefly examines the evolution of the tragedy concept from Aristotle to modern theories and stands on what are tragedy and a tragic hero. It examines and explores the continuing disagreements among academics and by what criteria this play is a tragedy. 821 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Classical tragedy ―The spirit of inquiry meets the spirit of poetry and tragedy is born‖ (Dixon, 51) Tragedy is an achievement peculiarly Greek. They were the first to perceive and gave it the splendor and the highness that we all know, throw the tragedies of Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. The philosophy of the human nature is implicit in the human speech, consequently these tragedies, the result of inquiries done to the human nature which is bound up with evil and dark ―gods,‘ try to present the human being as it really is. The Greek tragedies were characterized by a sincere need to perceive the beauty the reality offered through clarity, calmness and serenity. Their positive attitude towards the gloomy aspects of life somehow creates a magic atmosphere and illumining visions where beauty is transmitted only through truth and vice versa truth implies beauty. ‗A tragedy shows us pain and gives us pleasure thereby. The greater the suffering depicted, the more terrible the events, the more intense our pleasure. The most monstrous and appealing deeds life can show are those the tragedian chooses, and by the spectacle he thus offers us, we are moved to a very passion of enjoyment.‘ (Hamilton 1930, 229) The reader is unable to explain this tragic pleasure. A number of scholars through the centuries have considered this conflicting feeling as the substructure of tragedy and fundamental element in the continuing of the genre. Just to mention, Aristotle called it ―Pity and awe,‖ ―and a sense of emotions purified thereby.‖ For Hegel it is the reconciliation between life‘s temporary dissonances resolved into eternal harmony. For Schopenhauer it is the acceptance in the fulfillment of the will, ―Thy will be done.‖ For Nietzsche it is the ―the reaffirmation of the will to live in the face of death,‖ ―and the joy of its inexhaustibility when so reaffirmed.‖(Hamilton 1930, 230) It is obvious that ―the idea on tragedy‘ has escaped its Classical generic determination in Aristotle‘s Poetics and had expanded into the role of an intellectual concept of astonishing amplitude and the culmination came in Nietzsche‘s Birth of tragedy (1872). He claimed that ―tragedy arose as artistic energies which burst forth from nature herself, without the meditation of the human artists‖ (1872, 38). For Nietzsche the incarnation of the tragic is the mythic figure of Dionysus who personifies the eternal and original artistic power that first calls the whole world of phenomena into existence . . .‖ (1872, 143). Nietzsche‘s work presents the tragedy as a battle of creative energy against the world of reason and the human beings that inhibit these tragedies are left alone with a feeling of alienation and despair in facing death. In contrary to Nietzsche‘s attitude, Miguel de Unamuno, in his Tragic Sense of Life (1913) did not refer to tragedy as a literary genre, but rather he sees it as a complexity of things which springs from the conflict between human nature and social reality. He believes that changes in science and technology are reflected into human reasoning, and in addition these developments manifest themselves in consciousness. He claims that consciousness depends on memory and memory is the bridging gap between the past and the present, between the present and the future, between what we have lost and what we actually have; and these memories do not necessarily have to be happy or joyful ones: ―noone has ever proved that man must necessarily be joyful by nature‖ (1913, 22). He strongly believes that tragedy and tragic are inseparable comrades to the human being and to his identity: ―man, because he is man, because he possesses consciousness, is already, in comparison to the jackass or the crab, a sick animal. Consciousness is a disease.‖ (1913, 22) Arthur Miller‘s ―The tragedy and the common man‖ In this age a few tragedies are written. It has often been held that the lack is due to a paucity of heroes among us . . . for one reason or another, we are often held to be below tragedy or tragedy above us. (Miller 1949, 3) Arthur Miller propounded his ideas on tragedy on the essay ―Tragedy and the Common man‖ immediately after the success of his play ―Death of a Salesman‖ in 1949. In his essay he explains his reasons for writing Death of a Salesman and what he considers a ―traditional tragedy.‖ Miller claims that he has imbued his character with a mixture of experiences and emotions like grief, sufferings, struggles and ‗small acts of heroism‘ and a sole aim, to represent the typical American man and his struggles to accomplish his American Dream which somehow becomes the source of the tragedy. Miller believes that: ―the common man is as apt a subject for tragedies in its highest sense of kings were. On the face of it this ought to be obvious in the light of modern psychiatry, which bases its analysis on classical formulations, such as the Oedipus and Orestes complexes, for instance, which were enacted by royal beings, but which apply to everyone in similar emotional situations‖ (1949, 3). Therefore, Miller tries to adapt the concept of the tragedy and its protagonist in a contemporary 822 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo setting. Probably the sentence taken from Miller‘s drama that best points the universal poignancy is Linda‘s comment: ―A small man can be just as exhausted as a great man.‖ Thomas E. Porter claims that: ―Willy‘s status in society, his family background is typical; even more of a type is Willy‘s identity as a Salesman. He is a product of a producer-consumer society in which the go-between is a pivotal figure. Society has labeled him, and Willy has accepted the label; society has offered Willy a set of values and an objective, and Willy has committed themselves to those values and that objective [. . . ] He has been shaped by a society that believed steadily and optimistically in the myth of success, and he has become the agent and the representative of that society.‖ (Martine 1976, 29) Nevertheless, Miller‘s hero fails to grasp a communal sense of success; it seems that instabilities and the flaws of his character bring about his premeditated doom. The first and the main line of this play focuses precisely on the protagonist‘s failure, but an underground line focuses on the failure of all the ordinary Americans as they respond to this new urban world and their adopting difficulties. It is often thought that its success lays precisely on the personification of the audience with the play‘s main theme ‗the pain of a life passing without recognition or acknowledgement.‘ Miller‘s concept on the tragedy of the common man is almost similar with Unamuno‘s. Therefore, loneliness, sufferings, anonymity, failure, consciousness and the struggle for success are embodied in the tragic sense of life in any urban society. Modern Theories on Tragedy Modern Tragedy and Steinberg‘s Theory The transformation of the society and the human being influenced even the theatre, consequently in the 20th century the stage was no longer a realm of the melodrama or Classical theatre, neither presented it a glorious time and period. Instead it intends to exhibit or reflect the realism of the world, the individual and the society. In his study ―Arthur Miller and the Idea of Tragedy,‖ M. W. Steinberg presents this modern role for the tragedy and Miller‘s play within the perspective of F. L Lucas: ―Serious drama is a serious representation by speech and action of some phrase of human life. [. . . ] If there is an unhappy ending, we may call it tragedy; but if the play is a serious attempt to represent life it makes no great differences whether or not good fortune intervenes in the last scene‖ (Steinberg 1969, 81). A decisive factor in Miller‘s modern work is the realism of his character, as real as they ‗could easily walk off the stage and onto the streets.‘ Steinberg claims that Miller writes in ‗post-Ibsen‘ fashion and so their ‗tragic modern hero‘ is the embodiment of his society and world. This tragic hero is ‗crushed by forces outside himself and by illusions, false ideas spawned by those forces …‘ (Steinberg 1969, 82) for instance Nora and Torvald from A Doll‘s House, Lowman from Death of a Salesman, etc. Steinberg considers these forces imposed by the society to the human as the only way to evaluate the hero‘s action, but he does not consider the society as the only cause for the hero‘s downfall. Steinberg believes that the modern drama of the 20th century should expose the common man and compare it to the tragic figures of the past. He also supports Miller‘s idea that the classical tragic archetypes should be brought in a modern context: ―As the twentieth century approached, various sources were making for realism in drama with its emphasis on people and situations drawn from ordinary life‖ (Steinberg 1969, 81) because realism breeds proximity and the closer to the real world the more will the public sympathize with the characters and affect them, as it is described in the Aristotelian sense, by invoking both ‗panic‘ and ‗empathy‘ (in original ―phobos‘ and ―eleos‖) when characters are brought into utter despair. Furthermore the setting is really familiar to the audience, the Lowman family lives in any East coast suburban neighborhood, the neighborhood once bloomed with lilac, wisteria, peonies and daffodils, but now it is ―bricks and windows, windows and bricks‖ and over population and the reminiscence sequences are marked by this scenic change: ―The apartment houses are fading out and the entire house and surroundings become covered with leaves.‖(Salesman, 27) The audience reaction is: ―I know a man like that,‖ ―He is my neighbor.‖ Consequently, Willy presents the failures, disillusionments, and disappointments of all those Americans caught up in the trap of the myth and the moral pressure it generates. Miller‘s achievement in this play consists on the elaboration of the character that imbues the passion and pain of a classical tragic hero situated in a contemporary setting and is so real that it can be hard to separate him from the real world. Frye‘s Theory on the tragic hero Academic approach to drama and tragedy has changed over the years and the contemporary philosopher, Stanly Cavell, perfectly describes this evolution: 823 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo What else have we had, in major art of the past hundred years, but indirectness: irony, theatricality, yearning, broken form, denial of art, anti-heroes, withdrawals from nature, from man, from the future, and from the past. . . We are not Tragic heroes: our sacrifices will not save the state. Yet we are sacrificed, and we sacrifice. (2002, 178-179) This evolution in literature and drama has influenced even the formulation and idea of what a tragic hero is. In his study ―The Anatomy of Criticism‖ Northrop Frye provides a definition of what can be a tragic hero: ….the typical tragic hero is somewhere between the divine and the ‗all too human.‘ This must be true even of dying gods: Prometheus, being a god, cannot die, but he suffers for his sympathy for the ‗dying ones‘ (brotoi) or mortal men, and even suffering has something subdivine about it. The tragic hero is very great as compared with us, but there is something else, something on the side of him opposite the audience, compared to which he is small. This something else may be called God, gods, fate, accident, fortune necessity, circumstance, or any combination of these, but whatever it is the tragic hero is the mediator with it. (Frye 1957, 207) Frye states that the hero may be ‗the divine or all to human‘ implying that even a normal human being, a common man without ‗superpower‘ or godlike behavior can as well be a tragic hero as a divine one. Another important point in Frye‘s definition is the ―suffering‖ which he considers as ‗subdivine‘ and sees them as the only way for the human emotions to arise. Miller‘s hero Willy Lowman seem to imbue both the elements, he is mortal, is a common man and the audience follow him in his odyssey of sufferings. Prometheus, the suffering god, seems to have a lot in common with Willy. Although Willy is not fettered to a rock enduring endless physical tortures, he still suffers greatly as he is entrapped in his own dreams, in his fantasy world unable to separate the real from the fabricated; he is utterly unable to bear the plight in the real world. Miller is very careful in the description of Willy as a ―brotoi‖ or ―dying man.‖ He prepares the audience in an escalation of situation describing Willy‘s attempt and unconscious desire to kill himself, for instance the hose found by Biff, Willy‘s ‗strange thoughts‘ and his continuous attempts to crash his car, till the final crash at the end of the play. Through Willy‘s death Miller not only demonstrates the inescapable fate of all the human beings which is ‗death,‘ but also the tragedy of a life build upon the commitment to the success ideology, based on Alger myth, the rages to the rags-to-riches romances of the American Dream. Porter claims that ―Miller‘s hero is not simply an individual who has determined an objective and who strives desperately to attain it; he is also representative of an American type, the Salesman, who has accepted an ideal shaped for him and pressed on him by forces in his culture‖ (Martine 1976, 24), and his tragic ending prods the audience to examine their own existence. At this point seems almost compulsory the question what caused Willy‘s downfall? Is caused by ‗hamartia‘ or it is the society‘s pressure and his alienation from the real world? Aristotle in Poetics 13 uses the word ―hamartia‖ to designate the cause of a good‘s man falling, but it has been often translated as a ―tragic flaw‖ and it has been the subject of much debate over the centuries. E. R. Dodds in his ―On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex‖ (1966), one of the most influential articles on Aristotle Poetics, demonstrates that Aristotle did not consider the ―flaw‖ as the source of tragedy but by citing everyone of Aristotle‘s other uses of the term, came to the conclusion that he used the term ―to mean an offense committed in ignorance of some material fact and therefore free from . . . wickedness‖ (Dodds 1966, 19-20). Consequently, for Aristotle, tragedy surfaced from lack of omniscience, from ―our common fate of ignorance in face of crucial facts.‖ But which is Willy‘s ‗hamartia‘? At the beginning of Act I we notice that Willy is tired of his job routine, and then we notice his difficulty separating the past from the present, his continuous lies to his wife and to himself and his continuous search in the past for the turning point when everything went irremediably wrong, although he could not find it. Harold Bloom claims that: ―Yet Willy is not destroyed by his sense of failure. [. . .] Willy is destroyed by love, by his sudden awareness that his son Biff truly loves him. Miller beautifully comments that Willy resolves to die when he is given his existence . . . his fatherhood, for which he has always striven and which until now he could not achieve‖ (Bloom 2007, 5). Although Willy still remains misunderstood and left apart from the society and at a dramatic level he could not achieve the epiphany that leads to insights, to the moment of revelation when the hero sees himself and his situation clearly, understands what he has lost and finds the path to regenerate. His sufferings are in vain. At the very end Miller provides Biff with the insight of which Willy was incapable of: ―He had the wrong dreams. All, all wrong. [. . .] He never knew who he was.‖ (Salesman, 103) Concluding remarks The play Death of Salesman has raised a lot of debates and criticism through the years for its themes, the place it occupies in the American Drama, its ‗pathos‘ and impurities etc., but what has been one of the most 824 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo discussed issues of the play is its genre, some critics claim that it is a tragedy, others classify it as a ‗social drama,‘ others consider it neither as a tragedy, nor as a social drama, but a pure Broadway production. Death of a Salesman is not highly original in technique; it nevertheless contains free-verse passages, a narrator who speaks directly to the audience, fantastic and unrealistic shifts in time and an underlying web of psychological pathology. Miller devices are conventional enough to be easily grasped by the average audience, the common American man. This drama embodies the tragic archetypes and elements of a tragedy and Miller‘s main achievement is carving a realist character, a tragic hero, setting him in a contemporary urban society and building his play around the American Dream, he strikes deeply the consciences of the audience. Miller claims that loneliness, sufferings, anonymity, failure, consciousness and the struggle for success are embodied in the tragic sense of life in any urban society. References Adler, Thomas P. American Dream, 1940-1960: A Critical History. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994. 825 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Atkinson, Brooks. ―Death of a Salesman, A New Drama by Arthur Miller, Has Premiere at the Morosoco.‖ Ed. James J. Martine. Critical Essays on Arthur Miller. Boston. G. K. Hall & Co. 1979. 21-22. Bloom, Harold. ―Introduction.‖ Ed. Harold Bloom. Arthur Miller‘s Death of a Salesman. New York. Chelsea House. 2007. 1- 5. Cavell, Stanley. Must We Mean What We Say? 1969. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Dodds, E. R. ―On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex.‖ Twentieth Century Interpretations of Oedipus Rex. Ed. Michael J. O‘Brien. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1968. 17- 29. Hamilton, Edith. The Greek Way. New York. W. W. Norton & Company. Inc. 1942. Henley, Donald. Recent American Literature. New York. Barron‘s Educational Series, Inc. 1958. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. New York: Viking Press Inc., 1949. ---, ―The Tragedy of the Common Man.‖ New York Times. 27 February, 1949: 3. Morgan, Frederick. ―Review of Death of a Salesman.‖ Ed. James J. Martine. Critical Essays on Arthur Miller. Boston. G. K. Hall & Co. 1979. 23. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Basic Writings of Nietzsche. Trans and ed. Walter Kaufman. New York: Random House Inc., 1992. Porter, E. Thomas. ―Acres of Diamonds: Death of a Salesman.‖ Ed. James J. Martine. Critical Essays on Arthur Miller. Boston. G. K. Hall & Co. 1979. 24- 43. Shattuck, Roger. Forbidden Knowledge: From Prometheus to Pornography. New York: St. Martin‘s Press, 1996. Steinberg, M. W. ―Arthur Miller and the Idea of tragedy.‖ Ed. Robert W. Corrigan. Arthur Miller: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1969. 81-94. Unamuno, Miguel de. The tragic sense of life in Men and Nations. Trans. Anthony Kerrigan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972. Whitehead, Alfred North. Adventures and Ideas. London: Cambridge University Press, 1935. Williams, Raymond. ―From Hero to Victim: The making of Liberal Tragedy, to Ibsen and Miller.‖ Modern Tragedy. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996. 87-105. ---.‖The Realism of Arthur Miller.‖ Critical Quarterly. 55 (1959): 40-49. 826 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 120 Title A name given to the resource The tragedy and the human being in Arthur Miller‘s play Death of a Salesman Author Author Turku, Marsela Abstract A summary of the resource. So far a number of articles have dealt with the American dream and how it is developed in Arthur Miller‘s plays, especially in The Death of a Salesman. However, not enough attention has been paid to the tragedy and the human tragedy in these plays. In the essay ‗The Tragedy of the Common Man‘ Miller expressed his attitudes and beliefs about the nature of literary tragedy, its principles, the social status of the protagonist, what he understands as a human tragedy etc. This paper examines how this play could be interpreted and reread with a primary focus that of ―tragedy and the human being‖, it tries to answer to the question whether the protagonist‘s fall is a consequence of hamartia (a flaw in the character of the protagonist of a literary tragedy that brings about his or her downfall and a key element in tragedy) or whether he is a victim of the values of his community (the main theme of the social drama); which is the role of the American society‘s values and the conflict between the American dream and the idealization of this dream within the main protagonist; it will also answer the question if his plays are merely ‗social dramas‘ or ‗they challenge the tradition of tragedy from its first description in Aristotle‘s Poetics and the conventions of Shakespearian tragedy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics