31 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f9f436102c11ef88822dc368d7a78ce.pdf 3b07192ca4df81d4931dc1e786c4fde2 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Water Governance and Sustainable Development C. Gregory KNIGHT and The World Water Team1 Department of Geography and School of International Affairs The Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA 16803 USA cgk@psu.edu Abstract: Is fresh water a truly renewable resource? This paper argues that freshwater for human use is threatened by climate change, fossil water extraction and globalization processes that will exacerbate problems of access to potable water as a human right and challenge water governance on local, regional, national and global scales. Using concept maps to examine the structure of the world water system, we argue that an emerging global water crisis can only be addressed by understanding the multiple linkages that tie individuals, institutions and issues to paradigms of water management that threaten the sustainability of fresh water use. By deconstructing the global water crisis into interlocking systems of issues and influence, we identify core questions in maintaining water as a sustainable resource. Keyword: water, sustainable development, governance Introduction It is widely recognized that fresh surface water is a rare and precious resource in comparison to world stocks of salt water, deep and shallow groundwater, and ice. These larger oceanic water stocks can be exploited to create fresh water at a high energy cost for conversion, and a significant portion of groundwater use involves mining of fossil water that is not replenished at contemporary rates of extraction. Freshwater is usually viewed as a renewable resource, but this is a misnomer. It is really a flow resource whose flux can be redirected for human use, but whose magnitude has increasingly been subject to significant human intervention. Modern mankind has indeed done the latter, with widespread regional land use change, for example, changing the volume and distribution of rainfall and evaporation (especially through consumptive, evaporative uses in irrigation and industry. Weather modification attempts rainfall enhancement. Human-induced climate change will almost certainly alter water regimes, and may already be doing so. Glaciers and winter snow accumulation vital as a warm-weather source of lowland water, water batteries in effect, are already being threatened by global warming. In addition, fresh water consumptively used, evaporated into the atmosphere as a consequence of use, diminishes water availability for downstream uses; some researchers even consider water pollution a form of consumptive use when pollution precludes productive uses downstream. Fresh Water Sustainability Fresh water sustainability includes long-term maintenance of adequate volumes of fresh water and commitments of fresh water to vital human uses, including recognition of water’s place in basket of fundamental goods and services that should be attainable by all humans as a right. Sustainability means we leave as many choices about fresh water to future generations as possible, making as few permanent, irretrievable commitments as possible. We see that sustainability is being challenged by allocation of water by socio-economic and technical processes to other competing uses before meeting basic needs, by diminished water supply through global climate change, and by reliance on sources of water that are themselves non-sustainable, most important of which is ground water mining. In addition to issues of freshwater distribution and diversion for human use, issues of sustainable water use also include processes of globalization and water governance. By globalization we refer to a multiplicity of processes that make what would seemingly be local and regional challenges into worldwide networks of 1 C. Gregory Knighta, Melissa Mayb, Audrey Broucekb, Mary E. Paskewiczc, Chongming Wangd, Regina Sagoed, Rachel Sayree, R. Scott Hillkirke, Amy Norrise and Kolby K. Nelsone (aDepartment of Geography and School of International Affairs, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA; bSchool of Forest Resources, Pennsylvania State University; cDepartment of Civil Engineering, Pennsylvania State University; dDepartment of Geography, Pennsylvania State University; eSchool of International Affairs, Pennsylvania State University). 349 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo important and interrelated issues. By governance, we refer to the many kinds of intersecting human systems that define the nature of water as a resource, that determine water allocation among human uses, and that use social, political, economic and legal systems at multiple scales to control and enforce these precepts. In this presentation, we report on-going research on the structure of the emerging global water crisis, using visualization of linkages between and among issues and entities to illustrate the emergence of threats to sustainable water use as a global, not merely local, problem. We argue that the nexus of water sustainability lies at the intersection of water availability in the physical sense and water governance. Concept Maps In the presentation, we illustrate the basic elements of concept maps (Cmaps) as developed by the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (2009). Concept maps consist of concepts and linkages, groups of which can be combined as nested nodes. Concepts and nodes can reference website links, document links, and links to other Cmaps. The Cmaps can be stored locally, included in websites or made available on servers. Cmaps are a visual, qualitative expression of information, subject to evaluation and criticism on the same basis as other visual and non-quantitative expressions of knowledge. The Global Water Crisis Figure 1 illustrates the interconnection of elements in the global water crisis, details of which are explicated in the conference presentation. By cumulative change, we refer to changes that are local and regional in scope, but are replicated widely and significantly throughout the world. Soil erosion, deforestation and water pollution are examples. By systemic change, we mean alterations of the global system itself, including such phenomena as ozone depletion, climate change and sea level change (Turner et al. 1990). Sustainable fresh water is subject to both kinds of change. In particular, dimensions of significant cumulative water change include water shortages, cost, limited access, gender roles, hazards (floods, drought), dam building, and management (privatization of public water supplies). Water has systemic dimensions, which include the international finance and the water economy, global governance, global systems of technical knowledge, and global water action. Other important elements of the Global Water Crisis are shown in Figure 1. Place attributes include but are not limited to the role of water in culture, history, religion, politics, ideology, law, and management. Water paradigms are ways in which water is conceived and allocated. Global actors and actions include international, national, non-governmental organizations, and individuals. Geographic scale is also an important dimension, including issues of water sharing across intra-national and international boundaries and interbasin transfers. Water Paradigms Of all these dimensions and linkages creating a global water crisis, perhaps the paradigms with which water is viewed and acted upon is most important. Figure 2 differentiates among social, biological and economic perspectives on water. These somewhat complementary but more often competing paradigms recognize water as a biological need that is imbued with multiple social dimensions versus a fundamental question of water’s economic value and the role of water’s economic value in water allocation and use. Who owns water? Should water be allocated solely by market means? Is there an obligation of society (government) to provide for basic water needs as a human right? If water is, in fact, most costly for the poor, shouldn’t even the poor pay for formal water supply (public or corporate), which could be cheaper than the existing situation? What is the appropriate role of profit-making corporations vs. government? Is water planning excessively driven by technological mind-sets that view big dams, centralized piped supply systems and centralized control as obligatory? Are sewerage systems the only means to achieve sanitation? These are basic questions raised in consideration of how water is conceived or framed and how solutions to addressing water needs are sought. 350 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1: The Global Water Crisis. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. Figure 2: Paradigms in the Global Water Crisis. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. 351 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Challenges Global challenges of fresh water supply relate both to the Millennium Development Goals and to the concepts of sustainable development (Figure 3). The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (2008) include “Target 3:�Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.” We believe that issues of safe water and sanitation threaten the ways in which society can adapt to the long-term threat of climate change, and thence to achieving fresh water sustainability. The fourth report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) shows that the Mediterranean Basin may be one of the world regions most threatened by climate-change-induced aridity, so these issues are particularly salient for countries represented in this conference on sustainability being held in the Balkan Region. In its Technical Paper on climate change and water, the IPCC notes that “Observational records and climate projections provide abundant evidence that freshwater resources are vulnerable and have the potential to be strongly impacted by climate change, with wide-ranging consequences for human societies and ecosystems” (Bates et al. 2008). Figure 3: Global Challenges in the Global Water Crisis. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. Global Water Governance and Sustainability How the challenges of climate change and sustainability are met may be largely determined by the system of global water governance (Figure 4). The loci of decisions about water policy and allocation will be focal in society’s ability to adapt to climate change and to achieve a sustainable system for fresh water utilization. Will corporate interests increasingly dominate water governance, as seems evident in organizations like the World Water Council and its World Water Forums, such as the 2009 gathering in Istanbul? In that conference, participants in writing the “Istanbul Ministerial Statement” could not agree that water is a human right, only concurring that water is a human need (Fifth World Water Forum 2009; Freshwater Action Network 2009). Does it take water ministers to endorse a reality that is known in every elementary classroom? Or will public interests dominate discourse about water futures, with emphasis on making good a promise of water and sanitation as a fundamental human right? Such issues are at the core of sustainable development. 352 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4: Global Water Governance. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. Conclusion This brief paper and presentation can only begin to include all the nuances that concept mapping of global water issues includes. For example, we have not explored complex interrelationships among individuals, institutions and issues. We hope, nevertheless, to have established that the Global Water Crisis is a critical challenge to achieving the Millennium Development Goals and of achieving a vital component of Sustainable Development. At present there may be adequate fresh water supplies to meet basic human needs, but this is by no means guaranteed for the future, nor are socially and economically available water resources necessarily consonant in distribution with human populations. Water governance, an increasingly global issue, is at the core of fresh water availability and management and deserves increasing scrutiny and critical analysis. One simply cannot conceive of sustainable development without water being a core issue in its achievement. References Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. and Palutikof, J.P., Ed. (2008). Climate change and water. Technical paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva: IPCC Secretariat, Geneva. Fifth World Water Forum (2009). Istanbul ministerial statement. Istanbul: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkey and World Water Council. Freshwater Action Network (2009). 5th World Water Forum. http://www.freshwateraction.net/web/w/www_171_en.aspx , accessed 15 May 2009. Change just one word. Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (2009). IHMC Cmap Tools. Pensacola, Florida: University of Florida System. http://cmap.ihmc.us/conceptmap.html , accessed 15 May 2009. 353 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). Working Group 1 Report, The physical science basis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Turner II, B.L. et al. (1990). Two types of global environmental change: Definitional and spatial scale issues in their human dimensions. Global environmental change 1: 14-22. United Nations. (2008). United Nations Millennium Development Goals. U. N. Department of Public Information, http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ , accessed 15 May 2009. Acknowledgements The World Water Team, an informal collaboration initiated at the Pennsylvania State University (USA) appreciates the opportunity provided by the organizers of the International Symposium on Sustainable Development, 9-10 June 2009, at International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, to present preliminary results of its examination of the global water system. Our graphics are a work in progress; permission is given to the ISSD to include them in its symposium publication and CD with the understanding that they may not be further copied nor published without written permission of the World Water Team (contact C. G. Knight, cgk@psu.edu, on behalf of the Team). The Team welcomes comments. Views expressed are not necessarily those of the Pennsylvania State University. 354 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 251 Title A name given to the resource Water Governance and Sustainable Development Author Author KNIGHT, C. Gregory Abstract A summary of the resource. Is fresh water a truly renewable resource? This paper argues that freshwater for human use is threatened by climate change, fossil water extraction and globalization processes that will exacerbate problems of access to potable water as a human right and challenge water governance on local, regional, national and global scales. Using concept maps to examine the structure of the world water system, we argue that an emerging global water crisis can only be addressed by understanding the multiple linkages that tie individuals, institutions and issues to paradigms of water management that threaten the sustainability of fresh water use. By deconstructing the global water crisis into interlocking systems of issues and influence, we identify core questions in maintaining water as a sustainable resource. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f33ba3e7d44e8a4b81541baa7b41a53.pdf ecc87f8ab81dfa0e062d0e17959e61d7 PDF Text Text History of Physical Education in Turkey and Development of Physical Education and Sports Fatih KIYICI Higher Education Institute of Physical Education and Sports, Ankara, Turkey fatihkiyici@gmail.com M. Yavuz KONCA Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey ykonca@hotmail.com Abstract :The purpose of this study is to evaluate the attempts made to improve the progress of the physical education and sports in the history of Turkish sports- from the period of Ottoman Empire (especially between 1839-1876) to the present- and plans made for the future. Ottoman Empire made important progress the effects of which are still evident in such fields as education and sports. The appreciation for European Systems had influences on education and sports as well as any other field. The concept of sports in Turkey acquired clear position within the social life and education in this period and improved immensely. During the early years of the Republic of Turkey, “physical education” was made a requisite course in all educational institutions, which was the first decision taken in this sense in the world. In time, many strategies have been developed and sport councils have been established. Key Words: Ottoman, Physical Education, Sport, Turk 1. Introduction During the early foundation period of the Ottoman Empire, wrestling and archery were the sports performed certain rules being applied as well as mountain climbing, fencing and hunting, (Tayga, 1990, Iscan, 1988). Orhan Bey, the second Ottoman Sultan, considered sport activities to be very important, and placed it among the state affairs. That encouraged the Sultans reigning after him to consider sports as important as he did, at least. This made sport activities take place in the educational institutions of the time known as “Medrese”, and “Enderun (Royal Palace Schools)”. In addition, Kırkpınar Wrestling Contest, which is one of the oldest sport organizations in the world, first appeared in the period of Ottoman Empire (According to Gumus, in 1349, and more commonly known, in 1361). The physical education and sports in the Ottoman Empire were practiced and organized as war games or for military training purposes. Therefore, these activities were not given theoretically but as physical exercise and practice in educational institutions. These institutions are: (Gumus, 1990) a) Tekkes (the dervish lodges): These were the centers of Turkish-Islam Sufism, which can also be called as public schools or schools of informal education, which educated and trained ordinary people in such fields as linguistics, religion, arts, philosophy, and sports (Bilge, 1988). In Ottoman Empire, some of the tekkes were structured as sport centers. Although wrestling was the inherited national sports for the Ottoman, other sports such as the archery, jereed, horse riding and iron mace using were also practiced in those tekkes. Tekkes are said to be the first Ottoman centers from which the sport associations of our time were originated. However, the feature that differs them from today’s sport associations is that they offered more opportunities and better social insurance to the athletes that they supported (Soyer, 2004). In the declining period of the Empire, “Sport Tekkes” which began losing their functions, and not serving in accordance with their purposes, existed until the beginning of the 20th century, as one, but the most important, of the three institutions that gave way the sport activities to be achieved (Fisek, 1983). b) Waqifs (The Foundations & Charity Organizations): The second kind of organization in the field of sports is “waqifs”. The waqifs associated with tekkes were structured as the institutions in the Ottoman Foundation system. Using their own means and reserves without demanding help from any institution, these waqifs served to help the needy, especially those people involved in sport activities and affairs. After the invasion of Bursa, a waqif was established by Orhan Bey’s wife, Nilufer Hatun, in Pınarbası, located in the southern part of the city, where wrestlers performed their wrestling skills in wrestling 275 �championships and thus public were entertained. At a later period of time, the waqifs associated with tekkes came to be known as “Tekkes of Wrestlers”. Such Tekkes as “Ahmet Effendi Remote Tekke” and several others, in Sıraseviler District in Istanbul stand as very good examples (Bilge, 1988). The athletes in waqifs were supported and helped by the sultans, viziers, pashas, masters, big landowners and the wealty people of the time. c) Aga System (The Lordship System): The third type of institution present in Ottoman Empire was the Aga System which stood identical with utmost generosity and hosting the Kirkpinar Wrestling Championsip which was a kind of Lordship System. This institution has existed for 650 years but, strange to say, it is still considered to be a temporary system. However, it is considered that the main goal of this system has been to support sport activities. This institution is known to have been established early in the fourteenth century. (Fisek, 1983). “Aga” is the authorized person who is responsible for inviting the wrestlers and viewers, greeting the guests, giving the feast, accommodating athletes and those accompanying them, giving the rewards, and provided all security for the wrestling championship to take place (Gumus, 1990). 2. Transition from the concept of Traditional Sport Institutions to Modern Sport Associations Associations replaced the traditional institutions which formed the sport organizations nearly in the close of the 19th century. During the period between 1839 and 1876, adaption of European System had its impact felt in the field of sports as in other grounds of life. Traditional institutions were put aside and the transition to the universal kind of organizing was accelerated. From the early beginnings of the 19th century, the modern sports began to improve and be played. In our country, Turkey, modern sports appeared in the begining of 1870s, later than the Western countries. (Atabeyoğlu) The first occasion of modern sport activities in our country was achieved by educational institutions. In the time between 1839 and 1876, in addition to the socio-economic situation and activities of missionaries, the sports became international rather than national, and European system was admired. Thus, all of these are among the factors that accelerate the process of transiting from traditional type of organizations to clubs. The first trainers of gymnastics such as Curel, Monsieur, Stangali, were brought from abroad. The gymnasiums in schools were decorated by them. The brothers, Nicola and Elibardi, educated in those private gymnasiums opened in 1904, participated in 1906 Athens Olympic Games, in the branch of gymnastics. Jorj (Yorgo) received the championship in the field of climbing up 10 m. long rope (Keten 1974) by a difference of seconds ( Kahraman 1995). In our country, the transition from traditional sport system to the system of associations took place in the period between 1839- 1876, the second half of the 19th century (Sumer, 1997). During the Tanzimat Period when the Constitutional Monarchy was first declared, football began to spread fast and became institutionalized in our country like it did all around the world. In the time of Ottoman Empire, the first act of establishing associations was achieved by foreigners. The association named “Imagene” was founded in Moda, and Kadıköy Districts in Istanbul, and,the associations named “Football” and “Rugby” were established in Izmir by Englishmen., again the association named “Elpis” was established by the Greek (Fisek, 1983). In addition, in 1867, the association named “Imperid Yatching and Boating” was established ( Kahraman, 1995). These associations are known as “The First Established Sport Associations or Clubs”. However, “The First Established Turkish Association” is Black Stocking, in 1899, according to Fisek; or is Besiktas, in 1903, according to Bilge (Fisek, 1983, Bilge, 1988). During the Ottoman Era, football was monopolized by foreigners until 1908, the year when The First Declaration of Constitutional Monarchy was announced. In this period, Turkish nationals were forbidden by the government to gather and establish associations and clubs, whereas foreigners experienced no difficulty in becoming associated. During the period between 1839- 1876, physical education and sports were considered to be subjects related to life and began to be included in the subjects taught in schools. In 1863, the tools and facilities needed were provided by military schools, and ‘ physical education and sports’ began to be involved in the subjects to be taught in the Military Academies and Military Senior High Schools ( Bilge, 1988, Fisek, 1983). The Alliance of Gymnastics of Turkey is the first national organization with many sport organizations and clubs, which left its mark on the last period of the Ottoman Empire. The Alliance of Gymnastics of Turkey, the main purpose of which was putting an end to the confusion in the leagues of Istanbul, was founded on 27th of January 1921 by 14 different sport clubs, became official in 8th of June 1922. The Alliance is important because it gathered the different sport clubs together, and unite these clubs which were run according to different write regulations (Hicyılmaz). 276 �3. The Present Status of the Sports Policy in Turkey Turkey, recording immense improvements in the field of sports in 2000s, unfortunately, came to the edge of the period of regression. Unfortunately, originating from the question of how and from where to provide financial resources, the attempts already started to improve infrastructure and all other services were replaced by cancellation of national and international contests, and many training and sport camp programs. B ut, in the last 5-year period, a great improvement has been made in the amount of the budget provided by the sport federations. Also, candidatures for big organizations were in hand, and those were achieved successfully. The most conspicuous ones are Europe Championship Leaguge, Summer Universiade, and Europe and World Basketball Championship. Turkey, which has a good place in summer games, also, was assigned to organize the 2011 Universiade Winter Games. However, new facilities for many kinds of winter games have already began to be constructed. Such work has provided opportunities to train new professional athletes for many new branches of sports such as ski- jumping, curling, short track, and ice- hockey. These investments will have immense impact in the short run, but their best contributions will certainly be benefited in the long run. In Turkey, with the youngest population of Europe, the more we get children and teenagers to engage in sport activities, the healthier generations we can have. ‘Sports’ is ‘over’ politics, and its solemn principle is to serve the public. The percentage of the youngbetween 12 years and 24 years old- in the total population of the country is about 30%, in our country while all developed countries strive to increase the percentage of the young people in their population, which is becoming lower day by day. The main objective of our country is to determine to get its potential population ready for the years to come, and to provide them with opportunities of putting these years into good use. (DPT. 2000) 3.1. Autonomous Fedarations Sport fedarations must have their own autonomous constitutions, which are made up of the representatives of clubs and the sportsmen upon whom nobody will have any influence. In the developed western countries governed by democracy, the governments organize the sport activities, and, in the time of need, they conduct support, control, and , even, provide facilities and inspect the sport organizations ( DPT, 2000) 3.2. Sponsorships All the developed countries and business companies that realize the great power of the sports, are at pains to propagandize for themselves and promote their products through sport organizations and championships, thus, to increase the amount of their trade, both in domestic and foreign markets. Because the sport has such a big power, it is considered to be beneficial to market the national and international sport contests in order to benefit from the business companies in the fields of industry, agriculture and trade. In this way, except the budget provided by the government for sport activities, the contributions of the private sector to such kind of activities will also be available and more achievements will be possible to record. In order to encourage the people to sponsor the sport activities, some arrangements are needed to provide the exemption or discount from the taxes, for the donations to the sport funds and for the owners of these donations (www.sportoto.gov.tr) In the eighth 5-Year -Development Plan of the State of Planning Organization, (in 2000), it has been noted that Turkey has not been able to reach the expected level in regards to the sport activities yet; Neither in building facilities, nor providing the enough involvement of the public is there a positive indicator. Although some individual achievements were recorded, it was also reported that the sport hasn’t become a matter of common philosophy in our society yet. 4. Conclusion and Suggestions Making people physically stronger and psychologically healthier and making sports common in society depends on establishing social relations among people. Each sector in the society has its own responsibilities for spreading the consciousness of sports, and the government must arrange the pre-services, services and laws, which have very close relation with sports accordingly. To make it possible for every member of the society to have opportunities of participating in sports is the ideal objective. To achieve this goal, the roles of the improvements needed to be made in each individual’s social and academic status, educational institutions and the devices of mass media cannot be denied. In society, with the guidance of the best skilled leaders of each and every field, some sport activities such as jogging, 277 �including the groups of the disabled and the scouts, will have unbelievably significant impact on achieving the goals first related to health and then to performance sports. The present status of sports in Turkey is somewhat worrying. Although the society is densely youngpopulated, the engagement of young people in sport activities is far from being satisfying. Some kind of a tendency to passively participate can only be seen in football and basketball. After investigating the degree of suitability of the new sports to the provisions, construction of facilities should take place. The present high schools are good in theoretical education, but there are problems in practice, and we should eliminate all these problems. In the light of the notion that professional athletes should be trained from the early years of their childhood , it should be considered to select some primary schools as pilot ones in each city and encourage them to apply pre-service programs in order to have a basis for the future high schools with sport education. The present management system should also be rearranged, and it should have a democratic and autonomous structure. However, studies of efficiency and performance should be made in addition to the radical arrangements in regard to the pre-service programs. Fedarations should be free both financially and managerially. A certain national policy, a self-governing sport organization and the objectives and plans formed accordingly should be provided. However, the financial sources gathered should be spent in a functional, productive and rational manner in order to achieve the objectives and programs. In the light of the present situation around the world, the opinions and suggestions about “Developing Strategies for Training Professional Athletes” should be discussed by the experts of the field, and the best environment should be created with the support of sponsors. References Atabeyoğlu, C. Spor Tanzimattan Önce Cumhuriyete Türkiye Ansiklopedisi, İletişim yayınları, 1474-1479. Bilge, N. (1988). Türkiye’de Beden Eğitimi Öğretmeninin Yetiştirilmesi. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları No:1095, 1736. DPT. Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, Beden Eğitimi, Spor ve İstanbul Olimpiyatları Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, DPT Yayını No: 2513, Ankara, 2000. Fişek, K. (1983). Spor Yönetimi. Ankara: A. Ü. SBF Yayınları No:515, 256-268. Gümüş, A. (1990). Kırkpınar Güreşleri. Ankara: GSGM Yayını No:90, 3,40. Hiçyılmaz E, Türkiye’de Spor, b.y.y. b.t.y., Yeni Yüzyıl Kitaplığı Türkiye’nin Sorunları Dizisi No:l 1, s.31 - 32 Kahraman, A. (1995). Osmanlı Devletin’de Spor. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları No:1697, 638, 640, 641. Sümer, R. (1997). Türkiye’de Spor Kulüplerinin Yapıları Yönetimdeki Yerleri ve Sorunları Boş Zamanları Değerlendirme Alanları ve Toplumsal Çevreleri İle İlişkileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Beden Eğitimi ve Spor ABD, 68, Ankara. Tayga, Y. (1990). Türk Spor Tarihine Genel Bakış, 8, Ankara. Soyer F. (2004). Osmanlı Devletinde(1839-1908 Tanzimat Dönemi) Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Alanındaki Kurumsal Yapılanmalar ve Okul Programlarındaki Yeri Konusunda Bir İnceleme. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 24; 1: 209-225 www.sportoto.gov.tr (2002). 278 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 352 Title A name given to the resource History of Physical Education in Turkey and Development of Physical Education and Sports Author Author KIYICI, Fatih KONCA, M. Yavuz Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the attempts made to improve the progress of the physical education and sports in the history of Turkish sports- from the period of Ottoman Empire (especially between 1839-1876) to the present- and plans made for the future. Ottoman Empire made important progress the effects of which are still evident in such fields as education and sports. The appreciation for European Systems had influences on education and sports as well as any other field. The concept of sports in Turkey acquired clear position within the social life and education in this period and improved immensely. During the early years of the Republic of Turkey, “physical education” was made a requisite course in all educational institutions, which was the first decision taken in this sense in the world. In time, many strategies have been developed and sport councils have been established Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d0d6cd53bb3627213a7f1b7e418f0a85.pdf acab1f2fa5681b60047fe657c950ff2b PDF Text Text 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Kapsamı İle Genel ve Özel Hedeflerinin Değerlendirilmesi ve Öğretmen Tutumları Aziz KILINÇ Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Filiz TURAN Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Giriş Dil, kültürün hem taşıyıcısı hem de temel unsurudur. Bir topluma ait olan sözlü ve yazılı kültür değerleri dille aktarıldığı için, dil sosyal yapının ve kültürün aynı zamanda yansıtıcısı durumundadır. Kültür, toplumdan topluma ayırt edici bir nitelik taşıdığı halde aynı toplum içinde, fertleri birbiri ile kaynaştıran ve uyumlu kılan bir özelliğe sahiptir. Kültür, bir toplumun sosyal yapısına yön veren ve o topluma kişilik kazandıran değerler bütünüdür. Kültür, genel olarak kendisini oluşturan öğelerin nitelikleri bakımından maddî kültür ve manevî kültür olarak iki grupta ele alınmaktadır. İnsanların günlük hayatı içerisinde kullandığı ev bark şekilleri, kullandıkları çeşitli âlet ve eşyalar, giyim kuşam tarzları, yemek ve beslenme şekilleri gibi toplumların maddî yaşama düzeni ile ilgili olanlara maddi kültür; dil, tarih, gelenek ve görenek, hukuk, ahlâk gibi yaşayışın manevî yönü ile ilgili olanlara da manevî kültür içerisinde yer alır. Genel dilbilimcilerin de belirttiği gibi milletlerin sosyal yapılarından gelen manevî özellikleri, aydın karakterleri, millî şahsiyetleri ve kültür değerleri dilde kendini gösterdiği için, dil ile kültür arasında bu bakımdan sıkı bir ilişki vardır. Bu da demektir ki dil, bir milletin manevî gücünün eseridir. W.Humboldt’un deyimi ile, “Bir milletin dili ruhtur, ruhu da dildir.” Gerçekten de her dilin günlük konuşmalarından başlayarak edebî eserlerine kadar uzanan çeşitli metinlerine şöyle bir göz atılınca bile, bu manevi görmek mümkündür. Çalışmanın Amacı Çalışmanın temel amacı ortaöğretim kurumlarında 2005–2006 eğitim öğretim yılında uygulanmaya başlanan Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamı ile hedeflerinin değerlendirmesi ve Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı dersi öğretmenlerinin 2005 Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programa ilişkin görüşlerini ortaya koymak ve bulgulara dayanılarak öneriler geliştirmektir Eğitim süreci belli bir programa göre yürütülür. Programsız bir eğitim ve öğretim olamaz. Hızla gelişen ve değişen bir dünyada yaşıyoruz.2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı da eğitim sürecinde değişimin son halkasını oluşturmaktadır. Bu yönüyle bu araştırma yeni ve ilk olma özelliği taşımaktadır. Bu özellikleri ile alana katkısının olacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu araştırma ile 2005 Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programının genel ve özel hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesi yapılacak Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretmenlerinin 2005 Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programına karşı görüşleri ortaya konulacaktır. Bu bölümde araştırma modeli, araştırma evreni, verilerin toplanması, verilerin analizi ve yorumlanması alt başlıklarından oluşmaktadır: Bu araştırma Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamı ile genel ve özel hedeflerin değerlendirilmesine ilişkin ders öğretmenlerinin görüşlerini belirlemeyi amaçlamıştır. Bu yüzden betimsel nitelikte olan bu araştırmada amaca en uygun model olan tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulguları literatür taraması ve anketin uygulanması sonucu elde edilen verilere dayanılarak oluşturulmuştur. Çalışmanın Evreni Araştırmanın evrenini Çanakkale merkez ile Biga, Bayramiç, Lapseki, Gelibolu ve Gökçeada ilçelerinde resmi liselerin 2006-2007 Öğretim yılında Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programını uygulayan öğretmenlerden oluşmaktadır. Araştırmamızda 80 öğretmene ulaşılmıştır. 319 �Örneklem grubunun oluşturulmasında Çanakkale ilinin coğrafya, nüfus ve ulaşılabilirlik özellikleri dikkate alınmış ve bu özelliklere göre ilçelere ulaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Araştırma evrenini oluşturan okul ve öğretmen sayıları şekil 1’de verilmiştir. EVREN Çanakkale merkez ile Biga, Bayramiç, Lapseki, Gelibolu ve Gökçeada ilçelerinde resmi Ortaöğretim Kurumlarında 2006-2007 Öğretim yılında Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programını uygulayan öğretmenler OKULLAR VE ÖĞRETMEN SAYILARI Okullar MERKEZ BİGA BAYRAMİÇ LAPSEKİ GELİBOLU GÖKÇEADA Toplam 38 15 okul 8 okul 4 okul 2 okul 7 okul 2 okul Öğretmen 36 kişi 17 kişi 6 kişi 3 kişi 12 kişi 5 kişi Sayıları Toplam 80 Şekil 1. Verilerin Toplanması: Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, çalışma evreninde yer alan liselerdeki Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerine uygulanan anketten yararlanılmıştır. Anketin geliştirilmesinde öncelikle öğretimin değerlendirilmesi ile ilgili kaynaklar taranmıştır. Bunlardan yararlanılarak ankete girilebilecek maddeler taslak olarak yazılmıştır. Ayrıca sunuş yazısı, yönergeler ile kişisel bilgiler bölümleri oluşturulmuştur. Böylece ilk taslak anket danışman öğretim üyesinin görüş ve önerileri doğrultusunda düzeltilerek hazır duruma getirilmiştir. Araştırma için geliştirilmiş ve uygulanmaya hazır duruma getirilmiş anket yeterli sayıda çoğaltıldıktan sonra, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü aracılığıyla Çanakkale İl Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğünden anketin liselerde uygulanması için gerekli izin alınmıştır Araştırma amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanan ve uygulamaya hazır hale getirilen anket belirlenen okullarda 2006-2007 öğretim yılı 2. döneminde uygulanmıştır. Uygulamada katılım gönüllülük esasına dayandığından cevaplamak isteyenlere dağıtılmamıştır. Ayrıca Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı öğretmeni olduğu halde Dil Anlatı Dersi Öğretim Programının uygulamayan öğretmenlere de dağıtılmamıştır. Sonuç olarak ulaşılan 100 öğretmenden 80 tanesine anket uygulanmıştır. Anket iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölümde kişisel bilgiler ( cinsiyet, mesleki kıdem, eğitim düzeyi ) yer almaktadır. İkinci bölümde Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamı ile genel ve özel hedeflerinin değerlendirilmesi ile ilgili 20 soru yer almaktadır. Anketi oluşturan 20 ifadeden ilk 8 tanesi Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının hedeflerinin değerlendirilmesi ile ilgilidir.9- 17 arasındaki ifadeler ise Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamının değerlendirilmesi ile ilgilidir. 18. 19. ve 20. sorular ölçme değerlendirmeye yöneliktir. Araştırma alt amaçlar doğrultusunda hazırlanan anket sonucu SPSS programından yararlanılarak anketin güvenirlik katsayısı 0,879 olarak bulunmuştur. Anketteki maddelere ilişkin görüşlerini belirtmeleri için( 1 ) Hiç Katılmıyorum, (2) Kısmen Katılıyorum, (3 ) Büyük oranda Katılıyorum, (4 ) Katılıyorum şeklinde derecelendirilmiştir. Verilerin Analizi Anket yolu ile toplanan verilerin analizinde SPSS programı kullanılmıştır.Araştırma verilerinin analizi araştırma amacına uygun olarak aşağıda verilen sıralama ile yapılmıştır. Anketin birinci bölümünde katılımcıların kişisel özelliklerine ilişkin bilgilerin frekans (f) ve yüzde (%) dağılımları belirlenmiştir. Anketin ikinci bölümünde Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin öğretmenlerin değerlendirmelerini içeren verilerin analizinde, her bir 320 �maddeye ait frekans (f), yüzde (%), aritmetik ortalama (X) ve standart sapma (S) değerleri hesaplanarak tablolar halinde verilmiş ve bu tablolara dair yorumlar yapılmıştır. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyete, eğitim düzeyine ve kıdeme göre farklılıkları ise tek yönlü varyans analizi (one-way ANOVA) tekniği kullanılarak hesaplanmıştır.Tek yönlü varyans analizi sonucu anlamlı çıkan görüşlere yönelik farkın kaynağını belirlemek amacıyla Tukey testi uygulanmıştır. Katılım Düzeyi (4) Ölçmenin Gerekçesi (3) f f (%) (%) 9. Programın kapsamı programınhedefleri ile tutarlıdır. 28(35,0) 19(23.8) 10.Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir 16(20,0) 11. Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır. 12. Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir. 13.Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur. 14.Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir. 15. Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa,basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır. (2) (1) f Ss X f (%) (%) 30(37.5) 3(3.8) 2,9000 ,9359 25(31.3) 30(37.5) 9(11.3) 2,6000 ,9359 15(18.8) 29(36.3) 26(32.5) 10(12.5) 2,6125 ,9345 20(25.0) 38(47.5) 18(22.5) 4(5.0) 2,9250 ,8233 7(8.8) 17(21.3) 43(53.8) 13(16.3) 2,2250 ,8264 15(18.8) 26(32.5) 36(45.0) 3(3.8) 2,6625 ,8259 ,9691 17(21.3) 29(36.3) 23(28.8) 11(13.8) 2,6500 16. Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır. 11(13.8) 17(21.3) 27(33.8) 25(31.3) 2,1750 1,0284 17. Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir. 24(30,0) 28(35,0) 22(27,5) 6(7,5) 2,8750 ,9329 Tablo 1. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Kapsamına İlişkin Görüşleri * (4) Katılıyorum (3) Büyük Oranda Katılıyorum (2) Kısmen Katılıyorum (1) Hiç Katılmıyorum Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamına ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde, “Programın kapsamı programın hedefleri ile tutarlıdır.” maddesine % 58,8 oranında, “Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir” maddesine %51,3 oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır.” maddesine %55,1 oranında, “Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir.” maddesine %72,5 oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.” maddesine %51,3’ oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. 321 �“Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa, basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır.” maddesine %57,6’ oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir.” maddesine % 65 oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. Ancak; “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine %53,8’inin kısmen katıldığı,yine “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.”maddesine % 45’inin kısmen katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.”maddesine% 33,8’inin kısmen katıldıkları ve % 31.3’ünün katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu maddede “Hiç Katılmıyorum” seçeneğinin diğer maddelere göre en yüksek oranda tercih edildiği görülmektedir. Katılım Düzeyi (4) Ölçmenin Gerekçesi 18. Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir. 19. Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir. 20. Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir. (3) f (%) (2) f (%) (1) f Ss X f (%) (%) 26(32,5) 8(10,0) 2,7500 ,9744 22(27,5) 24(30,0) 11(13,8) 29(36,3) 28(35,0) 12(15,0) 2,4875 ,9139 19(23,8) 22(27,5) 31(38,8) 8(10,0) 2,6500 ,9560 Tablo 2. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Değerlendirilmesine İlişkin Görüşleri * (4) Katılıyorum (3) Büyük Oranda Katılıyorum (2) Kısmen Katılıyorum (1) Hiç Katılmıyorum Ankette Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla sorulmuş olan sorulara verilen cevapları incelediğimizde , “Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir.” maddesine % 57,5’inin katıldığı bunun yanında % 32,5’ inin kısmen katıldığı görülmektedir. “Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %50,1’inin katıldığı bunun yanında % 35’inin kısmen katıldığı görülmektedir. “Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %51,3’ünün katıldığı ve % 38.8’ inin kısmen katıldığı görülmektedir. Bu üç maddeye yüksek oranda katılımın olmadığı genelde maddelere %50 civarının üstünde katılım sağlandığı görülmektedir. Sonuçlar 322 �Öğretmenlerin 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin görüşlerini tespit etmek amacıyla yapılan araştırmanın sonuçları şöyledir: 1. Araştırmaya katılan Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı öğretmenlerinin % 50’si bayan , % 50’si erkektir.Bayan (40 ), ve erkek (40 ) toplam 80 kişidir. Öğretmenler Meslekî kıdemleri açısından incelendiğinde % 12,5’ i 0-5 yıl , % 27,5’i 6-10 yıl , % 23,8’i 11-15 yıl , 12,5’i 16-20 yıl , % 23,8’inin 20 yıl üstü oldukları tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin eğitim düzeyleri ise şu şekildedir: Lisans mezunu % 87,5 , Yüksek lisans mezunu % 12,5’ tir. 2. Öğretmenlerin, Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Hedeflerine ilişkin verileri analiz edildiğinde; Öğretmenlerin “Programın hedefleri toplumun beklenti ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.”maddesine % 37,6 oranında katıldıkları, % 47,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 12,5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin bu madde için olumlu görüşte oldukları tespit edilmiştir. “Programın hedefleri öğrenci ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine % 40 oranında katıldıkları, % 47,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 12,5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu maddenin tamamlayıcısı niteliğindeki “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.”maddesine % 25,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 46,3 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 28.8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Bu maddeler için öğretmenlerin katılım oranlarının “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaştığı görülmektedir. Hedeflerle ilgili 8 madde içinde “Hiç Katılmıyorum” seçeneğinin en yüksek oranının % 28,8 ile “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.” maddesine olduğu tespit edilmiştir. “Hedefler konu alanının özelliklerine uygun mu? ” amacına yönelik hazırlanmış olan “Program kendi özelliklerine uygun genel amaçlar içerir” maddesine % 76,3 ile en yüksek katılımın olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Yine bu maddeye öğretmenlerin % 23,8 inin kısmen katıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Bu maddeye katılmayan öğretmenin olmadığı da tespit edilmiştir. “Hedefler konu alanının özelliklerine uygun mu?” amacına yönelik hazırlanmış olan ikinci anket maddesi “ Programın hedefleri kazandırılacak davranışları içermektedir.”e öğretmenlerin % 62,5 oranında katıldıkları, % 32,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre hedeflerin konu alanına uygunluğu konusunda öğretmenlerin olumlu görüşte oldukları tespit edilmiştir. “Hedefler birbiriyle tutarlı mı ?” alt amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanmış olan “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 70 oranında katıldıkları, % 28,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 1,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuca göre öğretmenlerin “hedeflerin birbiriyle tutarlı olduğu” konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları ortaya çıkmaktadır. “Hedef ifadeleri yeterince açık mı?” alt amacına yönelik olarak oluşturulmuş “Programda öğrencilere kazandırılacak davranışlar açıkça ifade edilmiştir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 56,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 33,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 10 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre hedef ifadelerinin yeterince açık olduğu konusunda öğretmenlerin olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları görülmektedir. “Programdaki hedefler gerçekleşebilecek niteliktedir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 58,8 oranında katıldıkları, % 30 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 11,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin hedeflerin gerçekleşecek nitelikte olduğu konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları görülmektedir. Öğretmenlerin, Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Hedeflerine İlişkin 8 maddenin 5 tanesine büyük oranda katıldıkları 3 tanesine büyük oranda katılmayıp kısmen katıldıkları tespit edilmiştir. 3. Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamına ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde, “Programın kapsamı programın hedefleri ile tutarlıdır” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 58,8 oranında katıldıkları, % 37.5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 3,8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin programın hedeflerinin kapsamı ile tutarlılığı konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları belirlenmiştir. 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı kapsamında yer alan bilgiler önemli, dayanıklı ve geçerli mi ? alt amacına uygun olarak oluşturulmuş 3 anket maddesini tek tek ele alırsak; “Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir.”maddesine öğretmenlerin % 51,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 37,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 11,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. “Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 55,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 32,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 12,5 oranında katılmadıkları belirlenmiştir. 323 �“Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir.” maddesine %72,5 ile en yüksek katılımın sağlandığı tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin bu maddeye % 22,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu üç maddeye bakarak 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programında yer alan bilgilerin önemli, dayanıklı ve geçerli olduğu konusunda öğretmenlerin olumlu görüş bildirdikleri belirlenmiştir. 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı kapsamında yer alan bilgilerin sunuluş sırası öğrenme ilkelerine uygun mu ? alt amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanmış olan 3 anket maddesi tek tek ele alalım : “Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa, basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 57,6 oranında katıldıkları, % 28,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları, % 13,8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Bu madde için öğretmenlerin olumlu görüş belirttikleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 35,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 33,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 31,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre kapsamla ilgili bu madde üzerinde düşünülmesi gerektiği ortaya çıkmaktadır. “Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 65 oranında katıldıkları, % 27,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 7,5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin bu madde için olumlu görüş belirttikleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı kapsamı öğrenciler için anlamlı mı? alt amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanmış 2 anket maddesini tek tek ele alalım: “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine öğretmenlerin %30,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 53,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 16,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Sonuçlara göre, öğretmenlerin “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaştıkları görülmektedir. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 51,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 45 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 3,8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Öğretmenlerin programın içeriğini oluşturan konuların günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebileceği konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları ortaya çıkmaktadır. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamına ilişkin 9 maddenin 7’sine büyük oranda katıldıkları tespit edilmiştir. En düşük katılımın “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine %30,1 olduğu ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu maddede öğretmenlerin “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaştıkları( % 53,8 ) tespit edilmiştir. Kapsamla ilgili olarak “Hiç katılmıyorum” seçeneğinin en yüksek oranı % 31,3 ile “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.” maddesidir. 4. Ankette Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla sorulmuş olan sorulara verilen cevapları incelediğimizde ; “Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir.” maddesine % 57,5 oranında katıldıkları, % 32,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 10 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. “Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %50,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 35 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 15 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. “Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %51,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 38,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 10 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu 3 maddeye yüksek oranda katılımın olmadığı genelde maddelere %50 civarının üstünde katılım sağlandığı görülmektedir. Öğretmenlerin bu maddelere % 30 civarlarında da kısmen katıldıkları ortaya çıkmaktadır.Bunu programın yeni olmasına, uygulamada daha ikinci yılı olmasına bağlayabiliriz. 5. Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamı ile genel ve özel hedeflerinin değerlendirilmesi hususunda görüşleri cinsiyete, eğitim düzeyine ve kıdeme göre değişmekte midir? Alt amacına göre sonuçları değerlendirirsek: a) Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersinin hedefleri, kapsamı ve değerlendirmesine ilişkin görüşleri ile cinsiyetleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı yapılan t-testi sonuçlarından anlaşılmaktadır. Ankete katılan 40 kadın öğretmen ve 40 erkek öğretmenin verdikleri yanıtların ortalamalarına bakıldığında, “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.”maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması; kadınlar X = 3,10, erkekler X = 3,02, “Program kendi özelliklerine uygun genel amaçlar içerir.” maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması; kadınlar X = 3,22, erkekler X = 3,17 ile yüksek düzeyde katıldıkları görülmektedir. 324 �Bu maddeler içerisinde erkek ve kadınların en düşük oranda katılımları “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.” maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması; kadınlar X = 1,97 erkekler X = 2,22 olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedefleri, kapsamı ve değerlendirilmesine ilişkin ortalamaları ile cinsiyetleri arasında farklılığın olmamasında Dil Anlatım Dersinin işlenişine ve uygulamalarına yönelik aynı düşünceye sahip olmalarından kaynaklandığını söyleyebiliriz. b) Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersinin hedefleri, kapsamı ve değerlendirmesine ilişkin görüşleri ile eğitim düzeyleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı yapılan t-testi sonuçlarından anlaşılmaktadır. Tablo 6’da ankete katılan 70 lisans mezunu, ve 10 yüksek lisans mezunu öğretmenin verdikleri yanıtların ortalamalarına bakıldığında, “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.” maddesine ilişkin görüşlerinin ortalaması; lisans mezunları X = 3,02, yüksek lisans mezunları X = 3,30 ile en yüksek katılımın olduğu görülmektedir. Bu maddeler içinde lisans ve yüksek lisans mezunları olan öğretmenlerin en düşük oranda katılımları. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.”maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması lisans mezunu X = 2,21, Yüksek lisans mezunu X = 1,90 ‘dır. Lisans ve yüksek lisans mezunu öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedefleri ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin ortalamaları ile eğitim düzeyleri arasındaki farklılığın olmamasında dersin işlenişi ve uygulanması konusunda aynı yolu izledikleri söylenebilir. c) Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin görüşleri ile mesleki kıdemleri arasındaki ilişki one-way ANOVA testi yapılarak incelenmiş ve elde edilen bulgular her madde için ayrı olarak tablolaştırılmış ve yorumlanmıştır. Buna göre: 1) “Programın hedefleri kazandırılacak davranışları içermektedir.” ifadesini taşıyan 1. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 20 yıl üstü öğretmenlerin X = 3,15, ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. En düşük ortalamanın ise 0–5 yıl X = 2,40 olduğu görülmektedir. Bu maddeye katılımın en düşük düzeyde 0–5 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlere ait olması öğretmenlik mesleğindeki deneyimlerinin az olmasına bağlanabilir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 1’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 2) “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.” ifadesini içeren 2. maddeye ait ortalamaların 20 yıl üstü öğretmenlerin X = 3,26, ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu görülmektedir. En düşük ortalamanın ise 6-10 yıl X = 2,90 olduğu görülmektedir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 2’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 3) “Programın hedefleri toplumun beklenti ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur” ifadesini içeren 3. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 3’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 4) “Programın hedefleri öğrenci ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” ifadesini içeren 4. maddeye ait ortalamaların bütün kıdemlere göre orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 4’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 5) “Program kendi özelliklerine uygun genel amaçlar içerir.” ifadesini içeren 5. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin yüksek düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 5’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 6) “Programdaki hedefler gerçekleşebilecek niteliktedir.”ifadesini içeren 6. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0-5 yıl X = 3,00,ile yüksek düzeyde diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 6’ ya ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 7) “Programda öğrencilere kazandırılacak davranışlar açıkça ifade edilmiştir.”ifadesini içeren 7. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 7’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 8) “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.” ifadesini içeren 8. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 6–10 yıl X = 1,95 ile düşük düzeyde olduğu diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 8’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 9) “Programın kapsamı programın hedefleri ile tutarlıdır.” ifadesini içeren 9. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0-5 yıl ile 11-15yıl X = 3,00,ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde 325 �tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 9’ a ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 10) “Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir.”ifadesini içeren 10. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 10’ a ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 11) Tabloya göre “Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır.” ifadesini içeren 11. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0–5 yıl X = 1,80 ile düşük düzeyde olduğu, 11-15yıl X = 3,05 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 11’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olduğu ( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. Bunun 0-5 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin öğretmenlikte tecrübe sahibi olmamalarına bağlıyabiliriz. 12) “Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir.”ifadesini içeren 12. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 16–20 yıl X = 3,20 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu, diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 12’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 13) “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.”ifadesini içeren 13. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 13’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 14) “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.”ifadesini içeren 14. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 14’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 15) “Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa, basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır.” ifadesini içeren 15. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 15’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 16) “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.” ifadesini içeren 16. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 11-15yıl X = 1,68 ile düşük düzeyde olduğu , diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 16’ ya ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 17) “Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir.” ifadesini içeren 17. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0–5 yıl X = 3,20, 11-15yıl X = 3,05, 16–20 yıl X = 3,10 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu, 6–10 yıl X = 2, 59, , 20 yıl üstü X = 2,73 ile orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 17’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 18) “Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir.” ifadesini içeren 18. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 11-15yıl X = 3,00 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 18’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 19) “Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir.” ifadesini içeren 19. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 19’ a ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 20) “Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir.” ifadesini içeren 20. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 20’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedefleri ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin anket maddelerine ait görüşleri ile kıdemleri arasında 11. madde hariç anlamlı bir fark olmadığı ortaya çıkmıştır. Öneriler Bu başlık altında araştırmanın bulguları çerçevesinde uygulayıcılara ve benzer konularda araştırma yapmayı düşünen araştırmacılara aşağıdaki öneriler sunulabilir. 1. Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Hedeflerinin toplumun ve öğrencilerin beklenti ve ihtiyaçlarına uygunluğu konusunda bir araştırma daha yapılarak program yeniden gözden geçirilmelidir. Çünkü öğretmenlerin programın hedeflerinin toplumun ve öğrencilerin beklenti ve ihtiyaçları konusundaki görüşleri “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaşmıştır. 326 �2. Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının içeriğini oluşturan konuların sınıflara göre dağılımının dengeli olarak yapılması için program yeniden gözden geçirilmelidir. Çünkü öğretmenler programın içeriğini oluşturan konuların sınıflara göre dağılımının dengeli olarak yapılmadığı konusunda yoğunlaşmışlardır. 