307 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/048cb8af3e39502260a123b8464142bb.pdf 75af571291b75f0c4eb54fe4a56b027a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Motivating Young EFL Learners Through Effective Classroom Management Hasan Yüksel Süleyman Demirel University, English Language Instructor, Isparta, Turkey hyuksel@sdu.edu.tr Yekta Halıcı Süleyman Demirel University, Instructor of Maths, Isparta, Turkey yektahalici@hotmail.com Abstract: Finding the best way to catch the attention of young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playing and, drama is of great significance due to the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, pictures, and games, so they are under the bombardment of all these. They live in an age of visualization. Depending upon this, it will also be mentioned that how the ELF teachers will catch the attention of the young EFL learners, which is actually one of the problematic area in classroom management. The reason is that just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, in the stark contrast, the students themselves want movement and action, and they would like to be much more involved in the class. Normally thinking, the learners is not roped to the class. However, the matter is that in order to learn regularly and peacefully, the students must feel themselves relaxed, they should be in peace, it shouldn’t be a kind of torture, and the teacher should vary the activities in the class so as to free from monotonous atmosphere. All of these things leave an impact on the students’ psychology and their motivational level either positively or negatively. Therefore, the main objective of the study is to depict how to motivate young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playings, drama, and body language of the teacher. From this perspective, this study will focus on the sustainable development in the foreign language teaching and learning fundamentally for young EFL learners. Introduction “The present age is essentially an age of games. It certainly is an obvious fact that no form of play can be carried on without them, and it is almost equally obvious that nowadays very little work can be done without them, at any rate where small children are concerned. The instructive game has become a prominent feature in our modern education, and is employed in the teaching of nearly all branches of knowledge” (Harrison, 1907). Arising the most notice of young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, drama, realia, and role playing has gained a very big momentum on account of the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, pictures, and games, so they are under the bombardment of all these. They live in an age of visualization. There is no exaggeration to say that the games are for children and the children are for games. They are in a way counterparts of one another. The result of the research investigated by Fromme (2008) is the indication of this case as shown in the following figure: Boys Girls 1 2 3 playing outside with others going for sports / sport activities listening to music 71% listening to music 71% 67% playing outside with others 63% 4 playing video/computer games 38% reading 52% sport activities 50% 43% Table 1: The indication of the activities that the children deal with. 105 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo It can be witnessed from the statistics above that playing and listening occupies much of young students’ life span particularly playing which will be mainly focused. Again, the statistics illustrate that playing is the sinequanon of their lives. Going from here, it will be also mentioned that how the ELF teachers will catch the attention of the young EFL learners, which is actually the matter. The reason is that just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, on the stark contrast, the students themselves want movement, they would like to be more active, shortly, and they would like to be much more involved in the class. In a way, they would like to think themselves as the students who are cared by the teacher. The Background of the Study The teachers should take into account the fact that the younger students’ motivation can distract swiftly that also determines their failure or success as argued (2002) by The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines motivation as follows: “Motivation is generally considered to be one of the primary causes of success and failure in second language learning” (p.344), and this distraction can be faster than the old ones. If they are distracted by someone or something, it is too tough for the teachers to make the students come to the class again, and now and then it is impossible. Normally thinking, the learners is not roped to the class. However, the matter is that in order to learn regularly, the students must feel themselves relaxed, they should be in peace, they should not worry about their learning, it shouldn’t be a torture, and the teacher should vary the activities in the class so as to free from monotonous atmosphere. All of these things affect the students’ motivation better or worse which actually depends on the teacher, the coordinator of the teaching and learning environment. Statement of the Problem By considering the other side of the coin, in another way, if the particular things that can be done by the young students are considered, the importance of the activities, and games would be understood better as argued by Öztürk, 2007 (cited from Scoot and Ytreberg in 1990): Five to seven years old 1. They can talk about what they are actually doing. 2. They can plan activities and games. 3. They can discuss what they think and why they think in this way. 4. They can use rational explanations. 5. They can utilize their bunch of imaginations. 6. They can comprehend the interactions of humans. Eight to ten years old 1. They can separate the differences between facts and fictions. 2. They mostly depend on the spoken world as well as the physical world to convey and understand the meaning. 3. They have the strength to give decisions about their own learning. 4. They have definite views about what they like and don’t like doing. 5. They can question the decisions of the teachers. 6. They are able to work in groups cooperatively and learn from others. Moreover, Harmer (2001; 38) explain the characteristics of the young English learners especially those up to the ages of nine or ten in this way: 1. They respond meaning although they don’t understand every words. 2. They often learn indirectly rather than directly – that means they take in information from all sides, however just focusing on the precise things to be taught. 3. Their understanding is directly affected from the movements as well as actions, not the explanation itself. 4. They have a great enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them. 5. They need an individual attention and they would like to be notified by the teacher. 6.They are keen to talk about themselves, if they are involved in the learning settings, they will be motivated. 7.They have limited attention span; in a very short of time, they can be bored with the similar activities. Depending upon the data given above, it can be described that the teachers use the activities, they should plan the activities, and they should use their imaginations to take an advantage of the fresh brain of the students. As touched earlier, they should also vary the activities arranged in the classroom in order to make the students learn better, and to enable the students focus on the tasks in a sensitive way. Ways of Classroom Management 106 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo There are some very certain ways for classroom management in accordance with the motivations of the students as well. In more explicit terms, by using these methods such as games, realia and roleplaying and the use of body language, both the students’ motivation can be increased and classroom management can be carried out effectively. Games Teaching young learners is a different phenomena, different from teaching adults as Öztürk (2007) stated the mood of the young learners alter in every minute, and their attention span is limited as well, and it requires a great effort. In spite of all these, in the earlier ages (nearly 5-6), many things can be done so as to enable them to learn in various ways. As cited by Öztürk (2007), the principal characteristics of these learners groups can be listed as follows: (Brumfit et al, 1997; Cameron, 2003); Dunn, 1983; House, 1997; Moon, 2000) 1. They depend heavily on the teacher for directions during the courses. They are in need of help to become autonomous. 2. They are inquisitive and receptive, easily motivated if the teachers know how to motivate them. 3. They have a very limited attention span; therefore, their interests focus on the here and now. They are not able to concentrate for a long time. 4. They have an analytical way of learning rather than intuitive way. 5. They need activities that involve physical movement. 6. Their social relations are restricted with another student sitting next to them. 7. The affective and the emotional aspects of teaching are important for them. 8. They are very receptive to the world of fantasy and imagination as they live in an imaginative environment. 9. They do not regard mistakes as a step towards learning. They may be upset if they are told that they are wrong. It is a need to find a flexible way to correct their mistakes. Under the light of what has been discussed so far, games are just one of the motivational tools that can be utilized both for the benefit of the teacher and the young student. In more explicit terms, games are useful for teachers because they facilitate classroom management and useful for students as they learn in an entertaining atmosphere (Shin, 2006). In language learning, games can serve as tools that strengthen and foster the development of the communicative ability of the learner. The following quote by I-Jung elaborates on this issue: “The use of games can be a powerful language learning tool. On the surface, the aim of all language games is for students to "use the language"; however, during game play learners also use the target language to persuade and negotiate their way to desired results. This process involves the productive and receptive skills simultaneously” (p.1, n.d). From here, it can be easily concluded that games serve beyond their own functions, as stated by Saricoban & Metin (2000) (cited in I-Jung) depending upon the communicative skills of the language learners, it can strengthen their social behaviours. Additionally, about this, Thanh Huyen & Thi Thu Nga (2003) demonstrated that learning vocabulary through the use of games is one of the effective and interesting ways which can be applied in any of the classrooms. Based upon this it can be argued that the games are not only used for fun but also as a sort of useful practice for the revision of the whole course that at the same time improves the communicative aspects of the young learners. Additionally, from another perspective, Piaget (1967) regarded games as “the most admirable social institutions”. According to Piaget every games include a complicated system of rules. On condition that the EFL teachers achieve to make the young students follow these rules, then this means that the classroom management will be easier. Moreover, in order to get a more concrete idea about how motivating games are in learning environments, it can be noted that: So, what is it about video games that make gamers respond to the world differently from the way they respond in the classroom? Compared to the classroom, games are empowering, motivating, individualized differentiated learning environments with set rules which value the efforts of the individual child. Games are challenging and motivating. They offer the child a shared experience with their peers in a collaborative environment. They are a platform for problem solving. The structure is apparent; the rules are clear and unambiguous; and your role in the game is well defined. The goal is always attainable (Simpson, n.d, p. 20). More than anything else, the core of the paper is to motivate the students. Based on that Wright (1984) stated that the effort of language learning must be maintained over a long period of time as language learning is a hard task, and in that case, games make the language learner become interested in that work. Moreover, Ersoz (2000) suggested that the language learning process is a tough task which can be sometimes as frustrating for the 107 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo teachers owing to the fact that the constant effort is required to produce, comprehend and to conduct the target language. It can be demonstrated that to practice the language skills the teachers are supposed to choose the games carefully for only the well chosen games will serve for the purpose. Also, Ersöz (2000) states that another function of the games are to increase the motivation of the students which also fosters the cooperation among the students by enabling them to use the language in real contexts. The Function of Games in Eliminating Anxiety As pointed out earlier, the other particular functions of the games are to reduce the anxiety and stress while learning something which can also be applied to teaching a language. Uberman (1998, cited in I - Jung) asserted that “Games offer students a fun-filled and relaxing learning atmosphere. After learning and practicing new vocabulary, students have the opportunity to use language in a non-stressful way”. The reason is that as Uberman (1998, cited in I - Jung) pointed out that just as playing games the learner’s main focus is to comprehend the message apart from the use of language itself. Therefore, this means that during the game, for learners, the correctness of their use of language doesn’t make any sense, yet still, what they will all do is to play just for winning it. Actually, they learn without even noticing that, but the only difference is that they learn with a great amount of joy. Concerning this state, Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope, (1986, cited in I- Jung) emphasized that just for playing for the sake of gaming reduces the fear of negative evaluation, the state of being ashamed by the public, maybe, his classmates which leads not to use the language in front of an audience. Also, to these scholars, game based context reduces the concern and anxiety, and increases the fluency of the speech. In addition, Su Kim (1995) admitted that regarding the games just because of it brings about laughter, as not a really a learning activity is a sort of misunderstanding. Su Kim (1995) wrote that “It is possible to learn a language as well as enjoy oneself at the same time. One of the best ways doing this is through games.” Jones, also (1957) added that it can be learned better if the students enjoy it rather than being forced. From this perspective, it can be argued that the games are functional tools that make sense for teaching the language without the occurrence of the anxiety. Advantages of Games for Teachers As Klein (1993) claims, the procedure applied to teach young learners are strikingly different from adults. If the focus is the young learners, this process becomes much more difficult than assumed, so teaching must be planned in such a way that “learning becomes an interesting, even at times entertaining process” (Wilkins, 1972). This can be done by the use of the games in the classroom environment. Depending upon this, Ersöz (2007) argues games are the trump cards of the teachers in spite of the fact that the games are recreational activities in terms of their nature and whose ultimate purpose is enjoyment, but they can be used to reinforce what was learned and taught. What’s more, games are also useful in terms of teachers owing to the fact that Wright (1984) reasoned games are also assisting tools for the teachers in order to create language contexts to use the language itself. By means of this, the learners can be exposed to the real like contexts of the language. Since every type of learner has different characteristics to learn, it can be easily comprehended that as teachers, capturing their attention becomes much more important. This means that if you have different types of learners, you have learners who have different worlds, and who have different learning styles. Wilson (n.d) reported that no two learners are alike in any of the classroom environment. The researches indicate that every human beings have multiple intelligences (Gardiner, 83, cited in Wilson). Studies about the neuro-linguistic programming reveal that some of us are auditory learners who need to hear the language to learn, an others are visual learners who need to see the process individually whereas the others can learn by doing, that means they are kinaesthetic learners. Therefore games can be regarded as a kind of facilitating activities of the teachers. Furthermore, this case shouldn’t be seen as a kind of disadvantage, in the stark contrast, teachers ought to regard that case as an advantage like noted by (Berman,1995) it ought not be regarded as a kind of problem, but rather as the main advantage when considering the benefits for the practice of language and the language skills. The reason is that this case frees the course from the monotonous atmosphere that means it paves the way for suffering much to teach the learners by means of motivation, and makes both the teacher and the students rejoice from what they have been doing. Games as Tools for Making Learning Easier and as Providing Entertaining Atmosphere Another function of games is to make the learning easier and they provide an entertaining atmosphere for both for the teachers and the students. It can be said that games are motivating in regards to the fact that they make the language building activities as competitive which makes the learners use the language (Prasad, 2003, cited in IJung). A research conducted by Huyen & Nga (2003, cited in I-Jung) revealed that students got a great pleasure in a game based environment as a result of relaxed atmosphere, the competition and the high motivation that the games brought about. Lee (1979: 2) evaluates the games from two perspectives, firstly, games as the use of language, and secondly, games as relaxing activity. Concerning the first, he says that “language games make learners use the language 108 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo instead of thinking about learning the correct forms adding that games should be treated as central not peripheral to the foreign language teaching programme”. The similar opinion is also mentioned by Richard & Amato (n.d) as usual games are regarded just as a kind of playing activities, but they also have the function of teaching as well and they (1988: 147) add that games also play a significant role about the reduction of the anxiety, and this makes learning better. Also, according to Hansen (1994, cited in Uberman, 1998: 118) “They are highly motivating and entertaining, and they can give shy students more opportunity to express their opinions and feelings”. This can be interpreted that even the shy students can be melted in this pot, the pot of games. At this point the other scholars such as Wierus & Wierus argue (1994: 218, cited in Uberman) that “In the easy, relaxed atmosphere which is created by using games; students remember things faster and better”. Also, this emphasizes another respect of the games, maybe the focus of the article from the beginning, that is, it makes learning easier and easier, and this makes the students gains a great momentum, fundamentally in the field of language learning. Bumpass (1984: 16-18) argues that even the games and the varieties in the classroom are of great significance for the young learners’ learning, but teachers should be careful about the psychological bases for foreign language instruction by taking into account some principles. These are 1. Start from the known and go to the unknown. So that the language can be taught to the young learners, the EFL teachers are expected to use the mother tongue for some time to convey the message because the principle is that proceed from the know to the unknown. 2. Teach utterances in the new language that has the same difficulty in the mother tongue. Great care should be taken to insure that the materials should be in the same complexity with those in their mother tongues. 3. Use simple equipments that are simple enough for their physical development. Objects, pictures, songs, flash cards, games, and other teaching aids can be utilized to adapt the student to the new language learning environment. 4. Choose materials which will satisfy the children’s affective and academic needs. The materials used in the language learning environment should fulfill the needs of the students as well . 5. Be careful about the motivation of interest in each activity. The success gained from the game centered learning environment can increase the motivation of the young students for further study, so the teachers is supposed to give an ultimate care to that. 6. Teach vocabulary that can be used in real life settings. The new vocabulary items to be taught should be functional They can be used in real life too . 7. Direct the students to practice the newly learned concept over and over until it will become automatic. In order to achieve the mastery level of each concept, EFL the teachers are supposed to let the students practice those learned new items up till they will become automatic. In addition, as Khan (1996) pointed out “different games will benefit students in different ways”, but according to Hong (n.d), in order to increase the level of efficiency, there are also some important questions to be answered while choosing a game such as • • • • • • Which language does the game ultimately target? Which skills does it practice? What sort of game is it? What's the purpose for using that game? Is the game suitable for the students? How much interaction and participation will it provide? Language Teaching With Realia Realia is another technique that can be used to capture the attention of the students and to provide and strengthen the classroom management. According to Smith (n.d), realia is defined as “digitized objects and items from the target culture which are brought into the classroom as examples or aids and used to stimulate spoken or written language production”. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics (1992, Richards, Platt, & Platt, Essex) explains that it is the use of “actual objects and items which are brought into the classroom as examples or as aids to be talked or written about and used in teaching”. All the definitions argue that realia is motivating and meaningful in that it brings an authentic piece of the target culture into the language classroom. 109 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Practicing the language and teaching it by means of the real materials brought to the classroom environments enhances the motivations of the students as well. Sumarni (2008) states that Realia is the proponent of Communicative Language Teaching that has advocated the use of ‘authentic’, ‘fromlife’ materials in the classroom. These might include language-based realia, such as sign, magazines, advertisement, and newspaper, or graphic and visual sources around us which communicative activities can be built, such as maps, pictures, symbols, graphs, and charts. Different kinds of objects can be used to support communicative exercises. In practice, bringing the actual item to class provides an unmistakably clear illustration of an object. This can also provide a useful stimulus to lesson. On a slightly more ambitious scale, asking students to teach other students how to perform a task using realia can be very motivating and memorable (p.3) . In this context the materials such as pictures, flashcards, photographs, newspapers, music or anything related to the subject dealt with that day can taken into account as real objects. Harmer (2001) comments that pictures and images of all kinds can be used in a variety of ways, as in the following: a) Games fostering communication: Pictures are extremely useful for a variety of communication activities, such as describing and drawing activities where one student describes a picture the other classmate has to draw the similar picture without looking at the original. b) Drills: Drills can be used to motivate the students by nominating them successively. Flashcards are one of the tools which are particularly useful for drilling grammar items, for cueing different sentences, or practicing vocabulary. c) Comprehension: Another pros of realia is that the young students will be familiar with the real objects. As an example, the students need the actual ‘bicycle’ in order to perceive what is bike. d) Ornamentation: Pictures of various kinds are often used to make the learning much more appealing and attractive. In many modern course books, for example, a reading text will be adorned with a photograph which gives the readers (or students) the chance to associate the activity with reality. e) Prediction: Pictures are also useful for enabling the students to predict what is happening next in a lesson. Therefore the f) Discussion: Pictures can stimulate questions that paves the way for discussion such as ‘What does it represent?’, ‘What do you remember when you see this one?’, ‘Why is this so?’ and so forth. Harmer’s argument shown above lay emphasis that even the pictures used related to the topic as a kind of real life objects can increase the motivation of the students, make them much more involved in the course, make the class free from monotony, and as Hildred (1978) emphasized Language is but one aspect of the child's activity which includes eating, playing, responding to instructions, enjoying social contacts. The human infant's behavior is largely unformed; linguistic expression and behavior patterns are learned simultaneously: "Here's an apple, a ripe, red apple, an apple to pick from the tree, to put in a basket, to eat, slice, peel, buy at the store, to give to someone, to make into pie, etc. At the same time, Spurr (1942) claims that realia can be used to make our teaching process real, to enable coordination in the courses delivered, to develop an actual culture which is comprehensive, indulgent, and to appreciate the whole job done by the students. All these explanations pave the way that real life objects are real life learning. Language Teaching With Role-playing It has been emphasized that the more the students participate in the course, the better they will learn. And sometimes a created real life situation is just the first step for the activation of the learning (Zheng, 1993). So, role-playing is one of the moving force to this activation, and Brown confirms (2001) that, "role-play minimally involves (a) giving a role to one or more members of a group and (b) assigning an objective or purpose that participants must accomplish." Brown (2001, 183) suggested “role-play can be conducted with a single person, in pairs or in groups, with each person assigned a role to accomplish an objective”. Role-playing is regarded as the ideal technique in foreign language teaching since as Salies (1995) added, it enables learners for the unexpected situation in real life, teaches the use of language in an appropriate way, and increases self confidence of the learners. According to Tompkins (n.d), it is a valuable tool for the second language learning due to the fact that it initiates creativity and use of the thought. Also, this method render the students learn the language in an environment that is free of stress which makes the learning effective. Roleplaying technique develops interpersonal relationships among participants. Moreover, Tompkin (n.d) notes that by means of role-playing Comprehensible input is provided in simulations because students engage in genuine communication in playing their roles. Active involvement stems from participation in worthwhile, absorbing interaction which tends to 110 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo make students forget they are learning a new language. Students have the opportunity to try out new behaviors in a safe environment, which helps them develop long term motivation to master an additional language. In addition to encouraging genuine communication, active involvement, and a positive attitude, the simulated "real life" problems help students develop their critical thinking and problem solving skills. Scarcella and Crookall (1990, as cited by Tompkins, n.d), discuss that this way of teaching has these kinds of advantages as well in terms of the students as shown in the following: 1) they experience a great many communicative atmosphere, 2) they are active in the learning process, 3) they have positive motivation to learn. As cited by Zheng (1993), role-playing has some very important aspects of learning such as 1) 2) 3) It creates a real life setting, which is always desirable in learning a foreign language (Nakajima, 1992; O’Donnell & Shaver, 1990) It involves students active participation and involvement in the classroom (Joyce & Weil, 1986; Kunze, 1991, Shaftel &Shaftel, 1967) It motivates students to learn. It can be asserted that depending upon the data given, role-playing is the other teaching tool that the teachers can make use of while teaching especially to young learners of English owing to the fact that as in the other techniques it increases motivation, and it verifies this fact: To learn something, do it. Language Teaching With Drama I hear and I forget I listen and I remember I do and I understand (Chinese Proverb) With the modern approaches to learning, the learner is regarded as the active participant of the learning environment, and they are much more involved. Another technique that enables this is the use of drama as communicative activities because the problem is that the students learn grammar, they learn how to write, how to read and listen, yet they couldn’t adequately learn how to speak which can be achieved through communicative activities the most effective of which is drama. Also, if the features of the communicative activities are taken into account, it would be realized to what extent drama is useful in language teaching. As Sam (1992) agreed, communicative activities have the following characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. They are purposeful. They are beyond overt grammar rules. They are communicative. The activities are often conducted with others and often involve some form of interaction and discussion. Authentic materials are used. The situations in which the learners use language should be as realistic as possible. In another way, the language used as authentic. They are dependent upon the information gap principle. At the same time, Morrow (1981, as cited by Sam, 1992) provided some guiding principles for the use of communicative activities as the learning and teaching criterions. These are as follows: 1. 'Know what you are doing' This principle ensures that the teacher should know how to conduct the course over the period of time. 2. 'The whole is more than the sum of its parts' In communication, in the communicative learning environments, the important thing is to focus on the whole message, not the parts of it. 3. 'The processes are as important as the forms' The processes of communication such as information gap, choice, feedback, should be much more important than only the forms. 4. 'To learn it, do it' Only by practicing communicative activities, the students can develop their communicative skills. The teachers do not interfere with the processes. They solely conduct the process, not interfere. 111 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 5. 'Mistakes are not always mistakes' Mistakes in this process should be regarded as a kind of path towards the correct way of learning. The main concern of this approach is to establish a communication with another person in the classroom and in a way, the society. Thus, drama used in the classroom can be considered a communicative activity since it enables communication between learners and provides opportunities to use the target language in real life like environments as Sam (1992) claimed various 'make believe' situations. In this context, it can be mentioned that drama can be used as a supplementary tool for the child learning appropriate to their developmental process (Redington, 1983). Below, the value of the drama in the teaching and learning environment according to different scholars is mentioned (cited by Sam, 1992). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Fernandez and CoIl (1986), state that drama encourages students to exercise their sensitivity and imagination. Temporary suspension of the ego occurs when students participate in dramatic activities. They are experienced real life atmosphere. It develops a sense of empathy in the student. At the same time, drama develops moral and social abilities of a student (Scharengnivel, 1970). Drama according to Maley and Duff (1978) activates the students energy and strength. It increases the sensitivity and the imagination of the students which provides realistic atmosphere.. Drama increases motivation and provides the incentive to work hard (Mordecai, 1985; Scharengnivel, 1970). The activities using drama tend to be purposeful, that means it focuses on an objective. As an educational tool, the use of drama aims to develop the child socially, intellectually and the linguistically (Dougill, 1987). Drama has a therapeutic effect on the students. It can solve the emotional and behavioral problems (Stern, 1980; Scharengnivel, 1970). Drama enables the students develop a sense of responsibility (Early and Tarlington, 1983; Scharengnivel, 1970; Mordecai, 1985). All over the course of the drama activities, the students cannot be in a passive state, in the stark contrast the must be active which fosters the sense of responsibility. It increases the motivation of the teachers on the basis of meeting the needs of the student (Mordecai, 1985). The drama activities provide facilities to understand the thoughts and feelings of the students as mutually. Drama can be used to activate the emotions, ideas, and more than anything else, to activate the communicative learning in the classroom setting (Chauhan, n.d). Also, as in others, drama can suggest teachers to pick up one among various activities, thereby making the efficiency of learning going up. Conclusion Motivating young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, drama, realia, and role playing has gained a very big momentum on account of the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, and games. Moving from here, it can be stated that learning by doing catches the attention of the students especially the younger ones on account of the fact that one of the primary consensus is that “One should do that to learn that particular thing”. Just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, but they want movement, they would like to be more active, and they would like to be much more involved in the class and in the classroom activities. The younger students’ motivation can be distracted swiftly, and this happens faster than in the older ones. Therefore, it would be no exaggeration to say that they are roped to the class, at least they feel so. However, in order to learn regularly, the students must feel relaxed, they should be in peace, they should not worry about their learning, it shouldn’t be a torture. All of these things affect the student’s motivation better or worse which actually depends on the teacher, the coordinator of the learning environment. Hence, the aim of the study is to indicate the effectiveness of the classroom management fostered through games, realia, roleplaying and drama which also increases the motivation of the young learners of English in the foreign language environment. The Hardships Encountered by the Young EFL Learners during the Foreign Language Education It can be confirmed that the distractions in the classroom, noise, the learning anxiety of the new language, keeping a low motivation profile, and the unknown words and concepts in the new language are the leading difficulties of the young learners of English. Fundamentally, most of the teachers of English argue that the fear of the new language outweighs other factors in terms of the difficulty level. 112 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Apart from all these hardships, there are some other ones as well. For example, as the paper demonstrated that the young EFL learners: � They are easily distracted. � They don’t understand the meaning of the words of the new language. � They don’t comprehend the structural pattern. � They often mispronounce the words. � They have spelling and grammatical mistakes. All the items, which are in accordance with the research conducted, listed above imply that the foreign language teachers have a lot to catch their young students’ attention. For Classroom Management Motivating Young EFL Learners is a Must Though It is Difficult In this paper, it is revealed that motivating young learners of English is a tough process in spite of the fact that it is the snequanon of the learning settings on account of the fact that “Motivation is what stimulates students to acquire, transform and use knowledge (Groccia, 1992, p. 62)”. Basically, it can be reported that the teachers are strongly in need of using motivational tools such as real life materials, let’s say realia, visual images, games, and so fort for the flexible way of learning the foreign language. The Pros of Teaching through Games, Realia, Roleplaying, Drama for the Young EFL Learners Well-chosen games are invaluable as they give students a break and at the same time allow students to practice language skills. Games are highly motivating since they are amusing and at the same time challenging. Furthermore, they employ meaningful and useful language in real contexts. They also encourage and increase cooperation (….) (Ersöz, 2000, p.1). The paper also asserted that the games foster the students learning, in a way, it encourages students to learn. At the same time, it can be claimed that students stop talking with their classmates on condition that the teachers use these motivational tools like games, realia, roleplaying, and drama. The study also shows that these items reduce the disciplinary problems in the course due to the fact that through all these tools the students are much more involved in the classroom activities. The Desired EFL Teacher Profile By the aid of the study, the desired EFL teacher profile can also be understood. The first thing to be revealed about the teachers are the fact that they are not the boss in their classes, in the stark contrast, they are the facilitator and the guide in their classes. And, according to the paper, the EFL teachers should put themselves into the shoes of their students which mean that they should have a sense of empathy. To sum up, all these theoretical assumptions concerning the motivating young learners of English through the effective classroom management pave the way that a good EFL teacher is the one who � Comes to the with interesting and real life materials. � Is opened to technology and new methods of language teaching. � Motivates their students to learn. � Includes group study in their courses. � Teaches out of the class. � Gives students small projects to make them learn the language better. � Thinks that the students learn by doing. � Creates various activities in the courses. � Gives luck to the students to learn a particular topic by means of drama and roleplaying. On the other hand, the paper gives some very important tips about how a teacher shouldn’t be. A good teacher is the one who � Isn’t an authority in the course. � Doesn’t use just the boards. � Doesn’t punish the students as the sign of their authorities. � Doesn’t believe the significance of the teacher based classroom. � Doesn’t believe that the students learn just in the classroom. 113 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Bumpass, F. L. (1963).Teaching Young Students English as a Foreign Language. United States of America: Pan American Coopyright. Gaudart, H. (1990). Using Drama Techniques in Language Teaching, p. 22. Sarinee Arivan, Ed., Language Teaching Methodology for the Nineties , Anthology Series, 24. Groccia, J. (1992). How Motivation Effects <http://www.ulc.psu.edu/studyskills/motivation.html>. Learning. Retrieved March 9, 2008, from Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching (p. 51). Essex: Pearson Education Limited. I-Jung, C. (n.d). Using Games to Promote Communicative Skills in Language Learning. Retrieved March 13, 2008, from <http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Chen-Games.html>. Kang, S., J. (2006). Ten Helpful Ideas for Teaching English To Young Learners. English Teaching Forum. Retrieved from March 5, 2008, from <http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol44/no2/p2.htm>. Norman, K. D. (Autumn, 1975). Play, Games and Interaction. The Contexts of Childhood Socialization. The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 458-478 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (Paperback): C. O’ Keeffe, R. (n.d). Motivating Young Learners and Teenagers - From Research to the Classroom: A Few Ideas. Öztürk, E. (2007). Teaching English to Young Learners Through Integrated Skills Approach. Diss. Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences Department of English Language Teaching. Salias, T, G. Teaching Language Realistically: Role Play is the Thing, 1995. Sarane S. B., & James S. C. (Summer, 1966). Games with Simulated Environments in Learning. Sociology of Education, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 215-236 Published by: American Sociological Association. S. Simpson, E. (n.d). Evolution in the Classroom: What Teachers Need to Know about the Video Game Generation, Volume 49, Number 5, 17-20. Techtrends. Sumarni R. (2008). School Teacher Training and Education Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Research Paper. Wilson, D. (n.d). Motivating Young Learners and meeting their learning needs. Wright, A., & Betteridge, D., & Buckby, M. (1984). Games for Language Learning. Cambridge University Press. Bertha Harrison, S. (Sep. 1, 1907). The Musical Times, Vol. 48, No. 775, pp. 589-592 Published by: Musical Times Publications Ltd. Albert, L. C. (Feb., 1929). The Use of "Realia" in the Teaching of French. The French Review, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 299-312 Published by: American Association of Teachers of French. Frederick, S. S. (Mar., 1942). The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 174-176 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations Stable URL. 114 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Spur F. (March, 1942). Realia in Foreign Language Course, The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 174-176. Gertrude, H. (Feb., 1958). Learning a Foreign Language The French Review, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 307-316 Published by: American Association of Teachers of French. Alfred, S., & Hayes, S. (May, 1965). New Directions in Foreign Language Teaching. The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 281-293 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations. Kathleen G. (Jun., 1991). Tools, Language and Intelligence: Evolutionary Implications. New Series, Vol. 26, No. 2. pp. 255-264 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Richards, J., & Platt J., & Platt H. (June 1992). Paperback: 448 pages: Addison Wesley Publishing Company; 2Rev Ed edition. Zheng, B. (Nov 13, 1993). Role Playing in Foreign language Teaching, An Application in an Elementary Chinese Class, New Orleans. Margaret, W., R. (May, 1994). Moving beyond the Tricks of the Trade, or Using Common, Everyday Items as Realia. Hispania, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp. 298-300. Published by: American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. Su Kim, L. (January - March 1995). Creative Games for the Language Class. Forum' Vol. 33 No 1, 35. Ersoz, A. (June 2000). Six Games for the EFL/ESL Classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 6. Retrieved March 14, 2008, from <http://www.teflgames.com/why.html>. Thi Thanh Huyen, N., & Thi Thu Nga, K. (December 2003). Learning Vocabulary Through Games. Asian EFL Journal. Summerfield, B. (November 30, 2006). The Importance of Games in Language Learning. Retrieved November, 15, 2008 from < http://www.marcandangel.com/2008/07/07/25-acts-of-body-language-toavoid > p. 21 Retrieved November, 15, 2008 from < http://www.deltabravo.net/custody/body.php > p. 23 Retrieved December 28, 2008, from < http://www.melta.org.my/ET/1990/main8.html > Chinese proverb p.18 Critical period for language learning debate. Retrieved March 21, 2008, from<http://sitemaker.umich.edu/kramer.356/critical_period_for_language_learning_deba e>. 115 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 411 Title A name given to the resource Motivating Young EFL Learners Through Effective Classroom Management Author Author Yüksel, Hasan Halıcı, Yekta Abstract A summary of the resource. Finding the best way to catch the attention of young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playing and, drama is of great significance due to the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, pictures, and games, so they are under the bombardment of all these. They live in an age of visualization. Depending upon this, it will also be mentioned that how the ELF teachers will catch the attention of the young EFL learners, which is actually one of the problematic area in classroom management. The reason is that just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, in the stark contrast, the students themselves want movement and action, and they would like to be much more involved in the class. Normally thinking, the learners is not roped to the class. However, the matter is that in order to learn regularly and peacefully, the students must feel themselves relaxed, they should be in peace, it shouldn’t be a kind of torture, and the teacher should vary the activities in the class so as to free from monotonous atmosphere. All of these things leave an impact on the students’ psychology and their motivational level either positively or negatively. Therefore, the main objective of the study is to depict how to motivate young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playings, drama, and body language of the teacher. From this perspective, this study will focus on the sustainable development in the foreign language teaching and learning fundamentally for young EFL learners Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e101c7f243ca50481584c8e9ebdb8b81.pdf dee2e350558a7ac93f6d939a53e5e1e6 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Research about the Impacts of Economic Crisis on Destination Marketing: Istanbul Example Burhanettin ZENGĠN Asst. Prof. Dr., Sakarya University, Department of Tourism Management, TURKEY bzengin@sakarya.edu.tr Lütfi Mustafa ġEN Res. Asst., Sakarya University, Department of Tourism Management, TURKEY lsen@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The objective of this study is to offer the alternative policies and strategies in the context of destination marketing which would be followed by the destination management organizations and touristic businesses in marketing their services and products to minimize the impacts of the economic crisis on touristic destinations when the probability of economic crisis is high, and to contribute to the studies that have been done on this issue. The questionnaire method was chosen to collect the data in this study. Sample questions were presented via Five-point Likert and Category Scales. The number of tourism agents operating in Turkey is 5,801, and 2000 of those, that is 33.6%, are in Istanbul. Therefore, considering the time constraint, number of travel agencies in Istanbul constitutes our study population. The study sample is 300 Type A, B, C tourism agencies in Istanbul selected by simple random sampling method and corresponding to 15% of the study population. The data obtained was analyzed in computer environment by using SPSS for Windows package program. Demographic data obtained from survey was subjected to frequency analysis; appropriate data was subjected to the Chi-square test. Introduction Being rich in tourist attractions just is not enough for a touristic destination to be successful nowadays. Due to tough competition in tourism sector, attracting tourists to touristic destinations is very complex and lengthy process, and requires planned destination marketing. The success of destination marketing efforts depends on accurate determination and implementation of policies and strategies, identification of target markets, and success of joint studies conducted by public and private sector organizations operating in the country with respect to planning of publicity and advertising activities for these markets. As known, tourism industry can be affected to a great extent by the smallest socio-cultural, economic, political and business cycle of changes. Therefore, in times of crisis, especially in times of economic crisis, crisis management and destination marketing policies and strategies to follow have even greater importance. Because in times of economic crisis, touristic demand structure and consumer behaviors in the target markets should be analyzed very well, and destination marketing policies and strategies should be identified accordingly. Definition and Characteristics of Tourism Destinations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines a local tourism destination as a physical area where a tourist spent a night at least. A tourism destination contains touristic products such as support services during a day trip, attractions and tourist resources. It does have physical and administrative boundaries with respect to management, images and perceptions with respect to market competitiveness. Destinations bring various hosts together, and they can combine to create a network for wider destinations (UNWTO, 2007). Tourism destination is defined as a geographical location or region where tourists are located within the local community. First of all, the destination is considered as a system includes inputs and outputs, communities and services, and business areas (Özdemir, 2008, p. 4). Gunn is suggested that all destinations share certain common features, and knowing that facilitates the design and development of the destinations. He was referring the following key features of destinations listed in Mathieson and Walls study (Howie, 2003, p. 74): 560 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo      Natural environmental features and processes Economic structure and development Social structure and layout Political organization The level of touristic development Destination Marketing Destination marketing aims to make the identity of a destination, established in compliance with the characteristics of that place, more appealing via the effective communication studies for the selected target audience. Since the destination marketing is managed by the individuals and/or entities located within destination borders, and with wide knowledge about the destination, and with dreams and expectations about the future of destination, this type of marketing is a strategy that has a potential to offer more flexible, fast and creative solutions, and to minimize the potential risks (Yavuz, 2007, p. 40). Development of an effective marketing management and strategy that has a clear vision and direction, marketing of destination in a effective and rational way, continuous checking of the brand image which is the most important component of a brand, are essential elements in destination marketing and branding to ensure the optimum benefits from the attractive aspects and different features of a destination (Demir, 2009). Spain is one of the best examples shows how important destination marketing is in tourism development and increasing tourism revenues in a country. That is, Spain has significant role in many international organization and fairs, and has significant athletic facilities. It also plays an important role in tourism in terms of tourism infrastructure and number of hotels, and car rental services. It is ranked tenth in Europe in terms of air transport infrastructure. It is well known that the government in Spain has given priority to tourism industry, strong destination marketing studies have been conducted, and Spain has been presented in many international fairs (Aksu, 2009). Definition and Characteristics of the Crisis The crisis is a situation that creates tension and threatens the high-level objectives of an organization, sometimes endangering the lives of organizations, and requires immediate reaction, and the organization's crisis prediction and prevention mechanisms becomes insufficient (Can, 1999, p. 315). In another source, the crisis is defined as follows; "The crisis is a situation which is unexpected and unpredictable, requires organization‘s quick and immediate response, threatens organization‘s current values, purposes and assumptions by making organization‘s prevention and adaptation mechanism inadequate. Stress, anxiety, panic, etc.. is the expression of emotions experienced in times of crisis‖ (Tağraf & Arslan, 2003, p. 150). The features of the crisis can be listed as follows (Aykaç, 2001, p. 125):  Organizational structures, values and norms to be affected negatively,  Unexpected developments occur,  Crisis situation can not be estimated,  Inadequate mechanisms to prevent,  Crisis, threatening the existence purpose of the organization,  The lack of adequate information and time for the measures to prevent the crisis.  Requires the immediate implementation of the measures taken  Create tension in the management of the organization Some crises are the results of the natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, volcanic explosions, hurricanes, and landslides. Other crises like environmental pollution, crime, war, terrorism, economic stagnation and strikes are caused by the people. Either short-term or long term, whether natural or man-made disaster, the common features of the crisis that has potential impact on tourism industry consist of three parts (Pike, 2004, p. 158):  Any destination is not exempt from the crisis in the long term  A crisis is rarely predictable.  The causes of the crisis are outside of the tourism industry‘s control. 561 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Definition and Characteristics of Crisis Management In contrast to emergency and risk management discipline addressing natural disasters, crisis management concerns man-made or man-caused crisis such as child abduction, environmental pollution, sexual harassment, abuse, and defective products. Crisis management is the strategic planning done before and after the crisis to ensure the least damage out of unexpected situations (Otay, 2008). Some features of crisis management are unique. Some of these features are listed below (HaĢit, 2000, p. 65):  Crisis management primarily aims to reveal the businesses those can predict the crisis in advance, distinguish between the types and take the necessary measures accordingly, learn new things, and recover in the shortest time possible.  Crisis prevention varies according to managers' perceptions of the crisis. The probability of success in the prevention of crises is increasing when crisis managers perceived the crisis as threatening  Crisis management has no beginning and end, and is an application that requires continuity.  Crisis management is constituted according to the type of crisis. Crisis management is tailored to the type of crisis since each type of crisis contains its own signs and solutions. Crisis and Tourism The crisis in tourism in general can be described as follows; is an event which causes disruption in normal functioning of tourism-related businesses, damages all the reputation of the safety, attractiveness, and comfort of a touristic destination by negatively affecting the perceptions of visitors, as a result, negatively affects tourism economy and causes reduced tourist arrival and spending, delay doing business in the tourism sector (Glaesser, 2005, p. 6). The crisis management in tourism is defined as information gathering, assessment, action planning, implementation and control functions carried out to eliminate the effects of an event or events emerged unexpectedly and negatively affecting the image of a product, organization, country or region, ultimately leading to social and economic losses. The crisis management is not an activity only covering the period after the emergence of the crisis. The crisis management in fact includes the activities such as determination of the warning signals, and establishment of protection and prevention mechanism to be carried out in the period until the emergence of the crisis. Therefore, the crisis management involves a long process (Köroğlu, 2004, p. 71). Tourism is an economic activity in terms of bringing foreign currencies and creating employment; is a socio-cultural activity in terms of bringing together different cultures and meeting recreational needs of the people. It is also an activity field where demands have positive and negative impacts on the environment. Tourism, one of the world's fastest growing sectors, has significant problems today. The economic crisis in the world has negatively affected the tourism sector (Aymankuy, 2001, p. 109). The businesses struggling to survive in an intensive competition environment, at the same time, are obliged to fight with the crisis which nearly turned into a chronic crisis in Turkey. In addition to all this, many economies around the globe have been affected by the increasing size of the problems that began as a credit crisis in the world's largest economy in the U.S. in 2008, and reflected in the financial markets, and as a result, the world has come to the brink of a financial downturn. The negative impacts of the global economic crisis are observed in all sectors in our country (especially at the beginning of the year 2009). As having its own crisis, tourism sector has been also significantly affected by this type macro crisis, and difficulties have been experienced in the management of tourism businesses operating in this area (Bahar et al., 2009, p. 28). It is clear that despite the ongoing financial downturn, a variety of tourist products and services are provided. Meetings, incentive travel, conference or exhibition have been identified as the most affected touristic services in a variety of touristic destinations. Apparently, while shopping and entertainment jobs were reducing in coastal, urban and a variety of destinations, cultural attractions have suffered a severe decline in many coastal, mountain and urban destinations (UNWTO, 2009). The strategy to be followed by Turkish tourism against the global economic crisis is very important. In this context, focusing attracting tourists from upper income segments to the country has become more important rather than the number of tourists arriving into the country. Bringing the service quality, customer satisfaction and innovation to the forefront, bringing the revenue to maximum level while reducing costs, and keeping the sound cash flow are extremely important to exit from the crisis with minimum losses and even making profit from the crisis (Demir, 2008). 562 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Objectives of the Study The objective of this study is to offer the alternative policies and strategies in the context of destination marketing that would be followed by the destination management organizations and touristic businesses in marketing their services and products to minimize the impacts of the economic crisis on touristic destinations when the probability of economic crisis is high, and to contribute to the studies that have been done on this issue. Therefore, we believe that our study will be beneficial to our tour operators and travel agents, that have a significant role in obtaining foreign currency income needed in our country, by offering them different view and solutions in the context of destination marketing to minimize the income loss and the contraction in touristic demand especially in times of economic crisis. Method The questionnaire method is chosen to collect the data in our study. The reason for choosing this method is to obtain desired data from a large number of subjects in a short time, and analyze obtained data quickly and reliably with the help of computer-aided statistical data analysis programs. Questionnaire consists of two groups. The first group includes demographic questions; categorical style is used in design of the first group questions and the other questions that aim to assess the impacts of global economic crisis on destination marketing policies of businesses. The five-point Likert scale was created to resolve the main issues of this study. The ideal study population consists of 5,801 A, B and C type of travel agencies in Turkey. However, considering the time constraint, 2000 A, B, and C type travel agencies in Istanbul have been determined as the realistic population of this study. The study sample is consist of 300 Type A,B, C tourism agencies in Istanbul selected by simple random sampling method and corresponding to 15% of the realistic population of this study. Questionnaires were administered to middle and upper level managers in travel agents. 350 questionnaires were distributed, 191 out of 350 questionnaires were received back, 157 out of 191 were subjected to analysis, the remaining 34 out of 191 were not subjected to analysis due to lack of proper data. The data obtained was analyzed in computer environment using SPSS 15.0 for Windows package program. Demographic data and business-related data obtained from the survey were subjected to frequency analysis. In addition, the appropriate data was subjected to the Chi-Square test, an analysis technique for examining relationships. Findings The analysis of the demographic data in Table 1 shows that 61.2% of the participants‘ is male, 38.8% of the participants‘ is female, 30.5% of the participants‘ is in age group of 18-25, 41.4% of the participants‘ is in age group of 26-30, 21% of the participants‘ in age group of 31-35; % 5.7 of the participants‘ in age group of 36-40; 1.2% of the participants‘ is in age group of 41 and over. The analysis of the participants‘ educational status shows that majority of the participants are university graduates. 56% of participants‘ has undergraduate degree; 5.7% of the participants‘ has graduate degree. In parallel, such a large part, 44,6% of the participants‘, are tourism school graduates. A large portion of our audience (study sample), approximately 40%, is working in marketing and sales departments. Another noteworthy issue in Table 1 is, almost all of our audience (study sample), 92.3% of the participants‘, is consisted of middle and upper level managers, which increase the credibility of our work. In addition, 80% of our sample group has 1 to 10 years working experience in the sector, which also indicates the high working experience level of the participants. 563 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CHARACTERISTICS Sex Male Female Total Age 18-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41 and over Total SAMPLE n 96 61 157 n 48 65 33 9 2 157 n Marital Status 60 Married 97 Single 157 Total n Educational Background 12 Primary Education 48 Secondary Education 88 University 9 Graduate Education 157 Total n Have you received tourism education? 70 Yes 87 No 157 Total n Division 9 Purchasing 9 Human Resources 8 Accounting-Financing 54 Operation 61 Sales & Marketing 16 Management 157 Total n Position in The Business 12 Personnel 88 Middle Manager 57 Senior Executive 157 Total Total Working Period in Tourism Industry (Year) n 18 Less than a year 60 1-5 48 6-10 19 11-15 12 16 and over 157 Total Total Working Period in The Business That You n 564 % 61,2 38,8 100 % 30,5 41,4 21,0 5,7 1,2 100 % 38,3 61,7 100 % 7,6 30,5 56,0 5,7 100 % 44,6 55,4 100 % 5,7 5,7 5,0 34,3 38,8 10,1 100 % 7,6 56,0 36,3 100 % 11,4 38,2 30,5 12,1 7,6 100 % �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo are Working Now (Year) Less than a year 1-5 6-10 11-15 16 and over Total 12 78 37 21 9 157 7,6 49,6 23,5 13,3 5,7 100 Table 1. Demographic Data The data in Table 2 is of great importance for our study since it provides updated information of what extent travel agents are affected by the crisis in 2009, when the impacts of the global economic crisis are being felt the most in Turkey. The analysis of the data in Table 2 reveals the following conclusions, and is emerging as important; % 47.7 of the participating businesses‘ is Group A, % 12.1 is Group B, and % 40.2 is Group C travel agencies. The majority of businesses, that is 36.2%, have expressed that they had a bad year in 2009 in terms of economic situation. Likewise, in 2009, 61.1% of the participating businesses‘ could reach the number of customers purchased 0-5000 travel products; only 38.9% of participating businesses‘ could hit 5000-20000 and above. Again in 2009, 54.1% of the participating businesses' noted 00-10% decrease in service production; 67.5% of the participating businesses‘ noted 00-10% decrease in employment. All these data clearly shows the extent of negative impacts of the global economic crisis on travel enterprises operating in Turkey. However, it also shows that the participating businesses are more positive about economics situation in 2010. Indeed, 52.1% of the participating businesses‘ believes that 2010 will be better off in terms of economic situation. However, approximately 50% of the participating businesses‘ believes that the process of economic recovery in Turkish tourism industry has already started. CHARACTERISTICS Choose your type of business Tour Operator (A Group) Travel Agency (B Group) Travel Agency (C Group) Total How many people are working in your business 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total What is the average number of customers that buy travel products in your business in 2009? 0-5.000 5.001-10.000 10.001-15.000 15.001-20.000 20.001 and over Total How was the economic condition in terms of your business in 2009 Very good Good Break-Even Bad Very bad Total What do you think about that; how will be the economic condition in terms of your business in 2010? 565 SAMPLE N % 75 47,7 19 12,1 63 40,1 157 100 N % 88 56,0 22 14,0 18 11,4 15 9,5 14 8,9 157 100 N % 96 16 22 9 14 157 N 10 27 63 36 21 157 61,1 10,1 14,0 5,7 8,9 100 % 6,3 17,1 40,1 22,9 13,3 100 N % �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Very good Good Break-Even Bad Very bad Total Have you ever encountered economic crisis situation in your business before? Yes No Total Have the crisis management policies been carried out for Turkish tourism sector in 2009 successfully? Yes Partly No Total Has the economic recovery process started in Turkish tourism sector so far? Yes Partly No Total If your service production had decrease, to what extent has this decrease been? Less than 10% 10-19% 20-29% 30-39% 40-49% More than 50% Total If your employment was decreased, to what extent has this decrease would be? Less than 10% 10-19% 20-29% 30-39% 40-49% More than 50% Total Do you have a shortage in financing? Yes Partly No Total Did you invest in tourism in 2009 We did not invest We bought business We invested in the modernization We invested abroad We entered to a new investment Total Do you want to increase capacity or invest in tourism for 2010 566 18 64 63 9 3 157 11,4 40,7 40,1 5,7 1,9 100 N % 119 38 157 75,8 24,2 100 N % 70 33 54 157 44,5 21,0 34,3 100 N % 76 48 33 157 48,4 30,5 21,0 100 N % 85 27 12 9 15 9 157 54,1 17,1 7,6 5,7 9,5 5,7 100 N % 106 23 9 12 6 1 157 N 40 103 14 157 N 36 12 75 6 28 157 N 67,5 14,6 5,7 7,6 3,8 0,6 100 % 25,4 65,6 8,9 100 % 22,9 7,6 47,7 3,8 17,8 100 % �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Yes. We want to invest in domestic Yes. We want to invest in abroad No. Total How was the change of your costs in 2009? Increased Unchanged Decreased Total Table 2: Business Related Data 82 24 51 157 N 70 51 36 157 52,2 15,2 32,4 100 % 44,5 32,4 22,9 100 Table 3 shows the results of Chi-Square test. Chi-Square test helps to determine whether a systematic relationship between two variables exists. Chi-Square test, in other words, is used to test whether the observed relationship between variables is statistically meaningful (AltunıĢık et al., 2005, p.195). As noted in Table 3, in ChiSquare test, having the Asymp. Sig. values less than 5% shows a meaningful relationship between variables. PROPERTIES * Type of business * In Turkey, an effective crisis management strategy, or strategies and vulnerable businesses directly affected the economic crisis . * Type of business * Cooperation between public and private sectors decreases the economic crisis devastating effects on the sector. * Type of business * In the tourism sector derivative financial instruments (futures, forwards, options, swaps, etc..) Gaining popularity in use, will increase the negative effects of economic crisis. * Type of business * Upgrades to banks' credit costs in the economic crisis, tourism businesses are left in the lurch financially. * Type of business * Destination marketing for different markets reduces the impact of economic crisis. * Type of business * The marketing of destinations as well makes the difference, in economic crisis, businesses can increase their foreign exchange income. * Type of business * In the economic crisis, businesses, high income levels of competition for the marketing efforts power is increased. * Educational Background * Businesses to reduce their prices, tourism demand is increasing by reducing the impact of economic crisis * Educational Background * Political tensions which lead to narrowing impact of demand, effect economic crisis increases. * Educational Background * Improving service quality, reduce the impact of economic crisis * Educational Background * Establishing crisis management team provides a business to get through the crisis with the least damage. * Educational Background * Building Turkey's own tour operator system , by reducing touristic demand recession in the economic crisis , increases competitiveness in the international arena 567 Value Asymp. Sig. 89,397a ,000 22,986a ,003 34,725a ,000 23,672a ,003 32,596a ,000 26,803a ,001 64,249a ,000 233,001a ,000 322,025a ,000 145,862a ,000 190,577a ,000 127,379a ,000 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo * Educational Background * In the economic crisis, state's increasing the allowance for promotional campaign in different markets, remains a positive impact on tourist demand * Educational Background * During the economic crisis, increasing the incentives given to investors, the economic crisis may reduce the impact of the tourism sector. * Educational Background * During the economic crisis, tourism taxes to eliminate the impact of economic crisis by increasing tourist demand decreases. * Educational Background * Spread over 12 months of alternative tourism by developing tourism, the destinations reduces the effect of strengthening the economic crisis. * Educational Background * Against possible economic crisis faced by the tourism sector, preventive crisis management plans to make our country a significant competitive edge against rival offers destinations. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Governmental support to Turkish tour operators ,in the medium term by increasing the demand for international tourists, especially could minimize the negative effects of the global economic crisis . * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * To increase domestic tourism demand, global economic crisis by minimizing the effects of demand contraction to reduce working capital needs. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Increasing advertising and promotional campaign for domestic tourism has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * The use of different promotional and sales techniques, in times of economic crisis has a positive impact on destination marketing. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Resources and reduction of operating costs, in times of economic crisis has a positive effect on destination marketing. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Going to the integration of another business affects destination marketing positively in times of economic crisis. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Postponing payments or extending the maturity of loans, has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Removing the staff has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry *Organizational downsizing has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis. 217,537a ,000 167,923a ,000 166,876a ,000 255,329a ,000 199,555a ,000 155,879a ,000 200,355a ,000 239,396a ,000 253,480a ,000 242,624a ,000 274,542a ,000 320,185a ,000 276,945a ,000 200,148a ,000 Table 3: Chi-Square Test Results Conclusion and Recommendations Global economic crisis emerging in the United States spread all over the word as the use of derivative financial instruments such as futures, forwards, options, swaps, etc. has been gained popularity in stock exchanges in the world. In Turkey, particularly with the establishment of Turkish Derivatives Exchange, the widespread use of these types of derivative financial instruments in tourism industry is one of the biggest reason that the businesses affected by the crisis. This crisis has shown that non-operating items in the balance sheets of the businesses should be under control, and any global financial crisis signs must be well analyzed. In addition to all this, as the increased 568 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo bank credit costs, businesses have been further weakened in this difficult time of economic crisis. Lowering the cost of resources and activities to relief of financial hardship stemming from the crisis is of vital importance. For this, all performed business activities should be analyzed in detail, and unnecessary and non-value-added activities should be eliminated. Thus, an increase on the profitability can be achieved by lowering the cost of goods and services by eliminating resource costs caused by non-income-generating activities. The studies about crisis management are of great importance to minimize the demand contraction for destinations caused by the economic crisis. Therefore, strategies for crisis management for the Turkish tourism sector should be developed primarily at the macro level, and then preventive crisis management plan should be formed in line with these strategies on destination basis. Because the characteristics, the target market/markets, consumer demands and market needs are different for each destination. Therefore, while developing destination marketing activities in times of crisis, such matters shall be taken into consideration. In later stages, establishing crisis management teams on destination basis is of great importance to apply destination crisis management plans designed in line with crisis management strategies. As the basic strategy in times of economic crisis, performing destination marketing studies targeting the upper income levels is of great importance to maximize the profits. Number of foreign tourists coming to Turkey in 2008 was 30.9 million, reached to 32 millions in 2009 increasing by 3.3%. However, total tourism revenue in Turkey in 2008 was 21,950.8 million dollars, decreased by 3.2% in 2009, declined to $ 21,249.3 million (www.turizm.gov.tr). As shown, in spite of the increase in the number of tourists compared to the previous year, tourism revenues decreased in reverse. Therefore, it would be a much wiser strategy to perform destination marketing efforts focusing on increasing the number of tourist from upper income level rather than increasing the number of tourists via cheap mass tourism. The implementation of specific marketing activities such as performing destination marketing focused on different markets, marketing distinctive aspects of destinations, improving the quality of services, spreading to 12 months by developing alternative tourism, using different promotional and sales techniques, etc. are of great importance to successfully implement this basic strategy. In addition, the destination marketing activities performed by the governments in times of economic crisis might be quite useful to minimize the impacts of the crisis on businesses. These are, increasing governmental funds for promotional activities in different markets in times of crisis, increasing the incentives given to investors, minimizing or eliminating the taxes in tourism sector, providing government support to Turkish tour operators, etc. In this context, establishing Turkey's own tour operator system is vital. Because by doing this, the dependence of the Turkish travel agents to foreign tour operators will be eliminated, and therefore, keeping more foreign currency in the country will reduce the negative impacts of the crisis on travel enterprises. References Aksu, A. (2009). Sayılarla Turizm Endüstrisi`nin GeliĢimi. http://www.tourismtoday.net/default.asp?inc=news_details&intCatID=8&intNewsID=6007, 09.03.2010. AltunıĢık, R., CoĢkun, R., Bayraktaroğlu, S. & Yıldırım, E. (2005). Sosyal Bilimlerde AraĢtırma Yöntemleri. Sakarya Kitapevi, Sakarya. Aykaç, B. (2001). Kamu Yönetiminde Kriz ve Kriz Yönetimi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2/2001,123-132. Aymankuy, ġ.Y. (2001). Turizm Sektöründe Kriz Yönetimi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Vol.6, 105-118. Bahar, E., Kaya, F. & Keklik, F. (2009). Konaklama ĠĢletmelerinin Ekonomik Kriz Döneminde Uyguladıkları Krizle Mücadele Stratejilerinin Tespit Edilmesine Yönelik Bir AraĢtırma. X. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, Mersin, 27-36. Can, H. (1999). Organizasyon ve Yönetim. Siyasal Kitapevi, Ankara. Demir, E. Ö. (2009). Destinasyon Pazarlaması ve MarkalaĢma. http://www.turizmdebusabah.com/haber_detay.asp?haberNo=48081, 15.03.2010. Demir, O. (2008). Kriz Yönetim Stratejileri ve Kriz ĠletiĢimi. http://fbe.emu.edu.tr/journal/doc/11-12/06.pdf, 14.01.2010. Demir, Ö. (2008). Küresel Krizin Turizme Etkisi ve 2009‘da Ġzlenmesi Gereken Politikalar. http://www.turizmgazetesi.com/articles/article.aspx?id=45440, 16.01.2010. 569 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Glaesser, D. (2005). Turizm Sektöründe Kriz Yönetimi. Translator: Bahadır Ahiska, Set Systems Yayınları, Ġstanbul HaĢit, G. (2000). ĠĢletmelerde Kriz Yönetimi ve Türkiye‘nin Büyük Sanayi ĠĢletmeleri Üzerinde Yapılan AraĢtırma ÇalıĢması. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, EskiĢehir Howie, F. (2003). Managing the Tourist Destination. Thomson, London Köroğlu, A. (2004). Turizm ĠĢletmelerinin Muhtemel Krizlere Yönelik Hazırlık ÇalıĢmaları ve Seyahat Acentalarında Bir Uygulama. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 7 (12), 69-87. Özdemir, G. (2008). Destinasyon Pazarlaması. Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara Pike, S. (2004). Destination Marketing Organisations. ELSEVIER, Amsterdam. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, www.turizm.gov.tr, 12.04.2010. Tağraf, H. ve Arslan N. T. (2003). Kriz OluĢum Süreci ve Kriz Yönetiminde Proaktif YaklaĢım. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Dergisi, 4, (1), 149-160. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), (2009). Impact of the Global Economic Crisis on Local Tourism Destinations. Published and printed by the World Tourism Organization, Spain. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), (2007). A Practical Guide to Tourism Destination Management. Published and printed by the World Tourism Organization, Spain. Yavuz, M. C. (2007). Uluslararası Destinasyon Markası OluĢturulmasında Kimlik GeliĢtirme Süreci: Adana Örneği. BasılmamıĢ Doktora Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana. 570 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 275 Title A name given to the resource A Research about the Impacts of Economic Crisis on Destination Marketing: Istanbul Example Author Author ZENGİN, Burhanettin ŞEN, Lütfi Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to offer the alternative policies and strategies in the context of destination marketing which would be followed by the destination management organizations and touristic businesses in marketing their services and products to minimize the impacts of the economic crisis on touristic destinations when the probability of economic crisis is high, and to contribute to the studies that have been done on this issue. The questionnaire method was chosen to collect the data in this study. Sample questions were presented via Five-point Likert and Category Scales. The number of tourism agents operating in Turkey is 5,801, and 2000 of those, that is 33.6%, are in Istanbul. Therefore, considering the time constraint, number of travel agencies in Istanbul constitutes our study population. The study sample is 300 Type A, B, C tourism agencies in Istanbul selected by simple random sampling method and corresponding to 15% of the study population. The data obtained was analyzed in computer environment by using SPSS for Windows package program. Demographic data obtained from survey was subjected to frequency analysis; appropriate data was subjected to the Chi-square test. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f4323d165e548514650b5b329a74df0b.pdf 8c90e5535ebc053d642fcd3d071d3bbe PDF Text Text Effect of Marble Dust on Consolidation Characteristics of Clay Soils Ismail ZORLUER Department of Construction Education, AKU, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey izorluer@aku.edu.tr Ismail MURATOGLU Department of Construction Education, AKU, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey Abstract : The usage of waste materials as an additive material has became widespread, in soil stabilization. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, marble dust had been used as an additive material in clay soil. Marble dust is a waste of the marble industry and despite its recycling in various industries, there is still a significant amount of marble dust left as waste. In this study, soil specimens were sampled from different locations in the ANS campus of Afyon Kocatepe University. These specimens were mixed with waste marble dust at ratios of 5%, 10% and 15%. Geotechnical experiments were carried out on specimens. Test results shows that marble dust have affected consolidation characteristics of clay soils. Especially, swelling index and consolidation index of specimens were decreased. This decrease is important in point of swelling potential of clay soils. Introduction Marble dust is a waste of the marble industry and despite its recycling in various industries, there is still a significant amount of marble dust left as waste. Marble dust has been used as an additive for soil stabilization. Okagbue and Onyeobi (1999) showed that the geotechnical parameters of red tropical soils are substantially improved by adding marble dust: plasticity is reduced by 20 to 33% and strength and CBR increased by 30 to 46% and 27 to 55%, respectively. The effect of marble dust on the swelling potential of Na-bentonite and Meşelik clays and unconfined compressive strength was investigated by Zorluer (2003, 2006). Specimens were mixed with marble dust at different percentages (3,5,8,10%) of dry soil weight, and compacted at standard proctor compaction energy. For swelling tests, specimens were obtained using oedometer floating ring from compacted mixtures and then tests were carried out with oedometer. Swelling potential reduced from 25.6% to 21% at 5-8% marble dust additive. For compression test, specimens were sampled with coring tube from compacted mixtures. Unconfined compressive tests were performed to these specimens and were cured for 1, 7 and 28 days. At the end of 28 days of curing time, strength increased from 20.1 to 57.3 N/cm2. Waste marble dust was used as an additive material by Zorluer and Taspolat (2009) in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. The objective of this study was to investigate use of marble dust as an additive in clay soils. For this purpose, soil specimens were sampled from 3 locations at ANS campus of Afyon Kocatepe University. These specimens were mixed with waste marble dust (proportions of 5, 10 and 15% dust to dry soil by weight). Index properties of the specimens were determined by liquid limit, plastic limit, sieve, hydrometer and buoyancy analysis tests. Standard proctor and odeometer tests were carried out in these specimens. Materials Afyonkarahisar region is known as one of the most important marble production and processing centre in Turkey. Yearly production of marble is about 80,000 m3 in this region. About 24,000 m3 marble dust occurs 514 �from this production. Marble dust is minimum sized marble waste that occurs with sawing of marble blocks and plates. This dust is carried by water to sedimentation ponds. Sediment dust is removed from the pond to wasteland, but this forms serious problems for the environment. Waste marble dust is used in very small quantities despite being used in widely variable industries, such as construction, ceramics and cement, paint, agriculture and fertilizer; as a result, a lot of marble dust ends up as waste (2003). The marble dust used in this study, was obtained from a marble processing factory in Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. It was dried and sieved, resulting in marble dust grains smaller than 300 microns. Table 1 are shown chemical compound percentage (%) of marble dust. SiO2 0.01 Al2O3 Fe2O3 0.85 0.04 CaO 55.30 MgO 0.24 P2 O 3 ----- K2 O 0.20 Na2O 0.03 SO3 ----- Mn2O3 LOIa ----- 43.51 Table 1. Chemical Compound Percentage of Marble Dust (%) Afyon Kocatepe University Campus area was formed clay. Clay specimens were sampled from three points at campus area. These points were named as BH1, BH2 and BH3. Properties of specimens are in the table 2. Soil classification and definition tests were applied according to the TS 1900 standard. wp Ip class Specimen Gs wl BH1 2,65 59,5 25,6 33,9 CH BH2 2,72 37,2 20,4 16,8 CL BH3 2,76 29,4 21,6 7,8 CL Gs:Specific Gravity, wl: Liquid limit, wp: Plastic Limit, Ip: Plasticity index Table 2. Geotechnical Properties of Clay Specimens 100 BH1 90 BH2 Percent finer (%) 80 BH3 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 1 0,1 0,01 0,001 Grain size (mm) Figure 1. Grain size distribution curves of specimens. Experimental Study and Results Standard proctor test was performed on clay specimens. Compaction characteristics of clay soils were determined from this Proctor test. Maximum dry density and optimum water contents were obtained from figure 2. The specimens were mixed with waste marble dust at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. These ratios were obtained 515 �from other studies (Okagbue&Onyeobi, 1999; Zorluer, 2003, 2006, 2009). Then, these mixtures were compacted with optimum water content at the standard compaction mold. 17,5 BH1 BH2 BH3 Dry Unit weight (kN/m2) 17 16,5 16 15,5 15 14,5 14 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Water content (%) Figure 2. Compaction curves of soil specimens For consolidation tests, specimens were sampled from compacted mixtures using odeometer ring. Consolidation tests were carried out on these specimens. e-log p graphs were plotted from consolidation tests results (fig. 3 a, b, c). In addition, compression index (cc) and expansion index (ce) were obtained from figure 3. 1,3 BH2 5% 10% 15% 1,8 1,6 Void ratio (e) 1,2 1,1 1,4 1,2 1 1 0,9 0,8 0,8 0,6 1 10 100 Pressure (kN/m 2) 1000 1 10 100 Pressure (kN/m 2) a b 2,2 2,1 Void ratio (e) Void ratio (e) 2 BH1 5% 10% 15% BH3 5% 10% 15% 2 1,9 1,8 1,7 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,1 1 1 10 100 Pressure (kN/m 2) 1000 c Figure 3. (a, b, c) e-log p curves of specimens 516 1000 �Discussion Compression index (cc) is the slope of the linear portion of the e-log p plot and dimensionless. It was seen that cc has decreased with marble dust increasing for all specimens (fig 4 a). For example, this decreasing is from 0,304 to 0,220 for BH3. Similarly, void ratios of specimens have decreased with marble dust increasing (fig 3). Consolidation settlement of soils is fewer when soil voids decreased. 0,320 0,060 BH1 BH2 0,055 BH3 BH3 Expansion index Compression index BH1 BH2 0,300 0,280 0,260 0,240 0,050 0,045 0,040 0,035 0,220 0,200 0,030 0% Additive 5% Additive %10 Additive %15 Additive 0% Additive 5% Additive %10 Additive %15 Additive a b Figure 4. Change of compression and expansion indices with increasing marble dust. Decreasing of expansion index (ce) is same with other studies (Zorluer, 2003). The findings show that the expansion index of specimens decreases when the amount of the added marble dust increases (fig 4.b). Therefore, swelling potential reduces when the amount of the added marble dust increases. This case shows that marble dust can be used at stabilization of swelling soils. Also, at the other study of Zorluer (2003), swelling potential was reduced by adding marble dust. Besides, swelling potential values was measured from swell pressure test. Conclusion Marble dust affects the properties of clay like strength, swelling potential, freeze-thaw strength. This case was expressed at previous studies. In this study, consolidation characteristic of clay were affected from waste marble dust. Compression index (cc) and expansion index (ce) of specimens decreases when the amount of the added marble dust increases. Furthermore, void ratio decreases with increasing of marble dust. This result shows that consolidation settlement reduced when marble dust mixed to clay soil. Use of marble dust in soil stabilization, provide the protection of the environment. In addition, it is gained an economical material for soil stabilization. References Okagbue, C.O. Onyeobi, T.U.S. (1999). Potential of marble dust to stabilize red tropical soils for road construction. Engineering Geology, 53. 371-380. Zorluer, I. (2003). Effect of waste marble dust to swelling potential of clay soils. XI. National Clay Symposium. Izmir, Turkey. 475-482. TS 1900-1 (Turkish Standard) (2006) Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes in the laboratory - Part 1: Determination of physical properties Ankara, Turkey. TS 1900-2 (Turkish Standard) (2006) Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes in the laboratory – Part 2: Determination of Mechanical Properties Ankara,Turkey. Zorluer, I. (2006). The Effect of waste marble dust on unconfined compression strength of clay soils. GAP V, Engineering Congress. Sanlıurfa, Turkey, 1042-1046. Zorluer, I. & Taspolat, L.T. (2009). Reuse of waste marble dust in the landfill layer. First International Symposium on Sustainable Development. Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. 301-305. 517 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 581 Title A name given to the resource Effect of Marble Dust on Consolidation Characteristics of Clay Soils Author Author ZORLUER, Ismail MURATOGLU, Ismail Abstract A summary of the resource. The usage of waste materials as an additive material has became widespread, in soil stabilization. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, marble dust had been used as an additive material in clay soil. Marble dust is a waste of the marble industry and despite its recycling in various industries, there is still a significant amount of marble dust left as waste. In this study, soil specimens were sampled from different locations in the ANS campus of Afyon Kocatepe University. These specimens were mixed with waste marble dust at ratios of 5%, 10% and 15%. Geotechnical experiments were carried out on specimens. Test results shows that marble dust have affected consolidation characteristics of clay soils. Especially, swelling index and consolidation index of specimens were decreased. This decrease is important in point of swelling potential of clay soils. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c1e266b049841e0779b681e65fb9c847.pdf 451cde7f415e0ebabf0589b62b8f2e48 PDF Text Text Verification And Validation Of The Devs Models Ahmet ZENGIN Department of Computer Science Education, Sakarya University, Serdivan, Sakarya, Turkey, azengin@sakarya.edu.tr Etem KÖKLÜKAYA Department of Electrical-Electronics Engineering Sakarya University, Serdivan, Sakarya, Turkey, ekaya@sakarya.edu.tr Hüseyin EKĐZ Department of Computer Science Education, Sakarya University, Serdivan, Sakarya, Turkey, ekiz@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract :Simulation remains attractive for teaching, training and performance analysis of computer networks. This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for teaching and learning the complex dynamics of computer networks. The general-purpose DEVS-Suite simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high-level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of computer network topologies and the logics of communication protocols. This newly developed DEVSSuite offers an expressive, yet relatively simple to use, simulation environment for students and educators to develop and experiment with computer network models. The paper concludes with observations on the proposed modeling approach and outline some evaluations. In this paper we discuss verification and validation of DEVS simulation models. Four different approaches to deciding model validity are described; two different paradigms that relate verification and validation to the model development process are presented; various validation techniques are defined; conceptual model validity, model verification, operational validity, and data validity are discussed; a way to document results is given; a recommended procedure for model validation is presented; and model accreditation is briefly discussed. Keywords: DEVS, DEVS-Suite, Computer Networks, Education, OSPF, ns-2. I. Introduction DEVS-Suite is a general-purpose, discrete event simulation environment which supports visualization and tracking capabilities [1], [2]. This is the new generation of the DEVSJAVA simulator [3] based on DEVS formalism [4]. This simulator also supports variable structure modeling [5]. The DEVS-Suite user-interface provides a consistent, efficient, integrated hierarchical component-based representation of models with run-time I/O and state trajectories and tabular data visualization. The OSPF models developed on top of DEVS-Suite is the result of using networking theory as well as software engineering principles. Particular attention is paid to reliability and maintainability in view of the ns-2 simulator. With the developed OSPF simulator, students can create arbitrary network topologies, experiment with the models, and in particular track the dynamics of the network related to routing. Students can be empowered to learn the network concepts interactively. DEVS-Suite simulator can be run on a personal computer as well as online via DEVS-Suite Web Start [6] which enables elearning using Java Web Start technology [7]. The beginning stage was to create a model and simulator software that can help with the design of the network. All common components of a packet switched network with atomic node and data link models of various capacity assignments were defined using the parallel DEVS formalism at desirable level of abstraction. DEVS modeling approach supports hierarchical modular model construction and distributed execution, and therefore offers a basis to characterize complex, large-scale systems with atomic and coupled models. Many application 425 �areas such as swarm routing [8] and processor architectures [9] have been developed using the DEVS Formalism. In particular, the link state routing protocol OSPF with its behavior is modeled. In order to show accuracy of model execution, a set of experiments for validation were performed and results were compared with the ns-2 simulator. Later, evaluations together with ns-2 comparison were carried out in terms of modeling and educational aspects. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section II briefly reviews the DEVS, DEVS-Suite and ns-2 simulators and describes the OSPF protocol. Section III defines the developed simulation environment detailing the basic model components. Section IV presents an example that shows learning of the OSPF protocol using the DEVS-Suite simulator. Section V describes the validation of the DEVS-Suite network model using simulation of the OSPF in ns-2. Section VI covers evaluation of the developed framework in terms of modeling and education aspects. Section VII presents conclusions and future work. II. Validation Of Simulation Models A. What is validation? Validation is a degree of which how correct a model represents the behavior of its system counterpart from the perspective of intended use of the model [4]. The degree of representation of the model or abstraction is determined by modeler according to user demands. Whenever modeler and simulation user meets are satisfied, it is considered as model is valid. In other words, model validation must be evaluated for its condition of being useful instead of perfectness of it. Validation is a highly required and an integral part of the entire simulation lifecycle by which model is credible and accredit. Model validation process is intended for building the correct model and it helps to find right one [10]. Simulation validity is related to simulation design and simulation usage purpose. Validation process has to be performed both modeler and simulation user [11]. In order to validate a model, quantitative and qualitative tests can be performed [11] [12]. In DEVS framework, an experimental frame is used to perform validation tests. If behaviors of both model and its system counterpart are within acceptable tolerance, model is said to be valid [4]. Validation tests are various tests rather than single detailed tests by which confidence of the model increase as it passes them. Passing a test doesn’t express model is valid; on the other hand failure of any test allows modeler to make decision on the model redesign. B. Validation process Figure 1 shows verification and validation processes in discrete event modeling and simulation study with experimental frame. In DEVS modeling process, experimental frame is used to make decisions on the model. Though it is main function is to transfer outcome measures to variables, it is also used in evaluating how well model objectives are achieved. In the case study, it is tried to show using experimental frame for verification and validation process. Figure 1 helps to map V&V onto whole modeling process rather giving an idea that V&V process is a singular phase or step in modeling. V&V is a continuous process confluent with modeling and simulation [13]. As shown in the Figure 1, modeling activity starts with problem statement and statement of objectives. After development of the conceptual model, conceptual model validation is conducted to determine detail level of proposed model. Validation of the conceptual model means detail of proposed model is sufficient and performed assumptions are accurate. 426 �Fig. 1. Verification and validation in DEVS modeling process and Experimental Frame Theory validation relates to the technical details of developed model and how it relates to the relevant formalisms, approaches, standards, knowledgeable expertise and underlying theories, for example, for OSPF protocol model, its resemblance to RFC 2328 standard [14]. Validation of theory requires asking questions what theory is used in the models? how the theory is used in the models ? and how the theories are combined in the models ? [15]. Operational validation refers to determining model outputs is sufficiently correct data obtained from the real world. Operational validation activity includes validation of required model representations and their associated knowledge bases and validation of simulation algorithms, formalisms and models and their associated data [16]. Operational validations are directly related to model credibility [11]. Besides above kinds of validation, two aspects of verification can be applied: specification and implementation verification. Specification verification ensures to truly specify the model behavior defined in conceptual model, while implementation verification deals with all specifications are coded in the model run on DEVS-Suite as built. C. Validation techniques Many verification and validation techniques are available for modeling and simulation study [13] [25]. In this section, various V&V techniques are tried to summarize and an approach proposed by Forrester and Senge [12] is given in particular. Analytical method validation is a process of performing several tests designed to verify that an analytical test system is suitable for its intended purpose and is capable of providing useful and valid analytical data. A validation study involves testing multiple attributes of a method to determine that it can provide useful and valid data when used routinely. 427 �III. Devs Modeling And Simulation Framework Discrete Event Systems Specification (DEVS) [4] is well suited for formally describing concurrent processing and the event-driven nature of arbitrary configuration of nodes and links forming network systems. DEVS is a mathematical modeling formalism for describing (discrete and continuous) dynamical systems and supports hierarchical modular model construction, distributed execution, and therefore characterizing complex, largescale systems. Its generic system-theoretic concepts and mathematical formulation provide a basis for describing component models which have modular structure and behavior specifications. This framework lends itself to object-based abstraction, encapsulation, modularity and hierarchy concepts and implementation. Its simulation protocol enforces causality, concurrency, and timing among DEVS atomic and coupled models. DEVS-Suite is an open source, discrete event, general-purpose simulation environment [1]. It is a new generation extended from the DEVSJAVA simulator and DEVS Tracking Environment. The main modules of the DEVS-Suite are DEVSJAVA [3], DEVS tracking Environment [20], and timeview [2]. DEVS-Suite can simulate models specified using the DEVS formalism [4]. The architecture of the DEVS-Suite simulator environment is Model Facade View Control (MFVC) [20] by which simulation data can be displayed with its animation and viewing of time trajectories generated by the parallel DEVS abstract simulator. Soft synchronization among timeviews and animation is supported based on the simulator’s logical (or real-time) execution speed [21]. IV. Devs-Suite Validation Framework: Ospf Case Validation is the most important phase in developing a model. Validation tests are needed in a modeling study since a model cannot be accepted unless it passes them [25], [10]. Validation schemes are generally framework based methodical procedures as well as dynamic processes which have to be applied by a modeler during model development. There are many model validation schemes summarized in [25] and [11]. From these schemes, a widely approved validation scheme is presented in[12] and followed in this study. In this scheme, confidence in the model increases as model passes more tests. This validation scheme is adopted and applied in this study due for it is appropriateness for dynamic models such as distributed systems and networks. Applied validation scheme is mainly divided into four phases. These phases are (1) specifying model objectives, (2) validating model structure, (3) validating model behavior and (4) policy implications. In following sections, these steps are followed to validate the developed model and summarized due for place limitations. A. Model objectives It is important to set objectives correctly when starting to model a system. In the previous sections, we gave some background about motivation and problem entities. Once again, it is good to list main objectives to model such a system. We aimed to develop a network simulator having; • system theoretic design with modular and hierarchy, • easy to deploy, • good visualization, • performance and scalable, • high highly tractable, • advanced testing framework, • parallel and distributed capability. 428 �Fig. 2. Network layers structure of the OSPF model Except for last one, model has all properties. Parallel and distributed capability of the model is still ongoing research and will be done by DEVS/HLA framework [26]. B. Model structure validity Some empirical and theoretical structure tests are experimented with the model to show its structural confirmation. Experiments may be separated into two categories: network structure confirmation done by theoretical tests and OSPF protocol confirmation done by empirical tests. Theoretical structure tests of the OSPF model are done with comparison model structure with generalized knowledge about the system. DEVS network model is developed according to network OSI standard with several abstractions. Since protocol implementation and education is in focus, first abstraction is to flatten seven segment OSI layers to three layers (see Figure 2). Empirical structure tests of the OSPF model includes comparison of the OSPF model structure with information obtained directly from the real system. To do this, we develop network models up to ten thousands nodes and measure efficiency of the networks. Efficiency is estimated as performed network tasks such as message delivery, scheduled events and routing databases’ correctness. In Figure 3, efficiency trajectory of the developed OSPF model is shown. For small scale models, efficiency is ideal (i.e. simulator is running with highly correctness), however in large models, simulator is deviating from reality (for example, 99.5% for 10.000 nodes). According to the tests and evaluations above, developed model is structural valid. C. Model behavior validity Besides structural validity tests, certain tests are needed to measure how accurately the model can reproduce the major behavior patterns shown by the real system. To do this, we select widely accepted network simulator 2 (ns2) models instead of real system. In order to validate behavior of the DEVS-Suite OSPF model, first we considered a small scale topology as shown in Figure 1. In this work, the ns-2 network simulator is chosen for comparison to show the behavior validity of developed OSPF model in DEVS-Suite. Furthermore, to show the key structural differences between modeling DEVS-Suite and ns-2, we use the same model configurations. Finally, comparison with analogous ns-2 test traces is included. 1) Test Simulation Environment and Configurations: When appropriate, we execute the DEVS-Suite OSPF model tests under the conditions as close as possible to the ns-2 tests, but some small differences exist because of different internal parameter settings and/or different level of modeling detail. Simulation experiments were performed both in ns-2 version 2.32 and DEVS-Suite version 2.0. The Table I below shows some differences between ns-2 and DEVS-Suite implementations. 429 �2) Simulation Results and Evaluation: Together structural tests, these validation tests give us at least some assurance that the behavior of the DEVS OSPF model is reasonable. DEVS-Suite more suitable for system level simulation as opposed to ns-2 being suitable for detailed network protocol designs (algorithms). Fig. 3. Efficiency tests of the OSPF model According to the configuration parameters listed in Table I, simulation experiments with both ns-2 and DEVSSuite simulators are performed for ten seconds. The throughput results as a function of time are shown in Figure 4. As depicted in Figure 4 (a) and (b), after a stabilization phase time (2 seconds), throughput curves converge to nearly the same average values, 822.4 KB/sec. for ns-2 and 1489 packets × 552 bytes = 821.9 KB/sec. for DEVS-Suite. We also observed the routing tables for the four router nodes to be consistent – the creation of tables was validated step by step. V. Comparison/Discussion In the following sections, we identify some of the reasons behind the differences between ns-2 and DEVS-Suite simulators with respect to modeling and education aspects. DEVS-Suite ns-2 Topology 4 routers, 4 bi-directional links 4 routers, 4 duplex links Protocol OSPF Link State(LS) Processing speed 1 msec./event N/A Event frequency 1000 events/sec. 28388 events/sec. 552 bytes 552 bytes Link bandwidth 2 Mbps 2 Mbps Link delay 1 msec. 1 msec. Traffic type Uniformly random FTP over TCP Queue Type FIFO-Priority DropTail Queue Limit 200 KB 20 Packets Simulation time 10 sec. 10 sec. Packet sizes Table I. Simulation Model Parameters of Ns-2 and DEVS-Suite 430 �(a) (b) Fig. 4. Simulated performance measurements of ns-2 and DEVS-Suite for throughput VI. Conclusion And Future Work This paper presented a new simulation environment for education and research of computer networks. The DEVS-Suite simulator for modeling OSPF overcomes the limitations of ns-2 concerning the visualization and execution performance. In contrast to ns-2, DEVS-SuiteWebStart enables users to automatically download its latest version and network models and execute them as efficiently given their computer hardware and software resources. Our experiences show that students benefit from the capabilities of DEVS-Suite simulator. The simulator’s visualization and automation provided for tracking of components’ behavior as time trajectories and tabular data help teaching and learning of networking theory with reduced burden on being an expert software developer. Visualization of the protocol logic in the form of creation and alteration of routing tables and databases facilitate active learning. In addition, students can gain the knowledge of modeling and simulation technique for performance evaluation of networking systems. Future work includes developing other network protocol models and evaluating them through classrooms. Additionally, the DEVS-Suite can be extended with data analysis features. Another desirable addition is to use variable structure DEVS since in some cases it can better represent the dynamic nature of the distributed computer networks. Another attractive capability is to visually develop models and automatically generate source code using CoSMoS (Component-based System Modeler and Simulator) [23]. Acknowledgment This work has been funded by the Sakarya University Scientific Research Projects Agency under contract 200705-02-001. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied, of the Sakarya University. References [1] S. Kim, H. Sarjoughian, and V. Elamvazhuthi, “DEVS-Suite: A simulator supporting visual experimentation design and behavior monitoring,” in Proceedings of the Spring Simulation Conference, San Diego, CA, March 2009, pp. 29–36. [2] “DEVS-Suite,” http://sourceforge.net/projects/devs-suitesim/, 2010. [3] ACIMS, “DEVSJAVA modeling and simulation tool,” http://www.acims.arizona.edu/SOFTWARE, 2010. [4] B. P. Zeigler, H. Praehofer, and T. G. Kim, Theory of Modeling and Simulation. New York: Academic Press, 2000. [5] X. Hu, B. P. Zeigler, and S. Mittal, “Variable structure in DEVS component-based modeling and simulation,” SIMULATION: Transactions of The Society for Modeling and Simulation International, vol. 81, no. 2, pp. 91–102, 2005. [6] H. Sarjoughian, “DEVS-Suite WebStart,” http://acims1.eas.asu.edu/WebStarts/, 2010. 431 �[7] “Java Web Start Technology,” 2010. [8] A. Zengin, H. S. Sarjoughian, and H. Ekiz, “Honeybee inspired discrete event network modeling,” in 16th European Simulation Symposium, Budapest, Hungary, 2004, pp. 176–182. [9] H. Sarjoughian, Y. Chen, and K. Burger, “A component-based visual simulator for mips32 processors,” in Frontiers in Education, Saratoga Spring, New York, October 2008. [10] O. 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Singh, “Building simulation modeling environments using systems theory and software architecture principles,” in Proceedings of the Advanced Simulation Technology Conference, Washington DC, April 2004, pp. 99–104. [21] E. Helser, “Design and analysis of view syncrhonization in DEVS-Suite,” Master’s thesis, Computer Science and Engineering Department, Arizona State University, 2009. [22] Ptolemy, “Ptolemy project,” http://ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu/ptolemyII/, 2010. [23] H. S. Sarjoughian and V. Elamvazhuthi, “Cosmos: a visual environment for component-based modeling, experimental design, and simulation,” in Simutools ’09: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Simulation Tools and Techniques. ICST, Brussels, Belgium, Belgium: ICST (Institute for Computer Sciences, Social-Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering), 2009, pp. 1–9. [24] Mathworks, “SimEvents,” http://www.mathworks.com/products/simevents/, 2010. [25] Y. Barlas, “Formal aspects of model validity and validation in system dynamics,” System Dynamics Review, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 183–210, 1996. [26] H. S. Sarjoughian and B. P. Zeigler, “DEVS and HLA: Complementary paradigms for modeling and simulation?” Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 187–197, 2000. [27] D. M. Nicol, “Scalability of network simulators revisited,” in Proceedings of the Communications Networking and Distributed Systems Modeling and Simulation Conference, 2003. [28] G. F. Riley, M. H. Ammar, and R. Fujimoto, “Stateless routing in network simulations,” in in Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Modeling, Analysis and Simulation of Computer and Telecommunication Systems, 2000, pp. 524–531. [29] ns 2, “ns-2 network simulator,” http://www.isis.edu/nsnam/ns/, 2010. 432 �[30] G. V. Wilson, “The history of the development of parallel computing,” http://ei.cs.vt.edu/ history/, Virginia Tech/Norfolk State University, 1994, retrieved on 2008. [31] Wikipedia, “Round-robin scheduling,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robinscheduling, 2008. [32] H. Sarjoughian and K. Shaukat, “A comparative study of DEVS and ns-2 modeling approaches,” Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International, 2009. [33] H. S. Sarjoughian, S. Kim, M. Ramaswamy, and S. Yau, “An soa-devs modeling framework for service-oriented software system simulation,” in Winter Simulation Conference, Miami, FL, 2008, pp. 845–853. [34] G. R. Mayer and H. S. Sarjoughian, “Composable cellular automata,” 2009, simulation: Transactions of The Society for Modeling and Simulation International. [35] C. M. Overstreet and A. Martens, “Introduction to special issue: Modeling and simulation in teaching and training,” SIMULATION, vol. 82, pp. 681–683, 2006. 433 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 539 Title A name given to the resource Verification And Validation Of The Devs Models Author Author Zengin, Ahmet Köklükaya, Etem Ekiz, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. Simulation remains attractive for teaching, training and performance analysis of computer networks. This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for teaching and learning the complex dynamics of computer networks. The general-purpose DEVS-Suite simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high-level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of computer network topologies and the logics of communication protocols. This newly developed DEVSSuite offers an expressive, yet relatively simple to use, simulation environment for students and educators to develop and experiment with computer network models. The paper concludes with observations on the proposed modeling approach and outline some evaluations. In this paper we discuss verification and validation of DEVS simulation models. Four different approaches to deciding model validity are described; two different paradigms that relate verification and validation to the model development process are presented; various validation techniques are defined; conceptual model validity, model verification, operational validity, and data validity are discussed; a way to document results is given; a recommended procedure for model validation is presented; and model accreditation is briefly discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f608ee547bacf0a6cc6e18c1511353ad.pdf c716771f4c42ef1a863c85b804d79d6e PDF Text Text Estimation of Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters and Effect of Some Factors on Birth Weight in Brown Swiss Calves in Turkey Using MTDFREML Uğur Zülkadir Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey uzulkad@selcuk.edu.tr Đsmail Keskin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey ikeskin@selcuk.edu.tr Đbrahim Aytekin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey aytekin@selcuk.edu.tr Adel Salah Khattab Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, EGYPT adelkhattab@yahoo.com Abstract: The objective of this study was therefore to assess the influence of the age of dam, sex of calf, birth type, season and year of birth of the calf on birth weight and to estimate phenotypic and genetic parameters for birth weight for Brown Swiss cattle in Turkey using Multiple Trait Derivative Free Restricted Maximum Likelihood (MTDFREML). A total of 1437 calf birth weight records of Brown Swiss cows raised at Altınova State Farm in Konya Province were used for estimation of phenotypic and genetic parameters for calf birth weight. Phenotypic and genetic parameters were estimated by MTDFREML programme using a Single Trait Animal Model (STAM). The model included additive direct effect, maternal permanent environment and errors as random effects, birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam as fixed effects. Calf birth weight least square mean was determined as 39.20 ± 2.42 kg, the direct heritability (h2a), maternal heritability (h2m) and the repeatability (r) of calf birth weight were calculated as 0.12 ± 0.06, 0.15 ± 0.006 and 0.12 ± 0.06, respectively. The breeding value of dam, sire and calves were calculated. Minimum and maximum breeding value of calves and its accuracy were -1.037 ± 0.66, 0.979 ± 0.68, 0.41 and 0.45, respectively. The effect of birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam on calf birth weight were significant (P<0.01). Key Words: Birth weight, Brown Swiss, Breeding value, Repeatability, Heritability Introduction One of the important breed characteristics in cattle breeding is calf birth weight. Since birth weight is considered as an initial reference point with regard to subsequent development of individual as well as other characteristics, this trait is of critical importance to cattle industry. It is demonstrated that calves having too small live weight at birth may lack vigor and tolerance to external condition, whereas various degrees of dystocia may occur in calves that are too large at birth. Besides these extremes, heifers having high birth weight grow fast and produce more beef (Bakır et al., 2004). These heifers also can reach mature weight to produce offspring at an earlier age and subsequently, milk production as described from Ilaslan et al.,(1978). In addition to these statements, some researchers were demonstrated similar evidence (Kaygısız et al., 1995; Kaygısız, 1998; Akbulut et al., 1998; Akbulut et al., 2001). A study of birth weights as a measure of the prospective value of the calf is therefore justified since it is one of the first measures that can be obtained and also one of the easiest to record with reasonable accuracy (Dawson, 1965). 269 �Growth in beef cattle has been extensively studied in part because of the economic value of growth in this type of farmed livestock. However, growth in dairy cattle has not been studied so extensively, particularly the genetic component of growth. Groen and Vos (1995) estimated the heritability of growth at different stages prior to first calving in Holstein heifers, and Korver et al., (1991) estimated genetic parameters for feed intake and feed efficiency in growing Holstein heifers. Demeke et al., (2003) estimated heritabilities for BW at various stages of life for a range of European and indigenous breeds and their crosses in Ethiopia (Coffey, 2006). Genetic selection in dairy cattle is applied to traits that are measured during the animal’s productive life, mostly those recorded during early productive life as genetic evaluations are best calculated from unbiased, early data. Consequently, much genetic research on correlated responses has focused on traits that change after lactation has started. For example, Pryce et al., (1999) showed that selection for yield would result in a decline in fertility and an increase in mastitis and lameness, as the genetic correlation between yield and these traits is unfavorable (Coffey, 2006). The practice of calving dairy heifers for the first time at 24 months of age has been adopted as a result of research and extension demonstrating the economic benefits Hoffman and Funk (1992). In order to avoid any detrimental effects and negative physiological activities of animals, the animals should be used as possible as early age to produce maximum yield in the later yields. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the influence of the age of dam, sex of calf, birth type, season and year of birth of the calf on birth weight and to estimate phenotypic and genetic parameters for birth weight for Brown Swiss cattle in Turkey using MTDFREML. Material and Method A total of 1437 birth weight records of Brown Swiss calves raised in the intensive conditions at the Altınova State Farm in Konya Province. Records covered the period from 1993 to 1998. The 1437 calves, 618 dams and 42 sires constituted pedigree data. Data were analyzed with a derivative-free algorithm Smith and Graser (1986) using MTDFREML. To ensure global convergence, the algorithm by Boldman et al., (1995) was restarted with estimates until the log likelihood did not change at the fourth decimal. The solutions given are from the final round of iteration. A maternal permanent environmental effect was included to account for repeated measures. Data were analysed by least squares techniques using the general linear models procedure of Harvey (1987). The differences between the factor levels were determined using the Duncan multiple comparison test (Düzgüneş, 1993). Experiment was carried out according to Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture guidelines. The full model in the analysis is included the fixed effects of birth type (1 and 2), sex of calf (1 and 2), season of birth (1, 2, 3 and 4), year of birth (1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998), age of dams (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) and the random effects of individuals and errors. Variance components were estimated using the following animal model: Y = Xβ + Za + Wm + Sp + e where; Y = a vector of the observations, β = a vector of fixed effects (birth type = 1(single) and 2 (twin); sex of calf = 1 (male) and 2 female); season of birth = 1 (spring), 2 (summer), 3 (autumn) and 4 (winter); year of birth = 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998) a = a vector of animal direct genetic effects m = a vector of random maternal genetic effects p = a random vector of maternal permanent environmental effects e = a vector of random error To estimate heritability (h2) and repeatability (r) the following equation was used: h 2 = σ a2 /(σ a2 + σ m2 + σ am + σ p2 + σ e2 ) r = σ a2 + σ p2 /(σ a2 + σ m2 + σ am + σ p2 + σ e2 ) The mixed model equations (MME) for the best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE) of estimable functions of b and for the best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) of a, m and p in matrix notation were as follows: 270 �X'X X'Z Z ' X Z ' Z + A −1α1 W ' X W ' Z + A −1α 2 α1 = σ e2 / σ a2 , and X 'S Z ' W + A −1α 2 W ' W + A −1α 3 S' W S' Z S' X Where X'W Z 'S W 'S S'S + Iα 4 α 2 = σ e2 / σ am , α 3 = σ e2 / σ m2 and ) b X'y a = Z' y m W'y p S' y α 4 = σ e2 / σ 2p Results and Discussion Unadjusted mean and standard deviation (SD) for CBW was 39.20 ± 2.42 kg, Table 1. The estimated mean of CBW was higher than those found for beef cattle by Dawson (1965); and also the present mean was lower than those reported for Holstein by Plum (1965). The estimated mean of CBW was similar those found for Brown Swiss by Yanar et al., (1999), (38.50) using another herd of Brown Swiss in Turkey. The differences between this informed means can be due to the difference between breeds or some macro environmental conditions. Traits Calf Birth Weight Mean s.d. CV % Estimates CBW 39.20 2.42 6.19 - 2 log L 3643.758 σ Observations 2 a 0.54844 No. of records 1437 σ m2 0.69107 No. of cows 618 σ am -0.61564 No. of sires 42 No. of dams 77 -1 σ 2 p 0.0000716219 σ 2 e 3.98718 2 Animals in relationship matrix (A ) 2097 ha Mixed Model Equations (MME) 4834 hm 35 ram No. of iterations 2 0.12 ± 0.06 0.15 ± 0.006 -1.00 ± 0.289 0.12± 0.06 r σ a = Additive genetic variance, σ m = Maternal genetic variance, σam = Maternal genetic covariance, σ2p= Permanent environmental variance, σ2e = Temporary environmental variance, h2a= Direct heritability, h2m= Maternal heritability, ram = Direct-maternal genetic correlation r = Repeatability, -2 log L= log likelihood 2 2 Table 1. Estimation of (co)variance components, genetic parameters and data structure, unadjusted mean (kg), standard deviation (s.d.) and coefficient of variation (CV%), number of mixed model equations and number of iterations for Calf Birth Weight (CBW) The heritability estimates was 0.12 for calf birth weight (Table 1). The heritability estimates found in this study was lower than some informed literature finding as Plum (1965); Ahunu (1997); Burrow (2001); Coffey (2006); Demeke (2003) and some informed literature finding was similar such as Dawson (1965); Demeke (2003); Kaygısız (1998); Bakır et al., (2004). Repeatability of birth weight estimates (Table 1) was 0.12 in herd. Similarly, the repeatability estimates found in this study was lower than some informed literature finding as Euclides et al., (1991); Ulusan (1992); Bakır et al., (2004) and the repeatability estimates found in this study was bigger than as defined by Bakır and Söğüt (1998). According to this result, It can be said that the genetic variation is low, therefore mass selection will be ineffective in respect of birth weight in this herd. Instead, the regulation of environmental conditions may be recommended. Table 2 shows the mean calf birth weight and standard deviations, R2 value, total and residual sum of squares of calf birth weight according to birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam. The 271 �effect of birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam on CBW was significant (P<0.01). Single born calves were heavier 2.71 kg than twins born calves and male calves heavier 1.14 kg than female born calves. Calves born in winter had the greatest birth weight and calves born in autumn had the least birth weight. The abundance of the fresh and dry feed in summer and autumn might have resulted in this phenomenon. Year by year, the birth weight decreases steadily but not necessarily linearly. This might be caused by the deterioration of the conditions of the farms and/or increased familiarization within herd. The birth weight increased with the increase of the maternal age. This increase continued up to 6 years then decreased again. N LSM ± SD 1331 106 39.57 ± 0.68a 36.86 ± 0.21b 669 768 37.64 ± 0.12a 38.78 ± 0.12b 463 349 307 318 38.09 ± 0.14b 38.28 ± 0.15ab 37.93 ± 0.15b 38.55 ± 0.15a R2 value Residual sum of square Total sum of square 0.237 6447.134797 8444.475992 Birth type Single (1) Twin (2) Sex of calf Female (1) Male (2) Season of birth Spring (1) Summer (2) Autumn (3) Winter (4) a,b Year of birth 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Age of dam 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N LSM ± SD 216 201 225 269 223 303 38.81 ± 0.17a 38.15 ± 0.18b 38.53 ± 0.17ab 38.27 ± 0.16b 38.06 ± 0.17b 37.46 ± 0.16c 304 322 278 201 135 83 114 37.10 ± 0.16c 37.72 ± 0.15b 38.48 ± 0.16a 38.55 ± 0.17a 38.91 ± 0.20a 38.30 ± 0.25ab 38.43 ± 0.22a Means in a column with different superscripts differ (P <0.01). Table 2. The least squares means (LSM) and standard deviations (SD), R2 value, total and residual sum of squares of calf birth weight according to birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam Breeding value for calves, sires and dams ranged from -1.037 and 0.979, -1.130 and 0.884, -1.612 and 1.470, respectively. Its accuracies ranged from 0.41 to 0.45 for CBV’s, 0.53 to 0.57 for SBV’s and 0.22 to 0.52 for DBV’s, respectively (Table 3). Direct-maternal genetic correlation (ram) value was found to be -1.00 ± 0.289. This indicates that maternal component must be taken into account in selection. Minumum Maximum Range Accuracy Birth Weight (kg) CBV’s SBV’s -1.037 ± 0.66 -1.13 ± 0.63 0.979 ± 0.68 0.884 ± 0.61 2.016 2.02 0.41 to 0.45 0.53 to 0.57 DBV’s -1.612 ± 0.72 1.470 ± 0.63 3.082 0.22 to 0.52 Table 3. Range of predicted breeding values of calves (CBV’s), sires (SBV’s) and dams (DBV’s) and their accuracy for birth weight (kg) If there is a problem in regard to vitality because of low birth weight, a selection can be done for high breeding value in order to increase of vitality. In addition, Table 3 shows that importance of dam, since it gave the higher range of breeding values for birth weight. Thus, selection of dam for the next generation would lead to higher genetic improvement in the herd. Also, Table 3 shows that the accuracy of the estimates of sire breeding value was higher than the accuracy of dam breeding values and calve breeding value, which may be due to the higher number of progeny per sire. The breeding values (EBV) were estimated according to MTDFREML and the trends in breeding values according to years are presented in Figure 1. 272 �Figure 1. Mean breeding values of birth weight for DBV, Weighted Mean of SBV, CBW and SBV according to the years. According to Figure 1, it can be seen positive trends in breeding value of CBVs and weighted mean of SBVs. However, no positive or negative trends in DBVs have been observed among the years. A selection in the years, the use of bull breeding activity to determine whether the correct choice in selection for weighted mean of SBVs has been calculated. It can be seen that, looking at the values of both weighted mean of SBVs and SBVs in the same years, bulls used in breeding programs are chosen correctly. In this situation, success of selection from 1993 to 1998 has been increased. To obtain high birth weight, animal breeding values should be determined, environmental conditions must be well organized and the selection of animals must be done in a proper manner. From time to time to calculate genetic parameters and selection must be made according to these criteria. Acknowledgments This research was supported from the Coordinatory of Scientific Research Projects of Selcuk University, Turkey. We are thankful to Konuklar State Farm for providing data. References Ahunu, B.K., Arthur, P.F., & Kissiedu, H.W.A. (1997). Genetic and Phenotypic Parameters for Birth and Weaning Weights of Purebred and Crossbred Ndama and West African Shorthorn Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 51: 165-171. Akbulut, Ö., Tüzemen, N. Yanar, M., & Aydın, R. (1998). Esmer Sığırlarda Erken Dönem Canlı Ağırlık ve Vücut Ölçülerinin ilk Laktasyon Süt Verimi Özellikleri ile Đlişkisi. Atatürk Üniv. Zir. Fak. Derg., 29 (2): 250-258. Akbulut, Ö., Bayram, B., & Yanar, M. (2001). Estimates of Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters on Birth Weight of Brown Swiss and Holstein Friesian Calves Raised in Semi Entansif Conditions. Lalahan Hay. Arst. Derg., 41 (2): 11-20. Bakır, G., & Söğüt, B. (1998). Genetic and Phenotipypic Parameter Estimates for Birth in Holstein Calves Raised the Ceylanpınar State. Doğu Anadolu Tarım Kongresi. Erzurum, 810-816. Bakır, G., Kaygısız, A., & Ülker, H. (2004). Estimation of Genetic and Phenotypic Parameters for Birth Weight in Holstein Friesian Cattle. Pakistan J. Biol Sci. 7: 1221-1224. Boldman, K.G., Kriese, L.A., Van Vleck, L.D., Van Tassell, C.P., & Kachman, S.D. (1995). A Manual For use of MTDFREML. A Set of Programs to Obtain Estimates of Variances and Covariances (Draft). U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, pp:14. Burrow, H.M. (2001). Variances and Covariances Between Productive and Adaptive Traits and Temperament in a Composite Breed of Tropical Beef Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 70:213–233. 273 �Coffey, M.P., Hickey, J., & Brotherstone, S. (2006). Genetic Aspects of Growth of Holstein-Friesian Dairy Cows from Birth to Maturity. J. Dairy Sci, 89 (1): 322- 329. Dawson, W.M., Phillips, R.W., & Black, W.H. (1965). Birth Weight as a Criterion of Selection in Beef Cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 6: 247-257. Demeke, S., Nesera, F.W.C., & Schoemanb, S.J. (2003). Variance Components and Genetic Parameters for Early Growth Traits in a Mixed Population of Purebred Bos Indicus and Crossbred Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 84: 11-21. Düzgüneş, O. (1993). Đstatistik Metodları (Statistical Methods). Ank. Üniv. Zir. Fak. Yay: 1291, Notebook: 369, Ankara. Euclides, F.K., Nobre, P.R.C., & Rosa, A.N. (1991). Age of Cow and its Interaction with Herd, Sire and Sex of Calf. Rev Bras Zootecn, 20: 40-46. Groen, A.F., & Vos, H. (1995). Genetic Parameters for Body Weight and Growth in Dutch Black and White Replacement Stock. Livest. Prod. Sci. 41: 201-206. Harvey, W.R. (1987). Users guide for LSMLMW PC-1 Version mixed model least squares and maximum likelihood computer program, Ohio State Uni. Colombus, Mimco, USA. Hoffman, P.C., & Funk, D.A. (1992). Applied Dynamics of Dairy Replacement Growth and Management. J. Dairy Sci. 76: 3179-3187. Ilaslan, M., Aşkın, Y., Geliyi, C., & Alataş, I. (1978). Body Condition, Milk and Reproductive Traits in Brown Swiss and Simmental Cattle Raised in Kars Testing Station. Kars Deneme Đst., Yay. No: 5, 1-36. Kaygısız, A., Akyol, I., & Yılmaz, I. (1995). Genetic and phenotypic parameters estimates for birth weight in brown swiss calves raised at regional school in Van. Journal of Central Animal Research Institute. 5(1-2): 71-73. Kaygısız, A. (1998). Estimates of Genetic and Phenotypic Parameters for Birth Weight in Brown and Simmental Calves Raised at Altındere State Farm. Tr. J. of Veterinary and Animal Sci, 22: 527-535. Korver, S., Van Eekelen, E.A.M., Vos, H., Nieuwhof, G.J., & Van Arendonk, J.A.M. (1991). Genetic Parameters for Feed Intake and Feed Efficiency in Growing Dairy Heifers. Livest. Prod. Sci. 29: 49-59. Plum, M., Andersen, H., & Swiger, L.A. (1965). Heritability Estimates of Gestation Length and Birth Weight in HolsteinFriesian Cattle and Their Use in Selection. J. of Dairy Sci. 48 (12): 1672-1675. Pryce, J.E., Nielsen, B.L., Veerkamp, R.F., & Simm, G. (1999). Genotype and Feeding System Effects and Interactions for Health and Fertility Traits in Dairy Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 57:193–201. Ulusan, H.O.K. (1992). The Change of Calf Growth According to Birth Season and Repeatability of Birth Weight in Brown Swiss Cattle Raised in Elazığ Sugar Factory Farm. Uludağ Üniv. Vet. Fak. Derg., 11: 57-67. Yanar, M., Tuzemen, N., Yuksel, S., & Turgut, L. (1999). The effects of Individual and Group Rearing on the Characteristics of the Growth and Development of Brown Swiss Calves. International Animal Husbandry Congress 99, 21-24 September, Đzmir, Turkey. 274 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 440 Title A name given to the resource Estimation of Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters and Effect of Some Factors on Birth Weight in Brown Swiss Calves in Turkey Using MTDFREML Author Author Zülkadir, Uğur Keskin, İsmail Aytekin, İbrahim Khattab, Adel Salah Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the influence of the age of dam, sex of calf, birth type, season and year of birth of the calf on birth weight and to estimate phenotypic and genetic parameters for birth weight for Brown Swiss cattle in Turkey using Multiple Trait Derivative Free Restricted Maximum Likelihood (MTDFREML). A total of 1437 calf birth weight records of Brown Swiss cows raised at Altınova State Farm in Konya Province were used for estimation of phenotypic and genetic parameters for calf birth weight. Phenotypic and genetic parameters were estimated by MTDFREML programme using a Single Trait Animal Model (STAM). The model included additive direct effect, maternal permanent environment and errors as random effects, birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam as fixed effects. Calf birth weight least square mean was determined as 39.20 ± 2.42 kg, the direct heritability (h2 a), maternal heritability (h2 m) and the repeatability (r) of calf birth weight were calculated as 0.12 ± 0.06, 0.15 ± 0.006 and 0.12 ± 0.06, respectively. The breeding value of dam, sire and calves were calculated. Minimum and maximum breeding value of calves and its accuracy were -1.037 ± 0.66, 0.979 ± 0.68, 0.41 and 0.45, respectively. The effect of birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam on calf birth weight were significant (P<0.01). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0fbcadeb57f422e19f2b7fa78047fd46.pdf b5413b7aa42c91e6eb91e36d92d67d33 PDF Text Text Design of Web-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks Murat ÇAKIROGLU Department of Electronics and Computer Education, Faculty of Technical Education, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey muratc@sakarya.edu.tr Mustafa KUŞ Department of Electronics and Computer Education, Faculty of Technical Education, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey mustafa_kus@hotmail.com Abstract:WSNs consist of sensor nodes with limited capacity, low cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate. The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties. In this application fields, there are some requirements to appear that the wireless sensor nodes can be monitoring by remote-controlled and the data which are picked up from where the system is placed can be processed. This paper describes the design of web based interface for wireless sensor networks. The proposed web-based interface provide configuration of the network and access to real-time and archived temperature, humidity, light data through any Internet-capable device. Keywords: WEB-based, Interface, Remote Monitoring, Wireless Sensor Network Introduction WSNs (Wireless Sensor Networks) consist of sensor nodes with limited data storage / processing capacity, low-cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate (Akyildiz, 2002). The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties (Akyildiz, 2002). For example WSNs are used for remote monitoring of bird life with the 32 sensor nodes in Great Duck Island Project (Mainwaring, 2002, Szewczyk, 2004). The temperature, humidity, pressure, and light parameters have been observed in nesting environment of the birds. WSNs are used to observe the growth of the trees in Redwood forest. The temperature, humidity, and solar radiation parameters are sensed (Tolle, 2005). Welsh, 2005 and Werner-Allen, 2006 has realized to remote monitoring of the active volcano in Ecuador. The processing and delivering to the remote users in real time manner, graphical representation, and storage of sensed data are so important in such as application areas. Various data processing and visualization tools have been developed in the literature. For examples, Mote-View software was developed by Crossbow can set node configuration and allow to monitoring, plotting and storing of real-time sensed data (Crossbow). But this software is able to support to plotting and visualization service in local manner. Spyglass is java-based and modular WSN visualization software (Buschmann, 2005). jWebDust is also java-based and general-purpose visualization tool (Chatzigiannakis, 2005). However, good Java knowledge is needed to configure them in accordance with the requirements of different applications. Cao, 2009 were designed the general-purpose web interface for WSNs. This interface focuses on data processing capability and congestion avoidance. In this study, we have designed the PHP and FLASH-based web interface for remote monitoring and controlling of WSNs. The most important difference of this interface than others focuses on flexibility, visuality, and ease of use. Therefore PHP, FLASH and the PostgreSQL database server are used in this web-based interface for receiving, analyzing, processing, visualizing, and showing the data in a web browser. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The hardware and software tools used to design of the proposed web interface are introduced in Section 2. In Section 3 are described the design criteria and features of proposed PHP and FLASH based web interface. The paper is concluded by Section 4. 394 �Preliminaries MicaZ WSN Mote and Sensor Kit The MICAz (Figure 1) which is a widely used sensor node in WSNs, has an integrated ATMEGA128L microcontroller from AVR family having 128KB code memory and 4KB data memory with the clock speed of 16 MHZ (MICAz, 2009). It can communicate at 250 Kbit / second data transmission speed using Chipcon CC2420 IEEE 802.15.4 compliant wireless transceiver (Crossbow, 2010). In this study, it is also used MTS400 sensor board, which can sense the light, temperature, pressure, humidity and acceleration, together with MICAz nodes. Figure 1. MicaZ motes PHP PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor is a widely used, general-purpose scripting language that was originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document. PHP is available as a processor for most modern web servers and as standalone interpreter on most operating systems and computing platforms. (Wikipedia, 2010). PHP has widespread use in recent since it is an open source language, has rich document support and ease of use. Therefore in this paper PHP language is used. Design Stages of WEB-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks System Architecture The system architecture, which consists of WSN, server, and users, are shown in Figure 2. WNS is consisting of more than one wireless sensor nodes, which sense the phenomenon, and a base station, which ensure communication of the nodes with the server. The nodes regularly collect the information such as temperature, humidity, light and forward them to the server through base station. Server is responsible to evaluate, process, and visualize the data coming from the base station. For this purpose PostgreSQL database, Apache server and PHP language are used. First server record data coming from base station to the PostgreSQL database, then it process the data in the database depending on user requests, and last it display the processed data with the help of Apache Web server and PHP. User can examine the processed data by means of any device connected to the internet. Client Wireless Sensor Network Client internet N BS N: WSN node Server BS: Base Station Sensor Layer Client Server Layer Client Layer Figure 2. System architecture 395 �Designed WEB-based Interface In this subsection the properties and usage of proposed general-purpose and web based interface are described. In figure 3, introduction page is shown. This page allows to user securely accessing the web based interface. After the password is approved the general view of the designed web based interface is shown as Figure 4. This page allows monitoring the wireless sensor nodes, examining sensed data of nodes, creating the graphs of sensed data and observing the topology of network. The main purpose of the proposed interface is providing flexibility to the user. Therefore the interface is divided into five main sections. Figure 3. Introduction page Data Section In data section, the momentary value of the temperature, humidity, pressure, light and voltage level information coming from sensor nodes are shown as Figure 4. Figure 4. Data section. 396 �Chart Section In chart section, the temperature, humidity, pressure, light and voltage values coming from sensor nodes can be converted the various graphical forms as Figure 5. Moreover, these graphs can be saved by the user. Figure 5. Chart section It is shown different physical data (humidity, pressure) belonging to a single node in Fig. 6. Moreover, the proposed interface allows plotting different data (humidity, pressure) belonging to more than one nodes in a single page as shown Fig.7 Figure 6. Chart of the different physical data (humidity, pressure) belonging to a single node 397 �Figure 7. Chart of the different physical data belonging to multiple nodes Health Section This section allow monitoring the parameters belonging to the sensor nodes such as number of dropped packets, number of retries, number of received packets as shown Fig. 8 Figure 8. Health section Topology Section This section allows observing logical connection of the sensor nodes deployed in the environment. Further, sensed data of the nodes can be easily seen as a summary. 398 �Figure 9. Topology section Summary and Final Remarks In this paper, the design of general purpose and PHP based web interface for wireless sensor networks are presented. Proposed web interface allow monitoring sensed data, creating the graphs, and observing the topology of network. The main advantage of the proposed interface is user friendly. Depending on the user's request it can be plotted and saved the graph of different physical values. Designed web based interface can be acceptable as a prototype for WSNs, and can be easily used in various application areas such as environment monitoring, military surveillance systems, habitat monitoring. References Akyildiz I F, Su W, Sankarasubramaniam Y, Cayirci E.(2002). Wireless Sensor Networks: Survey. Comput Networks, (pp. 38:393–422). Buschmann C, Psterer D, Fischer S, Fekete S P, Kroler A.(2005) Spyglass: A Wireless Sensor Network Visualizer, ACM SIGBED Review (pp. 2 (1):1-6). Cao X, Chen J, Sun Y.(2009) An interface designed for networked monitoring and control in wireless sensor networks, Comput Stand Interface, (pp. 31:579-585). Chatzigiannakis I, Mylonas G, Nikoletseas S E.(2005) jWebdust: a javabased generic application environment for wireless sensor networks, In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Networks (DCOSS), (pp. 376–386). Crossbow Technology Inc. URL: http://www.xbow.com Juang P, Oki H, Wang Y, Martonosi M, Peh L S, and Rubenstein D.(2002) Energy-efficient computing for wildlife tracking: design tradeoffs and early experiences with zebranet. In: Proc. of ASPLOS-X,(pp. 96–107). Mainwaring A, Culler D, Polastre J, Szewczyk R, Anderson J.(2002) Wireless sensor networks for habitat monitoring. In: Proc. of WSNA, (pp. 88–97). MicaZ Data Sheet, Last visited: December 2009, Available: www.xbow.com/Products/Product_pdf_files/Wireless_pdf/MICAZ_Datasheet.pdf PHP, URL: http://www.php.net 399 �PostgreSQL, URL: http://www.postgresql.org Szewczyk R, Mainwaring A, Polastre J, Anderson J, Culler D.(2004) An analysis of a large scale habitat monitoring application. In: Proc. of SenSys, (pp. 214–226). Tolle G, Polastre J, Szewczyk R, Culler D, Turner N, Tu K, Burgess S, Dawson T, Buonadonna P, Gay D, and Hong W. (2005) A Macroscope In The Redwoods. In: Proc. of SenSys, (pp. 51–63). Welsh M, Werner-Allen G, Lorincz K, Marcillo O, Johnson J, Ruiz M, and Lees J.(2005) Sensor Networks for highresolution monitoring of volcanic activity. In: Proc. of SOSP, (pp. 1–13). Werner-Allen G, Lorincz K, Welsh M, Marcillo O, Johnson J, Ruiz M, and Lees J.(2006) Deploying a wireless sensor network on an active volcano. IEEE Internet Computing, (pp. 10(2):18–25). Wikipedia PHP: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP 400 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 534 Title A name given to the resource Design of Web-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks Author Author ÇAKIROGLU, Murat KUS, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. WSNs consist of sensor nodes with limited capacity, low cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate. The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties. In this application fields, there are some requirements to appear that the wireless sensor nodes can be monitoring by remote-controlled and the data which are picked up from where the system is placed can be processed. This paper describes the design of web based interface for wireless sensor networks. The proposed web-based interface provide configuration of the network and access to real-time and archived temperature, humidity, light data through any Internet-capable device. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/eaf79b7d37d59b6a8bb6653589e9062f.pdf c8abccba35336bd0c4657d66a8693bfe PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Analysis of Development Indicators in Balkan Countries Fatih ÇELEBĠOĞLU Dumlupınar University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Economics, Kutahya, TURKEY fcelebi@dumlupinar.edu.tr Phone: +90 274 265 20 31 (ext.2206) Fax: +90 274 265 21 97 Abstract: Since the collapse of socialism, Balkan countries have been changing as social, economic and politic structure. Some former socialist countries (Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full member of EU. Some Balkan countries (Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia) lived difficult war years. After the wars, they have started to struggle for economic, social and political reconstruction process. Each country in Balkan Peninsula wants bigger real per capita income, better welfare level, and generally become a developed country. But these countries have some political, economic and social problems in development process. The aim of this paper is to analysis Balkan countries in terms of development indicators such as education, population, national income and income distribution in 2000s. Moreover, new suggestions will be offered to accelerate development process at the end of paper. Key Words: Balkan Countries, Development, Development Indicators Introduction Balkan Peninsula (South Eastern Europe) is an important area because of witness historic and politic experiences and incidents for ages. But it has been living historical alteration in recent decades. Although some Balkan countries (such as Turkey and Greece) were relatively stable in 1990s, there was war in Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia Herzegovina, and Macedonia. Some former socialist countries (Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full member of EU. The others have been struggling for this aim. In spite of Kosovo declared of independence in 2008, many countries haven‘t been accepting this situation. Nevertheless Balkan Peninsula is living relatively stable condition nowadays, compare with last ten years. Whole Balkan Countries, especially gain independence in recent decade, wants to become rapidly developed country. But all Balkan countries have some political, economic and social problems in this process. After a long war and unstable political period, Balkans has taken an opportunity about their development process nowadays. This region has been gaining stable structure overtime and this stable period has been supporting development indicators. In this paper, Balkan countries are being analyzed in terms of development indicators such as education, population, national income and income distribution in 2000s. Moreover, new suggestions will be offered to accelerate development process at the end of paper. This paper is organized as follows: the next section explains concept of development. Section 3 investigates indicators of development by using statistic data in this peninsula. Section 4 gives an analysis of development indicators for these countries. Section 5 offers some suggestions to accelerate development process. The last section provides some concluding remarks. Concept of Development34 After World War II, one of the important debating subjects is development. But generally development concept is accepted as a problem of underdeveloped countries. Underdeveloped countries don‘t perform industrial revolution, don‘t experience changing that it‘s bringing, and don‘t fulfill necessities of development process. Development is being used sometimes instead of concepts as improvement, modernization, structural changing, and industrialization. This semantic shift complicates definition of development concept. According to Peet and Hartwick (2009:1), development is better life for most people means, essentially, meeting basic needs: 34 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, Development concept used first time in 1756, "an unfolding, from develop + ment). Of property, with the sense "bringing out the latent possibilities" from 1885. Meaning "state of economic advancement" is from 1902. Meaning "advancement through progressive stages" is 1836. 254 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo sufficient food to maintain good health; a safe, healthy place in which to live; affordable services available to everyone; and being treated with dignity and respect. Other definition about development that is innovative changes resultant in socio-economic structure of a country. It can be understood from these definitions that development is related not only economic paradigm but also social life, health system, educational and vocational structure, democracy, freedoms, human rights etc. For this reason, it is multidimensional and it spreads very long time. Development is also related to economic growth. Stable economic growth process is very important for development. Unstable economic conditions affect negatively this process. In this point, being of stable economic structure is come into question. When being of stable economic structure, economic growth supports development process. This concept is more important for developing countries. For example, Turkey had big problems about unstable economic and political structure in 1970‘s and 1990‘s. Also, almost all Balkans lived unstable political and economic periods in 1990‘s. There are also new approaches to development concept. The most important of these is belonging to Amartya SEN that had Nobel Economy Prize in 1998. Amartya SEN (1993:3) defines development that ―as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy‖. Again according to SEN, development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states (Sen, 1993:3). The approach of SEN combines two important concepts: freedoms and development. Besides he recommends developing of freedoms before other indicators. Main Development Indicators For years many indicators have been used by economists in order to explain different level of development among countries. But which indicators are the best explanatories of level of development? We need to investigate indicators that are being used to explain development process by international institutions such as World Bank (especially World Development Indicators-WDI Online Database) and UN (United Nations, especially UNDP-United Nations Development Programme). World Bank uses more than 331 indicators from the World Development Indicators (WDI) covering 209 countries. This indicators take parts inside of 16 topics such as Agriculture & Rural Development, Infrastructure, Aid Effectiveness, Labor & Social Protection, Economic Policy and External Debt, Poverty, Education, Private Sector, Energy & Mining, Public Sector, Environment, Science & Technology, Financial sector, Social Development, Health, and Urban Development (for details look at The World Bank, WDI Online Database). UNDP calculates The Human Development Index (HDI). HDI includes some special data such as life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rates, gross primary-secondary and tertiary enrolment, GDP (gross domestic product) per capita (PPP - purchasing power parity- US$). HDI separates three subgroup as developed (high development), developing (middle development), and underdeveloped (low development) countries. According to Map 1, Africa, Middle East, South Asia and some South American countries have big problems in terms of level of human development. Especially in Africa, the level of human development is lower than other regions of the world. 0.950 and Over 0.900–0.949 0.850–0.899 0.800–0.849 0.750–0.799 0.700–0.749 0.650–0.699 0.600–0.649 0.550–0.599 0.500–0.549 0.450–0.499 0.400–0.449 0.350–0.399 under 0.350 not available Map 1: World map indicating the Human Development Index based on 2007 data, published on October 2009 Look at http://hdr.undp.org/en/, 25.04.2010 Again UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) uses to determine development level of each countries (particularly developing countries) eight topics as eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieve 255 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo universal primary education, promote gender equality and empower, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and develop a global partnership for development in scope of Millennium Development Goals (for details look at UN - Millennium Development Goals 2009 Report). Besides each country collect some data on development by using international standards. Hundreds of variables are being used by official statistical institution for this reason. Mainly of these variables are per capita GDP, literacy rate, tertiary education, unemployment rate, urban population, population growth rate, public expenditure on education, number of doctor, electric power consumption, number of computer and internet user, final consumption expenditure, daily newspaper, fertility rate, foreign direct investment, life expectancy at birth etc… Also Human Development Index and Democracy Index35 are used to determine level of development in a country. The next section offers an analysis of development indicators in the Balkan countries by using some of these variables. Analysis of Development Indicators for Balkan Countries In this section, it will be investigated that situation of Balkans countries in terms of some indicators of development. But after the wars and unstable political period in the Balkans, some Balkan countries reached full independence in the different years. For this reason, we have data that has different initial year for each country (especially in 1990s). This problem has been almost solved in 2000s. But Kosovo‘s independence isn‘t being accepted by many countries. This situation complicates comparing all Balkan countries. According to UNDP statistics, all Balkan counties (exclude Slovenia and Greece) are inside of High Human Development classification. Slovenia and Greece are inside of Very High Human Development classification (UN, 2009). According to currently economic development literature, the best indicator of development is value of per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in a country. Mostly Balkan countries have low per capita GDP. For example Albania has $1677 per capita GDP in 2007; Bosnia and Herzegovina has $2044; Bulgaria has $2401; Macedonia has $2061; Montenegro has $2269; Romania has $2595 and Serbia has $1780. Exclusively Greece ($15052), Croatia ($5794), Slovenia ($13333) and Turkey ($5053) have relatively bigger than aforementioned countries‘ per capita GDP (see Table 1). It is possible that global crisis in 2008-2009 and financial crisis in Greece can be changed this figures. GDP per Final consumption Literacy rate, adult Life expectancy at capita, (yearly, expenditure, etc. (% total (% of people ages birth, total (years) dollar) (2007) of GDP) (2007) 15 and above) (2007) (2007) Albania 1677 96.53 99.04 76.5 Bosnia & Herz. 2044 111.89 96.66 75.0 Bulgaria 2401 85.30 98.28 72.7 Croatia 5794 78.67 98.72 75.7 Greece 15052 87.52 97.08 79.7 Macedonia 2061 96.66 96.99 74.1 Montenegro 2269 113.81 .. 74.0 Romania 2596 82.77 97.60 72.6 Serbia 1780 98.95 .. 73.4 Slovenia 13334 69.86 99.68 77.7 Turkey 5053 83.47 88.66 71.8 Table 1: Basic Indicators of Development in Balkan Countries Note: Data comes from WDI Online Database The other important indicator of development is final consumption expenditure (% of GDP). High levels of final consumption expenditure (% of GDP) refer low level intermediate product expenditure, capital goods (% of GDP) in a country. According to table 1, we can say that especially Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia and partially Albania have high level final consumption expenditure. These countries have also low level saving rates. For this reason investment amount in these countries is lower than the other Balkan countries. 35 Look at Przeworski et al. (2000). They investigate relations between democracy and development. 256 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Literacy rates are very close to percent 100 (exclude Turkey). Turkey has percent (88.66). This figure shows that Turkey is the worst country in terms of literacy rate in the Balkans (see Table 1). Another important variable is life expectancy in birth. According to Table 1, Greece has the best figures with 79.7 years. Turkey has the lowest number with (71.8 years) (see Table 1). Life expectancy level in the Balkans (averagely) is lower than Euro area (80.4 years) and higher than world average (68.7 years). Population growth rate is very slow in the Balkans. Especially Bosnia & Herzegovina (-0.14), Bulgaria (-0.48), Croatia (-0.04), Romania (-0.16) and Serbia (-0.43) have negative level population growth figures (see Table 2). Others (exclude Turkey and Slovenia) have also figures very close to zero. This situation is dangerous process for next years. Demographic structure will be very old in the next decades. This can bring social security problems similarly Germany and the other West Europe countries. When table 2 is investigated in terms of foreign direct investment (FDI), we can see that Serbia (3.95) and Slovenia (3.34) have the best figures. Macedonia has the lowest number of FDI with (-0.01). The lowest value of per capita electric power consumption is in Albania with 976.1 kWh. The highest value is in Slovenia (7123.5 kWh). Greece has the second best value of per capita electricity power consumption with 5372.1 kWh. Unemployment, as percent of total labor force, is an important indicator of economic development. Macedonia (percent 36.02) and Bosnia & Herzegovina (31.09) have very high unemployment figures in 2006. Third high level unemployment figure is in Serbia with percent (20.84). But global crisis can be changed these figures in Balkan countries as generally world. For example, unemployment figure is percent 14 in Turkey in 2009. Population growth (annual %) (2008) Foreign direct Electric power Unemployment, investment, net consumption (kWh total (% of total outflows (% of per capita) (2006) labor force) (2006) GDP) (2007) 0.35 0.14 976.1 .. Bosnia & Herz. -0.14 0.16 2382.4 31.09 Bulgaria -0.48 0.69 4311.3 8.94 Croatia -0.04 0.42 3635.8 11.13 Greece 0.40 1.68 5372.1 8.75 Macedonia 0.03 -0.01 3495.4 36.02 Montenegro 0.23 .. .. .. Romania -0.16 0.17 2401.6 7.22 Serbia -0.43 3.95 4040.4 20.84 Slovenia 1.05 3.34 7123.5 5.73 Turkey 1.24 0.32 2078.4 9.86 Albania Table 2: Basic Indicators of Development in Balkan Countries (Continued) Note: Data comes from WDI Online Database Income distribution is other considerable variable of development. The highest value of Gini index is in Turkey with (43.2). Macedonia (39.0), Bosnia & Herzegovina (35.8) and Greece (34.3) follow respectively Turkey. Croatia has the lowest value of Gini Index with (29.0). Beside share of poorest 10% of population in GDP is in Turkey with (1.9%). Again Turkey has the highest value in terms of share of richest 10% of population in GDP with (33.2%). The highest share of income in poorest 10% is in Croatia (3.6%) and the lowest share of income in richest 10% is also in Croatia with (23.1%). We can say that Croatia has the best figures in Balkans in terms of income equality (see Table 3). 257 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Share of income or expenditure (%) Greece Slovenia Croatia Bulgaria Romania Montenegro Poorest 10% 2.5 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.3 .. Richest 10% 26.0 24.6 23.1 23.8 25.3 .. Inequality measures Richest 10% to poorest Gini 10% Index 10.2 34.3 7.3 31.2 6.4 29.0 6.9 29.2 7.6 31.5 .. .. Serbia Albania Macedonia Bosnia & Herz. Turkey .. 3.2 2.4 2.8 1.9 .. 25.9 29.5 27.4 33.2 .. 8.0 12.4 9.9 17.4 .. 33.0 39.0 35.8 43.2 Table 3: Share of income or expenditure (%) and inequality measures in Balkan Countries in 2007. Note 1: The Gini index lies between 0 and 100. A value of 0 represents absolute equality and 100 absolute inequalities. Note 2: Data was compiled from UNDP Human Development Index Industrial production index is frequently used an indicator of development. When it is investigated industrial production index values of Balkan countries, Romania (120.6) has the highest value of industrial production index and Greece (101.1) has the lowest value (see Table 4). It is interesting that Serbia loses industrial production capacity, because Serbia has 113.1 index values in 1998, but Serbia has 108.6 score in 2007. Also Greece loses production capacity. Beside we haven‘t got Albania‘s index value. 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Albania 97.0 111.5 124.8 100.0 110.7 86.6 81.9 .. .. .. Bosnia & Herz. 53.7 59.3 64.8 72.8 79.6 83.3 94.4 100.0 107.4 117.3 Bulgaria .. .. 68.6 70.0 73.3 82.9 93.5 100.0 106.0 116.2 Croatia 80.5 79.5 80.7 85.5 89.7 92.7 95.6 100.0 104.1 109.3 Greece 95.1 95.1 100.8 98.7 99.3 99.8 100.8 100.0 100.8 103.4 Montenegro 91.4 84.4 87.6 87.0 87.5 89.6 101.9 100.0 101.0 101.1 Romania 76.3 74.4 97.0 100.8 100.9 100.5 102.9 100.0 109.3 120.6 Serbia 113.1 84.1 93.7 93.8 95.5 92.6 99.2 100.0 104.7 108.6 Slovenia 81.6 81.1 86.2 88.7 90.9 92.1 96.6 100.0 105.7 113.3 Turkey 77.8 74.9 79.4 72.5 79.4 86.3 94.7 100.0 105.8 110.6 Table 4: Industrial Production index (2005=100) in Balkan Countries Note: Data comes from UNECE Statistical Division Database, compiled from national and international (CIS, EUROSTAT, IMF, OECD) official sources. Only economic indicators are necessary, but not sufficient for comparison whole Balkan countries. For this reason we need other pointers. We investigate Human Development Index values and Democracy Index values for Balkan countries. Table 5 shows HDI ranks and values for Balkan countries in 2003 and 2009. The highest value is belonging to Greece with 0.892 and its rank in HDI is 24 in 2003. Again Greece has the highest values of human development index with (0.942) and its rank is 25 in the world in 2009. Turkey (0.806) has the lowest value of HDI in 2009 and its HDI rank is 79. When 2009 ranks are compared with 2003, Greece, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia & Herzegovina lose former position. But Croatia, Romania, Albania and Turkey obtain better position. 258 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Country Name HDI rank in 2003 Human development index value 2003 HDI rank in 2009 Human development index value 2009 Greece 24 0.892 25 0.942 Slovenia 29 0.881 29 0.929 Croatia Bulgaria 47 57 0.818 0.795 45 61 0.871 0.840 Romania 72 0.773 63 0.837 Montenegro - - 65 0.834 Serbia - - 67 0.826 Albania 95 0.735 70 0.818 Macedonia 60 0.784 72 0.817 Bosnia & Herz. 66 0.777 76 0.812 Turkey 96 0.734 79 0.806 Table 5: Situation of Balkan Countries in Human Development Index Values Note: Data was compiled from UNDP Human Development Report 2009 (calculating with 2007 values) and UNDP Human Development Report 2003 (calculating with 2001 values) Another important thing about development is democracy level in country. We can investigate democracy index to understand this relation. Democracy Index is calculated by The Economist Intelligence Unit based on the answers of 60 questions for 167 countries (EIU, 2008). According to Table 6, Greece is the strongest democracy in Balkans. The weakest democracy in the Balkans is Turkey. While Greece and Slovenia have full democracy; Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina and Turkey have hybrid regime. This situation is generally parallel to economic development levels. Country Name Rank in the Index Kind of Democracy Score Greece 22 Full Democracy 8.13 Slovenia 30 Romania 50 51 Full Democracy Flawed Democracy 7.96 7.06 Flawed Democracy 7.04 52 Flawed Democracy 7.02 Serbia 63 Flawed Democracy 6.49 Montenegro 65 Flawed Democracy 6.43 Macedonia 72 Flawed Democracy 6.21 Albania 81 Hybrid Regime 5.91 Bosnia & Herz. 86 Hybrid Regime 5.70 Turkey 87 Hybrid Regime 5.69 Croatia Bulgaria Table 6: Democracy Index (2008) Note: Data comes from The Economist, Economist Intelligence Unit When Democracy Index (2008) values are accommodated in the Map 2 for each country, lighter colors show more democratic countries and darker areas represent authoritarian countries. Especially North America and West Europe have lighter colors. Africa, Middle East and Asia countries have mostly darker colors. Balkan countries have averagely values. 259 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Map 2: World Map Indicating the Democracy Index (2008) Look at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index, 01.05.2010 After analysis of indicators that are belonging to Balkan countries, we offer to accelerate development process of Balkan countries some suggestions in the next section. Suggestions for Development Process of Balkan Countries When it is considered special position of Balkans (multi cultural, multi religion and multi ethnical), to offer new suggestions are quite difficult. Even so, we explain some suggestions for Balkan countries below: Stabilization Policy Balkans had important problems it‘s throughout history. Especially after Ottoman Empire, unstable politic and economic life started in all Balkan Peninsula. With together socialism, there was relatively stable politic and economic life. However, after collapse of socialism, again war, blood, tears and unstable politic and economic life came back in Balkans. Nowadays Balkans has been living more stable days. We know that development is closely related to stable politic and economic structure. For this reason, the first and the most important stage strengthen of stabilization process. To strengthen stabilization process; - European Union full membership process should be accelerated for Balkan countries that are not member of EU. By considering ethnic, religion and cultural structure of the region, bilateral goodwill (bona fides) agreements should be signed among countries. - Some countries in the region should play a part in this process as a mediator. For example, Turkey invited presidents of Bosnia & Herzegovina and Serbia to talk problems between two countries in the last April. - All Balkan countries should be invited international institutions. For example Bosnia & Herzegovina was invited to NATO in the last April 2010. Invitation of only Bosnia & Herzegovina is necessary, but it is not enough. For this reason, all Balkan countries that are not member of NATO should be invited. - By protecting cultural, ethnic and religion diversity, an interior peace law should be composed agreeable by different society parts. Trade Policy - EU trade policy should be accepted by all Balkan countries. Free trade should be improved in the Balkans. Tariffs and other arrangements should be reciprocally dropped. Visa applications should be facilitated to improve trade among Balkan counties for especially businessman and scientists. Bilateral trade agreements should be improved. 260 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo - Collective science, education and R&D agreements should be signed. Balkan Common Wealth that is including all Balkan countries should be established in the next time. Substructure of information and communication technologies should be developed. Goods and Service Production - Manufacture and service sectors should be supported by government. Productivity level of industry should be accrued. To support industrial production, it should be allowed to transfer of technology. Barriers in front of foreign direct investment should be decreased. The Others - - Tax system with progressive rates should be performed to decreasing Gini Index and social benefits of poor population should be improved. Banking system should be developed and its trustworthiness level should be boosted. Barriers for touristic travel should be diminished. Especially visa application should be facilitated. Countries that have insufficient capital for investment need foreign direct investment to accelerate of economic development. For this, it should be allowed foreign direct investment for whole sectors. Democratic reforms such as human rights, constitutional state, economic freedoms, freedom of thought should be performed particularly in Turkey, Albania and Bosnia & Herzegovina. The bigger part of budgets should be gone to education and productive investment. Conclusions When compare with developed countries, Balkan countries (exclude some full members of EU such as Greece and Slovenia) has important problems about economic development. Many countries in this region have less level GDP figures. Also human development and democratic level are not sufficient. Nowadays, Balkan Peninsula has some opportunities related to development process after the war and unstable politic and economic life. These opportunities can be realized forthcoming periods. But this is depends on better orientate and management of economic, politic and social processes. Besides protecting and improving of stabilization process will be important in the next decades. It is a reality that war and unstable politic and economic conditions encourage backwardness, poverty and anti-democratic applications of governments. Conversely peace, trade, stable politic and economic life cause better conditions for all nations in the Balkans. References http://data.worldbank.org/indicator, 22.04.2010 http://hdr.undp.org/en/, 25.04.2010 http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/, 18.04.2010 Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=develop&searchmode=none, 08.04.2010. Peet R. and Hartwick E. (2009) Theories of Development: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives, 2nd edition, The Guilford Press, New York. Przeworski A. & Alvarez M.E. & Cheibub J.A. & Limongi F. (2000). Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. CambridgeUniversity Press. Sen A. (1999) Development as Freedom, Oxford University Press, New York. The Economist Intelligence Unit –EIU (2008), Democracy Index, http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy%20Index%202008.pdf, 01.05.2010 The World Bank, WDI (World Development Indicators) Online Database 261 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo UN (2009), The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009, New York. UNDP (2003), Human Development Report 2003, Oxford University Press, New York. UNDP (2009), Human Development Report 2009, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. UNECE Statistical Division Database, http://www.unece.org/stats/stats_h.htm, 24.04.2010 262 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 172 Title A name given to the resource Analysis of Development Indicators in Balkan Countries Author Author ÇELEBİOĞLU, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the collapse of socialism, Balkan countries have been changing as social, economic and politic structure. Some former socialist countries (Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full member of EU. Some Balkan countries (Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia) lived difficult war years. After the wars, they have started to struggle for economic, social and political reconstruction process. Each country in Balkan Peninsula wants bigger real per capita income, better welfare level, and generally become a developed country. But these countries have some political, economic and social problems in development process. The aim of this paper is to analysis Balkan countries in terms of development indicators such as education, population, national income and income distribution in 2000s. Moreover, new suggestions will be offered to accelerate development process at the end of paper. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/40cace274d69281db3f652cf76dd67ab.pdf dfff630b5a555470f733348b85ef9f52 PDF Text Text A Survey on Swarm Intelligence based Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks Fatih ÇELĐK Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY Ahmet ZENGĐN Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY azengin@sakarya.edu.tr Sinan TUNCEL Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY stuncel@sakarya.edu.tr Bülent ÇOBANOĞLU Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY bcobanoglu@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Recently, wireless sensor networks have attracted many researchers. One of the main topics adopted by researchers studying on wireless sensor networks is developing routing protocols for wireless systems. Routing protocol development concerns to deal with problems such as complexity, scalability, adaptability, survivability and battery life in wireless systems. Routing protocols grounded for wireless systems are developed in order to solve these problems. In this paper, we briefly discussed especially swarm intelligence based routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. 1. Inroduction Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are such networks in which numerous small scale sensors are nodes communicating via wireless channels. Current developments in wireless communications and digital electronics render possible to design sensor units with low power consumption, small size and short range communication capability. WSN architectures including many processing sensors having such properties provide significant advantageous on classic sensor systems. Large-scale sensor networks can be deployed to around of the measured region in some applications. Each sensor unit is randomly distributed to the region; therefore it is impossible to determine exact location of the sensors. In such applications, self organization and adaptive collaboration among sensors become key properties to provide survivable structure in the network level [1]. Collaboration and self organization among sensor units allow network to route physical information from observed environment to the base station via multihop routes. The features such as low cost of the WSN nodes deploy ability into inaccessible regions and long life without any maintenance enable sensor networks to be used a wide range of application areas. A typical sensor network is composed of observation region, sensor nodes, base station and task allocator nodes. WSN’s application areas can be exemplified as military, environmental and medical applications. Primary goals of the routing task of the WSN systems are to extend network life and to prevent connection errors emerged from 434 �use of intensive energy management techniques [2]. Therefore, there is no way to use classical routing approaches in WSNs and need for new routing approaches. Social insect colonies such as ants and honeybees have complex collective behavior and decentralized management structure. These properties have resemblances with parallel, dynamic and distributed systems such as computer networks. Several researchers studied these insects to devise high performance routing protocols. This paper are lend itself to give brief information about swarm intelligence based routing protocols. Figure 1. The components of a sensor node [1] Following introductions, paper gives brief information about swarm intelligence in Section 2. Section 3 covers swarm intelligence based routing protocols inspired from social insects. The paper concludes with Section 4. 2. Nature-Inspired Routing Protocols In this section, routing protocols developed by inspiring from nature systems are summarized. Main concerns in such routing protocols are Optimality, Simplicity, Robustness, Convergence, Flexibility, Scalability, Multi-path Routing, Reachability, and Quality of Service [3]. 2.1. Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) Routing Algorithms The Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) methods has been inspired by operating principles of ants [7], which empower a colony of ants to perform complex tasks like nest building and foraging [8]. 2.1.1. Ant-Based Control (ABC) Schoonderwoerd et al. [8] were the first to apply the ACO approach to routing and load balancing problems in circuit-switched telecommunication networks. As a symmetric network, a circuit-switched network reserves a virtual circuit between a sender and a receiver by explicitly connecting them through crossbar switches. Consequently, the major challenge is to distribute the calls over multiple switches so that the system can support a maximum number of possible calls during peak hours. Such a network is not able to admit calls if all input ports of a crossbar switch are connected to its output ports. Consequently, congestion could be defined as a function of the number of used connections in a crossbar switch [9]. The performance of a switching algorithm is measured in terms of the number of calls which are blocked or failed due to congestion [10]. 435 �Figure 2. A taxonomy of routing protocols for fixed telecommunication Networks[3] 2.3.2. AntNet AntNet was proposed by Di Caro and Dorigo in [11]. It is inspired by the principles of the ACO approach but has additional network-specific enhancements as well. The algorithm is designed for asymmetric packetswitched networks, and the primary objective of the algorithm is to maximize the performance of a complete network. The algorithm implicitly achieves load balancing by probabilistically distributing packets on multiple paths. 2.3.3. Ant Colony Routing (ACR) and AntNet + SELA QoS-Aware Routing Di Caro has discussed ACR, which is a general framework for designing fully distributed and adaptive systems for network control and management, in [12]. ACR can be viewed as a distributed society of static agents, which are known as node managers, and mobile agents, which are proactively or reactively launched in the network. Node managers autonomously manage node activities by learning and then following stochastic management policies based on local pheromone values, which represent goodness of different control actions. However, they expand their “sensory field” to acquire information about their environment with an adaptive generation of mobile agents. Mobile agents take an active preceptor role on behalf of the node managers that launch them. These agents collect the important parameters that act as input parameters to learning strategies of node managers. A node manager, based on the feedback provided by preceptor agents, might alter its control actions. 2.3.4. BeeHive BeeHive inspired by the foraging principles of honeybees. The communicative model of bees was instrumental in designing intelligent bee agents, which are suited for large and complex topologies. The results obtained from extensive simulation experiments conclude that bee agents occupy smaller bandwidth and require significantly less processor time compared to the agents of existing state-of-the-art algorithms [3]. 3. Swarm Intelligence Based Routing Protocols For Wireless Sensor Networks In this section, a brief literature is given for swarm based routing protocols for WSNs [14]. 3.1. BeeSensor Saleem and Farooq (2007) are implemented BeeHive routing protocol for wireless sensor networks which is developed originally for wired networks. BeeHive is developed by inspiration of scout-recruit system of honeybees [4]. 436 �Table 1. Classification of routing protocols for WSNs[3] 3.2. Energy-efficient ant-based routing (EEABR) EEABR is developed by T. Camilo in 2006 and a new communication protocol for WSNs called energy efficient ant-based routing algorithm (EEABR), which is based on the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) [5]. EEABR uses a colony of artificial ants that travel through the WSN looking for paths between the sensor nodes and a destination node, that are at the same time short in length and energy-efficient, contributing in that way to maximize the lifetime of the WSN. Each ant chooses the next network node to go to with a probability that is a function of the node energy and of the amount of pheromone trail present on the connections between the nodes. When an ant reaches the destination node, it travels backwards trough the path constructed and updates the pheromone trail by an amount that is based on the energy quality and the number of nodes of the path. After some iteration the EEABR protocol is able to build a routing tree with optimized energy branches [5]. 3.3. Flooded piggybacked ant routing (FP-Ant) FP-Ant is developed by Ying Zhang in 2004. The flooding mechanism is significantly helpful in wireless networks, especially in sensor networks, where the probability of a packet loss is substantially higher compared to that of fixed networks. FP-Ant is a variation of the AntNet proposed in and is based on the flooding mechanism [6]. In Table 1, comparison and main features of the previous routing algorithms are listed. 4. Conclusions Together with emergence of WSN networks, new routing approaches are required since networks have highly dynamism and distributed. When literature is investigated, it is obviously seen that routing protocols for WSNs are implementations from wired networks. The researches done have shown that swarm intelligence based routing protocols can remove at least one or several problems in the area such as battery life, scalability, maintainability, survivability, adaptability and so on. Ant based approaches are attracted by much researchers than other approaches. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Al-Karaki, J.N.; Kamal, “A.E. Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks: a Survey”. Wireless Communications, IEEE,2004; Volume 11, pp. 6-28 Selçuk Ökdem, Derviş Karaboğa, Kablosuz Algılayıcı Ağlarında Yönlendirme Teknikleri, 2007. Muddassar Farooq, Bee-Inspired Protocol Engineering From Nature to Networks, 2009 Dervis Karaboga, Bahriye Akay, A survey: algorithms simulating bee swarm intelligence, 2009 Tiago Camilo, Carlos Carreto, An Energy-Efficient Ant-Based Routing Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks, 2006 Y. Zhang, L. D. Kuhn, and M. P. J. Fromherz,"Improvements on Ant Routing for SensorNetworks," M Dorigo et al. (Eds.): ANTS 2004 437 �7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. E. Bonabeau, M. Dorigo, and G. Theraulaz. Inspiration for optimization from social insect behaviour. Nature, 406:39–42, 2000. M. Dorigo, G. Di Caro, and L.M. Gambardella. Ant algorithms for discrete optimization. Artificial Life, 5(2):137–172, 1999. R. Schoonderwoerd and O. Holland. Minimal agents for communications network routing:the social insect paradigm. Software Agents for Future Communication Systems, (1), 1999. R.L. Freeman. Telecommunication System Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2004. S. Appleby and S. Steward. Mobile software agents for control in telecommunications networks. BT Technology Journal, 12(2):104–113, Apr. 1994. G. Di Caro and M. Dorigo. Ant colonies for adaptive routing in packet-switched communications networks. In Parallel Problem Solving from Nature – PPSN V, LNCS 1498, pages 673–682, Sept 1998. G. Di Caro. Ant colony optimization and its application to adaptive routing in telecommunication networks. Ph.D. thesis, Universit´e Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium, 2004 Marco Dorigo, Ant Algorithms Solve Difficult Optimization Problems,2001 Selçuk Ökdem , Derviş Karaboğa, Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks Using an Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) Router Chip, 2009 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 542 Title A name given to the resource A Survey on Swarm Intelligence based Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks Author Author ÇELİK, Fatih Zengin, Ahmet Tuncel, Sinan Çobanoğlu, Bülent Abstract A summary of the resource. Recently, wireless sensor networks have attracted many researchers. One of the main topics adopted by researchers studying on wireless sensor networks is developing routing protocols for wireless systems. Routing protocol development concerns to deal with problems such as complexity, scalability, adaptability, survivability and battery life in wireless systems. Routing protocols grounded for wireless systems are developed in order to solve these problems. In this paper, we briefly discussed especially swarm intelligence based routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/192b583b95e01d4a51d53e26f3411eea.pdf df567e0b405ac9cfc88563f29273eeda PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Alternative Financing Models for Sustainable Housing Finance System: Some Proposals for Participation Banks in Turkey Ali Cüneyt ÇETĠN University of Suleyman Demirel, Isparta, TURKEY ccetin@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Orhan ADIGÜZEL University of Suleyman Demirel, Isparta, TURKEY orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Abstract: This study examines some alternative financing models for sustainable housing development. As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several financing models are currently in existence, the dominant among which are the cost plus sale (buyand-sell principle) and the diminishing partnership and lease contracts. In this study, the alternative financing models compare to the conventional financing (interest-based) system using illustration from banking practices. The paper examines the differences between the two and goes on to discuss specific problems of housing finance. In relation to the alternative financing models, the paper concludes that the diminishing partnership and lease contracts have several advantages over the cost plus sale for the customer. When implemented through Turkish participation banks and cooperatives, the diminishing partnership can provide an investment avenue for members through the fractional reserve money creation process. Consequently, if alternative housing financing models are adopted worldwide, sustainable housing finance system might be more stable and fair. Introduction Home is a necessity for human life and owning a good home is an aspiration of everyone. People fulfill this need by building a home on their own, purchasing it or renting it from others. Payment for conventional home mortgage normally takes a good chunk of one‘s monthly income. Conventional home mortgages are interest-based. Alternative financial practices for house financing arise from the Islamic contracts. Alternative methods of finance for home do not involve interest. In an alternative house financing contract, the property should be owned by the bank or the financial institution. In practice, this means that a financial institution would buy a property at a certain price (exactly like any other buyer or trader). When the bank becomes a complete owner of this property, it would then be resold at a higher price to any client who would like to buy this specific property. This prospective buyer shows his or her interest by submitting a documented or written promise to the bank assuring that he will re-purchase the property. There is no interest at all because the price is not changeable. Whatever happens after the sale agreement nothing will justify any increase of the cost of the house. There is no room for any speculation to take place in the light of any possible monthly interest rate change. Everything completely relies on the agreed price in the contract, whether payment will be after five years or twenty. The bank deal with properties as an original owner and sell the houses directly to the clients based on instalments or some other mode of the alternative mortgage (Dwaikat, 2008). Some financial institutions have introduced a number of modes for home ownership, the dominant of which are the cost plus sale (CPS) contract and the diminishing partnership and lease (DPL) contracts. The CPS is the popular concept in countries like Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei whereas the DPL is widely practiced in the Middle East, United States, Canada, United Kingdom and Australia (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 5–6). 59 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The objective of this paper is to make theoretical analyses between the CPS and the DPL contracts. For the benefit of the interested readers, managers and customers of participation banks, the paper also provides some examples for the DPL contract. Alternative House Financing Models As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several alternative modes are currently in existence, the dominant among which are; – Cost plus sale (Murabaha5) – Leasing to rent (Ijara): – Lease to own (Ijara wa Iqtina‘a 6) – Diminishing partnership and lease model (the Musharakah Mutanaqisah Partnership) Controversy about alternative home financing practices can arise when the translation is made from Arabic to English. For this reason, British government departments use the same words for different concepts: Ijara (FSA, 2006, p. 3) (leasing to rent), Ijara wa Iqtina‘a (HM Treasury, 2007, p. 9) (lease to own). The Cost Plus Sale (CPS) Cost plus sales (CPS) similar to a buyer‘s credit (see, Jackson, 2004, p. 26; UNCTAD, 2006, p. 12). Cost plus sale is a contract between the customer and the financial institution that entitles the institution to purchase the goods and sell them again to the customer on deferred instalments without the need to have an interest–bearing loan (Hassan, 2007, p. 4–5). Here, it could be said that when the banks undertake the transactions according to CPS contracts, they actually play the role of traders (Akhtar, 2005, p. 26). The process of this contract starts when the customer requests a tangible asset from a supplier, the financial institution sells it, and then the customer pays the money to the institution on a deferred sale basis with a mark- up reflecting the institution‘s profit, which is called a cost-profit (Segrado, 2005, p. 10). It means that this contract is a sale transaction. A specified profit margin goes to the institution by special agreement whereby the institution funds the purchasing operation for the benefit of the customer, but in an indirect way, through buying the goods then selling them again to the customer, who should return the money within an agreed time limit, in instalments or in a lump sum. Any risk connected to the goods bought by the institution should remain its responsibility until they are delivered to the customer. This method of financing used to be one of the most important tools used extensively by participation banks for funding commodity trade by acquisition of long-term assets. In other words, the financial institution (bank) gives the client a commodity loan, the value of which will be returned to the bank at a cost to the bank plus a mark up (Gaber, 2007, p. 6). There are some conditions for a correct cost plus sale contract: – The bank (the seller) keeps the ownership rights of the commodity from the time of negotiation until the end of the contract. – The bank should give the client the exact cost of the commodity, and define the sum of profit in advance. That must be added together and quoted to the client as a final price (Abdelhamid, 2005, p. 37). – The contract with all its transactions must be free from interest. – Any defect in the goods to be sold must be disclosed by the bank (the seller) (Gaber, 2007, p. 6). Cost plus sale is one of the best known forms of alternative finance; it is also applicable to financing commercial transactions which require liquid short- term instruments, and it can also be used for long-term investments (Lovells, 2004). In a CPS contract, the client is certain about all the details of the contract, the original price and the mark-up that should be paid back to the bank, in addition to the clarity of the deferred instalments, without any future changes. This means the client is not concerned about many other details, especially in connection with a fluctuating rate of interest influenced by very changeable market prices. The client can pay all the money back at any point without any kind of restriction or redemption fee being charged. He can pay higher instalments than the instalments agreed on, but of course not lower. This point is a very important difference between the CPS and conventional mortgage (Khanfar, 2009, p. 9). The CPS is basically a sale contract which provides the buyer the benefit of a deferred payment, whereby the deferred price of the sale object carries an additional profit. The commodity exchanged is ―delivered‖ immediately but the sale price (with profit) is paid in instalments, over a long period. The current CPS home 5 Literally, this means a profitable sale and is also called the al-Bay’ Bithaman Ajil meaning deferred payment sale (Thomas, 2001, p. 5). 6 The words mean ―leasing and acquisition‖ and it is variably called ―leasing ending in ownership‖ (Thomas, 2001, p. 8). 60 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo financing, instead of charging the customer interest, financiers charge a profit derived through a buy-and-sell contract, but the profit rate is dependent on the market interest rate due to arbitrage activities. Therefore, while the CPS is practiced in some countries, it is, nonetheless, converging to the conventional mode where the computational formulas are similar to the conventional and where the profit rate tracks the market interest rate. The current difference between the fixed-rate CPS and the conventional mode is that once the profit rate is fixed in the CPS, say at 7% per annum, it will remain the same for the entire duration of financing. This, in fact, causes problems for the financiers as it is difficult to estimate accurately the cost of funds and hence the appropriate profit rate over long periods like 20 years, due to the volatility of economic conditions. This encourages customers to refinance their home from CPS to conventional during low interest periods and vice versa (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 4–5). The CPS Home Purchase plan is based on the principle of trading or buying and selling goods at a profit Investment Banking Unit contracts with the vendor and pays the deposit required when the contracts are exchanged. The sale price from Investment Banking Unit to the client is the price paid by Investment Banking Unit to the vendor, plus the return Investment Banking Unit pays its investors, plus administrative expenses and a profit margin. The property after sale to the; buyer is registered in the buyers name and the buyer repays Investment Banking Unit fixed monthly installments. The key features of CPS are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 7): – Clients identify the property that wish to buy and agree the purchase price with the seller of the property in the normal way. – The Investment Banking Unit will buy the property, and immediately sell it to the client at a higher price. This is calculated depending on the property value, payment terms (up to 15 years) and the amount of the first payment. – When purchased, the property is registered in client‘s name. The sale between client and the bank is recorded in the CPS Contract. – Clients first payment to the bank is made on the day of completion and is client‘s initial contribution is a minimum of 20% of the purchase price. In a CPS based mortgage; firstly, customer find a property requests the bank to purchase it to sell it to him at cost plus a declared profit, and then the bank purchases the property directly and sells it to on the basis of a fixed mark-up-profit, finally, the customer agrees to pay the price in agreed upon easy installments. Example of a CPS Financing Assume that a customer wishes to buy a houses priced at €200, 000. The customer puts a down-payment of 10 percent, i.e. €20, 000 and finances the remaining 80 percent, i.e. €180, 000 using the CPS method. Also assume that the Annual Profit Rate (APR) charged by the bank is 10 percent per annum and the duration of financing is for 20 years. The bank would first buy the house for €180, 000 and then sell the house to the customer at a profit, with deferred payments over the 20-year period. The monthly payment for the above financing is €1,737.047, payable for 240 months which adds up to €416, 889.35 in total. The difference between this figure and the original financing of €180,000 which equals €236, 889.35 is the total profit for the bank from this transaction. The profit of €236, 889.35 is capitalized upfront in the CPS mode, unlike under the conventional mortgage, where the interest due is not recognized until the elapse of time. One important difference of the CPS compared with the DPL and the conventional mortgage is that of the balance of financing remaining before the expiry of the duration of financing. For our example, the CPS balance after 10 years (i.e. after 120 payments) is the total of the remaining 120 payments, i.e. €208, 444.80 whereas under conventional mortgage, this amount would represent the total interest paid for the loan over the 20-year period. The bank, however, may give some rebate for the early repayment, but the amount of rebate is determined at the discretion of the bank. Note that even after ten years of repayment, the balance under the CPS mode can even exceed the original financing of €180,00014 (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 7). While both the bank and the conventional bank create the original principal amounts through fractional reserve banking system (i.e. loans given out do not really reduce the deposits of the depositors), a customer owes more money in the alternative mode than the conventional mode at any time thereafter until the ‗loan‘ is settled. This fact alone is very attractive for even the conventional bankers to provide alternative mode financing (See Meera, 2004). 7 Computed using the standard formula for present value of annuities (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 7). 61 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Lease Lease is proving to be most popular method of house finance. This is because it is more flexible than cost plus sale if the client wishes to pay bank early or if the client wish to make additional, ‗lump sum‘ payments. The key features of lease are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 9): – The client identifies the property that wish to buy and agree the purchase price with the seller in the normal way. – The Investment Banking Unit will then sell the property to the client as detailed in an agreement titled ‗Promise to Purchase‘ The purchase price between The Investment Banking Unit and client is the same price as the original purchase. – At the same time Client will enter into a lease with The Investment Banking Unit which details client rights to occupy the property. – The client pays The Investment Banking Unit monthly payment which is calculated so that part is applied towards the purchase of the property from The Investment Banking Unit and part of it is rent. – The payments are fixed every 12 months, April to April. At the beginning of April each year, The Investment Banking Unit will reassess the rent and payments are likely to vary. – Client may purchase the property from The Investment Banking Unit at any time by paying the bank the balance of the purchase price. Two versions of the leasing house are “lease to own” and “diminishing partnership and lease” model. Lease to own (LTO) model: The key features of LTO model are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 8): – Bank buys the property from the vendor. – Customer enters into two contracts; Promise to purchase contract and Lease contract – In the promise to purchase contract, clients purchase the property from the bank for the original purchase price spread over T years. – In the lease contract, the lease contract deals with occupancy prior to completion of the purchase. – Each monthly payment consists of rent and contribution to profit. – The amount of the rent may be set annually and is normally aligned to the return required buy the banks investors. The LTO is a mode in which the financial institution buys the house and the customer repays the money back in monthly instalments according to an agreed period in advance. During this arrangement, the client pays an agreed rent to the financial institution for occupying the house (Wilson, 2007, p. 10). Some of the writers refer to this mode as Lease-Purchase. The Diminishing Partnership and lease (DPL) model: DPL is a form of partnership in which one of the partner promises to buy the equity share of the other partner gradually until the title to the equity is completely transferred to him. Under DPL arrangement agreement is required; verbal or written; capital is contributed by both parties in cash or in kind; profit is shared as per agreement while loss is shared according to share in equity; cost of repair and maintenance, insurance etc are shared by both parties; one partner (financial institution) leases his share in asset to other (client) for a consideration. Contract of buying and selling of equity units between partners cannot be stipulated in diminishing partnership contract; price of units to be sold /purchased is fair value or else as agreed between parties but face value of units cannot be stipulated (Hanif and Hijazi, 2010, p. 4). Under this contract, the parties agree in advance that one of them will own the shared asset gradually by paying the value of the other party‘s shares until the complete cost of transferring the title to the buyer is paid. In the case of the mortgage contract, the bank and the customer agree to enter into a partnership to share the same property but under two contracts: Leasing to rent contract and partnership with a period defined in advance. Here the client pays two kinds of instalments, one as a rent for the bank‘s share, the other to increase the client‘s share in the ownership, which diminishes the share of the bank until the client owns all the property at the end of the defined period (OICU–IOSCO, 2004, p. 11). The DPL contract is based on two portions to the contract. First, the customer enters into a partnership under the concept of joint ownership agreement with the bank. Customer pays, for example, 10% as the initial share to co-own the house whilst the bank provides for the balance of 90%. The customer will then gradually redeem the financier‘s 90% share at an agreed portion periodically until the house is fully owned by the customer. Second, the bank leases its share (90%) in the house ownership to the customer under the concept of lease, i.e. by charging rent; and the customer agrees to pay the rental to the bank for using its share of the property. The periodic rental amounts will be jointly shared between the customer and the bank according to the percentage share holding at the particular 62 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo times which keeps changing as the customer redeems the financier‘s share. The customer‘s share ratio would increase after each rental payment due to the periodic redemption until eventually fully owned by the customer (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 8–9). The key features of DPL model are the financier and the client to participate in the joint ownership of a property and the share of financier is divided into a number of units. The client can purchase those units periodically (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 8). Example of a DPL Financing Consider the same example as for the CPS concept where a customer wishes to buy a house priced at €200,000. Let‘s assume again that the customer pays 10 percent of the price, i.e. €20,000, the financier puts the remaining 80 percent, i.e. €180,000 and that the average rental for similar homes in the locality is agreed upon between the two parties to be €1,000 per month. In addition, the customer wishes to add another €289.58 monthly 8 in order to redeem the financier‘s share in 20 years. This gives the total monthly payment as €1,289.58. Table 1 below provides the schedule for the DPL contract: Mon th Monthl y Rent (€) A Monthl y Redemp tion B (€) Total Paymen t Customer‘ s ratio C=A+B (€) 0 1 2 3 4 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 289.58 289.58 289.58 289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 D 0.10000 0.10195 0.10391 0.10587 0.10785 5 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 6 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 Total = €309, 499.20 IRR = 6% Rental Division Custom Financi er er E F Customer‘ s Equity Financier‘ s Equity H (€) 180,000 179,610.4 179,218.9 178,825.4 178,430.0 Financie r‘s Cashflo w 100.00 101.95 * 103.91* * 105.87 900.00 898.05 896.09 894.13 G (€) 20,000.00 20,389.58 20,781.11 21,174.59 21,570.05 0.10984 107.85 892.15 21,967.48 178,032.5 1,289.58 0.11183 . . . . 1.00000 109.84 . . . . 993.59 890.16 . . . . 6.41 22,366.89 . . . . 200,000 177,633.1 . . . . 0 1,289.58 . . . . 1,289.58 (180,000 (€) )1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,000 Rental Distribution i.e. E-2 (Customer‘s) = 20,389.58 X = € 101.95*; F – 2 (Bank‘s) € 898.05 200,000 G-1 Customer‘s Equity = € 20,000 + € 289.58 + € 100 H-1 Bank‘s Equity = € 200,000 – € 20,389.60 = € 20,389.58 = € 179,610.40 Table 1. Payments Schedule for DPL (Meera and Razak, 2005: 10) Notice that while the amount to be paid monthly was €1737.04 under the CPS concept, the monthly amount needed under DPL is only €1, 289.58. Therefore, the customer saves €447.46 monthly but acquires the home also in 20 years. Indeed, if the customer pays €1, 737.04 for the DPL mode as in the CPS, then the customer can own the home in 12 years 3 months, i.e. saving about 8 years of monthly payments. Table 2 below provides a comparison for financing the home using the conventional, CPS and DPL methods. 8 Mathematical derivations for DPL are used to obtain this amount of €289.58 (See, Meera and Razak, 2005: 24-27). 63 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Price of house = €200,000 Customer puts = €20,000 Financier provide = €180,000 Monthly Rental = €1,000 APR = 10% APR = 10% APR = 6 % Monthly payment Total Payment in 20 years Total Interest/ Profit to Bank APR Balance after 10 years Conventional Loan 1737.04 416,889.60 236,889.60 CPS DPL 1737.04 416,889.60 236,889.60 1289.58 309,499.20 129,499.20 10% 131,443.76 10% 208,444.68 6% 116,156.56 Table 2. Comparison between Conventional Loan, CPS and DPL (Meera and Razak, 2005: 11) From Table 2, it is obvious that so long the annual percentage rates (APRs) are the same the total interest in the conventional equals the total profit in the CPS. But when customer wants to settle the financing earlier, say after 10 years, the loan balance under the CPS is always higher than under the conventional loan. The balance under the conventional is much lower because here the balance is the present value of the remaining 120 payments whereas under the CPS it is simply the monthly payment times 120 (i.e. under CPS the total profit for the twenty years is capitalized upfront). Nonetheless, the bank may give a rebate for early settlement which is decided at its discretion. Nevertheless, the total payments and loan balances are lowest in the DPL among the three financing methods. The mathematical derivation for DPL in the Appendix shows that the return to the DPL is solely determined by the rental rate, which in this case is 0.5% per month (accordingly the APR is 6%) 9. Interestingly, this return to the financier is neither determined by the initial capital provided by the financier nor the duration of the contract which is usual under debt financing. The return is solely but determined by the rental alone as a percentage of the house price. Such as the case, financiers of DPL would be tempted to finance only homes with high rental rates, whereas it would be in the interest of the customers to negotiate for low rentals. If, in our example, the rental rate for the DPL equals an APR of 10 percent (i.e. where the rental is €1, 666.67 per month) then, indeed, the ‗amortization‘ schedule for all the three methods will be the same (though they differ conceptually). But one important difference would still remain, i.e. the balance of financing before expiry of the contract. The balance under the conventional loan and DPL would be the same while the balance under CPS would still be higher. This is because the conventional and diminishing partnership and lease methods follow a diminishing balance schedule. Therefore, the balance under conventional and DPL can never exceed the financiers original contribution, but under the CPS it can 10 (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 10–12). The Differences between the CPS and the DPL Contracts In summary, the main differences between the joint ownership DPL and debt-type CPS financing are as follows (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 17–18): – There are two separate contracts under the DPL method. The first is a partnership where the client is a partner and the second one is a rental which involves the leasing of the property. The CPS, on the contrary, follows the cost plus concept of buying and selling of property. – Under CPS, the selling price of the house does not reflect the market value since the mark-up for the deferred payment is quite substantial. On the contrary, the value of the house under DPL always reflects the market price and the rental is determined by the market rental values. – The return to the CPS is based on a fixed selling price (that uses the prevailing interest rate as the benchmark). But under DPL, the financer need not be tied to a fixed profit rate throughout the financing tenor. This is because the rental rate can be revised periodically to reflect current market conditions. Indeed, as argued earlier, the rental can be tied to some economic variables like Rental Index, House Price Index etc. 9 The annual percentage rate (APR) in the DPL is determined by the rental rate, i.e. the annual rent divided by the original price of the house. In the example, it is (€1,000 x 12)/200,000 x 100% = 6% (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 24-27). 10 As in the above example where after 10 years of payments, the balance under CPS is €208,444.68 which exceeds the original amount of €180,000. 64 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo – The financier can manage the liquidity risks better as rental payments can be adjusted at the end of each subcontract period. This is not possible under the 17current fixed-rate CPS as the profit rate is a constant throughout the entire tenor of financing. – Even compared with a floating-rate CPS, the DPL still differs in the balance of financing at any point in time before the end of the contract. Under DPL the balance can never be larger than the original price/finance of the house. Rebates for early redemption under CPS cannot be specifically stated in the contract. – The DPL is a more flexible financing structure than the CPS as the customer can own the property earlier by redeeming faster the principal sum of the financier, without the need to compute rebates as in CPS. – In the event of payment defaults, the penalty charges under CPS can be challenged, while under DPL, defaults will cause the equity of financier to remain constant and therefore entitled to higher rental portions when payments made later. – Currently many customers opine that the CPS is similar to the conventional loan with some ―disadvantages‖ for the customer particularly for early redemptions. The DPL is accepted internationally whereas the CPS is recognized predominantly in the east, i.e. in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei etc. Conventional and Alternative Home Financing Models Comparison In the case of basic home financing, alternative products under the CPS structure, which is deferred payment sale, might offer more competitive deals than conventional banking. In comparing the two models, an ordinary conventional housing loan is based on debtor-creditor relationship and the interest rate charged is based on a certain percentage above the base lending rate over loan period. Fluctuation in the base lending rate will affect total loan cost. Simultaneously, arrears in conventional loans are normally capitalized. However, under the CPS scheme, a seller-buyer relationship is established and the selling price is fixed upfront. The sale price is then repaid in installments, with the amount remaining fixed throughout the financing period. This eliminates the customer‘s interest rate risk and furthermore, arrears will not be capitalized. The CPS scheme eliminates additional or hidden costs that will change the price of the property purchased — providing clients with a better value-for-money option compared to conventional home financing (Islamic Finance, 2008, p. 34). Under conventional financial system, interest is charged which is determined on the basis of demand and supply of the capital while under alternative financial system rent of the property is charged, determined through demand and supply of real asset. As conventional banks do not own the underlying asset, hence sharing of risk and reward of property is not required while alternative housing finance institutions (AHFIs) are co owner of the property and share risk and rewards attached with ownership. Return for conventional home financing model starts from the date of loan extension facility which is not the case in AHFIs. Under DPL model return is due when the property is ready for use either through acquisition or through construction. Conventional banks are not required to share any loss occurred to the underlying property while AHFIs being co owner will share any damage occurred to the house. Conventional banks will continuously receive the installments (containing interest & principal) even if property is not use able and needs some repair. During the repair period AHFIs cannot receive the rent. Return of conventional banks is fixed as interest while AHFIs will receive rentals as well as shares any appreciation (depreciation) (Hanif and Hijazi, 2010, p. 6). 65 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CONVENTIONAL HOME FINANCE The lender advances funds to the borrower and charges [interest] for the use of their money. Credit references, sources of income to be able to retune the loan before 65 birthdays. Most of the lender has no lower limit to the property value. Up to 125% of the property value. Life insurance and building are mandatory in most cases. Lender never owns the property. Payment term up to 40 years. Income Multiples Up to 5 times primary annual income sole applicant. Arrangement fee usually up to £500. ALTERNATIVE HOME FINANCING Based on trade (cost plus sale) and leasing, alternative home financing models are interest free. Credit references, sources of income to be able to retune the loan before retirement age. Minimum property value £50,000. Up to 80% of the property value There is no compulsory life and building insurance are required. The bank puts itself in the position of owner of the property. Higher risks. Cost plus sale up to 15 years minimum 5 years Lease up to 25 years minimum 7.5 years Cost plus sale 2.5 times primary annual income Lease 3 times primary annual income sole applicant Arrangement fee of 0.75% of the property value less the first payment. Table 3. A Comparison between Conventional and Alternative Home Financing (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 12) For example the price is £ 100,000.00 the banks require 10% deposit if the bank agrees to give a 30-year mortgage of £90,000, at an annual interest rate of 8%, the monthly payments would be £660.39. Each payment will consist partly of interest due and partly the repayment of principal. The buyer will make 360 monthly payments, which add up to a total of £237,740.40 paid to the bank accruing £147,740.40 interest to the bank. Payment Number 1 2 3 …. 120 …. 240 …. 359 360 Total Monthly Payment £ 660.39 £ 660.39 £ 660.39 Interest £ 660.00 £ 599.60 £ 599.19 Principal £ 60.39 £ 60.79 £ 61.20 Balance after Payment £ 89,939.61 £ 89,878.82 £ 89,817.62 £ 660.39 £ 527.13 £133.16 £ 78,951.84 £ 660.39 £ 384.83 £ 295.56 £ 54,428.98 £ 660.39 £ 660.39 £ 237,740.40 £ 8.70 £ 7.30 £ 147,740.40 £ 651.69 £ 653.09 £90,000.00 £ 653.09 £ 0.00 Table 4. Amortization schedule for a 30 year conventional housing finance at 8% interest: £ 90,000 principal (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 13) Just as in the conventional arrangement, the coop bank will require some down payment. That will be client initial equity share. Let‘s assume client make the same down payment of 10 %, or £10,000. The coop bank puts up the remaining £90,000. Now client and the bank are co-owners. If client occupy the house, client will be required to pay rent to the owners. But client are also allowed to increase his/her ownership share at any time by making additional payments to the coop bank, in effect, buying out the bank‘s interest in the house. As client do so, his/her proportionate share increases while the coop bank‘s share decreases and the distribution of the rent payments will change accordingly. Let‘s compare this arrangement with the conventional mortgage in the example given above. The big question, of course, is what is a fair amount for the monthly rent? It might be reasonable to assume that it is equal to the monthly payments client would have made under the conventional mortgage arrangement, in this case, £660.39. At the outset, 66 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo client will receive 10% of that rent as his/her ownership share and the bank will receive 90 percent, Let also assume that client apply his/her share of the rental payments to increasing his/her share of the ownership. Payment Number 1 2 3 … 24 …. 120 … 240 … 359 360 Total Payment Amount £ 660.39 660.39 660.39 Client Share £ 60.04 60.48 66.91 Bank‘s Share £ 594.35 593.91 593.48 Client Equity £ 10,066.04 10,132.52 10,199.43 Client Equity % 10.07 10.13 10.20 Bank‘s Equity £ 89,933.96 89,867.48 89,800.57 Bank Equity % 89.93 89.87 89.80 660.39 76.83 583.56 11,711.34 11.71 88,288.66 88.29 660.39 144.54 515.85 22,030.94 22.03 77,969.06 77.97 660.39 318.43 341.96 48,536.24 48.54 51,463.76 51.46 660.39 660.39 231,018.30 652.52 538.63 7.87 3.56 99,461.37 100,000.00 99.46 100.00 538.63 0.00 0.54 0.00 Note: (With Rent Equal to Conventional 8%, 30 Year Monthly Payment Owner‘s share applied to repurchase: No additional principal Payments Table 5. Diminishing Partnership and Lease Model (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 15) Table 5 is an abridged amortization table which shows the respective returns to client and the coop bank. Under this arrangement, client will own 100% of the property after making the 350th payment. Client will have paid total rent of £231,018.30. The bank‘s total share will have been £141,018.30. This is a saving of more than £6,000.00 or 4.1% over the amount of interest paid on the conventional home finance. The Practices of Alternative House Financing In the World Alternative house financing models in Germany are equity based diminishing partnership and lease (DPL), debt based DPL, CPS and adjusting CPS. Ansar Finance, Manchester operates equity based DPL concept. Equity based mode is no debt, but possibly longer purchasing period and less prone to asset price bubbles. Debt based modes could have identical cash flow. In CPS, if the sale is void, so is the financing – one contract; contrary to credit to be repaid because fraud is only with property not with loan. There is no penalty interest if default is due to difficulties (Kennedy and Gassner, 2009: 5–9). The practices of alternative house financing have been fortunate in getting legal obstacles removed so that they are applicable under English law. This has been intended to facilitate the needs of consumers so that they can have an alternative mortgage with equal safeguards to those available under existing FSA mortgage regulation. The British government confirmed its positive standpoint by releasing the necessary regulations which allowed the Islamic mortgagees to be treated in the same way as the mortgagees of conventional mortgage modes (Solé, 2007, p. 17). Based on that, the alternative mode of mortgage has become more available and more widely accessible (Russell, 2004, p. 13). The Islamic Investment Banking Unit of the United Bank of Kuwait (UBK) in London has been offering alternative house financing since 1997. The products are CPS Home Purchase Plan11 and Lease Home Purchase Plan12. Al Baraka Bank‘s the operations were similar to DPL model. The bank and its client would sign a contract to purchase the house jointly, the ownership share being determined by the financial contribution of each of the parties. The bank would expect a fixed predetermined profit for the period of the mortgage. The client makes either monthly or quarterly repayments over a 10-20 year period, which covered the advance plus profit share. There was some 11 12 This program is named Manzil Murabaha. This program is named Manzil Ijara. 67 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo debate if the profit share could be calculated in relation to the market value of the property, but this was rejected as frequent revaluation of the property would be expensive and administratively complicated. Furthermore, given the fluctuating prices in the London property market, there would be considerable risk for the bank (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 6–9). The British government has realised the significance of the growth of alternative types of finance in the UK, especially the mortgage. Some writers consider that the cancellation of double stamp duty has supported the promotion of the Islamic market mortgage expansion (Alam, 2004, p. 2). Besides that the government also permitted the mode of lease to own to be used for asset finance, as well as the CPS; the latter became included in the definition of a regulated mortgage and is now covered by FSA mortgage regulation. This also happened with the mode of the diminishing partnership when the government included this mode as part of the concept of alternative finance arrangements instead of standard loans within the Finance Act 2006 (HM Treasury, 2007, p. 9).Co-operative Housing Corporation, Canada uses the LTO model. MSI housing Fund Houston, Texas [USA] applies the DPL model (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003). Participation Banks in Turkey Participation banks are an indispensable and complementary element of the financial system in Turkey. They operate under the Banking Act, regulated and supervised by the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency– BDDK (Büyükdeniz, 2006). Participation banks provide not only classical banking activities but also some more, as leasing, insurance, barter in financial sector. Participation banks perform almost all operations of classical banks in various methods, without any confliction on their principals. The objective of this typical banking is to bring in, the idle capital of interest sensitive people in to national economy, under the interest free banking principals. While performing classical banking operations, not interest but profit-loss participation investment method made this banking type to be called as interest free banking in literature. These institutions perform almost all banking services in different methods. Nevertheless, they do not do such operations depending to interest. This creates a complementary issue between banks and participation banks. Besides, they are such institute which increases the financial deepening and diversification (Özulucan and Deran, 2009, p. 85). Turkish Participation Banks’s Home Financing Methods Turkish participation banks‘s home financing methods are decreasing installments model, real estate consumer price index leasing model and home loan. Decreasing installments model in home financing is based on applying different monthly profit rate for every year during financing. Monthly profit rate is same for each twelve months. Next years‘ monthly profit rate will be less than that of previous years‘. At the beginning of home financing, the monthly profit rates are already determined. The monthly profit rates to be apply are (http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr); 120 months installments 60 months installments 1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year 5th Year 6th Year 7th Year 8th Year 9th Year 10th Year Annual Cost Ratio 1.19% 1.15% 1.14% 1.05% 1.04% 0.95% 0.89% 0.84% 0.79% 0.74% 13.46% 1.04% 0.99% 0.95% 0.89% 0.84% 12.61% Table 6. Decreasing installments model For each 12 months installments, monthly profit rates shown above are applied. Unlike other fixed price installment term Turkish Lira leasing transactions, a consumer price indexed real estate leasing product is a new leasing product where leasing installments can be indexed to inflation through the Consumer Price Index (CPI) rate announced by the Turkish Statistical Institute on the 3rd day of every month and vary according to economic conditions. Thanks to this payment system, with the increase in installments indexed to CPI, not changing throughout the year, and installments up to 10 years, in an environment of falling inflation client will be able to own a home as if client was paying rent. In fact, under this payment system, with the change in the 68 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CPI index for the past year, client will be able to calculate his/her installments for the following year (http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr). Home loan is a transaction where the Bank purchases the real property required by the customer and then resells it thereto by adding a profit according to the required term. Home loan includes (http://www.turkiyefinans.com.tr/en/retail_banking/personal_loans); – Discounted Home Finance: With discounted home finance, customer can reduce the profit share on his/her loan and thus greatly reduces his/her monthly installment payments by paying an amount in 1% to 10% of his/her loan at the beginning. – Home Finance with increasing installments: If customer wishes to pay his/her installments at lower amounts at the beginning and then increases them gradually. – Home Finance with decreasing installments: If customer wishes to reduce, his/her installment amounts in the next period and then pays a higher installment at the start – Flexible Payment Home Finance: Under Flexible Payment Home Finance, customer can make regular extra payments at every 3, 6 or 12 months at his/her option or lower his/her monthly installment by adding an interim payment to any month of his/her choice. – Deferrable Home Finance: With Deferrable Home Finance, customer can defer his/her loan up to 3 months from the start of its term and starts his/her payments in the next period. Therefore, customer can more easily meet other costs of his/her house during such deferment period. Conclusion A home is basic necessity, it consumes a large chunk of peoples‘ income for long periods. In the present interest-based system, owning a home is increasingly becoming burdensome. Mortgages are one of the significant causes of bankruptcies. While price of homes keep rising, the mortgage duration also keep rising, till two-generation mortgages are even being talked about. The practices of alternative housing finance are concerned with issues of sustainable rather than efficiency. These practices focus on the necessity of sharing risk in a fair and stable society, and upon problems of exploitation in markets where power is asymmetric, this is the real interest issue. In this study, the case analyses shows that the principles differences between alternative and conventional housing finance is that the former is equity based and the latter is debit based. In an alternative home financing situation, both the bank and the client share ownership [equity] and therefore share the risk of equity ownership. In conventional banking, the client owns all the equity and the banks loan to the client is secured on the value of the property. The essence of alternative house finance system is sharing; sharing of risks and rewards by both parties. Alternative housing finance is unique and unmatched with traditional mortgages. Internal rate of return cannot be determined in advance. It is true DPL, which demands the sharing of risk and reward by both partners. Under alternative home finance, financier is earning more as compare to conventional banking (in case of appreciation) but after capacity building of customer, while under conventional financial system return is fixed which put the client in trouble in early years and prosperity in following years if property value appraises and vice versa. This paper made a comparative analysis between the CPS and DPL contracts as means for home ownership. This paper attempted to argue in favour of the DPL as a better alternative to the conventional mortgage and the CPS. The CPS is a contract that is based on a buy-and-sell principle while the diminishing partnership consists of a partnership contract and a rental contract where the equity of the financier follows a diminishing balance method. The paper concludes that the DPL has several advantages over the CPS for the customer. It can be made to avoid interest totally and can reduce the cost of homes and the duration of financing. The balance of finance, at any point in time, never exceeds the original price of the asset, unlike under the CPS where it can. When a home is purchased from a developer and financed using the present conventional or CPS, the customer would end up paying about four times the original cost (both the developer and the bank are assumed to make a gross 100 percent mark-up). This, undoubtedly, can burden particularly the low income group. DPL allows people to own homes with limited initial capital. In doing so, it promotes the welfare of the people. The DPL is less attractive to the banker compared to the CPS. For that matter, a viable avenue to implement the DPL is through a cooperative setting. When implemented through cooperatives, the DPL can also provide an investment avenue for members while substantially reducing the price of house and the duration of financing. The concept has a positive impact on the economy and reduces inflation as no additional money is created in the system compared to debt-financing, as currently done under the fractional reserve banking system. 69 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The DPL is just and fair compared to the conventional loan and the CPS as there is no interest charge or ‗advanced‘ profit involved in the DPL contract. It is purely based on rental payments of property and the redeeming of the financier‘s shares. As a benchmark, the paper suggested the use of a Rental Index or House Price Index in determining the rental to be charged for each specified rental contract period. The DPL concept is a viable alternative to the conventional floating rate financing since the rental rate can be adjusted if there are fluctuations in the economy. Hence, it is more flexible, wherein the Turkish Participation banks will not be faced with too many uncertainties due to variations in economic conditions. As for the society, the DPL brings stability into the economy by promoting positive partnership instead of negative indebtedness thus assisting in the equitable distribution of society‘s wealth; minimizing the large number of debt defaults and bankruptcies that are observed in the current financial system. References Abdelhamid, M. (2005). Islamic Banking, Department of Economics Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario. Akhtar, C. (2005). Islamic Economic System, Issues in Islamic Banking, The Pakistan Accountant. Alam, N. (2004). Islamic Finance - Issues and Opportunities. Client Briefing Note EIRIS 4. Büyükdeniz, A. (2006). Participation Banks in Turkey: An Economic and Social Reality, http://www.tkbb.org.tr/en/download/PBECONOMIC.PPT Dwaikat, MR, (2008). The Sale, the Interest, the Pledge in the Holy Qur‘an, and the People Life, Nablus, Rabbaniyeen School. FSA, (2006). Regulation of Home, Reversion and Home Purchase Plans, Financial Services Authority Consultation Proposals, 1 (8), London, 1–148. Gaber, A. (2007). Risk Management: Islamic Financial Policies, Case study of Farmers‘ Commercial Bank, Paving the Way Forward for Rural Finance, An International Conference on Best Practices, http://www.basis.wisc.edu/live/rfc/cs_06a.pdf> (accessed 4 April 2009). Hanif, M. & Hijazi, S. T. (2010). Islamic Housing Finance A Critical Analysis and Comparison with Conventional Mortgage, Middle Eastern Finance and Economics, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1483524 (accessed 7 May 2010). Hassan, MK, Soumaré, I. (2007). Financial Guarantee as innovation tool in Islamic project finance, Working Paper 0713. HM Treasury, (2007). Alternative Finance Products, Budget 2007: Regulatory Impact Assessments, HM Treasury. Islamic Finance Asia (2008). Paying the Price: Conventional versus Islamic, http://www.islamicfinanceasia.com/pdf/_feature4.pdf. (accessed 07 May 2010). Jackson, S. (2004). Basics of Islamic Law, the Sources of Islamic Law, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan. Kennedy, V., Gassner, M. S., (2009). Islamic Mortgages, Frankfurt BAFIN Konferenz Islamic Finance and Certification Islamic Finance Products, Köln, Germany, 28. Oktober 2009, 1–17. Khanfar, A.A. N. (2009). The Applicability of the Islamic Mortgage Contract under English Law, Web Journal of Current Legal Issues (5), http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/2009/issue5/khanfar5.html, (accessed 12 March 2010). Lovells, (2004). Islamic finance, Shariah, Sukuk and securitization, http://www.yasaar.org/pubs/20177%20Islamic%20finance%20client%20note1.pdf, (accessed 10 March 2010). Meera, A.K.M. & Razak, D.A. (2005). Islamic Home Financing through Musharakah Mutanaqisah and al-Bay Bithaman Ajil Contracts: A Comparative Analysis, Review of Islamic Economics, 9 (2), 5-30. Meera, A.K.M. (2002). The Islamic Gold Dinar. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. 70 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Meera, A.K.M. (2004). The Theft of Nations. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. OICU–IOSCO (2004). Islamic Capital Market, Fact Finding Report. Report of the Islamic capital market task force of the international organization of securities commissions. Özulucan, A. & Deran, A. (2009). The Comparison of Participation Banking and Traditional Banking on the Perspective of Banking Services and Accounting Applications. Mustafa Kemal University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 6 (11), 85–108. Russell, JG. (2004). Jeffrey Green Russell‘s Guide to Islamic Home Finance, London. Segrado, C. (2005). Islamic microfinance and socially responsible investments, Case study, Microfinance at the University, University of Torino, Torino. Serlah, A. (2002). ―Special Report for Client Sofraslan‖, Loon Gandree Grecht Sanwalte, Glossary of Islamic Banking Terminology, Solé, J. (2007). Introducing Islamic Banks into. Conventional Banking Systems. Monetary and Capital Markets Department, IMF Working Paper. Thomas, A. (2001). Methods of Islamic Home Finance in the United States. The American Journal of Islamic Finance, 1–14. Tlemsani,I., & Matthews, R. (2003). Ethical Banking Islamic House Financing in The United Kingdom: A Comparative Study, Centre for International Business Policy, Kingston Business School. UNCTAD, (2006). Islamic Finance and Structured Finance Techniques: Where The Twain Can Meet. UNCTAD Secretariat. Wilson, R. (2007). Islamic Finance in Europe, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, Florence. http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr/en/BireyselBankacilik_TuketiciKredisi_TaksitliKonut.aspx http://www.turkiyefinans.com.tr/en/retail_banking/personal_loans https://www.ubl.com.pk/ameen/pdf/Glossary_Islamic_Banking.pdf/10/6/2007. p. 6, 2007, (accessed 15 March 2009). 71 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 175 Title A name given to the resource Alternative Financing Models for Sustainable Housing Finance System: Some Proposals for Participation Banks in Turkey Author Author ÇETİN, Ali Cüneyt ADIGÜZEL, Orhan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study examines some alternative financing models for sustainable housing development. As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several financing models are currently in existence, the dominant among which are the cost plus sale (buyand- sell principle) and the diminishing partnership and lease contracts. In this study, the alternative financing models compare to the conventional financing (interest-based) system using illustration from banking practices. The paper examines the differences between the two and goes on to discuss specific problems of housing finance. In relation to the alternative financing models, the paper concludes that the diminishing partnership and lease contracts have several advantages over the cost plus sale for the customer. When implemented through Turkish participation banks and cooperatives, the diminishing partnership can provide an investment avenue for members through the fractional reserve money creation process. Consequently, if alternative housing financing models are adopted worldwide, sustainable housing finance system might be more stable and fair. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e37cbbfcf8201d555c432851a872900.pdf 011a4c97701738675faef38492f07b0e PDF Text Text Competency-Graph Based Elearning Content Development For Halal Quality Control B. Gültekin ÇETĐNER a,* Mete GÜNDOĞAN b* M. Kutluk ÖZGÜVEN c,* a Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Professor Dr., Industrial Engineering cetiner@ius.edu.ba , b Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Professor Dr., Economics mgundogan@ius.edu.ba c Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Associate Professor Dr., Management kozguven@ius.edu.ba *International University of Sarajevo (IUS), Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract: Processing and the production of the food and dairy products is one of the most critical industrial sectors because of its direct effect on human health. On the other hand, echo-ethical concepts such as Kosher, Vegetarian and Halal terms are becoming more popular for certain communities. The concept of Halal on food production and its importance for Muslim communities makes it a great business opportunity in all around the world with its potential of exceeding 500 billion USD. Generating standards for Halal Quality and transforming the religious rules in today’s industry and implementing the Halal concept on food production with well-documented procedures require the combination of various knowledge with systems engineering practices. More effective and efficient ways have to be also developed to disseminate this knowledge. Since a universal set of standards for Certification of Halal is not established yet, Halal Accreditation Agencies in different parts of the world follow various standards to their best. This paper suggests an approach to develop elearning content in order to facilitate the training for Halal Quality Control and Certification practices. It is based on the establishment of competency-graphs according to the standards set in general guidelines of Codex Alimentarius Commission, Malaysian and Bosnian (CACMB) Standards. The suggested competency-graphs in this paper may be used as a model for designing an elearning platform in training all related parties before and during the Halal quality control and certification processes. Key Words: Elearning, Competency-graphs, Halal Certification, Halal Standards. Introduction Nowadays, the meat trade is growing and passing country boundaries in a magnitude never seen before. Several issues that are always cited as the enablers of this growth are: ‘super-production’ by a few large exporting countries; the increase of disposable income in most importing countries; and the gradual lowering of trade barriers in many parts of the world. From 1961 to 2007, total global meat output rose from 71 million MT to about 283 million MT and the global meat trade jumped from only 3.5 million MT to 22 million MT. Poultry meat is still the largest type of traded meat. As a percentage of the total global meat production, global meat trade increased from 4.9 per cent in 1961 to 7.8 per cent in 2007 (Irfan Sungkar, 2009). Halal meat products and their use in other products have become the major driving force for global Halal trade. Due to globalization, more and more trade occurs between countries with different religious backgrounds. The existence of different communities and importance of so-called echo-ethical products such as Kosher and Halal as a major buying decision makes the Halal industry an important sector in all around the world depending on the demand in each particular region. On the other hand, the swell in demand for Halal products has given rise to fraud, where companies and exporters are labeling foods as Halal, when, in fact, this is not the case. One of the major concerns in the food market for Muslim communities is the pork which is prohibited in Islamic tradition. Due to the fact that productivity and relatively easier breeding of animal pigs producers may tend to blend meat products from these animals into other products usually improper labeling. The detection of the frauds at certain times and geographical locations make the Muslim consumers insist that the food industry comply with Halal standards during manufacturing, processing and packaging of foods. 854 �In this new century, the food supply chain has become more complex and it involves a lot more additional processes. It is even more important now than before to ensure safety of the products manufactured, and this is done via standards and regulations imposed on food manufacturers. Although it may be interpreted as a trade barrier, at the end of the day, it is essential for food manufacturers/ exporters to gain consumers’ satisfaction and trust. Most of the countries usually have strict regulations regarding especially meat and its derivatives. The BSE or Mad Cow Disease crisis and other food crises within the European Union (EU) proved that it is very important that at all times the origin of food products can be traced. The new regulations also include provisions for the traceability of food in the food chain (Irfan Sungkar, 2009). The requirements apply to food and feed businesses located in the EU (including importers). They are obliged to: a) Know and document from whom they have bought their food (ingredients) b) Know and document to whom they supply their products c) Label their products so that they can establish traceability in case of a food safety problem All these requirements regarding the food safety regulations set by authorities and demand by the communities need a systems engineering approach to the problem of Halal Certification. A Halal certificate is a document issued by an organization (known as certification agency) certifying that the products listed on it meet Islamic dietary guidelines, as defined by that certifying agency. Halal Certification practices similar to the other practices such as ISO and HACCP involve training of the stakeholders in the food production chain. External accountability principles require an external body which does not have an affiliation or interest in the company for certifying the compliance. It involves experts knowledgeble in food chain analysis. Furthermore, a religious authority is needed and often it is also separate from this expert body. Certification may be based on the compliance for the manufacturing site or specifically for certain products in the production chain. Duration of certificate depends on the manufacturing and product types. Complexity of certification may be overcome by training people in the food chain. Training is usually the most cumbersome part of the process and training needs may change from one agency to another. Competency-graphs were developed herein to model and achieve the knowledge management regarding the training needs related to the whole certification process. For Halal Quality Certification, general guidelines of Codex Alimentarius Commission (GL 24-19971), Malaysian Standards (MS 1500 2004) and Bosnian Standards (BAS 1049-2007) were taken as basis for constructing the whole model which will be named throughout this paper as CACMB. The paper briefly describes the competency graphs known also as Conceptual Prerequisite Maps (CPM) and then outlines the competency graphs for a Halal Certification Processes. It also gives an example knowledge pathway through the competency graph for training in a sample domain within Halal Certification chain. Conceptual Prerequisite Maps (CPM) or Competency Graphs Throughout the later part of the twentieth century, significant research efforts have been devoted into the area of intelligent tutoring system. While small-scale implementations of various systems have achieved successes, no system to-date has been able to achieve large-scale deployment. While the advance of networking and hypertext technologies in recent decades have seemingly introduced new hopes and promises, developments and advances in computer assisted learning have been weighted heavily on content management, organization and standardization. Competency graphs were suggested to answer some of the challenges encountered by developers of intelligence tutoring systems (Louis Shun, Vincent Ng). To allow intuitive creation of concepts by subject matter experts, and to ensure maximum adaptability of the algorithms to be investigated, a competency graph may be utilized to model knowledge base on a basic form as directed acyclic graphs (DAG) named Conceptual Prerequisite Maps (CPM). Only two elements are presented in a CPM. The nodes of the CPM represent knowledge or concepts, while the arcs present “is prerequisite of” relations of one concept to another. The formal definition of a CPM is as follows ((Louis Shun, Vincent Ng): A Conceptual Prerequisite Map (CPM) or Competency Graph (CG) is a directed acyclic graph (DAG) represented as G(C,P,f) where C is a set of concepts represented as vertices, P a set of “is prerequisite of” relationships represented as edges, and f being an ordered mapping f: P → C x C. Figure 1 shows an example CPM with 10 concepts in the knowledge domain. 855 �Figure 1. CPM of 10 concepts All the competencies are represented as nodes in the graph and the dependencies between them are identified and specified. CPM can be used to model a learner’s level of mastery of the concepts in a specific knowledge domain. Some measurements may be associated with individual concepts representing the learner’s level of competency in the domain. With the expansion and abundance of information, it is important to model and to analyze knowledge in an organizational level. The availability of an organizational knowledge model would allow an organization to specify organizational needs of knowledge related to its essential operations in a more systematic way. Competency Graphs for Knowledge Management in Halal Quality Control Conceptual Prerequisite Maps or Competency Graphs are suggested herein for modeling knowledge, content, learners' as well as organizational knowledge needs for Halal Quality Control process. Figure 2 shows the competency graph developed for the certification process. There are three different symbols used in the graph. Conceptual knowledge shown by ellipses represents the theoretical knowledge, general understanding of a concept (see the 'Halal Quality Control H1000'). Procedural knowledge is shown by boxes and means practical knowledge of the way a procedure is performed. It may be also defined an activity or set of activities to perform (see the 'Evaluation of Products P1000'). External knowledge is the knowledge that should be known and being available externally (see the 'Islamic Concepts C1000'). The direction of arrows shows the prerequisite relationship between two entities. In the competency graph given, the concept H1000 requires the P1000 and P1100 whereas P1000 and P1100 are required by H1000. The external entity C1000 (Islamic Concepts) is required by both 'Audit Team P1500' and 'Education Team P2100'. Individual competency cards are developed for all these three items namely conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge (aka actvities), and external knowledge. 856 �Figure 2. Competency Graph for Halal Certification Process Competency Name Evaluation of products Competency Code P1000 Description This competency constitutes the knowledge of the announced and unannounced occasional inspections to Applicant Company and analysis of company’s random samples from the market. Competency Type Activity Required by Competencies H1000 Requires Competencies P1100 Refer to CACMB, Procedure for Halal Quality Certification, Section heading Evaluation of product validity. Figure 3. Competency Card for Evaluation of Products (P1000) Explanatory Supplements 857 �The competency cards may be utilized to quickly refer to the related competency (see Figure 3). Each competency card has the description fields as Competency Name, Competency Code, Description, Competency Type, Required by Competencies, Requires Competencies, and Explanatory Supplements. The competency card in Figure 3 is related to the activity 'Evaluation of products P1000'. Furthermore, a competency table is developed as in Table 1. The competency table includes 14 Activities, 3 Conceptual Knowledge Maps, and 1 External Knowledge Map. Knowledge Pathways in Competency Graphs Competency Graphs provide the designers of elearning system developers with the knowledge paths which are useful for conditional activities style of learning resources. Competency graphs are used for developing the knowledge pathways. Any branch of three elements (activity, knowledge and external entity) in a competency graph may be starting point depending on the learning needs of the required user. The following section gives a brief case study as an example to the knowledge pathway required for a Halal Expert. Case Study: Knowledge Pathway for Halal Expert We assume a case herein where Certification authority wants to expand the number of Halal Experts and Official Auditors to rapidly satisfy increasing Halal Certification demand in the region. Authority receives some applications and makes a selection among the candidates. 30 candidates are elected for the position. Before they start working they must be trained and given the concept of Halal Quality Control. The competency graph given in Figure 2 is utilized for this purpose. To implement the idea of creating the knowledge path, the related branches first need to be identified in the competency graph. Halal Experts can play two roles in the certification process. They may be either a member of education team (P2100) or audit team (P1500). We see that for a person in both positions, the knowledge of CACMB (H1100) and Islamic Concepts (C1000) competencies are required (see Figure 2). Starting with H1100 which is the CACMB standards for Halal certification, the Halal expert requires knowledge of certain competeny paths based on the competency graphs developed for CACMB (H1100). A competency graph was also developed for this project. However, due to the space constraint in this paper, only related parts in the competency graph of H1100 is given. Name Code Type Required By Halal Quality Control H1000 Knowledge P1000 P1100 Evaluation of products P1000 Activity H1000 P1100 Contract of Certification and P1100 Trademark use Activity H1000 P1000, P1200 Audit Report P1200 Activity P1100 P1300 Certification Audit P1300 Activity P1200 P1400 Audit Plan P1400 Activity P1300 P1500 Audit Team P1500 Activity P1400 C1000, H1100 Documentation and Requesting P1600 Activity P1400 P1800 Internal Auditor Certification P1800 Activity P1600 P1700, H1200 Certification Contract P1900 Activity H1200 P2200, P2300 Education Plan P2000 Activity H1200 P2100 Education Team P2100 Activity P2000 C1000, H1100 Proposal Application P2200 Activity P1900 P2400 Price Orientation P2300 Activity P1900 Certification Request P2400 Activity P2200 Islamic Concepts C1000 External P2100 858 Requires P1500 �Internal Auditor Training H1200 Knowledge P1800 CACMB H1100 Knowledge P2100 P1900 P1500, H1110, H1120, H1130, H1140, H1150, H1160, H1170 Table 1 Competency Table for Halal Quality Control (Main Competencies) A Halal Expert needs pathways from H1100 as Area of Implementation (H110), Reference to other standards (H1120), Terms and Definitions (H1130), Halal Food Requiements (H1140), Labeling (H1150), Halal Certificate (H1160) and Additions (H1170) to reach the overall knowledge for Halal Standards requirements and measures for Halal Quality. Terms and Definitions (H1130) require some other knowledge required namely Halal Quality (H1131), Halal Product (H1132), Haram Product (H1133), Mashbooh Product (H1134), HAS (H1135), Halal Products Administration (H1136), and HrCCP (H1137). The knowledge of Halal Food Requirements (H1140) needs the knowledge of Haram Food (H1141), Halal Food (H1142), Additional Requirements (H1143), and Halal Meat and Halal Slaughtering of Animals (H1144). Haram Food (H1141) requires the knowledge elements of Food of Animal Origin (H1145), Food of Herbal Origin (H1146), Beverages (H1147), and Additives (H1148). Additions (H1170) needs the elements Procedure for Halal Quality Certification (H1171), Rulebook on Audit for Halal Quality (H1172), Rulebook on Halal Logo of Halal Quality Appearance and Use (H1173), Rulebook on Halal Slaughtering (H1174), and Rulebook on Halal Status of Additives (H1175). So after having all the knowledge in the path, the trainee gains the competency of CACMB (H1100). The knowledge pathway to H1100 is shown in Figure 4. 1st Step Knowledge H1145 H1146 H1147 H1148 2nd Step Knowledge 3rd Step H1131 H1132 H1133 Knowledge H1134 H1135 H1137 H1110 H1120 H1141 H1142 H1143 H1130 H1140 H1144 H1171 H1172 H1150 H1160 H11734. H1174 H1175 H1170 Figure Knowledge Pathway to H1100 (CACMB) Acquired Knowledge H1100 Besides the knowledge path explained, a Halal Expert candidate must also have the knowledge of Islamic concepts (C1000). This is an external knowledge requirement including religious knowledge of related verses and hadith on Halal subjects. A Halal Expert Candidate needs to acquire the knowledge of H1100 and C1000 in order to participate in an audit team or an education team. There are also some other competencies which are needed for an expert in those positions. Those are ability to prepare an audit plan P1400, education plan P2000, to train internal auditors H1200, making a certification audit P1300, and preparing an audit report P1200. Indeed rules and guidelines of these competencies are included in the CACMB (H1100) but they are changeable in respect to structure applicant organization and the type of the application itself. So they have a procedural hierarchy with a dynamic pathway. Minimum requirement for being a Halal Expert is embedded in this knowledge pathway. However, it is also recommended for Halal Expert to acquire overall competency for Halal Quality control to work with the whole Picture of Halal Concept. Conclusions This paper suggests an approach to develop elearning content in order to facilitate the training for Halal Quality Control and Certification practices. The approach is based on the establishment of competency-graphs according to the standards set according to combination of three standards. The suggested competency-graphs in this paper may be used as a model for designing an elearning platform in training all related parties before and during the Halal quality control and certification processes. This is a unique approach in this business which is growing very fast. Within a decade, the business volume is expected to be more than a trillion dollars worth. References Codex Alimentarius Comission /GL 24-19971, General Guidelines for Use of the Term “Halal” MS 1500 2004 (2004), "Malaysian Standards for Halal", Malaysian Standards Institute BAS 1049-2007 (2007), "Halal Standards in Bosnia and Herzegovina", Halal Accreditation Agency 859 �Louis Shun, Vincent Ng, “Competency Graphs for Intelligent Tutoring System”, Department of Computing, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Irfan Sungkar (2009) “Rising Income and Trade Patterns of the Global Halal Meat Trade”, The Halal Journal, Issue: Jan/Feb 2009 860 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 638 Title A name given to the resource Competency-Graph Based Elearning Content Development For Halal Quality Control Author Author ÇETİNER, B. Gültekin GÜNDOĞAN, Mete ÖZGÜVEN, M. Kutluk Abstract A summary of the resource. Processing and the production of the food and dairy products is one of the most critical industrial sectors because of its direct effect on human health. On the other hand, echo-ethical concepts such as Kosher, Vegetarian and Halal terms are becoming more popular for certain communities. The concept of Halal on food production and its importance for Muslim communities makes it a great business opportunity in all around the world with its potential of exceeding 500 billion USD. Generating standards for Halal Quality and transforming the religious rules in today’s industry and implementing the Halal concept on food production with well-documented procedures require the combination of various knowledge with systems engineering practices. More effective and efficient ways have to be also developed to disseminate this knowledge. Since a universal set of standards for Certification of Halal is not established yet, Halal Accreditation Agencies in different parts of the world follow various standards to their best. This paper suggests an approach to develop elearning content in order to facilitate the training for Halal Quality Control and Certification practices. It is based on the establishment of competency-graphs according to the standards set in general guidelines of Codex Alimentarius Commission, Malaysian and Bosnian (CACMB) Standards. The suggested competency-graphs in this paper may be used as a model for designing an elearning platform in training all related parties before and during the Halal quality control and certification processes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)