306 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5e2b8afe955608dffa341f9629058dd0.pdf bf51506ebe4cfe33930c27b7b4dd7761 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Case Study Successful for Chinese family business Fatih YAġAR Department of Management Beijing Institute of Technology University-China fyasar27@hotmail.com Abstract: In order to determine the impaction of financing to corporate performance, Guangdong Province family owned listed corporation family businesses is selected to describe a sovereign form of economic organization throughout the world in terms of contributions. Because of the coincidence of family business failure and the importance of family business within national and local economies, a large percent of family business literature is allocated to the issue of succession. In mainland China, the family, as the basic social unit, has recently regained its importance in economic activity. Starting from the exacting case of a family business located in Guangdong province, this article reviews the practices that reign in the succession of the management of companies. Following this case study, a questionnaire was drawn up and submitted to 15 family businesses. Chinese companies can continue to endure or not, depends on its ability to carry out bold economic reforms and to what extent the characteristics of Chinese companies and originality play. A survey inquiry is used as the research instrument. The results prove that psychosocial needs are more often associated with the potential successors‘ intentions to take over family businesses than other factors. Keywords: Condition; Successful; Family business Introductıon Family businesses signify a widespread and prophetic form of venture in the economic and social landscape. Some researchers approximation that, today ,family-owned businesses comprise over 95% of all business establishments worldwide Studies in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and overseas countries imply that family firms account for the majority of the businesses and have a major collision on the growth of the national economies. In mainland China, interest in family businesses was first aroused by the success of the big Chinese family companies which are characteristic of the countries of Southeast Asia, and then by the growth of the Chinese private sector, the majority of whose companies are of the family type. ( Lank et al, 1994) Family business is not characterized by either permissible forms or specific size. Some writers desire either the condition of possession or that of management control in order to depict a business as being a family one or not; other definitions are based on both possession and control. Recently a dynamic loom has distincted the family business, whether it be a simple family workshop or a big visibly quoted company, in terms of the real manage exercised by the founding family. (Stavrou, 1999).This does not necessarily imply majority control of the assets or the require of remedy to managers from outside the family. Its individual attribute is that no other group of shareholders carries greater weight than the family shareholders, and that the appointment of the head of the company depends absolutely on the principal shareholders. Beyond the question of definition, it is generally agreed that a family business is characterized by the superimposition of a system of enterprise and of a family system in one and the same entity which is both economic and social. In matters of succession, a decision is never taken as the result of purely economic computation, nor is it merely a problem of the passing on of the family legacy. In the context of a China in transition where the power of the state mingles with creature motivations, this method makes it possible both to evade mistakes that would lead to over simplifying complexities and to encumber light on the rich diversity of the real lives of personals and organization.(Chua,1991) The aim of this article is to donate to the accepting of the present situation of Chinese family businesses, through a focus on the question of succession. In the first part, we introduce a business that has experienced two consecutive succession processes over the last few years. From this we teased out questions which are examined in the second part, in the light of information gathered from 15 family businesses in the province of Guangdong. In order to find answers to these questions, and in conjunction with the Centre for Research into Family Enterprise in Guangdong we conducted a survey of a sample of 15 family businesses, between June and December 2009. These businesses share the following characteristics: their capital is private; they are large 239 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo companies resolute to professionalize their managerial team; the head of the company is around fifty or sixty years old, so that succession is not far off; they are manufacturing companies. In the survey, we made two unexpected discoveries. We had initially believed that a number of private companies, after over twenty years of growth, were in the process of transferring power from one generation to another or had already experienced a transfer of power. In reality, for a majority of private companies, succession is not a required solicitude because of the youth of both the entrepreneur and the company. Among the fifteen companies, only two had a change of principal manager, seven had not been resisted with the question of succession, and six did not give any answers. In this way our survey, which had expected the observation of practices, reveals only opinions on the question of succession. Secondly, we initially sought to meet with twenty large private companies in the same sector in Jiangmen, but the preponderance of small and medium-size private companies only made it possible for us to identify 13 companies in the area, to which we later added four companies situated in the environs of (two in Zhongshan, two in Xiaolan). These 15 companies are family businesses in the strict sense because of the sovereign presence of the founding family in their capital: 36.53% of the shares belong to the business leader officers and 46% of the shares are held by other members of the founding family (see Figure 1). As the chairman managerial officer is, most often, also the head of the family, the founding families control these companies. Figure 1: Shareholding of chinese firms From the management point of view managerial functions are approved out by the founders (in 40.5% of cases) and their children (13.8%), for a total of 54.3% of positions (see Figure 2). Family control at managerial level is apparent, even if it does not exclude the arrival of outside talent (25% of executives are professional managers recruited from outside). The data collected on the capital, the turnover and the number of employees shows that these are large companies (see Table 1). Figure 2: Executive for the companies 240 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Number of companies out of 15 who replied 01 Total capital (in thousands of yuan) 02 Total turnover (in thousands of yuan) 03 Number of employess Average Minimum Maximum 101,319 22,634 181,117 145,204 16,800 550,000 1001 258 2,500 Table 1: Size of Companies in our Survey Source Our survey:2010 Reseearch Desıgn and Methodologz Data Collection At the time of this study, the common of family businesses were still under the control of their founder. 88.2% of the founders were ripened between 40 and 50. The transfer of power between generations is for that reason not yet a major preoccupation. However, 82.4% of the founders (14 out of 17) admitted that they have already begun to look for their successors. The exacting case of the FSJ Lighting Company The story of the FSJ Lighting company is strictly united to that of its founder, Cai Shusong, once the director of a state enterprise (the lighting factory in Zhongshan) and secretary of the enterprise's Party Committee. In May 1998, at the age of 63, he retired and began a second career in Zhongshan. He borrowed 90,000 Yuan and became a sales representative for a locality and enterprise at Jiangmen. In 1999, he set up his own company, FSJ Lighting, with an initial investment of 100,000 Yuan, which produced a component for Lighting equipment. The company was registered at the Chamber of Commerce and Industry as a communal enterprise. From the outset, although this official status, FSJ Lighting was defectors a private company owned and managed by the Cai family. All the management jobs were detained by members of the family or by close friends. In 2001, FSJ Lighting relinquished its status as a collective enterprise and became a public limited company with private capital. In 2003, in accordance with company law, FSJ Lighting was modernized and established a board of directors and a supervisory board. In 2002, it became a shareholding company. In 2005, FSJ Lighting opened its capital to four institutional shareholders, to the harmony of 21 million Yuan, and then equipped its submission for a citation on the stock market. In 2006, the company had total capital of 132 million Yuan, an annual proceeds of 86 million and profits of 21 million. It employs close to a thousand employees. The founder’s family Cai shusong set up his company at the age of 63 and gave up direct management of it four years later. When asked about his ambitions for FSJ Lighting, his first desire was that the company preserve its technological guide over its competitors, develop itself sustainably and contribute to local development. These ambitions are evidence that, distant from the creation of personal and family assets, self-realization is a major factor in his consumerist motivation. Cai shusong is one of those private entrepreneurs who previously had been cadres in state enterprises. He belongs to the proficient elites who made a good living before, and who set up private companies in the same sector as that in which they were employed by the state. They are differentiated from entrepreneurs driven by dearth, because of their reasonably high incomes. Their professional experience sets them apart from the administrative elites who went into business in order to capitalize on their power at the time of the transition from the planned system to the market system. Cai shusong so belongs to the group of private entrepreneurs who most closely resemble the Schumpeterian entrepreneur They often have a long-term strategy which gives priority to the growth of the company. Cai shusong has two children: Cai Chen (39), his daughter, Cai Xiao (31). Cai Chen, who graduated from university in 1986, initially looked after the maintenance of the equipment in a state enterprise, the electric controls factory in Guzhen. In 1998, he left the company to go into his own Lighting business. In 1999, he joined FSJ Lighting and became dependable for product design. The same year, Cai Xiao came into the family business with the job of supervising the establishment of the factory. Cai Xiao, who formerly worked in a public bank, recently submissive in order to join FSJ Lighting. At the time of our research, Cai shusong was president of the 241 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo supervisory board, Cai Chen and Cai Xiao were respectively president and vice-president of the board of directors, and was preparing the enterprise's listing on the stock market. Two transfers of power for company Over the course of the last ten years, FSJ Lighting has qualified two successive succession processes. The first C.E.O. officer of FSJ Lighting was Cai shusong. The job of president of the board at that time was held by his wife. From 2002 beyond, Cai shusong began the transfer of power to the second generation, appointing his son, Cai Chen, C.E.O. officer, and taking over the job of president of the board from his wife. The string process was completed in 2003 when Cai shusong reconciled the presidency of the board, which he entrusted to Cai Chen. This initial succession was carried out by the founder Cai shusong, who decided to give up the direct management because of his age and the inadequacy of his knowledge in the face of rapid technological developments. The second succession was made necessary by the company's extension strategy. In 2004, after the modification of the company's legal status, when it became a shareholding company, its development led it to take on ―risk capital‖ to the tune of 21 million Yuan, and to arrange a request for a listing on the stock market. In order to comply with the criteria of the Chinese Securities Regulation Commission, the company determined to split the positions detained by Cai Chen. In order to do this it recruited an outside professional manager, Mr. Yuan, who became C.E.O. officer. The first transfer of power was a result of the withdrawal of the head of the company because of his age. If we consider that the main task of a family running a family business is to produce managers with the necessary competencies (comprehension and know-how), the distance between two transfers of power within the family will be at least twenty-five years in the case of a nuclear family. This distance can be shorter in the case of an absolute family, which has the possibility of interesting sons-in-law or cousins into the company. Thus the structure of the family (the number of children, the accessibility and impetus of probable successors, etc) influences the regularity of successions. Factors exterior to the company also come into the computation. The technological environment anxiety the renewal of competencies in order to adapt to sectoral evolution. The evolution of the capital structure can expose the company to new shareholders. These factors can contribute to the renewal of the guidance of the company, even if they do not supply directly to the engagement of the successor. Even after the arrival of a C.E.O. officer who was not part of the family circle, the Cai family, at the time of our consultation with Cai shusong, still held 53% of the shares, while four financial institutions held 34%, and the other directors 13%. The management team is currently made up of 11 people, of whom three are members of the You family (Cai shusong and his son). Three are former company cadres who now supervise general business, finance and technology. As well as the chairman executive officer, three deputy directors have been actuated from outside the company, and an consultative position has been commended to a former state employee, who was previously the head of the local commission for foreign economic and commercial relations (Sorenson, ,2006). Although this progression has led to a diminish in the control of the founding family, the Cai family still holds a common of the capital. Table 2: FSJ Lighting Company Organization 242 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Results In China, the development of the private sector goes back less than twenty years, most businesses are family ones and are always dash by their founders. The two successions pragmatic in the case of the FSJ Lighting company incited us to formulate the following questions: Is the actual of talent from outside the family merely an illusion in the case of China ? Will the growth of companies lead to the opening up of their capital and what effect will this have on the succession process ? Is the charming into anxiety by a family industrialist of the constancy, the spirit of commitment and the professional competence of his successor a widespread occurrence? Is it absolutely necessary for a manager recruited from outside the family to establish personal relationships with the executives of the company which recruits him ? The sample was classified to fsj lighting undergoing transition from the main reason is linked to the founder himself. The physical reject due to age (28.9%) is the major reason, while a acquainted of the limitations of his aptitude in the face of technical fruition ranks second (28.3%). Some also refer to the external environment in a situation where growth no longer allows the founder, despite his aptitude, to organize his company alone. A require of management facility within the company obliges him to judge a transfer of power (5.9%). Lastly, outside investors may command a change of guidance, but the manipulate they effort remains limited (5.9%). The reason may recline in the closed scenery of the capital the family businesses in this survey mainly rely on self-financing (90%) or on bank loans (69.4%) for finance. Whatever the reasons for this, the closed scenery of the capital of these companies and the very restricted collision of outside investors on the alternative of C.E.O., lead us to consider that the FSJ Lighting company is a very exacting case. Its choice to seek a stock market listing must be seen as an progress in the personal preferences of positive members of the family. In other words, the choice of certain family businesses to become bigger and more ―modern‖, with the help of the financial markets, is more the result of exacting personal decisions than a law of the development of family businesses. Therefore, the objective reject of the founder and the progress in the technical environment are the two main factors that lead to succession charming place, while the direct pressure exerted by outside investors is trivial. The role played by the second generation at this phase of the succession must also be noted. To the question ―Do your children wish to work and progress in your company?‖ 76.5% of the founders give a positive reply, but none of them envisage giving up their power only because of their children's wish to share more in the business. The principle for Choosing a Successor In spite of the children's wish to share power with their parents does not automatically allow them to succeed to the job of C.E.O., 88 % of founders want their children to be able to work in the company. In order to recognize them, three categories of individuality were listed in the questionnaire. We asked the founders to list them in declining order of importance, and then calculated their respective levels of importance (see Table 3) Constancy (50.4%), guidance aptitude (50%) and the spirit of commitment (43.8%) are the most appreciated qualities. Occurrence (26.1%) and university training ((19.5%) are also deemed important. Also mentioned is the network of professional contacts (15.8%). If one compares the level of importance of the three categories, ―character traits‖ come first (28.8%), ―abilities‖ follow (at 17.5%), while ―other qualities‖ come last (2.6%). In the choice of a successor, moral qualities and technical competence are the two main criteria taken into account by the founders. However, morality seems more important than competence in the eyes of the majority of founders. The substance given to constancy and proficiency is differentiated according to the kind of dependability taken on. Where the post of C.E.O., the most important in day-to-day management, is concerned, opportunistic behavior is the most destructive to the interests of the family. Where the manager's constancy and strength of commitment are the most important criteria, the selection of a successor always remains subjective, although the objective aspect of the selection procedure which is partly based on an assessment of competence through university training and acquired experience. Similar assessments are made in other parts of the world. Both in developed countries, such as Canada, and developing countries, such as India, constancy and the spirit of commitment are deemed to be the most important qualities by company heads (Levitas,,2005). An ordinary succession coupled to the age of individuals is at variance with a succession brought about by the development of the company. The preference of the founder's eldest son differs from the recruitment of a professional from outside the family.(Habberson,1999) Is such a development indication of a essential change in the criteria used by Cai shusong in the choice of his successor ? During our interview Cai shusong described the preferred career shape in the following terms a proficient person with professional experience and a wide 243 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo network of social contacts. When we asked him to assess the advantages and disadvantages of different modes of selecting a successor (see Table 3), he expressed the opinion that the introduction into the company of a professional manager favored the strengthening of management and innovation prospective; the disadvantage was a require of knowledge of the decent virtues and the real competence of the person concerned. However if the favored successor was already a company cadre, Cai shusong would be more certain, thanks to direct knowledge of the competence and moral qualities of the person; the hazard was of annoying clash and slowing innovation. to him, choosing a relation was a guarantee of constancy and easy communication. The essential problem of a succession is the assessment of the reliability of the successor, who is asked to supply management proficiency, but also certain principles and stroke taken in agreement with the family interest. The way in which these qualities are assessed is therefore imperative. In the case of FSJ Lighting, Cai shusong, the founder, first chose his eldest son, Cai Chen. A university graduate, initially guilty for product development, he participated in the foundation of the company. His capability is renowned by his family and by the workers. As Cai shusong sees it, Cai Chen is the answer to his prospect: he has the ability to entrust himself, constancy to the family's interests and mastery of the necessary technical and management comprehension. The family connection is not the definitive reason for Cai shusong 's choice, but it permitted him to detect him closely, to evaluate him and even to guide him. In this logic, the incidence of an ideal successor within the family is the reason sooner than the result of Cai shusong`s conclusion to turn over power only four years after the enterprise of the company. While the first succession was a deliberate move undertaken by the founder, the second succession was prompted by outside forces. In the wake of its modify of condition in 2002, FSJ Lighting took on board new investors from outside. The resolution to seek a citation on the stock market led Cai Chen. to divide the two posts he held although this separation was not obligatory. This unexpected development did not permit Cai shusong easily to examine, assess or guide a new successor within the family. The need to assign a successor once again arose at a time when there was no potentially proficient person available within the family. Cai shusong thus found himself in a predicament: the alias of an incompetent virtual threatens the survival of the company, while the conscription of a manager outside the family increases the risk of misappropriation, especially in the deficiency of a legal system capable of settling likely conflicts. Finally, Cai shusong chose Cai, who had worked for several years in Hong Kong and was previously the director of a condition venture in Zhongshan. The two men had met in 2002, in the course of business debate, and became friends. In 2002, Cai submissive from his company for personal reasons. Cai shusong then invited him to work at FSJ Lighting. In spite of other offers from big companies, Yuan received Cai's invitation because of their friendly relationship. Cai's professional knowledge in the sector testified to his proficiency, which was also confirmed by Cai shusong 's direct examination in their formal and informal correlation However, just as decadence did not assurance that Cai Chen would automatically become the successor, Yuan's professional proficiency was not enough to convince Cai shusong to place administrative power in outside hands. Mutual trust, the result of a close personal association, played an important role in controlling the risk of misappropriation and allowed Cai to resolve the problem of his succession. The second succession, although carried through outside the family is still observe persona. Thus professional capability and personal individuality are matching. While confidence in a person's aptitude to correctly manage the family patrimony can be recognized on the basis of indirect information such as status, experience and professional occurrence, information on personal qualities is more difficult to obtain.(Lee,2006) Moreover, the improbability produced by the difference in the available information is improved when the legal system is incapable to penalize opportunistic behavior effectively. In this sense, the trust born of personal interaction mainly determines the choice of a successor. But the importance given to personal relationships does not mean that an industrialist will have shade reliance in his children and an absolute doubt of strangers. Trust is a subjective judgment, but it is not resistant to reason. The criteria used by Cai shusong. first to choose You Yuan and then Cai are of three kinds: competency, moral qualities and a assure to act according to the family interest. Cai Chen 's only advantage in comparison with Yuan is that he had a cherished relationship with his father since birth, while Yuan had to build a relationship with Cai shusong in order to set up common trust. Trust, based on a long relationship, is also a sign of the lively scenery of a family venture which can carry in people from outside the family. 244 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Advantages Strengthening Management capabilities Professional maneger Innovation Employee already in the company Member Of the family Ease of integration Certainty abaut his personal qualities Loyalty Disadvangates Uncertainity abaut his real compeer Uncertainity abaut loyalty and moral values Danger of a power struggle Slowing of reform and innovation Ease communication with the founder Table 3: Cai shusong‘s Perspective on the Choice of a Successor Ġmplicatıons and Suggestıons Researchers in family business area all agree that case of the FSJ Lighting Company, the survey agreed out reveals that in Chinese family businesses, the reasons for succession, the criteria of selection of the successor and the order of favorite amid the various candidates all match with practices in other parts of the world. In the course of the development of their venture, the founders do not be tentative to praise functional jobs to capable third parties who are not members of the family sphere. However, it is to be expected that the succession to the job of C.E.O. officer will usually be the result of the projected deduction of the head of the company. Anxious to defend his patrimony, an industrialist in China, as elsewhere, while taking into account technical ability and management abilities, assesses above all the honesty and constancy of his potential successor. Trust, in the widest sense of the word, is a significant factor. As a result, the capitalist prefers to designate a competent member of his family. It is when such a successor is not available at the time of succession that the individuality of China's case becomes more marked; this is not allied to literary specificities, but to the institutional context. The immature status of institutions and the desolation of traditional social organization limit the role of institutional trust in economic co-operation. In contemporary China, trust is usually produced by personal relationships. Social networks are brought into action in order to control the risks in the face of indecision. The case of the FSJ Lighting Company and the opinions we have gathered show the industrialist resorting to his network of interaction when his successor is being chosen. Depending on the degree of confidence of the relationship, he first seeks an applicant among ―the members of his family‖ then among ―those close to him‖, and may finally resort to ―strangers‖. The widespread description of ―zijiren‖, which includes all those deemed dependable and division common values, makes it likely for a family business to getaway the dilemma of succession and to develop even if there is a require of available professional managers. The survey did not make it possible to answer all the questions arising from the case of the FSJ Lighting company. Our sample was limited, and could not resolve how representative it is of the common of private companies, which in reality are small in size. Moreover, the question of succession remains open. Further surveys will afford wider understanding and perceptive of this area of business in China. References A. R. Lank, R. Owens, J. Martinez, H. Reidel, F. deVisscher, and M. Bruel, ―The state of family business in various countries around the world‖, The Family Business Network Newsletter, May, pp.3-7,1994. Business Review, vol.4, no.4, pp.161-189, 1991. E. Stavrou, ―Succession in family businesses: exploring the effects of demographic factors on offspring intentions to take over and take over the business‖, Journal of Small Business Management, vol.37, no.3, pp.43-61, 1999. Habbershon, T. G. and Williams, M. (1999). ‗A resource-based framework for assessing the strategic advantages of family firms‘. Family Business Review, 12, 1–25. J. Yan and R. Sorenson, ―The effect of Confucian values on succession in family business‖, Family Business Review, vol.19, no.3, pp.235-250, 2006. Lee, J. (2006). ‗Family firm performance: further evidence‘. Family Business Review,p. 19, 103–14. 245 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo T. T. Chua, ―Approaches to succession in East Asian business organizations‖, Family Trade and Industry Chambers of Guangdong- China (2010). ‗Founding families control‘. Wu, S., Levitas, E. and Priem, R. L. (2005). ‗CEO tenure and company invention under differing levels of technological dynamism‘. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 859–73 246 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 167 Title A name given to the resource A Case Study Successful for Chinese family business Author Author YAŞAR, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. In order to determine the impaction of financing to corporate performance, Guangdong Province family owned listed corporation family businesses is selected to describe a sovereign form of economic organization throughout the world in terms of contributions. Because of the coincidence of family business failure and the importance of family business within national and local economies, a large percent of family business literature is allocated to the issue of succession. In mainland China, the family, as the basic social unit, has recently regained its importance in economic activity. Starting from the exacting case of a family business located in Guangdong province, this article reviews the practices that reign in the succession of the management of companies. Following this case study, a questionnaire was drawn up and submitted to 15 family businesses. Chinese companies can continue to endure or not, depends on its ability to carry out bold economic reforms and to what extent the characteristics of Chinese companies and originality play. A survey inquiry is used as the research instrument. The results prove that psychosocial needs are more often associated with the potential successors‘ intentions to take over family businesses than other factors. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6f639c494ce62f1ca6c8a1c8cd77b7eb.pdf 4361bdde1c53bf35853ea7eaa06b2e4f PDF Text Text Determination of Fungal and Bacterial Diseases on Bean Plants in Bean Production Areas in Konya Province, Turkey Serkan YEŞĐL Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Plant Protection, Konya, Turkey serkanyesil@selcuk.edu.tr Nuh BOYRAZ Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Plant Protection, Konya, Turkey nboyraz@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a major crop that provides an important source of protein for human nutrition. In this study presence of plant pathogenic fungal and bacterial agents was determined in five mostly bean growing districts of Konya province in 2006. The surveys were carried out at seedlings, blooming and podmaturing phases of beans, and determined the average incidence of fungal diseases on three phases as 16.42%, 14.17% and 15.37% respectively. According to results, five fungal agents were identified as primary pathogens which were Fusarium equiseti, F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli, Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani and F. solani f.sp. phaseoli on beans. In the three sampling phases and on majority at collected samples, Fusarium spp. were isolated at ratios 65.36%, 76.27% and 68.88% respectively. R. solani was determined to be the most virulent agent (77.78%) in all of the fungal pathogens by the pathogenicity tests. Pseudomonas savastonoi pv. phaseolicola was identified on collected bean samples and found incidence of disease as 11.59%. Keywords: Fungal, bacterial, bean, disease, Konya. Introduction Legumes play an important role in human nutrition. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important legumes in the World due to its high commercial value, extensive production, consumer use, and nutrient value (carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and vitamins). It is traditionally a basic food crop in many developing countries, and it serves as a major plant protein source for rural and urban areas. Approximately 99.000 ha are planted annually to common bean in Turkey. Konya ranks first in Turkey in terms of the bean planting areas with a total area of 13.860 ha and a production level of 26.591 tons (Anonymous 2010). Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants are adversely affected by numerous biotic and abiotic stresses that result in important yield losses. More than 200 pathogens have been reported attacking beans; however, only about a dozen of them can cause considerable economic losses (Schoonhoven & Voysest 1991). Annual production losses in world bean production as a result of diseases average about 10%. On bean plants 61 different diseases were described 31 of these diseases are caused by fungi, five by bacteria, five by nematodes, 18 by viruses, and two by mycoplasmalike organisms. Fungal pathogens of bean are identified mostly by the size, shape, and color of their spores. Fungal pathogens cause a wide range of symptoms on beans. Most frequently they cause variously colored (brown, yellow, red, or black) spots or blotches on leaves, stems, pods, seeds, or roots. Bacteria that cause bean diseases are microscopic, colorless or yellow cells. They cause water-soaked spots (then brown) and blotches (often with yellow borders) on leaves, pods, or seeds (Hall 1994). Konya province provides 21.5% of Turkey bean production (Çiftçi 2004). Therefore it’s very important to determine diseases of bean plants and to plan control measures for diseases. It’s reported that 219 �yield losses which are caused by diseases, pests, and herbs in legumes cultivated areas in worldwide on developed countries and developing countries were 17.2% and 37.1%, respectively (Agrios 1988). Particularly in large bean production areas, irrigation by sprinkling plays an important role for spreading of bacterial and fungal diseases. Also, using seeds which were cultivated the previous year as seed plays an important role for spreading seed-borne diseases. In this study, it’s aimed to determine and identify fungal and bacterial diseases and incidences of the diseases which may cause yield losses on bean production in Konya province. In Turkey, early researches about bean diseases were carried out by Bremer (1948, 1954) and Göbelez (1956). Up to date, several survey studies about bean diseases in different provinces in Turkey has been carried out (Tekinel et al. 1969, Karahan 1971, Özalp 1971, Soran 1977, 1981, Turak & Arslan 1988, Temizel & Ertunç 1992, Demir & Gündoğdu 1994, Biçici et al. 1995, Hatat & Özkoç 1997, Turak 1997, Demirci & Çağlar 1998, Turhan et al. 2001, Kırbağ & Turan 2006) Material and Methods Material The main material of the study is infected ones of bean plants which are grown in Konya province, in 2006. Survey area of the study is determined with regard to bean production statistics of 2005 which were provided from Konya Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture. According to the data (Anonymous 2005), districts where bean are planted in more than 1000 ha, Center districts (Selçuklu, Meram and Karatay), Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli were chosen as the survey area. Methods Surveys Survey area was selected from intensively bean cultivated areas and in such a way to represent Konya province. Surveys were carried out in bean growing areas in Center districts (Karatay, Selçuklu and Meram), Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli. Sampling was done at least in 1% of bean production area in each of the districts. Minimum sampling areas of the districts were determined as 150 da., 450 da., 210 da., 140 da., and 100 da., respectively. Bean planting areas, sampled field numbers and areas in the districts were shown in Table 1. District Center Çumra Altınekin Ilgın Ereğli Toplam Planting Areas (ha.) 1480 4500 2100 1400 985 10465 Field Number 14 15 14 14 10 67 Sampled Planting Areas (da.) 186 517.5 386 157 285 1531.5 Table.1. According to the districts and size of field examined field numbers. In this study, the surveys were carried out at 3 phases as at seedlings, blooming and pod-maturing phases of beans. The first one was carried out at appearing of bean seedlings on the soil surface to two real leaves phase (first week of June), the second one was at appearing of first flowers (second week of July) and the last one was at maturing of pods and seeds phase (third week of August). In field surveys controlled plant numbers in examined field were determined according to size of examined field, as in Table 2. 220 �Area of field (da.) 1-5 6-10 11-50 51-100 Number of controlled plant 25 50 100 150 Table 2. According to size of examined field, number of controlled plant During survey studies, disease incidence ratio and infected plant ratio values which belong to each field, each district and Konya province were calculated according to Bora and Karaca (1970). a) Isolation and Identification of Fungal Pathogens from Infected Bean Plants Preliminary diagnosis was based on symptoms in shoots, hypocotyls, and roots that are usually associated with specific root rot and wilt pathogens. In all isolations, hypocotyl or root tissues showing symptoms were first washed in running tap water and cut into 1-cm portions. They were then surface sterilized in 1.5% NaOCl for 1min, double rinsed in sterile distilled water, blot dried between sterile paper towels, and plated aseptically on potato dextrose agar added with streptomycin sulphate. Plates were then incubated in a growth chamber at 22 to 26°C with a 12-h photoperiod supplied by long, fluorescent, day light tubes. Plates were examined 2 to 14 days later for fungi associated with the various symptoms observed (Warcup 1958). Pure cultures were obtained by subculturing. Fungi were identified according to colony characteristics and reproductive structures by using binocular microscope according to Von Arx (1970); Booth 1971; Barnett and Hunter (1987); Domsch et al. (1980). Fungal structures of identified fungi were screened by means of a trinocular microscope and photographed by digital camera. b) Pathogenicity Tests In the pathogenicity tests “Akman 98” bean cultivar used. It’s known as sensitive to fungi which were tested. The most frequently isolated fungal species were chosen. Pathogenicity tests of 5 Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli (Fop), 5 F. solani f.sp. phaseoli (Fsp), 3 Rhizoctonia solani and 3 Macrophomina phaseoli isolates which were identified by species, were carried out on pots in climate chamber conditions. In this study, corn flour sand culture which is mostly used and thought better for soil borne fungi was used. (Killebrew et al. 1988). Assessments were done after 30 days from planting. Therefore, CIAT 1-9 scale (Pastor-Corrales & Abawi 1987) was used for plants inoculated by Fop and Fsp, and 0-4 scale (Meinhardt et al. 2002, Eken & Demirci 2003) for plants inoculated by R. solani and M. phaseoli. Isolation and Identification of Bacterial Pathogens from Infected Bean Plants Bacteria were isolated and identified according to Schaad et al. (2001) from the parts of bean plants which showed bacterial disease symptoms. For identification, biochemical tests including Gram's stain, motility, utilisation of mannitol, sorbitol and inositol together with LOPAT tests and growth on King’s B were carried out. Results Survey Results Incidence of Fungal Root Rot on Bean Plants Extent of the study, result of the surveys which were carried out at seedling phase of bean in 2006 incidence of fungal root rot in Center, Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli districts were determined as 221 �19.88%, 10.40%, 17.81%, 19.75% and 21.35%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 16.42% (Fig. 1). In the same year, result of the second surveys which were carried out at blooming phase of bean incidence of fungal root rot in the same districts were determined as 16.57%, 10.84%, 14.68%, 11.43% and 19.45%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 14.17% (Fig. 2). Result of the last surveys which were carried out at pod maturing phase of bean incidence of fungal root rot in the same districts were determined as 15.96%, 15.28%, 11.95%, 17.63% and 18.53%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 15.37% (Fig. 3). 21,35 22 19,88 19,75 20 17,81 16,42 Incidence ( %) 18 16 14 10,4 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Merkez Çumra Altınekin Ilgın Districts Ereğli Konya(Ort.) Figure 1. Incidence of fungal root rot on bean plants at seedling phase Figure 2. Incidence of fungal root rot on bean plants at blooming phase 222 �Figure 3. Incidence of fungal root rot on bean plants at pod maturing phase Incidence of Bacterial Diseases on Bean Plants In the survey studies which were carried out at seedling, blooming and pod maturing phases of bean in Konya Center, Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli districts, in 2006 bean production seasonal symptoms of bacterial diseases were only observed at pod maturing phase. Therefore, only this survey results were given and evaluated. As a result of the analysis of these findings, plants which infected with bacteria were observed mostly in Altınekin district by 27.74%. Çumra, Ilgın, Center and Ereğli districts followed Altınekin by 9.56%, 7%, 3.22% and 1.36%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 11.59% (Fig. 4). Incidence (%) 27,74 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 11,59 9,56 7 3,22 1,36 Merkez Çumra Altınekin Ilgın Ereğli Konya(Ort.) Districts Figure 4. Incidence of bacterial diseases on bean plants at pod maturing phase Results of Laboratory Studies Isolation and Identification of Fungal Pathogens from Infected Bean Plants 223 �In the survey studies, from Center districts, Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli, bean plants were collected number of 440, 710, 430, 345 and 315, respectively. And fungal pathogens were isolated from these plants. In the survey studies at seedling phase, totally 615 diseased bean plants, 160 from Center districts, 200 from Çumra, 75 from Altınekin, 95 from Ilgın and 85 from Ereğli were collected and used for fungal isolation. Isolated fungi and incidence rates of each fungus as regards to districts are shown in Table 3. As given by the table fungi species were determined from 9 different genus. In this phase, 402 of 615, in other words 65.36% of bean seedlings which were examined for isolation were determined as infected by Fusarium species. In addition, in seedling isolation studies; incidence rates of R. solani, M. phaseoli, Alternaria spp and Pythium spp were determined as 19.18%, 8.61%, 8.61% and 1.78, respectively. At blooming phase of bean, totally 590 bean plants,160 from Center districts, 155 from Çumra, 75 from Altınekin, 95 from Ilgın and 105 from Ereğli were collected and used for fungal isolation. Isolated fungi and incidence rates of each fungus as regards to districts are shown in Table 4. As given by the table fungi species were determined from 8 different genus. In this phase, 450 of 590, in other words 76.27% of bean plants which were examined for isolation were determined as infected by Fusarium species. Fusarium spp. were followed by R. solani (22.37%), M. phaseoli (10.67%) and Pythium spp (5.59%). Districts Fungi Fusariu m spp. R. solani M. phaseoli Alternari a spp. Pythium spp. Curvular ia spp. Ulocladi um spp. Penicilli um spp. Chaetom ium spp. Toplam Konya Center Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 113 70,62 Çumra Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 115 57,5 Altınekin Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 41 54,66 Ilgın Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 75 78,94 Ereğli Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 58 68,23 20 4 12,5 2,5 39 20 19,5 10 18 12 24 16 23 --- 24,21 --- 18 17 21,17 20 14 8,75 16 8 10 13,33 9 9,47 4 4,70 11 6,87 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 1 0,62 2 1 --- --- 4 4,21 --- --- 3 1,87 1 0,5 --- --- 1 1,05 --- --- --- --- 7 3,5 3 4 1 1,05 1 1,17 --- --- 2 1 4 5,33 --- --- --- --- 160 --- 200 --- 75 --- 95 --- 85 --- Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % Table 3. Infection rates of bean seedling samples with fungi Districts Fungi Fusariu m spp. R. solani Konya Center Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 107 66,87 Çumra Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 117 22 73 13,75 75,48 Altınekin Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 62 82,66 Ilgın Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 79 63,47 4 18 Infecti on rate % 224 5,33 83,15 Ereğli Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 85 80,95 18,94 15 14,28 Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % �M. phaseoli Alternari a spp. Pythium spp. Penicilli um spp. Chaetom ium spp. Gliocladi um spp. Toplam 12 7,5 22 14,19 5 6,66 7 7,36 17 16,19 7 4,37 1 0,64 4 5,33 12 12,63 5 4,76 9 5,62 --- --- --- --- --- ---- 24 22,85 --- --- 4 2,58 1 1,33 --- --- --- --- --- --- 3 1,93 5 6,66 --- --- 1 0,95 --- --- 3 1,93 --- --- --- --- --- --- 160 --- 155 --- 75 --- 95 --- 105 --- Table 4. Infection rates of bean plant samples with fungi at blooming phase At pod maturing phase of bean, totally 1035 bean plants,120 from Center districts, 355 from Çumra, 280 from Altınekin, 155 from Ilgın and 125 from Ereğli were collected and used for fungal isolation. Isolated fungi and incidence rates of each fungus as regards to districts are shown in Table 5. As given by the table fungi species were determined from 10 different genus. In this phase, 713 of 1035, in other words 68.88% of bean plants which were examined for isolation were determined as infected by Fusarium species. Fusarium spp. were followed by R. solani (24.05%), Alternaria spp. (15.26%), Pythium spp (11.59%), and M. phaseoli (10.33%). Districts Fungi Fusarium spp. R. solani M. phaseoli Alternaria spp. Pythium spp. Ulocladiu m spp. Penicilliu m spp. Chaetomiu m spp. Gliocladiu m spp. S.sclerotio rum Toplam Konya Center Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 60 50 Çumra Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 255 71,83 Altınekin Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 213 76,07 Ilgın Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 88 56,77 Ereğli Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 97 77,6 15 8 12,5 6,66 59 17 16,61 4,78 42 34 15 12,14 36 34 23,22 21,93 42 14 33,6 11,2 27 22,5 53 14,92 44 15,71 12 7,74 22 17,6 14 11,66 40 11,26 34 12,14 5 3,22 1 0,8 --- --- 3 0,84 4 1,42 17 10,96 --- --- --- --- 5 1,40 3 1,07 4 2,58 --- --- --- --- 3 0,84 2 0,71 1 0,64 --- --- --- --- 15 4,22 15 5,35 --- --- --- --- 1 0,83 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 120 --- 355 --- 280 --- 155 --- 125 --- Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % Table 5. Infection rates of bean plant samples with fungi at pod maturing phase 225 Infecti on rate % �Distribution of Isolated Fungi During the survey studies, as a result of the isolation of the media grown from collected bean plants, 221 isolates from 15 different fungi species were obtained (Tab. 6). 57.02% of the isolates in other words half of the isolates were identified as Fusarium. In this study, 5 different Fusarium species were identified. As a result of species identification studies, isolation frequency of F. equiseti at seedling, blooming and pod maturing phases was determined as 24.70%, 23.40% and 22.58%, respectively. F. equiseti was followed by F. oxysporum with 17.65%. Isolation frequency rates of this fungus were determined as 19.75%, 14.90% and 17.20%, respectively. Macrophomina phoseoli was third mostly isolated fungus by 15.38%. Isolation frequency rates of this fungus were determined as 11.11%, 25.53% and 13.98%, respectively. Isolation frequency rates of R. solani, which is one of the most important pathogens of bean plants at seedling, blooming pod maturing phases and average were determined as 16.05%, 12.77%, 15.05% and 14.93%, respectively (Tab. 7). Fungi Center B P T 0 1 4 F. equiseti S 3 F.oxysporum 5 0 0 5 S 1 0 7 F. solani 1 0 0 1 F. culmorum F.semitectu m R. solani 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 M. phaseoli 1 Alternaria spp. Curvularia spp Ulocladium spp. Chaetomium spp. Gliocladium spp. P.oligandru m Pythium spp. S.sclerotioru m TOTAL Çumra B P 4 4 2 5 3 4 4 0 1 4 0 0 2 2 0 1 3 5 6 4 0 1 2 3 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T 1 8 1 4 1 1 6 2 Number of isolates Altınekin S B P T S 0 4 8 1 3 2 2 1 8 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Ilgın B P 0 3 T 6 S 4 Ereğli B P 3 5 0 2 3 1 4 1 T 1 2 6 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 2 1 4 3 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 2 0 1 3 2 0 4 6 2 0 4 6 4 2 4 1 1 2 1 5 4 1 1 2 1 0 4 0 3 1 5 1 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 3 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 7 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 1 3 2 3 9 9 9 2 4 1 1 1 2 1 3 7 5 3 3 1 7 5 2 2 5 2 S: Seedling survey, B: Blooming survey, P: Pod maturing survey, T: Total of the surveys. Table 6. Distribution of isolated fungi depending on survey phases and districts 226 �Isolates Seedling 24,70 19,75 6,17 9,88 3,7 16,05 11,11 2,47 0 0 F. equiseti F. oxysporum F. solani F. culmorum F. semitectum R. solani M. phaseoli Alternaria spp. Pythium spp. S. sclerotiorum Isolation rates (%) Blooming Pod maturing 23,4 22,58 14,9 17,2 10,64 5,38 0 3,23 4,26 4,3 12,77 15,05 25,53 13,98 4,26 7,53 0 1,08 0 1,08 Average 23,53 17,65 6,79 4,98 4,07 14,93 15,38 4,98 1,08 1,08 Table 7. Isolation rates of the fungi depending on survey phases. Results of Pathogenicity Tests Results of pathogenicity tests were given by Table 8. According to the results of pathogenicity tests, Ç.12/2 of Fop was determined as the most pathogen isolate with 67.41% rate of disease severity. The isolate caused stunting, chlorosis and total growth reduction on bean plants in comparison with control plants. In other isolates of Fop, rate of disease severity were determined as varying from 31.85% to 54.96%. The average rate of disease severity of all isolates was calculated as 54.96%. In Fsp isolates Ç.O.10/2 was determined as the most pathogen one with 63.70% rate of disease severity. The isolate caused stunting, growth reduction, early blooming, lesions on hypocotyls and taproot on bean plants in comparison with control plants. In other isolates of Fsp, rates of disease severity were determined as varying from 45.93% to 62.96%. The average rate of disease severity of all Fsp isolates was calculated as 56.89%. The average rate of disease severity of Rhizoctonia solani isolates was calculated as the highest with 77.78% in all tested fungal isolates. E.O.3/1 isolate was determined as the most pathogen isolate with 100% rate of disease severity. On all pots which the isolate was inoculated, it prevented the emergence of all bean seeds. In M. phaseolina isolates Ç.O.15/3 was determined as the most pathogen one with 51.66% rate of disease severity. The isolate caused stunting, growth reduction, chlorosis, blight on stems on bean plants in comparison with control plants. In other isolates of M. phaseoli, rates of disease severity were determined as varying from 32.14% to 38.33%. The average rate of disease severity of all isolates was calculated as 40.91%. Fungi F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli (Fop) F. solani f.sp. phaseoli (Fsp) R. solani M. phaseoli Isolate Name K.11/1 A.4/2 E.Çi.2/4 Ç.2/1 Ç.12/2 A.O.10/1 Ç.O.16/2 Ç.Ç.9/2 Ç.O. 10/2 Ç.Ç.6/3 E.O.3/1 Ç.Ç.8/2 I.O.7/2 A.6/2 E.Ç.6/3 227 Disease Severity (%)* Isolate Average** 31.85 57.78 54.96 B 59.26 58.52 67.41 60.00 62.96 45.93 56.89 B 63.70 51.85 100.00 86.66 77.78 A 50.00 38.33 40.91 B 32.14 �Ç.O.15/3 51.66 Kontrol-1 0.00 Kontrol Kontrol-2 0.00 0.00 C Kontrol-3 0.00 *Disease severity was calculated by McKinney’s infection index formula. **LSD = 19.04;P<0.01. Means followed by the same letters within each fungus aren’t significantly different according to LSD0.01 Table 8. Pathogenicities of the isolates on Akman 98 bean variety Suggestions Determination of factors which negatively effect crop yield and quality in plant production provides a basis of pest control. The first step of pest control is identification of problem correctly. If it couldn’t obtain, control strategies wouldn’t achieve. This condition is most important for bean production areas in Konya province. According to results of the study, for reducing or eradication of phytopathological problems in bean production areas in Konya province and in order to produce more yielded and more quality bean production, the following suggestions must be regarded. 1. First of all, certified and pathogen-free seed must be used because, most of the important bean pathogens can survive on or in seed. 2. Before seed sowing, field soil must be cultivated properly. Therefore, in autumn plant debris of the previous year is buried in soil by cultivating 10-15 cm deep. In spring, when soil humid is proper, it should be prepared for sowing by cultivating 1 or 2 times, then, harrow or disc harrow can be used. 3. Especially, it’s very important to minimize soil compaction in control of mostly observed root rot diseases in surveyed bean fields. This can be achieved by crop rotation, by loosening sublayers or wheel tracks with chisels at planting time, by not cultivating wet soil, and by reducing the pressure exerted by wheels on the soil surface. 4. As well in other plant crops production, in bean production cultural practices are very important. If all conditions which are necessary for growing healthy plant can be obtained, possibility of phytopathological problems occurrence will minimum. For this purpose, cultural practices such as sowing, fertilizing and irrigation should be done properly. 5. Planting depth is effective on seedling emergence and occurrence of root rot diseases. As well as depending on seed size, generally planting at a depth of 3-4 cm is suitable. 6. Crop rotation should be done, particularly for soil borne diseases. For this purpose, long term crop rotation (at least 3 years) out of beans such as corn, wheat, barley, alfalfa etc. may reduce soil inoculum. 7. Thiram (a.i.80%) should be used for controlling root rot diseases as seed treatment. 8. Bean is planted from beginning of May in Konya province. Early planting isn’t recommended, as it stimulates root rot diseases. 9. As much as possible, tolerant varieties should be used. Acknowledgements This research was supported as a master thesis by the Scientific Research Coordination Center of Selçuk University, Turkey (Project No: 06101027). References Agrios, G. N. (1988). Plant Pathology. Academic Pres. Inc., N.York (803 s.). Anonymous (2005). Đlçelere göre Konya ili fasulye üretim verileri. Konya Tarım Đl Müdürlüğü. 228 �Anonymous (2010). www.tuik.gov.tr Barnett, H.L & B.B. Hunter (1987). 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Doktora Projesi http://www.erzincanbk.gov.tr/sb32.htm Turhan, G., Bora, T., Karsavuran, Y., Özaktan, H. & L., Yolageldi (2001). Fasulye tohumları ile taşınan önemli bakteriyel ve fungal etmenler ile zararlıların saptanmasına yönelik araştırmalar. E.Ü. Araştırma Fonu Araştırma Projesi, 98-ZRF-018 nolu proje. Warcup, J.H. (1958). Distribution and Detection of Root Disease Fungi. Plant Pathology Problems and Progress (Ed.) C.S: Hulton, G.W.Fulton, Helen Hert, SEA, Mc CAllon The Ragents of the University of Wisconsin, 317-324 230 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 407 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Fungal and Bacterial Diseases on Bean Plants in Bean Production Areas in Konya Province, Turkey Author Author YESİL, Serkan BOYRAZ, Nuh Abstract A summary of the resource. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a major crop that provides an important source of protein for human nutrition. In this study presence of plant pathogenic fungal and bacterial agents was determined in five mostly bean growing districts of Konya province in 2006. The surveys were carried out at seedlings, blooming and podmaturing phases of beans, and determined the average incidence of fungal diseases on three phases as 16.42%, 14.17% and 15.37% respectively. According to results, five fungal agents were identified as primary pathogens which were Fusarium equiseti, F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli, Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani and F. solani f.sp. phaseoli on beans. In the three sampling phases and on majority at collected samples, Fusarium spp. were isolated at ratios 65.36%, 76.27% and 68.88% respectively. R. solani was determined to be the most virulent agent (77.78%) in all of the fungal pathogens by the pathogenicity tests. Pseudomonas savastonoi pv. phaseolicola was identified on collected bean samples and found incidence of disease as 11.59%. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a6530e611aca6af5a043f33fdc434901.pdf eeae0c8c3a75629b16e280da59c73ed3 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In the Context of Basel II Accord, Capital Adequacy and Rating Feyyaz YILDIZ Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University Department of International Trade and Finance, feyyaz.yildiz@gmail.com Mustafa ÜÇ Assist. Prof. Dr., Epoka University Department of Business Administration mustafauc@epoka.edu.al Bilge Leyli ELĠTAġ Res. Assist., Afyon Kocatepe University Department of Business Administration bilgeleyli@gmail.com Cemal ELĠTAġ Assoc. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University Department of Business Administration cemalelitas@gmail.com Idaver SHERIFI Epoka University, Department of Business Administration isherifi@epoka.edu.al Abstract: Basel II is a series of rules which brings new things and radical changes to the banking regulation standards. The basic reason of this change; while calculating the risk of the capital adequacy is taken into consideration and activities which forms the basic degree of Basel II‘s criterion. Especially Basel II criteria get heavy the circumstances of lending banks credits and in meantime the importance of rating marks in on the deal. In that study, reforms which bring Basel II the changing of the calculation of capital adequacy and in that way the criteria of rating and feasibility will be evaluated. Key Words: Basel, Rating, Capital Adequacy Introduction In order to create a series of rules which can regulate globalized financial markets and bring the banks in the global common standards, in 1974 the head of the central bank of ten developed countries with the participation of BIS (Bank for International Settlements), formed the "Basel Committee" (Aksoy, 2007, p. 21). This committee publishes regulations, recommendations and best practices of supervisory standards for banking authorities while making arrangements about the best way to adapt the system to their countries. In this way, the committee encourages member states' to harmonize common approaches and standards of surveillance techniques, without forcing them to converge in details. This Committee is collected 4 times per year and current members are Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States of America (Doyrangöl and Saltoğlu, ismmmo.org.tr , 2009). In 1988, a capital measurement system, called Basel I has been prepared. Despite Basel I was developed for international banks operating in many countries, it began to spread widely. Once Basel I has been started and implemented, in various events some problems appeared and it started to be criticized. The problems which were occurred after starting the implementation of Basel I, are listed as below: 9 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo - Banks exposure to credit risk is calculated by separating in different classes the banks‘ assets and out of balance sheet items, and by multiplying the risk ranges of corresponding classes with 0%, 20%, 50% and 100% coefficients. - Basel I was tried to be applied equally to all banks of different areas of activity, because of lower risk sensitivity of Basel I, which uses four different risk weights. - According to the application known as ―OECD club rule‖, there is a predicted risk weight of 0% for governments of the countries members of OECD, 20% for the banks of those countries in case of debt, and 100% for countries which are not members of OECD. Because of these problems and the continuous changes in the market prices, Basel I was seen to be insufficient, and Basel Committee accelerated the work to develop the Basel II standards (Yardımcıoğlu and Çam, 2007, p.60-61). At the Accord of 1998, the market risk, which represents the whole of interest rates, exchange rates and changes in commodity prices was ignored to be part of capital adequacy and in 1996 market risk was added in capital adequacy calculation in USA. By taking into consideration this significant progress and other critics, in 1999 Basel Committee started preparing a new draft study for capital adequacy (Teker, Bolgün, Akçay, 2005). The Basel Committee, taking into account the developments occurring in the financial markets and the lack of measurements of capital adequacy of Basel I, in June 1999, published the initial advisory text for the New Basel Capital Adequacy Accord (Basel II). After that, at the beginning of 2001 the second advisory text was published, and in April, 2003 the third one. These advisory texts are revised and renewed based on opinions of countries‘ supervisor authorities, banks and other interested parties, and the final text of Basel II was published in June, 2004 (BDDK, 2005). In Turkey, BDDK (Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency) worked on this issue and in 30.05.2005 announced the transition roadmap to Basel II. In June 2006, a comprehensive document about this was prepared. However, European Union countries expected to complete the legislation until the end of 2006 and to start applying from 01.01.2007, and most of countries succeeded. Actually, in banking system of Turkey is applied the ―Regulation on measurement and evaluation of capital adequacy of banks‖, published in 01.11.2006 in Official Gazette of Republic of Turkey. Financial statements of sector should be prepared according to IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards). Turkish Accounting Standards Board (TMSK), which arranges regulations from 2002, has completed their work. However, because of missing of obligatory legislation for the application of these standards, there was accordance with certain standards but the total transition has not been achieved. As a result, transition process was delayed again. Basel II regulations is a set of international rules, which effects banks because of radical changes envisaged in the financial system, and firms because of credit relations with banks (Aksoy, 2007). This arrangement with the banks' capital adequacy has been brought in an international standard. Capital adequacy ratio of this practice determined as 8%, at the beginning was applied to show the power of the financial structure of the banks and was used as a driving force to consolidate the capital structure of banks in a lot of countries (Aras, p. 4). Reconcillation of the Basel Basel I Regulations Basel I Capital Accord was published as new banking standards by Basel Committee. With this regulation are determined international capital adequacy standards which will be applied by the banks. These standards must be applied by banks with international activity, and define the lower limit of the capital that banks must have, towards the risk-weighted assets. The standard rate of minimum 8% known as ―Capital Adequacy Ratio‖, is based on the principle of increasing financial stability of banks, in the sense to control the risk by maintaining enough capital at the same rate. For this purpose, in Basel regulations, the minimum capital amount holded by the banks is applied as a criterion which indicates the financial stability of banks. In Basel I, during the setting of risk weight which is fundamental in calculation of the capital adequacy, is calculated the total credit risk of banks and market risk and in this way try to find a method which will show better the banks‘ exposure to the risks. In this context, the calculation of capital adequacy in Basel I, is as below: Total Capital -------------------------------- ≥ 8 Credit Risk + Market Risk However, during the implementation process of Basel I, it was seen that it is not possible to ensure the existence of a more robust and stable financial system only by providing the minimum capital adequacy (Aras, 2007, p. 4). 10 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo For example; According to one of the rule in Basel I accord, a bank‘s assets have to be classified into five risk groups (0, 10, 20, 50 and 100 percent) based on credit risk. This risk groups are determined in terms of the length of maturity date of related credit. If a bank lends 100 Euros for a year, this operation‘s risk is computed at 20% therefore bank has to allocate its 1, 6 Euros capital for this transaction in order to meet 8% the least capital adequacy ratio. But if the same amount lends for more than a year, bank has to allocate minimum its 8 Euros capital to meet minimum of requirement because the risk computation is made at 100%. When it is considered from the perspective of economic growth, this situation is unfavourable. Because long-term investments can be financed by long-term credits but risk grouping in Basel I accord discourages to banks to lend for long-term credits (Ariss and Sareddinne, 2007, p.48). Even only this case implies Basel I accord is not a sustainable regulation. Current methods used in measuring credit risk and market risk, to whom banks are exposed and that are defined in the Basel I, because of a not accure measuring of banking risk, not taking into consideration in the appropriate measure the price fluctuations of financial market and not being able to differentiate the behaviuor of banks during the creation of the portofolio, the revision of this standard has become a necessity, by extending the scope and restructuring with new management methods and methods for measuring the risk exactly. Therefore, it was understood that it was needed to be able to calculate in a right and exact way the effected risk, to provide financial stability, and to increase the compatibility of market conditions in order to improve the quality of market discipline for the crises that banks experienced. Basel I was criticized by global big players and academic community, because of its simple content. However, the simple content and easy implementation ability made Basel I more preferable and easely adaptable for developing countries. Basel I, contributed in the modernization of regulations and in increasing of competitivity in financial sector of these countries. Except the critics, there were recognized some positive aspects of Basel I, which creates a ―fair competition environment‖ with specified rules for market players, and because of 8% minimum capital adequacy, some developing countries have strengtht their financial stability (BDDK, 2005, p.2-3). The deficiencies identified in this process, made necessary the developing of a more complete regulation than Basel I. For this reason, Basel Committee redefined the bank‘s capital adequacy, by revising the components used for calculating it. The new regulation was named Basel II Minimum Capital Adequacy Accord since it was based on Basel I which was used from 1988. Basel II, must not be percepted as a new regulation because it is the continuity of Basel I, but there must not be ignored that predicted extremely important changes (Aras, 2007, p.4). Basel II Regulations The capital adequacy ratio calculated in Basel I framework, no longer accurately reflect the financial situation of the banks. In the days where the areas of activity of banks increase and there are intensive financial changes in the sector, the diversity and dimension of the risk also grows. Because the cost of banking crises to the economy reached at highest level, the need for effective risk management increased. Basel II Accord is formatted in accordance with emerging requirements, and as a result it is not only a well prepared comprehensive theoretical study but also achieved great success in practice. Being prepared based on suggestions and critics of concerning interested parties, this Accord provides the necessary flexibility of applicability (Aras, 2007, p.4). Basel Committee started working in order to update and correct deficiencies of Basel I and to help banks to make a better risk measurement, so in 2004 published the Basel II standards. Basel II criteria aim to regulate more efficiently the capital adequacy, to establish market discipline and supervision, and to enhance financial stability and risk management. With Basel II criteria, it is expected a reduction of informal economy, a better preparation of financial statements and a more effective working of banking system in Turkey (Yardımcıoğlu and Çam, 2007, p.61). Basel II consists of three complementary structural blocks:  Determination of the minimum capital requirements  Reviewing of supervision authority  Market discipline Determination of the minimum capital requirements Minimum capital requirement, which is the first rest of Basel II regulations, is calculated as a sum of credit risk, operational risk and market risk. Capital adequacy ratio is calculated as a legal capital and risk-weighted assets. According to the regulation, the total capital adequacy ratio should be as before, not below 8%. The total of risk- 11 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo weighted assets can be reached by multiplying the market and operational risk requirements with 12.5 (i.e. the opposite of 8% minimum capital requirement ratio) and by adding the reached amount to the total of risk-weighted assets of related credit risk (BaĢar, 2007, p.17). The Basel II capital adequacy is calculated as below: Total Capital --------------------------------------------------------- ≥ 8 Credit Risk + Market Risk + Operational Risk Market Risk is a probability to loss in positions held in balance sheet and off-balance sheet accounts, due to fluctuations in financial markets from shifts in prices of interest rates, exchange rates and stock prices, and as consequence of risk of interest rates ratio, stock risk and exchange rates risk. Shortly, this is a risk arising from the changes in interest rates and market prices so Basel II does not bring much change regarding this. Credit risk is the risk arising from possible credit losses. In general, it is the situation faced by the lender when the debitor fails to comply it‘s obligations of the contract complitely or partially. At the same time it indicates the situation of loss in market value, which is caused by deterioration in financial situation of counterparty. Counterparty may be the borrower of credit operations or the guarantor. Operational Risk is the risk arising from the wrong or insufficient internal managament, people, system and from other external events. Human errors, abuses, inadequate internal controls and business processes, and reasons arising from technological infrastructure and system, are likely to cause losses to the institution. Operational risk usually occurs rarely but causes big losses in financial system, as happened with Barings Bank, Allied Irish Bank, General Societe. The destructive effects in the cases of operational risk show as that to be protected it‘s enough only to hold capital. For this reason, it is very important and necessary to have a strong risk management (MazıbaĢ, 2005, p.12). In this case, risk measurement is very important. Risk Measurement Methods Risk Measurement Methods used in Basel II for calculating the capital requirement can be grouped as Internal Rating Method, Standard Method and Method of Basic Indicators. These groups are also divided into subgroups according to their levels of development. In the following tabel, there are presented different calculation methods for different categories, according to Basel II. The level of development of measurement Basic Medium Advanced Risk Credit Risk Standard Approach Market Risk Operational Risk Method of Basic Indicators Basic Internal Rating Approach Advanced Internal Approach based on Rating Standara Method Internal Model Standard and Alternative Standard Method Advanced Internal Rating Approach Table I. There are presented different calculation methods for different categories, according to Basel II (Arslan, sosyalbil.selcuk.edu.tr, 2009, p.54) Credit risk is calculated using standard method or advanced method, in other hand operational risk is calculated using method of basic indicator, standard method and advanced method. Using Standard Method, banks calculate the credit risk, based on the ratings given to the companies by the international institutions for external rating (S&P, Moodys, etc.). Whereas, using advanced method, banks calculate the credit risk using the rating given to the companies by themselves. According to this method, during the calculation of the credit risk, it must be considered also the probability of this credit to become problematic and the risk, maturity and other risk factors in this case (Doyrangöl and Saltoğlu, ismmmo.org.tr, 2009, p.359). Internal rating approach is more sensitive toward 12 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo risks, but is more complicated comparing to standard approach and needs more information; its application is more difficult and needs technical support (Doyrangöl and Saltoğlu, ismmmo.org.tr, 2009, p.359). This method is divided in two parts, basic internal method and advanced internal method. In Basic internal method, banks calculate theirselves the probability of credit to become problematic, using rating systems, but for other risk factors they use the coefficients determined by legal authorities. Whereas, advanced internal method gives the opportunity to banks to use thir own approaches in calculating all risk factors, but these approaches must be approved in advance by the regulatory authorities (Doyrangöl and Saltoğlu, ismmmo.org.tr, 2009, p.360). Reviewing of supervision authority Aims to make compatible the risk profiles and strategies of the banks by ensuring the necessary precaution and supervising. The regulation authority, can intervene if the capital of the bank isn‘t enough to encover the taken risk and if needed can request from the bank to hold more capital than minimum capital adequacy. Market discipline The providing of market discipline depends on feedbacks from risk assessments of the banks and evaluations of credit rating institutions. The aim is to complete the minimum capital requirements and the inspecting process of supervision authority. During this process, the steps taken to ensure the market discipline will help in a more effective and more rigorous valuation and work. By looking to Basel II framework, can be understood that there is a possible systematic risk in financial institutions and especially in banking sector (BaĢar, 2007, p.28-30). The aim of Basel II standards is to highlight the risk management in risk criteria of the banks. In this direction, with Basel II, the risk-based credit management and risk-based credit pricing becomes more important. The price of crediting will be determined depending on the risks of the company and the types of the guarantee. The firm's risk level will be considered as risk level of credit transactions (atonet.org.tr, 2009, p.2009). The difference between Basel I and Basel II The differences of Basel II from Basel I are as below:  The criteria of being or not a member of OECD, which was important in determination of capital adequacy for credit risk in Basel I, in Basel II is removed.  While in Basel I, capital requirement is only required for credit and market risk, in Basel II it is also included the capital requirement for operational risk. In Basel II, operational risk is defined as risk of wrong or insufficient internal managament, people, system and from other external events, so it is required from banks to hold capital to face this risk.  Basel II predicts banks to evaluate the capital adequacy, and process of selfevaluation of the bank and the capital adequacy should be evaluated and monitored by the banking supervision authority.  According to Basel II, detailed information regarding the implementation of Basel, must be published to the public. This wasn‘t included in Basel I.  In Basel II, the credit risk is determined by credit ratings of parties. For this, rating notes independent rating institutions can be used (Kutlu and Demirci, ulakbim.gov.tr, 2009, p.206). One of the innovations in Basel II is grading activities. The purpose of Basel II standards is to highlight the risk management in credit criteria of banks. With Basel II standards, the companies‘ risk weighting is linked to the credit rating. So, with starting of the implementation of the Basel II, the risk level of the credit and firms, affects directly the cost of the credit. For this reason, the credit rating given to the companies by independent rating institutions, gain importance. Rating Rating is the process of independent evaluation of a company or institution which issues securities, if the obligations of principal and interest are fulfilled or not. Reaching to the final note is done after evaluation of a lot of factors, starting from financial datas to managerial qualifications, past performance to future projects, etc. Rating process also includes the probability of delaying of a payment during the payment process of an issued security 13 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (BabuĢçu, 1994, p.6). There are two main reasons of using the rating system by the banks and other credit agencies, to increase the transparency of the credit which will be given and to reduce the cost (BaĢar, 2007, p.56). Instability in interests of bank credits, increased competition among companies and increasing of unions, the development in wholesale money and capital markets, has obligated the companies to work on strengthening of their financial structure. For this reason, the need for credit rating increased because of expansion in the financial market, due to increasing of the number of the issuers of the securities and number of borrowers in other ways (BabuĢçu, 1994, p.10). By the use of Basel II accords credit rating agencies play to very crucial regulatory role in the banking sector which its failures associated with many social costs. Due to credit rating agencies have private ownership brings doubts about to sustainability of the regulation (Weber and Darbellay, 2008, p.2-3). Ratings may be long-term or short-term. Long-term rating is an opinion given to the companies based on the performance of the company and the main economic and financial characteristics of the sector, where the company operates. Important elements are: sensivity of economic conjucture, technological developments, changes in demand, legal arrangements, quality management and other. Rating in Long-term determines the possibility of fulfilling obligations. In short-term, rating is the evaluation of the opportunity to access liquidity and capital resources in order to fulfill all obligations for a period of a year. Rating is divided into international foreign exchange and local currency and evaluates the ability to pay the obligations in respective valutes (Berker, fitchratings.com.tr, 2009, p.12). The first legal regulations on the activities of rating agencies, was done in the USA, by the regulatory institution, known as Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Starting from 1975, SEC gives to the credit rating agencies which have market credibilty, the title NRSRO (Nationally Recognized Statistical Rating Organizations). Actually, there are only four NRSRO-s, Moody‘s Investors Service Inc; Fitch Inc; Standard and Poor‘s Inc and the last who get this status is Dominion Bond Rating Service Ltd. (Berker, fitchratings.com.tr, 2009). In Turkey, the companies who are acreditted by the Capital Markets Board of Turkey (SPK) are JCR Avrasya Derecelendirme A.ġ., TCR Kurumsal Yönetim ve Kredi Derecelendirme A.ġ., Saha Kurumsal Yönetim ve Kredi Derecelendirme Hizmetleri A.ġ., Kobirate Uluslararası Kredi Derecelendirme ve Kurumsal Yönetim Hizmetleri A.ġ and Fitch Ratings Finansal Derecelendirme Hizmetleri Aġ. (spk.gov.tr, 2010). Financial Institutions, evaluate the risk measurement based on the criteria of the worl rating institutions (agencies); According to Standart and Poor‘s company, the economy risk is very important for a bank to understand the environment. In fact, economic risk is not a credit quality of the bank but the risk level of the country‘s economy. Here, should be payed attention to the size of the economy, growth expectations, encountered structural problems, the course of the functioning of the economy and external opening of the national economy. The risk in the sector, industry structure, customer base, national and international regulations and public-private status must be reviewed. After that, what must be reviewed is the management and organizational structure, accounting compliance, liquidity situation, the level of using of assets and the institution's capital adequacy. Depending on credit risk, is reviewed the way of management of structure of bank‘s credit portfolio. In the case of market risk, evaluation is done according to risk measurement methods, preventive strategies, control, market monitoring mechanisms, and structure compliance with financial conditions. If these are gathered in four main categories then economic risk, sector risk, credit risk, and business risk can be evaluated (standardandpoors.com, 2009). According to Moody‘s, bank analysis is based on three basic principles. Those are, the role of the bank's operating environment, the role in the national financial system and bank‘s main analysis. In terms of Regulatory and Supervisory agencies, the role of the environment and competition structure are considered as reliable. In terms of the role in national financial system, are reviewed the government guarantees, the level of damage of the bank‘s bancruptcy to the national and international economy, the status of creditors in bankruptcy and the public-private status of the bank. Looking at the basic analysis of the bank, is observed the ability to use assets, financial and statistical data open for the public, profitability, management strategy, and using of the opportunities and creating values from them. Interest and exchange rate risk is also a very important topic to be evaluated (Boyacıoğlu, 2005). These worldwide rating agencies, considering the listed risk factors give the rating note. Note is given after calculating the risks and depending on capital adequacy is given a specific letter. The meanings of the leters are explained in this table. 14 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo S&P AAA Moody’s Aaa AA Aa A A BBB Baa BB Ba B B CCC Caa CC Ca C C D Meaning of the Note Shows an extremely strong capacity in repayments of principal and interests. Represents the highest credit quality and the lowest credit risk. Almost not affected at all from economic conditions. Shows a very strong capacity in payments of principal and interests. Not affected at all from economic conditions. Although have a positive attitude, should be dignified against negative economic changes. But the capacity to meet financial obligations toward creditors is still strong. Even has a capacity for principal and interest, should be taken the risk of delayin in payment in negative conditions. Negative changes can reduce the capacity. Is in the lowest rating category possible for investment. Speculative. In principal and interest repayments exists a moderate protection. Is exposed to continuous uncertainties or commercial financial and economic diasadvntages. Can fail to meet financial obligations. The risk of repayment is very high. The highest probability is that is speculative. It can pay financial obligations but to continue this situation depends on the economic conditions. Fulfilling of the financial obligations depends totally on good business and economic. There is a high probability for default status. There is a very high risk. Just started facing with problems in meeting financial obligations. This is the lowest quality note. There is a high risk borrower to don‘t be able to pay the obligations. Bankruptcy and similar situations can also be expressed. The worst note that can be given. Repayment is impossible. Shows the default status. Table II: The meanings of the leters In the Standard & Poor's rating system, putting "+"or "-" between "AA‖ and "CCC" diversifies the rating. For example, putting (+) on the right of "A" ("A+") shows that even though the rating of the country is below "AA‖, it is still slightly above "A". On the other hand, putting (-) shows that the credit rating is better than "BBB" but nevertheless slightly under "A". On the other hand, while giving credit ratings to countries Moody‘s uses numerical symbols such as 1, 2, 3 for each ratings group, from Aa to B. Symbol 1 shows the best level within the rating group concerning the debt payment capacity, symbol 2 the middle level, whereas symbol 3 refers to the weakest debt payment capacity within the group. The topics generally dealt by ratings agencies are: operational framework, risk profiles, funding and liquidity, shareholders' equity, profitability and performance, management and strategies, ownership and support criteria. In the context of Basel II, rating activities are carried out as internal rating (giving scores to companies by banks) and external rating (ratings issued by independent rating agencies such as S&P and Moody`s) activities. In the internal rating, banks evaluate at least the two-year financial and qualitative indicators on the credit activities (Mısırlıoğlu, ismmmo.org.tr, 2009). In order to do this, it should have a rating system to measure the credit worthiness and risk level of companies. According to these criteria, banks shall use two types of loans. In the case of demand for loans of less than one million Euros the retail portfolio is evaluated, in case the demand exceeds 1 million Euros, the institutional portfolio should also be used. During the conduct of internal rating, borrower`s risk, operational risks and the characteristics of these risks as well as whether there has been a delay in the credit payments. With regard to external rating, independent rating agencies are employed. Credits exceeding 1 million Euros and that are found in the institutional portfolio (category) of banks will be subject to rating by external rating agencies (Moody`s, Fitch, S&P, Duff etc.) and the credit ratings will be determined accordingly. These independent agencies take into consideration the country risk, market risk and company risk while conducting ranking. Independent rating agencies after carrying out evaluations on the financial situation of banks, give the ratings to banks as instruments that point out banks' credit worthiness and capacity to carry out obligations. In the context of the rating of bonds, apart from the debt securities exports by banks, financial strength ratings, individual ratings and support ratings (Alp and Üstğndağ, 2007). 15 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Basel II and importance of Ratings In case risks related to banks` activities materialize, the possessed capital to meet the losses incurred by clients and banks is very important. A good relation should be established between capital and risk so that they are affected only minimally by these losses. For this reason it is important to calculate the possessed minimum capital. Basel II is an arrangement for this purpose (kobifinans.com.tr, 2009). According to the Banking Regulatory and Supervisory Agency of Turkey, if analysed country`s perspective, Basel II can be considered as an opportunity to ensure a stronger and more efficient banking system. Some countries have fully implemented these standards and Turkey has made the necessary preparations to be ready for it. Some banks have even established Basel II departments and are waiting for the full transition stage. Delays in the full implementation of Basel II will principally result in increased costs. If full implementation is ensured, the efficiency of risk management at banks as well as their intermediation activities will increase. Market discipline which represents the main subject of Basel II will increase, the institutional governance structure of companies that are clients to banks will improve and it will also be ensured that the capital levels develop in parallel with their risk exposure. In the context of Basel I, domestic and foreign banks which invested in Turkey‘s Treasury securities were not required to hold capital for these securities. In the context of Basel II, since turkey has a low rating, a capital adequacy ratio of 8% is envisaged for foreign currency-denominated government securities (Eurobonds and foreign currency-denominated domestic debt securities. In fact, the possibility of non-repayment of the loan is related to who is given, but in present application, banks are applying the same approach to all companies with too high or too low credibility. Basel II separates the risk and adjusts it. However, the calculation of capital should be done according to risk. If the bank gives loans to a company with high risk, maybe will need to hold more capital than 8%. This is the logic in Basel II functioning (kobifinans.com.tr, 2009). Basel II brought two new different methods in credit risk measurement. These are standard method and basic internal rating method. There was no innovation in market risk measurement, but in new added operational risk are developed two methods, the basic and advanced measurement method. Credit risk can be defined as the risk of the probability of a party to not-fulfill the obligations to counterparty. With Basel II, as a result of risk-based pricing in credit risk calculation, the types of credits which require keeping more capital will be avoided or the prices will be increased, and the most important point will be to work with qualitative clients. There will not be any significant change in market risk, and in the same way the exchange risk, the interest rate risk, stock risk and liquidity risk will take place. The most important element that divide Basel II from Basel I is operational risk. According to Basel Committee, Operational Risk is the risk arising from the wrong or insufficient internal management, people, system and from other external events. On Basel I the most important risk is credit risk, and recent years‘ banking crises and fraud events within companies, highlights the importance of calculating of operational risk. This is one of the biggest indicators of the importance of Basel II. Related to Basel II the importance of degree is very important. The notes given by the rating agencies, are seen as the indicator for the borrower's risks. Many markets and institutions (banks, etc.), in this way reduces the research effort of individual investors and helps individual savers in evaluating of various investments (Çelik, 2004). Another important thing is ensuring the capital flows. Investors, who are interested to invest in international market, need the credit rating of specific company/business. Investing with a company, which note is known and where accountancy and transparence standards are evaluated, emphasize the importance of rating. Also, the companies who have rating notes, have the opportunity to access to a large investor audience, more credibility, trust and opportunity for more loans. Basel II and Ranking in Turkey The Capital Measurement and Capital Standards Harmonization in the International level document, established by Basel Committee on Banking Supervision has started to be implemented within a given transition by EU member states. In Turkey, Basel I criteria are still being implemented. According to the BDDK 2009 Basel II Progress Report, the % 39.8 of the sector's total asset size formed by banks on individual basis, and the % 29.7 formed by the banks of the consolidated Basel II- have submitted for approval or approved the implementation of the related strategies and policies by their board of directors. 99% of the banking sector, is composed by the top management and related units that will carry out the work of Basel II, 82% responsible staff and 70% the committees. 16 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo If we look at risk measurements, it can be seen clearly that there is a rising in using internal rating method and they are adapted to standard method, during the calculating process of risk. For market risk, all of banks comply the standard rating method, however for operational risk, most of banks use basic indicator method and the number of banks which use standard rating method is very limited. According to the results of quantitative impact studies, while the Basel-II reduces to the extent the capital adequacy of banks, the Turkish banking system's capital adequacy is high so due to these adverse effects they do not reach a significant size. According to the results of the local digital effects work, the 23 banks participating in the study had an aggregated capital adequacy ratio of 28.8% in the current situation and after applying the provisions of the Basel-II this ratio fall to 16.9%. If we take into account the minimum level of capital adequacy that is 8% we see that under the provisions of Basel-II that it‘s available a capital more than double the minimum level (BDDK, 2005). When we take a look to the implementation of Basel II for the past six months considering the developments, the most positive is being a member of the Basel Committee and the most negative development has been the global crisis. In addition the data deficiency and the lack of legislation and technology constitute a negative side. Turkey met with the rating activities in 1992. Moody's and S & P has given to Turkey for a long-term debt mark. After a series of falls experienced in 1994, 1995, 2001 the credit ratings currently is (B) as in the countries where investing should not be done and this prevents Turkey's borrowing ability from international debt markets (NYE and EKE, 2004, p.1). In this way the first time Turkey had met with the rating activities which continued with the beginning of the applicability of Basel II criteria. Conclusion Basel II regulations, in the context of the changes and improvements in the banking system means risk management. In the effective risk management, it is important to identify the credit risk, market risk and operational risk in the calculation of the capital adequacy which is the basic structural block of the Basel II. Other structural blocks provide the market discipline of risk management to develop effective monitoring mechanisms. It appears to be a fact that the further development of risk management in banks culture, indirectly will affect also the real sector firms which are in the position of the banks' customers. The most significant innovation Basel II has brought is the calculation of capital adequacy proportional to the risk in and the use of ratings. In the standard approach in the calculation of ratings, are used the notes based on the rating agencies, while in the internal approach banks are allowed to use their own notes in the ratings. The company internal ratings are based on such criteria as financial statements, market share and product quality. The most important criteria in the company rakings are the financial statements of companies. This is why the companies should be prepared from the results of banks ratings and need to strengthen their capital to get good grades. However, in standard method, international rating agencies by givin a rating note to banks, have an importan mision to be reference for banks if they have capability to carry out with the credit obligations or not. If the rating note is high, the financing costs is low, if rating note is low then the financing costs is high. The two reasons of rating are to increase the transparence and to decrease the cost. While some countries have passed to the Basel II standards Turkey is ready and getting well prepared. Some banks have also established a Basel II department and are waiting for the full shift to the standards. Despite the delays in the transition, this will return to us as a more cost. References Boyacioğlu, M. A., (2005). Bankalarda Derecelendirme (Rating) ve Türk Bankacılığı Üzerine Ampirik Bir ÇalıĢma (Doktora Tezi). Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ünal Aysal Tez değerlendirme YarıĢama Dizisi. Aksoy, T. (2007). Basel II ve Ġç Kontrol, Ankara SMMM Odası Yayın No: 53, Ankara. Aksoy, T. (2007). Derecelendirme Süreci IĢığında Basel II‘nin Kobilere Etkileri ve Kobilerce Atılması Gereken Adımlar: Analitik Bir BakıĢ. Mali Çözüm ISMMMO Yayın Organı. Number: 84. Alp, Ali. ve Üstündağ, S. (2007), Active. Bankaların Derecelendirilmesi Ankara Ticaret Odasi., Basel II, Kobilerin Kredi Riski ve Derecelendirmesi, http://www.atonet.org.tr/yeni/files/_files/OZEL_IHTISAS_KOMISYONLARI/files/ato_basel.pdf-matbaa.pdf Access Date: 13.12.2009. 17 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Aras, G. (2007). Basel II Bankacılık Düzenlemelerinin Ekonomiye ve Reel Sektöre Yansımalar, Deloitte. Aras, G. Basel II Uygulamasının KOBĠ‘lere Etkileri ve GeçiĢ Süreci. Ariss, R. T. and Sarieddine, Y. Challenges in implementing capital adequacy guidelines to islamic banks (p. 48). Y. Journal of Banking Regulation Vol. 9. Arslan, Ġ. Basel II Kriterleri ve Türk Bankaclık Sektörüne Etkileri http://www.sosyalbil.selcuk.edu.tr/sos_mak/makaleler/%C4%B0brahim%20ARSLAN/ARSLAN,%20%C4%B0BRAH%C4%B0 M.pdf. , Access Date: 01.12.2009. BabuĢçu, ġ. (1994). Bankacılıkta Risk Değerlendirmesi(Rating) ve Türk Bankacılık Sektörüne Uygulanması. Sermaye Piyasası Kurulu. BaĢar, M. (2007). Basel II Düzenlemeleri ve Kobiler, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. BDDK. (2005), Basel II Ekonomik Yansımaları ve GeçiĢ Süreci, AraĢtırma Dairesi. BDDK. (January 2005). 10 Soruda Yeni Basel UzlaĢısı (Basel II). BDDK. (September 2009), Bankacılık Sektörü Basel II Ġlerleme Raporu. BDDK. (2005), Basel II‘ye GeçiĢe ĠliĢkin Yol Haritası (Taslak). Berker, A. B., Kredi Derecelendirmesi. http://www.fitchratings.com.tr/ftp/derecelendirme/drc_20.pdf , Access Date: 25.12.2009. Berker, A.B., Derecelendirme KuruluĢları.. http://www.fitchratings.com.tr/ftp/derecelendirme/drc_23.pdf , Access Date: 27.11.2009. Çelik, P. (2004), Bankaların Risk Derecelendirmesi (Uzmanlık Yeterlilik Tezi). TCMB, Bankacılık ve Finansal KuruluĢlar Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Doyrangöl, N. C. ve Saltoğlu, M., Muhasebeci Gözüyle Basel II. http://archive.ismmmo.org.tr/docs/malicozum/malicozum_kongreozel/19%20nurancomertdoyrangol.pdf , Access Date: 27.10.2009. Kutlu, H. A. ve Demirci, N.S. Kapsamlı Bir Risk Yönetimi Düzenlemesi: Basel II ve Kobilere Muhtemel Etkileri. http://uvt.ulakbim.gov.tr/uvt/index.php?cwid=3&vtadi=TPRJ%2CTTAR%2CTTIP%2CTMUH%2CTSOS&c=google&s_f=_5&d etailed=1&keyword=86942 ,14.12.2009. MazibaĢ, M., Operasyonel Riske Basel YaklaĢımı: Üç Yapısal Blok Çerçevesinde Bir Değerlendirme. BDDK AraĢtırma Rapoları, 2005/1. Misirlioğlu, Ġ. U., UFRS ve Basel II‘nin ĠĢletme Faaliyetleri Üzerindeki Etkileri. http://archive.ismmmo.org.tr/docs/malicozum/76MaliCozum/1ismailufukmisirlioglu.pdf , Access Date: 27.12.2009 NYE, R. P. ve Eke, S. (March 2004), Türkiye‘de Kredi Derecelendirmesi, Activeline. Rodoplu, G. ve Ayan E. (2008). Basel II UzlaĢısında Piyasa Risk Yönetimi ve Türkiye Açısından Faiz Riskine ĠliĢkin Bir Uygulama. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi ĠĠBF Dergisi. Teker,S., Bolgün, K.E., Akçay, M.B. (2005). Banka Sermaye Yeterliliği: Basel II Standartlarının Bir Türk Bankasına Uygulanması (p. 42-54). Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, www.e-sosder.com, Number: 12. Weber, H. R. and Darbellay, A. (2008), The regulatory use of credit ratings in bank capital requirement regulation (p.2-3). Journal of Banking Regulation Vol. 10. Yardimcioğlu, M.ve Çam, A. V. (2007). Sermaye Piyasalarındaki Derecelendirme Müessesesinin Basel II Kapsamında Değerlendirilmesi. Mali Çözüm ISMMMO Yayın Organı, Number: 80. www.kobifinans.com.tr, Access Date: 25.12.2009 www.spk.gov.tr, Access Date: 21.12.2009 18 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo www.standardandpoors.com , Access Date: 25.12.2009 19 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 135 Title A name given to the resource In the Context of Basel II Accord, Capital Adequacy and Rating Author Author YILDIZ, Feyyaz ÜÇ, Mustafa ELİTAŞ, Bilge Leyli ELİTAŞ, Cemal SHERIFI, Idaver Abstract A summary of the resource. Basel II is a series of rules which brings new things and radical changes to the banking regulation standards. The basic reason of this change; while calculating the risk of the capital adequacy is taken into consideration and activities which forms the basic degree of Basel II‘s criterion. Especially Basel II criteria get heavy the circumstances of lending banks credits and in meantime the importance of rating marks in on the deal. In that study, reforms which bring Basel II the changing of the calculation of capital adequacy and in that way the criteria of rating and feasibility will be evaluated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5d20025d25ea601a6d7ebdcf09825e2a.pdf f8fb0071090c8927084ff82ab78ad421 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Assessing International Accounting Harmonization Using Izomorfism Erdal YILMAZ 19 Mayıs University Finance And Account Lecturer erdalyilmaz1971@hotmail.com Okan GELMEDĠ Sakarya Univeristy Finance And Account Ph.D. Student okangelmedi@hotmail.com Abstract:The purpose of this study is to tell the convergence process which is being tried to be created by using the izomorfism concept with the standards of international accounting and financial reporting about accounting records and financial reporting throughout the country. Convergence is the activity in which accounting and related sections work together with the purpose of contributing to the developement of a team of accounting standards for every country to be able to use them globally. However, in the studies done in this concept direction it is seen that, by ignoring the differences between countries and the negativenesses resulted form county dynamics, these studies gradually turn into the shape of an obligatory izomorfism. Obligatory izomorfism concerns the way in wich organizations are subject to external pressure, either from organizations they depend upon, or from more general cultural expectations. We think that , as a result of these applications, in the future the regulations that each country will form by adding their own dynamics will come out and the applications will be similar, not the same. Key Words: Harmonization, Accounting Standards, Financial Reporting, Ġzomorfism Introduction Particularly the acceleration of mutual business traffic worldwide and the intention of businesses to operate in countries other than where they are based made it compulsory for all countries to develop a common accounting language. This is why the convergence efforts, which are described as the identification of accounting practices or the collaboration efforts of accounting-related organizations with the aim of developing new standards that will contribute in creating a set of uniform accounting standards that every country can use on a world scale, have started. To achieve this, accounting committees formed worldwide started publishing International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). As the national legislation should support the published standards in order that they can be implemented, they are adopted as national standards by countries. However, cultural differences between various countries have rendered the standard application goal of the standards inaccessible. The Study With the increase in international investment activities and rapid circulation of capital globally, global economy gained an important acceleration on the one hand while the capital holders started enjoying higher profitability on the other. Firms bound to the international market with an expectation of better profits are bearing the costs largely while making investment decisions. Particularly because the financial indicators relating to the investment area or financial statements of companies are prepared based on varying accounting systems and practices in individual countries, investors were required to bear significant costs during the decision-making process and make various conversions in order to test the accuracy of such financial data and render them understandable for themselves. One of the efforts conducted aimed at reducing said costs of investors are the efforts to narrow the differences in the accounting systems of individual countries. This is because the losses and costs borne by global capital holders for their decisions in the countries they invest in made the accuracy of financial statements in invested countries questionable. ( Gönen,Uğurgel:p.1) This is why convergence eforts have started today as a non-returnable development process. (Moussa,2010;p.1) IASB, FASB, and other standard-setting organizations describe the concept 621 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo of convergence as increasing the conformity of the standards of each organization for high quality financial statements. To ensure this standardization, these organizations set and publish accounting standards, and the countries adopt these standards sometimes with minor changes but as a national accounting standard most of the time. That is, the intent, which was the convergence, meaning quality financial reporting, has become uniformization aiming to comply fully with the standards published. However, the evolution of standards in the form of uniformization gradually puts accounting practices away from the socio-economic realities of the country. To illustrate; while business transactions in certain countries are made beforehand, they are mostly done at fixed future times in countries like Turkey. In which case, the impacts of accounting standards regarding the recognition of term differences shall vary from one country to the other. Moreover, many problems are encountered during the stage of application of standards. This is because accounting practices have become different in all countries for different reasons. The main reasons underlying the differences in the accounting systems of countries are listed below: -Legal System -Sources of Finance -Political and Economic Development -Economic Crises -Taxation -Securities Exchange -National Culture -Inflation -Reconciliation of Accountants Demanding that accounting practices become completely the same and trying to pump an excessive optimism is a vain effort in the face of existence of many differences caused by the above reasons in the accounting systems and practices worldwide. Even though a uniform accounting system is achieved as a result of efforts shown for the standardization of these efforts, the outcomes might not be as desired. This is because the interpretation and application of standards by countries with differing accounting cultures will naturally vary. Despite this fact, the convergence efforts conducted so far bear a continuous quest for uniformization. Uniformity is full compliance with a structure or rule. Uniformity aims to realize international accounting as a uniform purpose at the conceptual level and practical level. .(Çankaya,Aydoğan,2008,p.302) It may be remarkable to see the standards adopted by many countries despite the presence of so many reasons. However, the question we should ask is: Is convergence a practice that countries are willingly into? Or have the countries really adopted the standards in consideration of the positive effects of accounting standards on accounting practices? For us, convergence is essentially a uniformity imposition of global conditions in its current practice. At this point, we see this imposition as compulsory isomorphism. Isomorphism, meaning identity of form, means the organizations working in the same framework having identical conditions and resulting in the formation of similar structure and actions, and making similar arrangements as a result of similar restrictions. However, in compulsory isomorphism, organizations are pressurized by external pressures, general (cultural) expectations, and other organizations. ―From this point of view, adoption of international accounting standards emerging within the frame of convergence efforts as a whole by many countries may also be considered compulsory isomorphism.‖ (Rodrigues,Craig:2007,p.743) For example, the reasons underlying the adoption in Turkey as a whole of international standards published by standard-setting organizations (its creating isomorphic conditions by necessity) are as follows: 1-Globalization: Currently puts Turkey as well as the entire world into type concept of convergence. 2-EU Negotiations: While chapters are opened and closed in The process of Turkey‘s accession of the EU, the standards are accepted with the thought that it will result is support as there is a desire to ensure harmony with Europe on all matters in Turkey. 3-Desire to Increase Foreign Investment: Because Turkey is a developing country, there is a desire for increasing the capital build-up in the country and ensuring economic enhancement. Standards are being adopted to facilitate the procedures of capital holders that will invest in Turkey, and to assist in evaluating the companies they will buy, and this will is reflected in the Turkish Commerce Code currently being discussed by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. 4-Pressures from the Business World: Turkish business world asks the adoption of standards on grounds that it trades and collaborates most with the European countries With these and such other reasons, many countries are adopting the international standards ―by necessity‖ as their national standards. For example, the desire to increase foreign investment is a desire of not only Turkey but of other developing countries as well. On the other hand, all countries desirous of attracting foreign investments try 622 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to see the same capital holders in their countries. That is, as in the definition of isomorphism, developing countries are aiming the same capital, and as can be easily imagined, that the other developing countries take measures aiming to reduce the costs and increase the trusts of such capital holders and, for example their adoption of international standards, putting Turkey into an isomorphic practice and resulting in the Turkish translation of the international standard and its publishing as a national standard. When doing this, general expectations are pressurized and led by the business world and capital holders. This shows the necessity dimension of the isomorphic practice. Problems Of Convergence And Proposal For Solution: The process of convergence continues in the entire world with various problems. The main problems of the process are mainly as follows: (1) Problems on interpretation, (2) Language related problems, (3) Problems on technical terminology (terminology problem) (4) Problems relating to changes in profit measurements, (5) The role of capital markets, (6) Political influences.(Demir,2009,p.5) With IFRS‘s published in the convergence process, the aim is to increase liquidity, level of transparency, international collaborations and fund collection abilities from international markets, reducing funding costs, preservation of competition and contributing to the efforts aimed at creating an economic union. Standards to serve this aim should offer principle-based, dynamic, abstract-priority dependent solutions, suitable for all conditions and businesses. (Gönen, Uğurgel, p.1)However, as mentioned above, there are many problems preventing the formation of standards with such principles. For example, the understanding and desire that the standards should be principlebased does not match Turkey‘s accounting structure. Turkish accounting system has a tax-based approach, the legislator prepared its accounting regulations on tax basis and principle-based in parallel with this. However, as mentioned above, expectations and coercions have put Turkey in a position to develop isomorphic practices for principle-based standards. In fact, uniformity is the adoption of all other countries the accounting practice and reporting standards of several countries. Today, considering the economic effectiveness of capital-intensive countries, if we assume that capital-intensive -developed- countries will be more effective in these accounting practices and reporting, that is if we accept the standards as a common language, it is obvious that developed countries will inject more words into this language. It is clear that developing countries will use the language of the developed ones if the language develops in this manner. Just as a human being speaks his own language best, it should be able to arrange its financial reports first based on the needs of its own country. Speaking the uniformizing accounting language ―by necessity‖, and creating isomorphic practices, developing countries are negatively affected by this process. A situation might arise resembling the difficulty of someone speaking another language in his own country. This is because the developed countries where there are more capital holders have become an industrialized, professional and an informal society. Capital-holding countries mostly look alike one another. For example, an accounting convergence between Germany and France might not be rejected by both of these countries. However, trying to uniformize the accounting practices of Germany and Turkey will create different responses, also bringing many challenges. The economic structure of countries, and their abovementioned cultural differences will make it difficult to practice the same accounting system. For example, level of avoidance of uncertainties, one of Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions, is lower in countries with higher capital accumulations, which will make it easier to adopt new standards, as they are bolder and have risk-based understandings. So the best thing to do is to make efforts in order to minimize the differences between practices and systems. If the aim of convergence is to create a common language in accounting practices and financial tables and to speak that language, the only way to create a common language cannot be the convergence process aiming uniformization. In its place, ways should be considered that would minimize the differences among countries. Mutual recognition and reconciliation are some of the alternatives we can mention at this point. Mutual recognition expresses the acceptance of national financial reports although they are not prepared according to the accounting principles of foreign countries. Mutual recognition is in practice between USA and Canada. US companies may be traded in the Canadian Securities Exchange with US-GAAP‘-compliant financial statements. American companies can trade in the Securities Exchanges of European Union countries based on financial statements prepared in compliance with US-GAAP. Although mutual recognition is very well practiced in 623 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the case of Canada and the USA, the role of close economic and cultural ties between the two nations and the identity of standards and targets in accounting should not be forgotten. Reconciliation is the permission for preparation of financial reports of foreign companies according to the accounting principles of their countries. However, in reconciliation, reconciliation is established arrangements relating to net profit and equities, which are considered as the most important factor by users of financial statements. The purpose of reconciliation is to reveal the great differences arising between the accounting practices. Thanks to reconciliation, foreign investor companies can obtain information about their assets and profitability levels based on their own accounting principles. As a result of the reconciliation, investors can make easy comparisons. The positive side of reconciliation is that it is less costly than the harmonization of all financial reports based on foreign accounting principles. (Çankaya,Aydoğan, 2008,p.307-308) The concepts of reconciliation and mutual recognition also have negative aspects. The negative aspect of reconciliation are expressed to be its presentation of summary information relating to the financial situations of companies and its failure to make disclosures about the general conditions of companies. The negative aspect of mutual recognition is the difficulty that financial users might encounter in understanding different accounting standards. In fact, to remove such negative aspects, XBRL (eXtensible Business Reporting Language), supported for convergence, may be used. As the language of financial reporting, XBRL is a standard, platform-independent, digital data coding language to be jointly used by financial information producers and information users for data exchange. With this data coding language, businesses shall create their financial reports once and these reports shall require no rearrangement or conversion when transferred to other environments. It will be possible to use these XBRL-prepared financial reports for all financial report exchanges. XBRL permits coding any information about the business. So, loading information suitable for each financial statement item, financial statements complying with both international standards and national standards may be produced. Harmonization efforts in preparing financial statements should methodically reduce the difference between accounting practices and increase the comparability of financial statements prepared and practices in various countries. This will also contribute en reducing the overall difference between the countries. When the overall difference is reduced, problems in preparing and reading financial reports will also lessen. Conclusion Globalization is an inevitable reality directly affecting today‘s economic, social and political events. With globalization, capital movements went beyond national borders, continuously searching for and utilizing new investment opportunities in the international arena. That the accounting system is based on different principles and rules in each individual country produced difficulties in mating rational investment decisions. As a result, there has been the necessity for common financial reporting system valid in all countries and convergence efforts continued led by certain countries and organizations. Every country‘s accounting system differs based on factors like their social, political, financial, cultural etc. environment. Set of uniform financial reporting principles to be imposed disregarding these factors shall not give the intended outcome, with many countries being obliged to produce and bear the costs of financial tables not directly addressing their specific needs, as a price of attracting investments to a country. Instead, unnecessary differences between the accounting systems of countries can be removed, while other differences are being made identical by mutual recognition and reconciliation. With the appropriate use of solutions like XBRL, which has emerged with technological improvements, both the needs of international capital and countries intending to maintain their national accounting systems will be greatly met. References Çankaya,Fikret,Aydoğan,Ertan: The Harmonization Of Account Standarts Ġn Frame Of Cultural Differences. Atatürk Üniverstiy, Journal Of Social Sciences Institute, Vol. 11 No 1 (2008), P.299-326 Demir,Volkan: Financial Reporting Practices Relating Different Approaches, April,2009,P.73-92 Approach To Accounting And Auditing, Gönen Seçkin, Uğurgel GülĢah: The International Financial Reporting Standards And Practices Ġn Transition: Problems And Solutions, Ġn Turkey Http://Www.Tmsk.Org.Tr/Ġndex.Php?Option=Com_Content&Task=View&Ġd=82&Itemid=92 , Access Date:09/05/2010 Moussa Boka, On The International Convergence Of Accounting Standards: Ġnternational Journal Of Business And Menagement, Vol.5, No:4; April 2010 624 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Rodrigues Lucia Lima, Craig Russell: Assessing Ġnternational Accounting Harmonization Using Hegelian Dialectic, Ġsomorphism And Foucault; Critical Perspectives On Accounting, 18 (2007),739-757 625 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 298 Title A name given to the resource Assessing International Accounting Harmonization Using Izomorfism Author Author YILMAZ, Erdal GELMEDİ, Okan Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to tell the convergence process which is being tried to be created by using the izomorfism concept with the standards of international accounting and financial reporting about accounting records and financial reporting throughout the country. Convergence is the activity in which accounting and related sections work together with the purpose of contributing to the developement of a team of accounting standards for every country to be able to use them globally. However, in the studies done in this concept direction it is seen that, by ignoring the differences between countries and the negativenesses resulted form county dynamics, these studies gradually turn into the shape of an obligatory izomorfism. Obligatory izomorfism concerns the way in wich organizations are subject to external pressure, either from organizations they depend upon, or from more general cultural expectations. We think that , as a result of these applications, in the future the regulations that each country will form by adding their own dynamics will come out and the applications will be similar, not the same. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/663709da883c11d7f531a46e995369c2.pdf f8fb0071090c8927084ff82ab78ad421 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Assessing International Accounting Harmonization Using Izomorfism Erdal YILMAZ 19 Mayıs University Finance And Account Lecturer erdalyilmaz1971@hotmail.com Okan GELMEDĠ Sakarya Univeristy Finance And Account Ph.D. Student okangelmedi@hotmail.com Abstract:The purpose of this study is to tell the convergence process which is being tried to be created by using the izomorfism concept with the standards of international accounting and financial reporting about accounting records and financial reporting throughout the country. Convergence is the activity in which accounting and related sections work together with the purpose of contributing to the developement of a team of accounting standards for every country to be able to use them globally. However, in the studies done in this concept direction it is seen that, by ignoring the differences between countries and the negativenesses resulted form county dynamics, these studies gradually turn into the shape of an obligatory izomorfism. Obligatory izomorfism concerns the way in wich organizations are subject to external pressure, either from organizations they depend upon, or from more general cultural expectations. We think that , as a result of these applications, in the future the regulations that each country will form by adding their own dynamics will come out and the applications will be similar, not the same. Key Words: Harmonization, Accounting Standards, Financial Reporting, Ġzomorfism Introduction Particularly the acceleration of mutual business traffic worldwide and the intention of businesses to operate in countries other than where they are based made it compulsory for all countries to develop a common accounting language. This is why the convergence efforts, which are described as the identification of accounting practices or the collaboration efforts of accounting-related organizations with the aim of developing new standards that will contribute in creating a set of uniform accounting standards that every country can use on a world scale, have started. To achieve this, accounting committees formed worldwide started publishing International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). As the national legislation should support the published standards in order that they can be implemented, they are adopted as national standards by countries. However, cultural differences between various countries have rendered the standard application goal of the standards inaccessible. The Study With the increase in international investment activities and rapid circulation of capital globally, global economy gained an important acceleration on the one hand while the capital holders started enjoying higher profitability on the other. Firms bound to the international market with an expectation of better profits are bearing the costs largely while making investment decisions. Particularly because the financial indicators relating to the investment area or financial statements of companies are prepared based on varying accounting systems and practices in individual countries, investors were required to bear significant costs during the decision-making process and make various conversions in order to test the accuracy of such financial data and render them understandable for themselves. One of the efforts conducted aimed at reducing said costs of investors are the efforts to narrow the differences in the accounting systems of individual countries. This is because the losses and costs borne by global capital holders for their decisions in the countries they invest in made the accuracy of financial statements in invested countries questionable. ( Gönen,Uğurgel:p.1) This is why convergence eforts have started today as a non-returnable development process. (Moussa,2010;p.1) IASB, FASB, and other standard-setting organizations describe the concept 621 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo of convergence as increasing the conformity of the standards of each organization for high quality financial statements. To ensure this standardization, these organizations set and publish accounting standards, and the countries adopt these standards sometimes with minor changes but as a national accounting standard most of the time. That is, the intent, which was the convergence, meaning quality financial reporting, has become uniformization aiming to comply fully with the standards published. However, the evolution of standards in the form of uniformization gradually puts accounting practices away from the socio-economic realities of the country. To illustrate; while business transactions in certain countries are made beforehand, they are mostly done at fixed future times in countries like Turkey. In which case, the impacts of accounting standards regarding the recognition of term differences shall vary from one country to the other. Moreover, many problems are encountered during the stage of application of standards. This is because accounting practices have become different in all countries for different reasons. The main reasons underlying the differences in the accounting systems of countries are listed below: -Legal System -Sources of Finance -Political and Economic Development -Economic Crises -Taxation -Securities Exchange -National Culture -Inflation -Reconciliation of Accountants Demanding that accounting practices become completely the same and trying to pump an excessive optimism is a vain effort in the face of existence of many differences caused by the above reasons in the accounting systems and practices worldwide. Even though a uniform accounting system is achieved as a result of efforts shown for the standardization of these efforts, the outcomes might not be as desired. This is because the interpretation and application of standards by countries with differing accounting cultures will naturally vary. Despite this fact, the convergence efforts conducted so far bear a continuous quest for uniformization. Uniformity is full compliance with a structure or rule. Uniformity aims to realize international accounting as a uniform purpose at the conceptual level and practical level. .(Çankaya,Aydoğan,2008,p.302) It may be remarkable to see the standards adopted by many countries despite the presence of so many reasons. However, the question we should ask is: Is convergence a practice that countries are willingly into? Or have the countries really adopted the standards in consideration of the positive effects of accounting standards on accounting practices? For us, convergence is essentially a uniformity imposition of global conditions in its current practice. At this point, we see this imposition as compulsory isomorphism. Isomorphism, meaning identity of form, means the organizations working in the same framework having identical conditions and resulting in the formation of similar structure and actions, and making similar arrangements as a result of similar restrictions. However, in compulsory isomorphism, organizations are pressurized by external pressures, general (cultural) expectations, and other organizations. ―From this point of view, adoption of international accounting standards emerging within the frame of convergence efforts as a whole by many countries may also be considered compulsory isomorphism.‖ (Rodrigues,Craig:2007,p.743) For example, the reasons underlying the adoption in Turkey as a whole of international standards published by standard-setting organizations (its creating isomorphic conditions by necessity) are as follows: 1-Globalization: Currently puts Turkey as well as the entire world into type concept of convergence. 2-EU Negotiations: While chapters are opened and closed in The process of Turkey‘s accession of the EU, the standards are accepted with the thought that it will result is support as there is a desire to ensure harmony with Europe on all matters in Turkey. 3-Desire to Increase Foreign Investment: Because Turkey is a developing country, there is a desire for increasing the capital build-up in the country and ensuring economic enhancement. Standards are being adopted to facilitate the procedures of capital holders that will invest in Turkey, and to assist in evaluating the companies they will buy, and this will is reflected in the Turkish Commerce Code currently being discussed by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. 4-Pressures from the Business World: Turkish business world asks the adoption of standards on grounds that it trades and collaborates most with the European countries With these and such other reasons, many countries are adopting the international standards ―by necessity‖ as their national standards. For example, the desire to increase foreign investment is a desire of not only Turkey but of other developing countries as well. On the other hand, all countries desirous of attracting foreign investments try 622 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to see the same capital holders in their countries. That is, as in the definition of isomorphism, developing countries are aiming the same capital, and as can be easily imagined, that the other developing countries take measures aiming to reduce the costs and increase the trusts of such capital holders and, for example their adoption of international standards, putting Turkey into an isomorphic practice and resulting in the Turkish translation of the international standard and its publishing as a national standard. When doing this, general expectations are pressurized and led by the business world and capital holders. This shows the necessity dimension of the isomorphic practice. Problems Of Convergence And Proposal For Solution: The process of convergence continues in the entire world with various problems. The main problems of the process are mainly as follows: (1) Problems on interpretation, (2) Language related problems, (3) Problems on technical terminology (terminology problem) (4) Problems relating to changes in profit measurements, (5) The role of capital markets, (6) Political influences.(Demir,2009,p.5) With IFRS‘s published in the convergence process, the aim is to increase liquidity, level of transparency, international collaborations and fund collection abilities from international markets, reducing funding costs, preservation of competition and contributing to the efforts aimed at creating an economic union. Standards to serve this aim should offer principle-based, dynamic, abstract-priority dependent solutions, suitable for all conditions and businesses. (Gönen, Uğurgel, p.1)However, as mentioned above, there are many problems preventing the formation of standards with such principles. For example, the understanding and desire that the standards should be principlebased does not match Turkey‘s accounting structure. Turkish accounting system has a tax-based approach, the legislator prepared its accounting regulations on tax basis and principle-based in parallel with this. However, as mentioned above, expectations and coercions have put Turkey in a position to develop isomorphic practices for principle-based standards. In fact, uniformity is the adoption of all other countries the accounting practice and reporting standards of several countries. Today, considering the economic effectiveness of capital-intensive countries, if we assume that capital-intensive -developed- countries will be more effective in these accounting practices and reporting, that is if we accept the standards as a common language, it is obvious that developed countries will inject more words into this language. It is clear that developing countries will use the language of the developed ones if the language develops in this manner. Just as a human being speaks his own language best, it should be able to arrange its financial reports first based on the needs of its own country. Speaking the uniformizing accounting language ―by necessity‖, and creating isomorphic practices, developing countries are negatively affected by this process. A situation might arise resembling the difficulty of someone speaking another language in his own country. This is because the developed countries where there are more capital holders have become an industrialized, professional and an informal society. Capital-holding countries mostly look alike one another. For example, an accounting convergence between Germany and France might not be rejected by both of these countries. However, trying to uniformize the accounting practices of Germany and Turkey will create different responses, also bringing many challenges. The economic structure of countries, and their abovementioned cultural differences will make it difficult to practice the same accounting system. For example, level of avoidance of uncertainties, one of Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions, is lower in countries with higher capital accumulations, which will make it easier to adopt new standards, as they are bolder and have risk-based understandings. So the best thing to do is to make efforts in order to minimize the differences between practices and systems. If the aim of convergence is to create a common language in accounting practices and financial tables and to speak that language, the only way to create a common language cannot be the convergence process aiming uniformization. In its place, ways should be considered that would minimize the differences among countries. Mutual recognition and reconciliation are some of the alternatives we can mention at this point. Mutual recognition expresses the acceptance of national financial reports although they are not prepared according to the accounting principles of foreign countries. Mutual recognition is in practice between USA and Canada. US companies may be traded in the Canadian Securities Exchange with US-GAAP‘-compliant financial statements. American companies can trade in the Securities Exchanges of European Union countries based on financial statements prepared in compliance with US-GAAP. Although mutual recognition is very well practiced in 623 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the case of Canada and the USA, the role of close economic and cultural ties between the two nations and the identity of standards and targets in accounting should not be forgotten. Reconciliation is the permission for preparation of financial reports of foreign companies according to the accounting principles of their countries. However, in reconciliation, reconciliation is established arrangements relating to net profit and equities, which are considered as the most important factor by users of financial statements. The purpose of reconciliation is to reveal the great differences arising between the accounting practices. Thanks to reconciliation, foreign investor companies can obtain information about their assets and profitability levels based on their own accounting principles. As a result of the reconciliation, investors can make easy comparisons. The positive side of reconciliation is that it is less costly than the harmonization of all financial reports based on foreign accounting principles. (Çankaya,Aydoğan, 2008,p.307-308) The concepts of reconciliation and mutual recognition also have negative aspects. The negative aspect of reconciliation are expressed to be its presentation of summary information relating to the financial situations of companies and its failure to make disclosures about the general conditions of companies. The negative aspect of mutual recognition is the difficulty that financial users might encounter in understanding different accounting standards. In fact, to remove such negative aspects, XBRL (eXtensible Business Reporting Language), supported for convergence, may be used. As the language of financial reporting, XBRL is a standard, platform-independent, digital data coding language to be jointly used by financial information producers and information users for data exchange. With this data coding language, businesses shall create their financial reports once and these reports shall require no rearrangement or conversion when transferred to other environments. It will be possible to use these XBRL-prepared financial reports for all financial report exchanges. XBRL permits coding any information about the business. So, loading information suitable for each financial statement item, financial statements complying with both international standards and national standards may be produced. Harmonization efforts in preparing financial statements should methodically reduce the difference between accounting practices and increase the comparability of financial statements prepared and practices in various countries. This will also contribute en reducing the overall difference between the countries. When the overall difference is reduced, problems in preparing and reading financial reports will also lessen. Conclusion Globalization is an inevitable reality directly affecting today‘s economic, social and political events. With globalization, capital movements went beyond national borders, continuously searching for and utilizing new investment opportunities in the international arena. That the accounting system is based on different principles and rules in each individual country produced difficulties in mating rational investment decisions. As a result, there has been the necessity for common financial reporting system valid in all countries and convergence efforts continued led by certain countries and organizations. Every country‘s accounting system differs based on factors like their social, political, financial, cultural etc. environment. Set of uniform financial reporting principles to be imposed disregarding these factors shall not give the intended outcome, with many countries being obliged to produce and bear the costs of financial tables not directly addressing their specific needs, as a price of attracting investments to a country. Instead, unnecessary differences between the accounting systems of countries can be removed, while other differences are being made identical by mutual recognition and reconciliation. With the appropriate use of solutions like XBRL, which has emerged with technological improvements, both the needs of international capital and countries intending to maintain their national accounting systems will be greatly met. References Çankaya,Fikret,Aydoğan,Ertan: The Harmonization Of Account Standarts Ġn Frame Of Cultural Differences. Atatürk Üniverstiy, Journal Of Social Sciences Institute, Vol. 11 No 1 (2008), P.299-326 Demir,Volkan: Financial Reporting Practices Relating Different Approaches, April,2009,P.73-92 Approach To Accounting And Auditing, Gönen Seçkin, Uğurgel GülĢah: The International Financial Reporting Standards And Practices Ġn Transition: Problems And Solutions, Ġn Turkey Http://Www.Tmsk.Org.Tr/Ġndex.Php?Option=Com_Content&Task=View&Ġd=82&Itemid=92 , Access Date:09/05/2010 Moussa Boka, On The International Convergence Of Accounting Standards: Ġnternational Journal Of Business And Menagement, Vol.5, No:4; April 2010 624 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Rodrigues Lucia Lima, Craig Russell: Assessing Ġnternational Accounting Harmonization Using Hegelian Dialectic, Ġsomorphism And Foucault; Critical Perspectives On Accounting, 18 (2007),739-757 625 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 242 Title A name given to the resource Assessing International Accounting Harmonization Using Izomorfism Author Author YILMAZ, Erdal GELMEDİ, Okan Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to tell the convergence process which is being tried to be created by using the izomorfism concept with the standards of international accounting and financial reporting about accounting records and financial reporting throughout the country. Convergence is the activity in which accounting and related sections work together with the purpose of contributing to the developement of a team of accounting standards for every country to be able to use them globally. However, in the studies done in this concept direction it is seen that, by ignoring the differences between countries and the negativenesses resulted form county dynamics, these studies gradually turn into the shape of an obligatory izomorfism. Obligatory izomorfism concerns the way in wich organizations are subject to external pressure, either from organizations they depend upon, or from more general cultural expectations. We think that , as a result of these applications, in the future the regulations that each country will form by adding their own dynamics will come out and the applications will be similar, not the same. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d61d03b1aafc7f3a67cdbe086110883b.pdf 6547dee6b110d956593e645631f8d172 PDF Text Text Effect of Boronizing and Shot Peening in Ferrous Based Fecu-Graphite P/M Material on Fatigue Properties Selim Sarper YILMAZ Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery Turgutlu, Manisa, TURKEY bekir.unlu@bayar.edu.tr Bekir Sadık ÜNLÜ Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School Department of Machinery Turgutlu, Manisa, TURKEY Naci Kurgan Karabük University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karabük, TURKEY kurgannaci@yahoo.com Remzi VAROL Süleyman Demirel University Engineering Faculty Department of Mechanical Engineering Isparta, TURKEY rvarol@mmf.sdu.edu.tr Abstract:Ferrous based materials manufactured by powder metallurgy (P/M) method are widely used in industry. These materials are very important in applications where no machining is required, can also be used as journal bearing material due to their self-lubricated property, and find applications in the medical industry. In this study, powder metal parts were manufactured from composites ferrous based FeCu-Graphite by P/M method. Fatigue test samples were carried out on manufactured samples receiving no treatment or boronizing treatment or boronizing+shot treatment. Fatigue properties of these parts were investigated by rotating bending fatigue test rig. Keywords: Powder metalurgy, Boronizing, Shot peening, Fatigue. Introduction Powder metallurgy is one of the methods used for used or semi-processed parts [1]. Because of higher melting temperatures of some metals, super alloy and hard metals must have been produced by powder metallurgy method [2, 3]. Mechanical properties of P/M parts depend on pore amount, distribution, type, size and form. As pore amount decreases, fatigue strength and the other mechanical properties improve [4]. Strength of machine parts is not as strong as that of conventional steels produced by powder metallurgy method [5]. In order to produce high density parts, high capacity presses or hot isostatic pressing method can be used. Thus, mechanical properties of P/M parts match mechanical properties of forging parts [1, 6]. Furthermore, powder metal materials exhibit different microstructure and density at various sintering conditions [7]. In addition to that, physical properties are affected from pore ratio. Porousity increase sound and vibration absorbution property. Therefore, a significant portion of powder metallurgy products is designed to take 54 �advantage of porousity into consideration [8]. Pore size and distribution are the most important parameters affecting mechanical properties [9, 10]. Boronizing is a thermo chemical surface hardening treatment that enriches the material surface in boron atoms via the diffusion of elemental boron into the surface of material in contact at high temperatures. Boronizing treatment is performed at temperatures of 950 0C for varying times between 1 and 10 hours. The characteristics of this boride layer depending on boronizing temperature, process time and properties of the boronized material. The boronizing elements placed into the heat resistant container and specimens are inserted into this powder [11]. The particle size of the powder is an important factor in the formation of the boride layer [12]. The advantages of boronizing treatment over the other types of surface hardening methods are that the surface layer is very hard, and no extra heat treatment is required after boronizing. The most important aim in boronizing is to achieve the desired hardness [13-15]. Fatigue resistance increases by boronizing. Therefore, boronizing can be applied to ferrous based P/M materials [1, 16]. Shot peening is an applied process where the surface of a machine part are treated with a lot of small spherical shot jet under controlled conditions. A compressive stressed layer occurs as a result of the nonhomogeneous plastic deformation on metal material by shot peening. The aim of the shot peening is to improve fatigue, corrosion fatigue, and stressed corrosion of metal materials [17-20]. Improving fatigue properties of materials are important because machine elements are generally exposed to dynamic loads. One of the methods used to improve fatigue properties of materials is shot peening. Shot peening process can be applied to any metal based machine part. However, surface hardness and quality increases with shot peening in P/M materials due to a decrease in the number of pores [21-23]. In this study, powder metal parts were manufactured from composites ferrous based FeCu-Graphite by P/M method. Boronizing and boronizing+shot peening was applied to samples. Fatigue properties of these parts were investigated. In addition; microstructural properties of fracture surfaces were investigated. Experimental Studies In this study, FeCu-Graphite composites 55x10x10 mm dimension were manufactured at 400 MPa pressure, 1120 0C sintering by P/M method. Non-boronized FeCu-Graphite (Group 1), boronized FeCu-Graphite (Group 2), boronized and shot peened FeCu-Graphite (Group 3) P/M materials were used. The chemical compositions of the materials used in the experiments are given in Table 1. Some basic properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder are shown in Table 2. Mechanical properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder are shown in Table 3. Chemical compositions of samples are shown in Table 4. Material SAE 1020 C 0.2 Si 0.25 Mn 0.7 P 0.04 S 0.05 Fe Based Table 1. Chemical composition of SAE 1020 steel disc (wt %). Grade ASC 100.29 Grade Dimension (µm) 20 - 180 Visible Density (g/cm3) 2.96 Flow (s/50 g) H2 Loss (%) C (%) 24 0.8 0.002 Table 2. Some base properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder. 55 Pressing (g/cm3) (600 MPa) 7.21 �Tensile Strength (MPa) 275 Yield Strength (MPa) A5 % Density (ρ) (g/cm3) Hardness (HV) 218 3.7 6.61 95 Table 3. Mechanical properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder. Powder Quantity (wt %) Graphite 0.2 Cu 3 Fe Based Lubricant (Zn-Stearat) 0.8 Table 4. Chemical composition of samples (wt %). The box boronizing method has been used for the boronizing process. The box was held in electric resistance oven for 4 h at 950 0C. At the end of the boronizing process, the box was cooled to room temperature and then the specimens were cleaned. R38.1 The microstructures were photographed using scanning electron microscope. Fatigue fracture surfaces were examined scanning electron microscope (Jeol JSM-6060). Dimensions of fatigue specimens are shown in Fig.1. Fatigue tests were applied to R=+/-1 under condition by using rotating bending fatigue test rig. Fig.1. Fatigue sample. Results and Discussion Fatigue Properties Results of fatigue properties were shown in Fig.2. Generally, fatigue properties of boronized specimens and boronized+shot peened specimens were higher than those of non-boronized specimens because of very hard boride layer. 56 �300 Strength (MPa) 250 200 Group 1 150 Group 2 Group 3 100 50 0 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 Cycle Number (N) Fig.2. Curves of samples strength-cycle number (S-N). Tunay et al [6], Varol and Sarıtaş [10], Sarıtaş et al. [13], Selver et al. [20], Orman [21], and Başaran [22] have examined fatigue properties of boronized or shot peened ferrous based P/M materials. They reported that boronizing and shot peening significantly improved fatigue properties in these materials. Harada et al. [25] investigated effects of microshot peening on surface characteristics of high-speed tool steel. They reported increase of hardness by applying shot peening at high temperatures. Chawla and Dang [26] investigated fatigue properties of porous sintered steels. They reported that fatigue strength increased with a decrease in porosity. Pariente and Guagliano [27] investigated fatigue properties of carburized and shot peened gear steels. Mahagaonkar et al. [28] investigated fatigue properties of SAE 1045 and SAE 316L steels. Zhang and Liu [29] investigated fatigue properties of Ti alloys. Bouraoui et al. [30] investigated fatigue properties metal parts. They reported that fatigue properties were improved with high residual stress by applying shot peening. Microstructural Properties When microstructures of fatigue fracture surfaces of samples were examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Figs. 3-6). Brittle fracture was observed in these PM samples due to porous structure. Thick, porous, and bright structure show brittle fructure of PM materials. 57 �Fig.3. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 1). Fig.4. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 1). Fig.5. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of B-FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 2). 58 �Fig.6. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of B+SP-FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 3). Tunay et al [6], Varol and Sarıtaş [10], Sarıtaş et al. [13], Selver et al. [20], Orman [21], and Başaran [22] have examined microstructure properties of boronized or shot peened ferrous based P/M materials. They reported that boronizing and shot peening significantly improved microstructural properties in these materials because of reduction in porosity. Tsuji et al. [24] investigated microstructural properties of plasma-carburized and shot-peened Ti–6Al–4V alloys. They observed and a lot of uneven dimples on the surface of shot-peened carburized specimens. They reported that the dimple size and depth of the surface was very small due to a fine particle shot. Micro-cracks were not observed in the near surface. The carbon diffusion layer was occurred as a thin whiter and brighter layer in the near surface region of shotpeened carburized specimen. Harada et al. [25] investigated microstructural properties of microshot peening on surface characteristics of high-speed tool steel. They observed that the distribution of white rings on the surface of the peened workpieces. Chawla and Dang [26] investigated microstructural properties of porous sintered steels. They observed plastic deformation and crack growth due to changes in porosity. Conclusions Based on the findings our study, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Fatigue properties of boronized specimens and boronized+shot peened specimens were higher than those of non-boronized specimens. 2. Brittle fructure was shown in PM materials. References Başaran, A., “Shot peening mechanical surfaces processes in P/M parts”, Süleyman Demirel University, Master Thesis, 2003. Bouraoui, C., Sghaier, R. B., Fathallah, R., “An engineering predictive design approach of high cycle fatigue reliability of shot peened metallic parts”, Materials and Design 30 (2009) 475–486. Bozkurt, N., “Surface hardening by boronizing in steels”, PhD thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey (in Turkish), 1984. 59 �Çalışkan, C. “Powder Metallurgy”, Istanbul Technical University, Under Graduate Thesis, 2000. Chawla, N., Deng, X., “Microstructure and mechanical behavior of porous sintered steels”, Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 98–112. Demir A., Sarıtaş S., “Mechanical properties of powder metal steels”, Akdeniz University, Douib, N., “Fatigue of inhomogeneoues low alloy P/M steels” Powder Metallurgy, Vol. 32, No: 3, 209-214. pp. 1989. Engineering Faculty, Journal of Mechanical Engineering, (7) 1-13, 1993. evaluation under industrial processing conditions”, Materials Sci Forum, 299-300, pp. 356-363, 1999. ferrous based PM parts”, PhD thesis, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey (In Turkish), 2004. Göy, Z., “Boronizing”, Master thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey (in Turkish), 1984. Harada, Y., Fukauara, K., Kohamada, S., “Effects of microshot peening on surface characteristics of high-speed tool steel”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 201 (2008) 319–324. Justino, J. G., Bernardini, P. A. N., “Self-Lubricating Bearings: Microstructural and dimensional Kostilnik, T., “Wheel abrator Corporation”, Surface Engineering, ASM Handbook Vol. 5, 1994. Lawley, A., “Atomization, The Production of Metal Powders”, MPIF, Princeton, 1992. Mahagaonkar, S. B., Brahmankar, P. K., Seemikeri, C. Y., “Effect on fatigue performance of shot peened components: An analysis using DOE technique”, International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 693–702. Mathuschka, A. G., “Boronizing”, Carl Hanser Verlag, München Wien, 1980. Meriç, C., Sahin, S., Yılmaz, S. S., “Investigation of the effect on boride layer of powder particle Metal Society, s.147-157, Birmingham, 1981. Orman, Ş., “Investigation of effects of shot peening parameters on fatigue behavior of SAE 1020 steels”, Gazi University, Master Thesis, 1999. Özsoy, A., “Improve of boron layer properties, transite zone and main matrix in boronized steel”, P/M parts”, Gazi University, I. Inter Conference of Powder Metallurgy, pp. 407-418, Ankara, 1996. Pariente, I. F., Guagliano, P. M., “Contact fatigue damage analysis of shot peened gears by means of X-ray measurements”, Engineering Failure Analysis 16 (2009) 964–971. PhD thesis, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey (in Turkish), 1996. Sarıtaş, S., “Fatigue of surface treated powder forged steels”, Heat Treatment 81, The Sarıtaş, S., Varol, R., Doğan, C., “The effect of shot peening on the fatigue properties of steels” Euro PM 97, Proce. of Advance Structural PM Compenent Production, Munih, Germany, October 15 – 17, 1995. Selver, R., Boylu, K. S., Varol, R. “Effect of shot peening and boronizing process on some properties of P/M steels materials”, Süleyman Demirel University, Journal of Science, 8-1 (2004) 141-144. size used in boronizing with solid boron-yielding subbstances”, Materials Research Bulletin, (35) 2165-2172, 2000. steels parts” 3. Conference of Powder Metallurgy, pp. 1221-1228, Ankara, Turkey (In Turkish), 2002. tribological properties in journal bearings”, PhD thesis, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey (In Tsuji, N., Tanaka, S., Takasugi, T., “Effects of combined plasma-carburizing and shot-peening on fatigue and wear properties of Ti–6Al–4V alloy”, Surface & Coatings Technology 203 (2009) 1400–1405. Tunay, R., F., Varol, R., Yılmaz, S., S., “Effect on mechanical properties of boronizing in P/M Turan, H., Sarıtaş, S., “Manufacturing of metal powder by gas atomization”, Machine design and production conference”, 21-23 Eylül 1994, METU, Ankara. Turkish), 2004. 60 �Ünlü, B. S., “Determination of usability of boronized ferrous based materials as bearing and Varol R., Sarıtaş S., “Effect of shot peening treatment on fatigue properties of ferrous based Varol, R. “Effect of different shot peening parameters of 2024 aluminum alloy on fatigue life” PhD thesis, Selçuk University, Konya-Turkey, 1990. Varol, R., Meriç, C., “Shot peening: Therocial and applications”, Eng. and Mech., 1992, 34 (405), 15-22. Yılmaz, S. S. “Effect on physical and mechanical properties of surface hardening treatments of Zhang, X., Liu, D., “Effect of shot peening on fretting fatigue of Ti811 alloy at elevated temperature”, International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 889–893. 61 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 329 Title A name given to the resource Effect of Boronizing and Shot Peening in Ferrous Based Fecu-Graphite P/M Material on Fatigue Properties Author Author YILMAZ, Selim Sarper ÜNLÜ, Bekir Sadık Kurgan, Naci VAROL, Remzi Abstract A summary of the resource. Ferrous based materials manufactured by powder metallurgy (P/M) method are widely used in industry. These materials are very important in applications where no machining is required, can also be used as journal bearing material due to their self-lubricated property, and find applications in the medical industry. In this study, powder metal parts were manufactured from composites ferrous based FeCu-Graphite by P/M method. Fatigue test samples were carried out on manufactured samples receiving no treatment or boronizing treatment or boronizing+shot treatment. Fatigue properties of these parts were investigated by rotating bending fatigue test rig. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22113fc3de192a7f7f0eeb9c280bb8e0.pdf f35b06ce45fdbfa1b04dffca9d96950a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Turkish Index and Subject Classification of the Words Used in Makbul-i Arif Şefika Yapici International Burch University, MA Student, Sarajevo sefikayapicibosna@hotmail.com Abstract: In this study, general information has been given about Makbul-i Arif (Witness of Potur)- Turkish-Bosnian Verse Dictionary-then the dictionary part was rearranged according to Turkish index. Bosnian counterparts are shown in Turkish index by taking into account the alphabetical order. The importance of this work is due to the fact that it has been the first and only Bosnian-Turkish verse dictionary ever. To classify the words used in this book is important to see the use of daily language. By classifying the word in glossary section according to subject classification, we tried to make more concrete words used in social and daily life in this century. Keywords: Bosnian-Turkish Verse Dictionary, Mehmet Hevai Üsküfi, Makbul-i Arif. Cultural Relations has begun after the conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Fatih Sultan Mehmet in 1463. And thus, Bosnia and Herzegovina has become an integral part of Ottoman history and it was adjusted to the Ottoman culture in all areas (education, culture, customs and traditions). The first studies of classical Turkish literature were presented in 15th century (Kaya, 2008). Bosnian literature until today has continued its existence in two ways; Turkish literature written with Ottoman letters and Bosnian literature written with Arabic letters. The language used in this literature (Alhamiyado Literature) is the language of former Bosnian colloquial language. In this area mostly eulogies, hymns and stories were written. Makbul-i Arif is considered as the first example of this area (Okumuş, 2009:824). There is no enough information about the life of Mehmet Hevai Üsküfi. Makbul-i Arif includes some information about the poet. The name of the poet is Mehmet (Muhammed) Bosnevi. He was born in1601in Dobrinja village near Donja Tuzla. Seems to have good education, Üsküfi knows Turkish, Arabic and Persian. It is clear from the verses in introduction part that he was in the service of Ottoman Palaces about 20 years and lived in the Sanjak of Zvornik for 10 years (Okumuş, 2009).Üsküfi’s most important work is Makbul-iArif (Potur Şahidi). It was written in 1631 and dedicated to IV. Murad. Üsküfi wrote Makbul-i Arif for the villagers. Later on ‘Mevlana’s Şahidi, Ibrahim Dede’, who transcribed this work, changed the name of the book as the Potur Şahidi probably inspired by the book Tuhfe-i Şahidi (Lugat-i Şahidi) in 1515 (Okumuş,2009:826). It seems that Makbul-i Arif, which was written in 17th century, is the first and only Turkish-Bosnian verse dictionary. One of the studies on Makbul-i Arif is the article of Alija Nametak (Nametak, 1968). In 2001 this article was published by Tuzla Dervish Susić Library. (F.Nametak, 2001). In this article, Alija Manetas established the life of Hevai and Bosnian poems, focused on existence of Bosnian words and critisized only the edition of the glossary. (Okumuş, 2009:827). Also a few scientific articles about Makbul-i Arif were published such as Mehmet Hevai Üsküfi by Nedim Filipović1, one article of Adnan Kadrić (Kadrić,2001) and dictionary studies of Kerime Filan (Filan,2000). Besides his verse dictionary, he has some poems. In his Bosnian poems, we can see the effect of especially Turkish, Arabic and Persian languages. There are mülemma featured poems, too. But none of them is known. Mostly he wrote lyrical poems and gave importance to the shape and content. Makbul-i Arif Mesnevis consist of two sections; Turkish introduction and dictionary6. In introduction part, after the formula (In the name of God), Hamdele and Salvele, it was mentioned shortly how the writer decided to write the poem, which method he used, Bosnian with Latin alphabet, thanksgiving and prayer for reaching Sultan Murat, giving name to his work and asking for prayers from the readers(Okumuş,2009:832). There is no epilogue in his work. In dictionary part, there are 13 poems and they are separated by Arabic titles. The poet has not followed the traditional methods and instead of giving bahir and meter of the poem, he used Turkish, Arabic, Persian and Bosnian counsel, verses and proverbs. Some of them are: ‘read, write, work hard and don’t be unfortunate ’, ‘do a favour, and don’t be cruel’, ‘the one who runs away is not brave’. From these statements we understand that one of the purposes is to give advice. When we focus on the words used in dictionary part, we can see most of them are about social life of that time. It was classified by Turkish index and subject classification(Okumuş,2009:833). 480 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Turkish Bosnian Dictionary As mentioned before Alija Nametak, who worked on Makbul-i Arif (Nametak, 1968), emphasized the existence of Bosnian words and prepared verse dictionary in Bosnian index. In this study we have re-prepared Makbul-i Arif in Turkish index. Baş :Glava Çakmak –ognjilo Başak: klâs Çalışmak:raditi A Acımak : žaliti Bay: Bogat, Bogati Çam ağaçı: Ad: ime Baykuş – sova Çamur :kal,kalu Adam :Čovjek Bazılmak: onesvijestiti se Çamura batmak : Adamın tırnak: nokat Behil –lakom Çanag : zdila Adet: običaj Benimdir --:on je moj Çanak kim ağaç olsa –:kotao Ağaç ibrik : žban Bereket –:korist Çarık –opanak Ağaçtan topuz: batina Beş – pet Çavdar – raz Ağız: usta Beş yüz --:pet stotina Çaylak:piljužin,poljuzin Ağlamak: plakati, plakat Beşik –kolijevka, Çekişmek –karati,karat Ağrır: bolyeti, boli kolivka,kilovga Çember – Ak: bilo Bez —postava,potav Çerge :koliba Akar: teče Bıçak –nož Çıban,Çıpan : čir Akıl: pametan Bıyık :Brk Çıbuk (çubuk) – prut Aksırmak: kihati, kihat Biç –kositi,kosi Çıfçı (çifçiye) : težak Aksi: glavnja Biçem –žito Çıkal : gocnovalj Al sende: uzeti Bin – hiljada Çınar :javor Alçak-nisko, nizoko Bine : uzjahati Çıplak : go , golo , pogresno Aldanmak Bir:jedan,jedno, kolo Alın :Čelo Bit : uš Çıra – :luč Altı: šest Biz (bize ) : šilo Çift:orati,ori Altın: zlato Bizim – Çilek:jagoda Altmış: šezdeset Boğulmak : utonuti Çit:plot Ana --mati, mama Borç – dug Çivi –:klin Anar: šipak Boyunduruk:jaram Çoban – govedar Araba: kola Böcek — puz Çömelmek, çöklemek: čučati, Ardıç: smreka Böyrülce --:pasulj čučat Arı(temiz):Čisto Böyüğe : velika D Armut: kruška Brebre sana, brebre sende – Dağ : gora Arpa: jecam :more ti Darı (tarı) :proso Aş ermesi :Ćuda Bucak –:kut Degismek :promijeniti,prominit At: konj Buga –:bik Değirmen:mlin Ates(e) : varta Bugün – danas, danaske Delik : šupalj Ateş –oganj Buğday : psenica Demet-- snop Ateşsiz kömür: ugljen Bulut –:oblak Deniz:more Atı nallatmak: Burun –nos Dere : rijeka Avcı –lovac Buz –led Deri:koža Avrat(kadın) : žena Buzak (buzağa) : tele Derin : dubok, duboko Ay –mjesec Bülbül – Slavic Deve:kamila Ayak –noga Büyüklenmek: ponositi se, Devlet : Ayı --medvjed, medved ponosit Diken : trn Ayıblamak -rugati se C Dikmek: sasiti Ayva: tunja Can : Duša Dil:jezik Cenat ; pucany Dilenci :prosjak B Baba : ćaća,čača Cennet : raj Dink (e) – stupa Baca: komin Cenneti : rajnik Dinlemek : ćutjeti ćuti, Bagça: vrt Ciharşenbe –srıjeda Dirlik : život Bağla – zavezati Cin – sotona Dirsek:lakat Bakır, bakra,bakara –:mjed,mid Cuca –:megaš(malesan) Diş : zub Bal :Med Cuma:petak Diyren : vile Bal mumina : vosak Cumartesi – subota Diz:koljeno,kolino Balığı satan : ribar Doğdu ; rodi Ç Balığı tutan – čaplja Çağırmak – vrečati Dökmak : tkati Balık, balığa –riba Çağırmak –zvećat Doksan : devedest 481 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Dokuz : devet Dolama(elbise) : haljina Don : gaće , gače Don yağı:loj Doyumluk : dobitak , dobit Dökmek:izbiti,izbit Dökümlü:otkati ili,utkati,Utkan Dört: Döşeğ : otelja Döyme(döğme): puca Dud:murva Dudak : usna Duman:magla Dur:ostati,ostani Düğün:babine (svadba) E El :ruka Elemye : vitao Elini salmak:mahati,mahat Elli:pedeset Elma :jabuka Elma atışmak :jabukati,jabukat En : sjahati Erkec :praz Esir – sužanj Eşek:magare Et :meso Etek : skut Ev :Kuča Ev işi : domaćin Evlenmek:oženiti,oženit Eyer : sedlo F Fakir : siromah Fal açmak : vračati Ferişte:anđel Feryad:jaukati,jaukat Fıçı :kaca,kadca Fındık:lješnik,lišnik Fırın:peć G Gebe kadın: zbana žena Gel, Gele : hoditi, hodi Gelin:nevjesta,nevesta Gemi:lađa Getir : donjeti, donesi Geydi:obući,obuče Geymek:obuti,obut Gezinmek : hodati, hodat Gir,gire:pesta,pusta Göbek : pupak Gökler:nebesa Göl:lokva Gömlek:košulja Güc:mučan,mučno Gügüm : trnjina Gül : ruzica Gülgen:bukva Gümüş—srebro Güneş – sunce Güreşmek, güreşmek :hrvati se , hrvat Güven : gagrica Güvercin : golub Güyeği : zet Guzel kari:lipo žena Güzel:lip,lipo, Sen güzel sen:lip si ti H Haber :glas Hisar : grad (tvrđava Haşhaş:mak Hafta:nedjelja(sedmica,tjedan) Hasta:nemoćan,nemočan Halveti : sam sidjet Hamur : tisto Harman . vršaj Heybet . Vučina Hıdır Hekim:ljekar,likar, Hamis : četvrtak I Irlamak(şarkı söylemek):pjevati,pjevat Isırgan :kopriva Đ Đki : dva Đki yuz :dva stotine , dvije stotine Đki kat : dvostruk , dvostdiruk , dvoruk Đğne :igla Đplik:konac Đnek ,inege:krava Đsık ,isek : prag Đncir – smokva Đpek : svila Đz : trag Đp : uže Đnlemek:ječati,ječat Đşlemek K Kaçan : kad Kaçar:bježati,biži Kafir adı:Kosta Kafir:kaur Kahpa kadın:kurva žena Kalın : debel Kanat:krilo Kancık, kancığa:kučka,kuča Kapı : vrata Kar:snijeg Kardaş:brat Karga : vrana Kadın: Karınca:mrav Kaş:obrva Kaşık:kaşıka 482 Kaşık çalmak:kusati,kusat Katı ivmek : htjeti, hitit , hijetit Katır:mazga Katlanmağa:počekati,počekat,p očekaj Kavun, : dinja Kayın : šura Kayn ana:punica Kayn ata:punac Kaz : guska Kazmak:kopati,kopat Keçi:koza Kedi kovmak:pis Kedi:mačka Kel : šuga Kelebek:leptir,lepur Keleposa::kappa Kuzu:janje Kabak : tikva Kuşluk:rucak Kuyu:jama Kuzgun :gavran Kuskun:pohva Kenevir:konoplja Keser : tesla Keten:lan Kılıç, kılıca :sablja Kılısa:crkva,cirkva Kilitlenmek : zaklopiti Kilitlenmek: zaključati Kim : tko Kirk : četrdeset Kisraga:kobila,kobil Kiz ,Kizi:kćer,kćeri,kćera Kız kardeş (e):sestra Kız,yetişmiş kıza:moma kuşku:poluga Kızıl:carevina,crven Koç:ovan Koca kari:baba Koca::muž Kök :korijen,korin Kolan:poprug Kolay:lastan,lasno konag(konuga),konak (konaga) : gost Konaklar oldı : častila Konukluklar : častenje, častena Köpeğin içmesine(eygine):lokati,lokat Köpek::pas Köprü:most Kör:slip Kori : gaj Kütük:panj Kovan : uljište Kovar : tjerati Köy:selo Köylü:potur(tj.seljak) �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Koyun,koyuna:njedra Koyun::ovca Koz(ceviz):orah Küçmak : grliti, grlit Küçük:malenko,malko Kul:ropce Kulak : uho Kulluğ(pepeo) Kurbağa: žaba Kurt : vuk Kürek:lopata(plećka) Kuruk:kožuh Kurum : ćađa,čađa,ćadža Kuşak:pojaš L Lahana turşu suyu :rasol Lahana:kupus Levent:junak Lobut : toljaga Luzan(yer adı):Luzan M Makrama : rucnik Mantar:pečurka,pečur Maşa:ožeg Makber :Grob Meryem:marija Maşraba:bukara Meşe : šuma Maymun(muymul):kobac Mızrak :Džida,džira Mızrak :koplje,kopje Mor:modar,modro Mum :svijeća Murver :zobita Musekkek altın : dukat Mühür:pečat N Nacak:bradva Nagamat etmek(bağırmak) :predikati,pridikat Nakış : vez Nahoş:bolestan Nal :potkov,podkov Nekbeti : zloćesto O Ocak:ognjište Odun : drvo, drva Oğlak:kozle Oğlan Oğul : sin Okşamak : štipati Okşamak:miloviti,milovat Olsun : tere Oluk : žlijeb Omuz :rame On :deset On bin :deset hiljada Oruçlar :post,postanje,postila Otlik: sijeno Otur : sjesti Otuz : trideset Oyun:igra Ö Öpmek:poljubiti,poljubit Ördek:pakta Örulu:platen Öfürmek(üfürmek) : puhat Ön saçina:kika,kafa Öğender:otsan Ölmiş:mrtav P Padişah:car Papaz:pop Parmak :prst Pazardune Pelid : hrastovina, astovina Pencer : prozor Pener,penir :sir Peri : Vila pire:buha Pire otu:paprat Pişer:peći,peće Pirinç : oruz R raf:polica S Saçlar:kose Sadaka vermek:podati,zadušupodat Sağ: desno Sağar:musti,muze Sağdık,Sağdıç : kum Sağır : gluh Sakal:brada Sakın : čuvati, čuvaj Sakız -- smova Saksağan : svraka Salı : utornik Salınmak : šetati Saman Sana benzer:kao,kano ti Sandık:kovčeg Sargısına.sargina:obojak Sarhoş:pijan Savurmak:izvijati,izvijat Say:izbrojiti,izbroj Sehi:blag sehil,ehli:pitom,pitomo Sekiz:osam Seksen:osamdeset Sel :potok Semiz :pretil Sen vur : udriti Senevber:jela Senin : tvoj, tvoje Serhad:krajina Sıçan:miš Sıçramak : skakati 483 Sihir : šurka Sinek:muha Sinir : žila Sırık,siriga:motka Sizin : vaš Soğan:luk Söğüt – vrba Sol:lijevo,livo Soğuk : zima Soyu sopu güzel kadin: Plemenit Soyun : rodbina Söyut,kara söğüt : rakita Söz : rijec Su : voda Sual etmek:pitati,pitat Süme,seme: zalud Süküt etmek : Sende Süpürge:metla Süpürsen Sürmek,zürek sürmek:litati, Litat Süt:mlijeko,mliko Satış yapmak:Trgovat Sarı : žut Sana benzer: Ş Şunu kal Şadır : šator Şahin –sokol Şalgam –repa Şarap : vino Şaşkın: mahnit,mahnito Şeftalu –praska Şerbet,şerbeti –medovina Şeytane : vražji Şimdi –sada Şlama T Tabut:nosilo Tahta biti – stjenica Tan yeri: zora Tan yıl ız : danica Tanrı:bog Tarak : grablje Tarla:njiva Tasma(ya):oputa,oput Taşak:mudo Tauk esmesine (ismesine) čeprkati Taul:bubanj Taun:kuga Tavsan:zeč Tavuk,tauga:kokoš Tay : ždrijebe Tazi : hrt (vrsta psa) Tekne :korito Tencere:kotlica �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Testere:pila Teyze : tetka Tilki:lisica Tırnak:kopito Tırpan:kosa Tez(acele etmek) : htjeti ,hitit Tohum :sjeme Top:lubarda Topal Tosun:june Toz ;prah Turna : ždral Turunç:narandža Tutrak : trud Tutun : dim, dima Tuz -- so, soli Tüfenk : puska U un:mlivo unutmak: yaboraviti uzun : uçmak:poletjeti,poleti Ü üvey kız:pastorka üç yüz : tri stotina üç : tri V velilik satan:prorok,brorog var (do) lan :prtljati Y Yabani Yağ:mast Yağmur:kiša Yak : užeći Yakın:blizu Yanmak : gorjeti , gori Yaprak:list Yaralı : ranjen Yarasa:babq(slijepi miš) Yarım: pola Yassı: širok Yaş ot: trava Yavuz: ljut Yay: luk Yedi: sedam Yel: vjetar, vitar Yem: zob Yeme: jesti, ne jedi Yen: rukav Yenge: kuma Yengeç : rak Yenmek:nadjačati,nadjačat Yeşil : zelen Yetmiş : yetmis Yıldırım : grom Yirmi : dvadeset Yoğurmak:kuhati,kuhat Yoğurt:kisela,(mlijeko) Yol : put Yol arası:međuput Yolcu : putnik Yorulmak : umoriti se Yulaf:ovas,ovsu Yumruk : šaka Yumuşak:mehak,mehko Yuriş Yuvarlanan top:kotur,(konur?) Yük : tovar Yüksek : visoko Yürek: trbuh Yürü: ići,idi Yüz -- sto Yüzmek: pliva Yüzük: prsten Z Zagar: vižle Zahid -- sofi Zalim: nakomica Zevle: teljig Zindan: tavnica Zulm:sil Classified Section In Makbul-i Arif (Potur Şahidi), after giving Bosnian meaning of the words, classified section is formed. While classifying the words, numbers, days, agriculture, livestock and livestock-related terms, human and human-related terms, religious terms, plants, fruits and vegetables, names of objects, colors, beverages and natural events are put in two groups. According to the subject classification of the words is as follows: Bin Kaynana On bin Kaynata Numbers Bir Çift Kız Đki Yarım Kız kardeş Üç Yetişmiş kız Dört Kardas Religious Terms Beş Bay Üvey kız Altı Cennet Akıl Yedi Cenneti Alın Sekiz Cin Ayak Dokuz Oruç Baş On Papaz Bıyık Yirmi Şeytan Burun Otuz Tanrı Dil Kırk Dilenci Elli Dirsek Human and Human-related Altmış El terms Yetmiş Ağız Gebe kadın Seksen Oğlan Göbek Doksan Yenge Hekim Yüz Oğul Kas Đki yüz Ana Kel Üç yüz Baba Kulak Beş yüz Kayın Omuz 484 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Parmak Saçlar Sağır Sakal Tırnak Topal Colors Ak Sarı Turuncu Yeşil Kızıl Eşya Đsimleri Altın Gümüş Đplik Kapı Mum Süpürge Pencere Maşa Yay Top Sırık Çanak Drinks Lahana turşusunun suyu Su Şalgam Şarap Süt Şerbet Days Bugün Salı Ciharşenbe (Çarşamba) Hamis (Perşembe) Cuma Cumartesi Hafta Animals and animal related terms Çoban At Arı (temiz) Atı nallatmak Ayı Bal Balık satan Balık tutan Balık Baykuş Böcek Bülbül Buzak Çaylak Deri Deve Eşek Et Güvercin Đnek Kanat Karga Karınca Katır Kaz Keçi Kedi Kedi kovmak Kelebek Koç Köpek Köpek içmesi Kovan Kurbağa Kurt Kuzu Maymun Oğlak Ördek Pire Saksağan Şahin Sıçan Sinek Tavşan Tavuk Tay Tazı Tilki Tahta biti Tosun Yengeç Turna Yem Isırgan Đncir Lahana Kavun Pirinç Soğan Söğüt Yaprak Arpa Çınar Meşe Koz Yaş ot Mantar Kenevir Nature-related terms Ateş Ay Dağ Deniz Dere Duman Gökler Göl Yağmur Yıldırım Kar Bulut Güneş Sel Yel Toz Fruits-Vegetables-Plants Armut Ayva Ağaç ibrik Bağça Elma Diken Çilek Çam ağacı Buğday Başak Tohum Kabak Fındık Gül 485 Adjectives Alçak Aksi Gebe kadın Güzel kadın Güzel Büyük Uzun Şaşkın Uzak Yakın Derin Verbs Acımak Ağlamak Dinlemek Đvmek Ağrımak Aksırmak Aldanmak Ayıblamak Bağlamak Bazilmak Büyüklenmek Çağırmak �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Çağırmak Çakmak Çalışmak Çekişmek Çömelmek Değiştirmek Dikmek Dikmek Doyumluk Dökmek Elin salmak Elma atışmak Evlenmek Fal açmak Getirmek Gezinmek Giymek Güreşmek Irlamak Đnlemek Đslemek Kaçar Kaşık çalmak Katlanmak Kazmak Kedi kovmak Kilitlenmek Kilitlenmek Kopeğin içmesine Kuçmak Ohşamak Öpmek Sadaka vermek Sakin Salınmak Savurmak Say Sıçramak Sual etmek Sukut etmek Sürmek Tavuk esmesine Üfürmek Yanardı Yeme Yenmek Yoğurmak Yoruldu Yuvarlanan top Yüzmek 486 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results: As a result of the classification; 1. Spoken language was preferred in the verse dictionary. 2. While choosing vocabulary social and economic structure of the age occupies primary importance. 3. The dictionary includes an important part of words concerning the daily life issues of the time such as livestock, fruits and vegetables, plants, nature and numbers. References Boşnakça Sözlük (2006) (Boşnakça-Türkçe, Türkçe-Boşnakça), hzl. Sahir Bayhan Ankara. Filan, Kerima (2005) O Jednom-Sporadıncnom Rukopısu na TurskomBosanskom ANALI Gazi Husrev- Brgove biblioteke u Sarajevu, KNJIGA XXI-XXII, Sarajevo Mehmed Hevâî Üsküfî (2001) Makbûl-i Arif (Potur Sahidiya), (Haz. Fehim NAMETAK), Tuzla Derviş Susiç Kütüphanesi Yayınları Muhamed Hevai Üsküfi,giriş:Nedim Filipovic,hzl.Muhammed Hukovic,Ahmed Kasumovic ve Ismet Smailovic,Univerzal,(Bosna- Hersek)Tuzla 1990 Nametak, Alija (1968) “Tursko-Hrvatskosrpski Rijecnici” Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnost, odjel za Filologiju, Zagreb 1968, s, 231-380. Okumuş, Sait (2009) “Muhammed Hevâi Üsküfi ve Türkçe-Bosnakca Manzum Sözlüğü Makbûl-i Arif (Potur Šahidi)”, Turkish Studies, International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 4/4 Summer Turska Leksika u Rijacniku Makbul-i Arifi Muhammeda Hevaija Uskufija”, ANALI, Gazi Husrev-Begove biblioteke u Sarajevu, KNJIGA XXIII-XXIV, 2005. 487 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 738 Title A name given to the resource The Turkish Index and Subject Classification of the Words Used in Makbul-i Arif Author Author Yapici, Sefika Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, general information has been given about Makbul-i Arif (Witness of Potur)- Turkish-Bosnian Verse Dictionary-then the dictionary part was rearranged according to Turkish index. Bosnian counterparts are shown in Turkish index by taking into account the alphabetical order. The importance of this work is due to the fact that it has been the first and only Bosnian-Turkish verse dictionary ever. To classify the words used in this book is important to see the use of daily language. By classifying the word in glossary section according to subject classification, we tried to make more concrete words used in social and daily life in this century. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f2c32dda8270814eac5929226185212.pdf 076280a8696401d30f72f12308ecceb3 PDF Text Text Effects of Various Fibres in a Thin Biocomposite Material Semiha Yenidoğan Marmara University Faculty of Technical Education Department of Printing, Goztepe Campus Goztepe, Istanbul, Turkey,, semihayavuz@marmara.edu.tr Cem Aydemir Marmara University Faculty of Technical Education Department of Printing, Goztepe Campus Goztepe, Istanbul, Turkey,, cemaydemir@marmara.edu.tr Arif Karademir Kahramanmaras Sutcuimam University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Product Engineering Bahcelievler Campus Kahramanmaras, Turkey arifkarademir@yahoo.com Abstract: There are a number of methods for producing biocomposite materials for different purposes. Wet lying methods are widely used in utilising especially short cellulosic fibres which offers random mixing and formation of homogenous filtrate over a travelling web. The method also contains wet pressing and controlled drying stages for achieving maximum fibrefibre bonding. Fibres having different chemical compositions and physical properties behave differently in moving/draining suspensions which often give bad formation and heterogeneity in produced materials. Nevertheless, various fibres with different desirable properties are required to be finely blended in a suspension for getting targeted materials. This study investigated the effects of various fibres in a thin cellulosic material. It was aimed to see the possibility of using some short fibres, regarded as waste materials, in producing thin cellulosic matrix. Keywords: Waste fibres, wet formation, cellulosic composites, tensile strength. Introduction Paper is probably one of the oldest thin biocomposite, the production of which is dated back to 105 BC. Tsua Lun, a Chinese scholar, initially boiled ramie, hemp and also later the inner bark of mulberry tree (kozo) to liberate the fibres. The pulp slurry, diluted fibre suspensions, was originally filtrated on a coarsely woven cloth and dried in the sun. The cooked rice water was also added into pulp slurry and/or applied to the surface of dried sheet to impart strength. The main principal in papermaking is actually not so changed since its first invention, but the technological movements are tremendous. Today, some modern papermills run at a speed of 120 Km/hour. The demand for raw materials is also fundamentally changed which forced the papermakers to search some alternative fibre resources as it was only nonwoody plants, waste robs and fabric before twentieth century. It was around 1850’ies when paper industry had to turn to forests and woods as main fibre resources. Since then, the demand for paper and many paperbased products has been increasingly growing. The types of paperbased products are also remarkably increased compared to its early use. The paper is in all parts of our daily life now (Kocurek, 1983; Smook, 1992). Currently, paper recycling and search for alternative fibre resources take great attentions from industry and scientists. The waste paper recycling is reported to supply around 42 percent of world pulp demand. Pulp made from non-woody plant is unfortunately recorded to be only 4 percent of total world pulp consumption (Hurter and Riccio, 2006). The figure was quite big and significant in some parts of the world in the past. In Chine and India, for instance, wastes from agricultural activities were utilised to produce up to 73 and 56 percent of countries total pulp consumption respectively for some time ago (Tutus and Karademir, 2002). There have 787 �been numerous studies published on subjects dealing with the optimum pulping conditions of alternative fibre sources for paper making (Sharifah and Ansell, 2004; Tutus and Eroglu, 2004; Copur, Tozluoglu and Karademir 200). In the papermaking process, huge amount of water is used. System actually works with water as the paper is simply made through wet formation. In terms of formation quality, the behaviour of fibres and other ingredients in slurry are crucially important. Homogenous distribution of components in the slurry should be maintained. Mechanical properties of end-products depend on the both fibre strength and interfiber bond strength (I’Anson et al, 2006). Some dry and wet strength additives are used to produce stronger paper. In this study, some alternative fibrous materials (ceramic fibres, wools, wastes from yarn production and cotton dust) were used in the production of a thin board as biocomposite. The main focus was given on the changes of sheet strength. The findings are thought to offer useful information to those working in similar areas. Experimental Materials and Methods Fibres Ceramic fibres, wool, yarn wastes and cotton dusts were used as alternative papermaking materials in this study. The control sample and main matrix with blend of alternative fibres was made of pulp obtained from old corrugated board. Materials were firstly cut in 3 cm length, soaked in water overnight and beaten for 2 minutes in a PFI mill in accordance with Tappi T 248 sp-08 method. Cotton dust was not beaten as it was already in quite small sizes. Handsheets Making and Testing Pulp slurries were prepared at % 0,5 consistency and control sheet was made from pulps of old corrugated boxes at a grammage of 100 g/m2 according to Tappi 205 sp-95 method. Alternative pulps used were blended with control pulp at %15 and %30 levels and various thin biocomposites were produced by wet formation. Sheets were conditioned in accordance with Tappi T 402 om-88 method at 23±2°C and 65±2% relative humidity for at least 24 hours before testing. The tests done to determine some physical properties of sheets were tabulated with relevant standards as below (Table 1). Tests Standarts Beating/Pulping Tappi T 248 sp-08 (PFI method) Handsheet making TAPPI T 205 sp-95 Paper Conditioning TAPPI T 402 om-88 Air permeability (ml/min) TAPPI T 460 Tensile index (Nm/g) TAPPI T 494 om-88 Breaking length (m) TAPPI T 404 om-87 Burst index (kPam2/g) TAPPI T 403 om-91 Table 1: Tests and methods followed during papermaking and analysing. Results Pulp Suspension and Sheet Formation Fibres from softwoods are named as long fibres while those obtained from hardwoods are regarded as short fibres. Length of long and short fibres would be on average 3 mm and 1.5 mm respectively. Long fibres contribute sheet strength while short fibres give smoother and denser sheets. It is known that long fibres tend to get entangled and form floks of big fibre groups in a suspension at a higher speed compared to those of short 788 �fibres. Therefore, the consistency of long fibre suspension must be adjusted at quite low level to be able to have a well distributed stock, hence a good formation. It is noted that all fibres used in this study negatively affected pulp suspensions giving cloudy apperance and heterogenous clumpy fibre groups. Alternative fibres were actually beaten to get an extra fibrillated surface that was in favour of homogenous suspension and also stronger sheets. Differences between fibres such as density, wettability, length, physical structure gave heterogenous suspension. Cotton dust was noted to be well mixed with control pulp out of all studied here. It was attributed to the smaller fraction of cotton dusts and similar structures to wood fibres. The effects of fines like cotton dust were studied by some researchers in details (Retulainen et al, 2002; Lin et al, 2007; Xu and Pelton, 2005). Ceramic fibres were broken down to filler after mechanical action in a lab disintegrator hence were used like fillers. Air Permeability Addition of alternative materials in controlled pulps resulted in significant reductions of sheet air resistance as seen in figure 1. Ceramic fibres in the form of filler were noted to reduced air resistance lower then all other materials. Wool fibres on the other hand remarkably reduced the air resistance of sheets. Result suggests that all materials added to control pulp disturbed the formation quality of sheets. The higher air resistance value of control sheet indicates the firm and dens fibre matrix. Whereas the structure seems to be loosen up and become fluffy as a result of especially wool addition. Wool fibres probably interfered with wood fibre bonding and made them in a sense separated giving a permeable material. 2800 Cotton Dust Air Permeability (ml/min) Ceramic Fibre 2300 Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 1800 1300 800 300 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 1: Fibres added increased the air permeability. Mechanical Properties Tensile index, breaking length and burst index values of all sheets were plotted in figure 2, 3 and 4 respectively. As it is clearly seen in figures, the addition of alternative materials studied here dramatically reduced the mechanical strength of resultant products. It is believed that the alternative fibres did not develop any significant internal bonds between both themselves and fibres of control papers. Furthermore, they actually interfered with fibre-fibre bonding. 789 �30 Cotton Dust Ceramic Fibre Tensile Index (Nm/g) 25 Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 20 15 10 5 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 2: Tensile index was badly damaged with fibre blends. Out of all materials studied here, the highest reduction in sheet strength was noted with the addition of wool fibres. Negative effect on strength by the addition of cotton dust was recorded to be smallest compared to the changes due to other fibres. Differences between the effects of yarn fibre and cotton dust were believed to be mainly due to the particle sizes. The chemical composition of both yarn and cotton dust are not so different since they are compost of almost pure cellulose molecules. The sizes, however, were significantly different as yarn was made of long cotton fibres and cotton dust was quite small in sizes as such it can be regarded as fine in a real papermaking environment. There are various reports on the effects of different fines on paper strength (Retulainen et al, 2002; Lin et al, 2007; Xu and Pelton, 2005). Fine improves paper smoothness and air resistance if retained and evenly distributed in paper structure. It may develop paper strength too if it has plenty hydroxyl groups. Cotton dust in this case did not improve the sheet strength. It suggests that the bond strength between fibres in control pulp were greater than that developed between both cotton dusts and fibres in controlled sheets. 3500 Cotton Dust 3000 Ceramic Fibre Breaking Length (m) Yarn Wastes 2500 Wool Fibre 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 % Fibre Blend 790 45 �Figure 3: Fibre blending reduced the breaking length in a great deal. Cotton Dust 1.80 Ceramic Fibre Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 2 Burst Index (kPam /g) 1.55 1.30 1.05 0.80 0.55 0.30 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 4: Fibre blending destroyed the burst index value of control sheet. Wood fibres from softwood and hardwoods have been extensively used in the production of paper, board and fibreboards in wet forming system. The strength of end products depends on both the strength of individual fibres and interfiber bond strength. The latter is governed by the amount of hydrogen bonds to be developed between fibres during pressing and especially drying stages (I’Anson et al, 2006). Therefore fibres having ability to form hydrogen bonds can contribute strength of end products. It would be said that the materials used in this study did not produce enough hydrogen bonds either between themselves or between fibres of controlled pulp. In such situation, extra bond enhancer must be used such as starches, resins and bonding agents. Conclusion Four materials, ceramic fibres, wool, yarn wastes and cotton dusts were studied to find out if they may be used in the production of thin biocomposites like paper, board and fibreboard in wet lying system. The materials were blended with control pulps at two proportions as %15 and %30 and a number of sheets were formed. Attention was especially given to the changes of mechanical properties of sheets as a result of material blending. It was in general found that all material used here remarkably changed the sheet properties. The sheets air resistance and three mechanical strength values were greatly reduced. It is suggested that in order to increase the formation quality of blended pulps, the fibres should be made in similar sizes. Dry strength agents must be also used if the mechanical strength properties are important for end users of such products. Acknowledgement This research was partly carried out under the Project (No:2003/2-7) granted by Kahramanmaraş Sutcuimam University (KSU), Kahramanmaras, Turkey. Authors sincerely thank to KSU for this support. References Copur, Y., Tozluoglu, A. and Karademir, A. (2007). Pulping of Licorice (Glycyrrhiza Glabra): An Alternative Raw Material to Produce Pulp. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology, 41 (2-3), 155-159. 791 �Hurter, R. W. and Riccio, F.A. (2006).Why CEOS Don’t Want to Hear About Nonwoods or Should They?. Nonwood Fiber Symposium, TAPPI Proceedings, Atlanta, USA. 1-11. I’Anson, S. J., Karademir A. and Sampson, W. W. (2006). Specific Contact Area and The Tensile Strength of Paper. Appita Journal, 59 (4), 297-301. Kocurek, M. (1983). Pulp and Paper Manufacture, Volume 1, Properties of Raw Materials and Their Preparation for Pulping, Ed. Kocurek, M. Joint Textbook Commitee of The Paper Industry, TAPPI, Georgia. Lin, T., Yin, X., Retulainen, E., and Nazhad, M. M. (2007). Effect of Chemical Pulp Fines on Filler Retention and Paper properties. Appita Journal, 60 (6), 469-473. Retulainen, E., Luukko, K., Fagerholm, K., Pere, J., Laine, J., and Paulapuro, H. (2002). Papermaking Quality of Fines From Different Pulps-The Effect of Size, Shape and Chemical Composition. Appita Journal, 55(6), 457-461. Sharifah H.Z. and Ansell M.P. (2004). The Effect of Alkalization and Fiber Alignment on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Kenaf and Hemp Bast Fiber Composites: Part 1-Polyester Resin Matrix. Journal of Composite Science and Technology, (64), 1219-1230. Smook, G.A. (1992). Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technologists, Angus Wilde Publication, Vancouver. Tutuş, A. and Eroglu, H. (2004). A Practical Solution to the Silica Problem in Straw Pulping. Appita Journal, 56 (2), 111-115. Tutuş, A. and Karademir, A., (2002). Production of Paper and Boards from the Agricultural Wastes Generated in Southeast Anatolian Project Area (GAP), Proceeding of 4th GAP Engineering Congress, Volume:2, Sanlıurfa, Turkey. 1327-1332. Xu, Y., and Pelton, R. (2005). A New Look at How Fines Influence the Strength of Filled Papers. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 31 (3), 147-152. 792 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 629 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Various Fibres in a Thin Biocomposite Material Author Author Yenidoğan, Semiha Aydemir, Cem Karademir, Arif Abstract A summary of the resource. There are a number of methods for producing biocomposite materials for different purposes. Wet lying methods are widely used in utilising especially short cellulosic fibres which offers random mixing and formation of homogenous filtrate over a travelling web. The method also contains wet pressing and controlled drying stages for achieving maximum fibrefibre bonding. Fibres having different chemical compositions and physical properties behave differently in moving/draining suspensions which often give bad formation and heterogeneity in produced materials. Nevertheless, various fibres with different desirable properties are required to be finely blended in a suspension for getting targeted materials. This study investigated the effects of various fibres in a thin cellulosic material. It was aimed to see the possibility of using some short fibres, regarded as waste materials, in producing thin cellulosic matrix. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/168472ae4c541ef22fe0afad692ef67e.pdf 960f51b64e4a8e44d7581572d4736553 PDF Text Text The Greening Desert Of Karapinar: An Example from Turkey Ali Ihsan Yildirim Soil and Water Resources Research Institute Laboratory Agricultural Engineer, Meram, KONYA-Turkey alyld@hotmail.com Aysen Akay Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Soil Science,Campus Konya-Turkey aakay@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract:In Turkey, there is an area of 465.913 hectares which is subject to wind erosion. 103.000 hectares of this area is in the Karapınar district of Konya province. The Karapınar district of Konya faced the risk of emigration in the 1960s because of reasons such as that the region was an old lake bed and the climate of the region was extremely hot, soil properties etc. The soils lost their yield capacity, the dunes rose, clouds of dust and sand storms made life difficult for the people living in the area as the result of erosion in that period. Because of these problems, the first studies started in 1962. An area of 160.000 decares was taken under control. As the result of approximately 47 years of improvement practice, which constitutes the topic of this paper, today, activities aimed at research and production are also being maintained in Karapınar. Key Words: Desert, dune, improvement practice, sand storms, wind erosion. Introduction Agriculture is practiced on the 28 million hectares of the 78 million hectares total area of Turkey. The lack of the development of a sustainable agricultural policy and the human effect have caused a decrease in organic matter, resulted in the loss of soil aggregation and the dispersion of soil structure, and also, together with bad climatic effects, caused the occurrence of wind erosion in cultivated areas. Wind erosion in Turkey is commonly seen within the borders of Konya, Niğde, Kayseri province, which is located in the southern part of Central Anatolia, and Kars province in the east, both of which are areas under the effect of an arid and semiarid climate (Anonymous 2007). Karapınar county of Konya is located in the most arid region of Turkey with the lowest precipitation; consequently, it is most affected by aridity and desertification. For this reason, the first disaster related to the problems of aridity, climatic change and desertification experienced in our country occurred in this region. In Turkey, wind erosion is observed as a problem varying from light to severe on an inland dune area of 465.913 hectares. Approximately 70% (322.474 hectares) of this area is located within the borders of Konya province (Anonymous 1975), and 103.000 hectares of this area are located in the Karapınar district of Konya. This area constitutes the 22.1% of the area of wind erosion throughout the country (Yıldırım 1999). Reasons for the Occurrence of Wind Erosion in Karapınar In the 1960s, the people living in the Karapınar district of Konya were at risk of emigrating from the region as the result of the wind erosion that occurred in that period. There is an inland dune in the South-Southwest of the district which covers an area of 4000 hectares. 546 �The soils lost their yield capacity and sand dunes occurred as the result of erosion; it was observed that clouds of dust rose and cars on the Konya-Adana Highway were dragged and the paint of the cars was totally or partially damaged. Children could not go to school because of sand storms, machines did not work, and the incidence of ear-nose-throat diseases increased among the people. Winds that cause erosion in this region blow from the South-Southwest, and it was determined that the wind speed reached 110 km/h in the month of March in 1962(Anonymous 2007). We can list the primary factors that cause wind erosion to be effective in the region as follows: This region was an old lake bed, therefore, the lake dried and the dunes that were on the base of the lake rose to the surface, the climate of the region is extremely hot and arid, animal husbandry was highly common and excessive grazing was practiced in the pastures, some plants (Astragalus micracophalus,Salvia cryptantha, Verbascum mucronatum ) which the animals did not like but supported the soil were pulled out by the people and used as fuel, pastures were destroyed, the use of disk ploughs which overturned and broke the soil increased erosion in the region where fallow-cereal rotation system was implemented, and the district is located in an active wind zone. Characteristics of the Wind Erosion Area of Karapınar Karapınar is located on Konya-Adana Highway and is 95 km from Konya. The population of Karapınar is 31.913 according to the 2007 census. The altitude of the district is 995 m above sea level and its area is 3030 km2. Geological Characteristics: In Central Anatolia, there are several sand beds located near Karapınar. The dune systems were altered during the late Pleistocene and Holocene period. The main dune system located in the south of Karapınar was formed as the result of the coastal winds that were caused by the withdrawal of the old lake. The climate changes that occurred during the Holocene period caused the sand to move inland, afterwards, sand movements started as the result of human activity (such as extreme pasturage, becoming poor of soil) (Demiryürek et al. 2007). Climate Characteristics: The climate of the region is semiarid; summers are arid and hot, and winters are cold and snowy. The large part of the snowfall occurs in January and February. The annual average precipitation is 275 mm, and 40% of the precipitation falls in the months of winter. The average precipitation from July to September is 15 mm. Long term climate values of the study area are given in Table 1. The annual precipitation for 2008 is 232.1 mm (Anonymous 2009). Months Climate data I Mean Temp. o C -1.8 II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII -0.8 4.2 11.1 14.8 18.7 22.4 22.1 17.2 11.0 5.9 0.4 Max Temp.oC 19.6 20.5 25.5 31.4 36.0 36.8 41.2 38.4 36.2 33.2 25.3 18.4 Min. Temp. oC -21.4 -26.8 -22.8 -8.0 -2.3 3.1 5.0 4.5 -3.3 -6.4 -15.0 -21.2 Precipitation (mm) 29,9 27,6 28,5 39,6 38,9 25,5 4,6 2,7 7,5 22,6 27,5 39,5 Moisture (%) 78 75 69 62 62 53 48 47 51 63 75 79 Mean wind speed (m/sec) 2.97 3.21 3.36 3.31 2.66 2.92 3.29 3.09 2.46 2.34 2.61 2.86 Wind Max direction and speed ( m/sec ) SSW 27.3 SW 29.0 SSW 28.8 SSW 32.7 NNW 23.1 ENE 23.0 NNW 20.2 NNE 28.0 S 32.0 NW 19.8 SSW 21.8 SSW 27.7 Table 1. Long term climate values of the study area (between 1983-2006 years) (Anonymous 2009) 547 �In the erosion area of Karapınar, the most important factor that affects erosion is the wind, and the dominant direction of the wind is north-east and south-west. Mean wind speed is between 2.34 - 3.36 m/sec. Stormy days are common and the wind speed reaches 20-32 m/sec on those days (Table 1). Soil Characteristics :Although the soil belongs to the group of alluvial soils which is formed over old lake deposits, colluvial, sierozem and regosol soil groups are also seen in Karapınar, where wind erosion studies are conducted. The soil color of the plow layer is light gray and light brown and the lower parts are pale yellow and white. The soil texture is generally light (loamy sand) in the top soil, and heavy (clay) in lower layers. Soils are rich in lime and potassium and poor in organic matter and phosphorus. Some characteristics of the study area soils are given in Table 2. Dept h (cm) San d (%) 0-15 68.1 15-30 57.2 30-60 31.0 60-90 16.0 90120 12.5 Silt (%) 15. 1 22. 7 28. 0 24. 4 42. 3 Cla y (%) Textur e Class Field capacit y (mm) Volum e weight (g/cm3) pH (1/2.5 ) EC(mmhos/cm ) (1/2.5) 25oC 16.6 SL 23.3 1.10 8.1 20.1 SCL 32.9 1.09 43.0 C 79.6 59.6 C 45.2 SiC (%) Organic matter (%) 0.62 44.7 1.9 8.1 0.45 48.6 1.6 1.01 8.2 0.45 53.5 1.5 88.6 1.06 8.3 0.85 54.6 1.3 85.7 1.18 8.0 1.10 53.3 1.2 CaCO 3 Table 2. Some characteristics of the study area soils (Anonymous 2009) Studies Conducted to Improve Problematic Areas The first step taken against erosion in the district was establishing an association with the name “Association for Saving Karapınar from Erosion” in 1959. Afterwards, studies were started by Mülga Topraksu (the Directorate General of Agriculture) in 1962. First, a team was formed of technical personnel and an area of 160.000 decares was taken under control by being enclosed with wire fence.Then, 30.000 decares of this area was assigned to the Armed Forces to be used for military purposes. The remaining 130.000 decares area was divided into four sections based on the problems observed. Soil improvement practices started on this area considering the degree of the problem. Mülga Konya Topraksu VI. Region Management (The Directorate General of Agriculture) maintained its studies continuously for 10 years and when the improvement studies were completed, the area was assigned to Konya Institute of Soil and Water Research Directorate in 1973 to be used for protection control, research and production studies.Today, 43.000 decares of this land is given back to farmers and studies are continued in the 87.000 decares under the control of the government (Yıldırım 1999). The studies conducted on these areas are as follows: Sand Dunes (Dune Barkhan) Area(40.000 decares):This area is located to the south west of the district 7 km from Karapınar. The size of the area is 40.000 decares. The severest erosion effects were observed in the area in the 1960s. Sand dunes with heights of 41 m, widths of 50 m and lengths of 240 m, which are shaped like the moon and completely look like a desert, have been formed in the area. These dunes are inclined at a rate of 517% to the direction of the wind and 20-48% to the other directions. The dunes in this area have the characteristics of moving with the lightest wind. The dunes that move with the effect of the strong winds started to threaten the district by digging up the Ketir Hill, which is covered with 15 hectares of basalt rocks. The improvement study conducted on this area was carried out in two subsequent stages. a.Physical measures Construction of Bamboo Screens: First, bamboo screens were constructed on the sand dunes in order to decrease the speed of the wind and prevent the movement of the sand. These bamboo screens were woven with two lines of wires running perpendicular to the blowing direction of the wind leaving parts of 40 cm uncovered at the top and bottom tips. During the fixing process, the screens were supported with wooden posts at every two meters in order to prevent the collapse of the screens with the effect of the wind. 548 �b.Cultural measures Grassing: After the bamboo screens were constructed and the speed of the wind and the movement of the sand completely stopped, the process of grassing the spaces between the screens started. Weed seeds collected from the pastures around the region were used in grassing the area and also rye (Secale sp.) and wheat grass (Agropyron elongatum), which are known to be resistant to aridity and hot conditions, were extensively used as crop plants. Afforestation: After the area between the bamboo screens was grassed, afforestation studies started as a long lasting precaution in order to completely prevent soil movements. Saplings obtained from the nursery gardens established in the area and from other regions were planted and grown between these screens. The types of trees selected for afforestation were oleaster(Eleagnus sp.L), acacia(Robinia pseudeaccacia), ashen(Fraxinus sp.L), elm(Ulmus sp.L) and maple(Acer sp.L) since they are trees which are resistant to aridity peculiar to the area. The Active Dune(Barkhan) Area(25.000 decares):There were some plants peculiar to the region which were not eaten by animals and were resistant to aridity on this area, which was known to be a high quality pasture a long time ago. Dunes have accumulated around these plants and formed hills with heights of 0.3-1.2 m and widths of 0.2-2.00 m. The inclination of these hills is 30-60% to the direction of arrival of the wind, and 5-19% to the direction of the wind. These plants are Salvia cryptantha, Astragalus micracophalus, Alhagi camalorum and Artemisia sp. .Such areas were enclosed with wire fences during the implementation of the improvement practices. Following the enclosing process, the existing plants were reproduced through self-pollination and other plants were reproduced through grafting. As the result of the studies, today, the soil is completely covered with vegetation and natural flora has been reestablished. Flat Soils Sensitive to Erosion(26.000 decares):This area is composed of agricultural lands on which no vegetation exists, and which was formerly used for dry farming and abandoned because of erosion. 14.000 decares of this area are privately owned lands where erosion prevention practices have been successfully performed and the owners have resettled. Agricultural activities are still being carried out on this area under the control of the government. Today, agriculture is performed through band seeding along paths of 40-60 m width vertical to the prevailing wind direction on the 10.000 decares of the remaining land and fallow-cereal rotation system is implemented, as is done under the conditions of Central Anatolia.Approximately 2.000 decares of land has been irrigated and vineyards and orchards peculiar to the region have been planted on the land. This part of the area is used as a demonstration site for fruit production, and there are also nursery gardens and pasture seed production facilities in the area. Ketir Hill (10.000 decares):Before the implementation of improvement practices, this area was covered with basalt boulders and there were not any trees on the hill. After the erosion studies were conducted and sand movements were stopped, plants such as blackthorn, wild almond and blackberry started to grow on the area. Furthermore, almond seeds (700.000 pieces) were planted on the foot of the hill during the practices. Currently, pine and cedar trees are being planted on the hill. Current Land Use Planning The following improvement practices are implemented on the remaining 87.000 decares of land, which is under the government control: The areas where the problem has reemerged are afforested, practices are performed for the trial of new irrigation techniques, the activity areas of newly drilled wells are widened, and new orchards and sapling production practices are established. The current status of land use is as follows (Table 3): 549 �Status of Land Usage Woodland area Basaltic area Vineyard, garden, orchards and sampling generation areas Nature grass pasture Band seeding(dry cultivation ) Watery cultivation Total Area(decares) 40.000 10.000 2.000 25.000 5.000 5.000 87.000 Table 3. The current status of land use(Anonymous 2009) The plants that were determined in the study conducted on the approximately 30.000 decares of pasture area which is under protection in Karapınar Station of Soil and Water Resources Research Institute are as follows: Festuca ovina (29.8%), Centaurea virgata (17.6%), Euphorbia kotschyana (10,1%), Alhagi pseudalhagi (5,9%), Astragalus microcephalus (5,0%), Scabiosa argentea (4,6%), Scorzonera cana (3,4%), Centaurea urvillei (3,4%) and several other plants at smaller rates (TAGEM 2007). With these plants, the pasture area has acquired the characteristics of a typical arid climate pasture. Conclusion As the result of the studies conducted to prevent the Karapınar District from being moved to another location, the problem has been solved at a cost less than almost a quarter of the moving cost. The project is highly important in terms of presenting the new agricultural techniques to the farmers living in the region and increasing the agricultural value of the land by means of new irrigation wells and canals. Previously, the project area often caused traffic jams and accidents over an 8 km part of the Karapınar Highway when strong winds blew. All of these problems have been solved as the result of the erosion prevention practices. A farmer training camp was organized within the project studies and the workers of the farms were trained on irrigated and dry farming. Groundwater surveys that were conducted at the start of the project studies were found to be favorable and the wells drilled based on these surveys were used for sapling production and irrigated farming. Today, the number of wells is over 5000. Beet-wheat crop rotation system has started under irrigated conditions. Animal feed products such as clover and trefoil, vegetables, fruit, even strawberry is produced in the area. A forestland of 4000 hectares covered with trees has been a good shelter for wild animals (such as fox,rabbit, grouse and nightingale) . Acknowledgment Authors thank to Dr.Cetin Palta and Agr.Engineer Mustafa Okur from Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya for contributions. References Anonymous (1975).Bulletin of Topraksu statistics , Köyişleri ve Kooperatifler Bakanlığı, Topraksu Genel Müdürlüğü. Ankara (in Turkish). Anonymous (2007).Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, General Directorate of Agricultural Research, Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya ,Yeşeren Çöl Karapınar”(in Turkish). Anonymous (2009).Republic of Turkey,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,General Directorate of Agricultural Research, Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya -2009 data.(unpublished). Demiryürek , M., Okur, M. and Taysun , A.(2007).Karapınar rüzgar erozyon sahasında rüzgarla hareket eden sediment miktarı ile yüksekliğinin yıl içerisinde dağılımı ve toprak özellikleriyle kuru agregatlar arasındaki ilişki üzerine mevsim etkisi. 550 �Proje No:Tagem-BB-Topraksu-2007/30, Republic of Turkey,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,General Directorate of Agricultural Research,Konya (in Turkish). TAGEM (2007).Ulusal Mera Kullanım ve Yönetim Projesi(in Turkish). Yıldırım, A.I.(1999).The Greening Desert Karapinar. in Cereal Symposium, June 8-11,1999, Konya, pp.440-448(in Turkish). 551 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 599 Title A name given to the resource The Greening Desert Of Karapinar: An Example from Turkey Author Author Yildirim, Ali Ihsan Akay, Aysen Abstract A summary of the resource. In Turkey, there is an area of 465.913 hectares which is subject to wind erosion. 103.000 hectares of this area is in the Karapınar district of Konya province. The Karapınar district of Konya faced the risk of emigration in the 1960s because of reasons such as that the region was an old lake bed and the climate of the region was extremely hot, soil properties etc. The soils lost their yield capacity, the dunes rose, clouds of dust and sand storms made life difficult for the people living in the area as the result of erosion in that period. Because of these problems, the first studies started in 1962. An area of 160.000 decares was taken under control. As the result of approximately 47 years of improvement practice, which constitutes the topic of this paper, today, activities aimed at research and production are also being maintained in Karapınar. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b2c8a12b6d48bb7ad00144ca56525bb2.pdf 59089037fce68ea27046c93f45ccedf4 PDF Text Text Integrated Water Resources Management: A Path to Achieving Sustainable Development Mehmet Ali Yurdusev Department of Civil Engineering, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey yurdusev@bayar.edu.tr Tekin Tezcan Department of Civil Engineering, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey tekin.tezcan@bayar.edu.tr Abstract: Water resources development is one of the most important national development factors for developing countries whereas it is a service sector issue in developed countries. Water management has become one of the conflict areas as the demand for water increases while the resources available degrade. As a solution to this, integrated water resources management has been proposed to make tradeoffs among the parties involved. This article discusses the issues of integrated water resources management with its possible links with sustainable development. Introduction Water resources management comprises a series of water-related activities including developing water resources schemes for beneficial and protective purposes and managing the system effectively based on both supply and demand considerations. From beneficial point of view, water resources development deals with the promotion of necessary infrastructure elements to bring the water in nature to where it is to be used. Thus, it requires huge investment as it is quite large in scale and time consuming. The development side of water resources management is referred to as source management. The need for protection from the excess water, namely flood, has also resulted in the development of large flood control schemes. As such, water resources development has been one of the most important factors for the national developments of the countries. This is still true for the developing countries where the water resources have not yet fully developed. On the other hand, it is one of the issues of service sectors in developed countries and has lost its impact on the development of those countries. Operational side of water resources management has two dimensions. One is the real operation of the system developed to sustain water supply for the use for a variety of purposes including drinking, irrigation and power generation. The other is the management of the demand for water, namely demand management, which comprises a series of activities to encourage or sometimes to force people to use less water to achieve more efficient use of water in service. The demand management issue may be shadowed in developing countries as they are still trying to develop their water resources for irrigation, power generation and even drinking. It can be seen, however, it is much more popular in developed countries as their main concern is the efficient management of their already developed water resources. In so-called developed countries, water management issue has become one of the conflict areas as the water demanding sectors, namely stakeholders, have increased with also increased quantities as opposed to the degrading resources available to use. Therefore, integrated water resources management concept has long been spelled as a compromising tool to achieve an acceptable solution for the parties involved. If achieved, this would present an efficient regulation of a large portion of national economies of the states as water resources management covers quite a large variety of activities as mentioned previously. This article discusses the issues of integrated water resources management with its possible links with sustainable development with the brief discussions related to both sustainable development and integrated water resources management. 352 �Sustainable Development Any article on sustainable development (SD) cannot disregard mentioning the first and the most widely accepted definition given by the so-called Brundtland Report (Brundtland, 1987) as follows: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Since the Brundtland Commission first defined the concept of sustainable development, much discussion has been made on the concept on scientific, technical, economical and even political platforms. From the overtwenty-year SD history, it could be possible to find many other definitions for it. Above all, it can be regarded as a reaction to what it may be called “wild development” that had been observed before. The aim was to transform the wild nature of development into the one that was acceptable by the weak. The weak are the society including the future generations and the ecology. Therefore, an acceptable development, e.g. sustainable development, should consider and integrate the social, environmental and economic issues as depicted in (Fig. 1) (The President’s Council on Sustainability, 2010). As shown in (Fig. 1), a development considering social and environmental issues could be bearable; the one with social and economic considerations could be equitable and the solution with environmental and economic ones could be viable. However, if it is to be sustainable, it should consider social, economic and environmental issues. A sustainable solution is such a solution which • • • • • • incorporates the environment and the economy, protects ecosystems and health of the society, meets international obligations, promotes equity, prevents environmental pollution, and respects for nature and the needs of future generations (Economic Development Agency of Canada, 2006). To achieve such a development, an integrated approach to planning and making decisions which considers environmental and natural resource costs of different economic options and the economic costs of different environmental and natural resource options is normally required (The President’s Council on Sustainability, 2010). Having formulated such an integrated approach, it is necessary to articulate detailed principles and control measures to direct the action plans to sustainability. The action plans are equally important elements of achieving sustainable development and should be built based on the specific features of the issue and by the participation of the parties that will be affected. Figure 1. Issues in Sustainable Development, taken from The President’s Council on Sustainability (2010) 353 �Integrated Water Resource Management As for sustainable development, it is quite possible to find fancy verbal definitions for integrated water resources management (IWRM). One could be taken from web-based Water Encyclopedia (http://www.waterencyclopedia.com) as follows: “Integrated water resources management is the practice of making decisions and taking actions while considering multiple viewpoints of how water should be managed.” The above definition is illustrated by the same encyclopedia in (Fig. 2). As seen in (Fig. 2), IWRM describes a process of managing water resources in an integrated manner taking into account the views of parties involved such as the stakeholders, governments and interest groups to achieve certain purposes and services using the knowledge provided by several scientific disciplines. The following quotation (GWP TAC, 2000) well describes the IWRM process: Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare (in an equitable manner) without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. This process involves the holistic coordination and management of natural systems and human activities, which create the demands for water, determine land use and generate waterborne waste. The concept of IWRM is somewhat new and as such it was built over more-than-half-century bad water management experience. As such, it can be regarded a response to the problems encountered in water management, which has become a major conflict area where several sides are competing for the same quantity of water. Figure 2. IWRM process, taken from http://www.waterencyclopedia.com. Achieving IWRM requires the organization of water industry accordingly. Since water resources and the bodies demanding these resources spread in a certain geographical area, IWRM should normally be “place-based” or “enterprise-based”, dealing with a particular location (Clark et al., 2002). River basins have long been regarded as the spatial unit of water management. However, this should be disputed as the river basins are not isolated from each other in terms of both the origin of water resources and the close interactions among the human activities in neighboring basins. Whatever spatial unit is accepted, the main issue is to set appropriate institutional arrangements towards achieving the IWRM, where the big challenge lays. It is unfortunate to say that there are not many countries that have organized its water industry accordingly although there have been several international initiatives such as water framework directive of European Union. From the discussion provided above, it can be paradoxically said that water resources are expected to be managed in a manner that those who demand for water including the ecological environment should be made 354 �happy. Expectedly, this is absolutely impossible. What should/can be done is then to reach a compromising arrangement by which everybody could be a little bit happy. Experiences have shown that such a compromising solution can only be achieved by the participation of all parties. That is, a participatory approach should be followed to set up the practices for IWRM. Technical experts can, in this regard, present available methodologies or acceptable plans/programs to the sides involved. There is also another issue that should be resolved, which is what mechanism will be used to get together the sides or who are the sides. This is a case-specific issue that should be considered carefully. Probably, a perfect mechanism will not be established; but any mechanism for this purpose will somehow work and the outcome will yield much better proposals. Concluding Discussions on IWRM and Sustainable Development The discussions provided separately on SD and IWRM have uncovered that what both IWRM and SD try to achieve is by and large the same. Sustainable development is a little bit older than IWRM. It is also broader and does not exclude any human activity. It has something to say for every development process. As such, it is much more difficult to materialize SD although it is also much more popular than IWRM. In other words, it will require much more time to have “sustainable” development activities. Unlike sustainable development, IWRM is a little bit restricted to a specific area, water resources, and tries to realize much more efficient and helpful water management. Since it deals with water issues, there is much more chance to realize the IWRM purposes although there are several challenges to be overcome (Grigg, 2008). The world-wide experiences have shown several good examples such as fully privatized but highly regulated British water industry. Since water is a natural monopoly, water activities and water management accordingly affect almost every development issue. A better managed water industry will make positive impact on other sectors. Therefore, the water resources of a region or a country managed in an integrated manner will contribute the sustainability of other human activities. In this sense, IWRM can be regarded as a tool, use of which will add positive contributions to the sustainable development. From another point of view, IWRM is essential to sustain our water resources. If we continue to use water, which we do not have any other option, we have to think and explore the ways where the sustainability of our water resources is to be granted. References Brundtland G. H. (1987). Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Oxford University Press, page 54. Clark, W. C., Lebel, L., Gallopin, G., Jaeger, J.,Mabogunje, A., Dowdeswell, E., Hassan, M., Juma, C., Kates, R., Corell, R. (2002) in Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (Int. Council for Science, Paris), pp. 12–29. Economic Development Agency of Canada for the Region of Quebec. (2006). Sustainable Development Strategy 2007-2010. Montréal, Canada. Global Water Partnership Technical Advisory Committee (GWP TAC) (2000). IWRM. Publ. Global Water Partnership, Stockholm, Sweden. Grigg, Neil S.(2008) 'Integrated water resources management: balancing views and improving practice', Water International, 33: 3, 279 — 292. http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Hy-La/Integrated-Water-Resources-Management.html The President’s Council on Sustainability. (2010) Indiana State University Climate Action Plan, Indiana State University, USA. 355 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 452 Title A name given to the resource Integrated Water Resources Management: A Path to Achieving Sustainable Development Author Author Yurdusev, Mehmet Ali Tezcan, Tekin Abstract A summary of the resource. Water resources development is one of the most important national development factors for developing countries whereas it is a service sector issue in developed countries. Water management has become one of the conflict areas as the demand for water increases while the resources available degrade. As a solution to this, integrated water resources management has been proposed to make tradeoffs among the parties involved. This article discusses the issues of integrated water resources management with its possible links with sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)