3. Öğretmenlerin hizmet içi eğitime alınarak programa daha hâkim olmaları sağlanmalıdır. Bu kurslarda programı uygulayan kişiler olarak öğretmenlerin gözlem ve görüşleri dikkate alınmalıdır. 4. Öğretim programı çağdaş ve bilimsel ölçülere göre hazırlansa da uygulamada etkinliğini belirlemek için programın değerlendirilmesine ihtiyaç vardır. Bilim ve teknikteki gelişmelerin, kültürel değişimin sonucu olarak eğitim programının geliştirilmesi gerekir.Bunun için eğitim programının aksaklık ve eksikliklerinin belirlenmesinde program geliştirme uzmanlarının,akademisyenlerin öğretmenlerin,velilerin, öğrencilerin görüşlerinin alınması gerekir.Programın uygulayıcısı olan öğretmenlerden programın hedefleri ve kapsamı dışında uygulama ve değerlendirme konusunda da anket ve görüşme teknikleri ile veriler elde edilmelidir. Dostane kelimesi yerine arkadaşça Realizm kelimesi yerine gerçekçilik Haller kelimesi yerine durumlar Kalbim kelimesi yerine yüreğim Kontrolü kelimesi yerine denetlemeyi Show kelimesi yerine gösteri Şarj kelimesi yerine dolum Blander kelimesi yerine karıştırıcı kullanılabilir. Aslında Türk dilinde çok fazla yabancı kelime olmasına rağmen bu kelimelerin birçoğunun Türkçe karşılığı vardır. Türk dilinin bir parçası haline gelmiş ve henüz Türkçede karşılığı olmayan bazı kelimeler için ise şimdilik yapacak bir şey yoktur. Dilin kurallarına uygun yeni kelimeler oluşturulup halk tarafından kabul edilinceye kadar eksi ve artılarıyla bu kelimeler dilimizde misafir olarak kalacaklardır. Bununla birlikte Türkçeleşmiş bazı yabancı kelimelerin dilimizden çıkarılıp atılması mümkün değildir. Çünkü Türk dili ve edebiyatı tarihi boyunca söz konusu bu kelimeler -Türkçe karşılıklarıyla- beraber asırlarca kullanılagelmişlerdir. Kaynaklar Yabancı Sözlere Karşılıklar Kılavuzu TDK yayınları Ankara 2008 Nişanyan, Sevan Sözlerin Soyağacı Adam Yayınları, İstanbul 2007 Sarı, Mustafa Türkçenin Batı Dilleriyle İlişkisi, TDK yayınları Ankara 2008 Ergin, Muharrem Üniversiteler İçin Türk Dili,Bayrak Yayınları İstanbul 1997 327 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 381 Title A name given to the resource 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Kapsamı İle Genel ve Özel Hedeflerinin Değerlendirilmesi ve Öğretmen Tutumları Author Author KILINÇ, Aziz TURAN, Filiz Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8d03ac4c351476f29a18692609437a05.pdf 3c6843bd7b29e93a2005de2bd9884057 PDF Text Text Exploring Comprehension Strategies of Low & High Ability Listeners with a Focus on the Effect of Explicit Strategy Instruction M. Naci KAYAOĞLU School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Ali Şükrü ÖZBAY School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey ozbay@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: While acknowledging the practical value and relative merit of listening comprehension as a means of foreign language learning, the present paper argues the case for a need to teach listening strategies to enhance students’ realization of the various forms of speech. This contention is further enhanced by the fact that students’ awareness of useful listening strategies will help them understand the foreign language correctly. To this end, this data-based research was undertaken using interviews and retrospective protocols with 17 EFL students and a pretest / post- test documentation. Introduction The fact that the ability to understand others through listening plays a very important role in the lives of people is an old consensus by now. Among the four major areas of communication skills and language development-listening, speaking, reading, and writing--the one that is the most basic is listening. Particularly in a language classroom, listening ability plays a significant role in the development of other language skills. The first thing students do in order to learn a language is that they generally have to listen to the words several times before they are able to recognize and pronounce those words. Listening in this respect gains priority among other language skills since it also helps students build vocabulary, develop language proficiency, and improve language usage. Unfortunately, it was not accepted as an active skill in the development of language and that is why, until recently the skill of listening comprehension was ignored in language teaching and learning methodology. Fortunately, the ideas about language learning and teaching during the last two decades changed considerably and it is only then, listening comprehension was considered as an active process through which listeners focus on selected aspects of aural input and creates meaning from what they hear. There are not many studies made so far and those that have been made show that listeners use some mental processes while they are listening. Those who use these mental processes called as listening comprehension strategies easily and fully comprehend the aural input. Some researchers also claimed that teaching such strategies can help learners facilitate better comprehension and their studies indicated that training in the use of learning strategies helps students to become more effective learners. Based on these research findings, it can be said that there is a relationship between strategy use and language learning proficiency and ability, and learning strategies training can effectively contribute to learners’ language learning improvement when done properly. In the last 20 years or so, there have been fundamental changes in the ways language learning and language teaching are perceived. Since 1970s-1980s there have, indeed, been significant paradigm shifts in learning theory, linguistic theory, and instructional models, with an important movement from a primary focus on teaching and a teacher-centered classroom to an increasing concern with learning and a learner-centered classroom. At the same time there has been a shift from a major emphasis on structure to an emphasis that includes attention to language function and communication. (Morley, 2001). Parallel with these changes in language learning and language teaching, in particular there has been a growing interest in defining how learners can manage their own learning and become more autonomous. Thus, there is now a substantial body of research outlining learner behaviors and describing the thought processes they follow while learning a foreign language. The mental and communicative 94 �processes that directly contribute to learning are called learning strategies. Learning strategies are broadly defined as a set of operations used by learners that will facilitate the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information (Chamot, 1987). Brown and Yule (1983) categorized learning strategies into two groups, these being Cognitive Learning Strategies which are composed of inference, guessing from the context, and elaboration, or relating new information to other concepts in memory, and Meta-cognitive Learning Strategies which are composed of knowledge about cognition or applying thoughts about the cognitive operations of oneself or others, and the regulation of cognition, or planning, monitoring and evaluating learning or problem solving. In addition to these learning strategy categories, Chamot (1982) added Social-affective Learning Strategies such as cooperation and questioning for clarification. Working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pooling information, modeling a language activity as well as asking a teacher or a native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation or examples are all Social-affective Learning Strategies. Studies in learning strategies have mostly focused on reading, writing, and speaking strategies of EFL / ESL learners. Learning strategies in listening skills have been widely ignored by researchers. However, the skill of listening comprehension has been thought to be the core of learning a language. There are a number of possible reasons for this insufficient importance that was attributed to listening comprehension. Reasons for this may lie in the lack of emphasis on teaching listening comprehension in language textbooks in general, as well as in the lack of available material specifically developed for and focused on the teaching of listening skills. Brown (1990) states that students are taught to speak slowly and clearly, and the teachers generally uses a public style language in the classroom which is also clear and slow. This speech style contrasts with the speech style of native speakers who do not speak slowly or clearly. So, it can be said that students who are from environments where English is not the language of the country have very few opportunities to hear the real language; these students therefore are not accustomed to hearing the language as it is produced by native speakers for native speakers. For that reason, students from the countries in which English is taught as a foreign language frequently have great difficulty understanding English spoken to them when they come into contact with native speakers of the language. According to the Herschenhom (1989), the fact that a student can speak a lot of sentences in a foreign language does not necessarily mean that he will understand them from a native speaker. There is a virtual chasm between the performance of native speakers engaged in a conversation and what a students expects a conversation to sound like (Herschenhorn, 1989). Another problematic point is that students are usually exposed to one accent of English, that spoken by the teacher and they have troubles when they are exposed to different accents. Belasco (1971, cited in Morley, 2001) expressed his concerns in that issue very clearly: “I was rudely jolted by the realization that it is possible to develop so-called ‘speaking ability’ and yet be virtually incompetent in understanding the spoken language... students were learning to audio comprehend certain specific dialogues and drills but could not understand the language out of the mouths of native speakers”(Belasco, 1971, cited in Morley, 2001). If these are correct and comprehension of the spoken language is not seen as a natural process, then it seems reasonable to claim that this ability should be taught in classroom environments. And since the early 1970s courses on listening comprehension have begun to be covered into curricula. Teaching listening comprehension has become a significant part of every language teaching program and teachers have started to help learners become better listeners. The Study The significant role of listening comprehension in language teaching has been accepted by researchers in the last few decades; however, little research has been given on what listeners actually do while listening to oral texts and to what extent learners’ listening comprehension proficiency can be improved. Hence, the major emphasis of this study will be on the comprehension strategies that are used by high and low ability intermediate level EFL students in the department of Western Languages and Literature, English Language and Literature , K.T.U with a focus on the effect of explicit strategy instruction. Teachers and researchers have all observed that some students approach the language learning task in more successful ways than others. That is, all other things being equal, for example, the same learning environment, the same target language, the same age group, the same native tongue, some students are more successful than others in learning a second or foreign language. Any students, for instance, may be good at speaking than writing or vice versa, or at reading comprehension than listening. This difference in the distribution of general success in the particular skills suggests that learning strategies in listening comprehension in Turkish setting need to be investigated. As stated before, high ability language learners use a variety of strategies to assist them in gaining command of new language skills and with successful training, low ability learners can apply these strategies to various language tasks. And teachers have an important role in this training by conveying strategy applications to students and thereby supporting student efforts to learn the new language (Rubin, 1987). In this paper, the following questions were asked and their answers were sought by investigating the learning strategies that students use in 95 �listening comprehension. These questions are “What are the different types of comprehension strategies employed by high & low ability listeners (EFL) in a Turkish setting?” and “Does explicit instruction in effective listening strategies help learners become better listeners?”. According to Cohen (1987), once the leaning strategies of good language learners are identified, they can be made available, and where necessary, used by less successful learners to enable them to learn a foreign language more effectively. As effective listeners use strategies more successfully than those nominated as less effective listeners, the less successful students may need assistance in becoming more strategic learners. Therefore, this study aims at investigating the effect of explicit strategy instruction in listening comprehension by identifying the listening strategies used by a group of high & low ability EFL listeners. One implication is that language teachers certainly play a crucial role in teaching and learning arena as they are supposed to create opportunities to help learners gain independent control over the learning process. With this idea, for the educationalists, the present study gains significance as the results may probably shed more light on the value of explicit listening strategy training through awareness raising tasks. Methodology In this paper, qualitative and quantitative research methods were used and quantitative data was obtained from learners’ self-reports through the procedures of small group interviews and immediate retrospective verbalizations. This was to allow us to understand the types of listening strategies used by high and low ability listeners. Between a pretest and a posttest, five principal strategies were taught explicitly for listening comprehension and a qualitative data was obtained through the comparison of participants’ pretest and posttest results. Also a quantitative analysis has been done through these results about the effectiveness of direct strategy instruction. The Findings In the analysis of protocols, both cognitive and meta-cognitive listening strategies of high and low ability listeners were examined. For both groups, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies were identified. Cognitive strategies include inference, elaboration, recombination, imagery, contextualization, resourcing, translation, notetaking, grouping, key word and repetition and meta-cognitive strategies include self-management, selfreinforcement, selective-attention, self-monitoring, and directed attention (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990). The data was subsequently grouped under 16 representative strategies. Table 1 on the next page shows the high ability listeners’ retrospective protocols, and Table 2 shows the low ability listeners’ protocols. They also show the lists of generic strategy classifications-cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies- and their respective strategies. Cognitive strategies were used to process utterances directly by transforming them into mental representations that could be stored and recalled. Eleven such strategies were identified. Through cognitive strategies, many informants made associations between new and old information. Some of these strategies had clear benefits. When informants used ‘contextualization’, they were less preoccupied with getting the exact meanings of words. Instead they were more interested in constructing meaning in terms of the text itself and the information outside the text. The success of some strategies, however, was dependent on other factors. Elaboration strategy, though generally is helpful, was counter-productive when the wrong kind of knowledge was drawn upon. Translation actually slowed down processing and often took the informants’ attention away from clues that might have assisted their comprehension. Recombination tactics were not useful when the informants did not hear or note down a sufficient number of key words for recreating the original message. Sometimes even when many comprehended words were noted, some informants were still unable to arrive at an understanding because they lacked the relevant background knowledge to complete the gaps. Key word strategy refers to the various ways in which the informants focused all their attention on a small part of the message. Because many informants experienced poor sound-script recognition, they tried to spell familiar sounding words in the hope that they could match them with something they already knew. Some informants also stopped listening to think about the meaning of one part of the input. Other strategy included repeating and grouping words and sounds of an unfamiliar word or a phrase. The informants hoped that this would facilitate recalling and processing at the next available opportunity, such as by using a dictionary or asking someone about the meaning. Although rehearsal or repetition may strengthen an item in short-term memory, language learners generally have limited capacity in their short-term memory to retain information in the target language. 96 �Meta-cognitive tactics were used to manage complex cognitive processes before, during and after processing the information. Five meta-cognitive strategies were identified, these were self–management, selfreinforcement, selective-attention, self-monitoring, directed attention. Like cognitive tactics, some meta-cognitive tactics were more useful than others. On the whole, pre-listening preparation strategies prepared informants both, cognitively and actively. By anticipating contents, content words and rehearsing their sounds, informants avoided word recognition problems and processed the input more quickly. By actively encouraging themselves to relax during listening, they also lowered their anxiety in what many learners would agree to be a stressful activity. Another strategy used was selective attention. Informants decided in advance those aspects of the input they wanted to pay attention to. Directed attention, which helped to monitor attention, ensured that the informants perceptual processing was not interrupted. Nevertheless, some informants found the strategy of maintaining concentration to be stressful because they had not learned to vary the intensity of their concentration. To check and confirm understanding during listening, self-monitoring strategy were used. Some informants used monitoring to assess whether or not the problematic part would affect the comprehension of the input. As one noted: ‘‘In fact I know all the words specifically but one word that I couldn’t catch cause me not to comprehend the meaning’’. Self monitoring strategies gave informants the option to actively employ other strategies to facilitate understanding. High Ability Retrospective Protocols Representative Strategies Generic Strategy Class. INFERENCE COGNITIVE ELABORATION COGNITIVE DIRECTED- ATTENTION META-COGN. …‘ At first I listened to the each words and I tried to catch the words that I understood easily such as evolution, sea life, marine shelf..get the meaning.’ RECOMBINATION COGNITIVE …‘I could not figure out the words uttered by the first speaker but the second speaker’s talked clearly and I think this part is much easier than the first one. I can understand it.’ SELF-MONITORING META-COGNITIVE …‘I could understand this sentence because when the woman takes the papers, something falls down so there should be put something behind the drawer to prevent this. I create such a scene in my mind to catch the correct answer.’ IMAGERY COGNITIVE …‘In the first part, the women talks about something…I nearly understood but the structure ‘I wish I could’ made me confused and I couldn’t decide whether she has gone or not, I think I have to learn more about ‘wish clauses. RESOURCING COGNITIVE … ‘ I tried to understand the meaning the words around the word ‘ashame’ but I couldn’ t and I paid particularattention to the following sentence …’ SELECTIVE ATTENTION META-COGNITIVE SELF REINFORCEMENT META-COGNITIVE ‘… in the speech, the woman clearly refuses the invitation of the man. So I think the expression ‘I wish I could…’ helped me comprehend the talk..’ …‘About Washington. I think it is a nice place and there are many places to visit so the woman states that hot weather can’t prevent her to go there.. by this way I marked the…’ … ‘Marine shells’. I tried to concentrate on this phrase and I think I don’ t know the exact meaning of ‘marine shelf’ so I let it pass and I tried to catch the following part but…’ … ‘It was so easy because I caught all the words and I tried to concentrate like this in the following ques.. 97 �… ‘I tried to remember the words I got and then I comprehended the message.. CONTEXTUALIZATION COGNITIVE … ‘ the speech was so fast and I'm so tired, if not I am sure I can easily understand the questions..’ SELF MANAGEMENT META-COGNITIVE Table 1. Retrospective Protocols of High Ability Listeners For example, when they considered a part to be important, some informants would listen out for repetitions, for rephrasing of the same idea, or for a summary at the end. Finally, use of such strategies allowed the informants to vary the intensity of their attention, thus making listening less stressful for them. Both groups’ protocols revealed an interaction of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. There were, however, some differences in the quantity and quality of strategies used. High ability listeners managed to achieve a reasonable interpretation of the whole passage in spite of problems they faced with. They continued listening and created different strategies to understand. They not only used familiar words to infer the meaning of the passages, they also kept their attention on the input. They also used this recombination strategy again by creating an interpretation from the words they know. This time it was acceptable because they had the relevant knowledge to support their reconstruction. At the same time, high ability listeners were actively monitoring their understanding of other parts of the segment. To do this they compared their interpretation with their knowledge and they checked their interpretation with the context in the segment by paying attention to the next part of the input. In this processing sequence, high ability listeners managed to monitor their ongoing comprehension while retaining a problematic part of the input in their working memory. Whereas those high ability listeners actively monitored their comprehension and attention, low ability listeners mostly dealt the passage itself. When they noticed an unfamiliar word, they paid special attention to those words and at the same time they paid special attention to familiar ones. They tried to use these words to catch the idea but generally they had to ignore the unfamiliar words as they couldn’t understand and so their comprehension could not improve. There was also no evidence of them trying to use their prior knowledge to assist comprehension. This could be because the words they recognized were insufficient for schema activation. Low ability listeners also frequently used the repetition strategy. They repeated the words they got several times and even stopped listening to think about their meanings. Low Ability Retrospective Protocols … ‘If I listened the dialogue once, I couldn’t understand… but I listened twice and I concentrate on the word ‘distance’ and I heard it twice and this helped to fined the correct ..” … ‘I tried to translate word by word then I got confused…’ … ‘during the woman’ speech I couldn’ t catch the words but in the secon part of the dialogue I tried to write down the words of the man that I could catch..’ … ‘ I tried to combine the words that I catch easily to understand what the woman implied....’ … ‘ at the beginning of the speech, there was a word I was not sure …’ … ‘ the woman said ‘ohh!’ and I shaped the face of woman in my mind..the food was probably disgusting and she doesn’ t want to eat it … but I was not sure….’ …‘ As the words ‘museum and restaurant’ have nearly the same pronunciations in Turkish.. and I thought that these are the places probably that should be seen in Washington.. so whatever happens the woman wanted to go there…’ 98 Representative Strategies Generic Strategy Classification REPETITION COGNITIVE TRANSLATION COGNITIVE NOTE-TAKING COGNITIVE GROUPING COGNITIVE SELF-MONITORING META-COGNITIVE IMAGERY COGNITIVE KEY WORD COGNITIVE �… ‘I heard somewhere ‘community activities’ and I decided that these activities were something related to ‘projects’ and then I choose the answer… ’ … “I didn’t hear all words clearly, I just guesses the meaning…” SELECTIVE ATTENTION META-COGNITIVE INFERENCE COGNITIVE Table 2. Retrospective Protocols of Low Ability Listeners Also translation was found the most predominant strategy type employed by low ability listeners, whereas it was used infrequently by high ability listeners. In short, both groups combined several comprehension strategies to process each listening segment. There was evidence of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies working together, as well as top down and bottom-up processes interacting to achieve comprehension. High ability listeners used a wider range of cognitive and meta-cognitive tactics which interacted efficiently to facilitate comprehension. They used prior knowledge, linguistic knowledge and contextual information, three important comprehension resources, to process input and manage the processing. In contrast, low ability listeners used mostly translation, repetition, note taking, key word and only low-level comprehension monitoring strategies. However, the two groups of listeners shared some similarities. Although it was different in quantity and quality, both of the groups engaged in top-down processing wherever possible, as evidenced in their use of strategies for inference, elaboration, recombination, and contextualization, which relied heavily on prior knowledge. Both also gave attention on problematic parts but were also ready to ignore difficulties and continue listening. A possible explanation for this is that when they found a word vaguely familiar they would try to think of its meaning. If, however, they knew the word was completely new, they would ignore it and keep their attention on the input. The interaction of strategies when one segment of the input was being processed shows that although individual strategies were useful, successful comprehension also depended on whether the listeners were able to combine various mental strategies in a way that could truly enhance comprehension Eleven types of cognitive strategies and five types of meta-cognitive strategies which were used by high and low ability listeners were identified. These strategies were used by both groups in different quality and quantity. After this identification, subjects were asked some questions to get more clear information about their strategy usage, especially about the strategies ‘imagery, self-monitoring, elaboration, contextualization. First question was a general question and was about subjects’ listening subject matter preference. They were asked what kind of subject matter they would prefer to listen to, and high ability listeners said that they would like to listen to the subjects which reflect real life communication. They have reported that when the authentic listening materials are used in listening classes, they would easily and voluntarily engage in the listening tasks. The second question was about whether they use and learn the new language items by putting in context or not. High ability listeners reported that they always put the new language items in context and learn them in this way. However, low ability listeners mostly prefer to memorize these items separately or with the corresponding meanings in their native language. Another question was about whether it becomes easy for them to comprehend any listening passage if they are given any visual material related to the passage. High ability listeners said that it becomes easy because the meaning in their mind becomes more clear by the help of the picture or any scene. For this reason, they said that they find BBC or CNN news more understandable than TOEFL listening comprehension tests. On the other hand low ability listeners reported that in such situations they also comprehend the listening passages better but again not completely. The fourth question that was asked to the subjects was about whether they relate new information to the other concepts in memory. It was used more by high ability listeners than low ability listeners. And the last question was about whether they follow their comprehension level; that is, whether they monitor themselves during a listening task or not. High ability listeners reported that they monitor their comprehension and when they face with any problem, they actively employ other strategies to facilitate understanding. And low ability listeners also sometimes monitor their comprehension but they can’t use this monitoring in an effective way. The pretest / post-test which was designed to see the effectiveness of explicit listening strategy instruction showed that there is statistically a slight difference, in a positive direction, in the listening comprehension of the participants. 99 �Conclusions This study sought to better understand how a group of EFL listeners processed and managed information through specific strategies. The analysis of the informants’ retrospective protocols and interviews records showed that both groups of high and low ability listeners use cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, however, with some differences in the quantity and quality of strategies used. High ability listeners managed to achieve a reasonable interpretation of the listening task in spite of problems they faced with. They continued listening and created different strategies to understand; on the other hand, low ability listeners couldn’ t manage to create different strategies when they faced with problems. At the same time, high ability listeners were actively monitoring their understanding. To do this they compared their interpretation with their knowledge and they checked their interpretation with the context in the segment by paying attention to the next part of the input. In this processing sequence, high ability listeners managed to monitor their ongoing comprehension while retaining a problematic part of the input in their working memory. Also translation was found the most predominant strategy type employed by low ability listeners, whereas it was used infrequently by high ability listeners. In general, high ability listeners used a wider range of cognitive and meta-cognitive tactics which interacted efficiently to facilitate comprehension. In contrast, low ability listeners used mostly translation, repetition, note taking, key word and only low-level comprehension monitoring strategies. The interaction of strategies when one segment of the input was being processed shows that although individual strategies were useful, successful comprehension also depended on whether the listeners were able to combine various mental strategies in a way that could truly enhance comprehension. The results of the pretest and post-test documentation indicated that there is statistically a slight difference, in a positive direction, in the listening comprehension of the participants. There were indications that the difficulty of the task and the explicitness of directions to perform the strategies may both be important determinants of subsequent performance References Brown, G. (1990). Listening to spoken English (2nd Ed.). London: Longman Brown, G. and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the Spoken Language: An Approach Based on the New York: Cambridge University Press. Analysis of Spoken English. Chamot, A.U. (1987) The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Cambridge: Prentice-Hall. 71-84. Cohen, A. D. (1987). Studying Language Learning Strategies: How do we get the Information? In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 31-40). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. Morley, J. (2001). Aural Comprehension Instruction: Principles and Practices. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language, (pp.69-85). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. O'Malley, J.M., Chamot, A.U., & Küpper, L. (1989). Listening Comprehension Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10(4), 418-437 Herschenhorn, S. (1989). Teaching Listening Comprehension Using Live Llanguage. In Teaching English as a second for foreign language. Eds. M. Celce-Murcia, USA: Heinle and Heinle: 65-73 Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical Assumptions, Research History and Typology. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp.15-30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 100 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 347 Title A name given to the resource Exploring Comprehension Strategies of Low & High Ability Listeners with a Focus on the Effect of Explicit Strategy Instruction Author Author KAYAOĞLU, M. Naci ÖZBAY, Ali Şükrü Abstract A summary of the resource. While acknowledging the practical value and relative merit of listening comprehension as a means of foreign language learning, the present paper argues the case for a need to teach listening strategies to enhance students’ realization of the various forms of speech. This contention is further enhanced by the fact that students’ awareness of useful listening strategies will help them understand the foreign language correctly. To this end, this data-based research was undertaken using interviews and retrospective protocols with 17 EFL students and a pretest / post- test documentation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/959b0eb00936f30084c9906d3178c3b8.pdf eb4a83537d7d3a8095e4bc5e7cb70156 PDF Text Text ELT Prep Students Perceptions of Their Problems with Reading: Perception of Failure or Failure of Perception? M. Naci KAYAOĞLU Faculty of Arts Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Fehmi TURGUT School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey feturgut@yahoo.com Abstract: This study focused on ELT students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading. The participants were 150 prep class students in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, in the academic years from 2005 to 2008. At the beginning of each academic year, the students were asked to make a list of the problems or issues they thought made their reading difficult. Their responses were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The students were also observed in terms of their responses towards various texts with reading difficulties. The study intended to make a picture of the problematic areas in EFL reading from the perspectives of learners: how much of the problematic areas in EFL reading was perceived by students, whether they lacked perception of self- failure in reading, whether they had control over their reading problems and whether their perceptions of self-failure matched their real problems in practice or not. Introduction Reading is a very complex developmental process for foreign language learners. Considering the problems students face in studying reading comprehension in the native language, studying reading comprehension in a foreign language becomes a process that drives the learner under many challenging and unfavorable circumstances. Even to make a list of the probable problems in reading is ardous work, for problems may vary according to different foreign language teaching/learning settings, based upon materials, purpose of reading, needs, and proficiency levels. Not all these problems can be diagnosed and solved within the scope of one single study. Recent has already established and reported close interactions between learning and student perceptions and the influence of students' thoughts, beliefs, and feelings about themselves, other persons, and events outcomes (Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, & McKeachie, 1986; Koon and Murray, 1995; O’Connell and Dickinson, 1993; Ryan and Harrison 1995; Cashin and Downey 1992) . This means students affect classroom events, and their learning and learning. Students themselves can formulate achievement goals, involve in various activities, and sometimes develop and use strategies which they believe will guarantee thier success. When their thoughts, beliefs, feelings and perceptions do not match, their learning is affected negatively. Since perception is a requisite property of action, without perception, action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless; in a sense, "perception and movement are two sides of the same cointhe coin is action" (Gibson, 1966). Considering the multitude of benefits ELT students draw from critical or analytical reading, the task of picturing what perceptions motivate their actions in reading, what problems they think make their reading process enigmatic and building a bridge between the problems they perceive and those they actually experience are challenges that should not be ignored. It is for this reason that this study aimed to focus on the English-majoring prep-class students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading to draw a picture of their world of 89 �reading in English in the hope that the resulting data would lead the researchers, the teachers and the program designers to some solutions. The study Gibson (1966) claims that any account of the facts of perceiving must include the facts of error. He continues as follows: “Actually, the deficiencies of perception are much more familiar to us than its successes. We take the latter for granted, but we are naturally curious about the causes of our misperceptions, misjudgments, and mistakes. We have a special curiosity about a class of inaccuracies that are called illusions. They are usually not serious enough to be called misperceptions. Often we are aware of the illusion, as we are of the image in a mirror, the bent stick in water, the circular coin that looks elliptical, and the after-sensation "in front of the eyes". But these are still failures of perception, to be exact, and they are very interesting.” (pp.287) It is for this reason that this study aims to investigate how Gibson’s claims are reflected on the side of ELT students while they are practising the act of reading. Research reports that, to beter evaluate the efficiency of language teaching activity in foreign language teaching, teachers’ attitudes towards and perceptions of the langaue skill they teach has a significant effect on the outcome of that particular act of teacing (Prabhu 1987, Sparks and Ganschow 1996) . Therefore, it would not be erratic to claim that the same is true for students. The study was conducted with 150 English majoring students studying language skills in the prepatory classes in the academic years from 2005 to 2008 in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, Turkey. The students who had to retake the prep program were excluded from the study. The reading course the students were required to take was designed to teach reading skills and to prepare the students for their future readings of text books and other literary texts like novels, shortstories, plays and poems. The subjects of the study came to the department from different schools from almost the same programs: the foreign language programs of Anatolian High Schools or Super High Schools or other Government High Schools. The points they got on the university exam showed no significant differences to allow any intervention of external variable in the results of the study. The students reported that they did not take a seperate reading course but did reading embedded in other courses. Data required for this study were collected through three stages. In the first stage, to see how they viewed the term ‘reading’, the subjects were asked to write individual words for their own definitions of ‘reading’ on a piece of paper. This was what Nuttall (1996) did with EFL teachers at the very beginning of her book. This study did the same activity with its participants because, as she put it, it would be useful to know about students’s ideas of reading, for their understanding of the term ‘reading’ would give some hints about their approaches towards the act of reading. In Stage 2, the subjects were asked to make a list of the things which they belived made their reading difficult or problematic. They were asked to make the list by rating the items from the most important to the least. The intention was to have a picture of the students’ world of reading, of problems or so-called / perceived problems in reading. The third stage was a stage of observation. In order not to rely merely on the data coming from the students’ self-reports and to construct some kind of triangulation over the data, and to develop prolonged engagement in the research process, the study used the observation method. Although the classroom observation method may have its own disadvantages like the duration and the frequency of the observation- the investigator will need to visit the same class over an extended period of time if meaningful data are to be gathered- the way the observation is conducted- the presence of the observer in the classroom while the activity is taking place may influence the progress of the activity (Cohen and Manion, 1998), these did not pose such a problem for this study because the observer in this study was the reading instructor in the classrooms under observation. But research critics also recognize some advantages in gathering data through classroom observation. Observation may give the research study a more objective, and a more impartial status (Cohen and Manion, 1998). By using observation, the observer may have the opportunity to see problems/issues through his/her own eyes and to filter the data in order to see whether there are any discrepancies between what the subjects report and what is performed. Researchers recognize two types of observation tools: the Immediate Indicators Tool (ITT) and the Observational Prompt Tool (OPT) (Holbrook, Gray and Fasse, 1999). While ITT enables the observer to record quick snapshots of what is happening in the classroom environment, OPT prompts for what to look for during individual, small-group, and whole-class activities, what to look for during particular classroom activities and what to look for when certain goals are active. The most important characteristic of this tool is that it provides the 90 �researchers with guidelines for what to look for in the classroom and structure for their individual field notes (Fasse and Kolodner, 2000). Since this study dealt with two classrooms, with some particular classroom activities (reading and comprehension in English), and with some certain active goals (diagnosis of reading comprehension problems of the participants in English), the OPT tool was the more suitable and helpful one to use in the classroom observation. During the observation stage, students were given some tasks. These tasks included some sentences and longer texts which had some certain levels of difficulty in terms of content, text type, structure, vocabulary and sentence complexity, background information etc. Here the objective was to observe how the students responded these texts based on their perceptions of difficulty. Findings and Conclusion Among the words the participants used to define the term ‘reading’, the following ones appeared to dominate the list: to decode, to know the unknown words, fluency, identify, pronunciation, to recognize the written words. Only a small group included the words like understand, meaning, respond to the text, which define reading as an act of creating meaning in the text. The words in the first group refer to the first thing(s) of all about reading, not suitable for academic settings. In such settings, where students read at academic levels to study lingustics and literature, the main focus should not be on the pronunciation of what they are reading or in the grammatical structures used. Fluency can influence comprehension, but this does not mean that students should read words very quickly and easily. During the observation stage, students appeared to have problems with fluency. However, in order to seem fluent readers, they tended to read words very quickly, with an automacity ignoring the word as an inseparable part of the sentence or longer text. This part of the study revealed that the participants’ understanding of the term “reading”, which was rather simplistic and reductionist, influenced both their perceptiopns of reading in foreign language and their approaches to the text. The second part of the study showed this influence more clearly. In their responses to the second part- what they thought made their reading difficult- , two items came to the fore interchangeably: 1- difficult or unknown words; 2- long and complex sentences or difficult sentence structure. It did not pose a problem that the participant students came up with the idea that difficult/unknown words and complex sentences made their reading problematic. In literature, this is much more than an idea; a well established fact by reading researchers (Nation and Coady 1988, Goodman 1976, Grabe 1991, Grabe and Stoller 1997). Here the problem was that the participants were unaware of other difficulties and that they restricted their act of reading to “vocabulary” and “grammar”. They thought they were the only two problematic issues in EFL reading that influenced their performance negatively. The idea that the most important problem in EFL reading is that of difficult or unknown words limits academic reading to a ‘word-level reading’ activity. Hence, the students focused on individual words or on their dictionary meanings/annotations without considering their contextual meanings or connotations. When they encountered an unknown word, they stoped for a while, hesitated, or read haltingly. They easily got demoralized. The probability of other unknown words in the ensuing parts of the text made them irritated. Perception is a general term refering to the awareness of objects, qualities, or events stimulating the sense organs; it also refers to a person’s experience of the world (Stranks 2003). So when one perceives something through his environment, somehow puts it into practice (Hulse, Deese, & Egeth, 1975). In the case of this study, perceptions replaced realities. Research findings suggest that students' perceptions about a particular learning activity may have considerable influence both on students' approaches to that activity and the outcome (Hallowell, 2008; Knowles, 1990). This was ture for the participant students. They were observed to organize their reading heavily based on their perceptions of “reading” and “reading” problems. Another most important finding the observation stage revealed was that the prticipant sudents had a tendency to attach equal importance to each word in a text. But reading research reports that not all words are equally important. Nuttall (1996) puts vocabulary into three categories: (1) active vocabulary; (2) receptive vocabulary; (3) throw-away vocabulary (pp.62-77). Active words are those students know well enough to use them, but receptive words are the ones students recognize and can respond to, but cannot confidently use. Throw-away vocabulary includes those words which students meet only once when they are reading an unsimplified material. The subjects of this study could hardly distinguish between these vocabulary-categories during reading. When they were given some texts that contained no unknown or difficult vocabulary, and when they were given some other texts with no difficult structutres, seeing that the texts still were difficult to read and understand made them surprised and discouraged very much. When asked to what they could attribute their failure in reading and understanding these texts, they were not able to come up with any plausible answer. 91 �The over-all conclusion of the present study was that the reading and level of difficulties in reading these students perceived differed from recommendations in the literature, and that students organized their reading styles, their approaches to the act of reading, their relationships with the text based upon their perceptions of failure or problem in reading. When perceptions replaced realities; that is, when they perceived that a certain issue played the most important role in their failure, they thought merely dealing with that issue would guarantee their success. Upon learning that the text they were reading required more knowledge and abilities than they perceived, they got surprised and blocked during the reading process. From this we van conclude that the perception or the idea that the most and the only problems in EFL reading are difficult sentences and unknown words would undervalue the role of reading in learning. Reading, whether in native or foreign language, cannot be limited to these two items. A number of other issues are involved in EFL reading. These can be listed as: 1. pre-viewing 2. building a bridge between what s/he knows and what s/he will learn 3. categorizing 4. deciding what is important and what is not 5. arguing with the text 6. analyzing and snynthesizing the information and evidence 7. summarizing, predicting, comparing ideas and connecting them to each other 8. organizing new information and ideas 9. making logical inferences 10. commenting on what s/he reads 11. critiquing the text and its writer 12. earning new concepts 13. combining the information in the text with that of the real world 14. reading a variety of texts from different genres easily 15. recognizing the text structure 16. constructing sentence relationships easily 17. coping with difficult vocabulary and use strategies to solve his problems ( Henry, 1974; Nunan, 1999; Nuttall, 1996). The students in this study were unaware of these elements of foreign language reading. Maybe it is lack of these issues on the side of both teachers and students that makes reading a complex, difficult and problematic activity in EFL instruction, making it inevitable to make some drastic alterations in or additions to EFL learners’ perceptions of problems in reading. References Cashin, W. E., & Downey, R. G. (1992). Using global student rating items for summative evaluation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 563-572. Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994). Research Methods in Education. Routledge. USA. Fasse, B.B. and Kolodner, J.L. (2000). Evaluating Classroom Practices Using Qualitative Research Methods: Defining and Refining the Process, College of Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0280. Gibson, James.J. (1966). The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Boston 1966. Goodman, K.S. (1976). Reading: a psycholinguistic guessing game. In H. Singer and R. Ruddell (eds) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. International Reading Association, Newark. 2nd ed.. [14.2] Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOLQuarterly 25, 3: 375406. [14.4] Grabe, W. and Stoller, F. (1997). Reading and vocabulary development in a second language: a case study. In Coady and Huckin: 98-122. [14.4] Hallowell, D. (2008). Cognitive Approaches to Learning: New Developments in Educational Psychology. Drexel Learning Center 92 �Henry, G. H. (1974). Teaching Reading as a Concept Development: emphasis on effective thinking. International Reading Assosciation. Newark, Delaware. USA. Holbrook, J., Gray, J. and Fasse, B. (1999). Observation Prompt Tool Learning by Design Document. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA. Hulse, S. H., Deese, J., Egeth, H. (1975). The Psychology of Learning. Tokyo. McGraw/Hill Kogakusha. Knowles, M.S. (1990). The Adult Learner: a Neglected Species. 4th edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division Knuth, R.A.and Jones, B.F. (1991). What does research say about reading? NCREL, Oak Brook, USA. Koon, J., & Murray, H. G. (1995). Using multiple outcomes to validate student ratings of overall teacher effectiveness. Journal of Higher Education, 66(1), 61-81. Nation, I.S.P. and Coady, J. (1988). Vocabulary and reading. In Carter and McCarthy: 97- 110. [14.1] Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Heinle and Heinle Publishers Boston USA. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching Reading Skills in a foreign language, Macmillan Publishers, Oxford, UK. O’Connell, D. Q., & Dickinson, D. J. (1993). Student ratings of instruction as a function of testing conditions and perceptions of amount learned. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 27(1), 18-23. Pintrich, P. R., Cross, D. R., Kozma, R. B. & Mc Keachie, W. J. (1986). Instructional Psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 37:611-651. Prabhy, N.S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy, OUP. Ryan, J., & Harrison, P. (1995). The relationship between individual instructional characteristics and the overall assessment of teaching effectiveness across different instructional contexts. Research in Higher Education, 36(5), 577594. Sparks, R.L.; Ganschow, L. (1996). Teacher’s Perceptions of Students’ Foreign Language Academic Skills and Affective Characteristics. Journal of Educational Research. Vo.89, Issue 3, p.172, Washington D.C. Stranks, J. W. (2003) Health and safety at work : key terms. Butterworth-Heinemann. Amsterdam. 93 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 335 Title A name given to the resource ELT Prep Students Perceptions of Their Problems with Reading: Perception of Failure or Failure of Perception? Author Author KAYAOĞLU, M. Naci TURGUT, Fehmi Abstract A summary of the resource. This study focused on ELT students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading. The participants were 150 prep class students in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, in the academic years from 2005 to 2008. At the beginning of each academic year, the students were asked to make a list of the problems or issues they thought made their reading difficult. Their responses were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The students were also observed in terms of their responses towards various texts with reading difficulties. The study intended to make a picture of the problematic areas in EFL reading from the perspectives of learners: how much of the problematic areas in EFL reading was perceived by students, whether they lacked perception of self- failure in reading, whether they had control over their reading problems and whether their perceptions of self-failure matched their real problems in practice or not. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8370bff307832fd64df1895e04975748.pdf a7f59b81c223e367d565846ff59c51e4 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A Research on Updating of Anthropometric Measurements M. Dursun KAY A Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum, Turkey dursun@atauni.edu.tr Đsmail MAL K O Ç Atatürk University, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Erzurum, Turkey imalkoc@atauni.edu.tr Os man ERD O Ğ A N Management of National Education, Erzurum, Turkey osman124512 @hotmail.com Aslı KARA Center of Public Health of Yakutiye, Erzurum, Turkey dr.aslikara@hotmail.com Hakkı YELŞĐYURT Ministry of Health, Ankara hyesil62@hotmail.com Abstract: By considering the dimensional measurements of the students who spend most of their time at school, the fact that their body and structural equipment haven’t been designed will affect their body and psychological improvements negatively. Anthropometric measurements are necessary for education equipment and designs of education-structural equipment of the children at the age of school. It is emphasized that anthropometric measurements of the people living in different climate and altitude conditions in literature will be different. It is mentioned that anthropometric data available for a certain region will be able to change in terms of changing socio-economical conditions and therefore, updating of anthropometric data is necessary in certain in period of times. For the reason, in 1999 anthropometric data obtained from the children, between the age of seven and fifteen, who were in sitting and standing position, were measured to plan a longitudinal study in 2007. In the result of comparison which was made, as reported in literature, it is clear that anthropometric data will be able to be updated in certain period of times. Keywords: anthropometric measurement, primary school students, longitudinal Introduction Anthropometric measurements are essentialinthe correct designs of ergonomic business areas. Obtaining of anthropometric data is very significant in terms of growing and shaping of body posture regularly of the children who spend most of theirtime sitting in the desks and on the chairs (Jeong and Park, 1990, Floyd, and Roberts, 1958, Oxford, 1969). The factthatthe chairs and desks were designed appropriately and in a functional way according to the physical structure of the user made the design of equipment for school significant. Therefore,itis necessary that different changes and relations among body dimensions should be known (Kayış & Özok, 1986, Mandal, 1982,). First of all, Ergonomist’s duty is to determine the features of the product to be used in the design of the equipment produced with mass production and then isto provide the usage of the objectsincluding fixed things which will be benefited in the design by anthropometry (Hira, 1980, Floyd & Word, 1969). Firstly, it is necessary to obtain anthropometric measurements for the design of certain products. It is emphasized that anthropometric data of the people living in different altitude and climate conditions willbe separate (Yip et 189 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo al., 1988). Also, itis mentioned that anthropometric data obtained for a certain region will change within the time in terms of changing socio-economical conditions and therefore, updating of anthropometric measurements made in the studies before at every five yearsis necessary. In this study, anthropometric measurements obtained by using Phesant measurements method (Tab. 1)in 1999 were obtained again by using the same method in 2007 and these data compared by updating as Yip and their colleagues suggested (Phesant, 1988). Variable Eye Height Elbow height Shoulder breadth Buttock-knee length Corresponding measurement in Pheasant (1988) Method of Measurement 2 Vertical distance from the floor to the inner canthus (corner) of the eye. 4 Vertical distance from the floor to the radiale 18 Horizontal distance across the shoulders measured between the acromia (bony points) 13 Horizontal distance from the back of the uncompressed buttock to the front of the kneecap Table 1: List of anthropometric variables and methods of measurement. Material and Method In this study,in 1999 in Erzurum province,the altitude of which is 2000 meters (medium altitude), 1408 students, 694 of whom are male, and in 2007 1477 students, 732 of whom are male, were included in the research by stratified sampling method (Kaya et al.,2000a,Kaya et al.,2000b, Kaya et al.,2003). These children were evaluated with regard to four different anthropometric measurements in both studying periods. These anthropometric measurements included the height of eye and elbow at standing position,the width of shoulder and leg and knee distance. Allthe studentsincluded in the study were examined regarding general health control by pediatrician. Any chronic and systemic cases which will be able to affect anthropometric measurements weren’t included in the study. The students whose families have monthly incomes above minimum living conditions according to State Statistics Institute’s economical indications were included in the study in every both periods (1999 and 2007 years). Harpenden Anthropometer device was used for allthe measurements. The anthropometer was calibrated withthe accuracy of 0.05 cm. During the measurements,the children were barefooted and lightly clothed. Allthe measurements weretaken between 8 and 12 o’clock every in the morning to prevent within day variabilityin the measurements (Kayis, 1987,Kaya et al., 2003). The studentsincluded inthe study were divided into groups interms of age and sex in every both periods. The data obtained were evaluated statistically in both among themselves and among the groups. SPSS statistical packet programme was used for statistical analysis. Findings According to age and sex, description and statistical analyses of anhropometric measurements belonging to female and male students in 1999’s and 2007’s were shown in (Tab. 2 and 3). According to this it was determined that anthropometric measurements according to age and sex of cases evaluated in 1999’s and 2007 are increased. Anthropometric measurements obtained in every both periods were compared according to age and sex. When (Tab. 2) was examined, for example,it was found thatthere was a significant difference among the heights of elbow values at standing position of male students, 8 years old, in 1999’s and 2007’s (t=-4.29, p<0.001). While anthropometric measurements of the heights of elbow at standing position of the female students, 8 years old, was 72.38 ± 4.26 in (Tab. 3) in 1999, it was found to be 74.67 ± 3.02 in 2007 and the comparison of these two values was quite significant (t=-3.97, p<0.001).In every both periods,the comparison of anthropometric measurements obtained among their kinds ofthe students at same age of group was shown in (Tab. 2 and 3). 190 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Anthropometric measurements Eye Height Elbow height Shoulder breadth Buttock-knee length Age 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 n 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 1999 Year Mean ± SD 108.43 ± 4.57 112.52 ± 6.16 118.02 ± 5.55 122.80 ± 5.45 129.87 ± 5.07 134.84 ± 3.63 139.58 ± 4.03 141.98 ± 4.65 145.01 ± 5.07 69.08 ± 3.67 72.38 ± 4.55 76.24 ± 3.97 80.13 ± 3.97 84.65 ± 3.85 88.73 ± 4.36 90.18 ± 3.42 92.39 ± 3.75 94.29 ± 3.73 26.88 ± 1.12 27.62 ± 1.40 28.91 ± 1.51 29.82 ± 1.69 31.26 ± 1.51 32.73 ± 1.67 33.23 ± 1.24 34.52 ±1.43 35.39 ± 1.54 38.97 ± 2.16 40.74 ± 2.49 42.93 ± 2.73 44.76 ± 2.88 47.71 ± 2.60 50.32 ± 2.53 51.33 ± 2.17 52.64 ± 2.79 53.57 ± 2.85 n 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 2007 Year Mean ± SD 109.35 ± 4.43 114.82 ± 4.11 120.63 ± 5.85 123.58 ± 5.29 129.76 ± 5.55 135.75 ± 5.13 140.20 ± 5.10 144.87 ± 6.31 145.42 ± 5.20 71.66 ± 3.73 74.99 ± 2.89 79.33 ± 4.22 81.54 ± 3.93 85.72 ± 3.88 89.31 ± 3.42 92.98 ± 4.24 96.56 ± 4.33 94.57 ± 3.86 28.38 ± 2.95 29.18 ± 1.40 30.43 ±2.24 30.98 ± 1.80 32.47 ± 1.77 33.51 ± 1.53 34.51 ± 1.72 35.80 ± 2.67 35.50 ± 1.67 39.26 ± 1.90 41.31 ± 2.08 43.80 ± 2.73 44.87 ± 2.61 47.31 ± 2.74 49.37 ± 2.12 51.29 ± 2.24 51.29 ± 2.79 53.70 ± 2.98 t -1.23 -2.75 ** -2.93 ** -0.91 0.12 -1.23 -0.82 -3.24 ** -0.49 -4.24 *** -4.29 *** -4.82 *** -2.25 * -1.74 0.94 -3.92 *** -6.44 *** -0.45 -4.02 *** -6.71 *** -5.08 *** -4.12 *** -4.62 *** -3.12 ** -5.27 *** -3.70 *** -0.42 -0.85 -1.55 -2.04 * -0.26 0.95 2.62 ** 0.13 0.83 -0.27 *: significant at p<0.05, **: significant at p<0.0.1, ***: significant at p<0.001 Table 2: The Comparison of anthropometric measurements of boys in 1999 and 2007 191 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Anthropometric measurements Eye Height Elbow height Shoulder breadth Buttock-knee length Age 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 n 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 1999 Year Mean ± SD 108.66 ± 4.42 112.59 ± 5.91 118.31 ± 5.75 122.45 ± 5.82 128.48 ± 5.22 132.11 ± 5.18 139.84 ± 6.71 144.74 ± 6.84 150.21 ± 7.75 69.17 ± 3.25 72.38 ± 4.26 76.45 ± 4.02 79.57 ± 4.34 84.15 ± 3.93 86.40 ± 4.28 91.53 ± 5.25 94.32 ± 5.04 98.17 ± 5.32 27.30 ± 1.35 28.19 ± 1.39 29.24 ± 1.57 30.17 ± 1.66 31.11 ± 1.49 32.00 ± 1.61 33.92 ± 1.96 34.96 ± 2.14 36.61 ± 2.41 38.77 ± 1.96 40.05 ± 2.61 42.29 ± 2.75 44.32 ± 2.61 46.44 ± 2.43 48.24 ± 2.29 51.19 ± 2.95 52.80 ± 2.26 54.83 ± 2.78 n 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 2007 Year Mean ± SD 108.37 ± 4.56 113.75 ± 4.07 119.10 ± 6.60 124.23 ± 6.05 129.63 ± 4.99 133.58 ± 5.23 141.85 ± 5.37 144.54 ± 4.64 151.58 ± 8.09 71.35 ± 3.26 74.67 ± 3.02 78.76 ± 5.62 82.29 ± 4.41 85.59 ± 4.14 88.40 ± 3.81 93.99 ± 3.88 96.39 ± 3.70 98.54 ± 5.64 27.97 ± 1.36 28.78 ± 1.29 29.88 ± 1.93 30.92 ± 1.85 32.33 ± 1.70 32.96 ± 1.47 34.91 ± 1.97 35.63 ± 1.53 36.72 ± 2.31 39.51 ± 2.34 41.48 ± 1.90 43.69 ± 2.71 45.44 ± 2.70 47.60 ± 2.63 49.06 ± 2.32 51.74 ± 3.23 53.14 ± 2.41 54.59 ± 2.69 t 0.39 -1.47 0.82 -1.91 -1.43 -1.69 -1.19 0.20 -0.94 -4.20 -3.97 -3.05 -3.98 -5.22 -2.95 -2.35 -2.73 -0.60 -3.11 -2.79 -2.33 -2.75 -4.79 -3.73 -3.22 -2.11 -0.17 2.16 -4.02 -3.31 -2.72 -2.92 -1.99 -1.12 -0.84 -0.49 *** *** ** *** *** ** * ** ** ** * ** *** *** ** * * *** ** ** ** * *: significant at p<0.05, **: significant at p<0.0.1, ***: significant at p<0.001 Table 3: The Comparison of anthropometric measurements of girlsin 1999 and 2007 Discussion Itis always obvious that updating of the data bank is necessary in terms of checking and following the students’ growing and developing in a healthy way by determining the dimensions of desks and tables used by the students who spend most of their daily life at school during teaching and educating period. Although discussions are available aboutfor how long anthropometric measurements should be updated,the results of our study reflect the difference of 8 year anthropometric measurements. Yip and their colleagues emphasize that anthropometric measurements should be updated at every 5 years (Yip et al., 1988). According to the result of our study, it was determined that there was q significant difference in the comparison of anthropometric measurements of the same age and kind of group. Although it was considered that changing of climate conditions, developing of socio and economical conditions and health services, increasing the percent of individual education level and changing oftheirfeeding habitcaused anthropometric measurementsincrease,the result of our study showed thatthis period was necessary for updating anthropometric measurements. However,in spite ofthe factthat statistical difference wasn’tfound among anthropometric measurements dealing with the height ofthe eye and the distance between the leg and knee at standing position from the point of all age groups, on the other hand, it was determined that statistical difference was found in terms of the age and the kind in every both periods withthe regard tothe height ofthe elbow and width of shoulder parameters at standing position. As a result, although the results of our study suggestthat anthropometric measurement values during the childhood should be updated always needed at every ten years, new studies are the children living in different socio and economic and altitude conditions. 192 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Acknowledgments The authors would like to extend their deep appreciation to Prof. Dr. Behzat ÖZKA N of the Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine at Atatürk University,for his suggestions on write-up ofthe study. References Floyd, W.F. & Roberts, D.F. (1958). Anatomical and physiological principles in chair and table design. Ergonomics, 2, 1–16 Floyd, W.F. & Word, J.S. (1969). Anthropometric and physiological considerations in school, office and factory seating. Ergonomics, 12, 132–139 Hira, D.S. (1980). An ergonomic apprasial of educational desks. Ergonomics, 23, 213–221 Jeong, B.Y. & Park, K.S. (1990). Sex differences in anthropometry for school furniture design. Ergonomics, 33(12), 1511– 1521. Kaya, M.D., Hasiloglu, A.S., Bayramoglu, M., Yesilyurt, H., & Ozok, A.F. (2003). A new approach to estimate anthropometric measurements by adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS). International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 32(2), 105–114. Kaya, M.D., Yeşilyurt, H., Özkan, B. & Akdağ, R. (2000b). Orta dereceli irtifada (2000 m., Erzurum) yaşayan lise öğrencilerinin antropometrik ölçümleri, YA/EM’2000 Yöneylem Araştırması ve Endüstri Mühendisliği XXI. Ulusal Kongresi, 12-14 Haziran 2000, Doğu Akdeniz Üniversitesi. Kaya, M.D., Yeşilyurt, H., Özkan, B., Çapoğlu, Đ. & Akdağ, R. (2000a). Anthropometric measurements in adolescents living at an intermediate altitude: the relationship between height, weight, head circumference and socioeconomics status, McCabe, P.T., Hanson, M.A., Robertson, S.A. (Editör), Contemporary Ergonomics 2000, Taylor & Francis Inc., London, 38-43. Kayış, B. & Özok, A.F. (1986). Đlkokul öğrencilerinin boyutsal ölçülerinin saptanması, TÜBĐTAK, YAE, Rapor no: h128, Ankara. Kayış, B. (1987). Đlk eğitim donanımlarının tasarımında antropometrik verilerin önemi, TÜBĐTAK, YAE, Rapor no: a67, Ankara. Mandal, A.C. (1982). The correct height of school furniture. Human Factors, 24, 257–269 Oxford, H.W. (1969). Anthropometric data for educational chairs. Ergonomics, 12, 140–161 Pheasant, S. (1988). Bodyspace: Anthropometry, Ergonomics and Design. London, Taylor & Francis; 1988. Yip, R., Binkin, N.J. & Trowbridge F.L. (1988). Altitude and childhood growth. The Journal of Pediatrics, 113, 486–489. 193 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 507 Title A name given to the resource A Research on Updating of Anthropometric Measurements Author Author KAYA, M. Dursun MALKOÇ, ismail ERDOĞAN, Osman KARA, Aslı YELSiYURT, Hakkı Abstract A summary of the resource. By considering the dimensional measurements of the students who spend most of their time at school, the fact that their body and structural equipment haven’t been designed will affect their body and psychological improvements negatively. Anthropometric measurements are necessary for education equipment and designs of education-structural equipment of the children at the age of school. It is emphasized that anthropometric measurements of the people living in different climate and altitude conditions in literature will be different. It is mentioned that anthropometric data available for a certain region will be able to change in terms of changing socio-economical conditions and therefore, updating of anthropometric data is necessary in certain in period of times. For the reason, in 1999 anthropometric data obtained from the children, between the age of seven and fifteen, who were in sitting and standing position, were measured to plan a longitudinal study in 2007. In the result of comparison which was made, as reported in literature, it is clear that anthropometric data will be able to be updated in certain period of times. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b270df1040d772c989a394a31b1e5f39.pdf 2127774f8b3f3bbd2552e19245c58780 PDF Text Text The Comparison of Vocational Colleges Located Both in City Center and In a Town in Erzurum Region in Terms of Teaching Process M. Dursun KAYA Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum/Turkey dursun@atauni.edu.tr Y.Ziya AYIK Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum/Turkey ziyaayik@atauni.edu.tr A.Samet HAŞILOĞLU Atatürk University, Faculty of Enginnering, Department of Computer Engineering Erzurum/Turkey asamet@atauni.edu.tr Reşat KARCIOĞLU Atatürk University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Erzurum/Turkey rkarci@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: At each academic somestry, by means of the questionnaries applied to the students, the effectiveness and quality of teaching-learning carried out high education are determined and it is determined that how efficient a lesson is taught. By means of the answers given for questionnaries by students, their real ideal or thoughts about lessons are determined and, besides their contributions of the lecturers who carry out the lesson., the thoughts of administers contribute to the teaching and training in that somestry. In this respect, the data of questionnarie applied to the students of vocational college in campus and that of in the town were obtained. 30 questions are asked in questionnarie. The answer given for these questions were applied as factor analysis in SPSS programme, and the organization and planning of the lesson were evaluated as in various factors such as learning from the lesson of the students and lesson, examination and evaluation, and relationshipof training and teaching, the skills of communication, clearness and planning of the lesson. In addition, the ansver given by two different vocational college students were analaysed, and the distriction between them was found and the results obtained were interprated as regards lecturer’s prophile and two different vocational college students. Keywords: Assessment form of teaching process, factor analysis, the students of vocational college Introduction One of the methods determining the quality and efficiency of teaching-learning carried out higher education is to determine how to lesson is performed effectively by means of answers for questionnaires given to students at the end of each academic semester. The ideas indicating friendly thoughts of the students about the lessons they received 61 �by means of this method are one of the guiding elements about lectures in the decisions of the managers as well as contributing to the development of teaching-learning methods and lessons which were given by lecturers (Pamuk, 2005, Simmons, 1996, Noonan & Wold, 1983, Soerjaningsih et al., 2001). Various types of questionnaires as to evaluation of teaching process can be held. For instance, as questionnaires about the lecturer will be prepared, the questionnaires oriented to the students used in this study can also be prepared. In the questionnaires carried out with the aim of assessment of teaching process, there are thirty questions. In the result of a similar study made by (Braskamp & Ory, 1994, Centra, 1993) although they found six different results, in our study, we planned to investigate whether how many of different factors were found by practicing the same evaluation form for two different vocational colleges (Centra et al., 1993, Yamamoto, 1963, Coats, 1972). In this respect, with the application of a questionnaire where thirty questions take the place in teaching process evaluation form, in our study we obtained two new variables for Vocational Colleges of Aşkale and four new variable for Vocational Colleges of Erzurum. The most important agent in preference of factor analysis technique, in the direction of thriftiness principle, is that a context reticulated from a number of solid variables turned into a context reticulated from a small number of abstract variables and that it make comprehension and the explanation easy. In other words, factor analysis is multivariety statistics which aims the discover and finding out new variables which are significant concept by bringing a great number of variables together (Büyüköztürk, 2008, Kalaycı, 2006, Tatlıdil, 1992). Material and Method Evaluation form of teaching process was applied to the students attending to education in Vocational Colleges of Aşkale and Vocational Colleges of Erzurum of Atatürk University. Factor analysis was applied to data set consisting of the responds given for evaluation form of teaching process by students attending to different departments of these both vocational colleges by using SPSS statistical packet program. In the result of the analysis applied to Vocational College of Erzurum, four different factors were obtained while that of applied to Vocational Colleges of Aşkale was obtained two different factors. Factor analysis provides the interpretation of the structure of variance-covariance of variables sets by means of linear components of variables by explaining with a small number factors. For this reason, correlation matrix was first obtained. Of initial eigen values counted for Vocational College of Erzurum, four factors which are over one were found out. While four factors obtained for Vocational College of Erzurum explain 61.72% of total variance, it is observed that two factors obtained for Vocational College of Aşkale explain 66.56% of total variance (Tab. 2 and 3). Findings and Discussions In our study, 2325 teaching process evaluation form questionnaires as to lessons and the lecturers who give these lessons were applied to the students attending to three different departments of Vocational College of Erzurum. 871 teaching process evaluation form questionnaires as to lessons and lecturers who give these lessons were applied to the students attending to two different departments of Vocational College of Aşkale. Thirty questions were asked in the questionnaire about the lessons and their references and with the aim of determining the quality of teachinglearning (Tab. 1). 62 �Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19 Q20 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Q27 Q28 Q29 Q30 The purpose of this course is presented by the lecturer at the beginning of semester The lecturer is telling the course in whole heartedly The list of the preference is given at the start of the semester Educational tools and objects are used in the lesson The subjects planned at the beginning of the semester are being given Before lesson, the objective of the course is explained by lecturer I am being directed to investigate in this lesson My active participation in this lesson is provided I acquired promising knowledge in this course The lecturer is using lesson’s duration for the purpose of the lesson I think this knowledge will be useful for me The lecturer is performing the course successfully The lecturer is giving lesson by using various methods The lecturer can draw student’s attentions towards the lesson The lecturer admire positive behaviors of the students The lecturer can use body language effectively during the lesson The lecturer has been using clear understandable language The lecturer can give answers to the questions of the students The lecturer has been behaving to everybody equally The lecturer has been criticizing the errors of the students without breaking their honors The lecturer has been accepting the criticize with a positively manner The lecturer can communicate a healthy relations with his/her students during lesson The examination questions of this course have included all the subjects told before The examination questions of this course have been asked clearly and understandably The examination questions of this course have a teaching quality I have been receiving the mark I have expected from this lesson’s examinations The lecturer has been evaluating the activities such as homework, project, etc. about the lesson The lecturer has been giving the mark impartially The examination questions of this lesson can distinguish the literate from illiterate The lecturer can provide me the opportunity to examine my own examination paper Table 1: Teaching process evaluation form The study, the factors were determined according to principal component methods, and the most important basic component number according to Caiser criterion is four for Vocational College of Erzurum and two for Vocational College of Aşkale. The variances of basic component are bigger than 1. By accepting that factor number will be as much as basic component number, four factors for Vocational College of Erzurum and two factors for Vocational College of Aşkale were obtained. The most important stage as regards the research of factor analysis is to name the factors obtained and to mean them. 63 �Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Total 14,757 1,532 1,193 1,035 ,909 ,746 ,688 ,591 ,573 ,547 ,524 ,499 ,489 ,477 ,439 ,432 ,416 ,400 ,394 ,393 ,358 ,348 ,328 ,316 ,297 ,289 ,278 ,270 ,247 ,235 Initial Eigen values % of Variance Cumulative % 49,190 49,190 5,105 54,295 3,977 58,271 3,451 61,723 3,030 64,752 2,488 67,240 2,292 69,532 1,970 71,502 1,912 73,414 1,824 75,238 1,748 76,985 1,664 78,649 1,632 80,281 1,590 81,870 1,462 83,332 1,439 84,771 1,386 86,158 1,332 87,490 1,313 88,803 1,309 90,112 1,193 91,305 1,162 92,466 1,094 93,560 1,053 94,614 ,989 95,603 ,963 96,566 ,925 97,491 ,900 98,391 ,825 99,215 ,785 100,000 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % 5,264 17,547 17,547 5,088 16,959 34,507 4,565 15,215 49,722 3,600 12,001 61,723 Table 2: Total variance counted for Vocational College of Erzurum Four different factors obtained for Vocational College of Erzurum are named as “the method of making lesson of lecturer and organizing of it”, “the relationship of student-the lecturer”, “transparency of the lecturer against students and equal behavior communication skills with them” and “the references used in the lesson and planning of the course” respectively (Tab. 4). Two factors obtained for Vocational College of Aşkale are respectively “type of performing of the lesson and the references used in the lesson”, and “communicating with the students by the lecturers and behaving equally”. 64 �Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Total 18,637 1,331 ,876 ,822 ,713 ,626 ,567 ,540 ,453 ,441 ,400 ,380 ,348 ,320 ,315 ,285 ,279 ,264 ,251 ,249 ,235 ,234 ,215 ,209 ,191 ,184 ,174 ,163 ,160 ,139 Initial Eigen values % of Variance Cumulative % 62,123 62,123 4,435 66,559 2,921 69,480 2,741 72,221 2,376 74,597 2,086 76,683 1,891 78,574 1,801 80,376 1,511 81,887 1,470 83,356 1,333 84,689 1,267 85,956 1,160 87,116 1,065 88,181 1,051 89,232 ,950 90,182 ,930 91,112 ,880 91,992 ,837 92,830 ,828 93,658 ,783 94,441 ,778 95,220 ,718 95,938 ,695 96,633 ,635 97,268 ,613 97,881 ,578 98,460 ,543 99,003 ,532 99,535 ,465 100,000 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % 10,537 35,125 35,125 9,430 31,434 66,559 Table 3: Total variance counted for Vocational College of Aşkale The factors obtained from factor analysis cariied out orienting to the questions in (Tab. 1) and seen in (Tab. 2) when (Tab. 4) is examined for Vocational College of Erzurum, while the questions of Q14, Q16, Q22, Q13, Q8, Q15, Q12, Q21, Q18, and Q9 were in the factors “the relationship of student-the lecturer”, and the question of Q5, Q10, Q11, Q24, Q23, Q1, Q17, Q2, and Q25 were in the factor of “the performing method of the lesson by the lecturer”, and the question of Q28, Q29, Q26, Q30, Q19, Q20, and Q27 were in the factor of “method of transparency of the lecturer against the students and behaving equal and the skills of communicating with them”, the question of Q4, Q7 , Q3, and Q6 were named as the factor called as “the references used in the lesson and planning of the course”. For Vocational College of Aşkale, the questions of Q9, Q6, Q5, Q3, Q12, Q11, Q8, Q4, Q2, Q1, Q10, Q7, Q14, Q13, Q15, Q16, Q18, and Q17 were in the factor of “the tyğe of performing of the lesson and the references used in the lesson”, and the question of Q28, Q26, Q29, Q30, Q25, Q23, Q21, Q24, Q22, Q27, Q20, and Q19 were named as the factor of “communicating with students of the lecturer during lesson and behaving them equally”. The variables which affect mostly the factor of “relationship of students-lecturer which is the first factor obtained from our study for Vocational College of Erzurum are questions such as “the lecturer can draw student’s attention towards the lesson”, “the lecture can use body language effectively during lesson” and “the lecturer can contact with a health communication with the students during lesson” respectively. The variables which affect mostly the second factor are questions, such as “the subjects planned at the beginning of the semester are being giving in the lesson”, “the lecturer use the duration of the lesson appropriately to the aim of lesson”, “the knowledge I learned from this lesson will be useful for me”. The variable which affects mostly the third factor is the question such as “the lecturer gives the mark impartially”, and the variable which affects mostly the fourth factor is the question of “the lecturer use tool and material of teaching at lesson”. 65 �Vocational College of Aşkale Vocational College of Erzurum Q14 Q16 Q22 Q13 Q15 Q21 Q8 Q20 Q5 Q10 Q11 Q24 Q1 Q12 Q17 Q23 Q18 Q25 Q2 Q28 Q26 Q29 Q30 Q19 Q4 Q7 Q3 Q27 Q6 Q9 1 ,694 ,662 ,651 ,607 ,587 ,585 ,563 ,550 ,152 ,270 ,239 ,214 ,169 ,539 ,481 ,204 ,509 ,237 ,445 ,270 ,194 ,172 ,237 ,402 ,058 ,423 ,195 ,262 ,351 ,417 Component 2 3 ,263 ,214 ,245 ,214 ,325 ,406 ,198 ,203 ,228 ,402 ,267 ,482 ,261 ,187 ,238 ,488 ,206 ,703 ,239 ,650 ,150 ,598 ,489 ,554 ,156 ,552 ,220 ,549 ,303 ,548 ,499 ,542 ,297 ,528 ,474 ,512 ,193 ,508 ,314 ,715 ,269 ,657 ,310 ,647 ,040 ,616 ,365 ,571 ,176 ,145 ,134 ,220 ,377 ,164 ,071 ,500 ,434 ,191 ,447 ,161 4 ,362 ,254 ,125 ,465 ,219 ,120 ,468 ,033 ,271 ,105 ,325 ,118 ,384 ,240 ,107 ,020 ,155 ,282 ,264 ,120 ,278 ,269 ,259 ,062 ,748 ,658 ,608 ,512 ,478 ,457 Q9 Q6 Q5 Q3 Q12 Q11 Q8 Q4 Q2 Q1 Q10 Q7 Q14 Q13 Q15 Q16 Q18 Q17 Q28 Q26 Q29 Q30 Q25 Q23 Q21 Q24 Q22 Q27 Q20 Q19 Component 1 2 ,386 ,747 ,385 ,738 ,334 ,733 ,344 ,731 ,447 ,730 ,350 ,727 ,424 ,725 ,264 ,712 ,414 ,695 ,387 ,692 ,377 ,690 ,405 ,669 ,524 ,668 ,483 ,657 ,507 ,656 ,561 ,599 ,581 ,590 ,578 ,587 ,325 ,776 ,307 ,764 ,352 ,743 ,279 ,719 ,467 ,708 ,395 ,705 ,442 ,693 ,434 ,692 ,463 ,688 ,444 ,681 ,439 ,653 ,510 ,613 Table 4. Rotated component matrix For Vocational College of Aşkale, the variables which affect mostly the factor of “type of performing of lesson and the references used in lesson” are the questions such as “I acquired promising knowledge in this lesson”, “the goals of the lesson are being explained by lecturer before lesson” and “the subjects planned at the beginning of the term are being given in this lesson”. The questions such as “the lecturer gives the mark impartially”, “I have been receiving the mark I expect from the examination of this lesson” and “the questions of this lesson can distinguish the literate from illiterate” were found as variables which affect the factor of “contact with communication with the students of the lecturer during lesson” and “behaving equally to them”. 66 �Conclusions Thirty questions along with teaching process evaluation form orienting to the determination of the number and type of the ideas of the students about the lecturers were asked and these questions were included in factor analysis. In the result of factor analysis carried out, while four factors were obtained from the answers given by students of Vocational College of Erzurum, two factors were obtained from the answers given by the students of Vocational College of Aşkale to the same questions. While 17.55% of total changing for Vocational College of Erzurum indicates as first “the method of performing of the lesson by lecturer and organizing the lesson”, 35.13% of total changing for Vocational College of Aşkale indicates as the factor of “the type of lesson’s presentation and the references used in lesson”. It was found out that four factors explained 61.72% of total variance for Vocational College of Erzurum, and that two factors explained 66.56% of total variance for Vocational College of Aşkale. When the number of factors was taken into consideration, the students of Vocational College of Erzurum assessed the lecturer with more factors than those of Vocational College of Aşkale. The students of Vocational College of Erzurum stated their ideas about the matters relating to administrative decisions orienting to make changing in the method of giving lesson by lecturers and personal features or effectiveness of their lesson presentation. The students of Vocational College of Aşkale named 30 questions as two factors, and they make some narrower comprehensive assessments about the decisions taken by some administrators so that they will be oriented to the lecturer. While teaching process education form applied in the end of each academic year at Atatürk University is being applied, thanks to a good timing and by taking not only lecturers but also student’s into account, the process of teaching-learning belonging to that period will be assessed better. In case of mentioned suggestions application, some benefits such as assessment of lessons, rising the quality of teaching-learning, improvement of lecture himself/herself, the content of the lessons they gave, updating of some references and teaching method they applied for will be able to be provided. References Braskamp, O., (1994). Assessing Faculty Work: Enhancing Individual and Institutional Performance, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2008). Sosyal Bilimler için Veri Analizi El Kitabı İstatistik, Araştırma Deseni SPSS Uygulamaları ve Yorum, Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık, Ankara. Cantrell, R.P., Stenner, A.J. & Katzenmeyer, W.G. (1977). Teacher knowledge, attitudes, and classroom teaching correlates of student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 69, Issue 2, 172-179. Centra, (1993). Reflective Faculty Evaluation: Enhancing Teaching and determining Faculty Effectiveness, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Coats, W.D. & Swierenga, L. (1972). Student Perceptions of Teachers: A Factor Analytic Study. The Journal of Educational Research. Vol. 65, No:8, s. 357-360. Coffman, W.E. (1954). Determining students' concepts of effective teaching from their ratings of instructors. Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 45, Issue 5, 277-286. Çakar, G.E., Oktar, İ. & Bayraktar, F. (2007). Melsek Yüksekokulu öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarının davranışları konusundaki görüşleri, 4. Ulusal Meslek Yüksekokulu Sempozyumu, Ege Üniversitesi, 14-16 Mayıs 2007, Bergamaİzmir, 545-548 http://www.yok.gov.tr/egitim/raporlar/egitimdeger/egitimdeger.html, Öğrencilerin Eğitimi Değerlendirmesi Işık, S., Duman, K., & Korkmaz, A. (2004). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Finansal Krizler: Bir Faktör Analizi Uygulaması. D.E.Ü. İ.İ.B.F.Dergisi, Cilt:19 , Sayı:1, 45-69. Kalaycı, Ş. (2006), SPSS Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistik Teknikler, Asil Yayın Dağıtım. 2. Baskı, 321-331. Noonan, R. & Wold, H. (1983). Evaluating Evaluation in Education, Volume 7, Issue 3, 219-364. school systems using partial least squares Pamuk, M. (2005). Öğrencilerin Öğretim Üyesi Değerlendirmesine Ait Bir Uygulama, İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Ekonometri ve İstatistik Dergisi, Sayı. 1, 15-05. 67 �Simmons, T. (1996). Student Evaluation of Teachers, http://www.jalt.org/test/sim_1.htm Soerjaningsih, W., Fraser, B.J. & Aldridge, J.M. (2001). Teacher-Student Interpersonel Behaviour and Student Outcomes Among University Students in Indonesia, Section 1.01, http://www.aare.edu.au /01pap/soe01034.htm Tatlıdil, H. (1992). Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistiksel Analiz, Ankara. Yamamoto, K. (1963). Evaluating teacher effectiveness: A review of research, Journal of School Psychology, Volume 2, Issue 1, 60-71. 68 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 331 Title A name given to the resource The Comparison of Vocational Colleges Located Both in City Center and In a Town in Erzurum Region in Terms of Teaching Process Author Author KAYA, M. Dursun AYIK, Y.Ziya HAŞILOĞLU, A.Samet KARCIOĞLU, Reşat Abstract A summary of the resource. At each academic somestry, by means of the questionnaries applied to the students, the effectiveness and quality of teaching-learning carried out high education are determined and it is determined that how efficient a lesson is taught. By means of the answers given for questionnaries by students, their real ideal or thoughts about lessons are determined and, besides their contributions of the lecturers who carry out the lesson., the thoughts of administers contribute to the teaching and training in that somestry. In this respect, the data of questionnarie applied to the students of vocational college in campus and that of in the town were obtained. 30 questions are asked in questionnarie. The answer given for these questions were applied as factor analysis in SPSS programme, and the organization and planning of the lesson were evaluated as in various factors such as learning from the lesson of the students and lesson, examination and evaluation, and relationshipof training and teaching, the skills of communication, clearness and planning of the lesson. In addition, the ansver given by two different vocational college students were analaysed, and the distriction between them was found and the results obtained were interprated as regards lecturer’s prophile and two different vocational college students. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1b1eb5b866662e74ffc6a15e73e9806b.pdf 130fea0b2f262639dac366147cd4249c PDF Text Text Geçmişten Günümüze Türk Dünyasında Alfabe Gelişimi Vedat KARTALCIK Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Özet|:Türklerin metinlerle belgelenebilen tarihte kullandıkları ilk alfabe Köktürk işaretleridir. Köktürklerin Ötükendeki hâkimiyetleri sona erdikten sonra, Uygurlar döneminde farklı dinleri kabul eden Türk toplulukları tarafından Mani, Soğut, Uygur, Süryani, İbrani alfabeleri; Brahmi, Tibet yazıları gibi farklı alfabe ve yazı sistemleri kullanılmıştır. Grek alfabesi de Hristiyan Türkler ile misyoner rahip ve tüccarlar tarafından Türkçenin yazımında kullanılmıştır. X. yüzyılda İslâmı kabul eden Türkler uzun bir süre Arap alfabesini kullanmışlardır. 19. yüzyılda başlayan yenileşme hareketleriyle birlikte, Arap alfabesinin Türkçe sesleri karşılamada yetersiz kaldığı ve başka gerekçelerle Arap alfabesinin ıslah edilmesi gerektiği fikri tüm Türk dünyasında dile getirilmeye başlamıştır. XX. yüzyılın başında neredeyse çeyrek asırlık bir sürede Türk dünyası alfabe ıslahı ve yeni bir alfabe kabulü meselesi üzerinde durmuş, bu konuyla ilgili kurultaylar düzenlemiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk, Alfabe, Türk Alfabeleri Grek alfabesinin ilk işaretleri olan alfa ve betanın birleşmesinden oluşan alfabe çok eski ve uzun bir oluşum sürecinden sonra, her sese bir işaretin karşılık geldiği bugünkü fonetik biçimine kavuşmuştur. Alfabenin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olan bugün resim yazısı (pictography) olarak bilinen, mağara duvarlarına kazılmış resimler M.Ö. 2500-2000 yıllarına tarihlendirilen ilk yazı örnekleri olarak bilinirler. Bu resim yazısı zamanla fikir yazısını (ideogram) oluşturmuştur. Fikir yazıları olarak bilinen Mezopotamya, Mısır, Girit ve Hitit yazıları aslında resim, fikir ve bu yazıların daha ileri şekilleri olan fonetik yazıyı da içlerinde barındırıyorlardı.94 Fonetik yazının ilk örnekleri olarak bilinen çivi yazısı Sümerler, Akadlar, Babiller, Asurlar, Hititler, Huriler, Elamlar, Mitanniler, Luviler, Urartular ve Persler tarafından kullanılmıştır. Çivi yazısı, içinde hareketi ifade eden sembolleri, ideogramları, fonetik işaretleri ve determinatifleri barındırmaktadır. M. Ö. VII-VI. Yüzyıllarda Aramice’nin ortak iletişim dili olması çivi yazısının kullanımdan kalkmıştır.95 Antik dönemin en önemli yazı sistemlerinden biri olan Mısır yazısı (hiyeroglif) M. Ö. 4000 –M. S. 400 yılları arasında Mısırda kullanılmıştır. Bu yazının işlenmiş biçimine hieratic ve demotic adlarını alır. Hiyeroglifi ilk olarak Champollion tarafından 1822 yılında çözülmüştür.96 Ege Bölgesi yazıları da antik dönemde kullanılan yazılardandır. Resim yazısı, Linear A ve Linear B olarak adlandırılan bu yazılar M. Ö. 2800 ila M. Ö. 1600 yıllarında Kıbrıs, Girit ve Ege Bölgelerinde kullanılmıştır.97 Hindistan’ın İndus vadisinde, sonradan Brahmi yazısına kaynaklık ettiği bilinen ideografik, çivi ve hece yazıları karışımı bir yazı sisteminin M. Ö. 2500 civarında kullanıldığı bilinmektedir.98 Alfabe yazısına girmeyen bir yazı da Çin yazısıdır. Çin yazısının en eski örnekleri M. Ö. XVIII-XII. yüzyıla aittir. Bu yazının eski zamanlardaki ideogram karakterleri bugüne logogram olarak gelmiştir.99 Bugünkü bilgimiz eski çağlardaki yazı sistemlerinin zamanla yerini fonetik alfabeye bırakmıştır. Alfabenin de en eski örnekleri M. Ö. 1700-1330 yıllarında Mezopotamya ve çevresinde bulunmuştur. Alfabenin ortaya çıkışı ve yayılışıyla ilgili olarak bazı teoriler ileri sürülmüştür.100 Bu teorilerde bugünkü alfabelerin ilk ve sonraki şekilleri arasında bağlar kurulmaya çalışılmıştır. Proto Sina yazısının Mısır hiyerogliflerine ve devamında Kuzey Sami alfabesine; proto Sami alfabesinin Güney Sami, Kuzey Sami (Arami ve Kenan), İbrani, Palmira, Nasturi, Mani, Brahmi, Haroşti, Soğut, Ermeni, Gürcü, Uygur ve Tibet alfabelerine; Punik veya Pön olarak da adlandırılan Fenike yazısının Eski Libya, İberya, Grek, Slav, Etrüsk, Likya, Frigya, Pampilyon, Lidya, Karya, Kıpti, Arap ve Latin gibi alfabelerin oluşumuna kaynaklık etmiştir.101 94 Hatice Şirin User, Başlangıcından Günümüze Türk Yazı Sistemleri, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2006, 15-16. s. Hatice Şirin User, age., 16-17. s. 96 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 97 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 98 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 99 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 100 Hatice Şirin User, age., 18. s. 101 Hatice Şirin User, age., 18-21. s. 95 363 �Bugün bile kaynağı tam olarak belirlenememiş, üzerindeki tartışmaların hâlâ devam ettiği Hint alfabeleri ve Runik alfabe gibi yazı sistemleri mevcuttur.102 Eski Türkçe Döneminde Kullanılan Alfabeler Türkçenin yazılı kaynaklarından takip edebildiğimiz ilk örnekleri Köktürk/Orhun yazısı ile yazılmıştır. Bu metinler ve yazıldıkları alfabe, Batılı Türkologlar tarafından, İskandinav bölgesinde bulunan Runik alfabeyle yazılmış belgelere benzediği için, Sibirya Run harfleri, Yenisey Run harfleri, Runik alfabe ve Türk Run yazısı olarak adlandırılmıştır. Köktürk işaretlerinin nerede ve ne zaman ortaya çıktığı üzerinde pek çok araştırma yapılmıştır. İlk olarak VII ila X. yüzyıllara tarihlendirilen Orhun ve Yenisey abidelerinde karşılaştığımız bu yazıların, Issık Köl yakınındaki Esik kurganında bulunan M. Ö. IV-V. yüzyıla tarihlendirilen gümüş bir tasın üzerinde Köktürk işaretleriyle yazılı 26 harflik bir metin yer almaktadır. Bu gümüş tas bize Köktürk işaretlerinin Milattan önceki yıllarda da kullanıldığını göstermiştir.103 Ancak tas üzerindeki 26 harflik yazının Türkologlar tarafından farklı okunması, bu yazının henüz açıklığa kavuşturulamadığını göstermektedir. Bu nedenle şimdilik kaydıyla Türkçenin en eski yazılı belgesi olarak Çoyrın yazıtı (687-692) kabul edilmektedir. Köktürk işaretleri yalnızca Köktürklerin yaşadığı Ötüken bölgesinde değil, farklı coğrafyalarda metal veya taş eşyalarla, kaya, ağaç kabuğu ve kağıt üzerlerine yazıldığını yapılan çalışmalardan öğrenmekteyiz.104 Köktürk işaretlerinin kullanımı 30 milyon km2lik bir alana yayılmıştır.105 Köktürk işaretlerinin kökeni hakkında pek çok teori ileri sürülmüştür. Köktürk işaretlerinin İskandinav Runik yazısından doğduğunu kabul eden görüş bunların ilkidir. Bu görüşün temsilcisi Heikel’dir. Daha sonra Köktürk yazısı ile Grek yazısı, hatta eski Sami yazısı ve Likya, Firikya, Hitit yazıları arasında ilgi kuran görüşler dahi ortaya atılmıştır. Bu görüşler Otto Donner, Heinrich Julius von Klaproth ve Altay Amanjolov tarafından kabul görmüştür.106 Köktürk işaretleriyle yazılmış Orhun Abidelerini ilk çözen Türkologlar V. Thomsen ve W. Radloff Köktürk işaretlerinin Aramî veya Soğut alfabelerinden geliştiğini savunmuşlardır.107 Türk millî şuuruna en yakın olan Köktürk işaretlerinin Türk damgalarından doğduğunu ileri süren görüştür. Bu teori ilk olarak Aristov ve Mallitskiy tarafından ileri sürülmüş, Ahmet Caferoğlu, Ahmet Cevat Emre, Hüseyin Namık Orkun gibi Türkologlar tarafından da kabul görmüştür.108 Bunlardan başka E. D. Polivanov, V. A. Livşiç, Köktürk işaretlerinin Türk damgalarından oluştuğunu fakat Soğut, Aramî, Pehlevî gibi yazılardan da etkilendiği görüşüne sahiptir.109 O. Pritsak ve A. Rona Tas gibi Türkologlar da Köktürk yazısının hece yazısından geliştiğini düşünmektedirler.110 Köktürk işaretleri hangi kökten gelirse gelsin Türkçenin yazımında en elverişli alfabelerden birisi olmuştur. Köktürk alfabesi 38 harften oluşmaktadır. Bu harflerden 4’ü ünlü, 31’i ünsüz 3’ü de çift ünsüzdür (ligatür). Ünsüzlerin 20 tanesi kalın ve ince olmak üzere ikili şekillere sahipken, 7 tanesi tek şekillidir. 4 harf de ünlülerle çift oluşturmaktadır. Köktürk Kağanlığı yıkıldıktan sonra yerine kurulan Uygur Kağanlığı döneminde Türkler Köktürk işaretlerinin yanı sıra, pek çok alfabe kullanmışlardır. Eski kültürlerde yazıyı icat eden toplumların ticaret yoluyla kazanç sağlama ve din misyonerliğiyle nüfus kazanma111 olmak üzere iki amacı vardır. Uygurlar konargöçer (nomad) yaşam tarzlarını değiştirip yerleşik hayata geçip şehirlerde yaşamaya başlamışlardır. Ticaret ve tarımla uğraşmaya başlamışlardır. Yeni hayat tarzından dolayı Maniheist Soğdak tüccarların ve dinî misyoner faaliyetlerin etkisiyle Bögü Kağan 692 yılında Maniheizmi devlet dini olarak kabul etmiştir.112 Yeni dinin öğretileri, dinî metinlerin yazılı olduğu alfabeyi de Uygurlar arasında kullanılır hâle getirmiştir. Maniheist 102 Hatice Şirin User, age., 22-23. s. Nejat Diyarbekirli, “Kazakistan'da Bulunan Esik Kurganı", Cumhuriyetin 50. Yılına Armağan, Edebiyat Fakültesi, İstanbul 1973, 291-304. s. 104 İsmail Doğan, Kafkasyadaki Göktürk Runik İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2000.; İsmail Doğan, Doğu Avrupadaki Göktürk (Runik) İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2002.; Semih Tezcan, “En Eski Türk Dili ve Yazını”, Bilim, Kültür ve Öğretim Dili Olarak Türkçe, Ankara 1994, 277; 283. s.; Talat Tekin, Irk Bitig Eski Uygurca Fal Kitabı, Öncü Kitap, Ankara 2004.; Hatice Şirin User, age., 31. s. 105 Namık Açıkgöz, “Türklerin Kullandığı Alfabelerden Göktürk Alfabesi”, Yeni Türkiye, Mayıs-Haziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 236. s. 106 Hatice Şirin User, age., 31. s.; Ahmet Caferoğlu, Türk Dili Tarihi I-II, Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul 1984. 120. s. 107 V. Thomsen, Orhon ve Yenisey Yazıtlarının Çözümü İlk Bildiri, (Çev: Vedat Köken), TDK Yay., Ankara 1993, 49-55. s.; Hatice Şirin User, age., 33. s.; Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 120. s. 108 Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 121. s.; Ahmet Bican Ercialsun, Türk Dili Tarihi, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2005, 169. s. 109 Ahmet Bican Ercilasun, age., 169. s. 110 Hatice Şirin User, age., 35. s. 111 Hatice Şirin User, age., 37. s. 112 Şinasi Tekin, “Mani Dininin Uygurlar Tarafından Devlet Dini Olarak Kabul Edilişinin 1200. Yıldönümü Dolayı İle Birkaç Not (762-1962)”, TDAY-B 1962, 6. s. 103 364 �Uygurların ve Uygur olmayan Türklerden kalan yazılı metinler Turfan ve Dunhuang bölgelerinde bulunmuştur. Mani alfabesiyle yazılan metinlerde noktalama işaretlerinin113 kullanılması dikkate çekicidir. Bu alfabeyle şiirler, hikâyeler, dua ve ilahiler, dinî kitaplar gibi eserler yazılmıştır.114 Mani inancındaki Uygurlar Mani alfabesinin yanı sıra Köktürk işaretleri, Uygur, Brahmi, Tibet ve Süryani alfabelerinin de kullanmışlardır. Mani alfabesi IX. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar Moğolistan ve Doğu Türkistan bölgelerinde kullanılmıştır.115 Soğut alfabesi, Türkler arasında yaşayan Soğut tüccarların etkisiyle kullanılmaya başlanmıştır.116 Soğutça ve Soğut alfabesinin I. Köktürk Kağanlığı döneminden itibaren kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Çünkü 5. Köktürk Kağanı Muhan’ın mezar taşı Bugut yazıtının üç yüzü de Soğutça yazılmıştır. Bu alfabe Türkler arasında çok kısa bir süre kullanılmıştır. 117 Uygurlar döneminde IX. yüzyılda yazıldığı tahmin edilen Çince, Uygurca ve Soğutça yazılan Karabalgasun yazıtında da Soğut alfabesini görmekteyiz.118 Güney Gobi’deki Sevrey yazıtının da Köktürk işaretli Uygurcanın yanı sıra Soğut alfabeli Soğutça olarak yazıldığı bilinmektedir.119 Eski Türkçe döneminden kalan en zengin edebiyat ürünleri Uygur alfabesiyle yazılmıştır. Uygur alfabesinin Türkler arasında ne zaman kullanılmaya başlandığı konusunda net bir sonuca ulaşılamamıştır. Gabain’e göre ilk Uygur harfli metinler 750-827 yıllarında yazılmıştır. S. Çağatay kesin bir tarih belirtmenin mümkün olmadığı; S. G. Clauson, bu alfabenin VIII. yüzyıldan önce tasarlandığı; S. Tezcan Uygur alfabesinin IX. yüzyıl sonlarında kullanılmaya başladığı görüşündedirler.120 Bu görüşlerden hareketle Uygur alfabesinin VIII. yüzyıldan XVIII. yüzyıla kadar Sibirya-Yenisey, Kuzey Moğolistan, Türkistan’ın tamamı, İdil nehri kıyıları, Transkafkasya, Azerbaycan, Gürcistan ve Osmanlı topraklarını içine alan sahada kullanılmıştır. Uygur alfabesi Soğutlardan alınmış fakat Türkçe ses yapısına uydurularak millîleştirilmiştir.121 Hitay ve Moğol Devletleri Uygur alfabesini resmî alfabe olarak kullanmışlardır. Mançu, Kalmuk ve Buryat alfabelerini oluşturan din adamları, söz konusu alfabeleri Uygur alfabesinden adapte etmişlerdir.122 Uygur alfabesi sağdan sola doğru yazılır. 18 harften oluşan alfabede üç işaret ünlüleri, 15 işaret de ünsüzleri göstermektedir. Harfler seslerin içte, ortada ve sonda olmalarına göre üç şekilde yazılmışlardır. Brahmi yazısı hakkında, Sami yazısının Aramî koluna ait olduğu ve Fenike alfabesiyle bazı ortaklıkları olduğu görüşü yaygın olmakla beraber, Brahmi alfabesinin Dravidyen bir icat ya da Hintli din adamlarının resimlerden icat ettiği bir yazı sistemi olduğu yönünde de görüşler vardır.123 Bu yazı M. Ö. VIII-VII. yüzyıllarda Hindistan’da kullanılan bu yazı M. S. III-IV. yüzyıllarda Barahma adıyla anılmıştır. Uygurlar bu alfabeyi tıpkı Toharlarda olduğu gibi Budizm’e ait dinî metinlerden öğrenmişlerdir. Bu alfabeyle yazılan metinleri Gabain X. yüzyıla dayandırıken, G. Clauson bu alfabenin daha öncelerde kullanılmaya başlandığını belirtmiştir. I. Köktürk Kağanlığına ait Bugut yazıtının bir yüzünün bu alfabeyle yazılması bu düşünceyi desteklemektedir.124 Soldan sağa doğru ve alta alta devam eden bu alfabeyle yazılan 79 parçalık metinler tespit edilmiştir. Uygur Türkleri bu alfabeyi Türkçeye uygun hâle getirmek için bazı değişiklikler yapmışlardır. Brahmi alfabesinde yapılan değişikliklerle (a ünlüsü ve ya hecesi birleştirilerek aya; u ünlüsü ve yu hecesi birleştirilerek uyu) gibi ünlülerin okunmasındaki karışıklığı engelleyen bazı ligatürler ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Brahmi yazısında bulunan 28 hece işaretine Uygurlar yedi işaret daha eklemişlerdir.125 Bu yazı Türkler arasında uzun bir süre kullanılmamıştır. Bugün kütüphanelerde bu yazıyla yazılmış 100 metin bulunmaktadır. Tibet yazısının Türkler arasında yayılması, Budizm’in yanı sıra, Tibet’in Doğu Türkistan bölgesini işgal etmek istemesi gibi dinî ve siyasî nedenlere bağlanabilir.126 VIII-IX. yüzyıllarda Uygurlarla Tibetlilerin iç içe yaşadıkları Gansu bölgesinde Uygurlar Budizm’in de etkisiyle Tibet yazısını kullanmışlardır. Tibet yazısı hece ve alfabe sistemlerinin karışık olduğu bir yazıdır. Tibet yazsısında 30 ünsüz, beş ünlü, bir ters çevrik i, üç tane de harf altı ünsüz içerir.127 Bu yazı Türkler arasında çok yayılmamış, kullanım sahası da Doğu Türkistanın bazı bölgeleriyle sınırlı kalmıştır. Dunhuang’daki Bin Buda mağaralarından çıkan 14 bin parçadan oluşan koleksiyonda Tibet yazısıyla yazılmış mahdut sayıda metinler bulunmaktadır. Bunlar Paris Biblioteque National’de bulunmaktadırlar. 113 Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 173. s. Ahmet Bican Ercilasun, age., 230-242. s. 115 Hatice Şirin User, age., 45. s. 116 Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 165. s.; Hatice Şirin User, age., 48. s. 117 Hatice Şirin User, age., 48. s. 118 Hatice Şirin User, age., 49. s. 119 Hatice Şirin User, age., 49. s 120 Hatice Şirin User, age., 53. s. 121 R. Rahmeti Arat, “Uygur Alfabesi”, Makaleler I. C., 679. s. 122 Hatice Şirin User, age., 57. s. 123 Hatice Şirin User, age., 62. s. 124 Hatice Şirin User, age., 63. s. 125 Hatice Şirin User, age., 64. s. 126 Hatice Şirin User, age., 67. s. 127 Hatice Şirin User, age., 68. s. 114 365 �M. S. II. yüzyılda Türkler arasında misyoner faaliyetlerine başlayan Hristiyan misyonerler, ancak VII. yüzyılda amaçlarına ulaşmışlar ve Türkler arasında Süryani koluna dayalı Nasturî mezhebi yayılmaya başlamıştır. Nasturîliğe ait bazı dinî metinler sınırlı sayıda da olsa bu dönemde Uygurcaya çevrilmeye başlanmıştır. Turfan bölgesinde bulunan Nasturî kilisesinde Estrangelo yazısıyla yazılmış bazı metinler bulunmuştur. Bir de Öngüt mezar taşları bu alfabeyle yazılmıştır. Estrangelo alfabesi Suriye ve bugünkü Urfa bölgesinde yaşayan Süryaniler için geliştirilmiştir. Bu yazının en önemli kolu V. yüzyılda ilk örnekleri görülen Estrangelo alfabesidir. Estrangelo alfabesi Nasturiler tarafından Türkistan ve Çin içlerine kadar yayılmıştır. Türkçenin ses sistemine uydurulan bazı yeni harf şekiller oluşturulmuştur. İbrani alfabesi, Harun Reşid devrinde (786-809) Museviliğin Karay mezhebine giren Hazarlar tarafından kullanılmıştır.128 Fakat bugün için elimizde Hazarlara ait yazılı bir belge bulunmamaktadır. İbrani alfabesiyle yazılı metinler Hazarların bugünkü devamı olduğu düşünülen Karaylardan kalmadır. Bu metinlerin ilki XVI. yüzyıla kadar uzanmaktadır. Bugün Litavanya, Ukrayna, Kırım ve Polonya gibi ülkelerde dağınık olarak yaşayan dinî metinlerini içeren eserlerde kullanılan İbreni alfabesi, Karay Türkçesinin sözlü olarak yaşamasından dolayı kullanım alanı oldukça daralmıştır. İbrani alfabesi köken itibariyle Sami yazısının Kenan kolundan gelmektedir. Yakın Dönemde Türk Alfabeleri Grek alfabesi yakın çağda Hristiyanlığın Ortodoks mezhebine bağlı olan ve Anadolu’nun iç kesimlerinde Nevşehir, Kayseri ve Karaman gibi bölgelerde yaşayan Karamanlılar tarafından kullanılmıştır. Karamanlılar bu dönemde oldukça zengin bir yazılı edebiyat eserleri bırakmışlardır. Bu eseler arasında dinî metinler ağırlıklı olmakla beraber, gazete, dergi, ders kitabı, gramer kitabı gibi basılı eserlerin yanı sıra kilise, mezar kitabeleri gibi kutsal mekânlarda kitabeler yer almaktadır. Grek yazısı Kuzey Sami yazısından gelişen bir yazı sistemidir. Asıl gelişimini Fenike alfabesi etkisi altında tamamlamıştır.129 Alfabe, Suriye’nin Kuzeyinde kurulan Yunan sahil kolonisi tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Grek alfabesi Karamanlı Türkçesini tam olarak karşılayamıyordu. Türkçedeki ı, ü, ö, c, ç, j, ş gibi sesler farklı harf birlikleriyle ve diakritiklerle gösterilmiştir.130 Türkler, Emevi Devleti döneminden beri İslâm devletleriyle temas kurmuşlardır. Bu ilişki özellikle Abbasiler döneminde askerî güç sağlamak amacıyla paralı asker ve askerî köle edinme yoluyla devam etmiştir.131 Bu askerle İslâm dinini Bulgar, Karahanlı ve Oğuz Türklerine tanıtmışlardır. Bundan sonra Samanîler döneminde Maveraünnehir tamamen İslâmiyetin yerleştiği bir bölge olmuştur. Horasan bu bölgenin Tasavvuf düşüncesinin merkezi olmuştur. İslâmiyetin kabulü İslâm medeniyetinin taşıyıcısı olan alfabeyi de beraberinde getirmiştir. İlk zamanlar Uygur alfabesiyle yan yana kullanılan Arap alfabesi sonraları bütün Türk unsurlar tarafından tercih edilmiştir.132 Uygur alfabesinin terk edilmesi uzun yıllar almıştır. Çünkü Miraçnâme, Tezkiretü’l-Evliya, Muhabbet-nâme gibi eserler XIV-XV. yüzyıllarda Uygur harfleriyle yazılmışlardır.133 Arap alfabesinin Estrangelo yazısından geliştiğini kabul edenlerin yanında, Sami asıllı Nebati kavminin yuvarlak hatlı yazısından geliştiğini düşünenler de vardır.134 Arap alfabesi pek çok bölgede farklı milletler tarafından kullanılan yaygın bir alfabe olmuştur. Bu yaygınlığın sonucu olarak Arap alfabesini kullanan milletler alfabeye bazı sesleri ekleme yoluna gitmiştir. Farslar alfabede olmayan ç, ş ve j sesleri için (œ, © ve ¦ ) işaretlerini alfabeye eklemişlerdir. Türkçede bulunan nazal ŋ için de g sesini işaretlemede kullanılaní harfi kullanılmıştır. XI. Yüzyılda Arap alfabesinin, temel olarak 29 harfle yazıldığını görmekteyiz. Hem Türkçe hem de alıntı sözlerin imlasında kullanılan bu harfler şunlardır: [,’, –, ˜, š, ³, °, ¢,£ ¤, ¥, ¦, §, ©, «, -, ¯, à, á, å, é, ë, í, ñ, ô, ö, ø, û, ý. Arap alfabesindeki ˜, ³, £, «, -, ¯, à, á harflerinin ses karşılıkları Türkçenin ses sisteminde olmadığı için, bu harfler Türkçe kelimelerde kullanılmamıştır. Ancak « ve ¯ ilk başlarda Türkçe seslerin işaretlenmesinde kullanılmazken, sonraları kalın ünlülü sözlerde kullanıldığını görmekteyiz. Hatta Batı Türkçesi için –, §, ¯, « harfleri kalın ve ince sıradan kelimeler için kullanılırken Doğu Türkçesi için böyle bir ayrım olmamış kelime kalın da olsa ince de olsa hep –, § harfleriyle gösterilmiştir. Arap alfabesi Yakut, Çuvaş, Karay gibi Türk gruplar ayrı tutulduğunda bütün Türk Dünyası tarafından XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine kadar kullanılmıştır. Bu süre içinde ünlü tabanlı bir yazı sistemine sahip olan 128 Hatice Şirin User, age., 81. s. Hatice Şirin User, age., 91. s. 130 Hatice Şirin User, age., 91. s. 131 Hatice Şirin User, age., 93. s. 132 Kutadgu Bilig, Atabetü’l-Hakayık gibi Karahanlı Türk kültür tarihinin en önemli eserlerinin bazı nüshaları Uygur alfabesiyle istinsah edilmiştir. 133 Hatice Şirin User, age., 95. s. 134 Hatice Şirin User, age., 95. s. 129 366 �Türkçenin yazımında ünsüz tabanlı bir yazı sistemine sahip olan Arap alfabesinin yetersizliği hiç tartışılmamıştır. XIX. yüzyılın başlarında başlayan yenileşme hareketleri ile birlikte Osmanlı, İdil-Ural ve Kafkasya aydınları tarafından 1850-1880 yıllarında alfabenin yetersizliği ve ıslah edilmesi gerektiği fikri tartışılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu konuda Türk dünyasının farklı coğrafyalarında ayrı tecrübeler yaşanmıştır. Türkçenin ünlülerini göstermede yetersiz kaldığı, bu yüzden eş yazılı durumların ortaya çıktığı, Arap alfabesinin zor öğrenilmesinden dolayı okuma yazma oranının düşük olduğu gibi nedenlerle dilimizdeki ünlülerin hepsinin yazılması yoluna giden; basım işlerinin ve okumayı kolaylaştırmaya yönelik ıslah çalışmaları yapılmıştır.135 Arap alfabesi bugün İran’da yaşayan Güney Azerbaycanlılar ve Doğu Türkistan’da yaşayan Uygur Türkleri tarafından kullanılmaktadır. Aziz Cyrill e kardeşi Methodius tarafından IX. yüzyılda Grek alfabesinden oluşturulan Kiril alfabesi136 Türk dünyasında Çuvaş ve Yakut Türkleri tarafından XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren kullanılmaya başlanmıştı. Diğer Türk halkları ise Arap alfabesini kullanmaya devam etmekteydiler. Arap alfabesinin ıslah edilmesi fikrinin dillendirilmeye başlandığı XIX. yüzyılda Arap alfabesinin yanı sıra Kiril veya Latin alfabesine geçilmesini savunan aydınların sayısı az değildir. Sait Halfin, Mirza Kazem Bek, İbray Altınsarin, Çokan Velihanov ve başka Türk aydınlarının yanı sıra P. M. Melioranski, N. İ. İlminski ve S. E. Malov gibi Rus bilim adamları tarafından bu düşünce desteklenmektedir.137 XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine kadar Rusya Müslümanları ve Osmanlı aydınları Arap alfabesinin ıslahı üzerine tartışırken 26 Şubat-6 Mart 1926 tarihleri arasında Bakü Türkoloji kongresi toplanmıştır. Burada görüşülen konulardan birisi de alfabe meselesidir. Türk Dünyasından bu kongreye katılan aydınların çoğu Latin alfabesine geçilmesi fikrinde birleşmişler, Tataristan delegasyonundan olan Alimcan İbrahim Arap alfabesinin muhafaza edilmesini savunmuştur.138 Ama kongrenin sonunda bütün Türk halklarının Latin alfabesine geçmesi kararı alınmıştır. Ancak Türk halklarının Latin alfabesini kullanmaları çok kısa sürecektir. 22 Haziran 1938 yılında SSCB’de çıkarılan bir kararla SSCB’deki Türk topluluklarının tamamen Rus Kiril alfabesinin kullanılması kararı alınmıştır.139 Bu kararın alınmasının ardından Azeri, Tatar, Yakut, Hakas 1939; Kazak, Kırgız, Başkurt, Karakalpak, Özbek 1940; Tuva 1943; Gagavuz Türkleri 1957 yılında Kiril alfabesiyle yazmaya başlamışlardır. Bugün Çuvaş, Yakut, Altay, Hakas, Şor, Tuva, Nogay, Kumuk, Karaçay-Balkar, Karakalpak, Kazakistan, Kırgızistan, Başkurdistan, Tataristan Türk cumhuriyetleri Kiril alfabesini kullanmaktadırlar. Latin alfabesinin en eski metinleri M. Ö. VII-VI. yüzyıllara ait olup Grek alfabesinden geliştiği fikri ağır basmaktadır. Latin alfabesi Türkler tarafından ilk defa XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine rastlar. Ama Türkçenin Latin alfabesiyle yazılan ilk eseri 1303 yılında Fransiskan rahipleri tarafından yazıya geçirilen Codeks Cumanikus’dur.140 Bu eserden sonra yazılan Latin alfabeli Türkçe metinler de vardır. Macar Johann Schildtberger Ankara savaşında Aksak Timura esir düşmüş ve esaretin sonunda gezi notlarını yayınladığı eserinin arkasına Hristiyan Tatarlardan derlediği düşünülen Tatarca dua metninin transkripsiyonunu yazmıştır. Georgius adlı bir Macar esiri de 1481’de yazdığı Tractatus de moribus, conditionibus et nequitia Turcorum adlı eserde, aralarında Yunus Emre’nin manzumelerinin de bulunduğu Türkçe şiirler yazmıştır. 141 Bunlardan başka Türkçenin öğretilmesi amacıyla Batılı Türkologlar tarafından yazılmış kısa gramerler yazmışlardır. Filippo 135 Arap alfabesinin ıslahıyla ilgili pek çok çalışma yapılmıştır. Bunlarla ilgili geniş bilgi için şu eserlere bakılabilir: Hatice Şirin User, age.; Bilal Şimşir, Türk Yazı Devrimi, Ankara 1992; M. Şakir Ülkütaşır, Atatürk ve Harf Devrimi, TDK Yay., Ankara 1973; A. S. Levend, Türk Dilinde Sadeleşme ve Gelişme Evreleri, Ankara 1972; Fevziye Abdullah Tansel, “Arap Harflerinin Islahı ve Değiştirilmesi Hakkında İlk Teşebbüsler ve Neticeleri (1862-1884)”, TTK- Belleten 1953, c. XVII, Ankara 1950; Mustafa Öner, “Ortak Türk Alfabesi” Hakkında Bazı Notlar”, Yeni Türkiye, Türk Dünyası Özel sayısı I, Mayıs-Haziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 207-233; Mustafa Öner, “I. Bakû Türkoloji Kongresinde İdil-Ural Türkleri”: 1926 Bakû Türkoloji Kongresi’nin 70. Yıl Dönümü Toplantısı, TDK Yay., Ankara 1999, 13-25.s.; Mustafa Öner, “Islah Edilmiş Tatar Alfabesi ve Huca Bediî’nin Derlediği Tatar Ata Sözleri”, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Araştırmaları Dergisi X (Üzbek Bayçura Özel Sayısı), Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fak. Yay., İzmir 2001, 213-313.s.; Mustafa Altun, “Alfabe Değişiminin Tarihsel Gelişimi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, Cumhuriyetimizin 81. Yılına Armağan, (Editör: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Enis Şahin), Sakarya Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılâp Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Müdürlüğü, Adapazarı, Aralık 2004, 57-63. s.; Ümit Özgür Demirci, “Arap Harfli Özbekçenin İmla Özellikleri”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_ozbekce_imla_ozellikleri.pdf; Ümit Özgür Demirci “Türk Dünyasında Arap Harflerinin Islah Edilmesi ve Latin Harflerine Geçiş Tartışmaları”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_harf.pdf; Mehmet Kutalmış, "Tarihte ve Günümüzde Kazakistan'ın Alfabe Meselesi", Bilig, Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2004, 1-21. s.; 1926 Bakü Türkoloji Kurultayı Tutanakları, (Çev: Kâmil Veli Nerimanoğlu, Mustafa Öner), TDK Yay., Ankara 2008. 136 Hatice Şirin User, age., 143. s. 137 Hatice Şirin User, age., 149. s. 138 Mustafa Öner, “Bakû Türkoloji Kongresinde İdil Ural Türkleri”, Sanal Türkoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2 Ocak 1999, 5. s. 139 Hatice Şirin User, age., 153. s. 140 Talat Tekin, “Avrupalılar ve Türkçenin Latin harfleriyle Yazımı”, Türk Dili, Kasım 1978, S. 326, 590-594. s.; Annemarie von Gabain, “Codex Cumanicus’un Dili” (çev. Mehmet Akalın): Tarihî Türk Şiveleri, Ankara 1988, 67-109.s. 141 Hatice Şirin User, age., 361. s. 367 �Argenti tarafından 1533’ te yazılan Regola del parlare turcho’ adlı eser Osmanlı Türkçesinin öğretilmesi amacıyla yazılmış bir kılavuzdur. Guillaume Postel 1522’de De la République des Turcs adlı eserini yazmış; esere 1575’te “Instruction des mots de la langue turquesque les plus communs” başlıklı bölümü eklemiştir. Türkçenin öğretimi için hazırlanan bu ekte, Türkçe sözlerin Latin harflerine transkripsiyonu da bulunmaktadır. 1611’de İtalyan Cizvit papazlarından Pietro Ferraguto, Grammatica turchesca adlı Türkçe gramer kitabını yazmıştır. 1612’de, yine bir papaz olan Hieronymus Megiser Leipzig’de Institutionum linguae turcicae libri quatuor adındaki Türkçe gramer kitabını yayımlar.142 Türkçenin Latin alfabesiyle yazıldığı örnekler, Türk aydınlarını Arap alfabesinin yerine Latin alfabesinin kullanılabileceği fikrine götürmüştür. Latin alfabesinin Türkler arasında kabul edilmesi süreci Türk Dünyası için iki farklı yolla olmuştur. Bunlardan birincisi SSCB’nin, Rusya Müslümanları ve Osmanlı Devleti arasında önemli bir kültür bağı sağlayan Arap alfabesinin değiştirilerek yazı birliğini Rusya Türkleri lehine değiştirme siyasetidir. Bu nedenledir ki Stalin 1926 Bakû Türkoloji Kurultayında alınan “Latin alfabesine geçişin her cumhuriyetin kendi iç işidir” sonucuna varılmasını desteklemiştir. Türk halkları açısından da bu karar, toplu olarak Latin alfabesine geçiş hem yazı birliğini koruyacak hem de eğitimi kolaylaştırarak okuma yazma oranın artmasına katkı sağlayacaktı. Bu sayede Rusya Müslümanlarının çağdaşlaşması da mümkün olacaktı. İkinci yol ise Osmanlı Devletinin yıkılması sonucu her yönüyle yeni ve modern bir devlet oluşturma çabalarıdır. Diğer bir nedeni de toplu olarak Latine geçen Türk Dünyası ile ortak alfabeyi sağlama düşüncesidir. Bakû kurultayının ardından 11 Mayıs 1927’de Yeni Alfabe Bütün Birlik Merkez komitesi kurulur.143 Tüm Türk halklarının ortak bir alfabe oluşturma çalışmaları için her cumhuriyetten temsilciler seçilir ve alfabe projeleri yapılır. 34 işaretten oluşan ortak Türk-Latin alfabesine geçiş süreci 1945 yılına kadar tamamlanacaktır. Ama durum hiç de öyle olmaz Stalin yönetimi daha 1938 yılından itibaren her Türk halkına farklı olacak şekilde Kiril alfabeleri hazırlatmaya başlar. Yakutlar tarafından 1917 yılından beri kullanılmaya başlanan Latin alfabesinin Rusya Türkleri arasında kullanılması, 1938’de başlayan Kirilleştirme süreciyle son bulmuştur. Bu kısa süre içinde: Yakut 1917-1939; Azerbaycan 1922-1938; Hakas 1229-1939; Şor 1930-1939; Gagavuz 1932-1957; Türkmen 1928-1940; Kırım 1929-1938; Nogay 1928-1938; Kumuk 1928-1938, Karaçay-Balkar 1924-1936; Karakalpak 1928-1940; Kazakistan 1929-1940; Kırgızistan 1928-1940; Başkurt 1928-1940; Tatar 1927-1939; Özbek 1930-1940 yılları arasında Latin alfabesiyle yazmışlardır. Bu Türk Cumhuriyetlerinin bazıları 1991’de tekrar bağımsızlıklarını kazandıktan sonra yeniden Latin alfabesine geçmişlerdir. Bugün Azerbaycan, Gagavuz, Kırım, Türkmen, Özbek Türkleri 1991 yılında Marmara Üniversitesinde yapılan Alfabe toplantısının da etkisiyle Latin alfabesine geçmişlerdir. Latin alfabesine geçmek isteyip de geçemeyen Tataristan Özerk Cumhuriyeti Rusya’nın baskısıyla karşı karşıyadır. Bugün Kazakistan’da Latin alfabesine geçiş çalışmaları sürdürülmekte, bu konuda Türkiye’nin de tecrübelerinden yaralanmak için Kazak ve Türk bilim adamları 11-15 Haziran 2007 tarihleri arasında Türk Dil Kurumunda bir toplantı yapmışlardır. Türkler bugüne kadar ister ticarî ister dinî amaçla veya siyasî dayatma sonucu olsun pek çok alfabe kullanmıştır. Ama bunların arasında Türklerin yaratması olan Köktürk İşaretleri ile modern ve çağdaş bir ulus yaratma endişeleriyle kullanılan Latin alfabesi hepsin farklı bir yere sahiptir. Kaynakça 1926 Bakü Türkoloji Kurultayı Tutanakları, (Çev: Kâmil Veli Nerimanoğlu, Mustafa Öner), TDK Yay., Ankara 2008 Açıkgöz, Namık, “Türklerin Kullandığı Alfabelerden Göktürk Alfabesi”, Yeni Türkiye, Mayıs-Haziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 236. s. Altun, Mustafa, “Alfabe Değişiminin Tarihsel Gelişimi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, Cumhuriyetimizin 81. Yılına Armağan, (Editör: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Enis Şahin), Sakarya Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılâp Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Müdürlüğü, Adapazarı, Aralık 2004, 57-63. s. Caferoğlu, Ahmet, Türk Dili Tarihi I-II, Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul 1984. 120. s. Demirci, Ümit Özgür, “Arap Harfli Özbekçenin İmla Özellikleri”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_ozbekce_imla_ozellikleri. pdf. 142 Hatice Şirin User, age., 362-363. s. Ayrıca buraya alamadığımız diğer gramer kitaplar ve sözlükler hakkında geniş bilgi için aynı eserin 1116. dipnota bakılabilir. 143 Hatice Şirin User, age., 364. s. 368 �Demirci, Ümit Özgür, “Türk Dünyasında Arap Harflerinin Islah Edilmesi ve Latin Harflerine Geçiş Tartışmaları”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_harf.pdf. Diyarbekirli, Nejat, “Kazakistan'da Bulunan Esik Kurganı", Cumhuriyetin 50. Yılına Armağan, Edebiyat Fakültesi, İstanbul 1973, 291-304. s. Doğan, İsmail, Doğu Avrupadaki Göktürk (Runik) İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2002. Doğan, İsmail, Kafkasyadaki Göktürk Runik İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2000. Ercialsun, Ahmet Bican, Türk Dili Tarihi, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2005, 169. s. Kutalmış, Mehmet, "Tarihte ve Günümüzde Kazakistan'ın Alfabe Meselesi", Bilig, Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2004, 1-21. s. Levend, Agah Sırrı, Türk Dilinde Sadeleşme ve Gelişme Evreleri, Ankara 1972 Öner, Mustafa, “I. Bakû Türkoloji Kongresinde İdil-Ural Türkleri”: 1926 Bakû Türkoloji Kongresi’nin 70. Yıl Dönümü Toplantısı, TDK Yay., Ankara 1999, 13-25.s. Öner, Mustafa, “Islah Edilmiş Tatar Alfabesi ve Huca Bediî’nin Derlediği Tatar Ata Sözleri”, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Araştırmaları Dergisi X (Üzbek Bayçura Özel Sayısı), Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fak. Yay., İzmir 2001, 213-313.s. Öner, Mustafa, “Ortak Türk Alfabesi Hakkında Bazı Notlar”, Yeni Türkiye, Türk Dünyası Özel sayısı I, MayısHaziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 207-233. s. Şimşir, Bilal, Türk Yazı Devrimi, Ankara 1992 Tansel, Fevziye Abdullah, “Arap Harflerinin Islahı ve Değiştirilmesi Hakkında İlk Teşebbüsler ve Neticeleri (1862-1884)”, TTK- Belleten 1953, c. XVII, Ankara 1950 Tekin, Şinasi, “Mani Dininin Uygurlar Tarafından Devlet Dini Olarak Kabul Edilişinin 1200. Yıldönümü Dolayı İle Birkaç Not (762-1962)”, TDAY-B 1962, 6. s. Tekin, Talat, Irk Bitig Eski Uygurca Fal Kitabı, Öncü Kitap, Ankara 2004. Tezcan, Semih, “En Eski Türk Dili ve Yazını”, Bilim, Kültür ve Öğretim Dili Olarak Türkçe, Ankara 1994, 277; 283. s. Thomsen, V., Orhon ve Yenisey Yazıtlarının Çözümü İlk Bildiri, (Çev: Vedat Köken), TDK Yay., Ankara 1993, 49-55. s. User, Hatice Şirin, Başlangıcından Günümüze Türk Yazı Sistemleri, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2006. Ülkütaşır, M. Şakir, Atatürk ve Harf Devrimi, TDK Yay., Ankara 1973 369 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 412 Title A name given to the resource Geçmişten Günümüze Türk Dünyasında Alfabe Gelişimi Author Author KARTALCIK, Vedat Abstract A summary of the resource. Türklerin metinlerle belgelenebilen tarihte kullandıkları ilk alfabe Köktürk işaretleridir. Köktürklerin Ötükendeki hâkimiyetleri sona erdikten sonra, Uygurlar döneminde farklı dinleri kabul eden Türk toplulukları tarafından Mani, Soğut, Uygur, Süryani, İbrani alfabeleri; Brahmi, Tibet yazıları gibi farklı alfabe ve yazı sistemleri kullanılmıştır. Grek alfabesi de Hristiyan Türkler ile misyoner rahip ve tüccarlar tarafından Türkçenin yazımında kullanılmıştır. X. yüzyılda İslâmı kabul eden Türkler uzun bir süre Arap alfabesini kullanmışlardır. 19. yüzyılda başlayan yenileşme hareketleriyle birlikte, Arap alfabesinin Türkçe sesleri karşılamada yetersiz kaldığı ve başka gerekçelerle Arap alfabesinin ıslah edilmesi gerektiği fikri tüm Türk dünyasında dile getirilmeye başlamıştır. XX. yüzyılın başında neredeyse çeyrek asırlık bir sürede Türk dünyası alfabe ıslahı ve yeni bir alfabe kabulü meselesi üzerinde durmuş, bu konuyla ilgili kurultaylar düzenlemiştir Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/49be3b62bbeb998ad808e92b64a6cbb9.pdf 142d9ff4f09b6aa84772c23e2f17da92 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Corporate Governance and Sustainable Development, A Comparative Analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina Mete KARAYEL Res. Assist. , Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, mkarayel@aku.edu.tr Assist. Prof. Dr. Halil SAYLI Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, hsayli@aku.edu.tr Assist. Prof. Dr.Alparslan Şahin GÖRMÜŞ Uşak University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, alparslansahin.gormus@usak.edu.tr Abstract: Corporate governance is the system by which business corporations are directed and controlled. This concept is getting more attention in the recent years after many corporation scandals and financial crises. But it has many benefits to companies and countries. When we look at the country side, according to literature, there are several channels through which corporate governance affects growth and development in countries, these channels are: increased access to external financing by firms, a lowering of the cost of capital and associated higher firm valuation, better operational performance through better allocation of resources and better management, reduced risk of financial crises, and better relationships with all stakeholders. In this study we aim to show importance of corporate governance on sustainable development in developing countries. In this direction we will use data acquired from reports and data prepared by World Bank, OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) and governmental organizations in these countries. Corporate governance levels and performances of companies and countries and effects of these on growth and sustainable development will be acquired from data. At the conclusion part, we will conclude our study with a comparative country analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina and with some suggestions to countries and future researches. Key Words: Corporate Governance, Sustainable Development, Growth. 1. Definition of Corporate Governance There are many different definitions of corporate governance. But in literature we can mention the definition of some academicians and organizations. The term “corporate governance” was firstly used in a report prepared by Sir Adrian Cadbury. In this report; Corporate governance was defined as the system by which companies are directed and controlled. In this definition board of directors has a key role. Boards of directors are responsible for the corporate governance of their companies. The shareholders’ role in governance is to appoint the directors and the auditors and to satisfy themselves that an appropriate governance structure is in place. The responsibilities of the board include setting the company’s strategic aims, providing the leadership to put them into effect, supervising the management of the business and reporting to shareholders on their stewardship. The board’s actions are subject to laws, regulations and the shareholders in general meeting (Cadbury 1992). From the perspective of World Bank, corporate governance refers to the structures and processes for the direction and control of companies. Corporate governance concerns the relationships among the management, Board of Directors, controlling shareholders, minority shareholders and other stakeholders. In addition to this definition, it can be said that good corporate governance contributes to sustainable economic development by enhancing the performance of companies and increasing their access to outside capital. (Worldbank) Monks and Minow (2007) defined corporate governance as the structure that is intended to make sure that the right questions get asked and that checks and balances are in place to make sure that the answers reflect what is best fort he creation of long-term, sustainable value. When the structure gets subverted, it becomes too easy to succumb to the temptation to engage in self-dealing (Monks & Minow 2007). 74 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Deakin (2005) defined corporate governance as a concept concerning in essence, with issues of ownership and control of the enterprise. ‘Ownership’ refers in this context to the legal allocation of property rights among the principal stakeholders or corporate constituencies (shareholders, creditors and employees), and ‘control’ to the way in which legal rules and social norms interact to determine the balance of power among these groups (Deakin et al. 2005). According to Ulgen &Mirze (2004) corporate governance contains relationship between board of directors, which is assigned and responsible for strategic management and direction of the corporation, and shareholders, employees, suppliers, customers and other society corporations, which has a stake and interest in corporation’s business results. Several studies have been made in the area of corporate governance. These studies emphasize the fact that no single corporate governance model is valid for every country. However, the concepts of equality, transparency, accountability and responsibility appear to be main concepts in all international corporate governance approaches that are widely accepted (CMBT 2003). Equality means the equal treatment of share and stakeholders by the management in all activities of the company and thus aims to prevent all possible conflicts of interest. Transparency, on the other hand, aims to disclose company related financial and non-financial information to the public in a timely, accurate, complete, clear, construable manner and easy to reach at low cost, excluding the trade secrets and undisclosed information. Accountability means the obligation of the board of directors to account to the company as a corporate body and to the shareholders. Finally, responsibility defines the conformity of all operations carried out on behalf of the company with the legislation, articles of association and in-house regulations together with the audit thereof (CMBT 2003). 2. Corporate Governance Systems The term corporate governance has been used in many different ways and the boundaries of the subject vary widely. In the economics debate concerning the impact of corporate governance on performance, there are basically two different models of the corporation, the shareholder model and the stakeholder model. In its narrowest sense (shareholder model), corporate governance often describes the formal system of accountability of senior management to shareholders. In its widest sense (stakeholder model), corporate governance can be used to describe the network of formal and informal relations involving the corporation. More recently, the stakeholder approach emphasises contributions by stakeholders that can contribute to the long term performance of the firm and shareholder value, and the shareholder approach also recognises that business ethics and stakeholder relations can also have an impact on the reputation and long term success of the corporation. Therefore, the difference between these two models is not as stark as it first seems, and it is instead a question of emphasis (Maher & Andersson 1999). There are two polar systems of corporate governance: the market-based system(Shareholder Model) and the realtionshipbased or blockholderbased system. The former prevails in the UK, USA, and the Commonwealth countries, and relies on legal rules largely resulting from case law and on the effective legal enforcement of shareholder rights. The blockholder-based system of Continental Europe relies on codified law and emphasizes rules protecting stakeholders such as creditors and employees. The two systems differ not only in terms of the rationale behind their legal rules, but also in terms of their ownership and control. Most Continental European companies are characterized by majority or near-majority stakes held by one or few investors. In contrast, the Anglo-American system is characterized by dispersed equity. Increasing economic globalization has fuelled the debate on the best corporate governance system and the barriers to the development of a single system of corporate governance (Goergen 2005). 2.1. Market Based(Shareholder Model) Corporate Governance System According to the shareholder model the objective of the firm is to maximise shareholder wealth through allocative, productive and dynamic efficiency i.e. the objective of the firm is to maximise profits. The criteria by which performance is judged in this model can simply be taken as the market value (i.e. shareholder value) of the firm. Therefore, managers and directors have an implicit obligation to ensure that firms are run in the interests of shareholders. The underlying problem of corporate governance in this model stems from the principal-agent relationship arising from the separation of beneficial ownership and executive decision-making. It is this separation that causes the firm’s behaviour to diverge from the profitmaximising ideal. This happens because the interests and objectives of the principal (the investors) and the agent (the managers) differ when there is a separation of ownership and control. Since the managers are not the owners of the firm they do not bear the full costs, or reap the full benefits, of their actions (Maher & Andersson 1999). Therefore, although investors are interested in maximising shareholder value, managers may have other objectives such as maximising their salaries, growth in market share, or an attachment to particular 75 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo investment projects, etc. An effective corporate governance framework can minimise the agency costs and holdup problems associated with the separation of ownership and control. There are broadly three types of mechanisms that can be used to align the interests and objectives of managers with those of shareholders and overcome problems of management entrenchment and monitoring (Maher & Andersson 1999): − One method attempts to induce managers to carry out efficient management by directly aligning managers interests with those of shareholders e.g. executive compensation plans, stock options, direct monitoring by boards, etc. − Another method involves the strengthening of shareholder’s rights so shareholders have both a greater incentive and ability to monitor management. This approach enhances the rights of investors through legal protection from expropriation by managers e.g. protection and enforcement of shareholder rights, prohibitions against insider-dealing, etc. − Another method is to use indirect means of corporate control such as that provided by capital. 2.2. Relationship Based (Stakeholder Model) Corporate Governance System The stakeholder model takes a broader view of the firm. According to the traditional stakeholder model, the corporation is responsible to a wider constituency of stakeholders other than shareholders. Other stakeholders may include contractual partners such as employees, suppliers, customers, creditors, and social constituents such as members of the community in which the firm is located, environmental interests, local and national governments, and society at large. This view holds that corporations should be “socially responsible” institutions, managed in the public interest. According to this model performance is judged by a wider constituency interested in employment, market share, and growth in trading relations with suppliers and purchasers, as well as financial performance (Maher & Andersson 1999). However, we should keep in mind that the effectiveness and form of different corporate governance systems may be influenced by a number of factors, including product market competition, the structure of capital and labour markets, and the regulatory and legal environments (Maher & Andersson 1999). 3. Why Is Corporate Governance Important For Emerging Markets? For emerging market countries, improving corporate governance can serve a number of important public policy objectives. Good corporate governance reduces emerging market vulnerability to financial crises, reinforces property rights, reduces transaction costs and the cost of capital, and leads to capital market development. Weak corporate governance frameworks reduce investor confidence, and can discourage outside investment. Also, as pension funds continue to invest more in equity markets, good corporate governance is crucial for preserving retirement savings. Over the past several years, the importance of corporate governance has been highlighted by an increasing body of academic research. Studies have shown that good corporate governance practices have led to significant increases in economic value added of firms, higher productivity, and lower risk of systemic financial failures for countries (World Bank). 4. Corporate Governance, Growth, Development and Sustainable Development McGee & Preobragenskaya (2004) mentioned the importance of corporate governance in transition economies. They showed the importance in by using these sentences in their paper: “Corporate governance has become an important topic in transition economies in recent years. Directors, owners and corporate managers have started to realize that there are benefits that can accrue from having a good corporate governance structure. Good corporate governance helps to increase share price and makes it easier to obtain capital. International investors are hesitant to lend oney or buy shares in a corporation that does not subscribe to good corporate governance principles. Transparency, independent directors and a separate audit committee are especially important. Some international investors will not seriously consider investing in a company that does not have these things” When we review the literature, we can say that there are several channels through which corporate governance affects growth and development (Claessens 2003): • The first is the increased access to external financing by firms. This in turn can lead to larger investment, higher growth, and greater employment creation. • The second channel is a lowering of the cost of capital and associated higher firm valuation. This makes more investments attractive to investors, also leading to growth and more employment. • The third channel is better operational performance through better allocation of resources and better management. This creates wealth more generally. • Fourth, good corporate governance can be associated with a reduced risk of financial crises. This is particularly important, as financial crises can have large economic and social costs. • Fifth, good corporate governance can mean generally better relationships with all stakeholders. This helps improve social and labor relationships and aspects such as environmental protection. 76 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo When we arrive the relationship between corporate governance and sustainable development, we can see it firstly by looking at the definition of sustainable development. The term sustainable development (SD) was used for the first time at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. However, a working definition of SD was coined in 1987 with the publication of ‘Our Common Future’, popularly known as the “Brundtland Report”of the World Commission on Environment and Development. The Commission’s definition, since widely adopted, was: “Development as the means to satisfy the needs of present generations without compromising the resources of future generations”. Sustainability, the Commission argued, includes not only economic and social development, but also a commitment to the needs of the poor and recognizing the physical limitations of the earth (Khalkho 2007). Corporate governance has different effects on sustainable development. By satisfying different needs of stakeholders, by using earth’s resources effectively, and for long-term profit by behaving in a socially responsible way, corporations are having very positive effects on sustainable development. So after we saw the importance of corporate governance, now we can see the corporate governance qualifications and applications from the countries; Turkey and Bosnia & Herzegovina. 5. Corporate Governance Applications in Turkey and Bosnia&Herzegovina 5.1. Corporate Governance in Turkey Corporate Governance is a new and very important concept for Turkish economy. Many governmental organizations, civil society organizations, dernekler and businessmen associations are working on this concept to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of different sectors and to increase development level of Turkey. Now we can see Turkish corporate governance development step by step. - Turkish Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association published first report on Corporate Governance in 2002. - In July 2003 the CMB issued corporate governance principles with the aim of enhancing the corporate governance regulations in Turkish listed companies. By recognizing the fact that no single model is valid for every country, the CMB examined the regulations of many countries and generally accepted and recommended corporate governance principles, primarily the OECD Principles of 1999 and revision drafts have been taken into consideration during the preparation of these principles. Corporate Governance Principles of the CMB were revised in 2005 to become compatible with revised OECD principles. The corporate governance principles issued by the CMB (CMB Principles) were developed on the basis of ‘‘comply or explain’’ approach meaning that the implementation of the CMB Principles is optional. - Capital Market Boards of Turkey published Turkish Corporate Governance Code in 2003 by modelling the Corporate Governance Principles in 1999 and it revised the code in 2005. - ISE Corporate Governance Index has been started to be computed on August 31, 2007. Index is composed to measure the price and return performances of the companies traded on the ISE markets (excluding the Watch List Companies Market) having corporate governance rating grades determined according to the "Corporate Governance Principles" issued by the Capital Markets Board. Corporate governance rating grade implies the rating grade that shows compliance with corporate governance principles as a whole and should be given by the rating agencies which are in the rating agencies list of Capital Markets Board. In order to be eligible for corporate governance index, corporate governance rating grade of a company should be granted upon the request of that company and revised or confirmed annually by the rating agency. - Nowadays, new regulations are being made by policymakers in trade law to making use of corporate governance more effectively. 5.2. Corporate Governance in Bosnia and Herzegovina We can see the corporate governance qualifications and applications by analyzing the report “Corporate Governance Country Assessment, Bosnia and Herzegovina” prepared by World Bank in 2006. This report assesses Bosnia and Herzegovina’s (BiH) corporate governance policy framework and enforcement and compliance practices. It highlights recent improvements in corporate governance regulations, makes policy recommendations, and provides investors with a benchmark against which to measure corporate governance in BiH. Since the 1995 Dayton Agreement, BiH’s two entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and the Republic Srpska (RS), have each put in place the basic legal and institutional framework for functioning capital markets. Privatization has created hundreds of companies available for trading on two stock exchanges. Recent reform includes laws to improve the governance of state-owned companies, the creation of a new state commission for accounting and auditing, the development of a common electronic platform for local 77 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo business registers, the drafting of new securities laws and laws on investment funds, and the recent decision in each entity to publicly disclose the top ten owners of each publicly traded company. However, challenges remain. The two regimes have a number of basic weaknesses: investors have insufficient redress; key information for many companies is not available or is of poor quality, the duties of board members are unclear, and their liabilities limited. The securities commissions in each entity have limited authority and resources to oversee the large number of issuers. There is no corporate governance code and awareness of corporate governance is limited. There are also significant differences between the corporate governance regimes of each entity, which can be a source of additional cost and confusion for both foreign and domestic market participants. Improving corporate governance to better protect investors, enhance company oversight, and increase confidence in capital markets will require broad-based reform. Recent reforms should be fully implemented, and the law on enterprises in each entity fundamentally revised and harmonized with each other and with EU requirements. These efforts should be combined with training and other programs to raise awareness of corporate governance across BiH each including the development of a Code of Corporate Governance. The authority of securities commission should be enhanced, and (as with banking and auditing regulation) consideration should ultimately be given to moving securities regulation to the state level. The process of privatization in each entity has led to hundreds of publicly traded companies and made hundreds of thousands of citizens shareholders. However privatization is not yet complete, and many companies, including most large companies, retain significant state ownership. The legal framework in each entity has largely been developed since 1998, with frequent amendments, and significant guidance from the donor community. Overall, while many elements of a fully functioning capital market are in place, awareness of corporate governance is limited and important legal and institutional gaps remain. 5.3. Comparison of Corporate Governance in Bosnia and Turkey We can summarize the comparison of corporate governance applications in Turkey and Bosnia & Herzegovina in this table. Table 1: Comparison of Turkish and Bosnia & Herzegovina’s Corporate Governance Applications Turkish Corporate Governance It has state level code of Corporate Governance. Importance of Independent board members was mentioned in the code. Bosnia and Herzegovina divided into two entities –The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic Srpska plus the autonomous Brcko District. So there are two distinct corporate governance regime in Bosnia. Privatization process is not yet complete, many companies including most large companies, retain significant state ownership. Awareness of corporate governance is limited. Legal and institutional gaps remain in Bosnia. Foreign ownership is growing. Companies produce basic financial statements, other reporting is minimal. Ownership disclosure is limited. Companies in Bosnia have a variety of board structures. The limited duties and liabilities of board members are not effectively implemented. Bosnia&Herzegovina’s Corporate Governance There is no state level code of Corporate Governance. There is no definition of requirements for independent board members. Turkey has only one corporate governance regime. Privatization process is more advanced in Turkey, but still there are some state ownership in large companies. Awareness level of corporate governance is getting better in everyday. There are still legal and institutional gaps in Turkey. Foreign ownership is growing. Financial reporting is much better in Turkey. Ownership disclosure is limited. There is only one type board structure in Turkish Companies. The limited duties and liabilities of board members are not effectively implemented. When wee look at the table, we can say that Turkey’s awareness of corporate governance is higher than Bosnia&Herzegovina. Since on December, 2002, Turkish Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association introduced the first corporate governance report in Turkey. It has been seven years. During seven years conferences, congresses, executive training programs and researches by academics increased the awareness level of corporate governance. In Bosnia, the only active actor on increasing awareness is World Bank and corporate governance is a very new concept for Bosnia as a transition economy. So, World Bank’s recommendations must be noticed by Bosnia&Herzegovina. 5.4. Recommendations to Bosnia For Having Good Corporate Governance The World Bank had some recommendations to Bosnia&Herzegovina, so we can see the recommendations and what can be done by looking at the table. 78 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2: World Bank’s Recommendations to Bosnia&Herzegovina To Have Better Corporate Governance CORPORATE GOVERNANCE RECOMMENDETIONS BY WORLD BANK TO BOSNIA Recommendation Institution Building Strengthen the institutional capacity & competence of the Securities Commissions. Prepare recommendations to improve corporate governance of stateowned enterprises. Raise awareness of corporate governance. Give Securities Commissions the authority to levy sanctions and take direct action against issuers (with appeals to courts). Prepare a phased-in program to move securities, and related supervision to state-level regulators. Legislative Framework Develop a strategy for the introduction of closed companies and other elements of a new Law on Enterprises. Introduce a new state-level or tightly harmonized Law on Enterprises based on EU requirements and guidelines. Upgrade and harmonize the Law on Securities and Law on Investment Funds. Boards and Oversight Introduce a single BiH Code of Corporate Governance covering traded companies, PIFs, stateowned enterprises & banks. Increase training for management and supervisory board members. Establish a domestic governance institute. Encourage independent members of boards. Introduce common board structure for all traded companies, Đncluding banks and state-owned enterprises. Introduce board member duties in light of practice in EU countries. Transparency and Disclosure Fully implement the new regime for accounting and auditing. Introduce a standard annual report format. Improve direct disclosure through central registries. Require disclosure of significant indirect ownership in line with EU Transparency Directive. Improve access to company information, including online court register & web portals. Introduce “one window” for company information. Investor Protection Adopt common and improved procedures for major and related party transactions, shareholder redress & changes in share capital. Adopt common provisions for tenders, control transactions, and company conversion. Facilitate shareholder participation in shareholders’ meetings. Consider “mandatory tender offer” and “squeezeout” rights. Require investment funds to disclose and develop policies on ownership and conflicts of interest. How To be Introduced Priority/Status Securities Commissions prepare & adopt Institutional Development Plans. Diagnostic of state owned enterprise corporate governance based on OECD Guidelines. Corporate governance seminars, discussions, and relevant training (ex. through IFC PEPSE). Revisions to Securities and related law. Immediate Immediate Immediate Medium-Term Review of costs and benefits of program. Possible revisions to Securities and related law. Long-Term Establish a state-level working group supported by local and international consultants. Through broad based, state-wide consultation with relevant international support. Immediate Through broad based, state-wide consultation with relevant international support. Medium-Term Extensive consultations with private sector including SASE and BLSE, building on current standards. Private initiatives, including those led by IFC PEPSE. Immediate Part of Corporate Governance Code. New Law on Enterprises, revisions to Law on Public Enterprises, Law on Banks. Immediate Medium-Term New Laws on Enterprises. Medium-Term Based on current efforts. Immediate New regulation based on current efforts. Initiative by securities registrars based on current efforts. Revisions to Securities and related laws. Revisions to Securities and related laws. Immediate Immediate Medium-Term Immediate Medium-Term Based on current efforts. Develop integrated interface covering both SASE & BLSE. State and entity-level legal changes and the commissions, central registries, and stock exchanges. Long-Term New Laws on Enterprises. Medium-Term Revisions to Securities and related laws. Harmonized Law on Takeovers. New Laws on Enterprises with additional guidance from the Code. Revisions to Securities and related laws. Medium-Term Revisions to Securities and related laws based on current efforts with additional training and support. Medium-Term Medium-Term Long-Term Long-Term 79 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. Conclusion At conclusion part, in addition to World Bank’s recommendations, we can say that for growth, development and also sustainable development Bosnia and Herzegovina needs good corporate governance. Because corporate governance make socially responsible and long-term focused companies. They would serve the needs of different stakeholders like customers, employees, suppliers, media, government, competitors in the same industry and society as a whole. After reviewing the recommendations of World Bank, having a national level corporate governance code seems the priority for Bosnia and Herzegovina. By having this, country can shape its own corporate governance model. As mentioned before, there are two types of corporate governance models and both of them their own pros and cons. Bosnia can choose one of these models and can adapt its system compatible to it. Or it can benchmark Turkey, which benchmarked OECD Corporate Governance Principles, and it can adapt the principles to its own country. After that, laws and regulations must be prepared immediately and corporate governance awareness tried to be increased. Amendments and improvements on laws and regulations is the total responsibility of policy makers in Bosnia. Turkish government and governmental organization now working on a new trade law, and the law is being designed to companies for using corporate governance more efficiently and effectively. For increasing corporate governance awareness Bosnia has a long way to go. In Turkey, many private and public organizations and universities are working to increase corporate governance awareness level. In Bosnia, many corporate governance researches and conferences are being prepared by World Bank. The most important one of these is “The South East Europe Corporate Governance Roundtable”. It was established in September 2001, in response to growing awareness among policy-makers and donors in the region regarding the importance of corporate governance. This Roundtable includes participants from nine countries in the SEE region, namely Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania. The Roundtable has seen some progress in corporate governance, since it issued its White Paper on Corporate Governance in South East Europe in 2003, including a number of legislative and regulatory reforms undertaken in recent years. Corporate governance codes have been developed with the support of the business sector, and stock exchanges have introduced special listing segments requiring higher corporate governance standards. The Roundtable has contributed to this progress not only through policy dialogue and development of recommendations at its meetings, but also through the ongoing efforts of its participants – representatives of stock exchanges, regulators, corporate governance institutes and other reformoriented stakeholders – to raise awareness and support reform initiatives in individual countries. When we look at the studies made by universities, we found that many studies made by the academics from abroad like this study. Domestic universities in Bosnia must increase researches and papers on corporate governance. And future researches must be made on “Corporate Governance Applications and Applicable System in Bosnia and Herzegovina” and corporate governance studies can be made by academics from different disciplines like management, accounting, finance and law. References: Cadbury, A., Cadbury Report, (1992), Financial aspects of corporate governance. Capital Markets Board of Turkey(CMBT), (2003), Corporate governance principles. Claessens, S., (2003), Corporate Governance and Development, Global Corporate Governance Forum. Deakin, S. & Hobbs, R., & Konzelmann, S. J. & Wilkinson, F.,(2005) Anglo-American Corporate Governance and The Employment Relationship: A Case To Answer, Socio-Economic Review, p.155-174, Goergen, M. & Martynova, M. & Renneboog, L. (2005), Corporate governance convergence: Evidence from takeover regulation reforms in europe, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 21, No. 2. Khalkho, K. (2007), Sustainable Development and Corporate Social Responsbility, Global Press Release Distribution. Maher, M. & Andersson, T.(1999) Corporate governance:Effects on firm performance and economic growth, Organization for economic co-operation and development(OECD) working paper. Mcgee, R. W. & Preobreganskaya, G. G. (2004), Corporate governance in transition economies:Theory and pratice of corporate governance in eastern europe, Global Conference on Business Economics, Amsterdam, July 9-11. Monks, R. A. G. & Minow N.,(2007) Corporate Governance, Blackwell Publishing. The World Bank, Report on the observance of standarts and codes (ROSC), (2006), Corporate governance country assessments: Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ulgen, H.& Mirze, K. (2004), Đşletmelerde stratejik yönetim, Literatür Yayıncılık. 80 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 144 Title A name given to the resource Corporate Governance and Sustainable Development, A Comparative Analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina Author Author KARAYEL, Mete SAYLI, Halil GÖRMÜS, Alparslan Sahin Abstract A summary of the resource. Corporate governance is the system by which business corporations are directed and controlled. This concept is getting more attention in the recent years after many corporation scandals and financial crises. But it has many benefits to companies and countries. When we look at the country side, according to literature, there are several channels through which corporate governance affects growth and development in countries, these channels are: increased access to external financing by firms, a lowering of the cost of capital and associated higher firm valuation, better operational performance through better allocation of resources and better management, reduced risk of financial crises, and better relationships with all stakeholders. In this study we aim to show importance of corporate governance on sustainable development in developing countries. In this direction we will use data acquired from reports and data prepared by World Bank, OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) and governmental organizations in these countries. Corporate governance levels and performances of companies and countries and effects of these on growth and sustainable development will be acquired from data. At the conclusion part, we will conclude our study with a comparative country analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina and with some suggestions to countries and future researches. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/85a0f353462b765161afba55debe7cc6.pdf 2cd8f30d032dc1f7f0eb95796db2a07c PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Impact of Macroeconomic Factors on Stock Market: Evidence from Istanbul Stock Exchange Kadir KARAGÖZ Inonu University – FEAS, Malatya – TURKEY kkaragoz@inonu.edu.tr Suzan ERGÜN Inonu University – FEAS, Malatya - TURKEY sergun@inonu.edu.tr Murat KARAGÖZ Inonu University – FEAS, Malatya - TURKEY mkaragoz@inonu.edu.tr Abstract: In contemporary economic world, financial markets in general and stock markets in particular play a vital role in financing the investments and to extent credit to the entrepreneurs. This fact has opened a new avenue of research into the relationship between stock market and macroeconomic structure that is development/reaction/impact of stock market across macroeconomic fluctuations. This paper analyzes long-term equilibrium relationship between macroeconomic factors and Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) Index. The macroeconomic factors are represented by a set of variables which include interest rate, inflation (consumer price index), industrial production index, money supply (M1), growth (GDP) and real exchange rate. We employ Johansen co-integration method to explore the above mentioned relationship among these variables in a span of time between 1998:1 and 2008:12. Keywords: Macroeconomic factors, Stock market, Istanbul Stock Exchange, VECM. 1. Introduction The issue of finance has gained considerable importance around the world in last few decades. So the finance and banking sectors have developed rapidly and finance literature as well, both in theoretically and empirically. Causal relationship between economic growth and financial development, and impact of macroeconomic as well as catastrophic shocks on financial institutions has been investigated for the samples of developed and developing countries. Stock markets are one of the most important components of modern economic structure. Macroeconomic condition may have significant impacts on both prices of stocks and volume traded. With this respect, understanding the interaction between stock prices and macroeconomic variables gains importance. By knowing these relationship, investors can earn profits by exploiting past information of the variables. In addition, they may be used as indicator to formulate current economic stabilization policies. Therefore, the issue of whether stock prices and macroeconomic variables are related or not have received considerable attention. Many works have been done in past few decades to examine the relationship between stock prices and financial futures as well as the currency exchange (Hen et al., 2006). However, there is no empirical or theoretical consensus on the issue of whether these variables are related and the direction of causation if they are related or, at least, different studies which have been conducted for different markets may give diverse findings. In the finance literature, asset pricing models have been developed from 1960s, such as Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM), multi-factors models and Arbitrage Pricing Model (APM), in order to explain the movements in prices of financial assets and hence to determine the effective factors on their returns. Factor models and APM has been developed as alternatives to CAPM which considers only one risk factor (β). Despite the its some theoretical deficiencies, it is accepted that APM is superior to CAPM due to its more realistic assumptions and taking into consideration more variables those may affect asset returns. The APT literature suggests that macroeconomic variables may proxy for pervasive risk factors. This paper aims to shed some light on interrelation between macroeconomic variables and stock market performance through time series methods, i.e. co-integration and error correction model. The paper proceeds as follows. The next section provides an overview of the stock market development in Turkey. The 122 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo subsequent section presents the variables and data used, and empirical evidence. The final section contains concluding remarks 2. Stock Market Development in Turkey Financial markets in Turkey were strictly regulated until a financial liberalization program which was introduced at the beginning of 1980. The program included the liberalization of the foreign exchange regime, deregulation of interest rates, and establishment of financial markets including the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) which was established in 1986. ISE has gained large momentum since then and its development became highly representative of an emerging market with rapid growth in terms of market capitalization, trade volume and number of listed companies as well as high volatility in returns (Odabaşı et al. 2004, 510). In 1986, there were 80 listed companies in ISE and annual volume of trade was only $ 13 million. Up to 2000 the number of listed companies steadily increased as well as the trade volume, at a great pace. Due to the consecutive financial crises on November 2000 and February 2001, general performance of the ISE halted (Tab. 1a, below). Table 1a. Development of Istanbul Stock Exchange (in numbers). Volume of Trade Number of companies Total market capitalization (Million $) Year (End of Year) (Total) (Daily) (Million $) 1986 80 13 0.05 938 1990 110 5,854 23.70 18,737 1995 205 52,357 208.59 20,782 2000 315 181,934 739.57 69,507 2001 310 80,400 323.78 47,189 2002 288 70,756 281.22 33,773 2003 285 100,165 406.89 68,624 2004 297 147,755 593.03 97,354 2005 304 201,763 794.33 161,630 Source: Odabaşı et al. (2004), TSI (2006). As is seen in Tab. 1b, ISE has realized important and rapid improvements since its commencement. Table 1b. Development of Istanbul Stock Exchange (main events). 1980 – 1990 – Launch of liberalization program, deregulation in financial structure – Inauguration of Istanbul Stock Exchange – Commencement of stock trading – Commencement of daily calculation of ISE Indices which had so far been calculated on a weekly basis – Establishment of Settlement and Custody Center 1991 – 1995 – Commencement of the calculation of Financials and Industrial Indices in addition to the ISE Composite Index – Initiation of the Repo/Reverse Repo Market – Extending daily trading hours to 4 hours and the commencement of stock trading in two sessions – Launch of the Regional Markets and the Wholesale Market – Establishment of the Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges with 12 members, which ISE was one of the founder members 1996 – 2000 – Launch of the Watch List Companies Market – ISE International Bonds and Bills Market started its operations – ISE became the project leader of Southeast European Cooperation Initiative 2001 – – ISE Derivatives market was introduced – ISE Corporate Governance Index was launched – The ISE International Market and its submarkets were closed Source: www.ise.org 123 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ample of empirical studies are implemented on various aspects of ISE hitherto. Odabaşı et al. (2004) has analyzed the evolution of prices on the ISE for the period of 1988-1999 and concluded that, as an emerging market, the ISE has shown some differences from other emerging markets. In the sample period, they found that expected returns, as approximated by sample means, have not declined and no significant change in volatility is observed during the decade. The move towards normality also seems to be more pronounced than in other countries. Odabaşı et al. attribute this to the unique characteristics of the ISE. 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 ISE-100 Figure 1. Development of ISE-100 index over the time. Müslümov et al. (2003) tested weak-form market efficiency hypothesis in ISE using time series covering 19902002 years. Their findings reveal that the stock returns of the individual stocks that constitute 65% of the sample space do not show random walk behavior whilst remaining part exhibit significant random walk behavior. The findings for the ISE-100 national index provide support the evolving market efficiency hypothesis. They also found that there was no discrimination between stocks those whose returns do follow and do not follow random walk behavior. In another study, Taş and Dursunoğlu (2005) also tested the weak form efficiency of ISE using Dickey-Fuller and runs test procedures, and found out that ISE was not efficient over the period from 1995:1 to 2004:1. Turkey has experienced severe financial crises in last two decades. In 1994 due to heavy appreciation of the currency current account a balance presented a significant deficit which created financial distress in the economy. In the year 2001, the financial crisis stemmed from the banking sector and high domestic repayment of the treasury. Political instability also contributed to deepening the crisis. Doğan and Salman (2004) examined the behavior of ISE during these financial crises using dummy variables. They found that dummies for year 2001, all for 5, 15 and 30 days before the shock, observed to be highly significant where dummies for year 1994 are not. This result implies that the 1994 crisis was unexpected. When they further examined the coefficient of year 2001 dummy, realized that coefficient gets smaller over longer horizons. Tüzüntürk (2009) aimed to find out empirically whether there was any insider trading on ISE in 2003 using the panel data method. His estimations show that the average trade size sign is negative and the trade frequency sign is positive, the result which can be interpreted as an evidence of insider trading occurred at the ISE in 2003. 3. Review of Related Literature A significant literature exist which investigates the relationship between stock market and a range of macroeconomic and financial variables, across a number of different markets and over a range of different time horizons. Existing financial economic theory provides various models to test this relationship. Most of the research has focused on the developed countries (see for example, Poon and Taylor, 1991; Mukherjee and Naka, 1995; Gjerde and Saettem, 1999; Hondroyiannis and Papapetrou, 2001; Chen, 2008; Bordo et al., 2008). 124 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In last decade, researchers have begun to turn their attention to examining similar relationship in developing countries. Chen et al. (1986) is one of the pioneering papers to empirically investigate the impact of macroeconomic variables on stock price returns. They concluded that interest rates, inflation rates, bound yield spreads, and industrial production level have risk that is priced in the stock market. Campbell and Ammer (1991) focus on the relationship between changes in expectations of future stock dividends, short-term real interest rate, inflation, and excess returns on stock and bonds. Using a log-linear asset pricing framework and a vector autoregression (VAR) model approach, they found that in monthly post-war U.S. data, excess returns are to be driven by news about future excess stock returns, while excess 10-year bond returns are driven largely by news about future inflation. Real interest rate changes seem have little impact on either stock or 10-year bond returns, although they do affect the short-term nominal interest rate and slope of the term structure. Hamilton and Lin (1996) investigate the joint time series behavior of monthly stock returns and growth in industrial production and find that stock returns are well characterized by year-long episodes of high volatility separated by longer quite periods. Real output growth, on the other hand, is subject to abrupt change in the mean associated with economic recessions. They employ a bivariate model in which these two changes are driven by related unobserved variables, and conclude that economic recessions are the primary factor that derives fluctuations in the volatility of stock returns. Sadorsky (2003) uses monthly data from July 1986 to April 1999 to investigate the macroeconomic determinants of the US technology stock price volatility. Te empirical results indicate that the conditional volatilities of industrial production, oil prices, the federal funds rate, the default premium, the consumer price index, and the foreign exchange rate each have a significant effect on the conditional volatility of technology stock prices. Industrial production and the consumer price index each have the largest direct impact. Gunasekarage et al. (2004) estimates an error correction model with monthly data to study the relationship between macroeconomic variables and stock market equity values, in Sri Lanka. In their analysis VECM provide some support for the argument that the lagged values of macroeconomic variables such as the consumer price index, the money supply and the treasury bill rate have a significant influence on the stock market. It was found that treasury bill rate play most important roles in affecting stock returns compared to other variables. Maysami et al. (2004) investigate the relationship between macroeconomic variable s and sector stock market returns, using Johansen’ VECM, in the case of Singapore. They conclude that the Singapore stock market and the SES All-S Equities Property Index formed significant relationships with all macroeconomic variables identified, while the SES All-S Equities Finance Index and SES All-S Equities Hotel Index form significant relationship only with selected variables. Nishat and Shaheen (2005) analyze long-term equilibrium relationships between a group of macroeconomic variables and the Karachi Stock Exchange Index. The macroeconomic variables are represented by the industrial production index, the consumer price index, money supply (M1), and the value of an investment earning the money market size. By employing a VECM, they examined the relationship during 1973:1 to 2004:4, and they found that these five variables are co-integrated and two long-term equilibrium relationships exist among them. Results of the analysis indicate that industrial production is the largest positive determinant of stock prices, while inflation is the largest negative determinant. They also found that while macroeconomic variables Granger-caused stock movements, the reverse causality was observed in case of industrial production and stock prices. Padhan (2007) aims at to find out the causal linkages between stock market and economic activity in India. To this end he applies recently developed Granger non-causality tests by Toda-Yamamota, Dolado and Lutkephol (TYDL model). The notable finding of the paper is that both the stock price and economic activity are integrated of order one and the Johansen-Juselius co-integration tests confirm the existence of one long-run relationship. The TYDL model suggests that there is bi-directional causality between stock price and economic activity during the post-liberalization period. Kyereboah-Coleman and Agyire-Tettey (2008) aims at examining how macroeconomic indicators affect the performance of stock markets by using the Ghana Stock Exchange as a case study. Using the quarterly time series data covering the period 1991-2005, they ascertain both short- and long-run relationships via co-integration and the error correction model techniques. Findings of the study reveal that lending rates from deposit money banks have an adverse effect on stock market performance and particularly serve as major hindrance to business growth in Ghana. Again, while inflation rate is found to have a negative effect on stock market performance, the results indicate that it takes time for this to take effect due to the presence of a lag period; and that investors benefit from exchange-rate losses as a result of domestic currency depreciation. Osei (2006) also examined the case of Ghana Stock Exchange somewhat different variable set and concluded that in terms of Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH), the Ghana stock market is informationally inefficient particularly with respect to inflation, treasury bill rate and world gold price. 125 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Al-Sharkas (2004) researches the impact of selected macroeconomic variables on Amman Stock Exchange. The variables are the real economic activity, money supply, inflation, and interest rate. His empirical findings reveal that the stock prices and macroeconomic variables have a long-term equilibrium relationship. 3. Empirical Analysis and Results 3.1. Variables, Data and Methodology Engle and Granger (1987) and Johansen (1988) proposed to determine the existence of long-run equilibrium among selected variables through co-integration analysis, paving the way for a preferred approach to examining the economic variables-stock market relationship. A set of time series variables are co-integrated if they are integrated of the same order and a linear combination of them is stationary. Such linear combinations would then point to the existence of a long-term relationship between the variables. An advantage of cointegration analysis is that through building an error correction model (ECM), the dynamic co-movement among variables and the adjustment process toward long-term equilibrium can be examined (Maysami et al. 2004; 49). Variables: We selected six macroeconomic variables based on their hypothesized effect on either the cash flows or the required rate of return (or both) in the basic valuation model. These variables are: stock index (represented by monthly average of daily closing value of ISE-100 index; ISE), exchange rate (represented by real TL/ 19 foreign currencies basket; RDK), inflation (represented by consumer price index; CPI), money supply (represented by M1; MS), real economic activity (represented by industrial production index; IPI), interest rate (represented by three month term weighted deposit interest rate; INT). Inflation: A negative relation between inflation and stock prices has been hypothesized. Although real stock returns and inflation have been negatively correlated historically, the correlation is widely seen as an anomaly resulting from the simultaneous impacts of real economic activity on inflation and stock returns (Fama, 1981; Fama and Schwert, 1977). This negative relationship between stock returns and inflation is called as the proxy hypothesis. The proxy hypothesis refers to the fact that the negative relationship between stock returns and inflation is not direct; but rather inflation negatively impacts the real economic activity, which in turn directly impacts equity returns. In other words, real economic activity is the channel by which inflation influences stock returns in most countries. The investigation of the proxy hypothesis for emerging market economies may be especially crucial in light of high past inflation rates that most economies of that region have experienced (Adrangi et al., 1999). Exchange rate: The interaction between the exchange rate and stock prices is uncertain. When the Turkish Lira (TL) depreciates against the foreign currencies, Turkish products become cheaper in the external markets. As a result, if the demand for these goods is elastic, the volume of Turkish exports should increase, causing higher TL-denominated cash flows to Turkish companies. The opposite should hold when the TL appreciates against the foreign currencies. On the other hand, as an alternative investment instrument for Turkish investors, any depreciation in TL against foreign currencies may cause a withdrawal in stock markets. Money supply: The effect of money supply on stock prices is an empirical question. Since the rate of inflation is positively related to money growth rates, an increase in the money supply may lead to an increase in the discount rate. The negative effects on stock prices, however, may be countered by the economic stimulus provided by money growth. Such stimulus, often referred to as a corporate earnings effect, would likely result in increased future cash flows and stock prices (Mukherjee and Naka, 1995). Real economic activity: The level of real economic activity (proxied in this study by the Industrial Production Index), through its effect on expected future cash flows, will likely affect stock prices in the same direction. Fama (1981), Chen, Roll, and Ross (1986), and Geske and Roll (1983), among others, suggest a positive relation between stock returns and real activity. Interest rate: Finally, changes in interest rate are expected to affect the discount rate in the same direction via their effect on the nominal risk-free rate. Therefore, we hypothesize a negative relation between these rates and stock prices. Required data have been compiled from Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey on-line database (EDDS). The sample period consist of 132 monthly observations for each variable, from January 1998 to December 2008. All variables have been expressed in their logarithms. Prior to the analysis all variables have been seasonally adjusted through the ratio to moving average method. 3.2. Examination for Stationarity Properties of the Variables As is well known, most of the macroeconomic variables have a nonstationary nature and hence a regression relation set on them will not be far away from spuriousness. So, to ensure that the variables are stationary, and that shocks are only has temporary impact and revert to their long-run mean level, it is a standard exercise to apply an unit root test procedure. 126 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Augmented Dickey – Fuller (ADF) and the Phillips – Perron (PP) test are employed to determine the presence of a unit root in the series. Results of ADF and PP unit root tests show all six of the variables are nonstationary in their levels but become stationary after one time differenced (Tab. 3). ISE IPI INF INT MS RER 1 c+t 2c 1c 3c 2c 1c Table 3. Results of ADF and PP unit root tests. ADF Type P τ(ρ) int. + trend 0.4741 − 2.2203 int. 0.7554 − 0.9906 int. 0.8986 − 0.4348 int. 0.3524 − 1.8554 int. 0.7556 − 1.6777 int. 0.4731 − 1.6128 ∆ISE ∆IPI ∆INF ∆INT ∆MS ∆RER 0c 1c 0 c+t 2 c+t 1 c+t 1c int. int. int. + trend int. + trend int. + trend int. lags (k) − 8.2771 − 12.1605 − 6.6728 − 6.1104 − 11.2684 − 8.3180 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 PP z(tα) p − 1.7656 − 1.6948 − 1.3362 − 1.9825 − 1.7119 − 1.7382 0.3961 0.4315 0.8744 0.2943 0.7407 0.4097 − 8.3247 − 19.4055 − 67822 − 13.4762 − 15.2475 − 7.1460 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3.3. Research for Co-integrating Relationships In this part of the paper, co-integration relationships among variables are investigated through Johansen VAR framework. Co-integration refers to the possibility that non-stationary variables may have a linear combination that is stationary. Such a linear combination, the co-integrating vector, implies that there is a long-run equilibrium relationship among variables, i.e., variables will not wander off apart from one another over extended periods of time. Therefore, co-integration between the stock index and the macroeconomic variables implies a long-run relationship between these variables. To analyze the long-term equilibrium relationships between stock market index and macroeconomic variables, co-integration analysis is more appropriately compared to the VAR model because the co-integration method can explore the dynamic comovements among the variables (Mukherjee and Naka, 1995). In order to use the Johansen test, a VAR representation of a set of n variables (n ≥ 2) which are under consideration that are I(1), needs to be turned into a vector error correction model (VECM) of the form, ∆y t = Π y t − k + Γ1 ∆y t −1 + Γ2 ∆y t − 2 + K + Γk −1 ∆y t −( k −1) + u t where Π= (∑ β )− I k i =1 i n and Γ= (∑ i j =1 ) β j − In This VAR contains n variables in first differenced form and k – 1 lags of the dependent variables (differences), each with a Γ coefficient matrix attached to it. The test procedure centers around the examination of Π matrix. Π can be interpreted as a long-run coefficient matrix, since in equilibrium, all the ∆yt-i will be zero, and setting the error terms (ut) to their expected value of zero will leave Πyt-k = 0. The test for co-integration between the ys is calculated by looking at the rank of the Π matrix via its eigenvalues (denoted λi). The rank of a matrix is equal to the number of its characteristic roots (eigenvalues) that are different form zero. There are two test statistics for co-integration under the Johansen approach, which formulated as λtrace (r ) = −T ∑i =r +1 ln(1 − λˆi ) n and λmax (r , r + 1) = −T ln(1 − λˆr +1 ) where r is the number of co-integrating vectors under the null hypothesis and λi is the estimated value for the ith ordered eigenvalue from the Π matrix. λtrace is a joint test where the null is that the number of cointegrating vectors is less than or equal to r against an unspecified or general alternative that are more than r. λmax conducts separate tests on each eigenvalue, and has as its null hypothesis that the number of co-integrating vectors is r against an alternative of r + 1 (Brooks, 2008; 350,351). 127 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The results of the tests which conducted based on both the λtrace and λmax are reported below. Examining the trace test, the test statistic exceeds the critical value (of 95) up to the second row which shows that there is at least two co-integration equations among the variables. The λmax test, shown in the second panel, confirms that there are at least two co-integrating relationships. 128 observations are included after adjustments and quadratic deterministic trend is assumed in co-integration relations. Table 4. Results of Johansen co-integration test. Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace) Hypothesized No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue r=0* r≤1* r≤2 r≤3 r≤4 r≤5 0.862516 0.332972 0.134915 0.049591 0.034704 0.003285 Trace Statistic 0.05 Critical Value Prob. 343.6881 83.75142 30.70646 11.72096 5.057933 0.431005 83.93712 60.06141 40.17493 24.27596 12.32090 4.129906 0.0000 0.0002 0.3186 0.7281 0.5595 0.5749 Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Maximum Eigenvalue) Hypothesized Max-Eigen 0.05 No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.** r=0* r≤1* r≤2 r≤3 r≤4 r≤5 0.862516 0.332972 0.134915 0.049591 0.034704 0.003285 259.9367 53.04496 18.98550 6.663026 4.626927 0.431005 36.63019 30.43961 24.15921 17.79730 11.22480 4.129906 0.0001 0.0000 0.2152 0.8424 0.5314 0.5749 * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level Normalized co-integrating coefficients for the ISE index (INDX) are (standard errors in parentheses): ISE INF INT IPI MS RER -5.436 1.000 - 3.604 2.638 - 1.019 2.126 (1.176) (0.345) (1.732) (0.981) (1.507) These values represent long-term elasticity at the same time, due to logarithmic transformation of the series. So, the long-run equilibrium relationship can be expressed as: ISEt = t – statistic 3.604 INFt – 2.638 INTt (3.065) (– 7.646) + 1.019 IPIt (0.588) – 2.126 MSt (– 2.167) + 5.436 RERt (3.607) It appears from the results that all variables have a statistically meaningful impact on the stock index except the real economic activity (IPI). The empirical results suggest that the Turkish stock market prices do not rationally signal changes in the macroeconomic activity in terms of industrial production index. It also seems that inflation has a positive effect on stock prices. This result is not in line with the theoretical expectation and general finding of related literature and can be attributed to distinctive feature of the Turkish stock market which Ceylan and Başçı (2005) pointed out. The results show that interest rates (INT) have a negative relationship with stock prices. Money supply has also same effect on stock prices, indicating that any extending in money supply did not cause to an increase in stock prices through its demand enhancing effect. This result coincides with the finding of Akkum and Vuran (2003). The relationship between exchange rate and stock prices is expected to be positive in the literature. We have found evidences of this positive relationship, that is, real exchange rates affect the ISE index positively which means that a depreciation of the currency leads to higher real stock market returns. 128 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion Stock prices are generally believed to be determined by some fundamental macroeconomic factors. Several studies have attempted to investigate the interrelationship between economic factors and stock returns in different countries. Two methods which have been used for this purpose were capital asset pricing model and arbitrage pricing model. The development of co-integration analysis provided another tool as to examine the relationship between the macroeconomic variables and stock returns. In this paper, we aim to shed some light on the relationship between a group of macroeconomic variables and stock market performance. To this end we have employed the index of Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) and macroeconomic aggregates such as CPI, interest rate, industrial production index, money supply, and real effective exchange rates. Using the Johansen VAR method, the empirical evidence we found shows that these macroeconomic variables are co-integrated i.e. there exist a long-run relationship between these variables. Further, the results reveal that all variables have a statistically meaningful impact on the stock index except the real economic activity (IPI). It seems that consumer prices (INF) has a positive effect on stock prices. The results show that interest rates (INT) have a negative relationship with stock prices. 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Taş, O. and Dursunoğlu, S. (2005). Testing random walk hypothesis for Istanbul Stock Exchange. 15th International Conference of International Trade and Finance Association, Đstanbul. TSI – Turkish Statistical Institute (2006), Statistical Indicators, 1923 – 2005, Ankara. Tüzüntürk, S. (2009), “The relationship between volatility and volume on the Istanbul Stock Exchange”, International Journal of Sustainable Economy, 1 (3), 289 – 304. 130 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 141 Title A name given to the resource Impact of Macroeconomic Factors on Stock Market: Evidence from Istanbul Stock Exchange Author Author KARAGÖZ, Kadir ERGÜN, Suzan KARAGÖZ, Murat Abstract A summary of the resource. In contemporary economic world, financial markets in general and stock markets in particular play a vital role in financing the investments and to extent credit to the entrepreneurs. This fact has opened a new avenue of research into the relationship between stock market and macroeconomic structure that is development/reaction/impact of stock market across macroeconomic fluctuations. This paper analyzes long-term equilibrium relationship between macroeconomic factors and Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) Index. The macroeconomic factors are represented by a set of variables which include interest rate, inflation (consumer price index), industrial production index, money supply (M1), growth (GDP) and real exchange rate. We employ Johansen co-integration method to explore the above mentioned relationship among these variables in a span of time between 1998:1 and 2008:12. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory