309 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e897ed456f552d90e262a857509e2e9c.pdf 2531466ac2a6efeb22ab3c747a3fc757 PDF Text Text Significance of Efficiency for Sustainable Development : A Practice of Data Envelopment Analysis on Textile Sector Assistant Prof. Dr. Ersan ÖZGÜR Afyon Kocatepe University Sandıklı M.Y.O. ersanozgur@yahoo.com Abstract: Resources in the nature are limited and mankind has to use these resources economically or otherwise next generations might have difficulty in surviving. That is why today’s decision makers has to be able to think and plan the futures resources for not to danger future’s generations. In this perspective sustainable development policies can be considered as a solution for the next generation’s wealth. Sustainable development policy requires a balance while consuming the natural resources. For sustainable development efficient uses of resources is essential. In this study we try to assess the efficiency of the Turkish textile sector companies, regarding to sustainable development. In this study Data Enveloping Analyses is practiced to the data gathered from Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) quoted textile companies. Results of the survey indicates that efficiency rates affected negatively from the Chinese factor, domestic structural deficiencies in textile sector and economic situation. Introduction Nowadays, industrialized countries have recognized that their economical growth has a limit. At this point they also recognized that even though there was an economic growth there are also limits for economic development. Developed countries, are taking procoutions against the risks in relation to sustainablility. However developing countries has not been recognized that the importance of the subject. On the other hand it can be assumed that there are limited activities in relation to the subject. Contries are trying to impliment new sustainable development strategies. This could be as a solution for to reach their targets. In this perspective Turkey as a developing country has to set up similar development strategies and plans. Sustainable development has a direct relationship with the development of reel sector. Textile sector is a high significant sector for Turkish economy. Turkish textile sector is dinamic and has a high potantial for the growth. Espacialy after 1980’s with establishment of open economic policies exportation is increased and textile sector became the engine of the economy. Cotton production in Turkey has played a crucial role in the development of the economy. In consideration of globalization which increased the competition, assesment of effiency and effectiveness has became more important for the decision makers. Textile sector is contributing to the Turkish economy in terms of value add, employment and exportation. It is suggested that for sustainablity of textile sector performance measurement of efficiency and effectiveness of the sector has became more significant. Sustanable development, productivity and efficiency are related consepts. Productivity can be described as obtaining an output by using least input. Which means efficient uses of limited resouces. Performance can be considered as degree of success with in certain period of time. Managers can not /should not take desicions without having performance information. Hence it might be suggested that using performance measuring methods are significant for decision makers. One of the methods used for measuring performance is Data Enveloping Analyses. Sustainable Development The structures of imperial and colonial power which dominated the world in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries made little provision for economic and social advance in what we now call the developing world. Colonial regions functioned primarily to supply imperial powers with raw materials and cheap labor – including slave labor as late as the mid-nineteenth century (Harris, 2000). Industrialization is an important target for the countries, however, there are some problems they face in this process inevitably. Environmental problem is one of them. Although it has some negative effects on environment, industrialization may not be abandoned. But it is obvious that some necessary measures should be taken for a sustainable development.(Ekinci, 2007) 761 �Whilst earlier literature discussed a wide range of issues around the emerging concept of sustainable development, the following statement from the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN/WWF/UNEP, 1980) appears to be the first actual attempt to define sustainable development: "For development to be sustainable, it must take account of social and ecological factors, as well as economic ones; of the living and non-living resource base; and of the long-term as well as the short-term advantages and disadvantages of alternative action" The World Conservation Strategy was frequently criticised for being concerned mainly with ecological sustainability rather than sustainable development per se. The most universally quoted definition is that produced in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), otherwise known as the Brundtland Commission (after its Chairperson, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway): "Economic and social development that meets the needs of the current generation without undermining the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". (Dalal-Clayton, 2000) In the extensive discussion and use of the concept since then, there has generally been a recognition of three aspects of sustainable development:(Harris, 2000) - Economic: An economically sustainable system must be able to produce goods and services on a continuing basis, to maintain manageable levels of government andexternal debt, and to avoid extreme sectoral imbalances which damage agricultural or industrial production. - Environmental: An environmentally sustainable system must maintain a stable resource base, avoiding over-exploitation of renewable resource systems or environmental sink functions, and depleting nonrenewable resources only to the extent that investment is made in adequate substitutes. This includes maintenance of biodiversity, atmospheric stability, and other ecosystem functions not ordinarily classed as economic resources. - Social: A socially sustainable system must achieve distributional equity, adequate provision of social services including health and education, gender equity, and political accountability and participation. With these aspects sustainable development has got some strategies. Sustainable development strategies can be summarized under 9 headings: (Özyol, 2007) - Environment: Nature has its own value. None of the creature should not abuse the nature for their own needs. - The Future: While satisfying our needs we should think and take care of next generations needs and we should not forget that we have to live a world where the next generations could be able to satisfy their own needs. - Living Standards: We should not forget that living standarts of the people is not rely on materialistic needs but also it relies on social, cultural, ethical and spiritual needs. - Justice: Prosperity, chances, rights and responsibilities should be divided in between the nations, different social groups in a fairway. The needs of the poor and discriminated people’s needs has to be put in the consideration. Similar fair sharing should be made in between existing generation and future generation. - Cautions: If we are not sure about environmental results of our behaviors we should take precautions. Because the environmental problems are global the precautions has to be taken inconsideration of social responsibilities. - Holistic Thinking: Environmental problems includes unnumbered factors and while solving these problems all these factors and stake holders should be taken in to consideration. - Social Dimension: Educational activities should be informed about the sustainable development aspects to increase for their and next generation’s living standards. - Economical Dimension: Every resources on earth is limited. That is why they should be used efficiently and in a way that does not destruct the nature. Fair distribution of the resources is also an other aspect should be taken in to consideration. - Environmental Dimension: Every natural resources, whether or not it is recyclable, should be used in a way that ensures the continuity of resources. Sustainable development is significant factor for economies. These strategies should considered in the economy. Textile sector has great place in the Turkish economy than we can give some information regarding textile sector in Turkey. Turkish Textile Sector Turkish textile and apparel industry is a very dynamic one, in fact it is the most dynamic industry in Turkey. Becouse of having the advantage of producing the raw materials required by the industry textiles and apparels are always going to be one of the most important industries for the Turkish economy (Akalın, 2001). As in many other developing countries, the textile and clothing industries have played an important role in the 762 �process of industrialization of Turkey. Textile sectors are now the driving force in the Turkish export industry, and they have become one of the key players in the world over the years. (Çukul, 2008) We can evaluate Turkish economy in terms of GDP, employment and exports. The share of this sector in the country’s GDP is more than 10 % , share in the total employment is around 10 %. There are about 40 thousand manufacturing companies and around 2 million employees in the sector. Turkish textile and clothing exports reached to US$ 20 billion in 2008. With this amount, it had a share of 22% in total exports of Turkey (ĐGĐAD, 2009) . Turkish textile industry uses modern technology. Existance of a well-developed textile finishing industry in Turkey makes also possible production and marketing of highly value added fashionable and quality production. The main items are knitted fabrics, cotton woven fabrics, woven fabrics of synthetic filament yarns, bed sheets and bags-sacks for packaging. Main advanteges of Turkish textile industry in production and supply of raw materials: (ITKIP, 2010) - Reachness in basic raw materials, - Geographical proximity to main markets, especially European markets, - Short logistics period due to geographical proximity, - Qualified and well-educated labor force - Liberal trade policies - Well-developed textile finishing industry - Giving importance to quality, environment and human health, sensitivity on working conditions of workers - Customs Union agreement with the European Union and free trade agreements with many other countries Turkey as being one of the most prominent textile and clothing producers in the world, now, has the production capacity to meet almost all the raw material needs of clothing industry. Some part of cotton and artificial and synthetic fibers needed by the industry are met by means of importation. Turkey has also gained valuable experience in fabric design and it is started to present its special designs with fashion shows in prominent markets. Turkish textile industrialists most of whom has created their own trademark together with the patent rights, provide the most important foreign home textile and clothing companies with their fabric. (ITKIP, 2010) Turkey is currently the second larger exporter of textile to the European Union following China. It has the largest production capacity in the EU and the fourth largest in the world. Since the EU and U.S are major markets for Turkish textile and clothing products, it is necessary to explore the competitive position of Turkish products in these markets, and they have to be prepared to the attack of its competitor such as China, India and other Asian countries. There is no doubt that China will be the largest force in the global textile sector. According to a forecast by World Bank, China is likely to raise its current share of 20 % in the world textile market to 50 % in recent years. (Çukul, 2008) Many pattern design competitions that make important contributions to development of fabric design in Turkey are organized by different institutions leading to emergence of young designers and creation of product diversity. Turkey takes part in many famous international fairs in textile sector, international textile fairs were organized within Turkey and Turkey’s potential is shown successfully all over the world. (ITKIP, 2010) Textile sector is significant for the Turkish economy. So doing a research for textile sector is necessary. We can evaluate the sector with performance, efficiency and effectiveness values. In this study it is practicing Data Envelopment Analyses (DEA) for finding efficiency rates. Data Envelopment Analysis DEA is an extension of Farrell's (1957) idea of linking the computation of technical efficiency with production frontiers. The first DEA model was developed by Charnes Cooper and Rhodes (1978) (CCR). The CCR model is a fractional programming model, which measures the relative technical efficiency of a firm by calculating the ratio of weighted sum of its outputs to the weighted sum of its inputs. The fractional program is run for each firm to determine the set of input-output weights, which maximizes the efficiency of that firm subject to the condition that no firm can have a relative efficiency score greater than unity for that set of weights. Thus, the DEA model calculates a unique set of factor weights for each firm. The set of weights has the following characteristics: (Kabnurkar, 2001) - It maximizes the efficiency of the firm for which it is calculated and - It is feasible for all firms. Since DEA does not incorporate price information in the efficiency measure, it is appropriate for not for profit organizations where price information is not available. These not for profit organizations are referred to as Decision-Making Units (DMUs) by Charnes Cooper and Rhodes (1978). Since the efficiency of each DMU is 763 �calculated in relation to all other DMUs and using actual observed input-output values, the efficiency calculated in DEA is called relative efficiency. Charnes, Cooper and Seiford (1994) define DEA as "DEA produces a piecewise empirical extremal production surface which in economic terms represents the revealed best-practice production frontier – the maximum output empirically obtainable from any DMU in the observed population, given its level of inputs." In addition to calculating the efficiency scores, DEA also determines the level and amount of inefficiency for each of the inputs and outputs. The amount of inefficiency is determined by comparison with a convex combination of two or more DMUs, which lie on the efficient frontier, utilize the same level of inputs, and produce the same or higher level of outputs. The aim of DEA is to quantify the distance to the efficient frontier for every DMU. The measure of performance is expressed in the form of efficiency score. After the evaluation of the relative efficiency of the present set of units, the analysis shows how inputs and outputs have to be changed in order to maximize the efficiency of the target DMU. DEA suggest the bencmark for each inefficient DMU at the level of its individual mix of inputs and outputs (Mantri, 2008) DEA is a typical statistical approach and characterized as a central tendency approach. It evaluates producers relative to an average producer. In contrast DEA campares each producer with only the “best” producers. A fundamental assumption behind this method is that if a given producer, A, is capable of producing Y(A) units of output with X(A) inputs, then other producers should also be able to do the same if they were to operate efficiently. Similarly, if producer B is capable of the same production schedule. Producers A, B, and others can then be combined to form a composite producer with composite inputs and composite outputs. Since this composite producer does not necessarily exist, it is typically called a virtual producer. The heart of the analysis lies in finding the “best” virtual producer for each real producer. If the virtual producer is beter than the orginal producer by either making more output with the same input or making the same output with less input then the orginal producer is inefficient. The subtleties of DEA are introduced in the various ways that producers A and B can be scarld up or down and combined. (Cornuejols & Trick, 1998) In this study DEA practiced. Aims and methods of the research is as follows. Aims and Methods of Research In this study it is tried to be evaluated the textile sector firms financial efficiencies that are quoted to ISE. In the study DEA method is used. The aim of the study is to investigate financial efficiency and effectiveness of leading Turkish textile sector companies. Economical dimension of sustainable development includes fair distiribution of the resources, avoidance of unnecessary usage of resources and efficient usage of resources. Financial resources are also significant inputs of companies and they should be used efficiently. The steps while practicing DEA can be listed as follows; - Selection of decision making units, - Determination of inputs and output sets - Relative efficiency measurement by DEA o Availability and reliability of the data o Relative efficiency measurement o Efficiency degree-efficiency limits o Evaluation of the results In first step of the study decision making units are selected. For the study balance sheets and income statements that are belong to the firms gathered from the ISE. These data includes the time period in between 2004 and 2008. Decision making units which were the subject of the study is listed in Table 1. BOSSA Bossa Ticaret ve Sanayi Đşletmeleri T.A.Ş. CEYLAN Ceylan Giyim Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. DERĐMOD Derimod Konfeksiyon Ayakkabı Deri Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. EDĐP Edip Đplik Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. ESEM Esem Spor Giyim Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. KARTEKS Karsu Tekstil Sanayii ve Ticaret A.Ş. LUKS Lüks Kadife Ticaret ve Sanayi A.Ş. OKAN Okan Tekstil Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. SASA Advansa Sasa Polyester Sanayi A.Ş. VAKKO Vakko Tekstil ve Hazır Giyim Sanayi Đşletmeleri A.Ş. YATAS Yataş Yatak ve Yorgan Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. YUNSA Yünsa Yünlü Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. 764 �Table 1: Decision Making Units That Were The Subject of the Study Second step of the study was the determination of input and output sets. These are used for measurement of financial efficiency of textile firms. Input and Output sets which were the subjects of the study is listed in Table 2. INPUT Short-Term Dept Long-Term Dept OUTPUT Sales Revenues Non-Operating Income Capital Stock Table 2: Input and Output Data Sets Used in Research These set of input and output units are used to determine the financial efficiency of the textile sector firms. For this study textile sector inputs were determined as: Short Term Debts, Long Term Debts and Capital Stock. Where as the outputs were: Sales Revenues and Non Operating Income. Analysing the Model In this study, it is perefered to used the data gathered from textile firms that are belong to ISE, because of the availability and reliability of data. For the analysis DEAP Version 2.1 is used for processing mathematical data. Inputs of the textile sector are considered as manageable data. So in the analysis input focused method is used. Lack of free market conditions prevented the firms to identify the financial problems that causes difficulties in reaching optimum levels. That is why variable income scaled efficiency model is used for solution. In this search 5 different solutions are generated by linear programming. There are three different factors are used to describe the efficiency levels; Constant Income Technical Efficiency, Variable Income Technical Efficiency and Scale Efficiency. Here technical efficiency could be described as every input’s impact on output. Whereas scale efficiency describes the aggregate impact of all inputs to compound outputs. Scale Efficiency is measured with dividing Constant Income Technical Efficiency by Variable Income Technical Efficiency. After processing the data, DEA efficiency results, from the year 2004 and 2008, belong to the decision making units are determined and listed on the Table 3 as below. 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 BOSSA 0,966 0,682 0,79 1 1 CEYLAN 0,408 1 1 1 1 DERĐMOD 1 1 1 1 0,863 EDĐP 0,859 0,9 0,325 0,245 0,045 ESEM 1 1 0,147 0,068 0,087 KARTEKS 0,613 0,752 0,658 0,818 0,640 LUKS 1 1 1 1 0,535 OKAN 1 1 1 1 0,774 SASA 0,939 0,862 1 0,912 0,660 VAKKO 1 1 1 1 1 YATAS 0,86 0,549 0,659 0,573 0,556 YUNSA 0,651 0,527 0,488 0,554 0,674 ORTALAMA 0,858 0,856 0,756 0,764 0,653 Table 3: Constant Income Technical Efficiency (2004-2008) 765 �There is a reduction in Constant Income Technical Efficiency in between 2004 and 2008. This reduction could be interpreted as Chinese factor in the international trade. Regarding to Turkish textile sector Variable Income Technical Efficiency values are as below. 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 BOSSA 1 1 1 1 1 CEYLAN 0,435 1 1 1 1 DERĐMOD 1 1 1 1 1 EDĐP 0,902 1 0,560 0,246 0,047 ESEM 1 1 0,153 0,087 0,129 KARTEKS 0,671 1 1 0,863 0,676 LUKS 1 1 1 1 0,553 OKAN 1 1 1 1 0,780 SASA 1 1 1 1 1 VAKKO 1 1 1 1 1 YATAS 1 1 1 1 0,791 YUNSA 1 1 1 1 1 ORTALAMA 0,917 1 0,893 0,850 0,748 Table 4: Variable Income Technical Efficiency (2004-2008) In terms of Variable Income Technical Efficiency there is a steady decrease in averages from 20062008. Large and famous firms like BOSSA, VAKKO, SASA, YÜNSA are still keeping their high stakes in the market. Regarding to Turkish textile sector Scale Efficiency values are as below. 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 BOSSA 0,966 0,682 0,79 1 1 CEYLAN 0,939 1 1 1 1 DERĐMOD 1 1 1 1 0,863 EDĐP 0,953 0,9 0,580 0,997 0,974 ESEM 1 1 0,960 0,778 0,675 KARTEKS 0,914 0,752 0,658 0,948 0,946 LUKS 1 1 1 1 0,967 OKAN 1 1 1 1 0,993 SASA 0,939 0,862 1 0,912 0,660 VAKKO 1 1 1 1 1 YATAS 0,86 0,549 0,659 0,573 0,703 YUNSA 0,651 0,527 0,488 0,554 0,674 ORTALAMA 0,935 0,856 0,845 0,897 0,871 Table 5: Scale Efficiency (2004-2008) As you can see from the Table 5. there is a steady decrease in the values of scale efficiencies in between 2004 and 2008. Internal and external results are also indicates that leading Turkish textile companies efficiencies 766 �are decreased. In addition to Chinese factor in textile sector, structural deficiencies in the Turkish textile sector, deficiencies in branding, financial problems and deficiencies in marketing would be other reasons for the reduction. Conclusion Textile sector plays a crucial role in the Turkish economy. Sector seriously affected from the several threads: Chinese factor which criticly reduced the competitiveness of the Turkish textile sector, domestic structural deficiencies in textile sector and reductions in domestic cotton production because of the market forces. Deficiencies in investment climate lead the textile investers to invest more competitive countries in terms of wages, input costs ( like electricity etc.) gradual weaknesses of the textile sector in Turkey is a serious problem. Because textile sector can be considered as engine of the economy. It used to provide considerable amount of employment, export revenue, value add, tax revenue. Result of the study clearly indicates that Turkish textile companies can not efficiently uses the financial resources they have. Government interventions would be as suggestion for more efficient sector for instance tax reductions, direct and indirect financial supports, lower currency policy and improvements in investing climate. References Akalın, M. (2001). Insight into The Turkish Textile and Apparel Industry, Electronic Journal of Textile. Volume: 1, No: 1, 5-6. Charnes, A., W.W. Cooper, and E. Rhodes. (1978). Measuring the eficiency of decision making units, European Journal of Operations Research: 429-444. Charnes, A., W.W. Cooper, A.Y. Lewin, and L.M. Seiford. (1994). Data Envelopment Analysis: Theory, Methodology, and Applications. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers., 221-222 Cornuejols G. & Trick M. (1998). Quantitative Methods for the Management Sciences, Graduate School of Industrial Administration Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA, 345-351 Çukul D. (2008). Competıtıve Aspects Of Turkısh And Chınese Textıle And Clothıng Industrıes, 8th Global Conference on Business & Economics, 1-9 Dalal-Clayton B. (2000). What Is Sustaınable Development ?, Strategies for National Sustainable Development 1-2, www.nssd.net/otherdocuments/sustdev2.doc Ekinci M.B. (2007). Sanayileşme Stratejileri Çerçevesinde Çevre Boyutlu Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Anlayışına Đlişkin Değerlendirmeler, Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları Kitap 50, 979-981 Farrell, M.J. (1957). The Measurement of Productive Efficiency, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 254290 Harris J.M. (2000). Basic Principles of Sustainable Development, Global Development And Envıronment Instıtute Workıng Paper 00-04, 1-6 ĐGĐAD (Đktisadi Giriğim ve Đş Ahlakı Derneği). (2009). Tekstil Sektörü Değerlendirme Raporu, 1-3 Kabnurkar A. (2001). Mathematıcal Modelıng For Data Envelopment Analysıs Wıth Fuzzy Restrıctıons On Weıghts, Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Industrial and Systems Engineering, 3134 ITKIP Đstanbul Tekstil ve Konfeksiyon Đhracatçılar Birliği. (2010). Turkish Textile Industry,1-8 www.itkib.org.tr/english/about/sectors/textile/textile_info.pdf 767 �Mantri J.K. (2008). Research Methodology on Data Envelopment Analysis DEA, Universal Publisher, Boca Raton, Florida USA, 15-16 Özyol A. (2007). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma, Hydra Uluslar arası Proje Danışmanlık A.Ş. Yayını, 2-5 768 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 626 Title A name given to the resource Significance of Efficiency for Sustainable Development : A Practice of Data Envelopment Analysis on Textile Sector Author Author ÖZGÜR, Ersan Abstract A summary of the resource. Resources in the nature are limited and mankind has to use these resources economically or otherwise next generations might have difficulty in surviving. That is why today’s decision makers has to be able to think and plan the futures resources for not to danger future’s generations. In this perspective sustainable development policies can be considered as a solution for the next generation’s wealth. Sustainable development policy requires a balance while consuming the natural resources. For sustainable development efficient uses of resources is essential. In this study we try to assess the efficiency of the Turkish textile sector companies, regarding to sustainable development. In this study Data Enveloping Analyses is practiced to the data gathered from Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) quoted textile companies. Results of the survey indicates that efficiency rates affected negatively from the Chinese factor, domestic structural deficiencies in textile sector and economic situation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/02561645e087048a714c3bec6f667527.pdf 3ae16e1cf405010fea0a3ef6f786ce4e PDF Text Text Determination of The Effects of Loads on Some Engine Parameters for Agricultural Tractors Zafer ÖZGÜR Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Biga Vocational College zozgur@comu.edu.tr Abstract : The objective of this study is to determine the load based engine exhaust temperature, cooling water temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters and to examine the relationship between them. To this end, partial loads have been applied to three different tractor brands that are widely used in our country (Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 and John Deere 5625) under workshop conditions at different PTO speeds (540, 540E, 750) by using an Eddy Current dynamometer. The trials have been carried out separately for each tractor and the engine parameters have been measured concurrently with the applied loads. In all trials the exhaust gas temperature has been found to be between 181.10-603.40 °C, the engine cooling water temperature between 63.20-83.40 °C, the fuel consumption between 3.15-15.68 L/h and the specific fuel consumption to be between 230.371112.79 g/kWh. According to the results of the research there is a distinct increase in the exhaust gas temperature and fuel consumption parameters due to the increase of PTO and there is a decrease with similar ratios in specific fuel consumption. Whereas cooling water temperature values tend to decrease very slightly due to power change. According to variance analysis results it has been determined that the PTO speed and PTO power factors and their interactions have statistically significant (P<0.01) effects on all the measured parameters. As a result of the study it has been concluded that even though the three PTO speeds have different engine operation parameters, they can be used as alternatives for each other for many PTO driven agricultural machines. Keywords: Tractor, PTO, engine performance parameters Introduction Nowadays in the world against the energy shortages, quality and quantity of production, as well conscious of the mechanization of agricultural production to achieve the most ideal conditions is obligatory. Mechanization of agricultural practices to ensure efficiency, knowledge of the ability of the tractor in agricultural enterprises, and accordingly the use of tractors conveniently, the use of tractors and business machines by increasing efficiency can help reduce operating costs Aging of engine and the reduction in work efficiency depending on the annual working hours and working conditions of tractor usually are not being noticed or not ignored by the users. This situation is realized by the consume of more fuel for the same work of the tractor or unable to fulfill the work. These conditions causing significant losses in business is need to be foreseen and taken precautions. To detect and evaluate negative changes mentioned by the tractor engine periodically parameters such as temperature and fuel consumption are required to determine. Because he loss of efficiency in engines are directly effective on tail shaft torque and power transferred from the agricultural machine, periodcally and practically the efficiency of PTO should be meassured. For this process, in static conditions usually workshop-type hydraulic dynamometer is used. With dynamometer, maximum tractor PTO power can be determined. The measurements will be made periodically, it informs users about the efficiency of the tractor engine. 198 �In this study partial loads have been applied to three different tractor brands that are widely used in our country (Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 and John Deere 5625) under workshop conditions at different PTO speeds (540, 540E, 750) by using an Eddy Current dynamometer. The objective of this study is to determine the load based engine exhaust temperature, cooling water temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters and to examine the relationship between them. Specific Fuel Consumption and Fuel Consumption Motor is a machine that converts heat energy resulting in the burning of fuel in cylinders to mechanical energy. Power produced per unit time to the amount of fuel consumed is called the specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption varies depending on engine load conditions. For example, the fuel consumption at full is less than the half that of gas. Engine Exhaust Gas and Water Temperature In ınternal combustion engines, the ratio of beneficial work from the motor shaft to the energy supplied with fuel to machine is defined as brake thermal efficiency. The fuel to the engine that convert heat energy into mechanical energy, some losses have occurred. These losses occur by exhaust, cooling, friction and radiation. To increase the brake thermal efficiency, it is necessary to reduce these losses and to know the share of total losses. Kayıp enerjilerin ve efektif gücün belirlenerek değerlendirilmesine ısı balansı denilmektedir. Evaluation of energy loss and effective power is called as heat balance. Heat balance that define the economy in engine also give idea about the various losses. In ınternal combustion engines, the maximum cycle temperature is limited due to the structural features of the engine. Therefore, in reciprocating internal combustion engines, it is necessary cooling systems to check the temperature of engine parts. For four-stroke diesel engines, the heat loss through the cooling is ranged from 20-28%. This heat loss comprises the heat passing to cooling water and lubricating oils. An average of only 8% loss of lubricating oil is in question. Material and Method In workshops, experiments conducted at static conditions, full and partial load is applied to three test trials of the tractor tail spindle and the necessary parameters have been determined. Measurement systems used for this purpose is given schematically in Figure 1.1 In experiments carried out in workshop conditions, loads connected to the tractor PTO engine exhaust gas temperature, cooling temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters are examined, evaluated the relationship between them. 199 �Figure 1.1. Schematic illustration of measurement systems used in research Relations Between PTO Power and the Exhaust Gas Temperature Engine exhaust gas temperatures measured for each load level applied to the tractor PTO are given in Table 2.1. PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 238.00 253.10 278.20 299.30 323.30 348.50 373.80 405.30 422.50 540 NH TD85 248.30 277.60 311.80 345.60 378.90 412.00 446.10 481.00 514.70 exhaust gas temperatures (°C) 540E JD NH MF MF 3085 5625 TD85 3085 267.80 181.10 203.70 219.30 302.20 209.80 244.00 270.50 337.30 248.80 286.90 320.00 373.90 281.60 330.40 372.40 404.60 310.50 368.80 420.00 437.00 339.50 411.20 474.80 471.20 368.50 452.80 518.00 501.00 407.20 494.40 570.90 531.90 439.90 540.30 603.40 Table 2.1. Engine exhaust gas temperatures 200 JD 5625 232.00 256.60 281.30 302.00 331.40 356.70 374.20 406.90 428.60 750 NH TD85 267.20 293.90 324.80 354.80 387.90 419.10 448.90 480.20 511.50 MF 3085 276.80 308.30 342.90 376.00 414.80 443.00 477.00 504.20 532.70 �When the charts examined, exhaust gas temperatures obtained for John Deere 5625, New Holland TD85 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was found to increase in application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Relations Between PTO Power and Cooling Water Temperature Engine cooling water temperatures measured each load level applied to the tractor PTO are given in Table 2.2 PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 81.90 82.20 82.30 82.10 81.80 82.60 82.90 83.40 83.40 540 NH TD85 67.00 67.50 68.00 69.00 69.40 70.00 70.00 71.00 71.20 MF 3085 64.10 67.30 70.70 74.10 74.60 74.70 76.00 75.10 76.00 cooling water temperatures(°C) 540E JD NH MF 5625 TD85 3085 79.40 65.00 63.20 80.10 65.10 66.60 80.10 66.00 69.40 80.00 66.00 72.20 80.00 67.00 75.00 80.30 67.50 76.00 80.80 68.00 76.40 81.40 69.00 77.00 81.50 70.00 76.80 JD 5625 82.80 81.90 82.20 81.90 82.90 82.60 82.80 82.10 83.00 750 NH TD85 66.00 66.00 66.80 67.00 67.30 68.00 68.00 69.00 69.00 MF 3085 63.20 64.80 71.60 74.10 74.60 74.70 76.00 75.10 76.00 Table 2.2. Engine cooling water temperature values Cooling water temperatures obtained for he John Deere 5625 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was not found significant difference in the application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Relations Between PTO Power and Fuel Consumption Engine fuel consumption measured each load level applied to the tractor PTO is given in Table 2.3 PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 6.62 7.45 8.44 9.52 10.55 11.66 12.92 14.33 15.38 540 NH TD85 5.09 5.95 6.90 8.02 9.08 10.21 11.30 12.53 13.78 MF 3085 4.76 5.72 6.73 7.79 9.00 10.17 11.34 12.70 13.93 Fuel consumption (L/h) 540E JD NH MF 5625 TD85 3085 3.93 3.55 3.15 4.81 4.58 4.14 5.79 5.60 5.22 6.85 6.75 6.38 7.89 7.81 7.50 8.98 8.95 8.73 10.08 10.06 9.88 11.36 11.33 11.17 12.59 12.67 12.54 Table 2.3. Motor fuel consumption values 201 JD 5625 6.73 7.52 8.52 9.63 10.74 11.96 13.28 14.50 15.68 750 NH TD85 5.83 6.75 7.82 9.00 10.08 11.38 12.54 13.63 14.92 MF 3085 5.36 6.27 7.45 8.73 9.96 11.15 12.43 13.80 15.02 �Fuel consumption values for John Deere 5625, New Holland TD85 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was found to increase in application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Relations Between PTO Power and the Specific Fuel Consumption Engine specific fuel consumption values measured each load level applied to the tractor PTO is given in Table 2.4 PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 1095.64 616.01 465.19 393.68 349.10 321.35 305.29 296.23 282.58 Specific fuel consumption (L/h) 540 540E NH MF JD NH MF JD TD85 3085 5625 TD85 3085 5625 841.17 786.86 649.90 586.84 520.82 1112.79 492.45 472.74 398.19 378.53 342.31 622.29 380.50 370.78 319.01 308.48 287.62 469.78 331.59 322.21 283.19 279.06 263.81 398.09 300.27 297.65 261.03 258.42 248.10 355.14 281.43 280.33 247.52 246.80 240.78 329.63 266.99 267.92 238.15 237.65 233.48 313.85 259.02 262.51 234.80 234.26 231.01 299.85 253.26 256.04 231.36 232.90 230.37 288.20 Table 2.4. Engine specific fuel consumption values 750 NH TD85 964.33 558.24 431.18 372.12 333.52 313.64 296.19 281.86 274.11 MF 3085 886.27 518.90 410.83 361.02 329.64 307.31 293.63 285.36 276.05 Specific fuel consumption values obtained for the John Deere 5625, New Holland TD85 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was found to decrease in application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Conclusions and Recommendations Study, for 540 rpm , the tail of a tractor PTO shaft speed to the load applied in the experiment in the with the tail.In this study, for loads applied to the trial tractors which are in 540 rpm PTO speed , tractor fuel consumption, specific fuel consumption and PTO torque variables were determined. Torqu values depending on the loadings for 540 rpm PTO speed are varied among the 88 888 Nm. That implies the change in PTO speed with the same power levels will also change the torque values. In other words, because of the different torgque needs of agriculturel machinery moving from PTO, operating characteristics of an agricultural machine working with 540 rpm speed may vary with 750 rpm speed. 750 rpm PTO option is used for agricultural machines that not require more torque as an alternative speed option for 540 rpm and 1000 rpm PTO speed. During the dynamometer test, torque power and speed measurements in parallel with the fuel consumption values were also measured. The data obtained by processing the results of calculations , specific fuel consumption was also determined. Values for fuel consumption increased proportionally with the power values despite specific fuel consumption decreased with increasing levels of power. For Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 ve John Deere 5625 tractors with the same speed level, avarage special fuel consumption value increased 9.92%, 11.16% ve 1.70% respectively when it is passed from 540 rpm PTO to 750 rpm PTO. Fuel consumption values of 750 rpm instead of 540 rpm PTO speed with the case has shown a certain tendency to increase. When all the applied load is taken into account (5 50kW), the fuel consumption increase rate between two PTO speed varied between the values 7.56-12.63% for Massey Ferguson 3085, 7.59 14.64% for New Holland TD85 and 1.00-2.80% or John Deere 5625 tractor. Cooling water temperatures are 63–77 ºC, 66–72 ºC and 79–87 ºC respectively for Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 ve John Deere 5625 tractors respectively. These difference between cooling water temperatures are thought to be arised from the different thermostat features. 202 �In this study, 540 rpm and 750 rpm PTO speed were compared statically only workshop conditions. From the evaluations, especially fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters are emphasized. However, this study should be support with the field work. For example when disk fertilizer distribution machine is run with 750 rpm instead of 540 rpm PTO speed, it would be possible that work wildth will increase and work completion time will be influenced. For these reasons, the differences between the two PTO speed (work size, operating time, fuel consumption, torque, etc) should be compared for various agricultural machinery moving from PTO in actual working conditions. References Anonim, 2004. New Holland TD 85 Kullanım kitabı. New Holland Trakmak A.Ş. (In Turkish) Anonim, 2008a., (08.Kasım 2008) Tarım ve Köy işleri Bakanlığı yayınları, Traktör Tekniği kitabı (http://www.tarim.gov.tr/sanal_kutuphane/basili/permem/ kitapweb/tarmekkit/bilgi/b210.pdf) (In Turkish) Balcı, Y., 1982. Traktör Motor Gücü ve Egzoz Gazı Sıcaklığı Arasındaki Đlişkilerin Saptanması Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Tarım Makinaları Bölümü. Lisans Tezi. (18)s. (In Turkish) Bastaban S., 1994. Traktör Performansını Belirlemek Đçin Kullanılan Genel Amaçlı Ölçüm ve Datalogger Seti. Tarımsal Mekanizasyon 15. Ulusal kongresi, Antalya, 10–22 Eylül, Sayfa: 14–23(In Turkish) Downs H.W., Hansen R.W., 2006. Selecting Energy-Efficient Tractors. Colorado State University. Cooperative Extension. 9/98. Reviewed 1/05. no. 5.007. Engürülü, B., Ö. Çiftçi, M. Gölbaşı, H.Ç. Başaran and M. Akkurt. 2005. Traktör Tekniği. Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı Ankara Zirai Üretim Đşletmesi, Personel ve Makina Eğitim Merkezi Müdürlüğü Yayınları. Ankara. (In Turkish) Evcim, Ü.,Ulusoy, E., Gülsoylu, E., Sındır, K. O., Đçöz, E., 2004. Türkiye tarımı makinalaşma durumu. (In Turkish) Gil-Sierra, J. Ortiz-Cañavate, J., Gil-Quirós, V., Casanova-Kindelán J., 2007. Energy Effıcıency in Agrıcultural Tractors: a Methodology for Theır Classıfıcatıon. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. Vol. 23(2): 145-150. Grisso, R. D., Kocher,M. F., Vaughan D. H., 2004. Predicting Tractor Fuel Consumption. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. Vol. 20(5): 553−561. Koertner, R.G., Bashford, L.L., Lane, D.E., 1977. Tractor Instrumentation for Measuring Fuel and Energy Requirements. Transactions of the ASAE. Vol. 20(3): 402-405. Lin, T., Buckmaster, D.R., 1996. Evaluation of an Optimized Engine-Fluid Power Drive System to Replace Mechanical Tractor Power Take-Offs. Transactions Sabancı, A. 1997. Tarım Traktörleri. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Kitapları Genel Yayın No: 46. Adana. (In Turkish) Sümer S.K., Has, M., Sabanci, A., 2004. Türkiye’de Üretilen Tarım Traktörlerine Ait Teknik Özellikler. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 19(1):17-26. Adana. (In Turkish) Sümer, S.K., Sabancı, A., Ükler, K., 1998. Tarım Traktörlerinde, Güç ve Tarımsal Mekanizasyon Kongresi, Tekirdağ. (In Turkish) Thomas, R. S., Buckmaster, D. R., 2005. Development of a Computer-Controlled, Hydraulıc, Power Take-Off (PTO) System. Transactions of the ASAE. Vol. 48(5): 1669−1675. 203 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 384 Title A name given to the resource Determination of The Effects of Loads on Some Engine Parameters for Agricultural Tractors Author Author ÖZGÜR, Zafer Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to determine the load based engine exhaust temperature, cooling water temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters and to examine the relationship between them. To this end, partial loads have been applied to three different tractor brands that are widely used in our country (Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 and John Deere 5625) under workshop conditions at different PTO speeds (540, 540E, 750) by using an Eddy Current dynamometer. The trials have been carried out separately for each tractor and the engine parameters have been measured concurrently with the applied loads. In all trials the exhaust gas temperature has been found to be between 181.10-603.40 °C, the engine cooling water temperature between 63.20-83.40 °C, the fuel consumption between 3.15-15.68 L/h and the specific fuel consumption to be between 230.37- 1112.79 g/kWh. According to the results of the research there is a distinct increase in the exhaust gas temperature and fuel consumption parameters due to the increase of PTO and there is a decrease with similar ratios in specific fuel consumption. Whereas cooling water temperature values tend to decrease very slightly due to power change. According to variance analysis results it has been determined that the PTO speed and PTO power factors and their interactions have statistically significant (P<0.01) effects on all the measured parameters. As a result of the study it has been concluded that even though the three PTO speeds have different engine operation parameters, they can be used as alternatives for each other for many PTO driven agricultural machines. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/355c5ef218e20e7a76bf73eb84e09ffd.pdf 9b04d64542d304f6725bb1050366f283 PDF Text Text An Investigation on Improvement of Yield Potential of TMP-2 Composite Maize Gene Pool Ahmet ÖZ Çankırı Karatekin University, Science and Art Faculty, Çankırı-Turkey ahmetoz01@hotmail.com Halil KAPAR Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute, Samsun-Turkey halilkapar@yahoo.com Nevzat AYDIN Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Vocational School, Karaman-Turkey nevzataydin@gmail.com Abstract: This study was conducted at the Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute in SamsunTurkey in 2005 and 2006. The aim of this research was to improve the yield potential of the TMP2 corn gene pool. A composite corn cultivar with high adaptation potential called 'Karadeniz Yildizi' in Turkish was enhanced using genetic source material (TMP-2). Nineteen maize source materials with high yield potential and similar agronomic traits to TMP-2 corn gene pool were obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute. These materials were then crossed with TMP-2 corn gene pool as female parents in 2005. Obtained hybrids were tested and experiment was conducted by randomized block design with three replications. Data was recorded for grain yield and yield components. In the experiment, the seeds of high yielding hybrids were mixed with seeds of TMP-2 gene pool at the rate of 5 % and used as male parents for next generation crossing. Introduction Maize is the world’s third most important crop after rice and wheat. Recently, its production and yield has increased significantly. Maize is generally used as a food product and for animal feed. Maizecobs are also used as a biomass fuel source. Recent developments in quantitative genetics and experimental data in the last century have helped in the development of alternative approaches to the conventional hybrid methodology. Composite varieties have given yield levels which closely approach those of commercial hybrids (Singh, 1987). Composite varieties are important for countries where the hybrid seed industry has not been organized and regular hybrid seed replacement programs are not convenient. Composite cultivars are also important for regions where the climate is not very adequate for corn growing. The major advantages in the use of composites are; a) The seed of composite varieties is cheap and simple, b) Farmers can use their own seed for growing the next crops, c) Composites can be further improved for important characters, d) Because of wider genetic base composites are more stable to major biotic stresses and negative climatic conditions, and e) Elite composites can serve as base population for inbred lines (Singh, 1987). The genetic variability of breeding materials is very important for maize breeders. Germplasm complexes and composites were developed and used as a genetic resource for the improvement of grain yield and other desirable characteristics. Different breeding methods and approaches were used for composite corn cultivars. Sprague and Eberhart (1977) showed that response to selection for yield improvement was similar for the different intra and inter-population recurrent selection schemes. S1 family selection seems to provide better opportunity to screen out the poorest progenies and thus, make more rapid progress (Hallauer and Miranda, 1987). Recurrent selection methods have been widely used by maize breeders for population improvement. Maize breeders used recurrent selection methods for improvement of population mean performance and maintenance of genetic variation for continued selection (Weyhrich et al., 214 �1998). Increasing grain yield potential of maize is due to the successive development of better adapted varieties. Estimates of increased productivity due to genetic gain in U.S. maize production are about 77 kg ha-1 (Duvick et al., 2004). The aim of this research is to improve the yield potential of the TMP-2 composite maize gene pool by using high yielding source materials obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute. Materials and Method Nineteen maize source materials were obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute to use in this study (Table 1). These materials had high yield potential and similar agronomic traits to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. Hybrids were produced by crossing each nineteen source material with the materials from TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. The materials obtained from Sakarya were used as female parents in 2005. From this crossing effort, nineteen hybrids were developed. The composite cultivar “Karadeniz Yıldızı” was used as the control in the trial. Experiment was conducted in Samsun (Lat. 36°20’E, long. 41°17’N, 4 m above sea level) in the 2006 growing season. The experimental design was a Completely Randomized Block Design with three replications. Each experimental plot included four fivemeter long rows spaced 0.70 m apart, with 25 single-plant hills spaced 0.20 m apart. TMP-2 composite maize gene pool has a high plant height and the seed structure likes yellow flint. Composite cv. Karadeniz Yildizi, developed from TMP-2 composite maize gene pool is grown for silage and grain. Data was recorded for grain yield and yield components. According to the experiment results, the high yielding hybrids were selected. Stock seeds of selected source materials were mixed with seeds of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool at the rate of 5 % and used as male parents for next generation crossing. Data were taken on tasselling time (days from planting to 50 % of plants tasselling), grain yield (kg da-1). Plant height (cm), ear height (cm), grain moisture (%), yield/ear ratio (%), plant and ear appearance were estimated from a sample of 10 plants from each plot. All the data were analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures using the Statistical Software Package. The comparison of the treatment means was made by using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test. 1- KDEB.PN55 6- KDEB.PN155 2- KDEB.PN6 7- KDEB.PN165 3- KDEB.PN48 8- KDEB.PN176 4- KDEB.PN84 9- KDEB.PN187 5- KDEB.PN140 10- KDEB.PN261 Table 1. Maize source materials 11- KDEB.PN275 12- KDEB.PN350 13- KDEB.PN488 14- KDEB.PN587 15- KDEB.PN603 16- KDEB.PN632 17- KDEB.PN643 18- KDEB.PN644 19- KDEB.PN648 20- Karadeniz Yıldızı Findings and Discussion Grain yield, some yield related and morphological traits were investigated in this study. The results and statistical analysis were given in Table 1 and 2. Grain Yield The differences of grain yield of the hybrids were statistically significant (Table 1). The grain yields of hybrids ranged from 775 to 1155 kg/da, and averaged 984 kg/da. The highest grain yield was obtained from KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 hybrid, and KDEB.PN643 x TMP-2 and KDEB.PN350 x TMP-2 hybrids followed it. Karadeniz Yildizi improved from TMP-2 composite maize gene pool yielded 1004 kg/da. Grain yield is the most important trait for selection of genetic source material. The aim of this study was to improve the grain yield potential of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool, and high yielding genotypes were determined for this aim. It is expected that cultivars coming from different genetic background might have different yield potentials, however the yields of cultivars correlated with their adaptation ability to different environment (Emeklier, 1987). Some researchers reported that hybrids between inbred lines with 215 �high yield potential might have high yield potential (Lonnquist and Lindsey, 1964; Lamkey and Hallauer, 1986). Tasseling Time Tasseling time is an important trait in this study, because tasseling time of selected source materials should be same or very close to tasseling time of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. The tasseling time of source materials ranged from 64.3 days to 76.3 days, and difference of genotypes for tasseling time was statistically significant (p<0.01, Table 1). While some source material flowered earlier than Karadeniz Yildizi, some materials flowered later than it. The materials with high yield and similar tasseling time to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool were selected. Tasseling time can change according as genotype and climate. Martin et al. (1976) reported that ideal temperature for growing in corn was 21-27 0C for daylight and 13 0C for night. Corn is generally grown in hot climate, the temperature over 27 0C can decrease grain yield. Altinbas and Tosun (1998) found that late flowering cultivars generally had higher grain yield. Genotypes Grain yield Tasseling time Plant height Ear height (kg/da) (day) (cm) (cm) 1- KDEB.PN55 x TMP-2 1015 ae** 67.7 ij** 282 cf** 115 bd** 2- KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2 877 df 66.0 jk 270 eg 103 ce 3- KDEB.PN48 x TMP-2 983 be 69.3 gi 292 be 103 ce 4- KDEB.PN84 x TMP-2 1080 ab 69.7 fh 305 ab 112 bd 5- KDEB.PN140 x TMP-2 916 cf 74.0 b 307 ab 132 ab 6- KDEB.PN155 x TMP-2 870 ef 69.3 gi 277 df 108 bd 7- KDEB.PN165 x TMP-2 991 be 69.0 gi 280 df 118 bc 8- KDEB.PN176 x TMP-2 1000 be 71.3 df 293 bd 105 cd 9- KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 1155 a 72.0 ce 282 cf 108 bd 10- KDEB.PN261 x TMP-2 1068 ab 71.7 de 278 df 92 df 11- KDEB.PN275 x TMP-2 775 f 70.3 eg 273 df 92 df 12- KDEB.PN350 x TMP-2 1100 ab 72.0 ce 293 bd 120 bc 13- KDEB.PN488 x TMP-2 978 be 73.0 bd 292 be 110 bd 14- KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 1023 ad 76.3 a 320 a 153 a 15- KDEB.PN603 x TMP-2 1081 ab 74.7 ab 288 be 107 cd 16- KDEB.PN632 x TMP-2 803 f 64.3 k 247 h 73 f 17- KDEB.PN643 x TMP-2 1104 ab 73.7 bc 310 ab 117 bc 18- KDEB.PN644 x TMP-2 818 f 64.3 k 250 gh 80 ef 19- KDEB.PN648 x TMP-2 1044 ac 68.0 hi 260 fh 107 cd 20- Karadeniz Yıldızı 1004 be 68.7 gi 303 ac 112 bd Mean 984 72.3 285 108 CV (%) 9.0 1.61 4.71 13.8 **, Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 1% level. Table 2. Tasseling time, plant height, ear height and grain yield of genotypes. Plant Height The differences between plant height of genotypes were statistically significant (p<0.01) (Table 1). Plant height changed from 247 to 320 cm, and average plant height was found as 285 cm in the trial. The highest plant height was obtained from hybrid KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2. Plant height and ear height are important agronomic traits for cultivars and there is a close correlation between them. Plant height was a crucial trait to select for this source material. Selected material should have plant height close to the plant height of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool, because ‘Karadeniz Yildizi’ is grown for both grain and silage. 216 �Ear Height Significant differences among genotypes were observed for ear height. Obtained data for ear height ranged from 73 cm to 153 cm. Average ear height was 108 cm in the study. Hybrid KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 had the highest ear height such as plant height. Genotypic factor are known to influence ear and plant height more than environmental factor (Hallauer and Miranda, 1987). Attention was also given to select source material with similar ear and plant height to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool to obtain morphologic similarity. Hallauer and Sears (1972) reported that mass selection for early silking concluded with an average decrease of 15 cm per cycle of selection for ear height. They also found that there was a simple correlation between early silking and lower ear height (r = 0.89). Grain Moisture Grain moisture of genotypes changed from 20.3% to 31.3% in the harvest (Table3). Significant variation was found among genotypes for grain moisture (p<0.01). Grain moisture is an important trait for location conducted the trial. The lowest grain moisture was recorded for hybrid KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2, while the highest for hybrid KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2. Karadeniz Yildizi had 24.3% grain moisture and mean grain moisture was 24.3% in the trial. We selected the source material with close or lower grain moisture content to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. Yield/Ear Ratio Yield/ear ratio were recorded as 76.1% to 83.9% and averaged 79.3% (Table 3). Differences of yield/ear ratio among genotypes were significant (p<0.01). The hybrid KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 with highest grain yield had the highest yield/ear ratio. Yield/ear ratio is a crucial trait for corn breeders and high yield/ear ratio is desired to develop high yielding hybrids. Plant and Ear Appearance Data for plant and ear appearances were not statistically analyzed (Table 3). Plant and ear appearance is an important criterion to selection for breeders. The genetic source materials having value 1 and close to 1 for plant and ear appearance were selected. Genotypes 1- KDEB.PN55 x TMP-2 2- KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2 3- KDEB.PN48 x TMP-2 4- KDEB.PN84 x TMP-2 5- KDEB.PN140 x TMP-2 6- KDEB.PN155 x TMP-2 7- KDEB.PN165 x TMP-2 8- KDEB.PN176 x TMP-2 9- KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 10- KDEB.PN261 x TMP-2 11- KDEB.PN275 x TMP-2 12- KDEB.PN350 x TMP-2 13- KDEB.PN488 x TMP-2 14- KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 15- KDEB.PN603 x TMP-2 16- KDEB.PN632 x TMP-2 Grain moisture (%) 26,3 cd** 20,3 k 24,9 gh 23,5 i 24,5 gh 22,3 j 24,1 hi 26,9 c 26,3 cd 25,9 de 25,2 ef 26,9 c 27,9 b 31,3 a 26,9 c 23,9 hi Yield/ear ratio (%) 76,2 k** 76,1 k 79,5 gh 82,4 ce 76,4 k 79,4 gh 82,5 ac 78,4 hi 83,9 a 81,1 df 80,7 eg 76,5 k 77,3 ik 76,8 jk 76,5 k 79,6 fh 217 Plant appearance (1-5) 1,33 1,67 1,83 1,17 1,17 1,83 1,83 1,00 1,50 1,17 2,17 1,00 1,00 1,17 1,33 2,50 Ear appearance (1-5) 1,67 1,83 1,67 1,67 1,83 2,00 2,00 1,83 1,33 1,50 2,17 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,67 2,00 �17- KDEB.PN643 x TMP-2 25,8 de 81.0 df 1,33 1,83 18- KDEB.PN644 x TMP-2 21,9 j 78,2 hj 2,00 2,50 19- KDEB.PN648 x TMP-2 23,9 hi 83,3 ab 1.67 1,50 20- Karadeniz Yıldızı 24,3 gh 81,4 ce 2.00 1,67 Mean 25.1 79.3 1.53 17.6 CV (%) 1.76 1.13 **, Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 1% level. Table 3. Grain moisture, yield/ear ratio, plant appearance and ear appearance of source materials hybrids. Conclusion The genetic materials of KDEB.PN187, KDEB.PN644, KDEB.PN350, KDEB.PN261, KDEB.PN84, KDEB.PN648 and KDEB.PN55 were selected to use for improving of yield potential of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. The seeds of selected source materials at the rate of 5% could be mixed to the seeds of TMP-2 gene pool, and could be used as male parents. The hybrids of KDEB.PN603 x TMP-2 and KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 with high grain yield were not selected because of their late tasseling time. The hybrid of KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2 had the lowest grain moisture, however it had lower grain yield. References Altınbaş, M. and M. Tosun, (1998). Melez mısır (Zea mays L.) ıslahında kombinasyon yeteneiği kovaryanslarından yararlanma olanağı üzerine bir çalışma. Anadolu, 8 (2) 90-100. Duvick, D. N., J. S. C. Smith, and M. Cooper, (2004). Long-term selection in a commercial hybrid maize breeding program, Plant Breed. Rev., 24:109–151. Emeklier, H.Y, (1997). Erkenci hibrid mısır çeşitlerinin verim ve fenotipik özellikleri üzerine araştırmalar. Ankara Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, No:1493, Bilimsel Araştırma ve Đncelemeler: 817, Ankara. Hallauer A. R. and J. B. Miranda, (1987). Quantitative Genetics in Maize Breeding. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. Hallauer, A. R. and J. H. Sears, (1972). Integrating Exotic Germplasm into Corn Belt Maize Breeding Programs. Crop Sci 12:203-206 Lamkey K. R. and A. R. Hallauer, (1986). Performance of high x high, high x low, low x low crosses of lines from the BSSS maize synthetic. Crop Sci. 26: 1114-1118. Lonnquist, J. H. and M. F. Lindsey, (1964). Topcross versus S1 line performance in corn. Crop Sci. 4: 580-584. Martin, J.H., W.H. Leonard and D.L. Stamp, (1976). Principles of Field Crop Production. Third edition. Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York. Singh, J, (1987). Field Manuel of Maize Breeding Procedures. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations, Rome. Sprague, G. F and S. A. Eberhart, (1977). Corn Breeding. American Social Agronomy. Madison. Wisconsin. Weyhrich, R. A., K. R. Lamkey, and A.R. Hallauer, (1998). Effective Population Size and Response to S1- Progeny Selection in the BS11 Maize Population. Crop Science, Vol. 38, 1149-1158. 218 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 392 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation on Improvement of Yield Potential of TMP-2 Composite Maize Gene Pool Author Author ÖZKUL, Ahmet Sait KAPAR, Halil AYDIN, Nevzat Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was conducted at the Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute in Samsun- Turkey in 2005 and 2006. The aim of this research was to improve the yield potential of the TMP- 2 corn gene pool. A composite corn cultivar with high adaptation potential called 'Karadeniz Yildizi' in Turkish was enhanced using genetic source material (TMP-2). Nineteen maize source materials with high yield potential and similar agronomic traits to TMP-2 corn gene pool were obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute. These materials were then crossed with TMP-2 corn gene pool as female parents in 2005. Obtained hybrids were tested and experiment was conducted by randomized block design with three replications. Data was recorded for grain yield and yield components. In the experiment, the seeds of high yielding hybrids were mixed with seeds of TMP-2 gene pool at the rate of 5 % and used as male parents for next generation crossing. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc404f9c7ed894ff5fe98b388c2a56c6.pdf 105129bfb776d49d731574b18a29f481 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Creating Morally-minded Organizations in a Machiavellian Work Environment N. Derya Ergun ÖZLER Dumlupinar University, Department of Administration, Turkey deryaergun69@hotmail.com Nuray MERCAN snmmercan@yahoo.com Abstract: Organizations are highly rational constructs operating in a competitive market and bureaucratic entities designed to attain first organizational-collective and individual-private ends in an orderly fashion. In an entity as such there is little formally accepted and approved room for personal maneuvers which may jeopardize much larger goals of organizations. However, organizations have an internally and interpersonally highly competitive environment, more like a war place for power and influence. Organizations are increasing looking for competent, competitive and achievement oriented individuals yet expect them to work in teams as resource sharing saints. It is time to ask whether it is exactly this paradoxical tendency of modern organizations that encourage Machiavellian behaviors. What type of business organizations and environments are more conducive to Machiavellianism? What types of negative and positive incentives are there in regard to Machiavellianism? And what needs to be done? The aim of this work is to develop above argument further, answer some of above questions and then make workable suggestions for practitioners to help in their attempts to identify Machiavellian tendencies and differentiate Machiavellian behaviors from non-Machiavellian ones. Relavance Of Machiavellianism In Modern Organizations Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) is one of the most influential and controversial personality in the history of philosophical literature. The term Machiavellian originates from the name of Machiavelli, the author of the 1513 treatise, The Prince. He possessed a negative and a pessimistic belief about human nature. He neither liked nor promoted such a nature. Machiavelli believed that he chose a realistic approach than a fairy tale to solve political problems of his time and country. According to Machiavelli individuals in general are selfish and lack wisdom and therefore they should be regarded as vicious, lazy, and untrustworthy and that a ruler should use cruelty, exploitation, and deceit to maintain power. Therefore, unless people are vise in general the ruler needs not to behave in ethical or moral manner. Although his general stance is considered to be amoral (not immoral), Machiavelli maintained that ethics and professional requirements are, by and large, irreconcilable with real politic. Since he drew a line between private (individual) sphere and the public - institutional sphere, there emerged radically different ways of evaluating the respective behaviors of each sphere. As Galie and Bopst (2006) promptly argue, Machiavelli‘s teachings have never gone out of fashion; no doubt because power remains a central aspect of modern political and corporate life. The writings of this 16th century thinker seem as relevant today as they were a half millennium ago. Indeed, numerous monographs published in the last decade still argue for Machiavelli‘s relevance to modern management and corporate leadership. It is a truth that management textbooks concerning morality in corporate life seem to be inconsistent with the actual teachings of Machiavelli and paradoxically they fail to acknowledge that the teachings of Machiavelli are still most relevant to the modern corporate world. In this world occupational careers are filled with face to face interactions which allow almost endless opportunities for interpersonal manipulation and improvisation. The process of obtaining promotions and salary increases seems inevitably to arouse emotions and induce goal directed behaviors (Turner and Martinez, 1977, p. 326). Despite his relevance in modern management the literature is inconsistent about Machiavellianism. It is not clear what Machiavellianism is. Is it a personality trait, a strategy, a type of relationship, a system, behavior or something else? To Christie and Geis (1970) for instance it is a world view which has three distinct themes. The first theme involves using manipulative strategies such as deceit and flattery in interpersonal relations. The second theme involves a cynical perception of others as weak and untrustworthy. The third theme involves indifference toward conventional morality in thought and action (Shepperd and Socherman 1997, p.1448). Machiavelli says "Any person 155 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo who decides in every situation to act as a good man is bound to be destroyed in the company of so many men who are not good. Wherefore, if the Prince desires to stay in power, he must learn how to be not good, and must avail himself of that ability, or not, as the occasion requires"(as Cited in Cyriac and Dharmaraj 1994, p.281). Machiavellianism is also defined by the same authors as ―a trait that involves strategically manipulating others for personal gain often against the other‘s self-interest‖ as conceptualized by Christie and Geis (1970). According to Christie and Geis (1970), high Machs tend to manipulate people for personal gain and have little emotional involvement in interpersonal relationships. High Machs are less altruistic, more likely to cheat, more flexible in tactic usage, less moral and less empathetic. Right after this Christie and Geis then consider Machiavellianism as a type of interpersonal relationship. In their measure of Machiavellianism, high-rated Machiavellians were those who are better positioned as manipulators (Porter, Allen ve Angle, 1981, p.122). Some others take Machiavellianism as a skillful management of interpersonal relations because they have a tendency to initiate and take control in interpersonal relations. Rationality and persuasive skills are essential for their success in face to face relations. Normative pressures have little impact on these people (Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, 1995:56). For some Machiavellianism can be seen as an instrumental action since high Machs also spend more effort to gain political influence (Porter, Allen ve Angle, 1981, p.139). In common usage Machiavellianism and Ethics are thought to be two distinct edges of a scale. In other words Machiavellianism is perceived as an anti-ethic. Machiavelli himself argued that if a ruler wishes to attain his ultimate objectives he would find morality as irrational. Following the morality of the people will turn every attempt of a ruler into a terribly irrational policy (Skinner 2002, p.60). Machiavellianism has been seen by most thinkers from Marx to Shakespeare as the most fatal blow at ethical foundations of political life (Skinner 2002, p.11). Yet this is an unfair attack. First Machiavelli provided eye-opening ideas about real politics. The exemplary politicians he described in his writings actually lived before him not after him. He warned against excessive use of power and punishment, thus we cannot blame him for the despots of the 20 th century. He was not a revolutionary but promoted a moderate politics to gain and maintain power and order. He also showed the way for ordinary man to climb up the ladder of hierarchy to be elite. And this is why he is still relevant. He was not against individual ethics or morality in general. He thought them as instrumental, a mask for the ruler to wear or sometimes a hindrance. More in line with these point of view Machiavellian individuals can be seen as lacking conventional moral sense and adopt the angle of individualist utilitarianism when relating with other people. Machiavellians may not be devoid of morality, they just do not behave consistently with traditional moral values. Machiavellian leaders seem to be more successful in negotiations and persuasion so much so that they can be handy for organizations. They can concentrate on analyzing the situation and developing winning strategies (Christie ve Geis, 1970). However corporation must confine Machiavellian tendencies and strategies to certain boundaries in which achievement orientation, persuasive skills and goal attainment stay alive and also possible harms of opportunist, selfish and deceitful behavior can be avoided (Mandacı, 2007, p.54). Association of Machiavellianism with Other Personality Traits What kinds of individual dispositional factors are there to facilitate Machiavellianism? Barlow and QualterStylianou‘s (2010) recently investigated the association of Machiavellianism (Mach) with emotional intelligence (EI) and the theory of mind (ToM) on 109 primary school children. High Machs think first then act while low Mach first act than amend their consciousness. Although Machiavellians do not necessarily score high on intelligence tests they are more likely to be perceived clever and astonishing. Consistent with previous research on adults, a negative association was found between Machiavellianism and social-emotional intelligence. Subsequent regression analyses showed that being more adept at emotional and social intelligence do not lead girls to manipulate others in social encounters. This was not the case for boys. Paulhus et all (2001) showed that Machiavellianism and psychopathic behaviors are negatively associated with conscientiousness. The Machiavellian remains most realistic while the Narcissists are least realistic about their own character. Paal and Bereczkei (2007) showed that (1) a strong negative correlation between Machiavellianism and social cooperative skills; (2) a connection between the extent of cooperative tendency and the level of mindreading; and (3) a lack of significant correlation between theory of mind (an understanding that other people have beliefs and desires) and Machiavellianism. Rayburn and Rayburn (1996) found that the relation between personality traits and ethical-orientation indicate sex is not a good predictor for differences in Machiavellian and Type A personality and ethical-orientation. Intelligence is found to be positively associated with Machiavellian- and Type A personality-orientation but negatively associated with ethical-orientation. Machiavellians tend to have Type A personalities, but tend to be less ethically-oriented than non-Machiavellians. Type A personalities are more ethically-orientated than Type B 156 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo personalities. There is a lack of agreement as to what constitutes ethical behavior and whether there is a relation between personality traits and ethical orientation. Rayburn et all (2003) compares academic achievement, Machiavellian levels, Type A or Type B personality traits, ethical orientation, and charisma of female and male students. Female students report higher academic achievement, but male students are statistically more charismatic than female students. However, female respondents are more ethical. There is no significant difference in the Machiavellian score and Type A/B personality between female and male respondents. Higher academic achievers have higher Machiavellian scores while Type A personalities are more ethical, but are less charismatic. Shepperd and Socherman (1997) pointed at some paradoxical issues. For example, people scoring high in Machiavellianism (high Machs) can be manipulative and domineering. Yet the domineering style of high Machs may stop them from using manipulations that require a display of weakness. The authors examined whether Machiavellianism moderates the use of sandbagging—a manipulative strategy in which people display low ability to induce an opponent to reduce effort or lower his or her guard. In Experiment 1, participants reported that they would reduce effort in response to a disadvantaged opponent and anticipated that their opponent would behave similarly if they were disadvantaged. In Experiment 2 low Machs in competition sandbagged their opponent when they were uncertain that they could otherwise beat him. High Machs, in contrast, preferred a show of strength to weakness, displaying high ability even when sandbagging might have been an advantageous strategy. In terms of ethical perception, studies suggest that people with high level of ethical perceptivity tend to demonstrate lower levels of Machiavellian tendencies (Christie ve Geis, 1970). According to Christie and Geis (1970) social pressure is less constraining for Machiavellian personalities and thus they are less likely to conform to ethical standards. Ural (2003, p.102) lists the following Machiavellian principles from ―Prince‖ and ―Discourses‖: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • To win people, tell them what they want to hear It‘s better to make up a substantial reason than telling the truth when asking someone to do something An unqualified trust on someone will bring harms rather than goods It is hard to progress without holding the corners Honesty is not always the best policy The safest way is to acknowledge that every individual is evil but they lack opportunity to relinquish that evil When you see no benefit do not ever tell your reasons Don‘t try to justify deeds to yourself with a moral angle Flattering important people is a vise thing to do It is not vise to be humble and honest all the time People having incurable illness should be able to choose painless death It is impossible to be good in every aspects Men will not work unless they are induced The biggest difference between guilty and not guilty is the former is stupid enough to be caught Machiavellianism in Different Cultures Cyriac and Dharmaraj‘s (1994) findings indicate that Indian businessmen in industrialized towns show Machiavellian characteristics more. Siu‘s (1999) research on bankers in Hon Kong concludes that high Mach posses higher levels of job satisfaction than the low Machs. Corzione and Buntzman (1999) found that among the employees working in American Finance sector there is no significant difference between genders on their levels of Machiavellianism. A comparison between American and Hon Kong banking sector showed that both cultures indicate similar level of Machiavellianism. Kavak‘s (2001) research in Turkey concludes that average Machiavellianism score is 97.13 in general, 86 for public servants and 85 for private sector. That means the level of Machiavellianism in Turkey is higher than USA (84.5) and lower than Austria (98.6). Yıldız and Gültekin (1998) argue that mid-level managers show comparatively low level of Machiavellianism. Their study implies that collectivist attitudes might be less Machiavellian than individualist ones. Machiavellianism and Organizational Behavior Research suggests that employees possessing a Machiavellian personality have both advantages and disadvantages in the workplace. With respect to deception, high Machs are much less likely to be caught, more convincing liars, harder to judge and were believed to be telling the truth more than low Machs liars. The flexibility 157 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo of the high Mach is another advantageous characteristic. For example, high Machs with an external locus of control supposed to be better managers according to Goodboy and Mccroskey (2007, p.290). Jellinek (1985) found the interaction of high school principals' degrees of Machiavellianism and their schools‘ organizational structure with their experience of occupational stress. In general, principals in schools which had less than 1,500 students were lower in Machiavellianism and also experienced less stress. The relationship between school size and experienced stress suggested that Machiavellianism may be a response to current problems faced by high school principals, rather than being solely an enduring personality characteristic. Subramaniam (2009) found the relationship between Machiavellianism orientation and job involvement among employees of an airline company in Malaysia. Machiavellianism orientation and job involvement are positively and significantly correlated. It is found that there was a significant relationship between age and level of job involvement, however, no significant relationship is detected between gender and Machiavellianism orientation. Shome and Rao‘s (1996) research results indicate a significant difference among accountants holding different positions within the firm (i.e., partners, managers and seniors) in terms of Machiavellian orientation. In addition, audit seniors were found to have the highest Mach scores, partners have the lowest, and the managers have intermediate scores. Liu (2008) determined the relationship between Machiavellian orientation and knowledge sharing willingness and found that there are significant negative correlations between the two. The correlation coefficients are all significantly negative. Bodey and Grace (2007) examined personality characteristics, such as self-monitoring, perceived control, self-efficacy and Machiavellianism, within the realms of complaint behavior. The results indicate significant relationships between self-monitoring, perceived control and self-efficacy with attitude to complaining while selfefficacy and Machiavellianism was significantly related to propensity to complain. Becker (2007) determined the relationship between Machiavellianism and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The negative association between Machiavellianism and organizational citizenship behaviors toward the organization (OCBO) is stronger than the negative association between Machiavellianism and organizational citizenship behaviors toward individuals or groups (OCBI). Additionally, Machiavellianism is associated with the OCB motive of impression management, but negatively associated with the OCB motives of organizational concern and pro-social values. Latif‘s (2000) study indicate that higher levels of moral reasoning were significantly related to ―internal‖ scores on Rotter‘s internal/external locus of control scale. Both higher levels of moral reasoning and ―internal‖ scores on the locus of control scale were significantly related in the negative direction with Machiavellianism. However, only moral reasoning accounted for a significant amount of the variance associated with students‘ ethical behavior. Goodboy and McCroskey (2007) study examined the relationships of organizational orientations and Machiavellianism with nonverbal immediacy and job satisfaction in the organizational context. Participants included 160 full-time employees who worked at various for profit or non-profit organizations in the Mid-Atlantic area. Results indicated that the organizational orientations (i.e., upward mobile, ambivalent, and indifferent) and Machiavellianism were significant predictors of employee nonverbal immediacy and job satisfaction. Conclusion The above accounts of Machiavellianism show that Machiavellianism is not simply a personality trait. Those who have high emotional intelligence show less Machiavellian behaviors. There is no significant difference between genders in term of Machiavellianism. However, the managerial position, business sector, the organizational size, economic development of countries and probably many other exogenous factors are more important facilitators of Machiavellian behaviors. We believe that ethical awareness is not simply an individual factor but actually more relevant with the cultural-normative factors and incentive situations within a social structure. References Becker J. A. & Dan O.H. (2007). Machiavellians‘ Motives in Organizational Citizenship Communication Research, 35 (3), pp. 246-267. Behavior, Journal of Applied Bodey, K.& Grace D. (2004). Examining Self-Monitoring, Perceived Control, Self-Efficacy and Machiavellianism in the Context of Complaint Behaviour, Griffith Business School, Conference Publications. 158 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Barlow, A. & Qualter, S. M. (2010). Relationships Between Machiavellianism, Emotional Intelligence and Theory Of Mind in Children, Personality and Individual Differences, (48), pp. 78-82. Cherulnik, P.D.& Way, J. H.& Ames, S. & Hutto D. B. (1981). Impressions of High and Low Machiavellian Men, Journal of Personality, (49), pp. 388-400. Christie R. & Geis F. L. (1970). Studies in Machiavellianism, New York Academic Pres, New York. Cooper, R. & Hands, D. & Wootton, A. & Bruce, M.& Daly, L. & Harun, R. (2003). Machiavelli and Innovation: The Politics of Design?, Desing Management, 5th European Academy of Design, Barcelona, Espanha, pp.1-16. Corzione, J. C. & Buntzman, G. F. & Busch, E. T. (1999). Machiavellianism in U.S.Bankers, The Journal of Organisational Analysis, 7, pp. 72-83. Cyriac K. J. & Dharmaraj R. (1994). Machiavellianism in Indian Management, Journal of Business Ethics, 13, pp. 281-280. Galie P. J. & Bopst C. (2006). Machiavelli and Modern Business: Realist Thought in Contemporary Corporate Leadership Manuals, Journal of Business Ethics, 65, pp. 235-250. Goodboy A. K.& Mccroskey J. C. (2007). Toward a Theoretical Model of the Role of Organizational Orientations and Machiavellianism on Nonverbal Immediacy Behavior and Job Satisfaction, Human Communication. A Publication of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association, 11 (3), pp.287 - 302. Kavak, B. (2001). Makyavelizm ile Tüketicinin Ahlaki Yargıları Arasındaki iliĢkiye Yönelik Amprik Bir Ġnceleme, Ev Ekonomisi Dergisi, 7(8), ss. 11-20. Jellinek, R. (1985). Machiavellianism, Organizational Structure And Principals' Occupational Stress (Job Satisfaction), Etd Collection For Fordham University. Paper Aaı8508118. Http://Fordham.Bepress.Com/Dissertations/Aaı8508118 Latif, D. A. (2000). The Relationship Between Pharmacy Students‘ Locus of Control, Machiavellianism, and Moral Reasoning, American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 64, pp. 33-37. Liu, C. C. (2008). The Relationship Between Machiavellianism and Knowledge Sharing Willingness, J Bus Psychol, 22, pp. 233240. Mandacı, G.(2007). Makyavelist Tutumların Etik Algısı Ve Demografik Faktörler Açısından Değerlendirilmesi: Bankacılık Sektöründe Bir AraĢtırma, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü ĠĢletme Anabilim Dalı Yönetim Organizasyon ve Örgütsel DavranıĢ Bilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Paal, T.& Bereczkei, T. (2007). Adult Theory of Mind, Cooperation, Machiavellianism: The Effect of Mindreading on Social Relations, Personality and Individual Differences, 43, pp. 541–551. Paulhus, D. L.& Williams, K.& Harms P. (2001). Shedding Light on the Dark Triad of Personality: Narcissism,Machiavellianism and Psychopathy, University of British Columbia Presented at 2001 SPSP Convention in San Antonio Society for Personality and Social Psychology. Porter, L. W.& Allen, R.W. & Angle H. L. (1981). The Politics of Upward Influence in Organizations, Research in Organizational Behavior, 3, pp. 109-149. Rayburn, M. J.& Rayburn, G. L. (1996). Relationship Between Machiavellianism And Type A Personality And EthicalOrientation, Journal of Business Ethia, 15, pp. 1209-1219. Rayburn, M.& Overby J. & Hammond, K. (2003). Differences in Charisma, Ethics, Personality, And Machiavellian Characteristics of Male And Female Marketing Students, Academy of Marketing Studies Journal, 7 ( 2), pp. 107-125. Shepperd, J. A. & Socherman, R. E. (1997). On the Manipulative Behavior of Low Machiavellians: Feigning Incompetence to "Sandbag" an Opponent‖ , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72 (6), pp. 1448-1459. Schermerhorn, J. R.& Hunt, J. G.& Osborn, R. N. (1995). Basic Organizational Behavior, New York:John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Shome, A.& Rao, H. (2000). The Relatıonshıp Between Machiavellianism And Work Experience in Public Accountants: An Empirical Study, aaahq.org/northeast/2000/q65.pdf. 159 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Skinner, Q. (2002). ―DüĢüncenin Ustaları: Machiavelli‖ Türkçesi: Cemal Atila, Ġstanbul: Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi. Siu, W. (1998). Machiavellianism and Retail Banking Executives in Hong Kong, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 13 (1/2), pp.28-37. Subramaniam, V. M. (2009). The Relationship Between Machiavellianism and Job Involvement Among Employees in An Airline Company in Malaysia Faculty of Business and Accountancy, University of Malaya. Turner, C. F. & Martinez, D. C. (1977). Socieconomic Achievement and the Machiavellian Personality, Socimetry, 40 (4), pp. 325-336. Ural, T. (2003). ĠĢletme ve Pazarlama Etiği. Ankara: Detay Yayınları. Yıldız, G. & ErdoğmuĢ, N. (1998). Toplulukçu Kültürde Makyavelist DavranıĢ ve Bir Uygulama, Siyasette ve Yönetiminde Etik. Adapazarı. www.nihaterdogmus.com/.../6toplulukau-kaoeltaoerde-makyavelast-davraniaz-ve-bar-uygulama1.doc 160 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 202 Title A name given to the resource Creating Morally-minded Organizations in a Machiavellian Work Environment Author Author ÖZLER, N. Derya Ergun MERCAN, Nuray Abstract A summary of the resource. Organizations are highly rational constructs operating in a competitive market and bureaucratic entities designed to attain first organizational-collective and individual-private ends in an orderly fashion. In an entity as such there is little formally accepted and approved room for personal maneuvers which may jeopardize much larger goals of organizations. However, organizations have an internally and interpersonally highly competitive environment, more like a war place for power and influence. Organizations are increasing looking for competent, competitive and achievement oriented individuals yet expect them to work in teams as resource sharing saints. It is time to ask whether it is exactly this paradoxical tendency of modern organizations that encourage Machiavellian behaviors. What type of business organizations and environments are more conducive to Machiavellianism? What types of negative and positive incentives are there in regard to Machiavellianism? And what needs to be done? The aim of this work is to develop above argument further, answer some of above questions and then make workable suggestions for practitioners to help in their attempts to identify Machiavellian tendencies and differentiate Machiavellian behaviors from non-Machiavellian ones. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/769e5b922e9a58bf14e298ba25b6b952.pdf 201c1637f61b598051dcbd6cb533e29a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Is the Interest Policy Responsible for the Global Financial Crises? Ġsmail ÖZSOY Prof. Dr., Department of Economics, Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey iozsoy@fatih.edu.tr Aydın YABANLI MBA Student, Fatih University Continuous Education Center (FUSEM), Istanbul, Turkey aydinyabanli@tkbb.org.tr Abstract: Interest represents the allocation of an unearned and imaginary income, which is assumed to have been born out of the exchanges of derivatives on the basis of their nominal values. This is one of the main reasons for the recent financial bubble resulting in the global financial crisis in 2008. This paper first aims to define interest from the Islamic perspective in the light of the Koran and the Prophetic tradition. In addition to the interest of debt which is known by all, the prophet Mohammad taught the mankind another kind of interest, that is ‗interest of exchange‘ that appears in the exchanges of goods, different foreign currencies, and financial derivatives. Then, the paper primarily aims to examine the role and the place of interest mechanism in the crises, particularly in the 2008 Global Financial Crisis. Key words: 2008 Global Financial Crisis, Interest, Financial Bubble, Business Cycle. JEL Classification: D3, E4, E43 Introduction Interest policy is one of the most important reasons of business cycles, which is considered by many inherent in the market systems. We can rather say that business cycles are not inherent in a pure market systems but in the interest-based economic systems. With its uncertain outcomes, interest is one of the most important reasons of economic fluctuations. Intervention in the markets through interest policies distorts the markets‘ natural structure. In this paper we research if there is any effect of interest in the reasons of crisis. Shortly putting, interest can be defined from Islamic perspective as a measurable or noticeable imbalance or disproportionate in exchanges or loans for one party to the loss of the other. With its this nature, interest causes economic disparities between individuals, factors of production and even nations, resulting in considerable social and economic problems. These imbalances appear as bubbles and crises eventually in the financial markets when they can not be sustained. Though not expressed so far so clearly, interest based transactions are the most effectual reasons of the economic bubbles and their consequences in the form of crises. This is a reason for interest to be banned by all the religions and for its being criticized by most of the philosophers and scholars throughout history. Economy is required for social, administrative, political life and prosperity of people. Economy is to earn and sell, change or interchange; may be open or closed or else be interested in wealth movements. All of them could be expanded and explained by different directions. Person to person, people to people or nation to nation absolutely. A whole thought of economy deals with the size of experiences, traditions, nationally improvements, individually segments of life: a man in home leading the family, or a woman in a production counter supporting the incomes of her living or her family; no doubtful differences of economical approaches. How to understand economy? In a short expression: in the whole life of human body, not apart from the last crises originated from the United States have spread all around the world expectedly. It is known and relearned that principles of economy have to be overviewed. Whether it grew out of unchangeable standarts or not. If so, how to think the truth? An important item of economy, not far away from it, the ‗capital‘ has been discussed by the economists where to place it. In the mid lap of the economy, on top or bottom, the relations of capital has not only gone through 76 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the gaps in terminology, but in social life also. Ideology has involved the economical and administrative views so as to carry society to a high level of existence. Islamic approach differs from capitalist and communist definitions. Liberalism or socialism, nationalism or conservatism or else have similar definitions in the overlook. It has been normally encountered from Islam that it objects interests which has came and acquired various shapes and qualifications. Ownership is defined in capitalism as individuals‘, in socialists as society‘, but Islam defines it that possession is Allah(cc)‘s, individuals are only the saver. This point of view attracts the rules in economy like the other social parts. Interest concept, which is rejected by Islam, triggers the flow of economy binding with a highly considerable elements programmed in the economical system. ‗Society man‘ differs from the ‗wolf man‘ by the way of helping the other. ‗Satiated is not of us when his neighbor is hungry‘ has been said by the Prophet when the conception of ‗laisses faire, laisses passer‘ has taken place years after this hadith with ‗man is wolf of the other‘ to spite. The money based capital and the goods based capital always has a potential of having interest in the movements, transactions such as a lender being under a cover while shaded by the borrower/debtors. The Prophet‘s hadith says : ‗Lending which provides beneficium is interest.‘ Financing and capital movements Capital markets, banks, various types of institutions like insurance companies, investment trusts, real estate investment trusts, factoring institutions,.. have all helped the flow of financial accumulation to the desired locations for years. Islam considers capital as an ‗accumulated labor‘. As a respect for this accumulated labor, even though it is not as fresh as a ready enterprise, Islam does not deny the right of the capital that causes increase in the outcome by being engaged in the production process. Capital (physical) PAST (barter FUTURE trend system) Capital (cash=money) trend various shapes of derivatives occurs …………………………………………………………… (money system) Processes may be subjected to interest. Figure 1: Capital status has been changing by the effect of trade and finance composition. What is interest? ‗Interest‘ can be defined from Islamic perspective as a measurable or noticeable imbalance or disproportionate in exchanges or loans for one party to the loss of the other. Interest‘ in the Islamic literature is ‗riba‘, which means excess, surplus and growth. From the Islamic perspective, interest is an actual or potential/prospective excess/surplus in one of the two items without any comparable and corresponding equivalent, which appears both in loans and exchanges of goods or currencies, and which causes harm to either of two parties.13 13 Ozsoy, Ismail (1995), Faiz, Islam Ansiklopedisi (Islamic Encyclopedia), Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı, XII-110-26. 77 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Q1 money lender Q2 Always borrower Income and share deviation < or > Borrowed money Q2 > Q1 Regardless of his income + % interest Figure 2: Unearned and disproportional share qualification of interest in the debt interest mode. There are two kinds of interest. First, interest of debt/loan (riba al-dain), one that appears in debts, loans included, as a percentage or any fixed payment added to the principle. That is the most widespread, and the most debated, kind of interest known by all throughout the human history. Islam introduced the concept interest of exchange that occurs in the exchanges of goods and currencies on the spot (hand-to-hand) and/or forward (for a fixed term) basis. While the Koran deals with interest of debt, the Prophetic tradition (the hadith) predominantly deals with interest of exchange. The interest of exchange (riba al-bai‗) is also divided into two kinds; one is called interest of surplus (riba al-fadl) that appears as a quantitative surplus in one of the exchanged items of the same kind; 14 and one is called interest of delay or deferral (riba al-nasia) that appears in exchanges as a quantitative or potential surplus (value differentiation) when one of the items exchanged is delayed, except the exchange wherein one of the items is money.15 Thus, the concept interest in Islam is both different and more comprehensive than in other systems. So, the interest can be grouped as (even if cash or physical capital): 1-Debt interest 2-Exchange interest a-Time delay b-Surplus 14 As in the case when two measures of wheat is exchanged for three measures of wheat, even if it is due to the difference of quality. 15 As in the case when 1 tone of iron is sold for the same amount of iron on a deferral basis; let alone for a more amount of iron delayed. Here, interest arises as a potential and prospective value differentiation between two items due to the delayed delivery of one of the items. Time is a reason for this value differentiation between the present and future items exchanged; hence, it causes a potential excess in one of the items when compared to the other item. Because nobody knows in advance for whom and how much this potential surplus proves to be actual, Islam prohibited all the delayed sales in principle. 78 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A new approach FED or the other Creditors Q3 Q1 Q +% interest +% interest +% interest +% interest +% interest a main debt Q2 +% interest b debt interest home owners c exchange interest Mortgage lenders = causing the bubbles (virtual balloon) exchange interest Investment Bankers = Other creditors and investors = 1-The symetrical value of debt is same: the house (a physical wealth having potential to lose in value or come into value by demand/supply conditions. But the mortgage prices are always getting fat unconsidering the house prices as described virtual increase in value. 2-While Q < Q1 < Q2 < Q3, the house prices are open to be affected by the supply and demand principle which is in hands of Allah(cc) 3-Physically the same house, but valuably + / - value of it can be changed by the market tendency. Demand/Supply conditions. 4-Nobody really knows that what he will earn tomorrow. Surely Allah is Knower(of everything). Koran-Lokman 31:31. So, tomorrow is indetermined. a) Home owners borrow money from lenders to buy a house, for this reason a debt certificate called mortgage having a benefit of mortgage claim is arranged between the parties. In terms of a fixed +percentage of a surplus/excess is paid to the lender and this means for the term delay which the home owner has been obliged to pay deferral payment for the debt. b) - c) show that exchange interest occurs between the parties which can be observed that no real income take place, but a virtual income supplied from a debt of selling mortgages representing only a liability/receivable certificate. d) The money and borrowing and lending process lived between FED / Creditors and the lender-banker-investors are subjected to debt interest which causes bubbled Figure 3: Interest steps in the mortgage cycle which cause unearned income and disproportional share. The 2008 crisis has experienced the Vatican at a highly position not suffering the wrong approach by saying ‗make Islamic banking (interest-free banking). This unexpected warning and offer attracted the attentions to a very interesting and important call and offer because it came from the Vatican, the center of the Catholic world, which is the most radical branch of the Christian World. The daily ―L‘Osservatore Romano‖, the semi-official newspaper of the Vatican, offered the system of ―interest-free banking‖ as the way out from the crisis. The article in the newspaper stated, ―The ethic principles on which Islamic banking is based facilitate trust and cash flow.‖ The offer that came from a completely unexpected address caused remarkable reactions especially in Europe. As a matter of fact, Financial Times, one of the most prestigious economy newspapers in the world, quoted that article and interpreted on it. The analysis that the newspaper did was more interesting: “The Vatican rarely makes a statement about economic issues. That the Vatican recommends the Islamic finance system gives enough clues about the dimensions of the global financial system.” Praising the Islamic finance system, the Financial Times advised banks to take Muslims as models during crises in the future. It emphasized that the Islamic finance system could help form new rules in the Western finance world.16 Fortune is not in hands of human The importance of term or time derives from the possibility that the value balance, which is established between the two items by the parties –seller and buyer-, may shift and be destroyed in the forward sales, and value 16 Participation Banks Association of Turkey (2010), Participation Banks 2009, p.28. 79 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo differentiation/disparity/inequality may take place between the two exchanged goods. Some of the significant causes of this value differentiation and inequality can be listed as follow: Instability of the market conditions, -that is, rises and falls in the money and commodity markets-, the loss of opportunity of the creditor because of their deprivation of using their money or commodity during the term, and the unexpected increase of the burden on the debtor because of the sudden and unpredictable value changes in the borrowed money or commodity in question. Therefore today‘s 100 units of commodity (or money) may turn to a value of 110 and or 90 units tomorrow. With these properties, term or time is the most important cause of uncertainty and, hence, of conflict. So term/time is the main reason of interest in the forward (delayed-deferred) sales. So, it is doubtless to say that the the causes of crises lived in 2008 was resulted from the exchange interest. Interest chain is designed and established on the groups: Home Owners: Prime and sub-prime groups who are debtors to the mortgage lenders. Mortgage Brokers: Finds houses and arrange communication between mortgages lenders and home owners by having a commission. Mortgage Lenders: Lending home owners by using mortgages. Investment Bankers (Wall Street): Buy mortgages from lenders by a maturity date with a surplus agreed between them. Investors and Creditors: They are the group of pension funds, mutual funds, insurance companies,…which buy mortgages from investment bankers by a maturity date so as to earn more and more then FED has offered (%1). Some of the Creditors come from Japan, China, Middle-East,..17 The house prices are always going on they experienced, so the expectations are mixed with their ambitions of earning more and more with no limit of increase. But one thing has not been taken into considering: Open Market and Supply-Demand Relations Principle Business cycles appear as a self-correction, self-defense, and self-stabilization mechanisms of the markets. In fact, supply and demand functions are in the hands of Allah(cc) that nobody can plays roles on his own. At first, when house prices were going up, bankers were buying the mortgages from the lenders, however open markets self correction has been forgotten. With its famously important instrument: money. Time value and location value Does money have a time value? Money is not a commodity to sell, it is a measure tool for measuring the goods and for comparing them. Criticized the term ‗time value of money‘, it is a unit of value/measure not a commodity itself to be transferred with a surplus to another. price (p) Quantity represents commodity, price represents money. S1 At first, b 0 is the balanced price of Supply (S0) and Demand (D). When the cash demand changes to a term as a forward paid demand, S0 the supply side goes to S1. In that case new price goes up to P 1 and the demand is accepting the price the new price P 1. So, the new balance is b 1 which shows the balance of payments P1 in installments sale. The difference of P 1 and P 0 is the term difference value of the good. This is a normal activity of an open market economy. So, the Islamic perspective confirms this open market truth. If any placement considering the money (money capital) in place of commodity (physical capital)., it is observed that there would be b1 b0 P0 D X1 X0 quantity (X) imbalance, injurious, disproportional share between the Demand and Supply. Because, price represents money and commodity quantitiy represent the same money. So, money which is a measure not a commodity itself has been sold as a commodity, inthat case corruptions, harm and diseases are expected afterwards clearly. And it is visible that P1 and P0 difference shows interest sourced from unreal income. Figure 4: An open market reality: interest or profit, supply and demand functions in cash and forward sale; 17 http://www.crisisofcredit.com/ , access May 9th, 2010. 80 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Steps of crises while living blind to interest – Papered economy Money is a cash capital which exists for supplying the deficiency of man like a blood in body. When it is used as a commodity as in the place of a physical capital, then it refers to be a wealthy object. However, it has been a calibration instrument to measure and value the thing as a mirror in front of the objects as it has no value itself. In another word, it shows values of things when you measure them by this device and label them by prices. As in the graph it is clearly observed that while the y axis shows this prices, the x axis shows the quantity of the goods and the P0 and P1 difference is paid for the term difference called ‗term value‘. This term value represents: a-Time value: It depends on the value when a commodity has been prepared ready to be used today for a consumer which he could not reach at least saving money for years. b-Location value: It depends on the value of transportation and servicing a commodity ready for the customer to reach easily in his attainable close area. When the price is in one side, the other side is represented by money, then it corrupts the truth that money only measures what you measure with it. So, Money is anything that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts. The main functions of money are distinguished as: -a medium of exchange, -a unit of account, -a store of value, and occasionally, -a standard of deferred payment.18 Injustice occurs such as between people, like placing or labeling a thing in spite of its genesis. So, when you place money instead of the quantity referring the commodity, you will see P1 and P0 difference represents the interest. Not a valid and legal value in the Islamic perspective money is not a commodity. The mortgages in the crisis represented money, debt and it has been always sold like a commodity step by step without considering its realities. The interest is lived in the crises imbalancing the reality locations of the instruments. These imbalances appear as bubbles and crises eventually in the financial markets when they can not be sustained. The getting fat or let say expanding values in the paper prices are far away from the realities. In papered economy, the goods are the hopes, not manufacturing any real commodity, benefit, service or else. Selling dream of expectations without calculation of future prices + or -. Forever increasing value is the base by showing one of the reasons like inflation. But in fact it can not be clearly defined that a relationship between the interest and inflation. Interest is used for the future planning contrary to the inflation which shows the past. But it could be said that interest causes harm to the financials and the real economy as the other harms it gives. An interest realized inordinarily: exchange interest ‗Interest of exchange‘ appears in the exchanges of goods, different foreign currencies, and financial derivatives also. In the crisis mortgages have been sold step by step from lender to banker to investors. Velocity of money collapsed all around the financial system as a commodity which has been bought and sold instead of velocity of utilities represented by producing wealth, manufacturing goods or servicing a real benefit. In fact, interest represents the allocation of an unearned and imaginary income, which is assumed to have been born out of the exchanges of derivatives on the basis of their nominal values. In the crisis the principle of demand and supply has worked again. The supply increase in the market and the prices of houses go down. The home owners paying $300,000 asked themselves that why they have been paying more in spite of the price $90,000 on that day. When the payments turn into houses at first there was not any problem for banks, but after the others have come, lots of houses have been in the market waiting to be sold, the prices decreased and the problems enlarged. For sale and for saken houses which the mortgage lenders, the investment bankers and the investors possess, have become valueless. The banks also having lots of debts for that borrowed from the other creditors, have valueless 18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money ,Wikipedia, access May 10th, 2010. 81 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo mortgages and the chain, money flow did not work. The financial system is frozen. And bankruptcy has been occurred. 19 Crisis paces The name of the crisis is defined as: sub-prime mortgages, collateralized debt obligations, frozen credit markets, credit default swaps.20 But in fact it is clearly seen in the operations the exchange interest caused virtual bubbles in the balance sheets of the mentioned investors. Rates confliction – winners and losers - Bubble income Higher rates causes happiness to lender while the lower rates pleasing the borrower. The confliction lives in interest transactions for years as stock exchanges live in the opposite direction. When the rates get higher, subjected company‘s worker, the holder, the owner, the broker,..all of them get happy. In the crisis, all the lenders, bankers, investors have been nourished by the virtual income of mortgages. No real income, no real production, no real assets. Only a debt flow has been observed in the economy. Transferring the mortgages misleaded the owners as if they worked in a real based production or service. It is clearly that interest based transactions are the most effectual reasons of the economic bubbles and their consequences in the form of crises. Consuming without producing – National wealth - Earn more than adding, disproportional share When any default and bankruptcy occurs, the damage make all the people affected by the decreasing value: as higher prices, unemployment, worthless economy,..etc. Papers have been lived in hand for a few period lenders, bankers, investors,.. What is observed that is produced? Nothing. In this way, the volume of finance is getting higher and GDP is multiplied in terms of nothing referring finance transaction (derivated actions) general balancing Asset side Liability side general balancing Figure 5 : Simple structure of mortgage holder‘s balance sheet to follow up his assets and liabilities. Mortgages (the mortgage bonds) are sold by installments and they carried out returns in terms of time as tried to be described. But the balances are broken. What was the real reason, what caused the crisis, interest role was played how? ‗To be lawful, any profit or benefit should be linked to the performance of a real asset and to its risk.‘ Interest causes an unreal asset, at least unreal values. Banking system ready for high level of debt: where to go 19 20 http://www.crisisofcredit.com/ , access May 9th, 2010 http://www.crisisofcredit.com/ , access May 9th, 2010 82 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Selling a sum of money with a higher return, we see in all the crediting values let say in the leverage system. Investment bankers used Leverage system to become rich ―increase in debt as term/maturity date is extended‖ as is generally understood today. 21 Leverage is borrowing money to amplify the outcome of a deal. Interest of debt which is known by all, the banks borrow multiples of the real money amount. The debt interest is worked in this operation. And the balloon is swelled. Investor stay living on lots of funds willing to make an action to earn more. Having high returns than the FED and others, mortgages has a potential advantage of income as they have seen. Then a chain is established between the lenders – bankers – investors. The mortgages are sold from the beginning step of lenders to the investors with a different rates of interests bound to their risk groups. Safer mortgages have lower interest, risky ones have higher. The bankers made the mortgages into three slices : safe, okay and risky. The commissions paid to the investors, %4 for safe mortgages, %7 for Okay, and %10 for the risky ones. The system is called CDO Colateral Debt Obligations. With a small fee insurance has been established. After that rating agencies are called to rate these three groups of mortgages, high commissions have been given to risky mortgages which have been used in and sold to other risk takers.22 Happy chain is working good at the beginning. The broker, the lender, the banker and the investors earned till the default of payments began. After some of them failed to pay, having mortgages in hands caused the losses of money, thousands of mortgages which were in the hands of investors, bankers and lenders became worthless. Risks in crediting, why is the liabilities bloomed, the balance It is easy to pay to lender. Thousands of mortgages are in their hands. The banks get money and pay back his loans and earns lots of money. The investors are very pleased to have more than %1. The investors wanted more. The banks turned to lenders and they to brokers. And they saw that no home owners lasted for getting mortgages to sell. When the home owner has been default to pay, the lender gets the house for the reason of mortgages. So, there has been no worries about it and the prices are labeled to get higher prices everytime. Lenders added risks to new mortgages in order to sell more and get more money and the corruption is seen in the balance sheets. Using Leverage System which have eased banks to get credits from investors in terms of 1 / 100 loans, they have reached high amounts of money. 23 Liability is that they are the obligor and compansate it by the mortgages on the asset side. Mortgages are the assets having high returns than the FED and others. But in any default position and result at first cash are used for the liabilities, or the mortages are turned to cash and it is spent for the liabilities, if any inadequate position then equity is decreased for balance, and at the end a frozen market is seen as in the crisis. 21 Hamood, Sami H. A. (1976), Tatweer al-A‘mal al- Masrifiyye bima Yattafiqu wa al-Shareeah al-Islamiyye, Kahire, p. 104. 22 http://www.crisisofcredit.com/, access May 9th, 2010. 23 http://www.crisisofcredit.com/, access May 9th, 2010. 83 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo home owners 2 1 mortgage lender's balance sheet 250 250 200 200 150 150 100 100 50 50 0 2-Home owner is indebted to the mortgage lender by the mortgages. 0 cash mortgages liabilities 4 equity investment banker's balance sheet 3 250 250 200 200 150 A 150 D 100 100 50 1-Mortgage is given to the lender and the assets are increased while the liability side is used in the place of the home owner. C B 50 an unreal income took place in the asset which causes a real liability. 3-mortgage lender sells the mortgage to the investment banker with a % increased forward sale. Liabilities increased while the assets increased by mortgages 4-Mortgages flew through the next station (other creditors and investors) 0 0 cash liabilities mortgages flow through the next address called 'investors' like pension funds, mutual funds equity indebted to the lender by installments by owning the mortgage. When the mortgages debtors(home owners) fail to pay, it is compansated by the equity(B). Equity is decreased, then is supported by cash ( c ) When the damage goes on, lastly the liabilities are affected and decreased. And inability to pay begins and bankruptcies are unavoidable. The mortagages causes virtual income, the liabilities causes a real expense. At the end the expenses are spent. But no income flows in the budget. The gaps are charged to cash at first, reason of insufficieny then from equity, at last the liabilities and mortgages, but they become worthless and bankruptcy. Figure 6 : Mortgage cycle: Exchange interest in the financial structure. Unchangable experiences and facts Doing the job good The risk is added by: no down payment, no proof of income, no other documents.,..etc. Instead of responsible ones , less responsible ones called sub-prime mortgages. Myopic and uncontrolled lending and furious of money caused wastefulness, as a matter of fact some analysists explains the reasons by the ethical principles also. Avoiding interests Since all of the interest-based transactions have the characteristics of harming either of the parties, payer or receiver, any kind of extra payment above the principal is considered as interest/riba and clearly prohibited by the Koran, regardless of its being ‗simple‘ or ‗compound interest‘, or its being named ‗rent‘, ‗profit‘, ‗return‘, ‗revenue‘, or its being called with different terms in any language. Islam attached a great importance to the term ‗right‘ and its protection. Thus, it prohibited interest identifying it with injustice and wrongfulness. 84 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Money is the mirror of a commodity Money Houses Future is not controllable and conducted by human. Money represent houses So the commodity prices are bound to the market price. Price decrease Wealth decrease Figure 7: Money factor in the open market: mortgage example Table 1: Measures taken by Countries against Crisis24 What are arranged after the crisis disease? a- National wealth is engaged for these guarantees BANK RESPONSIBILITIES COUNT RIES America Japan Europe Region Germany France Italy England a) Giving full guarantee or increasing the guarantee for deposit accounts x x x x x BANK ASSETS b)Guarantee e)Ringfor or c)Capital fencing purchasing d)Nationalization injection bad the debts of assets banks x x x x x x x x x x x x x f)Planning of purchasing toxic assets x OTHER g) Funding private bonds x x h)Funding financial stocks based on assets i)Limiting or banning shortselling x x x x x x x x x x x x x b- Guaranteeing the virtual growth produced by banks c- Capital is used for the gaps of faults instead of investments required by people. d- Contrary to the focusing on the main activities fulfilled by the government e- The false results of the operations are charged to all people. f- National wealths are harmed. g- Unplanned expenses in spite of planned investments h- Ġn fact this is contrary to the virtual certificate (mortgage) based assets to be funded. i- This is binded to leverage system that was used with ambitions to be rich which is called leverage. After the crisis USA is shrinked by $500billion with a GDP growth rate of %-2,9 while China grew $400billion with a GDP growth rate of %8,7. So, the gap between these two countries decreased by nearly $1trillion.25 It is noticed that the countries that lived interests causing virtual balloons and fatting in the GDP has 24 25 Participation Banks Association of Turkey (2010), Participation Banks 2009, p.8, OECD General Outlook 2009 http://www.dunya.com/abd-ekonomisi-son-6-yilin-en-hizli-buyume-rakamini-gordu_79589_haber.html , access 10/05/2010 85 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo imagined as if a growth has been in their economy. However, unreal growth in the their economies shrinked the GDP as usual. The Prophet in his hadith said ‗The results of the interest transactions is always poverty‘. The table IMF published as seen below points out that the countries which lives this virtual bubbled economy by derivatives and by exchange interests, have been much more affected from the global crisis. Prouding of an unreal grew economy has abandon its place to a shrunk GDP and bankruptcy after a time. While China has a successful outlook, the other ones , especially USA, Germany has lowered their national incomes in mentioned crisis periods. G20 Countries Global Heat Map 2008 Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Western Hemisphere USA Canada Mexico Brazil Argentina Asia Pacific Japan Australia Korea China Indonesia India Europe Germany France Italy England Turkey Russia Africa S. Africa Table 2: G20 Countries Global Heat Map26 Mar. 2009 Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Legend: Dark orange: Contraction at a increasing rate Yellow: Contraction at a moderating rate Light green: Moving sideways Light blue: Expansion but level below trend Blue: Expansion and level at or above trend White: Data not available Conclusion The crediting are as in the case that sub-prime is a disadvantage, but in any case the supply and demand principle does not give permission to arrange the future prices. When his friends asked him to www.dtm.gov.tr/dtmadmin/upload/IHR/PazaraGirisDb/abd_pazara_giris.doc , access 10/05/2010 http://www.steelorbis.com.tr/celik-haberleri/guncel-haberler/cinin-2009-yili-gsyihsi-3354-trilyon-rmb-509202.htm , access 10/05/2010 26 Participation Banks Association of Turkey (2010), Participation Banks 2009, p.9, IMF G-20 Global Economic Prospects and Principles for Policy Exit 86 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo arrange the prices as some requirements got expense, the Prophet said ‗The arrangements of prices are in hands of Allah(cc), so I can not interfere the right to this rule.‘ The principle of demand and supply could have been lived as follows with the same results of cheaper priced of the houses in the crisis. a) More houses could have been instituted. b) On the other hand, the value of dollars could have been revaluated, c) A war could have made the price down, then the prices would have gone down. While the quest for “the way out from the crisis” accelerated in 2009, an international conference held in Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, indicates what level the point of view regarding interest-free banking has reached. During the conference, the answer given by Michael Saleh Gassner, one of the prominent experts on the system of interest-free banking to the question, ―Is it a utopia to prevent the financial crisis by the Islamic banking system?”, was a historical one: “Not entirely. According to the rules of Islamic banking, it is forbidden to earn interest on money, just this prohibition avoided crises in a sustainable manner in conclusion.” (Peter Philipp, Deutsche Welle, Jakarta, 17.03.2009) Indeed, as it is stated in the article by Philipp, the fact that Islamic banking does not allow foreign exchange speculation, hedge funds and transfer of credits as it happened in the mortgage crisis in the USA functions like a safety valve during crises. 27 In the steps of mortgages journey from the home owners to the investor, the debt interest and the exchange interest have lived clearly by virtual income in the place of a real one. Non existent income is placed in their assets by the mortgages they have sold them to the others. And the other ones have sold them to another. The chain went on in this way. They all expent and after seeing the prices fell down and made a losing their activities, there has bankruptcies have been experienced and the nation got poor. As a result of this research we have been certainly sure that the interest is the main reason of the crisis. We have followed up the exchange interest in mortgages which have caused unearned and disproportional share in incomes in the mortgage sale cycles, not only between bankers and lenders, but bankers and the other investors as well. On the other hand it is obvious that debt interest has been lived between FED, Creditors from Europe, Middle East, and the bankers. This crisis experienced the interests‘ high bad effects in national incomes, harms individuals by earning virtual income and spending real wealths. While China and Argentia have been living away from the bad effects to their GDP, the others, i.e. USA, Germany, Japan, France have been lost their strength of GDP and highly bad affected from the crisis. However Turkey has been using conventional banking with interest-free banking, there has not any mortgages crise has been observed. Turkey has less mortgage crediting than USA, but the main point is that Turkey has not sold the mortgages in terms of money which was unearned and had to be waited for the collection date. References Hamood, Sami H. A. (1976), Tatweer al-A‘mal al- Masrifiyye bima Yattafiqu wa al-Shareeah al- Islamiyye, Kahire. http://www.crisisofcredit.com/ http://www.dunya.com/ http://www.wikipedia.org/ Özsoy, Ġsmail (1993), Faiz ve Problemleri, Nil Yayınları, Ġzmir. Özsoy, Ġsmail (1995), ―Faiz‖, Islam Ansiklopedisi (Islamic Encyclopedia), Turkiye Diyanet Vakfı, XII-110-26. Participation Banks Association of Turkey (2010), Participation Banks 2009, Ġstanbul. 27 Participation Banks Association of Turkey (2010), Participation Banks 2009, p.29. 87 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 181 Title A name given to the resource Is the Interest Policy Responsible for the Global Financial Crises? Author Author ÖZSOY, İsmail YABANLI, Aydın Abstract A summary of the resource. Interest represents the allocation of an unearned and imaginary income, which is assumed to have been born out of the exchanges of derivatives on the basis of their nominal values. This is one of the main reasons for the recent financial bubble resulting in the global financial crisis in 2008. This paper first aims to define interest from the Islamic perspective in the light of the Koran and the Prophetic tradition. In addition to the interest of debt which is known by all, the prophet Mohammad taught the mankind another kind of interest, that is ‗interest of exchange‘ that appears in the exchanges of goods, different foreign currencies, and financial derivatives. Then, the paper primarily aims to examine the role and the place of interest mechanism in the crises, particularly in the 2008 Global Financial Crisis. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ff100d0c51aa092779701591cd193e7.pdf 6e4b7ff481225661345a165504fee101 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sustainable Developments and Energy Strategies in Turkey Murat ÖZTÜRK SDU, Hydrogen Technology Research and Application Center 32260, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey mozturk@sdu.edu.tr Nuri ÖZEK SDU, Hydrogen Technology Research and Application Center 32260, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey nozek@fef.sdu.edu.tr Ġskender AKKURT SDU, Faculty of Art and Sciences, Department of Physics 32260 Cunur, Isparta, Turkey iskender@fef.sdu.edu.tr, Mehmet UZUNKAVAK SDU, Faculty of Technical Education, Mechatronics Education 32260 Cunur, Isparta/ Turkey mehmetu@tef.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: Fossil fuels have been used as energy source which is used in a variety of fields such as running factories, transportation, electricity generation and also homes and buildings, since the Industrial Revolution. As the energy consumption is strongly related with the living standards and development of the countries, new energy sources should be created. This is also necessary because of the causing global warming, climate change, melting of ice caps, and increase in sea levels, ozone layer depletion, acid rains, and pollution of fossils. Country such as Turkey is developing and thus energy consumption getting larger, needs to develop new strategies for energy in order to compensate this energy need. For the purpose of this study, Turkey is considered as representative of the various spectra of development in the continent and a review is presented on the energy policy of Turkey and how far these policies are meeting up to the challenges of sustainable developments. Keywords: Energy policy, sustainable development, Turkey. Introduction Sustainable development has been at the center of recent policies and development plans of Turkey. This is a pattern of development that delivers basic environmental, social and economic services without threatening the viability of natural, built and social systems upon which these services depend. In terms of development indices, energy consumption is a recognized indicator. With its geographical position, Turkey connects Europe to Asia. It has a surface area of 783 562.38 m2. The current population of the country is over 70 million and the annual population growth rate is about 1.73%, which is 5 times higher than that of the European Union (EU) average. Moreover, the country has a young population with an average age of 26. The country has a very dynamic economy. As a net effect of these factors, Turkey‘s energy demand is growing rapidly and is expected to continue grow in near future. Turkey has made strong efforts to integrate to the EU and compete more effectively in world politics both socially and economically. Up to now, Turkey has taken steps towards sustainable economic and social development and towards closer relations with the EU. But these aims cannot be achieved without a stable basis, which before all else requires the development of the infrastructure, one of the most significant input of which is the energy sector. Although Turkey has a wide range of energy resources, these resources are limited. Since, Turkey is an energy importing country, more than about 60% of energy consumption in the country is met by imports and the share of imports continues to grow each year. Therefore, it is critical to supply its energy demand by using domestic nonrenewable resources (such as lignite, hard coal, oil and natural gas) and renewable resources (Kaygusuz & Turker, 2002). The aim of this paper is to describe the various energy policies adopted in Turkey to ensure long-term reliability and security of energy supply. The 263 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo roles of both, non-renewable and renewable sources of energy are discussed. Apart from that, this paper is described the various alternative energies and the implementation of energy efficiency program in Turkey. Sustainable Development and Energy System Energy constitutes one of the main inputs for sustainable economic and social development. Energy consumption is increasing simultaneously with increasing industrialization, population, urbanization, and technological improvement. In order to achieve a sustainable development, which supports economic and social development, energy supply and demand at minimum amount and cost with the minimum destructive effect on the environment should be set as the main objective. The sustainability of the mainstream development model of industrialization requires a transition to a sustainable energy system in which the production and use of energy at least compatible with long-term human well-being and environmental limits (Spalding et al., 2005). A sustainable energy system comprises two core components. The first is increased efficiency in the production, distribution and end-use of energy. The second is the introduction of energy conversion technologies that reduce or eliminate environmentally impacts (Dincer & Mark, 1999). In an effort to adapt the principles of sustainable development to the energy system, many questions are arising. Mostly, the concern is what the best policy should be, in order to take into account the present needs but also satisfy our sense of commitment to future generations. A global and local long term vision is crucial. Today, the maturity of the technology seems to provide improved energy efficiency and to take advantage of the renewable energy sources. By changing the structure of the current energy production system, a first step towards sustainability is made, keeping in mind of course that it is not only the production that should be changed but also the current patterns of energy consumption. The major components of a successful strategy for sustainable development include changing present energy production and consumption patterns, diversifying energy sources and the structure of power production and establishing an energy structure that is less or not at all harmful to the environment. Furthermore, the energy industry is fundamental to the national and global economy and is of critical importance to socioeconomic development and the improvement of human living standards (Afgan et al., 1998). The sustainability concept should, therefore, reflect not only concern about the shortage of natural resources and environmental protection but also should be closely correlated to the society needs and economical development. The successive petroleum crises and the need for protection of natural resources and protection of the environment as the vital habitat of man impose systematic promotion of large scale plants for the exploitation and operation of renewable energy sources (Maria & Tsoutsos, 2004). At the same time, other precautionary measures, such as energy saving or informing and awareness of the consumer, were promoted. Much of today‘s energy activities are unsustainable because they fail in terms of equity as well as environmental, economic, and geopolitical realities. This reality seems to be more critical in developing countries as Turkey. The continuously increasing energy demand is directly connected not only to the population increase and to the configuration of new conditions on a social level and economical status but also to the improvement of living standards. Continuously increasing energy needs in Turkey are completely covered by and will continue to be covered in the short term, to a large extent, by petroleum with the self evident consequence of an increase in CO2 emissions and sea pollution near the power station. Sustainable development demands a sustainable supply of energy resources. Supplies of energy resources such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and nuclear fuels (uranium and thorium) are generally acknowledged to be finite; other energy sources such as solar, hydropower, biomass and wind are generally considered renewable and therefore sustainable over the relatively long term (Dincer & Rosen, 1998). Sustainable Energy Development Strategies typically involve three major technological changes: energy savings on the demand side (Blok, 2005), efficiency improvements in the energy production (Lior, 2002), and replacement of fossil fuels by various sources of renewable energy (Afgan & Carvalho, 2004). Consequently, large-scale renewable energy implementation plans must include strategies for integrating renewable sources in coherent energy systems influenced by energy savings and efficiency measures (Hvelplund, 2006). The Role of Energy in the Sustainable Developments in Turkey Energy constitutes one of the main inputs for economic and social development. Its consumption increases parallel to increase in population, urbanization, industrialization, spreading of technology, and living standards. A secure supply of energy resources is generally agreed to be a necessary but not sufficient requirement for development within a society. Furthermore, sustainable development demands a sustainable supply of energy resources. The implications of these statements are numerous, and depend on how sustainable is defined. One important implication of these statements is that sustainable development within a society requires a supply of energy resources that, in the long term, is readily and sustainable available at reasonable cost and can be utilized for all required tasks without causing negative societal impacts. Supplies of such energy 264 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo resources as fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are generally acknowledged to be finite; other energy sources such as solar, hydropower, biomass and wind are generally considered renewable and therefore sustainable over the relatively long term (Dincer & Rosen, 1998). A second implication of the initial statements in this section is that sustainable development requires that energy resources be used as efficiently as possible. In this way, society maximizes the benefits it derives from utilizing its energy resources, while minimizing the negative impacts (such as environmental damage) associated with their use. This implication acknowledges that all energy resources are to some degree finite, so that greater efficiency in utilization allows such resources to contribute to development over a longer period of time, i.e., to make development more sustainable (Ozturk, 2008). 100 90000 mtoe 90 80000 80 70000 % 70 60000 60 50000 Total fossil consumption (mtoe) Total renewable consumption (mtoe) 40000 30000 Percent of fossil energy consumption (%) Percent of renewable energy consumption (%) 20000 50 40 30 20 10000 10 0 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 1: Total fossil and renewable energy consumption and percent of total energy consumption in Turkey, adapted from (WEC, 2008) Even for energy sources that may eventually become inexpensive and widely avail-able, increases in energy efficiency will remain sought after to reduce the resource requirements (energy, material, etc.) to create and maintain systems and devices to harvest the energy, and to reduce the associated environmental impacts. Although renewable energy consumptions in Turkey is nearly stationary from 1984 to 2004 as seen in Figure 1, percent of renewable energy consumption in total energy consumption is increased from nearly 26 to 16, respectively in indicated years. Turkey has annual growth potential above 7% and a fast growing energy demand due to the rapid increase in population and development in industry. With Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) growth rates of 4% to over 5% per annum and Total Final Consumption (TFC) growth of around 4% over the last three decades, Turkey is among the fastest growing energy markets in the world (IEA, 2001). 44000 mteo 40000 36000 32000 Coal Lignite Oil Natural gas 28000 24000 20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 2: Fossil energy consumption in Turkey (mtoe), adapted from (WEC, 2008) 265 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The energy demand of Turkey will be doubled between the years 2000–2010 and will be fivefold between 2000 and 2025. This rapid increase in demand is due to the high economic development rate of Turkey. The estimated amount of investments for the production facilities by the year 2010 is around 45 billion dollars. Transmission and distribution facilities will require an additional 10 billion dollar investment in the same period. The government has undertaken measures to attract local and foreign private sector for new investments, and also to transfer operational rights of existing units to the private sector for their renewal and efficient operation (WECTNC, 1999). The major part of the energy demand has been met through oil and natural gas imports, as seen see in Figure 2, although the country has considerable potential of renewable energy sources. For example, in 2008, nearly 70% of the energy sources were imported and only about 30% of the primary energy demand was met by Turkey's own energy resources, see Figure 2 and 3. Major domestic energy resource in Turkey is coal, while natural gas and petroleum are considerably limited. Thus, Turkey has to import petroleum and natural gas, and its dependence on foreign resources is constantly increasing. 6000 mteo 5500 5000 Hydropower Geothermal Solar Wood Waste and dung Wind 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 3: Renewable energy consumption in Turkey (mtoe), adapted from (WEC, 2008) 100000 mteo 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 Energy consumption Energy production 40000 30000 20000 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Figure 4: Energy consumption and production in Turkey, adapted from (WEC, 2008) Wide gap between energy consumption and production is observed for Turkey (see Figure 4). In 2008 primary energy production and consumption has reached 23,210 and 98,079 million tons of oil equivalents (mtoe), respectively. The main reason for this deficit is attributed to high increase in population and economic growth, despite limitations in the domestic energy resources of Turkey. The most significant developments in production are observed in hydropower, geothermal, solar energy and coal production. Turkey‘s use of hydropower, geothermal and solar thermal energy has increased since 1990. 266 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sustainable Energy Sources and Policy in Turkey Throughout the years, Turkey has formulated numerous energy-related policies in order to ensure the long-term reliability and security of energy supply for sustainable social-economic development in the country. Turkey‘s energy policy is based on the following items:  Meeting long term demand using 2P and F (public, private, and foreign) capital  Privatization activities, especially accelerating privatization activities, in the energy sector  Taking into consideration supply costs of energy imports, especially oil and natural gas  Ensuring optimum development of all the indigenous energy sources  Ensuring sustainable operation of the energy utilizations  Ensuring rational use of total energy sources  Ensuring environmentally sound sustainable energy development programs causing minimum damage to the environment  Meeting demand as much as possible through domestic resources  Diversifying energy supplies and avoiding dependence on a single source or a country  Adding renewable sources (geothermal heat, solar, wind, etc.) as soon as possible to the energy supply system  Ensuring sufficient, reliable and economic energy supplies on time  Ensuring energy security of supply  Implementing measures for energy efficiency  Planning energy research and development activities to meet requirements for increasing energy demands  Minimizing losses in energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption in the country  Protecting the environment and public health in the production of energy Coal and Lignite Being the cheapest and most abundantly available fossil fuel, coal will always have a role in the energy mix of a particular country. The increasing energy import of Turkey is a sign of country‘s not being able to meet the demand through national energy resources. Taking into account the low quality and the negative impact on the environmental pollution, utilization of lignite as the most abundant primary natural resource is not the solution of a sustainable energy policy. Additionally, the total lignite reserves of Turkey are 8075 mtoe (WECTNC, 2003). 25.5% of these reserves are estimated to be consumed by the end of year 2010. Taking into account that about 63% of the reserves have very low calorific values, it is possible that they are completely depleted by year 2060. Due to the abundance and stable price of coal, it has been and will continue to be an essential component of long- term sustainable development, not only in Turkey but also the world. Turkey has both hard coal and lignite reserves. Turkey‘s total fossil fuel reserves are 2454 mtoe and 48% of this amount belongs to lignite, 15% is Elbistan lignite and 28% is hard coal, as shown in Figure 5. Bituminious shale 5% Elbistan lignite 15% Oil 2% Natural gas 1% Asphaltite 1% Lignite 48% Hard coal 28% Figure 5: The share of hard coal and lignite among Turkey's fossil fuel reserves Although coal is projected to play a far more important role in the energy mix, nevertheless, its utilization faces several major challenges. Among some of them are the emissions of green house gasses and air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX). The major part of Turkish lignite reserves has low calorific value and contains high amount of ash. 85% of the reserves have more than 20% ash value. 68% percent of Turkish lignite has low calorific value, which is under 2000 kcal/kg, and only 3.4% (264 mt) has a calorific value greater than 4,000 kcal/kg. Additionally, more than half of the reserves have 2- 3% sulphide content. An important part of Turkish lignite reserves are not at the standards of industrial usage. Thus, the environmental problems associated with coal must be closely studied to find new ways to overcome these problems. Fortunately, technological advances achieved in the recent years have made coal a much cleaner fuel 267 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo today. In particular, significant increases in thermal efficiency and reductions in sulfur and nitrogen oxides and particulate emissions have been achieved. With the right technology, the process of coal extraction, movement and more efficient combustion system will help to reduce the environmental concerns associated with the use of coal for producing electricity. In this context, Turkey will remain committed to the goals of sustainable development and thus measures will be continuously improved to ensure that the production and utilization of coal will meet environmental standards. Clean-coal technology, which includes electrostatic precipitators and flue gas desulphurization technology for air pollutants emission control, will be utilized in the new coal-fired power plants to ensure that environmental standards are met. However, the installments of gas cleaning technology will increase the capital costs of the power plant. For instance, the installation of a wet-type flue gas desulphurization that has an efficiency of removing more than 90% of the SO 2 produced will add an additional US$ 80–150/kW to the capital cost (Kataoka, 1992). Natural Gas Turkey‘s natural gas reserves are similarly limited. They were estimated to be 20.3 billion m 3 (Bcm), the 10.2 Bcm of which is available recently. The reserves are situated in the Thrace region, around Bayramsah, Danismen, Osmancik, Sogucak, Hayrabolu, Hamitabat, Karacaoglan, Kandamis, Karacali, Kumrular, Umurca, Silivri fields and in the Southeastern Anatolia around Camurlu, Katin, Derin Barbes, G. Dincer, and G. Hazro fields. The highest amount of natural gas suppliy is provided form the Hamitabat region, with 83% share. Natural gas imports increased parallel to increasing demands. In 2002, the domestic production could only supply the 2.3% of the overall demand that had reached 17.2 Bcm. In 1985, Turkey signed its first natural gas purchase contract with Russia, after which the imports of gas increased drastically. To date natural gas consumption has 11% share among other utilized energy resources. Oil One major non-renewable primary energy source, which is mainly imported by Turkey, is petroleum. Petroleum reserves of Turkey, which are mainly located in Hakkari Basin, are estimated to be 954 mt and 156 mt of the reserve is available for production. According to estimations, Turkey will consume the remaining 39 mt of the reserve completely by 2020; the 117 mt has already been consumed. The 90% of the country‘s demands are met through imports mainly from Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Libya, Egypt, Algeria, and Russia. The energy fulfilled by oil, constitutes about 40% of Turkey total energy demand. This number has been decreasing since utilization of natural gas started to accelerate. Renewable Policy and Energy Resources in Turkey Renewable energy sources are replenished naturally and their use has minimal environmental impacts. Renewable energy sources include wind power, solar energy (thermal and photovoltaic), hydropower, biomass and geothermal. Because of their nature, renewable energies are considered to be sustainable development technologies (Hart, 1997). The use of renewable energy technologies can lead, as stated before, to the birth and development of sustainable developments. Although the use of renewable energy resources has a lot of benefits, it faces numerous challenges. Firstly, the development of technology to convert the renewable energy resources into usable forms is still not that established. Although it was reported by several research and studies that there is a technical feasibility in the generation of energy from renewable resources, but the commercialization of research findings has not been fully undertaken on a large scale. Secondly, the high cost of renewable energy generation faces stiff competition from cheaper alternative energy such as from fossil fuels. For instance, the electricity costs from biomass, geothermal and solar sources are within the range of US$ 7–25 cents/ kWh, compared to the conventional (coal, natural gas, etc.) electricity costs of US$ 4–6 cents/kWh (Hitam, 1999). The development of renewable energy technology is now widely seen as important if the world is to move towards a sustainable approach to energy generation. However, there are a range of obstacles facing the rapid development of these technologies: they are trying to establish themselves in an outdated institutional, market and industrial context. The development of renewable energy in Turkey is still in the early stage. Turkey‘s geographic location has several advantages for extensive use of most of the renewable energy sources. It is on the humid and warm climatic belt, which includes most of Europe, the near east and western Asia. A typical Mediterranean climate is predominant at most of its coastal areas, whereas the climate at the interior part between the mountains that are a part of the Alpine–Himalayan mountain belt is dry with typical steppe vegetation. This is mainly because Turkey is surrounded by seas on three sides: the Black sea to the north, the Marmara sea and Aegean sea to the west and the Mediterranean sea to the south (Kaygusuz, 2002). The average rainfall nationwide is about 650 mm, but this average masks large variations, from about 250 mm in the central and southeastern plateaus to as high as 2500 mm in the northeastern coastal plains and mountains. In the western 268 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and southern coastal zones, a subtropical Mediterranean climate predominates, with short, mild and wet winters and long, hot, and dry summers. Arid and semi-arid continental climates prevail in central regions where winter conditions are often extremely harsh, with frequent and heavy snowfall in the higher parts of the Anatolian Plain. On the Black Sea coast, winters are very wet and summers mild and humid. The average annual temperature varies between 18 to 20°C on the south coast, drops to 14 to 16°C on the west coast, and in central parts fluctuates between 4 to 18oC. Local micro-climates can vary widely from the regional averages because of the highly variable terrain and exposure to hot and cold winds. Hydroelectric generation, biomass combustion, solar energy for agricultural grain drying and hot water heating, and geothermal energy have been in use in the country for many years. Solar Energy In Turkey, the climatic conditions are favorable for the development of solar energy due to the abundant sunshine throughout the year. The preliminary studies made by EIE, based on the data measured by the State Meteorological Services indicate that, the country has an average sunshine duration of 2640 hy -1. Southeastern Anatolia has the longest sunshine duration of 2993 hy-1 while the Black Sea Region receives the least sunshine with 1970 hy-1. The solar energy potential of Turkey in different geographical regions is given in Table 1. Region South Eastern Anatolia Mediterranean Aegean Central Anatolia Total Solar Radiation (kWh/m2-year) 1,460 Annual Total Sunny Hours (hours/year) 2,993 1,390 1,304 1,314 2,956 2,738 2,628 Region Eastern Anatolia Marmara Black Sea Average Total Solar Radiation (kWh/m2-year) 1,365 Annual Total Sunny Hours (hours/year) 2,664 1,168 1,120 1,311 2,409 1,971 2,640 Table 1: Regional Distribution of Solar Energy Potential of Turkey (EIE, 2009) The yearly average of solar radiation intensity is 3.6 kWh/m 2day on horizontal plane with higher peaks at some locations and varies between 1.75 kWh/m2day and 5.9 kWh/m2day on monthly basis. In Turkey solar energy has a technical potential of 8.8 mtoe electricity generation and heating capacity of 26.4 mtoe [36]. Main solar energy utilization is the flat plate collectors in the domestic hot water systems which are mostly used in Aegean and Mediterranean Regions. Turkey has a total installed capacity of 13.86 million m² collector area with a total energy production of 580 ktoe, as of 2008. At the moment, the utilization of solar power or PV system in Turkey is only limited to solar water heating systems in hotels, small greenhouse and beverage industries and urban homes. According to Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR) projections, solar energy usage for heating systems will be 745 ktoe in 2020 and 932 ktoe in 2025. It is possible to increase the energy production from solar collectors to 1.4 mtoe in 2010 and 5.5 mtoe in 2025. Utilization of photovoltaic systems is solely limited with some state organizations which use PV in order to meet remote electricity demand. Main application areas include the telecom stations, fire observation towers, lighthouses and highway emergency systems. Total installed peak power is estimated as 300 kWp [35]. Turkey, currently, does not have an organized photovoltaic (PV) program. Global energy strategies and policies are laid down in periodic five years development plans. On the other hand, it is encouraged to invest in the energy sector through some financial incentives. Plans for industrial-scale production of PV modules are concentrated in thin-film areas rather than crystalline materials. PV cells are produced in various research establishments in order to study the feasibility of local manufacturing. So far, none of these studies yielded a sufficiently positive result to justify a large production facility in Turkey. The potential of Turkey as a PV market is very large, since the country is very suitable in terms of insulation and large areas of available land for solar farms. There are more than 30000 small residential areas where solar powered electricity would currently likely be more economical than grid supply. Solar energy technologies development and use is very important and useful for the developing countries like Turkey provided that the factors of long-term sustainability and economic feasibility are not completed. Hydropower Hydropower dams can and have made important and significant contribution to human development. Firstly, hydropower dams can generate electricity and are clean and renewable. In the longer term, electricity from hydropower is relatively cheaper as compared to other sources (oil and natural gas) and the cost will not be affected by the changing fuel prices, which is currently determined by international market. Apart from that, many hydropower projects had also brought socio-economic development such as flood control, irrigation, 269 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo tourism, local employment and skills development, rural electrification and the expansion of physical and social infrastructure such as roads and schools or rather as a whole, the opening up of interior areas of the country to other economics (Mohamed & Lee, 2006). Table 2 shows technical and production potential of some countries. According to that the rate of utilized HEP to technical HEP is only 20.4 % in Turkey, whereas this ratio is 98.8% in Sweden. Turkey is the richest country after Norway in Europe for its economic hydroelectric potential which is 130 TWh/year. On the other hand, Turkey's technically useable potential is 216 TWh/year (see Table 2) and it is higher than Norway. But the hydroelectric power production is quite behind than Norway and even from Italy which has an economic potential less than half of Turkey. This is basically due to the high capital investment required to develop the hydropower and often involve socio-economic issues. The development of a hydropower dam is overwhelmingly complex because the issues are not confined to the design, construction and operation of dams themselves but embrace the issues of social, environmental and political issues (Ozturk, 2009). Country Turkey Norway Italy Sweden France Austria Spain Iceland Switzerland Romania Germany Portugal Rest of Europe Total Europe Technical Potential (TWh/y) 216 200 105 100 100 75 66 64 43 35 32 25 199 1,260 Percent of Europe Total (%) 17.14 15.87 8.33 7.94 7.94 5.95 5.24 5.08 3.41 2.78 2.54 1.99 15.79 100 Economic Potential (TWh/y) 130 187 65 85 70 56 32 40 41 25 20 20 139 910 Percent of Europe Total (%) 14.29 20.55 7.14 9.34 7.70 6.16 3.51 4.40 4.50 2.75 2.19 2.19 15.28 100 Production (TWh/y) 35 136.4 36 72.1 56.2 39 23.2 7 30.1 20.1 27.7 5.1 87.5 575.4 Percent of Europe Total (%) 6.08 23.70 6.26 12.53 9.77 6.78 4.03 1.22 5.23 3.49 4.81 0.89 15.21 100 P/T (%) 16.2 68.2 34.3 72.1 56.2 52 35.2 10.9 70 57.4 86.6 20.4 42.3 25.3 Table 2: Hydroelectric potential in Europe and actual production, adapted from (WEC, 2008) Wind Power As it provides a clean and renewable form of electricity, wind energy is one of the most widely used alternative sources of energy today. According to the figures released by Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) in year 2005, the total installed capacity of wind energy worldwide reached 59,335 MW e by increasing 25% compared to year 2004. Approximately, 11,769 MW of new wind energy generating capacity were installed in year 2005 representing a 43.4% increase in annual additions to the global market up from 8,207 MW in the previous year. In Europe, as much as 25% of its current electricity demand could be met from wind energy sources (Boyle, 1998). Europe is still leading the market with over 40,500 MW of installed capacity at the end of 2005, representing 69% of the global total. In 2005, the European wind capacity grew by 18%, providing nearly 3% of the EU‘s electricity consumption in an average wind year. Technical wind potential of Turkey is given as 83,000 MWe and the economic potential is estimated as 10,000 MW e. Regions Marmara Southeastern Anatolia Aegean Mediterranean Annual average wind density (Wm-2 ) 51.9 Annual average wind speed (ms-1) 3.3 29.3 2.7 23.5 21.4 2.7 2.4 Regions Black Sea Central Anatolia East Anatolia Turkey average Annual average wind density (Wm-2 ) 21.3 Annual average wind speed (ms-1) 2.4 20.1 2.5 13.2 25.8 2.1 2.6 Table 3: Wind Energy Potential of Turkey Turkey has the highest share in technical wind energy potential in Europe. However, Turkey had only a share of 0.04% in Europe‘s installed capacity. Although the installed capacity of Turkey‘s wind energy has increased from 9 MWe in 1998 to26 MWe in 2005 it is still very small compared to its potential. Annual average 270 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo wind speed and annual average wind energy potential of various regions of Turkey are shown in Table 3. The annual average wind speeds range from a low of 2.1 ms-1 in the East Anatolia region to a high of 3.3 ms-1 in the Marmara region. The most attractive regions for wind energy applications are the Marmara, the southeastern Anatolian and the Aegean regions. These regions are highly suitable for wind power generation, since the wind speed exceeds 3 ms-1 in most of these areas (Ediger & Kentel, 1999). These have been classified into six wind regions, with a low of about 3.5 ms-1 and a high of 5 ms-1 at 10 m altitude. These correspond to a potential power production of between 1,000 and 3,000 kWhm-2yr-1). Biomass Among the renewable energy sources, biomass is important because its share of total energy consumption is still high. Since 1984, the contribution of the biomass resources in the total energy consumption of Turkey dropped from 21.53 to 5.51 % in 2008. Biomass in the forms of fuel-wood and animal wastes is the main fuel for heating and cooking in many urban areas [48,49]. The total recoverable bioenergy potential is estimated to be about 16.92 mtpe. The estimate is based on the recoverable energy potential from the main agricultural residues, livestock farming wastes, forestry and wood processing residues, and municipal wastes that are given in the literature (Kaygusuz, 1997). Biomass can be classified as classic and modern biomass according to the method used for biomass utilization for energy production. The former is the recently most commonly utilized one and consists of burning biomass such as wood, plant residues and animal dung directly. Modern biomass technologies are relatively new technologies, most of which are still on the developmental stages. These include conversion of biomass to solid, liquid and gas fuels by much complex biochemical and thermochemical processes. Projections of planned biomass production, classic and modern in Turkey are given in Table 4. It is estimated that Turkey has a theoretical gross biomass potential of 135-150 mtoeyr-1, and a theoretical net potential of 90 mtoeyr-1. But the economical potential is given as 25 mtoeyr-1. Year 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Classic biomass 5.754 4.790 4.000 3.345 3.310 Modern biomass 1.660 2.530 3.520 4.465 4.895 Total 7.414 7.320 7.520 7.810 8.205 Table 4: Classic and modern biomass energy production projections for Turkey (mtoe) Geothermal Major part of Turkey is situated on the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, a characteristic that gives the country a high geothermal potential. Turkey is the seventh highest geothermal potential in the world and this resource can be utilized both for electricity production and as direct heating use. Since 1960s, the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA) has determined as many as 170 geothermal fields and over 1,000 hot and mineral water resources (spring discharge and reservoir), the temperatures of which ranged from 20 to 242ºC. Turkey‘s geothermal fields are more available to direct-use applications, since 95% of geothermal fields are low-medium enthalpy resources. Gross geothermal potential of Turkey is given as 31,500 MWt, corresponding to 5 million residence heating whereas the economic potential for heating purposes is estimated to be 2843 MW. 31 500 MWt equals to, 140 thousands m 2 greenhouse heating, 9,3 billion $/year FuelOil equivalent (30 mtoneyr-1) or 30 Bcmyr-1 natural gas equivalent. This capacity equals to decreasing the CO 2 emission of 30 million motor-vehicles as well. Turkey‘s gross geothermal electrical potential is estimated as 2,000 MWe and seven geothermal fields are identified to be appropriate both technically and economically for electricity generation. Some of the geothermal fields of Turkey are given in Table 5. Geothermal Field Denizli-Kizildere Aydın-Germencik Canakkale-Tuzla Kutahya-Simav Temperature (ºC) 242 232 174 171 Geothermal Field Aydin-Salavatli Ġzmir-Seferihisar Ġzmir-Balcova Ankara-Kizilcahamam Temperature (ºC) 162 153 126 106 Table 5: Some of Turkey‘s high enthalpy geothermal fields 271 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusions Since energy is required for industrialization, energy development is a basic component to ensure economic and social development. There is a need to find alternatives to the import of electricity and increase the domestic production of electricity in Turkey. Renewable energies are just starting to play a significant role in Turkey‘s energy matrix while the oil sector is still expected to be the biggest player during the next few decades. In order not to become more dependent on other countries, it is essential that Turkey utilizes its own renewable energy resource. This is an opportunity not to be missed for Turkey to achieve an economic, sustainable energysupply. This is done by using domestic renewable energy resources and using the knowledge that already exists in the country about producing energy technology and to co-operate with foreign companies and institutions to develop technologies adapted to the local conditions in Turkey. Apart from promoting the use of renewable energy and alternative energy to ensure the sustainability of energy supply and consequently of the country‘s sustainable economic development, the government of Malaysia has also been implementing the energy efficiency program. Energy efficiency covers the efficiency of power generation, transmission and distribution of electricity and various end-uses of energy. The Turkey energy sector is still heavily dependent on non-renewable fuel such as fossil fuels and natural gas as a source of energy. These non-renewable fuels are finite and gradually depleting and also contribute to the emission of greenhouse gas. While it is recognized that the world, including Turkey is not ready to displace non-renewable energy with renewable fuels, the implementation of various policies and programs by the government of Turkey has increased the awareness of the importance of the role of renewable energy in a sustainable energy system. Renewable energy resources and their utilization in Turkey are intimately related to sustainable development. For the governments or societies to attain sustainable development, much effort has to be devoted to utilizing sustainable energy resources in terms of renewables. 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EIE (General Directorate of Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration) 2009. www.eie.gov.tr Hart, S. (1997). Beyond Greening: Strategies for a Sustainable World, Harvard Business Review, January-February, pp 66-76 Hitam, S. (1999). Sustainable energy policy and strategies: a prerequisite for the concerted development and promotion of the renewable energy in Malaysia. Available at: www.epu.jpm.my Hvelplund, F. (2006). Renewable energy and the need for local energy markets. Energy. 31 (13), 2293–2302. Kataoka, S. (1992). Coal Burning Plant and Emission Control Technologies. Technical Note. World Bank, China Country Department, Washington, DC Kaygusuz, K. (2002). Renewable and sustainable energy use in Turkey: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 6, 339-366. Kaygusuz, K., Turker, M.F. (2002). Biomass energy potential in Turkey. Renew Energy. 26, 661–678. Kaygusuz, K. (1997). Rural energy resources: applications and consumption in Turkey. Energy Sources. 19 (6), 549–558. Maria, E., Tsoutsos, T. (2004). The sustainable management of renewable energy sources installations: legal aspects of their environmental impact in small Greek islands. Energy Conversion and Management. 45, 631–638. Mohamed, A.R., Lee, K.T. (2006). Energy for sustainable development in Malaysia. energy policy and alternative energy. Energy Policy. 34, 2388–2397. Ozturk, M., Bezir, N.C., Ozek, N. (2009). Hydropower-water and renewable energy in Turkey: sources and policy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13, 605-615. 272 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Ozturk, M., Bezir, N.C., Ozek, N. (2008). Energy market structure of Turkey. Ener. Sourc. Part B. 3, 384-395. Spalding, F.R., Harald, W., Stanford, M. (2005). Energy and the world summit on sustainable development. Energy Policy. (33) 99-102. WEC (World Energy Council, Turkish National Committee) (2009). Ankara. www.dektmk.org.tr WECTNC (World Energy Council Turkish National Committee) (1999). Energy report of Turkey in 1998, Ankara, Turkey. WECTNC (World Energy Council Turkish National Committee) (2003). Enerji Istatistikleri. Türkiye 9. Enerji Kongresi, Istanbul. 273 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 178 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Developments and Energy Strategies in Turkey Author Author ÖZTÜRK, Murat ÖZEK, Nuri AKKURT, İskender UZUNKAVAK, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Fossil fuels have been used as energy source which is used in a variety of fields such as running factories, transportation, electricity generation and also homes and buildings, since the Industrial Revolution. As the energy consumption is strongly related with the living standards and development of the countries, new energy sources should be created. This is also necessary because of the causing global warming, climate change, melting of ice caps, and increase in sea levels, ozone layer depletion, acid rains, and pollution of fossils. Country such as Turkey is developing and thus energy consumption getting larger, needs to develop new strategies for energy in order to compensate this energy need. For the purpose of this study, Turkey is considered as representative of the various spectra of development in the continent and a review is presented on the energy policy of Turkey and how far these policies are meeting up to the challenges of sustainable developments. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/35386bc170415fa3bccd9339e76a8cd1.pdf dd4520387a3cc705ba36986878a32dbe PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sustainable Development Efforts in Hydrogen Energy Technologies Murat ÖZTÜRK SDU, Hydrogen Technology Research and Application Center 32260, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey mozturk@sdu.edu.tr Nuri ÖZEK SDU, Hydrogen Technology Research and Application Center 32260, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey nozek@fef.sdu.edu.tr Ġskender AKKURT SDU, Faculty of Art and Sciences, Department of Physics 32260 Cunur, Isparta, Turkey iskender@fef.sdu.edu.tr, Yunus Emre YÜKSEL SDU, Hydrogen Technology Research and Application Center 32260, Cunur, Isparta, yemre82@gmail.com Abstract: Although fossils are the main energy source for many countries, some alternative energy sources have been created to generate electricity. This new energy source would be sustainable and promising energy sources and change the current energy economy to a sustainable economy, which is hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is the most efficient fuel and it is about 26% more efficient than fossil fuels. On the other hand it is not a primary energy source, but a secondary energy source or an energy carrier. Actually, it is the cleanest energy carrier, since it does not produce greenhouse gases, or chemicals which deplete the ozone layer. In addition, it is the most cost-effective fuel, when its higher efficiency and the environmental damage caused by fossil fuels are considered. In this study, hydrogen delivery, storage, conversion and utilization methods are investigated for sustainable development strategy. Keywords: Energy, hydrogen, sustainable development. Introduction The current means of generating and utilizing fuels and energy are not sustainable. Even though the fossil economy has provided significant advances for societies, it has also led to considerable environmental deterioration, health problems and security issues. These destructive consequences continue to impact societies, especially ones that are newly developing to adapt conventional fossil technologies to meet their increasing demands. Additionally, fossil resources are not infinite. All these factors necessitate a shift to a more sustainable energy system. Hydrogen has many potential attractions as a new fuel. It may be derived from non-fossil sources, it burns cleanly to water with no pollutants being emitted, it is suitable for use in a fuel cell to generate electricity directly, and it has a high energy content expressed on a per mass basis. Unfortunately, these attractive features are counter balanced by many practical engineering and economic considerations that explain why hydrogen does not already find extensive use as a fuel (Dell & Rand 2004). Most hydrogen today is made from fossil fuels by chemical reforming reactions and its major uses are in the refining of crude oil and the manufacture of ammonia. Lesser, non-energy, applications are found in the manufacture of other chemicals, as well as in the food, plastics, metals, electronics, glass, electric power and space industries. Hydrogen Transmission, Distribution and Delivery Methods Hydrogen delivery is defined as the transport of hydrogen from the production site to the consumption site, namely the end-user. The methods of delivery necessarily vary according to the method of production and 274 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo consumption. Hydrogen production will be classified in two categories; centralized hydrogen production sites such as natural gas-to-hydrogen conversion plants, clean coal conversion plants, megawatt wind farms etc. These will obviously require a sophisticated and high capacity hydrogen delivery infrastructure. Whereas, smaller hydrogen production sites, will depend on the storage methods rather than delivery methods, since the produced hydrogen will be consumed on-site. Excess hydrogen produced will be delivered to anywhere else with smaller capacities of delivery methods such as truck delivery. 275 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo H2 Production Hydrogen storage *Compressed gas Non-renewable feedstocks Coal Residual oil Natural gas H2S Nuclear *Cryogenic liquids *Metal hydrides Gasification Partial Steam Solar oxidation reforming cracking Thermolysis Electrolysis Thermolysis Thermochemical *Chemical carries *Complex and chemical hydrides *Nanostructured materials Coal cracking Methane cracking Carbon CO2 Sulfur Fission products Hydrogen transportation *Pipeline *Trucking Sequestration *Coal and gas reservoirs Hydrogen *Rail *Marine shipping *Aquifers Hydrogen end-uses Renewable feedstocks *Deep ocean Chemical embodiment Renewable energy *Methanol *Hydro *Thermo PV *Ethanol *Solar PV *Tidal *Octane Fuel cells *primary and back-up power generation *road vehicle *consumer electronics *Solar thermalElectricity *Wave Water *Wind *Ammonia Biological process Greenthermal electrolysis *Ocean *Geotermal *Solid biomass *spacecraft Internal combustion engines (gasification) *Automobiles Solar energy *Thermal *Photonic H2O *Thermochemical *Photothermal *Photoelectrochemical *Liquid biomass *Buses (fermentation) *Ships *Photo-chemical *Aircraft (algae, bacteria) *Industrial and domestic heating Industrial processes *Oil refining *Chemicals *Food (oils and fats) *Plastics *Metals *Electronics *Glasses Figure 1: The hydrogen producing, storing, transportation and end-use (Adapted from Dell & Rand 2004) Rocket fuels 276 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Road Transport Hydrogen delivery via road transport should be classified into sub-categories such as cylinders, tubetrailers and cryogenic cylinders. Each of the methods has advantages and disadvantages over the cost, distance and performance concerns. The most suitable method for every production site should be investigated according to these parameters, with the information of hydrogen production rate of the site. Production rate, with the distance-to-destination information will provide the decision data for which road transport option to use. In general, when Turkish industrial conditions are taken into account, ―high pressure stainless steel cylinders‖ will appear as the most suitable option for a wide variety of road transport applications of hydrogen. The reason is that Turkey has an experienced engineer and technician background in stainless steel industry with a sophisticated industrial organization. Turkish materials industry is still very dependent on conventional materials such as steel and commodity plastics, while developed countries are making the way in their materials research and industry in engineering plastics and ceramics fields, leaving the burden of commodity materials to the developing countries. This is also a chance to turn the situation reverse, by using the steel infrastructure and knowledge to produce high technology storage and delivery options for hydrogen. At this stage, efforts should be concentrated on cylinder design and manufacturing, specialized for hydrogen delivery by trucks and tubetrailers. Great potential for hydrogen delivery via road transport is seen, safety is a very important issue about the road transport of hydrogen. New safety standards should be developed for this topic. Sea Transport Hydrogen delivery via sea transport will be a very important option within the concept of off-shore and coastal wind-hydrogen projects. Turkey, with its three coasts, has great potential of wind-electricity and windhydrogen production. Although, a complex network of natural gas pipelines are being developed, most of the coastal and off-shore wind power farms will be costly to be interconnected to the hydrogen/natural gas pipeline. When the road transport is also costly to deliver the hydrogen produced from the production site to consumption site, or to a foreign country for export, sea transport will be the best option. The existing infrastructure of sea transport of compressed natural gas should be reviewed and necessary modifications for hydrogen transport using the same infrastructure should be investigated. Through Pipelines Hydrogen delivery via pipelines is the most promising technique for high capacity hydrogen transport. The key point of hydrogen delivery by this method is that, hydrogen and natural gas are very similar in their nature. Existing natural gas pipelines could be used for hydrogen delivery with small modifications, and newer ones without modification. Another advantage of pipeline delivery is that hydrogen could be injected to the natural gas flowing pipeline, enriching the natural gas in certain amounts. With a total of 5,000 km of natural gas pipeline (completed and under construction) Turkey has a big chance to distribute hydrogen via pipelines both internally and for export. Highly sophisticated network of natural gas pipelines would allow hydrogen production from a variety of suitable sites with cost effective distribution network. As a rule, hydrogen transmission through pipelines requires larger diameter piping and more compression power than natural gas for the same energy throughput. However, due to lower pressure losses in the case of hydrogen, the recompression stations would need to be spaced twice as far apart. In economic terms, most of the studies found that the cost of large-scale transmission of hydrogen is about 1.5–1.8 times that of natural gas transmission (Veziroglu & Barbir 1998). Within this context, the availability of natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport in terms of capacity should be investigated in great detail. Also modifications for pressure drop stations and gas quality stations should be researched to utilize this potential. Pipelines are one of the most important elements of hydrogen energy system and distribution network for Turkey, since they stand for the potential export route of hydrogen to nearby countries and especially European Union. Hydrogen Storage Methods Hydrogen is a non-polluting fuel, but since it is a light gas it occupies too much volume. Effective and safe storage of hydrogen has been a challenge for researchers world-wide for almost three decades. Hydrogen storage is a critical enabling element in the hydrogen cycle, from production and delivery to energy conversion and applications. Reaching the highest volumetric density by using as little additional material as possible and the reversibility of uptake and release of hydrogen are important criteria for hydrogen storage. Because of hydrogen's low density, its storage always requires relatively large volumes and is associated with either high pressure which requires heavy vessels, or extremely low temperatures, and/or combination with other materials. Basically, five main storage methods are considered: 277 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Compressed Gas The storage of compressed hydrogen gas in tanks is the most mature technology. Pressurized gas storage systems are used today in various sizes and pressure ranges from standard pressure cylinders (501,200 bar) to stationary high-pressure containers (over 200 bar) or low pressure spherical containers (<30,000 m 3, 12 to 16 bar). Materials having high tensile strength, low density and which are non-reactive with hydrogen, i.e. austenitic stainless steel or Cu, are the best option for high pressure cylinders. The drawbacks of this method are safety issues and the relatively low hydrogen density together with the very high gas pressures in the system. Another hydrogen gas storage system -yet in research and development phase- is the underground storage of hydrogen in caverns, aquifers, depleted petroleum and natural gas fields and man-made caverns. This method is likely to be technologically and economically feasible (Taylor et al. 1986) in the future. Achievable storage density of this method is between 5 to 10 kgH2/m3. Liquid Hydrogen Liquid hydrogen takes up less storage volume but the liquefaction process requires cryogenic tanks at 253K at ambient pressure. The drawback of this method is the large amount of energy necessary for liquefaction process (Sherif 1991). Approximately one-third of the energy content of hydrogen is lost during this process. Storage via Chemical Reaction Hydrogen can be generated via chemical oxidation of metals with water. The major challenge of this method is reversibility and control of the thermal reduction process. Physisorption of hydrogen Another storage method is physisorption, in the process of which a gas molecule interacts with several atoms at the surface of a solid. Activated or nanostructured carbon and carbon nanotubes, which have large surface areas, are possible substrates for physisorption. Hydrogen can be physically adsorbed on those materials. The adsorption rate increases at higher pressures and/or lower temperatures. For any practical use, temperatures below 100 K are needed. Carbon nanotubes are capable of storing between 4.2% to 65% of their own weight in hydrogen (FCS 2008). Hydrogen can be stored in glass microspheres by heating them which increase the permeability of their walls. The spheres are then cooled, so that the hydrogen inside microspheres are locked. Hydrogen can be released again after reheating the spheres. At room temperature and 25 MPa pressure, a storage density of 14% mass fraction and 10 kgH2/m3 is achieved (Rambach & Hendricks 1996). Besides those materials, zeolites have been investigated by scientists. At 77 K zeolites physisorb hydrogen in proportion to the specific surface area of the material. Metal hydrides are capable of absorbing and desorbing hydrogen with small pressure variations. Advantages of metal hydrides are low pressure storage of hydrogen in a safe and compact way and reasonable volumetric storage efficiency. Main challenge of this storage method is the weight reduction and thermal management issues. Complex Hydrides Complex hydride is another method used for hydrogen storage. The difference between complex and metal hydrides is the transition to an ionic or covalent compound upon hydrogen absorption. Complex hydrides consist of light metals, such as Li, Mg, B, Al. The borides offer the advantage of high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen density. LiBH4, which has the highest gravimetric hydrogen density (18% mass) among complex hydrides, could be ideal hydrogen storage material for mobile applications. Conversion Hydrogen can be converted into useful forms of energy via engines, turbines and fuel cells. Combustion of Hydrogen in Engines and Turbines Hydrogen use in internal combustion engines results in approximately 20% more efficient as compared to gasoline engines. However, use of hydrogen causes a power loss of approximately 15% (this can be reduced by using liquid hydrogen or advanced fuel injections techniques). Basically, the only products of hydrogen 278 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo combustion in air are water vapour and small amounts of nitrogen oxides. When hydrogen is used in turbines and jet engines the only emission is again NOx. But this can be lowered by water injection, exhaust gas recirculation, or using liquid hydrogen. The usage of hydrogen in gas turbines increases the overall efficiency by pushing the gas inlet temperatures beyond 800°C. But there are some challenges for the use of hydrogen in internal combustion engines, turbines and jet engines. Flame characteristics of hydrogen combustion and the use of advanced materials in hydrogen combustion systems need to be understood well and searched more intensively. Use of hydrogen (liquid) for rocket engines in the space program has been extensive, and has brought about a great deal of experience in techniques for liquefaction, handling, storage and distribution. Combustion of Hydrogen for Steam Generation Hydrogen can be combusted with pure oxygen to produce steam for use in the electricity generation sector (e.g. for load electricity generation) and to meet steam needs of industry. High temperatures in flame zone can be reached via this reaction. Both saturated and superheated vapor can be produced, after arranging the steam temperature by means of water injection. Hydrogen steam generator can be used in power plants, industrial steam supply networks, medical technology and biotechnology. Catalytic Combustion of Hydrogen In the presence of a catalyst and at low temperatures (up to 500 oC), hydrogen and oxygen can be combined to produce heat and emit only water vapor as a product of the reaction. Due to low temperature, NO x emissions are not formed. The only product of catalytic combustion is water vapor. Catalytic burners can be designed using this principle and they can find application in household appliances. The usage of catalyst increases the cost. In order to lower the cost and implement the techniques in a wider field, there should be more investigations. Electrochemical Conversion (Fuel Cells) Electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen, which takes place in fuel cells, produce electricity and thermal energy. Various kinds of fuel cells, which distinguish by construction and mode of function, are under development worldwide for portable, transport and stationary applications. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are already commercially available in container packages for stationary electricity generation. PAFCs are reliable and they tolerate approximately 1% of CO. Concentrated phosphoric acid is used as catalyst and the operating temperature of the fuel cell is between 150-220°C. One disadvantage of PAFC is that the fuel cell becomes unusable when phosphoric acid effloresces less than 42°C (HyNet 2008). Proton exchange membrane or polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) can be used in automotive, mobile phones or combined heat and power applications. PEMFC has high power density. It's very efficient and it is easy to handle. Its operating temperature is typically between 60-80°C. The main disadvantage of PEMFCs is that very pure hydrogen is needed and PEMFCs are very sensitive to carbon monoxide. Alkaline fuel cells have been used in space programs to provide electricity and drinking water since 1960's. Since the smallest amounts of dirt would destroy the fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen should be in purest form. Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), which are high temperature fuel cells, are appropriate for stationary electricity generation and cogeneration applications. They can also be used in transportation applications, especially in trucks. The operating temperature of MCFC is between 580-660°C. This type of fuel cell does not require gas purification and natural gas, biogas or synthesis gas can be used directly without the need of a reformer. SOFC can run on fuels such as natural gas, biogas and methanol, thanks to its ability to reform hydrocarbons within the cell itself. Solid oxide fuel cells typically operate at about 1000°C. Since the materials that could withstand high temperatures need to be used, these fuel cells are rather expensive. More durable and cheaper SOFCs should be built. Research is going on to develop SOFCs that can operate at 550-600°C. Conversion via Metal Hydrides The coupling of hydrogen and metal hydrides serves various hydrogen conversion methods, aside from its use as a storage medium. The combination of hydrogen with a metal (or an alloy) is an exothermic process, which means that heat is released. Using different types of metals with different characteristics and making use of the heat and temperature properties of reactions, metal hydrides can be utilized for various applications, such as heat storage, heating/cooling, pumping and hydrogen purifications. 279 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Hydrogen Utilization Hydrogen as an energy carrier has many applications. Hydrogen enables the use of renewable energy sources instead of fossil fuels for almost all purposes: as a fuel for surface and air transportation, as a fuel for heat production and even as a fuel for direct electricity production in fuel cells or indirect electricity production through gas and steam turbine driven generators. Additionally hydrogen is the only energy carrier which makes it possible to power an aircraft using solar energy. Generally one can differentiate between three main areas for the use of hydrogen which are mobile, stationary and portable applications. Mobile Hydrogen Applications All the means of transport known today could be powered by hydrogen. Technologies are being developed to use hydrogen in both fuel cells and internal combustion engines, including methanol systems. Hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engine vehicles are viewed as a near term, lower cost option that could assist in the development of hydrogen infrastructure and hydrogen storage technology. A key advantage of this option is that hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engine vehicles can be made in large numbers when demand warrants. The use of fuel cells in cars has some distinctive advantages: 1) There is only water emitted from the exhaust. 2) It operates without noise and without vibrations. 3) It is more efficient than a combustion engine. Efforts to convert vehicles to hydrogen operation began in the mid 1920s with the work of a German engineer Rudolf Erren, who converted numerous engines to run on hydrogen for a variety of applications including trucks, buses and submarines (Hoffmann 1981). Large amount of research work has been done on the use of hydrogen as a fuel for cars, trucks and buses starting in 1970s. This work has been mainly aimed towards conversion of the existing internal combustion engines to run on hydrogen and studying the problem of hydrogen storage in vehicles. Three concepts, based on compressed hydrogen, liquid hydrogen and metal hybrid storage have been developed, tested and successfully demonstrated. Hydrogen Driven City Buses For buses the two different concepts of internal combustion engine and fuel cell could be used as well. Compared with diesel buses they both have the advantage of greatly reduced pollutant emissions. A Canadian fuel cell manufacturer, Ballard, demonstrated one of the first PEM fuel cell powered buses in 1993 (Howard & Ballard 1986). The bus was driven over 2,000 km in Vancouver, Los Angeles and Sacramento. Since then Ballard has built several more buses using more advanced fuel cell stacks. Ballard plans to introduce a commercial fuel cell bus, which will be in the range of 550 km. Daimler-Benz introduced its first hydrogen fuelled PEM city bus NEBUS (new electric bus) demonstrator. The engine consist of ten 25 kW fuel cell stacks by Ballard. Compressed hydrogen is carried in seven 150 lt, 300 bar roof-mounted cylinders. The range of the bus is 156 km (Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Letter 1997). Hydrogen Powered Automobiles Worldwide all the big motorcar producing companies such as Daimler Chrysler, Opel and Ford are developing test cars with fuel cell drive systems. BMW presented hydrogen powered cars very early but they are still concentrating on combustion engines. Recently Daimler Chrysler wanted to bring up a serial A-class model with fuel cells for sale. It has not been decided yet whether to use hydrogen or methanol as fuel. Presently the missing fuel station infrastructure is an obstacle to the broad market introduction of fuel cell cars. Marine Applications of Hydrogen Hydrogen/oxygen fuel cells particularly low temperature fuel cells such as PEMFC have characteristics which make them ideal for powering submarines: Since they do not need air they can operate underwater, provided that both fuel (hydrogen) and oxidant (oxygen) are stored on-board. They do not produce any emissions or waste products except water and can therefore maintain zero buoyancy. Since there are no moving parts they operate quietly and reduce sonar temperature. They reject heat at low temperature and generate very low thermal signature. They are very efficient proving longer cruising range and lower ―indiscretion‖ time. Hydrogen and oxygen storage on-board may pose a problem due to weight and volume constraints. Liquid hydrogen and oxygen seem to be the best option, although metal hydrides for hydrogen storage have been considered as well (Brighton et al. 1992). 280 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In 1989 Perry Technologies, Florida completed a small submarine equipped with Ballard‘s fuel cell. The German Navy has decided to equip their next generation of submarines with hydrogen fuel cell power plants and Siemens has developed reliable an efficient fuel cells exclusively for submarine applications (Strasser 1992). Australian and Canadian navies are experimenting with hydrogen fuel cells for their submarines. Fuel cell power plants may also be used for surface ships and boats, both as main propulsion engines and as auxiliary generators. As geothermal energy potential is abundant in Island, the government is considering production of hydrogen from geothermal energy and using it in the fishing boats instead of diesel oil which they have to import (Arnason et al. 1992). This would also help the country to meet the proposed United Nations restrictions for CO2 emissions. Trucks and Trams The use of hydrogen and fuel cells in trucks has not been tested yet, because on long-distance rides diesel engines work very efficiently. However the use of fuel cells in delivery vehicles operating in cities is very interesting because these vehicles are usually part of a fleet and have only a limited daily mileage. In the evening they could be refilled in the depots. Hydrogen Powered Airplanes Liquid hydrogen has numerous advantages as a fuel for commercial subsonic and especially for supersonic aircraft (Brewer 1991). The most important advantage of liquid hydrogen is its high energy content (142 MJ/kg), which is 2.8 times higher than the energy content of conventional jet fuel. A liquid hydrogen powered aircraft would therefore have to carry one third of the fuel mass of a conventional aircraft. This means more payloads, smaller engines and higher fuel utilization. A subsonic hydrogen fuelled passenger aircraft will need on average 16 per cent less fuel to complete the same flight than a comparable conventional aircraft. This advantage will be even higher in a supersonic aircraft (28 per cent). Stationary Hydrogen Applications The most important stationary application of fuel cells and hydrogen is the co-generation of electric power and heat in a fuel cell heating and power station. The advantage of making use of both products, electric power and heat, is the very high overall system efficiency thus making the best possible use of the primary energy sources. Hydrogen Application in Buildings Hydrogen can be used for space heating and cooling, and water heating in the same fashion as natural gas is being used today, with minor modifications to the burner and fuel supply. In addition, instead of flame combustion, hydrogen can be used in catalytic combustors directly heating and humidifying the air. Since no other emissions are generated, these heaters can safely be used indoors. Another option for space heating and cooling, as well as refrigeration, using hydrogen would be hydrogen/hydride refrigeration systems. Another way of providing heat in domestic applications would be to use the waste heat from residential/commercial fuel cell power systems. The fuel cells are very efficient in generating electricity, yet there is a significant amount of heat that may be recuperated and used for space and water heating. In this case the efficiency of the fuel cell may be raised to 70% to 80%. The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems in Germany has developed, designed and tested several appliances based on the principle of catalytic combustion of hydrogen, which are now deliverable to customers (Ledjeff 1990). These appliances are: a catalytic hydrogen stove, an absorption refrigerator with catalytic H2 burner and a modular H2 eliminator system. The Solar Wasserstoff Bayern demonstration plant includes the following hydrogen appliances: *Two gas fired heating boilers for variable natural gas/hydrogen mixtures, 20 kWth each, one using air and the other using oxygen as oxidants. *Catalytic heater, 10 kWth boiler output, fuelled with natural gas and variable mixtures of natural gas/hydrogen and air as oxidant. The heater is integrated into the building heating system. *Catalytically heated absorption type refrigeration unit, with rated refrigeration capacity of 16.6 kWth, with hydrogen as fuel and air as oxidant. This unit supports the existing chilled water circuit. 281 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Hydrogen Application in Electricity Generation Hydrogen fuel cells are very efficient devices which can produce both electricity and heat. Fuel cells can be used for centralized or individual electricity generation. Several fuel cell concepts are currently being developed and some such as phosphoric acid fuel cell plants are already in the demonstration and commercialization phase. Phosphoric acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) is the most advanced fuel cell type available today. Numerous demonstration plants have been constructed and are operating in the USA, Japan and Western Europe ranging from several kilowatts to megawatts. Fuel cells offer the possibility of decentralized power generation and may alleviate the need for establishing a massive grid infrastructure. This method of electricity generation and supply is very suitable for the biggest and fastest developing electricity markets such as heavily populated urban areas in developed countries and scarcely populated developing countries. In the former case, decentralized, zero emission electricity generation may be the only option for the expansion of energy services since building new power plants is physically impossible. In the later case, developing countries do not have a developed electrical grid and developing one for small power requirements but large distances would be economical. Efficient hydrogen use in electricity generation will become very important in solar power plants, where hydrogen serves as an energy storage medium. During periods when the available solar energy is higher than the demand surplus energy can be used in electrolysers to produce hydrogen and during periods when demand is higher than available, electricity can be produced from hydrogen via fuel cells. Another way to generate electricity from hydrogen is combustion of hydrogen in gas turbines or generation of steam, which can then be used in conventional steam turbines. Portable Power Generation A great variety of possible applications for fuel cells and hydrogen can be found in the energy supply of portable devices. Mobile phones, laptops, walkman, camcorders and many other things could be powered by hydrogen and by fuel cells in the size of batteries. Many participants in the fuel cell industry are developing small capacity units for a variety of portable and premium power applications ranging from 25 watt systems for portable electronics to 10 kilowatt systems for critical commercial and medical functions. Most of these portable applications will use methanol or hydrogen as fuel. In addition to consumer applications, portable fuel cells may be well suited for use as auxiliary power units in military applications. Having a look at a computer powered by a fuel cell, one can see that the operation time far exceeds the operation time of computers powered by conventional accumulators. Fuel cells which are even smaller, so called micro fuel cells could be integrated in mobile phones. Prototypes with an operation time of fifty hours have already been presented. Portable applications with higher power ratings are in the development stage as well. In the USA the lighting appliances on some construction sites in remote regions are already powered by fuel cells. Provided there is a big enough tank these systems work for weeks and they are cheaper to run than batteries with equivalent capacities. Vision for Hydrogen Applications Hydrogen will be available for transportation, power generation, industrial process heaters and portable power systems. It is expected to be an indispensable fuel for commercial and government fleets, personal vehicles and trucks. In order to generate electricity and thermal energy for domestic and industrial use, Hydrogen can be combusted directly or mixed with natural gas in turbines and reciprocating engines. Regarding mobile and stationary applications, it can be used in fuel cells. Furthermore it can be also used in portable devices such as laptops, mobile phones and any other electronic equipment. Obstacles and Proposed Solutions for Hydrogen Applications In order to realize the vision for the hydrogen applications, some obstacles need to be dealt with. Hydrogen Storage Mobile, stationary and portable applications require technological solutions. Regarding the transportation applications, hydrogen storage which is both practical and affordable is not available. This obstacle seriously prevents investment in infrastructure development. 282 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Customer Opinion Customers need to approve the hydrogen technologies and fuel cell vehicles which are still in the early stage of development. The hydrogen fuel infrastructure which seems to be limited in the early years will be spread out gradually. Hydrogen fuelled vehicles have quite a lot of advantages such as reduced emissions and safe energy compared to conventionally fuelled vehicles. The customer needs to be convinced of these benefits to increase its detected value. However these social benefits need many years to be realized after the market introduction. Research and Development Low cost and long lasting fuel cell stacks and systems are needed to be developed for transportation and stationary applications. For transportation applications research should be made on reformer in order to enable near term end use of hydrogen prior to the development of a larger hydrogen delivery system. Hydrogen storage research should focus on systems that are safe, small size and cost effective. Codes and standards should be developed to ensure the safety of the storage system designs. Combustion technologies and after treatments should be improved to optimize the power output and thermal efficiencies while reducing the emissions. Lean, premixed combustion is considered to be the best technology to control emissions in stationary turbines. Better strategies should be developed to make hydrogen and hydrogen enriched hydrocarbon fuels more popular. Demonstration Studies Strong coordination between the government and industry is needed in order to implement hydrogen energy technologies. Stationary, mobile and portable applications should be increased in order to evaluate the potential of hydrogen as a long term energy solution. The costs and benefits of infrastructure requirements for transition to hydrogen economy could be achieved through technology demonstrations and hydrogen pilot projects. Demonstrations on alternative hydrogen energy technologies and their commercial uses including the related performance should be increased significantly. Conventional conversion devices should be demonstrated in stationary, transportation and mobile applications. Public Policies for Encouragement of Hydrogen Use as a Fuel The major goal is to convince consumers to use hydrogen energy devices for transportation, electric power generation and portable electronic devices such as laptop computers and mobile phones. After identifying the cost and the performance of hydrogen energy systems it should be focused on customer awareness and acceptance. The major consumer demands are safety, affordability, convenience and environmental friendliness. The customer preferences need to be well understood and integrated into related hydrogen system design. Additionally, incentives such as price parity and cost sharing demonstrations should be applied in order to convince the public to use hydrogen applications. Stationary hydrogen customers should be treated equally and distributed generation options should be made valued for their ability to utilize waste heat and have high efficiencies. Conclusion Today‘s hydrogen conversion products, have started introducing hydrogen energy economy around the world but most of the products have not yet been manufactured in large quantities, since cost, durability and reliability issues need to be solved first. Consumers are not convinced to buy hydrogen conversion products since conventional fuels and conventional devices are practical and cheaper. Therefore, there is a need of policies of Government to improve the marketing of hydrogen conversion products, after more durable, reliable and cost-efficient fuel cells, engines and other hydrogen conversion products are manufactured. The most difficult would be the initial penetration of hydrogen energy technologies into the existing energy markets. As any new technology, hydrogen energy technologies are in most cases initially more expensive than the existing mature technologies. Neither hydrogen, nor equipment for hydrogen production and utilization are mass produced, since there is no demand for them and there is no demand since they are expensive. The only way for hydrogen energy technologies to penetrate into the major energy markets is to start with those technologies that may have niche markets and penetrate them with governmental or international subsidies. Once developed, these technologies may help reduce the cost of other related hydrogen technologies and initiate and accelerate their market penetrations. Interrelation and interdependence between hydrogen technologies has also impact on the market penetration of hydrogen technologies. For instance, without economically feasible technologies for hydrogen 283 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo production, storage, delivery and refuelling, it is not possible to introduce hydrogen powered airplanes into the market. Therefore, the design and implementation of a hydrogen economy must be considered as a whole system from production to end-use. References Arnason, B., Sigfusson, I., Jonsson, V.K. (1992). New Concepts of Hydrogen Production in Iceland. Hydrogen Energy Progress, IX (3), 1863-1869. Brewer, G.D. (1991). Hydrogen Aircraft Technology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Brighton, D.R., Mart, P.L., Clark, G.A., Rowan, M.J.M. (1992). The Use of Fuel Cells to Enhance the Underwater Performance of Conventional Submarines. Proc. Maritime Technology in the 21st Century, University of Melbourne, Australia. Dell, R.M. & Rand, D.A.J. (2004). Clean Energy, Advancing the chemical sciences, RS-C Publishing FCS (Fuelcell Store), http://www.fuelcellstore.com/information/hydrogen_storage.htm, 12.10.2008 Hoffmann, P. (1981). The Forever Fuel: The Story of Hydrogen, Westview Press, Boulder, CO. Howard, P.F. (1986). Ballard Zero-Emission Fuel Cell Engine, Intertech Conference on Commercializing Fuel Cell Vehicles, Chicago. Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Letter (1997). Daimler-Benz Unveils PEM Bus Demonstrator, H&FCL, Vol. XII, No.6, p.1. HyNet, http://www.hyways.de/hynet/ 30.06.2009 Ledjeff, K. (1990). New Hydrogen Appliances, Hydrogen Energy Progress VIII (3), Pergamon Press, New York. Rambach, G. & Hendricks, C. (1996). Hydrogen Transport and Storage in Engineered Glass Microspheres, U.S. DOE Hydrogen Program Review. Sherif, S.A. (1991). Analysis and Optimization of Hydrogen Liquefaction and Storage Systems, Proc. DoE/NREL Hydrogen Program Review Meeting, Washington, D.C. Strasser, K. (1992). Mobile Fuel Cell Development at Siemens. Journal of Power Sources, 37, 209-219. Taylor, J.B., Alderson, J.E.A., Kalyanam, K.M., Lyle, A.B., Phillips, L.A. (1986). Technical and Economic Assesment of Methods for the Storage of Large Quantities of Hydrogen. Int.J. Hydrogen Energy. 11(1), 5-22. Veziroglu, T.N. & Barbir, F. (1998), Hydrogen Energy Technologies, Emerging Technology Series. 284 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 180 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Development Efforts in Hydrogen Energy Technologies Author Author ÖZTÜRK, Murat ÖZEK, Nuri AKKURT, İskender YÜKSEL, Yunus Emre Abstract A summary of the resource. Although fossils are the main energy source for many countries, some alternative energy sources have been created to generate electricity. This new energy source would be sustainable and promising energy sources and change the current energy economy to a sustainable economy, which is hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is the most efficient fuel and it is about 26% more efficient than fossil fuels. On the other hand it is not a primary energy source, but a secondary energy source or an energy carrier. Actually, it is the cleanest energy carrier, since it does not produce greenhouse gases, or chemicals which deplete the ozone layer. In addition, it is the most cost-effective fuel, when its higher efficiency and the environmental damage caused by fossil fuels are considered. In this study, hydrogen delivery, storage, conversion and utilization methods are investigated for sustainable development strategy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dafb0c76d794b81eb4600ca9a2c93d06.pdf 26139e02a5bf1cd6c192223f69a1fe55 PDF Text Text Clustering Marketing Datasets with Data Mining Techniques Özgür Örnek International Burch University, Sarajevo oornek@ibu.edu.ba Abdülhamit Subaşı International Burch University, Sarajevo asubasi@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Customer analysis is crucial phase for companies in order to create new campaign for their existing customers. If a company can understand customer features and make efforts to fulfill their wants and provide friendly service then the customer will be more supportive to the enterprise. The aim of this study was to develop a methodology to identify the characteristics of customers. It involved identification of the demographic characteristics of customers based on the analysis of categorical data using data mining clustering methods. The extracted knowledge can help companies identify valuable customers, and enable companies to make efficient knowledge-driven decisions. Keywords: Data mining, Clustering, Marketing Segmentation, K-means, E-M Algorithm 1. Introduction Customer analysis is crucial phase for companies in order to create new campaign for their existing customers. Companies are able to group or cluster certain customers which have similar features. This may assist companies to make better marketing strategies over certain customer groups. Companies recognize that their existing customer database is their most important asset (Athanassopoulos, 2000). It is also important that how to effectively process and use customer data. Thus, this new techniques to assist analyze, comprehend or even visualize the massive amounts of stored data obtained from business and scientific applications (Liao et al, 2004). Data mining is the process of discovering and extracting considerable customer knowledge, such as rules, patterns, associations, clusters, and significant structures from large amounts of data stored in databases (Liao et al., 2008; Coussement et al., 2010). According to a research conducted by Reinartz et al., it is more beneficial to keep and satisfy existing customers than to constantly attract new customers who are characterized by a high attrition rate (Reinartz et al., 2003). Thus, if a company can understand customer features and make efforts to fulfill their wants and provide friendly service then the customer will be more supportive to the enterprise. For instance, specific measures and motivation may be proposed to the most risky customer groups, i.e. the most disposed to leave the company, they may remain constant (Burez et al., 2007). The aim of this study was to develop a methodology to identify the characteristics of customers. It involved identification of the demographic characteristics of customers based on the analysis of categorical data using data mining clustering methods. The extracted knowledge can help companies identify valuable customers, and enable companies to make efficient knowledge-driven decisions. 2. Materials and Methods In last decades, data mining techniques have been employed to forecast customer behavior (Giudici et al., 2002). Data mining is an application that involves specific algorithms for pattern extraction (Mitra et al., 2001). Data mining implements association algorithm according to decision attributes in order to analyze customer features so that the marketing managers can develop strategies for target customers. 408 �2.1. Data mining Data mining, also known as knowledge discovery in database, is prompted by the need of new techniques to help analyze, understand or even visualize the large amounts of stored data gathered from business and scientific applications. It is the process of investigating knowledge, such as patterns, associations, changes, anomalies or significant structures from large amounts of data stored in database, data warehouse, or other information repositories (Hui et al., 2000). Nowadays, some data mining methods and applications have been developed to analyze the practices and planning methods of sales and marketing management between customers and vendors in the market (Bloemer et al., 2003; Liao et al., 2004) Another study conducted by Hsieh (Hsieh, 2004) offered a method that integrated data mining and behavioral scoring models for the management of banking customers. He categorized customers into three groups according to their shared behaviors, characteristics, and effectiveness. Marketing managers conclude the profiles of each group of customers and propose management appropriate policies to the characteristics of each group. Customer behavioral variables, demographic variables, and transaction databases are employed to create a method of mining changes in customer behavior in the retail market (Chen et al., 2005). In their study, customer behavior patterns are first recognized using association rule mining. After the association rules for customer behavior are realized, changes in customer behavior are identified by comparing two sets of association rules produced from two datasets from different periods. The changes in patterns can then be investigated and evaluated to provide a basis for creating marketing strategies. Customer behavior analysis in Internet marketing has already been investigated by many researchers (Jenamani et al., 2003). In most of similar researches, data mining technologies are applied to produce a categorized customer profile of the Internet shopper and to further investigate the Web usage pattern of the online consumer. The knowledge obtained through data mining helps to promote informed Internet marketing decision-making and provides for the improvement of Web content and infrastructure to raise Internet marketing (Kwan et al., 2005; Liou et al. 2010). This paper proposes the clustering analysis for data mining to extract market knowledge of customers’ database. In this work we analyzed customer demographic knowledge using clustering techniques, and then relevant knowledge was extracted to explore useful information/knowledge of patterns for marketing and customer relationship management. Knowledge extracted from this analysis can serve as useful input for upper management and analysts of planning and operation and marketing departments. 2.2. Clustering Clustering is a task of grouping objects into classes of similar objects (Jain et al., 1999). It is an unsupervised classification or partitioning of patterns into groups or clusters based on their locality and connectivity within an n-dimensional space. In this study, clustering has been used for finding clusters of customers with similar characteristics. 2.3. Marketing Data In this study, we used marketing dataset gathered from shopping mall customers in the San Francisco Bay area (Impact Resources, 1987). The dataset income data is an extract from this survey. It consists of 14 demographic attributes. This survey’s aim was to predict the annual income of household from the other 13 demographics attributes. 8993 instances have been used for this survey. The attributes that are used in this survey summarized as follows: • • • • • • • • • • • • Annual income of household (personal income if single) Sex Marital status Age Education Occupation How long have you lived in the san fran./oakland/san jose area? Dual incomes (if married) Persons in your household Persons in household under 18 Householder status Type of home 409 �• • Ethnic classification What language is spoken most often in your home? 3. Results and Discussion In this paper, we used Weka software which has some useful advantageous. It is free software system, and it uses the same dataset external representation format. So, it can easily be downloaded from Internet, used without data format problems and, if required, changed using the same programming language (Romero et al., 2007). Weka (Witten & Frank, 2005) is open source software which contains a collection of machine learning and data mining algorithms for data pre-processing, classification, regression, clustering, association rules, and visualization. We clustered 3 similar groups from marketing datasets. We used simple K-means and E-M clustering algorithm in Weka system. The K-means algorithm is one of the simplest and most popular clustering algorithms. It is an algorithm that clusters objects based on attributes in k partitions. The Expectation–Maximization (EM) algorithm is developed for incomplete data (Dempster & Laird, 1977). It can be used to run maximum likelihood parameter prediction for mixture models. It applies the principle of maximum likelihood to find the model parameters. The E-M algorithm repeats the Expectation (E) and Maximization (M) steps iteratively after randomly initializing the mixture model parameters. The E and M steps are iterated until an intended convergence is acquired (Witten & Frank, 2000). We have performed the K-means over the marketing dataset with 3 number of clusters. Weka K-means algorithm results summarized in Table 1 that shows information about the each cluster, the number and percentage of instances in each cluster. Attribute Full Data Cluster0 Cluster1 Cluster2 Sex MaritalStatus Age Education Occupation YearsInSf DualIncome HouseholdMembers Under18 HouseholdStatus TypeOfHome EthnicClass Language Income Clustered Instances 1.5469 3.031 3.4152 3.8351 3.788 4.1983 1.5448 2.8518 0.6669 1.8367 1.8557 5.9559 1.1275 4.895 8993 2 4.2449 2.884 3.4709 4.2206 4.207 1.0285 2.8443 0.7052 2.1938 2.0139 5.843 1.1292 3.4094 2775 ( 31%) 1.5974 1.1208 4.2922 4.2199 3.3105 4.3348 2.3122 3.0091 0.7602 1.3345 1.5519 6.1424 1.103 6.6379 3587 ( 40%) 1 4.3551 2.7799 3.6946 3.9825 4.003 1.0429 2.6453 0.499 2.1448 2.103 5.8206 1.1591 4.0859 2631 ( 29%) Table 1. Weka K-means clustering algorithm results Second, We have executed the EM over the marketing dataset with number of 3 clusters. Weka E-M algorihtm results have been summarized in Table 2. Attribute Cluster0 Cluster1 Cluster2 Sex MaritalStatus Age Education Occupation YearsInSf 1.0544 4.4007 2.8438 3.9473 3.5763 3.8344 1.8043 4.2871 2.8991 3.4354 4.3277 4.2998 1.5821 1.1166 4.2066 4.1412 3.4079 4.306 410 �DualIncome HouseholdMembers Under18 HouseholdStatus TypeOfHome EthnicClass Language Income Clustered Instances 1 2.341 0.2379 2.0581 2.2464 5.824 1.2424 4.4533 2174 ( 24%) 1 2.9506 0.8005 2.2001 1.9015 5.8889 1.0714 3.5124 3324 ( 37%) 2.3478 3.0433 0.781 1.3796 1.5975 6.0904 1.1157 6.4129 3495 ( 39%) Table 2. Weka EM clustering algorithm results We can see in Table 1 and Table 2 that there are 3 clusters of customers. According to Table 1, Cluster 0 is characterized by customers with lower or few features. Cluster 1 is characterized by customers with more values than Cluster 0. Finally, Cluster 2 is characterized by customers with values somewhat smaller than cluster 1 but greater than cluster 0. We can also see in the figure that the students are grouped into 3 clusters with regular numbers of customers 2775, 3587 and 2681 respectively. According to Table 2 results, Cluster 2 has higher values than other clusters, while Cluster 1 has lower values. This information can be used in order to group customers into three types of customers: high valuable customers (cluster 1), lower valuable customers (cluster 2) and non-valuable students (0). Starting from this information, for example, the marketing managers can group customers for making marketing strategies. The marketing managers can also group new customers into these clusters depending on their features. 4. Conclusion In this study we have conducted data mining clustering techniques over a marketing dataset in order to obtain interesting information in a more efficient and faster way. Marketing managers can use this extracted knowledge to perform relevant strategies over certain customer groups. This paper proposes K-means and E-M algorithm as a methodology of clustering analysis for data mining, which is implemented for mining customer knowledge from the marketing dataset. Knowledge extraction from data mining results is illustrated as knowledge patterns, rules, and knowledge maps in order to propose suggestions and solutions to the case firm for determining marketing strategies. Three clusters were obtained from the K-means and E-M analysis. Both clustering algorithm results show some characteristic features of customers. These characteristic may briefly explained as follows: customer age range is 35-44, education level is 1 to 3 year college, marital status is married, number of household members is greater than 3, and householder status is own. Briefly, clustering analysis results show that companies can promote a new strategy by considering customers features including age, education, marital status, and dual income. In these regards, the marketing managers can figure out how to maintain its reputation. References Athanassopoulos, A. D. (2000) Customer satisfaction cues to support market segmentation and explain switching behaviour, Journal of Business Research, 47(3). Bloemer, J. M. M., Brijs, T., Vanhoof, K., & Swinnwn, G. (2003) Comparing complete and partial classification for identifying customers at risk, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 20, 117–131. Burez, J., & Van den Poel, D. (2007) CRM at Canal + Belgique: Reducing customer attrition through targeted marketing, Expert Systems with Applications, 32(2), 277–288. Chen, M.C., Chiu A.L., Chang H.W. (2005) Mining changes in customer behavior in retail marketing, Expert Systems with Applications 28, 773–781. Coussement, K., Benoit D.F., De Poel, D.V. (2010) Improved marketing decision making in a customer churn prediction context using generalized additive models 411 �Dempster, A. K., & Laird, N. M. (1977) Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 39, 1–38. Giudici, P., Passerone, G. (2002) Data mining of association structures to model customer behavior, Computational Statistics and Data Analysis 38, 533-541. Hsieh, N.C., (2004) An integrated data mining and behavioral scoring model for analyzing bank customers, Expert Systems with Applications, 27 623-633. Hui, S. C., & Jha, G. (2000) Data mining for customer service support, Information and Management, 38, 1–13. Impact Resources, (1987). http://www-stat.stanford.edu/ElemStatLearn. Jain, A. K., Murty, M. N., Flynn, P. J. (1999) Data clustering: A review, ACM Computing Surveys, 31(3), 264–323. Jenamani, M., Mohapatra, P., Ghose, S. (2003) A stochastic model of e-customer behavior, Electronic Commerce Research and Applications 2, 81–94. Kwan, I., Fong, J., Wong H.K. (2005) An e-customer behavior model with online analytical mining for internet marketing planning, Decision Support Systems 41, 189–204. Liao, S. H., Chen, C. M., & Wu, C. H. (2008) Mining customer knowledge for product line and brand extension in retailing, Expert Systems with Applications, 35(3), 1763–1776. Liao, S. H., Chern, Y. W., & Liao, W. B. (2004) Information technology and relationship management: a case study of Taiwan’s small manufacturing firm, Technovation, 24, 97–108. Liao, S. H., Chen, Y. J. (2004) Mining customer knowledge for electronic catalog marketing, Expert Systems with Applications 27, 521–532 Liau, J.H.J., Tzeng, G. (2010) A Dominance-based Rough Set Approach to customer behavior in the airline market, Information Sciences 180, 2230–2238. Mitra, S., Mitra, P., Pal, S.K. (2001) Evolutionary modular design of rough knowledge-based network using fuzzy attributes, Neurocomputing 36, 45–66. Reinartz, W. J., & Kumar, V. (2003). The impact of customer relationship characteristics on profitable lifetime duration. Journal of Marketing, 67(1). Romero, C., Ventura, S., Garcia, E. (2007) Data mining in course management systems: Moodle case study and tutorial, Computers & Education 51, 368–384. Witten, I. H., & Frank, E. (2000) Data mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques with java implementations. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. Witten, I. H., & Frank, E. (2005). Data mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques. Morgan Kaufman. 412 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 536 Title A name given to the resource Clustering Marketing Datasets with Data Mining Techniques Author Author Örnek, Özgür Subasi, Abdulhamit Abstract A summary of the resource. Customer analysis is crucial phase for companies in order to create new campaign for their existing customers. If a company can understand customer features and make efforts to fulfill their wants and provide friendly service then the customer will be more supportive to the enterprise. The aim of this study was to develop a methodology to identify the characteristics of customers. It involved identification of the demographic characteristics of customers based on the analysis of categorical data using data mining clustering methods. The extracted knowledge can help companies identify valuable customers, and enable companies to make efficient knowledge-driven decisions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/746da89072bed707d6f01e4690e9ffe5.pdf 730e25696c6b6de8b9791dcdb2714db2 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Services for the People with Disabilities in e-Government Applications:The Case of e-Turkey Serhat Özgökçeler Department of Labor Economics and Industrial Relations, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey serhat@uludag.edu.tr | sozgokceler@gmail.com Görkem Bahtiyar Department of Economics, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey gorkbaht@hotmail.com Abstract: In its simplest form, the concept of e-Government means the conduction of mutual duties and services between citizens and the state in an uninterrupted and safe manner. In this respect, e-Government enables the provision of public services to the citizens in an electronic/digital environment. This way, the e-Government perspective which tends to replace the bureaucratic and classical state, aims every institution and individual to reach the state via information technology-based systems. In social life, e-Government applications have a great importance in providing equal and indispensible conditions for sustainable development for everyone in the society. An efficient e-Government application necessitates development of services like e-health, e-inclusion and e-learning. In this context, eGovernment should be considered as a social inclusion process toward an “Information Society for Everyone” [ISE], especially concerning some groups which have the risk of exclusion. E-Government services, conducted for one of those important risk groups, “people with disabilities”, have an unquestionable place in the integration process of this group to social life. In this paper, we examine the extent of the Turkish e-Government services and in particular kinds of services offered to 8,5 million people with disabilities. In general, it is observed that services offered to people with disabilities are concentrated on health, education, employment, social rights-social services, care services and accessibility. Key Words: E-Government, e-Turkey, people with disabilities, social services, social policy I. E-Government Applications: Conceptual Framework With rapid development of computers and the Internet, the concept of e-Government continues to gain ground in both social life applications and academic literature. To analyze this phenomenon, the need of making a working definition of the term e-Government arises. Definition of e-Government An open and widely accepted definition of e-Government has yet to be made. Doubtlessly, the dynamic and instantly changing structure of the Internet and information Technologies is effective in this situation (Naralan, 2008, p.4). For example, according to Curtin et al. (2003, p.3) e-Government can be defined as using any kinds of information and communication Technologies (ICTs) to enhance information and service flow towards citizens, raise the level of interaction between the state and citizens, and improve government itself. According to Evans, e-Government is the communication between the state and citizens by means of information and communication technologies. Similar to Curtin et al. the United Nations Public Administration Network [UNPAN] defines e-Government as the use of Internet in order to provide public services and transmit information to the public (Evans & Yen, 2006, p.3). Many other definitions may be found in the literature about e-Government. But we can define it as a new understanding of government and administration which uses the digital realm and its means in addition to mostly physical, standard ways and means. Heading Towards e-Government and the Developmental Stages of e-Government It is possible to see the inclination towards e-Government as a societal preference. Both demands coming from the people and decisions of the Government is effective in the making of this societal preference. Major motives in the inclination towards e-Government can be classified as (Naralan, 2008, p.7): 1. Productivity in the provision and acquisition of services, 264 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 2. Gradually increasing democratic conscience, 3. The need and demand for transparency. Especially in connection with the first item the gain from decreasing transaction costs is also important. Considering that the Internet was originally a product of military purposed applications, it can be argued that the State uses the developments in ICTs mainly for its own purposes like military advantage, working more efficiently, reaching the information it needs easily and quickly, efficiency in tax collecting etc. But even though this is true, as a result of indispensible interaction between the State and people, citizens also benefit from State’s inclination towards e-Government. Those benefits can be saving from time and transaction costs, more participation in the administration process etc. For e-Government is directly connected with the developments in technology, its development also comes into life gradually. The developmental stages of e-Government can be written as (Basu, 2004, p.113): � Online Broadcasting Stage � Online Interaction Stage � Online Transaction Stage � Integration Stage Online broadcasting refers to a stage in which State is visible in the Internet environment. In the online interaction stage, communication between the State and citizens is only in the beginning. In online transaction stage, it is possible to make transactions via Internet without going to a public office. Finally in the integration stage, various transaction channels [namely websites] by which citizens and the State interact are gathered under one roof, one channel. Main mission of e-Government is to improve government and administration for everyone. In this respect, the term e-Government overlaps with “good government”. So the main mission is to improve the efficiency of government and expand the utility area for everyone. Considering the developmental stages of eGovernment, this mission is achieved its highest level in the integration stage and some kind of utility maximization is reached (Basu, 2004, p.109-114). And also, it is possible to derive some implications on this subject, especially about the role of technological progress, the development and future of e-Government. Of course, this maximizing equilibrium should be limited to the current level of technology. So it should be observed that when the technological level improves, transition to another stage in e-Government [a fifth stage] may be possible. In Graph.1, t2 refers to a higher technological level than t1. According to this, with the t1 technology, utility of the society is maximized at the fourth stage (integration). But when the t2 technology is acquired two effects will appear: First, previous utility levels provided by each stage of e-Government rises [as can be seen from the distance between the two curves]. Second, transition to a fifth stage in e-Government becomes possible and utility becomes maximized in the fifth stage. 265 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo E-Government: Opportunities and Risks As in every process of change, transition to e-Government brings along some risks in addition to the opportunities. If customer satisfaction approach is applied a rise in the individual welfare and a decline in individual costs are provided. “Centralization of decisions”, especially when it comes to economic decisions provides saving from budgetary expenses. Furthermore there is a link between e-Governmentization and the development of participator democracy. However, excessive inclusion of the State in private life using Internet and information Technologies come the risk of violation of individual privacy and censorship (Evans & Yen, 2006, p.212; Kircova, 2003, p.23). For example the tendency of decentralization in government and the centralization of decisions mentioned above seems to be in contradiction with each other. Censorship applications can be avoided through democratic channels. But violation of private information stands as a serious risk. II. E-Government /Digital Government Applications in Turkey It is possible to deal with the applications found within the context of e-Government in Turkey within two dimensions of centralized and local governments. The e-Government Applications Providing Service within Centralized Administration It is possible to consider the history of the researches in the fields of science and technology carried out throughout the Republican era. With this fact in mind, the desire of the public sector to make use of information technologies [IT], though not in terms of e-Government, go back to past times. The Population Registry Office that processes masses of information launched a project in 1970s in an attempt to transfer the transactions into the electronic media. The fact that in a time period in which the internet did not exist and the computers could only be had institutionally, it is very meaningful that such a project was considered. However, the project in question was not considered and initiated as an e-Government project; it was intended to be an automation aimed at storing and easily processing data masses. This project that could only be concluded in a long period of 30 years is known as MERNĐS (Centralized Population Management System). With this system that went on-line in 2003, the discourse of e-Government in Turkey also started. Thanks to the system in question, the institutions get people’s identifications confirmed and carry out transactions accordingly based on this information obtained from the system (Naralan, 2008, p.69). While the operations such as Say2000i [Web-Based Accountancy Automation System], VEDOP [Tax Offices Automation Project], GĐMOP [Custom Administration’s Modernization Project], UYAP [The Nation Judicial Network Project], The Ministry of External Affairs Project, Pol-Net [The Police Information Network Project], EVAS [Electrical Data Transfer System] directed by the central government were initially set up as only for provision of information, they eventually turned into introductory steps taken for e-Government with the intention of providing services. The project of Information Society Strategy was proposed for the agenda in 2006; some comprehensive changes were subsequently put forward till 2010 that had the strength of international competition aimed at sustaining information-based economical and social improvement and enhancing the social welfare. The EU dimension has become all the more important for Turkey in terms of the perspective of eGovernment applications. In this connection, Turkey, strictly bound up with its own efforts to become a full member of EU, has shown close interest in the efforts and projects of EU member states. Accordingly, the Prime Minister’s Office commenced the initiation of e-Turkey in 2001 within the framework of the action plan of eEurope+. In the following time period, Turkey became a party to e-Europe 2005 with the status of an observer together with Romania and Bulgaria (DPT, 2005). Various bodies were assembled in an attempt to conduct activities such as improving the surveys related to e-government and their inspection, and their duties and powers were also determined. The fact that the bodies recently set up and the projects prepared are coordinated by the State Planning Organization (SPO) and by the subsidiary departments has made it possible for the information policies to be administered and controlled by only one and the same point. BTYK [The Supreme Council for Science and Technology], Information and Economical Modernization Works, TUENA [The National Information Infrastructure], ETKK [Electronic Commerce Coordination Council], The Department of Information Society, The Turkish Information Council, The Communication Council’s Works of the 9th Transportation Council, E-Transformation Turkey, Vision 2023 Technology Projection Works and the e-Government Door are just some of the important councils and projects that have been proposed for the agenda regarding e-Government. 266 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The E-Government Applications Providing Service at Local Governmental Level Recently, IT and computers have increasingly been used as a tool to obtain service from regional and local governments and participate in administration (Musgrave, 2003, p.262). Yildiz (2002, p.236) emphasizes that the use of IT has the potential of constituting an “added value” fro the local governments in terms of its functions and operations in question. In addition, it is also stated that the use of these technologies in local governments have taken place both administratively and politically. It is also emphasized that while the administrative-based targets consist of preparing a web page, the political-based targets consist of performing better in terms of transparency, participation and accountability in addition to the use of technology (2002, p.239–241). Most of the local governments in Turkey make use of information technologies usually in terms of “providing information”. The Provisional Special Administrations, one of the local administrative units in our country, do not have their own official web sites; they only have a page on the local Governor’s web site that aims to provide basic information. Similarly, village legal entities that are also regarded as a local administrative unit do not have their own official web sites either (Parlak & Sobaci, 2010, p.227). In terms of the services and activities provided, municipalities make more efforts in terms of providing services over the internet in comparison to other local administrative units. At the same time, while it is easy to predict that the demands of the small residential areas with low population density and small town municipalities in terms of taking advantage of internet facilities are not the same as those more densely populated areas and bigger town, similarly, the variety of the service to be provided will not be the same either. It is stated that the municipalities with an official web sites in Turkey use their web sites like “brochure” like promotional platform where they promote the mayor and the political party of the mayor rather than intending it as a tool of interaction with the public or providing information and services about public amenities (Yildiz, 2002, p.243). In Bensghir’s studies, the official web sites of the grand municipalities of Ankara (2000a), Istanbul (2000b) and Bursa (2000c) were subjected to content analysis and similar results were obtained. The M(obile)-Government Applications Providing Services at Central and Local Governments Mobile-Government applications that are on the increase world-wide have application possibilities in different areas in Turkey. While some of those applications in question provide services at a national level, the others do at regional and local levels. The Traffic Data System Project that went into effect in 2003 and is the first ever M-Government application in Turkey, relies on the presentation of GPRS infrastructure of an national GSM operator, and provides constant communication between the traffic patrols on inspection duty on motorways and their head offices. One of the system applications that is designed for the vehicles of General Directorate of Security, uses the GPRS technology of a GSM operator as communication infrastructure and consists of software and mobile hardware units is MOBESE [Mobile Electronic System Integration]. This application makes it possible for the security forces to intervene in the incidences in the shortest time possible, provide the best services to the public paying extra attention to the individual rights and liberties, and establish the notion of society-supported police. One of the services provided in an attempt to offers uninterrupted services to the public is telephone-in municipal work which enables the public to inquire about property and environment taxes and pay them as well. In addition, in order to provide flow of in formation during a possible natural disaster, an early warning system-emergency response system is also established. Finally, municipalities are able to send off some local information as text messages to the mobile phone of the local public using the cell broadcasting of the GSM network in the local area. As Cook (2000, p.4) stated, e-Government applications recommend local governments “a new method” in terms of offering public services to the public and internal operations. Despite the fact that it does not seem easy to realize it, it offers great advantages to those that provide these services and benefit from them. The prominent advantages are summarized as in the following (2000, p.4–5): � � � � Increasing the effectiveness through making the administrative processes more productive; Improving the internal communicative networks of the local governments; Enabling the provision of more effective and productive services to the public; The local governments’ easily keeping up with the demands and expectations of the public through e-Government applications; 267 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo � E-Government advantages, especially the websites, are a tool of promotion and public relations of themselves and their activities for the local government units Given the e-Government applications in the local governments in Turkey, there seems to be some problems in terms of the access of the public to web sites of these units, setting up a centralized web site enabling coordination and flow of information and its sharing amongst the local governments, the coverage of the web sites and the confidentiality of personal information together with the security of that information (Yildiz, 2002, p. 244–248). E-Government in the World and in Turkey in Numbers According to the studies carried out by Taylor Nelson Sofres [TNS] in 2001 and 2002, Turkey was found to be far behind in terms of e-Government applications in comparison to other countries. According to TNS’s 2001 study, it was found that only 3% of the population in Turkey made use of the e-Government applications in the past year and Turkey was in the last place out of the total of 27 countries. This proportion rose to 13% in 2002 (TNS, 2002, p.18). In the 1st Interim Report of e-Turkey Initiation in 2002, it was found that the household who had internet access was 7%, the proportion of the regular internet users was 3%. The proportions in question in the EU countries were found respectively as 37% and 47% (Basbakanlik Genelgesi, 2002, p.109). West (2008) determined the e-Government order of the 198 countries for the years of 2007-2008. Based on this, while Turkey was in the 9th place in 2007 [43,5 % index], it dropped back to 61st place in 2008 [34,2% index]. South Korea retained its top position in the 1st place for those two years; for the year 2008, Taiwan was in the 2nd place, USA in the 3rd, Singapore in the 4th and Canada in the 5th. Moreover, Papua New Gina was in the 196th place, Mauritania in the 197th place and Tuvalu was in the last place. The World Internet Use and Population Statistics unit updated its data in 2009. Table 1. illustrates this in summary: World Regions Population ( 2009 Est.) Africa 991,002,342 Asia Internet Users Dec. 31, 2000 4,514,400 Internet Users Latest Data Penetration (% Population) Growth 20002009 Users % of Table 86,217,900 8.7 % 1,809.8 % 4.8 % 3,808,070,503 114,304,000 764,435,900 20.1 % 568.8 % 42.4 % Europe 803,850,858 105,096,093 425,773,571 53.0 % 305.1 % 23.6 % Middle East 202,687,005 3,284,800 58,309,546 28.8 % 1,675.1 % 3.2 % North America 340,831,831 108,096,800 259,561,000 76.2 % 140.1 % 14.4 % Latin America/Caribbean 586,662,468 18,068,919 186,922,050 31.9 % 934.5 % 10.4 % Oceania / Australia 34,700,201 7,620,480 21,110,490 60.8 % 177.0 % 1.2 % WORLD TOTAL 6,767,805,208 360,985,492 1,802,330,457 26.6 % 399.3 % 100.0 % Source: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm (09.05.10). Table 1. World Internet Usage and Population Statistics Figure 1. illustrates the countries that have the highest number of Internet users out of 27 EU countries: 268 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Figure 1. European Union - Top 10 Internet Countries The total number of Internet users in Turkey where 76 million people live is 34,5% and this constitutes 6.2% of the total Internet users in the European Continent. Table 2. and Figure 2. illustrate this particular case: EUROPE Population ( 2009 Est. ) Internet Users, Latest Data % User Population Growth (Penetration) (2000-2009) % Users Europe TURKEY 76,805,524 26,500,000 34.5 % 1,225.0 % 6.2 % TOTAL Europe 803,850,858 425,773,571 53.0 % 305.1 % 100.0 % Source: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats4.htm#europe (09.05.10). Table 2. World Internet Usage and Population Statistics Figure 2. Internet Top 10 Countries in European According to the illustration above, Turkey is at the 7th place with its 26,6 million users out of the top ten Internet user countries in Europe. In order to make use of e-Government application in Turkey, each citizen should purchase a pin code just once for 1 Turkish lira. However, the pin number in question was purchased by only 246.638 citizens as of May, 2010; however, only 171 different transactions out of 22 public services with regards to e-Government were offered in an integrated manner (Zaman [newspaper], 04.05.2010). Given the planning that half of the population of Turkey will be using e-Government related transactions by the year 2013, it seems almost impossible for this prediction to come true. 269 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Disabled People-Oriented E-Government Applications in Turkey The disabled, who are faced with the increasing problem of exclusion with the developments in IT, are employed at low salary jobs or can not enter into the labor markets because of the reasons such as generally higher proportions of unemployment and being unable to equally benefit from education and other services. IT that trivializes the geographical borders and distances, and play an active role in the increase of flexible employment forms may also cause the new types of exclusions to appear in addition to offering some kind of new opportunities for the disabled (Canbey-Ozguler, 2006). In Turkey where the 12,29% of the country’s population, that is, 8 and half million people are disabled, or in other words, in Turkey where 36,3% of the disabled are illiterate and 68% of these do not have any their disability-oriented special arrangements in their residential areas (Zaman [newspaper], 08.05.2010), it will be possible to facilitate the integration of the disabled into the social life thanks to the use of IT. In this sense, it will be vital to take advantage of the experiences of the developed countries with regards to this matter. What E-Turkey has to Offer to the Disabled in Turkey There are many endeavors and projects developed by the centralized and local governments in Turkey aimed for the disabled citizens. Within the context of IT, the endeavors and projects related to computer and Internet use, on the other hand, are regarded as “adequate for development” areas together with those yet “at their infancy”. This area should also be considered in terms of the standards that these IT products such as Internet and telephone should have. For instance, it is vitally important to design web sites that visually impaired people can have access to and produce web sites designs supported with graphic, text and animations for hearing impaired people. In this context, we are faced with a requisite whereby the Internet sites open to whole public should have the qualities in question and produce designs in accordance with the WAI standards determined by W3C. In this sense, the results of the investigations carried out by the experts of the Court of Accounts located that the majority of the official web sites of public institutions did not have the standards mentioned above throughout the process of transition to e-Government (Sayistay, 2006, p.143–147 http://www.sayistay.gov.tr/rapor/rapor3.asp?id=64 [28.03.2009]). In the context of central government, the official web site of e-Turkey www.turkiye.gov.tr also known as the Entrance to e-Government Public Information Bank offers to the whole citizens 171 services with the cooperation of 22 public institutions. The services in question, in addition to its function of public information bank, have been provided to make these Internet services possible for the citizens to benefit from them from a single position and with confidentiality. The services of the institutions whose integration to the system has been completed are offered over the www.turkiye.gov.tr internet site, the citizens have access to their own personal data through logging into the system through their personal codes, e-signature or m-signature, and carry out their transactions with confidentiality. In addition to these, thanks to single-session system, citizens can surf the public Internet sites without renewed registration and make their payments from a single point through e-payment (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?provider=HomePageContainer&channel=bilgilendirme&bilgilendirme.bilg iTipi=entegre, 09.05.2010). Thanks to the e-Turkey application that offer services and information to the citizens on many areas such as from birth to obligatory military service registration, from education to jobs and careers, from social security to travelling and tourism, from environmental issue to culture and art, it will be ensured that the public services will be delivered to the citizens in an easiest and most efficient way, in a quality, fast, uninterrupted and confidential manner. The concept of e-government replacing the bureaucratic and classical concept of a state aims to help every institution and citizen to reach to the state through the systems using information technologies. In this sense, e-Turkey that has established a separate category for the disabled exerts efforts to accomplish some breakthroughs to help them to better integrate into the social life. In the “Disabled Citizens” category in the concerned web sites, there is a special section where there are special services and information for the citizens with mental and physical disabilities. “Information” about such issues as healthcare, education, employment, social rights and services, nursing and care services, accessibility, institutions and agencies serving for the disabled are also available in this category. � Healthcare: Under this heading can be found information, regulations and articles on such areas as “Healthcare Services Before and After Birth”; “Efforts on Preventing Disability”; “Medical Rehabilitation”; “Determining and Measuring Disability”; “Special Education”; “Vocational Education” 270 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?channel=icerik&icerik.kat=Vatanda%C5%9F/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3 %BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flar/Sa%C4%9Fl%C4%B1k/Do%C4%9Fum+%C3%96ncesi+ve+Sonras%C4%B1+Sa% C4%9Fl%C4%B1k+Hizmetleri, 08.05.2010). � Education: Under this heading can be found books and articles on such areas as Bu başlık altında, “Special Education”; “Vocational Education”; “Educating Families with Disabled Members” (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?channel=icerik&icerik.kat=Vatanda%C5%9F/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3 %BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flar/E%C4%9Fitim/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3%BC+Bireye+Sahip+Ailelerin+E%C4% 9Fitimi, 08.05.2010). � Employment: Under this heading can be found legal information and the services provided on such areas as “Vocational Rehabilitation”; “Vocational Courses”; “Exam for the Disabled”; “Job Placement” (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?channel=icerik&icerik.kat=Vatanda%C5%9F/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3 %BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flar/%C4%B0stihdam/%C4%B0%C5%9Fe+Yerle%C5%9Ftirme, 08.05.2010). � Social Rights and Services: Under this heading can be found detailed information on such areas as “Social Welfare Aid (Allowances for the Disabled and the Poor, and other allowances)”; “Rights for Early Retirement or Retirement Due to Disability”; “Tax Privileges and Concession” (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?channel=icerik&icerik.kat=Vatanda%C5%9F/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3 %BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flar/Sosyal+Haklar+ve+Hizmetler/Vergi+%C4%B0stisnalar%C4%B1+ve+%C4%B0ndi rimleri, 07.05.2010). � Nursing and Care Services: Contact Information on areas such as “Institutional Care”; “Care and Rehabilitation Centers” and “Nursing and Caring at Home Services” is available here. (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?channel=icerik&icerik.kat=Vatanda%C5%9F/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3 %BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flar/Bak%C4%B1m+Hizmetleri/Evde+Bak%C4%B1m, 07.05.2010). � Accessibility: There is authoritative and guiding information on such areas as “Accessing Information”; “Talking Library”; “Access to E-Book Services”; “Physical Arrangements” (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?channel=icerik&icerik.kat=Vatanda%C5%9F/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3 %BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flar/Ula%C5%9F%C4%B1labilirlik/Bilgiye+Eri%C5%9Fim, 08.05.2010). � Institutions And Agencies Serving For The Disabled: There is information such as the detailed contact addresses of the centers of “Private Institutions” and “Public Institutions” (https://www.turkiye.gov.tr/portal/dt?channel=icerik&icerik.kat=Vatanda%C5%9F/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3 %BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flar/%C3%96z%C3%BCrl%C3%BC+Vatanda%C5%9Flara+Hizmet+Veren+Kurum+ve +Kurulu%C5%9Flar/Resmi+Kurumlar, 09.05.2010). As can clearly be seen above, as far as the services aimed for the disabled from the perspective of eTurkey are concerned, it is possible to say that what those areas of services in question have in common is that they are “informative” and “instructive”. Local/Private Application There also exist some platforms at the local level in Turkey which offer services to the disabled by using IT. Thanks to the Turkey’s first digital library set up within Technology Centre for the Visually Impaired of Bosporus University [GETEM], which is one of those platforms, approximately two thousand visually impaired people benefit from this library (http://www.engellilersitesi.com/haber/680-teknoloji-dijitalkutuphane-hizmeti.html, 02.09.2008). Besides, there are also some developments currently related to navigation systems for the visually impaired people. Thanks to this system, the visually impaired people, with the help of coordinated information received by a GPS receiver based on navigation system giving directions, will be able to reach their destination without any help. The Ministry of Transportation will soon go out to tender for this system (http://www.engellilersitesi.com/haber/5809-teknoloji-gorme-engelliler-icin-navigasyon.html, 19.04.2010). Results and Evaluation E-Government and e-Democracy that gives the priority to the participation of citizens, is based on the perception of democratic governance, aims to ensure participation through the efficient and rational use of IT, enhances transparency and productivity, improves the opportunities of the disadvantaged people in an integrated way from the grassroots to the upper limits and at an horizontal coordination by embracing them all and focuses on an approach in which a non-centralized and an sustainable social and economical development model is materialized in a democratic process, has become popular in Turkey too as it is the case all over the world. The support of the society for the development of e-Government in Turkey is vitally important. For this support in question to materialize, the digital divide should be minimized and the IT should be made accessible 271 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo for each and every citizen at every level. The belief of the public in e-Government applications are strongly decisive whether the e-Government applications will succeed or not. While such an application is to be demanded by the public, Turkey is not at such a position as yet. It is also important to mention the ensuing deficiencies found in the national information network and infrastructure. As of today, there have occurred some great discrepancies between the nations and regions with regards to the infrastructure in question. Since e-Government entails an integrated and categorical network construction, the opportunities of accessing the network should be revised and enhanced and the distribution, processing, collection, sharing and delivery of information over this network all over Turkey through the establishment of high capacity broadband technologies should be ensured. Besides, the fact that IT that the e-Government applications are based on, has high costs and that there occurs, therefore, some inequalities in the society in relation to benefiting from these services, the pricing of eservices and how the costs of e-Government applications will be met are just few of the potential areas of debate. While the efforts underway in Turkey are vitally important, it is also a commonly accepted reality that the efforts in question are not at a satisfactory level. IT and therefore e-Government-related applications and policies are too weak to aim at some real targets such as the employment of the women, improving the e-skills of the children and youngsters, for the old and the disabled to be able to fully benefit from the opportunities of information society, their employment, enabling their re-employment or helping them to set up their own businesses. This particular case is related not only to the creation of employment across the country, but also stems from the fact that applications such as micro financing, risk capital and similar applications are not strong enough. For the sake of popularizing the applications aimed for the whole population in general and for the disabled in specific all over Turkey and accomplishing them successfully, there is a need for an authoritative and insistent political will that aspires to this just like it is the case in all reforms. It is also necessary to break up the possible bureaucratic resistance that is likely to increase the timecost of materializing the e-Government applications. The applications in question should not only put forward as an informative behavior code for the citizens; besides, throughout the process of entering into the labor market and in similar fields of social policies, real and active services should be shared in the virtual environment. Finally, the insufficiencies of technical infrastructures related to IT that constitutes the fundamentals of e-Turkey should be resolved urgently. Such a chance/transformation of mentality and technological developments will enable the expected benefits and acquisitions for the e-Government applications in Turkey to be accomplished. References Basbakanlik Genelgesi. (2002). E-Turkiye. Ankara: Personel ve Prensipler Genel Mudurlugu Yayinları. Basu, S. (2004). E-Govenment and Developing Countries: An Overview. 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Sayistay. (2006). http://www.sayistay.gov.tr/rapor/rapor3.asp?id=64 [28.03.2009], p.143–147. Zaman Newspaper, www.zaman.com.tr. [04.05.2010]. 274 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 706 Title A name given to the resource Services for the People with Disabilities in e-Government Applications:The Case of e-Turkey Author Author Özgökçeler, Serhat Bahtiyar, Görkem Abstract A summary of the resource. In its simplest form, the concept of e-Government means the conduction of mutual duties and services between citizens and the state in an uninterrupted and safe manner. In this respect, e-Government enables the provision of public services to the citizens in an electronic/digital environment. This way, the e-Government perspective which tends to replace the bureaucratic and classical state, aims every institution and individual to reach the state via information technology-based systems. In social life, e-Government applications have a great importance in providing equal and indispensible conditions for sustainable development for everyone in the society. An efficient e-Government application necessitates development of services like e-health, e-inclusion and e-learning. In this context, e- Government should be considered as a social inclusion process toward an “Information Society for Everyone” [ISE], especially concerning some groups which have the risk of exclusion. E-Government services, conducted for one of those important risk groups, “people with disabilities”, have an unquestionable place in the integration process of this group to social life. In this paper, we examine the extent of the Turkish e-Government services and in particular kinds of services offered to 8,5 million people with disabilities. In general, it is observed that services offered to people with disabilities are concentrated on health, education, employment, social rights-social services, care services and accessibility. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/82ce63e94bb1d8a340f4b2e383e9edb1.pdf c95c0587b954a9f1324cd804b402fbeb PDF Text Text The Effects of Mycorrhizal Fungi and Trichoderma harzianum on Verticillium dahliae in Cucumber Hülya Özgönen Süleyman Demirel University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Plant Protection, Turkey hozgonen@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr Murat Candan Süleyman Demirel University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Plant Protection, Turkey Ş. Evrim Arıcı Süleyman Demirel University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Plant Protection, Turkey Abstract: Verticillum dahliae is the important soil-borne pathogen and infects wide variety of hosts. In this study, the effects of Trichoderma harziarum and mycorrhizal fungi on Verticillium wilt caused by Verticillium dahliae in cucumber was investigated. T. harzianum restricted the mycelial development in dual culture in vitro. In the pot experiment, Glomus mosseae, mycorrhizal preparation and T. harzianum reduced the diseases severity by 61.4%, 56.1% and 66.7%, respectively. As a result of the study, bioagents could be used against Verticillium wilt and detailed research are required to elucidate resistance mechanism Key Words: Mycorrhizal fungi, Trichoderma harzianum, Verticillium dahliae, cucumber Introduction Verticillum dahliae is an important soil borne pathogen which has large host range and maintain viability for 10-15 years in the soil as microsclerot. The disease prevent the exchange of plant nutrients and water in the plant and cause wilting (Roustaee and Baghdadi, 2007). There is no effective control methods against diseases including fungicides. Biological agents are used against diseases in recent years especially where good agricultural treatments are practiced. Mycorhizal fungi are symbiotic organisms living with root of many plants and by means of spores which exist in the soil enter into root and continue to colonize. Mycorrhizal fungi enhanced the development of plants by water absorption and nutrients from the soil (Smith and Read, 1997). It covers the root of plants so it makes protective physical barrier against diseases also (McAllister et al. 1997; Karagiannidis et al, 2002) Trichoderma harzianum is an important biological control agent effective to plant pathogents via hyperparasitism. Trichoderma spp. also produce some bioactive substances has an antagonistic effect. It was determined that some isolates of Trichoderma control effectively some fungal pathogens including Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, Pythium spp. Trichoderma spp. enhanced the development of plats and induces the resistance mechanisms by several ways (Harman, 2006; Akrami et al., 2009). The aim of this study was to determined efficiency of mycorrhizal fungi and Trichoderma harzianum against Verticillum dahliae in cucumber. 14 �The Study Materials Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) cv. Beith Alpha F1 was used in the pot experiments. Verticillium dahliae was isolated from diseased tissues of naturally infected plants on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). Trichoderma harzianum was obtained from pepper grown area by soil isolation. Glomus moseae was bulked up on maize and used as mycoorhizal fungal inoculum. The other biological fungal preparation contained 23.5% Mycorrhizae (including 18 mycorrhizal fungi belongs to Pisolithus spp. Rhizopogon spp Scleroderma spp., Laccaria spp., Glomus spp., Gigaspora spp) and 27.0% Cross linked polyacrylamide polymer, 14.0% Cold Water Kelp Extracts, 10.0% Humic Acids, 9.0% Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C), 6.4% Dry Humus, 4.0% Amino Acids, 2.4% Myo-Inositol, 1.2% Thiamine (Vitamin B1), 1.2% Thickener, 1.0% Surfactant, 0.5% Alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E) was used. Methods Dual Culture Tests Of Trichoderma Harzianum And Verticillium Dahliae In Vitro First step of dual culture test were conducted using colonized plate method. V. dahliae and T. harzianum were cultured on PDA at 24°C. 10ml PDA was prepared in test tubes and poured in 9cmdiameter Petri dishes and signs were put 3cm from the edge at both side by measuring point at the bottom of Petri dishes. 6mm discs of both fungi placed opposed in Petri dishes. For the control plates, V. dahliae was cultured without T. harzianum. Cultures were incubated at 24°C. After 1 week inhibition zones were measured and developping area was evaluated according to 1-5 scales (Bell et al., 1982) Class 1: The hyperparasyte completely overgrown the pathogen (100% overgrowth) Class 2: The hyperparasyte overgrown at least 2/3th of the pathogen Class 3: The hyperparasyte and pathogen colonised on half of the Petri dishes Class 4: The pathogen overgrown at least 2/3th of the hyperparasyte Class 5: The pathogen completely overgrown the hyperparasyte (100% overgrowth) At the same time, the effects of volatile compounds of T. harzianum was determined. 6 mm mycelial discs of T. harzianum and V. dahliae were cultured on PDA singly. Lids of petri dishes were removed and culture plates were immadiately placed over T. harzianum plates and sealed with parafilm. Cultures were incubated at 24°C for 1 week and colony diameters measured. Control petri dishes were included in two experiments. Experiments was repeated three times and 5 Petri dishes in each. Pot Experiments Cucumber seeds were surface disinfested in 1% NaOCl solution for 3 min and washed twice with sterile distilled water. The mixture of soil, sand, and pumice (1/1/1, v/v/v) was autoclaved at121ºC twice for 1 h and used as growth medium. Mycorrhizal seedling produced by incorporating the mycorrhizal inoculum including soil infested with spores mixed with root fragments, 2-3 cm below the seeds (Menge and Timmer, 1982). Inoculum amount was determined as 1000 spores 10 g -1 for each plant. Cucumber seeds were sown in containers without mycorrhizal fungal inoculations. Containers were placed in growth room at 25±2ºC tempertures until 3-4 leaf stage. Plants with 3-4 leaves with ot without mycorrhizal fungi were transplanted into 15cm diameter pots containing same mixture of soil. The treatments were as follows: Glomus mosseae, Mycorrhizal preparation, Trichoderme harzianum, Verticillium dahliae, Control. Pots were maintained in in a growth room 25±2ºC 12 h photoperiod. Experiments were designed as compeletely randomized block design with four replications and 5 plants in each. Mycorrhizal colonisation was determined 4 week after transplanting and colonisation percentages (%) were calculated . the roots were cleared and stained as described by Koske and Gemma (1989) and the percentage of root colonisation (%) was determined by gridline intersection method (Giovannetti and Mosse, 1980). T. harzianum was maintained on PDA at 24ºC for 1 week. Culture plates were scraped from the surface using spatula for collecting the spores. Released spores were collected by filtering through two 15 �layers of cheese cloth and conidia concentration was adjusted to 106 conidia ml-1 using haemocytometer. 10 ml suspension were applied to rhizosphere of plants. Verticillum dahliae oat medium: Oat seeds were boiled to be used for inoculation. Boiled seeds were placed into Erlen mayer and autoclaved at 121°C 1 kPa for 20 min. After cooling, V dahliae mycelial disc were added and incubated at 24ºC for 3 weeks. Plants were inoculated after 4 week with V. dahliae. For inoculation, 2g oat medium incorporated to soil around roots. Disease severity was evaluated using the following 0-5 scale (Huang et al, 2006) which 0: Healty plants, 1: <25% of the plant wilted and browning of crown; 2: 25-50% of plant wilted and slight browning; 3: 50-75% of the plant wilted and progressive browning; 4: ≥75% of plant wilted and complete browning 5: Dead plant Diseases index were calculated using scale value and disease severity (%) was determined (Karman, 1971) Findings In vitro studiesT. harzianum restricted the V. dahliae mycelial growth in dual culture (Table 1). T. harzianum Volatile compounds test Mycelial Diameter (mm) Control 45 T. harzianum + V. 15 dahliae Score of antagonistic activity Scale 2 The hyperparasyte overgrown at least 2/3th of the pathogen Table 1: The characteristics of T. harzianum in dual culture test In dual culture test T. harzianum overgrown at least 2/3th of the pathogen and placed Class 2. The average mycelial diameter of V. dahliae was 15mm while T. harzianum covered the rest of the medium completely. In volatile compound test, the average mycelial diameter of V. dahliae was 45mm while 15mm together with T. harzianum application. In a previous study, Trichoderma spp. results parasitation of the hypal growth of Sclerotium rolfsii by different mechanisms and showed antagonistic effect (Shaigan et al., 2008). Pot experiments Biological control agents were used to determined the effects on Verticillium wilt caused by V. dahliae in cucumber. Results shown in Table 2. Treatments Glomus mossea Mycorrhizal preparation Trichoderma harzianum V. dahliae Colonisation (%) Disease index Diseases severity (%)* % Effect 60 1.10 22 ab 61.4 57 1.25 25 b 56.1 - 0.95 19 a 66.7 - 2.85 57 c - *Means within column followed by different letters are significantly different P (0.05) according to Fishers LSD test. Table 2: The effects of mycorrhizal fungi and Trichoderma harzianum on Verticillium dahliae in cucumber. 16 �Root colonisation of G. mosseae and mycorrhizal preparation were found as 60 and 57% respectively after 4 weeks. The diseases severity of V. dahliae inoculated plant was 57%, while the diseases severity of mycorrhizal fungi and V. dahlia inoculated plant were 22 and 25%, respectively. The diseases severity of T. harzianum applied plant was lower than other treatments and was 19%. In previous studies also revelaed that Glomus species are good colonizer of many plants (Dell’Amico et al, 2002; Karagiannidis et al., 2002). G. moseae, mycorrhizal preparation and T. harzianum reduced the disease severity of V. dahliae. Especially, T. harzianum reduced external browning of crown effectively. Some investigations concluded that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi could reduce the soilborme fungal plant pathogens (Azcon-Aguilar and Barea, 1996; Inbar et al, 1996; Akköprü et al., 2005; Arıcı, 2009) Conclusion The biocontrol agents could be used against Verticillium wilt caused by V. dahliae. Soil factors is the basic elements for plant development in agriculture and disease are the main limiting factors in crop production. In addition the traditional control method, application of biological agents provide the renewal of the soil as well as supporting the control methods in integrated diseases management. References Arıcı, Ş.E., 2009. Determination of Antifungal Activity of Strains of Trichoderma harzianum in vitro, p: 71; II.Entomopathogens and Microbial Control Symposium, 24-27 September Sarıgerme/Muğla Azcon- Aguilar, C., & Barea, J.M. (1996). Arbuscular mycorrhizas and biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens – an overview of the mechanisms involved. Mycorrhiza 6 , 457–464 Akköprü A., Demir, S. & Özaktan, H. (2005). Farklı Fluoresant Pseudomonas (FP) Đzolatları ve Arbusküler Mikorhizal Fungus (AMF) Glomus intraradices’in Domates’teki Bazı Morfolojik Parametrelere ve Fusarium Solgunluğuna (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici (Sacc) Syd. Et Hans.) Etkisi. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi, Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, 15(2), 131-138. Akrami, M., Ibrahimov, A. Sh., Zafari D. M., & Valizadeh, E. (2009). Control Fusarium Rot of Bean by Combination of by Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum in Greenhouse Condition. Agricultural Journal. 4 (3), 121123. Bell, D.K., Wells, H.D., & Markham, J.R. (1982). In vitro antagonism of Trichoderma species against six fungal pathogens. Phytopathology. 72, 379-382. Dell'Amico J., Torrecillas A. Rodriguez P; Morte A., & Sanchez-Blanco MJ. (2002). Responses of tomato plants associated with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus clarum during drought and recovery. Journal of Agricultural Science 138, 387-393. Giovannetti M., & Mosse, B. (1980). An evaluation of techniques for measuring vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection in root. New Phytol. 84, 489-500. Harman, G.E. (2006). Overview of Mechanisms and Uses of Trichoderma spp. Phytopathology 96, 190-194. Huanga, J., Lib, H., & Yuanb, H. (1992). Effect of organic amendments on Verticillium wilt of cotton. Crop Protection 25(11), 1167-1173 Inbar, J., Menendez, A., & Chet, I. (1996). Hyphal interaction between Trichoderma harzianum and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and its role in biological control. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 28(6), 757-763. Karagiannidis, N., Bletsos, F., & Stavropoulos, N. (2002). Effect of Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae Kleb.) and mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae) on root colonization, growth and nutrient uptake in tomato and eggplant seedlings. Scientia Horticulturae. 94 (1-2), 145-156. 17 �Karman, M. (1971). Bitki Koruma Araştırmalarında Genel Bilgiler Denemelerin Kuruluşu ve Değerlendirme Esasları. Bölge Zirai Araştırma Enstitüsü. Bornova Đzmir. 279 s. Koske, R.E., & Gemma, J.N. (1989). A modified procedure for staining root to detect VAM. Mycological Research. 92, 486-505. Menge, J.A, & Timmer, L.W. (1982). Procedure for inoculation of plant with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae in laboratory, greenhouse and field. In: Methods and Principles of Mycorrhizal Research N.C. Schenk, 244p. McAllister, C. B., Garcia-Garrido, J. M., Garcia-Romera, I., Godeas, A., & Ocampo, J. A. (2007). Interaction between Alternaria alternata or Fusarium equiseti and Glomus mosseae and its effects on plant growth. Plant and Soil. 24(3), 301-305. Roustaee A, & Baghdadi A. (2007). Study of interaction between plant nutrition (N,P,K and Ca) and verticillios wilt disease (Verticillium dahliae) in cucumber. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci. 72(4), 1017-22. Shaigan S, Seraji A, & Moghaddam SA. (2008). Identification and investigation on antagonistic effect of Trichoderma spp. on tea seedlings white foot and root rot (Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.) in vitro condition. Pak J Biol Sci. 11(19), 23462350. Smith, S., & Read, D.J. (1997). Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Second Ed. Academic Press. London, 605p. 18 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 323 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Mycorrhizal Fungi and Trichoderma harzianum on Verticillium dahliae in Cucumber Author Author Özgönen, Hulya Candan, Murat Arıcı, S. Evrim Abstract A summary of the resource. Verticillum dahliae is the important soil-borne pathogen and infects wide variety of hosts. In this study, the effects of Trichoderma harziarum and mycorrhizal fungi on Verticillium wilt caused by Verticillium dahliae in cucumber was investigated. T. harzianum restricted the mycelial development in dual culture in vitro. In the pot experiment, Glomus mosseae, mycorrhizal preparation and T. harzianum reduced the diseases severity by 61.4%, 56.1% and 66.7%, respectively. As a result of the study, bioagents could be used against Verticillium wilt and detailed research are required to elucidate resistance mechanism Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)