304 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b998b0accbd133904b6618574ce07663.pdf c6579a43a343dc07dca353a03f8b490a PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The Role of Cognitive Mechanisms and Semantic Motivation in Business English Idioms Acquisition: An experimental study Ivan Milošević Submitted: 15.05.2014. Accepted: 05.11.2014. Abstract This paper aims to explore the possible application of cognitive semantics in the process of teaching and learningBusiness English idioms. The theoretical assumptions of this study are based on the cognitivist view that idioms are, to a certain extent, semantically motivated by cognitive mechanisms, with the conceptual metaphor being the most dominant one. This study is an attempt to test the hypothesis that metaphoric conceptualisation can contribute to a more successful acquisition of idioms, especially in comparison to pure memorisation of the same linguistic expressions. This small-scale experiment was carried out with 20 Business and Economics students divided into the experimental group and the control group. The students in the experimental group were introduced to the semantic motivation of idiom meaning, whereas the control-group students were taught the same idioms in the traditional way. After being presented with the carefully selected idioms in two different ways, the students in both groups were required to do four different types of exercises with a view to testing the semantic motivation hypothesis. As a result, the research findings and the results obtained in this experimental study suggest that the awareness of cognitive mechanism and semantic motivation behind the meaning of idioms can significantly assist students in the process of a somewhat systematic and consistent acquisition of Business English idioms. Keywords: Idiomatic expressions, Business English, cognitive mechanisms, conceptual metaphor, semantic motivation, language acquisition Introduction: Traditional vs. Cognitivist view of idioms Contrary to the traditional view of learning idioms as ‘dead’ metaphors, thecognitivist view suggests that the meanings of idioms (or the majority of them) are semantically motivated and not arbitrary (Gibbs 1994; Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Lakoff 1987). The semantic motivation stems from the cognitive mechanisms such as the conceptual metaphor, the conceptual metonymy, and conventional knowledge (Lakoff 1987), which link different domains to the meanings of idioms. ‘The 129 �The Role of Cognitive Mechanisms and Semantic Motivation in Business English Idioms Acquisition: An experimental study motivation for the occurrence of particular words in a large number of idioms can be thought of as a cognitive mechanism that links domains of knowledge to idiomatic meanings’, Kövecses & Szabo (1996: 330). In the cognitivist light of idiom interpretations, these linguistic units are perceived as part of our conceptual world, belonging both to the language and mind. As a result, idioms are semantically motivated by conceptual mappings that are formed in the world of concepts and reflected onto the language. Such a perception of idioms highlights the partial compositionality of idioms, which enables a much easier semantic interpretation (Gibbs 1994). This view of idioms was the starting point for our experimental study with the example of Business English idioms. Research objectives and methods Having in mind the conceptual nature and the semantic motivation of idioms, we wanted to investigate the pedagogical aspect of cognitivist view of idioms. We chose to carry out a small-scale experiment to check if the cognitivist theoretical framework could facilitate the teaching and learning of idioms. For that purpose, we decided to focus our research on BE idioms. The basis for the experiment was an indepth cognitivist study of Business English idioms conducted by Milošević (2008). In that comprehensive thesis, Milošević (2008)investigated the semantic motivation of BE idioms within the theoretical framework of Cognitive Semantics,detecting four cognitive mechanisms1 behind the semantics of idioms together with 18 source domains motivating the meanings of the idioms under examination. As regards the methodology for this experiment, we exploited the basic ideas of similar experimental studies undertaken by Boers at al. (2000) and Kövecses & Szabo (1996). The main hypothesis was that the awareness of the semantic motivation of BE idiomsproduces better results than mere memorisation in the teaching/learning of BE idioms. Although no rigorous statistical method was implemented in the results analysis, the research findings supported the hypothesis that learning is more successful whenstudents are aware of the semantic motivation of BE idioms. Research procedure The subjects of the study were 20 second-year students studying Business and Economics at Belgrade Business School. These students were chosen bearing in mind that they were already learning business English at the college and were 1 The four mechanisms identified in the research are: the conceptual metaphor, the conceptual metonymy, conventional knowledge and conceptual blending. 130 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics familiar with the basics of Business terminology. Moreover, theirEnglish was at the upper-intermediatelevel, which was a sufficient level for this experiment. The students were divided into two groups: control group A and experimental group B, each composed of 10 students. In order to make both groups equal with regard to their level of English knowledge, subjects were asked to do a general English test (Quick Placement Test, Oxford University Press and University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate). After analyzing the test scores, we divided the students into two groups: the control group had an overall score of 78.25%, whereas the experimental group’s overall score was 78.75%. The experiment consisted of two parts. The first part involved a lecture on Business English idioms, whereas the second part involved the testing of BE idioms. It is important to point out that the subjects were not familiar with the BE idioms they were taught (and later tested on)before the experimental study was conducted. The experiment started with a 20-minute lecture for both groups. Both groups were introduced to and taught the following twelve BE idioms: a business angel, a sinking ship, a green product, a bidding war, fresh blood, given a red card, white-collar worker, economic chill, a safe bet, locust funds, to get off the ground, andeconomic headwinds. The selected idioms reflect12different source domains, which, owing to various conceptual metaphors2 identified by Milosevic (2008)3 ,establish the conceptual mappings with the target domain of BUSINESS/ECONOMY. In the case of Group A, the procedure was as follows. All twelve BE idioms were written on the white board and the meanings of all twelve idioms were explained. The idioms were also exemplified by one sentence containing the given idiom together with the Serbian translation. After the lecture, the students had 15 minutes to memorise the given idioms. Then, the students were asked to do a four-exercise test, which lasted 40 minutes. In the experimental Group B, the teaching of idioms involved a slightly different procedure compared to the control Group A. Namely, the idioms were also written on the white board and the meaning of each idiomwas explained and exemplified with one major exception. Unlike the students in Group A, while teaching the selected idioms to students in Group B we introduced the fact that these idioms might be semantically motivated by the conceptual metaphors established between the various source domains (WAR, SAILING, etc.) and the target domain of BUSINESS. For example, when explaining the meaning of an idiom a bidding war, 2 Since this was small-scale research, the emphasis was on the conceptual metaphor as the primary cognitive mechanism responsible for the semantic motivation of BE idioms. 3 In his work, Milošević (2008) recorded and conducted a detailed semantic analysis of almost 400 BE idioms in a corpus-based study within the framework of Cognitive Semantics. 131 �The Role of Cognitive Mechanisms and Semantic Motivation in Business English Idioms Acquisition: An experimental study the students were presented with the conceptual metaphors DOING BUSINESS IS WAGING WARS and COMPANIES/BUSINESSMEN ARE WARRIORS. Similarly,an idiom a safe betinvolved introducing the following metaphors BUSINESS IS A GAMBLE and INVESTORS ARE GAMBLERS. The same process was reiterated with all 12 BE idioms. The aim of this teaching/learning procedure was to raise the experimental-group students’ awareness of thesemantic motivation of BE idioms by drawing attention to the fact that various conceptual metaphors motivate the semantics of the BE idioms under examination, forming conceptual mappings between the established source domains and the domain of BUSINESS. These students also had fifteen minutes to learn the presented BE idioms, but, unlike the Group A students, the Group B students were expected to develop links between the given idioms and the presented conceptual metaphors. Then, the students in Group B were given 40 minutes to complete a four-exercise test. As mentioned earlier, the test that the students in both groups were asked to do had four different exercises. The total number of idioms in all four exercises was 484.The first exercise was a gap-fill exercise with 12 sentences that were missing the 12 BE idioms with which the students had been presented during the lecturing process. The second exercise consisted of10 sentences and10new BE idioms with a gap-fill task as well. The sameness of the first two exercises was not coincidental. The second exercise was devised with a view to checking the students’ ability to apply the knowledge of the semantic motivation of BE idioms to previously unknown idioms. The third exercise with a more creativetask was made up of six sentences containing idioms with one word missing, which needed to be completed with six out of 12 given words. The missing words were the words that were a clear indication of the source domains they originated from (e.g. slide – PHYSICAL MOVEMENT, blue – COLOUR, etc.). Finally, the fourth exerciseinvolved twentyBE idioms divided into two columns of 10idioms and wasthusthe most demanding one.The10idioms in both columns belonged to the same source domains. The students were instructed to match the idioms based on the potential similarity between the given idioms. The first aim of this exercise was to see if the students in the control group could perceive any similarity between the idioms, and the second was to check to what extent the experimental group students would recall the semantic motivation of idioms an be able to applythat knowledge in the matching exercise accordingly. Here are the two hypotheses that we wanted to test: 4 The 48 tested idioms encompassed all 18 source domains that motivated the semantics of BE idioms detected by Milošević (2008). 132 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics a) If semantic motivation is more useful than the mere memorisation in the process of idiom teaching/learning, group B will have more correct responses in exercise 1. b) If semantic motivation plays a positive role in idiom acquisition, group B will score higher in exercises 2, 3 and 4, which involve more creative tasks in three different types of exercises. We will now investigate the results in relation to the two hypotheses. The data analysis is presented in the next section. Data analysis and results Let us now look at the results of the experimental study. Table 1 presents the maximum number of points for each of the four exercises, the number of points scored by Groups A and B respectively. Table 1.Number of points for Maximum number of points Group A Group B Exercise 1 120 (100%) 102 (85%) 117 (97,5%) Exercise 2 100 (100%) 58 (58%) 70 (70%) Exercise 3 60 (100%) 31 (51, 66%) 35 (58, 33%) Exercise 4 100 (100%) 42 (42%) 63 (63%) As the findings in table 1 show, experimental Group B students performed better in all four exercises. Taking into account the results, let us examine the two hypotheses. In Exercise 1, both groups recorded high scores. Group A scored 102 correct responses, which is 85 per cent of the possible 120 responses. Group B scored 117, which is 97.5 per cent. The high scores of both groups in Exercise 1 −97.5 per cent for Group B and 85 per cent for Group A − can be attributed to the fact that the 133 �The Role of Cognitive Mechanisms and Semantic Motivation in Business English Idioms Acquisition: An experimental study exercise contained the same idioms that students were taught during the lecture 15 minutes prior to the test.Even so, Group B outperformed Group A by 12 per cent. In Exercise 2, the scores were lower, namely70 and 58 per cent for Groups B and A respectively, because the idioms were all new to the participants, so they had to perform a more creative task. Nevertheless, Group B achieved a 12 per cent higher score. The difference in the third exercise was somewhat smaller, with Group B scoring58.33 per cent and Group A 51.66 per cent, for two reasons: This was a more complex type of exercise that required the application of semantic compositionality of idioms and the number of overall points was significantly lower (60 points) than the number of points in exercise 1 (120 points) and exercise 2 (100 points). Finally, the largest difference was recorded in the fourth exercise, with Group B scoring21 per cent higher thanGroup A.This discrepancy probably arises from the fact that the students in Group B were aware of the existence of various source domains that motivated the meanings of theBE idioms. The higher scores achieved by Group B in exercises 2, 3 and 4 appear to support the second hypothesis. To sum up, Group B produced better results in all four exercises,with the difference ranging from 6.67 to 21 percent. On the other hand, it is interesting to note that both groups recorded considerably lower scores in Exercises 2, 3 and 4 in comparison to Exercise 1. There may be at least two reasons for this. The first, more obvious reason may be the fact that in Exercise 1, the students were tested all the idioms they had been taught in the lecture 15 minutes before the test. The second, less evident reason might be the fact that Exercises 2, 3 and 4 contained new idioms, and thestudents had to predict their meanings. Since we already know that prediction is to be distinguished from motivation (Lakoff 1987), the lower scores are not surprising. Nevertheless, the higher scores recorded by Group B indicate that the awareness of semantic motivation and cognitive mechanisms can assist students in the idiom acquisition process. Based on the results analysis, it is tempting to assertthat higher scores achieved by Group B in all four exercises area result of the Group B students’ knowledge of conceptual metaphors and the existence of various source domains whose elements are mapped onto the domain of BUSINESS.This knowledge helped them match the idiomatic expressions with a greater facility in comparison to Group A.According to the analysed data, it is evident that there is a clear tendency towards more effective acquisition of BE idioms if the awareness of their semantic motivation is present. Clearly, the findings clearly show that the knowledge of the cognitive mechanisms that motivate the semantics of idioms contributes to a more successful learning of idioms compared to the traditional learning through the ‘blind’ memorisation process. 134 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conclusion Despite the fact that this wasasmall-scale study without any in-depth statistical analysis, its results are still sufficient to support the conclusion that awareness of the conceptual structure of BE idioms and of the existence of cognitive mechanisms behind their meanings –especially the conceptual metaphor – significantly facilitates the acquisition of BE idioms. Taking into account the research findings and subsequent interviews with the subjects of the experiment, we may say that the knowledge of the semantic motivation of idioms helps students learn these linguistic units more successfully. This claim can be corroborated by the score in all four exercises, which evidently demonstrates that the experimental group students achieved consistently higher results than the control group students. On the other hand, it is important to underline the fact that thesemantic motivation of BE does not mean that the meanings of the observed idioms are fully predictable (Kövecses & Szabo 1996: 330). However, the semantic motivation of BE idioms opens up endless possibilities fora morecomprehensive description of the idiomatic meanings, which carries considerable pedagogical implications. All in all, we hope that this experiment might carve out a path to a more systematic acquisition of idioms by making students aware of the cognitive mechanisms that motivate the semantics of these linguistic expressions. References Bencses, R. (2002). The Cognitive Semantics of Idioms: A Cognitive Linguistic View. The Even YearBook 5. pp 17-30. Boers, F., Eyckmans J.& Stengers H. (2007). Presenting Figurative Idioms with a Touch of Etymology: More than Mere Mnemonics. SAGE Publications. Croft, W. & Cruse, D.A.(2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G. & M. Turner. (2002). The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. New York. Basic Books. Gibbs, R.W. (1994). The Poetics of Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 135 �The Role of Cognitive Mechanisms and Semantic Motivation in Business English Idioms Acquisition: An experimental study Kövecses, Z (2000). A Cognitive Linguistic View of Learning Idioms in FLT Context. Universitat GesamthochschuleEssen. Kövecses, Z & Szabo, P. (1996). Idioms. A View from Cognitive Semantics. Applied Linguistics 17-3:326-355. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Makkai, A. (1972). Idiom structure in English. The Hague: Mouton. Milošević, I. (2008). Idiomatski izrazi u poslovnom engleskom jeziku. Magistarski rad. Beograd. Filološki fakultet. Nunberg, G., Sag, I., Wasow, T. (1994). Idioms. Language, Vol.70, No.3, 491-538. Palmer, F.R. (1981). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 136 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2813 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Cognitive Mechanisms and Semantic Motivation in Business English Idioms Acquisition: An experimental study Author Author Milošević, Ivan Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper aims to explore the possible application of cognitive semantics in the process of teaching and learningBusiness English idioms. The theoretical assumptions of this study are based on the cognitivist view that idioms are, to a certain extent, semantically motivated by cognitive mechanisms, with the conceptual metaphor being the most dominant one. This study is an attempt to test the hypothesis that metaphoric conceptualisation can contribute to a more successful acquisition of idioms, especially in comparison to pure memorisation of the same linguistic expressions. This small-scale experiment was carried out with 20 Business and Economics students divided into the experimental group and the control group. The students in the experimental group were introduced to the semantic motivation of idiom meaning, whereas the control-group students were taught the same idioms in the traditional way. After being presented with the carefully selected idioms in two different ways, the students in both groups were required to do four different types of exercises with a view to testing the semantic motivation hypothesis. As a result, the research findings and the results obtained in this experimental study suggest that the awareness of cognitive mechanism and semantic motivation behind the meaning of idioms can significantly assist students in the process of a somewhat systematic and consistent acquisition of Business English idioms. Keywords: Idiomatic expressions, Business English, cognitive mechanisms, conceptual metaphor, semantic motivation, language acquisition Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-05-05 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d83bd8b351ac62a901ced0a047f6b8b0.pdf d334ca50ba2e9d3a4ed9608bb5190886 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The role of concept analysis in studying English (on the basis of American political discourse) ChanturidzeYulia Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow Submitted: 02.04.2014. Accepted: 13.11.2014. Abstract Once a person sets a goal of studying the culture of some country or even of teaching it to foreign students in classrooms, he/she cannot manage without taking into account its reflection in the languages. it is the language that fixes all peculiarities of people’s world perception and becomes the storage of knowledge about it. It is in the light of such perception that a human being sees the world. Thus, one can speak about a linguistic world view. The linguistic world view is based on the set of certain concepts. A concept is a great deal broader than the lexical meaning of a word as it also includes an evaluative component. Cultures may share the same concepts or possess their own uniqueness. The latter are often referred to as national-specific concepts. These are the concepts that render the peculiarities of nation's mentality, world view and evaluation of the material world. In order to understand each other people must share the set of concepts and the same background information. This is often referred to as “common knowledge” [1.P.174-175]. At present considerable attention is drawn to discourse, especially its political variety. The analysis of national-specific concepts and the set of linguistic means which express them in political discourse seem to be of special interest in the discussion of typical cultural characteristics as political sphere is one of the constituent parts of any national culture. Thus, political discourse contributes to the understanding of the ways values have been developed. The importance of linguistic analysis of political discourse as part of culture teaching can be illustrated using materials from the African American political discourse, in which such concepts as ‘freedom’, ‘power’, ‘equality’ and ‘African American dream’ come to the fore. Keywords: discourse, culture, teaching, worldview, concept, African American dream “Every language is a temple in which the soul of those who speak it is enshrined.” Oliver Wendell Holmes Language is a means of communication between people. It is inextricably bound to the life and development of people who use it. It is a human being who perceives and understands the world through various senses and creates a worldview on the basis of this experience. Having received the results of such a perception, people passtheir knowledge to other people with the help of language. That is why one can argue that language, thinking and culture are so closely interconnected that they exist in the state of unity. Language does not only reflect people’s worldview and culture;among its key functions one can also name preserving culture and passing it on to the next generations. In this respect it goes without saying that it is necessary to turn to language analysis when teaching foreign cultures to students. People see the world around them differently: Their worldview depends on what has become traditionally important to them. The peculiarities of the vocabulary of a language should be noticed by teachers of language and culture and explained to students. 277 �The role of concept analysis in studying English (on the basis of American political discourse) As a result of world perception one can observe the appearance of concepts in culture. Their nature has been defined by such prominent Russian linguists as V.A.Maslova and Y.S.Stepanov. Then their theory has been applied to a great variety of languages (see Levenkova E.R., Ter-Minasova S.G., Vishnyakova O.D. and others). As a result of their research it has become clear that an important peculiarity of a concept, which helps to distinguish it from the lexical meaning, appears to be the fact that a concept is “felt through”, i.e. it carries some special emotions and reflects a person’s attitude to it (positive or negative). Moreover, concepts are connected with the norms of people’s behaviour since they also fix the peculiarities of native speakers’ culture. Having clarified the notion of a concept to students, it seems to be of major importance for teachers to classify all its variants. Concepts represented only in a specific culture are often called “nationalspecific”. It is they that fully reflect the peculiarities of people’s mentality, values and worldview. In addition, the representatives of various social classes also see it in their own way. That is why one can speak not only about national-specific concepts but also about historically- and socially-conditioned ones of a certain language. In addition, it is essential to keep in mind that the set of concepts in language always changes andthat their structure and meaning transform as well because the world is perceived differently at certain stages of history. So, one can differentiate between static and dynamic concepts, though the former ones are less numerous than the latter ones. At this stage it seems necessary to illustrate the role of language in representing people’s worldview by adducing some examples. For this reason let us turn to political discourse in its African-American variety. In this article an example of political discourse was chosen for analysis as it is it that is characterized by a high concentration of stylistic means, which contribute to the expression of concepts in language. The aim of turning to political discourse is also explained by the fact that the political sphere is one of the constituent parts of any culture. It plays the key role in reflecting the national worldview and pursuing political aims, and is meant to influence the addressee by means of language. This peculiarity explains the reason so much attention is drawn to political discourse at present. One of the best examples of political discourse can be found in the USA. Political public addresses have always been important for Americans. An increase in their significance is observed in the 20 th and 21st centuries when African Americans took the political floor in America. Let us illustrate the way of concept analysis with the help of Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream”speech where a new concept – the African-American Dream – can be singled out. When speaking about the American mentality in general, one easily singles out individualism, rationality, individual freedom and self-confidence. The most well-known and complex concept of the American worldview is the “American Dream”. It belongs to national-specific concepts even though similar ones appear in modern worldviews of other peoples (the “Ukrainian Dream” [2], the “Georgian Dream” [4]). The notion of the American Dream is closely connected with the idea of America’s social and cultural ‘selectedness’. That is why, in order to identify themselves and distinguish themselves from other nations, there appeared unique values and ideas, one of which is the American Dream. The term was first used by James Truslow Adams in his book “The Epic of America.” He states that the American Dream is "that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement” [1, pp.5-6].In order to let the students get a fuller understanding of the concept in question, it is necessary to turn their attention to its 278 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics definition in dictionaries published in different decades. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture [6, p.33]: American Dream (the): the idea that the US is a place where everyone has the chance of becoming rich and successful. Many immigrants to the US in the early 20 th century believed in the American Dream. Oxford Guide to British and American Culture [8, p.13]: The American Dream: the belief of Americans that their country offers opportunities for a good and successful life. For minorities and people coming from abroad to live in America, the dream also includes freedom and equal rights. As a result of definition analysis,students can see that immigrants’ understanding of the American Dream was added to the dictionary entry. If they consult more dictionaries they will findout that nowadays there exist a number of definitions of this concept, each of them bringing its various components to the fore. It shows that the components of the American Dream have not always been the same. From this one can conclude that the American Dream is a dynamic concept. So it seems possible to speak about their evolution. [1] If at the end of definition analysis a concept is named “dynamic”, students must be asked toprove it with the help of examples. So, the next step is looking for the actual realization of this concept in discourse. As mentioned above, a concept contains an emotionalevaluative component. That is why one of the students’ tasks is also to figure out the emotional colouring of the concept in question. Martin Luther King was an African American and addressed the audience with the “I Have a Dream” speech during the civil rights movement in the USA. It is crucial to keep this fact in mind while analyzing the set of concepts in the speech. Being the citizens of the USA, African Americans partly shared the views of Americans, as they are united by the territory and history. However, there is a set of concepts that were influenced by the peculiarities of historical development of the USA, i.e. a long period of segregation and discrimination of African Americans. That is why there appeared a unique concept of the “African American Dream”. This new concept is a key to understanding the African American worldview since it is based on their strivings, cravings and hopes for the future. Some time ago the African American Dream used to be part of the American Dream, a broader concept. That is why the definitions of the earlier period are applicable to a narrower concept. Here, the African American Dream is examined as a separate concept that has its own characteristics, which are often different from those of the American Dream. It is not difficult to imagine what African Americans have been dreaming of during the two previous centuries. What they wanted most of all was certainly freedom. Only after 1865 newly freed African Americans started new lives in spite of the fact that attitudes toward them were still negative. That is why there appeared one more component of their dream – the will to be treated equally to the white population of the country. African Americans dreamt of being able to make choices without the restriction of their race and skin colour. It was Martin Luther King who spoke about a new dream that was not the same as the American Dream. In his best-known speech, “I Have a Dream,” he defined it in the following way: “It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream <…> a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal.’” [7] These words can be seen as the emergence of the African American Dream. So, its core element in the middle of the 20th century, in Martin Luther King, Jr.’s opinion, was the idea of racial equality. In the “I Have a Dream” speech, Martin Luther King stands up for the existence of the Dream in people’s hearts. He shows that even though African Americans are not satisfied with the way they are 279 �The role of concept analysis in studying English (on the basis of American political discourse) treated, they do not deny the Dream. Ill-treatment of African Americans, injustice, persecution, discrimination, and oppression are shown in the “I Have a Dream” speech as threatening, sinister and sullen:  the long night of captivity  quicksands of racial injustice  storms of persecution  winds of police brutality  heat of injustice  heat of oppression On the contrary, positive treatment is seen asa pleasant and joyful natural phenomenon:  a joyous daybreak  sunlit path of racial justice  invigorating autumn of freedom and equality  oasis of freedom and justice In order to describe the modern attitude towards African Americans, the leader of the U.S. civil rights movement uses a sequence of adjectives and nouns with negative connotations: “dark”, “desolate”, “storm”, “heat”. They represent natural phenomena that prevent peaceful existence. The same idea can be applied to unfairness, discrimination and segregation. That is how emotionally coloured words contribute to the understanding of the concept. One more point of analysis in this speech is the revelation ofa Biblical layer that broadens the understanding of the African American Dream. The main source of M.L.King’s language was the King James translation of the Bible. In his childhood, King attended his father’s church and listened to the preachers. He had a unique memory and could cite the passages from the Bible. As a result, one can find numerous allusions to the Bible in the speech under analysis. Examples related to the representation of the African American Dream are provided below: “we will not be satisfied until justice rolls AMOS 5:24: “But let judgment run down as down like waters and righteousness like a mighty waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream.” stream.” “I have a dream that every valley shall be ISAIAH 40:4: "Every valley shall be exalted, exalted” and every mountain and hill shall be made low” “from the quicksands of racial injustice to the MATTHEW 7:24-27: Parable of the houses solid rock of brotherhood” built on the sand and on the rock. The use of Biblical allusions is truly remarkable because by introducing such metaphors in the address, Martin Luther King not only expresses his own ideas with respect to the actual state of affairs at the time, but also reminds people of the parables, which are relevant at all times. [5, p.79]. Thus, thanks to Martin Luther King the African American Dream has connections to religion, proving the fact that not only material wealth is important for immigrants. Later, in 1965, Martin Luther King would elucidate the concept by quoting the Declaration of Independence once again: “It wouldn’t take us long to discover the substance of that dream. It is found in those majestic words of the Declaration of Independence, words lifted to cosmic proportions: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by God, Creator, with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.’ This is a dream. It’s a great dream.” [3] In this passage he drew special attention to the words “all men” as they suggest absence of any division of the Americans into groups and the idea of unity comes to the fore. 280 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics To sum up, with the help of the examples adduced above, it has been shown that the African American Dream is a true concept as it meets all the requirements of a concept mentioned in the theoretical part of the present article: It is a national-specific dynamic concept that arouses certain positive emotions of people who use it. Being a historically conditioned concept, it also has some historic references to African Americans’ past, especially to the civil rights movement in the USA. The concept of the African American Dream is not the only one that finds its realization in Martin Luther King’s speech. In his address he also turns to the notion of freedom, which becomes a separate concept: it is a complicated and important notion without which it is difficult to imagine the culture in question [3, p.27]. Some decades ago, the concept of freedom was understood merely as freedom from slavery, but in this very speech it reflects something greater – the attitude towards African Americans in society and their moral state. This time its main components are getting rid of segregation and discrimination andletting African Americans feel equal to white Americans. “But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination”[7]. The modern understanding of freedom, in Martin Luther King’s opinion, is close to that of freedom from slavery becausemen are still not free, but “crippled by manacles and chains”. However, in this case one comes across a metaphoric understanding of African Americans’ inability to escape from the fetters of segregation and discrimination. Moreover, there is a link between the notion of freedom and other components of life that African Americans have been striving for, for example “freedom and … justice”, “freedom and equality” and “an oasis of freedom and justice”. Thus, the notions of justice and equality also define the African American worldview, showing that freedom is not everything they want to achieve. If African Americans want to get the desired result, they need to put in a great deal of effort. That is why the concept of freedom is accompanied by the idea of struggle. “<…> we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force.” “We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one…”[7]. As can be seen from the examples adduced above, struggle presupposes not an armed rebellion but a constant movement forwards, spiritual power, a desire to change the current state of affairs andhope for the future. It follows that Martin Luther King, unlike Malcolm X, was not an adherent of a radical approach to the situation, but promoted integration with the rest of Americans. These are two basic concepts of the African American worldview that have been reflected in the political discourse of the civil rights movement, represented in the article by Martin Luther King, Jr.’s speech. They have also been developed in addresses by other African American leaders and politicians. Some of these concepts exist even at present, though slight changes in their understanding are possible. One can find them in Barack Obama’s and Louis Farrakhan’s speeches. The African American Dream of the 20thand 21st centuries is characterized by a definite opposition of the reality and the ideal, by a necessity to struggle, by believing in the Dream. The African American Dream remains a complex and multilayered concept. To get a fuller picture,students can also turn to 281 �The role of concept analysis in studying English (on the basis of American political discourse) Malcolm X’s addresses and even to addresses by our contemporariessuch as Barack Obama and Louis Farrakhan. That is how the evolution of the concept in question can be illustrated. To conclude, language is a great source of information about culture and the worldview of people. It is a means of passing traditions and attitudes from generation to generation and setting them firmly in people’s minds. That is why doing concept analysis,following the stages mentioned at the very beginning of this article, in culture classes with foreign students seems to be of considerable importance. References Баранова Л.Л. Американскаямечта: Учебно-методическоепособие. М.: Пресс, 2006. МАКС Лунев С. Чтотакоеукраинскаямечта. «Однако», 14.08.2012; http://www.odnako.org/blogs/show_20248/ Маслова В.А. Когнитивнаялингвистика: Учебноепособие. Мн.: 2004. ТетраСистемс, ПартияГрузинскаямечта; http://gd.ge/?lang=Rus Chanturidze J., Martin Luther King, Jr. and the American Political Discourse: Rhetoric and Religion // LATEUM 2013 Conference Proceedings. ELT and Linguistics 2013: New Strategies for Better Solutions: Conference Proceedings / Editor-in-Chief: Prof.Olga Aleksandrova. – M.: MAKS Press, 2013. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, 1992. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s speech “I Have a Dream”, 1963; http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm. Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, 2001. 282 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2801 Title A name given to the resource The role of concept analysis in studying English (on the basis of American political discourse) Author Author Chanturidze, Yulia Abstract A summary of the resource. Once a person sets a goal of studying the culture of some country or even of teaching it to foreign students in classrooms, he/she cannot manage without taking into account its reflection in the languages. it is the language that fixes all peculiarities of people’s world perception and becomes the storage of knowledge about it. It is in the light of such perception that a human being sees the world. Thus, one can speak about a linguistic world view. The linguistic world view is based on the set of certain concepts. A concept is a great deal broader than the lexical meaning of a word as it also includes an evaluative component. Cultures may share the same concepts or possess their own uniqueness. The latter are often referred to as national-specific concepts. These are the concepts that render the peculiarities of nation's mentality, world view and evaluation of the material world. In order to understand each other people must share the set of concepts and the same background information. This is often referred to as “common knowledge” [1.P.174-175]. At present considerable attention is drawn to discourse, especially its political variety. The analysis of national-specific concepts and the set of linguistic means which express them in political discourse seem to be of special interest in the discussion of typical cultural characteristics as political sphere is one of the constituent parts of any national culture. Thus, political discourse contributes to the understanding of the ways values have been developed. The importance of linguistic analysis of political discourse as part of culture teaching can be illustrated using materials from the African American political discourse, in which such concepts as ‘freedom’, ‘power’, ‘equality’ and ‘African American dream’ come to the fore. Keywords: discourse, culture, teaching, worldview, concept, African American dream Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,PE English,PR English literature,PS American literature Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3557 Title A name given to the resource THE ROLE OF CONCEPT ANALYSIS IN STUDYING ENGLISH (ON THE BASIS OF AMERICAN POLITICAL DISCOURSE) Author Author Yulia, Chanturidze Abstract A summary of the resource. “Every language is a temple in which the soul of those who speak it is enshrined.” Oliver Wendell Holmes Language is a means of communication between people. It is inextricably bound to the life and development of people who use it. It is a human being who perceives and understands the world through various senses and creates a worldview on the basis of this experience. Having received the results of such a perception, people pass their knowledge to other people with the help of language. That is why one can argue that language, thinking and culture are so closely interconnected that they exist in the state of unity. Language does not only reflect people’s worldview and culture but among its key functions one can also name preserving culture and passing it on to the next generations. In this respect it goes without saying that it is necessary to turn to language analysis when teaching foreign culture to students. People see the world around them differently: their worldview depends on what has become traditionally important to them. The peculiarities of the vocabulary of a language should be noticed by teachers of language and culture and explained to students. As a result of world perception one can observe the appearance of concepts in culture. Their nature has been defined by such prominent Russian linguists as V.A.Maslova and Y.S.Stepanov. Then their theory has been applied to a great variety of languages (see Levenkova E.R., Ter-Minasova S.G., Vishnyakova O.D. and others). As a result of their research it has become clear that an important peculiarity of a concept, which helps to distinguish it from the lexical meaning, appears to be the fact that a concept is “felt through”, i.e. it carries some special emotions and reflects a person’s attitude to it (positive or negative). Moreover, concepts are connected with the norms of people’s behaviour since they also fix the peculiarities of native speakers’ culture. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a045c84cdb9a64dd1ffb8cf43e0181ba.docx c266db00d282eaf50016c20df25c5939 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3277 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Construct State in Multi-Word Lexical Units Formation in Arabic Author Author Dizdar, Elma Abstract A summary of the resource. As times change and new concepts become part of our reality, Arabic, just like any other language, is facing the challenge of building new lexical units into its vocabulary. However, its word formation system, relying heavily on derivation based on root and pattern system, characteristic of Semitic languages, defies the use of affixation, conversion and compounding as major word formation methods in English and other Indo-European languages. Although there are some examples of affixation and compounding in Modern Standard Arabic, their use remains largely limited, with blurred boundaries in linguistic description between the two and the Arabic equivalent of blending, i.e. naḥt. Therefore concepts expressed by compounds in other languages are usually rendered by the construct state or annexation construction in Arabic. Still, such structures manifest a high degree of variation in terms of their lexicalization and semantic compositionality, thus ranging from free word combinations to multi-word lexical units. The paper focuses on description of lexicalized non-compositional instances of Arabic construct state, including examples from Modern Standard Arabic, as well as a phenomenon dating from Classical Arabic. In addition to analysis of syntactic and semantic structure of Arabic construct state multi-word lexical units, based on which they are divided into several classes, discussion centers on different stylistic mechanisms operative in formation of their meaning. Keywords: Arabic, lexical, units, formation, construct, state. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-05-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/de51938551c2b5350a6e110e065dfbbe.docx bb5aea2c19df8cbafde30cefd243973b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/922dee16b6b8f1a668c14a9e239f6184.pdf 9a238f311c0593a7cdbf8e42d4e117d6 PDF Text Text The Role of Consumer Trust in Internet Shopping: A Comparative Study in Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina Merjem Rovčanin International Burch University Bosnia And Herzegovina merjem.rovcanin@hotmail.com Teoman Duman International Burch University Bosnia And Herzegovina teoman.duman@ibu.edu.ba Kenan Aydın Yıldız Technical University Turkey kenanaydin@gmail.com Meral Uzunöz Yıldız Technical University Turkey muzunoz@yildiz.edu.tr Abstract: Customer trust is becoming more important in today’s business environments especially in electronic commerce. However, the role of customer trust in internet shopping is not very well known in different marketing environments. The purpose of this study is to compare Bosnian and Turkish customers on factors related to customer trust in electronic commerce such as e-commerce knowledge, perceived reputation, perceived risk, perceived ease of use, loyalty and switching behavior. The study will analyze the role of customer trust in two economies, one of which, Turkey, as a fast growing market whereas the other one, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a volatile transition market. The results of the study will provide implications for those companies that do e-business in markets like Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords:electronic commerce, online purchases, e-business, internet shopping, customer trust, switching behavior, loyalty, perceived reputation, perceived risk, perceived ease of use, risk perception. 190 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2562 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Consumer Trust in Internet Shopping: A Comparative Study in Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Merjem, ROVČANIN Teoman, DUMAN Kenan, AYDIN Meral, UZUNÖZ Abstract A summary of the resource. Customer trust is becoming more important in today’s business environments especially in electronic commerce. However, the role of customer trust in internet shopping is not very well known in different marketing environments. The purpose of this study is to compare Bosnian and Turkish customers on factors related to customer trust in electronic commerce such as e-commerce knowledge, perceived reputation, perceived risk, perceived ease of use, loyalty and switching behavior. The study will analyze the role of customer trust in two economies, one of which, Turkey, as a fast growing market whereas the other one, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a volatile transition market. The results of the study will provide implications for those companies that do e-business in markets like Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords:electronic commerce, online purchases, e-business, internet shopping, customer trust, switching behavior, loyalty, perceived reputation, perceived risk, perceived ease of use, risk perception. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e2eea074032077040a75d0e2caa4a334.pdf b1af7c3e1138a99ce4f4efdc8b2928b8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Role of Drama in Language Teaching Gulnar Guliyeva Language Teaching Coordinating Unit Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan gquliyeva@qu.edu.az gulquliyeva@yahoo.com Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the role of drama activities in education, especially in language teaching within the Drama Club of English Language and Literature Department of Qafqaz University. It is a case study of the use of drama in a language class, describing the course structure and classroom procedures. The study was carried out in the second semester of the 2008-2009 academic years during the rehearsals of performance ―Pride and Prejudice‖. It includes personal experiences of group of students from different departments and different age groups and language teachers which have successfully performed and achieved their aims and evaluated the results, presenting setbacks and possible solutions for teaching language to foreign learners. Finally, it encourages the use of drama for transformative and emancipatory learning. Key Words: Drama, language, learning, teaching Introduction Drama is a creative form of learning. Involving students in cooperative, process-oriented and at the same time peace-related drama activities, is therefore one of the most challenging tasks for the language teachers. As drama methods have not often been included in teacher training so far, it is of great importance that in-service training institutions offer workshops or even a real training course on the use of drama techniques in language teaching. In contrast with European countries in Azerbaijan drama as a teaching method is unknown. There were different attempts to develop this methodology, but unfortunately were left unfinished. Having personally experienced the effects of drama activities in language teaching, we came to the conclusion that it not only motivates students and helps to speed up the learning process, but also improves their relationships with each other and the atmosphere of the class. Integrating drama as a teaching method in language teaching, means bringing real life as well as fantasy situations and characters into the classroom. It requires enthusiasm and a willingness ―to take risks‖ on the part of the students and the teacher. A risk that was gladly taken by almost 26 students from all the faculties of our university was to their own benefit. This paper presents the results of an investigation during the rehearsals into the value of using drama in a university classroom. Drawing on Di Pietro (1987) and Via (1976) on the advantages of using drama in language learning, from Mezirow (1990) and Schôn (1991) on the importance of reflection for promoting meaningful learning, and from Donato and McCormick (1994) and Lukinsky (1990) on the effectiveness of portfolios as a tool to promote reflection, the paper presents the use of drama in not only language teaching, but also in different areas of teaching-learning process. Drama in education Theatre is an important part of many people‘s lives, bringing the gifts of entertainment and story sharing to people around the world. Theatre has different forms in different cultures for example, Turkish shadow puppets, Chinese opera, Greek tragedy and comedy, traditional African storytelling and drumming, and fully staged shows and performances. No matter the style of theatre, performances have the potential to create magical and unforgettable moments for their audiences. The term ‗drama in education‘ refers to using theatre for a purpose beyond entertaining an audience. This purpose is generally to change the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors or perhaps all them of audience members. There has always been a bridge between education and entertainment. From the earliest time, theatre has been used to spread news, share history, or educate people about events outside of their communities. Recently, the use of drama and theatre arts for educational purpose has undergone a remarkable resurgence. In particular, in social education provided a focus for countless dramatic presentations. Television drama, radio plays, mass media campaigns, comic books, and other imaginative offerings have been used around the world to convey information and influence behavior. Audience members 521 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo often relate to characters on stage or in the radio or television drama are motivated to participate in interactive opportunities. There is a growing body of evidence on the utility of theatre in education in western countries. In fact in Europe many books have been written on drama and its role in education process such as ―Stage by Stage: A Handbook for Using Drama in the Second Language Classroom‖ by Burke and O‘Sullivan, ―Words Into Worlds: Learning a Second Language Through Process Drama‖ by O‘Nail and Kao, ―Thinking it Through: Developing Thinking and Language Skills Through Drama Activities‖ by Thompson and Evans and it was largely used not only in formal education, but also in informal education. As John O. Stevens in his ―Awareness‖ points out ―…anything you can do to increase communication in your class will reduce your need to impose order by authority, and reduce the students‘ need to rebel against that authority‖. It is seen as a powerful tool in language teaching. The theatre can strengthen the emotional and psychological appeal of messages and provide a believable and interesting way to explore key points of language. Drama allows audience and participants to receive information in an entertaining and exciting way. At its best, drama captures students‘ attention; even not active students bored by lessons are animated by live drama. It engages students focusing their attention and actively involving them in an experience. Active involvement means teacher achieved 50 % of lesson‘s objectives. If used effectively, drama allows influencing students‘ not only intellectual or cognitive skills, but also emotions and self-confidence in ways that traditional instruction cannot. The more the senses are involved the more effectively and actively you learn, and the improvements you make will be lasting. Whereas we teachers have long been familiar with games and small drama activities in our classrooms to encourage students‘ participation and active learning process, the drama as a teaching method was not largely studied and was ignored in traditional teaching process of foreign languages. The more ―open‖ and the less ―controlled‖ communication is, the more fluent, natural and spontaneous and the more authentic it will be. This of course means that the traditional boring (teacher) questions and (pupil) answers are no longer the core of a lesson. Process drama is concerned with the development of a wider context for exploration – a dramatic world created by the teacher and students working together within the experience. It can also fruitfully be applied in areas like cultural studies, literature or the usual range of topics from generation gap to bullying and gender issues. Method of study The one-year course we have started was to process drama methods in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language. As we mentioned above it required enthusiasm and a willingness ―to take risks‖ on the part of the students and the teacher. A risk that was gladly taken by almost 26 students from all the faculties of our university was to their own and their students‘ benefit. They were from different faculties and from different age groups. We altogether successfully staged our play and reached our purposes. Our main aims and objectives were: • To promote the use of drama as a teaching method in foreign language teaching • To integrate drama into the foreign language lesson • To attract less sociable and asocial students to work together • To improve communicative skills through drama • To integrate drama into the teaching of cultural studies, literature, etc. • To promote the use of drama in communication skills, personality training, social learning, reflective skills, observation skills, aesthetic understanding, creativity, tolerance and acceptance, self confidence. Therefore the main ideas and some results of the training course are now presented in this lecture. We want to speak to you of our experiences with people who are students of another language. We should tell you that English is our second language and to teach the language to students of second language is very difficult. In our profession it is important to teach language with native speaker, because students of a second language in England, America and any other English speaking countries have the opportunity to hear English spoken every day. The daily necessity of speaking English gives them practical reasons for wanting to speak it well. They must find the ways to communicate in English in the workplace, to do their shopping, and to socialize with English speakers, so it is not necessary to motivate them to speak it. While we had native speakers in our university it was much better, but after all as being the teacher of second language we decided to search for ways. When leaving the classroom the question how much we have achieved our aims are always in our minds. We thought that we must find any other methodology to be successful and this method was drama. First of all we began with small group, about 17 students and began to work on ―King Lear‖ by W. Shakespeare. We used simple version of the play not to bore students. Act by act we saw the improvement of the students, both in 522 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo their language skills and self confidence to speak in front of the people. Some of them which couldn‘t even answer the questions in front of the class now could freely speak to audience. The students who are studying English as a foreign language are of course different. Because some students do not need to speak English in their daily lives, their motivation to learn it is more theoretical. Some of them know that knowledge of English, because it is becoming a global language, may help them in their chosen professions when they finish university. This kind of students have good listening comprehension and are very good with grammar, but their motivation in studying English is mostly to make good marks on their exams. If we ask them to speak, only a few in each class is eager to do so. It is sure that after some time from exam, what they have learned vanish from their minds. There are some reasons of this kind of behavior. One of the reasons is lacking self confidence, shy and having no practical experiences. They are shy about their accents, and afraid of making mistakes in public. So we, teachers of English as a foreign language, face with two problems. The first problem is how to get students to actually speak English and not just memorize grammar rules to make good marks on exams. The second is to help them speak more clearly by slightly reducing their accents if clarity seems to be a problem. So drama method is where both of these can be solved together. This method of teaching students to speak a foreign language was of course Drama. Using drama in the classroom is valuable. It develops students reading comprehension, vocabulary building, and most important, in using language to negotiate in real situations. The method is simple enough. The teacher should choose a piece of dramatic literature in English or any other language. We chose ―Pride and Prejudice‖. The novel itself is long and for many students in the classroom it is boring to read. So we made the script of the novel in a little bit simplified and shortened form. It is better that the play has many characters as ―Pride and Prejudice‖; almost every student could participate, so as to give as many students as possible the chance to take part. Make photocopy of the script for each student. Next, the teacher should make a list of important vocabulary in the play, and give the students the assignment of looking up these words in the dictionary. A vocabulary test may be appropriate afterwards. Next students are assigned to read the script and to come to class with a list of the characters and a written description of each character. Students should also be asked to suggest a student who should play the part of each character, and to specify which character they themselves would like to play. They must follow following instructions: 1. Read and comprehend the text. 2. Use a dictionary to learn the words that they do not understand. Before memorizing the text they should comprehend their character and understand each word of its speech. They can even express it in their own language for the first time for better comprehension. When they read their parts in class, or better still when they learn to speak their parts from memory, the teacher can listen and make notes to help them correct their pronunciation later, remembering that clarity is what is important at this stage. Finally, when the students act their parts and invest the dialogue with feeling, they will remember the words and phrases far better than they would if only preparing for an exam, and will be able to use these phrases as tools in real life situations. The word ―Drama‖ is Greek word which means ‗to do‘ or ‗to act‘, that is to say to take action. The duty of actors in a theatrical production is to take the actions that the characters take in the story. Acting is a form of communication, and communication is the transmission of information from sender to receiver, who for our purposes now is actor and audience. When we study a dramatic text so that we may learn how to perform the text, we must ask questions and make decisions. The playwright does not give us all this information, so in reading the dramatic text an actor must invent or create some of it, while staying faithful to what is written in the text of course. The actor must ask himself several questions: who am I? What are my relations with other characters? Why they hate me? Why they love me? and etc. An actor must, first and foremost, communicate to an audience by transmitting information about what a character is doing in the story. If the actor understands why the character is doing what he does, this will enable him to empathize with the character and to feel what the character feels in the story, and this information will also be communicated to make the performance more believable, but this information about feelings and motivation. When students are assigned to play the parts of the characters in a play, they should be asked to decide why their characters are saying each line of dialogue, i.e. what they want at that moment, and what their characters are doing by saying those words. They should describe their actions in terms of verbs. Not only will the students vocabulary of verbs increase, but also each entire phrase will come to life as the student speaks it as an action, and will more effectively enter the student‘s memory for later use in other situations and will be visual experience for other students. 523 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Finally we want to note that being Student Based Learning, Drama is successful method in teaching language, literature and culture. It is much more effective learning tool than simply listening to a lecture. It seems to us that students playing the roles of other characters in other cultures will not only learn language more effectively, but will also learn why we want to communicate with each other. References Akimov. H. : Театральное наследие. Баку, 1987 Almond, Mark: Teaching English with Drama. How to use drama and plays when teaching – for the professional English language teacher. London: Modern English Publishing 2005. Andersen, Marianne Miami: Theatersport und Improtheater. Planegg: Buschfunk Verlag 1996. Anderson, Jason: Teamwork. Interactive tasks to get students talking. Addlestone: Delta 2004. Atkins, Greg: improv! A handbook for the actor. Portsmouth: Heinemann 1994. Bacová, Daniela & Phillips, Tim (eds): As If… Drama-based lesson plans for English language teaching. Bratislava: The British Council 1999. Berlin C., Hornbeck K.: Theatre-Based Techniques for Youth Peer Education Training Manual. Y-PEER, 2010 Benathan, Joss: Developing Drama Skills 11 – 14. Oxford: Heinemann Educational 2000. Bernardi, Philip: Improvisation Starters. A collection of 900 improvisation situations for the theater. Cincinnati, Ohio: Betterway Books 1992. Berry, Kathleen S.: Acting against the Grain. The Dramatic Arts and Cultural Studies. New York and London: RoutledgeFalmer 2000. Blank, Carla & Roberts, Jody: Live on Stage. Performing Arts for Middle School. Teacher resource book. Palo Alto, Ca.: Dale Seymour 1997. Boal, Augusto: Games for Actors and Non-Actors. London and New York: Routledge 1992. Boal, Augusto: The Rainbow of Desire. The Boal method of theatre and therapy. London and New York: Routledge 1994. Bolton, Gavin M.: Acting in Classroom Drama. A critical analysis. Portland, Maine: Calendar Islands Publishers 1999. Burke, A. and O‘Sullivan, J.: Stage by Stage: A Handbook for Using Drama in the Second Language Classroom Kao, Shin-Mei & O‘Neill, Cecily: Words into Worlds. Learning a second language through process drama. Stamford, CT: Ablesh Publishing 1998. McCaslin, Nellie: Creative Drama in the Classroom. Studio City, Ca.: Players Press 1990. O‘Neill, Cecily: Drama Worlds. A framework for process drama. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann 1995. O'Neill, C. and Kao, Sh.: ―Words Into Worlds: Learning a Second Language Through Process Drama ― Thompson, G. and Evans, H. : ―Thinking it Through: Developing Thinking and Language Skills Through Drama Activities‖ 524 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 79 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Drama in Language Teaching Author Author Guliyeva, Gulnar Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of drama activities in education, especially in language teaching within the Drama Club of English Language and Literature Department of Qafqaz University. It is a case study of the use of drama in a language class, describing the course structure and classroom procedures. The study was carried out in the second semester of the 2008-2009 academic years during the rehearsals of performance ―Pride and Prejudice‖. It includes personal experiences of group of students from different departments and different age groups and language teachers which have successfully performed and achieved their aims and evaluated the results, presenting setbacks and possible solutions for teaching language to foreign learners. Finally, it encourages the use of drama for transformative and emancipatory learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2870 Title A name given to the resource THE ROLE OF EMBASSY IN ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY - POSITION OF BIH IN TURKEY Author Author Balihodžić, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. The increasing significance of international trade and diplomatic relations has created a new definition to the role and development of state economy through embassies. States are recognizing the growing importance of commercial and economic diplomatic activities. In the changing role of diplomacy from a traditional approach to a significant rising of other influential international and domestic actors, the paper analyses new and modern tools of investment promotion and the role of embassies. In addition, we question the role of embassies as state negotiation and promotion agencies, as well as what are the procedures to bolstering economic diplomacy. The current researches are focused on the perspective of historical development and the increasing need for economic diplomacy in the encroaching globalization era. At the end, the paper concentrates on a specific example of the Embassy of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Republic of Turkey as an analyses of the role of embassies and diplomats. The paper reaches a conclusion that the Embassy of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Republic of Turkey is not in line with theories of the role of embassies in terms of economic diplomacy. In addition, there is a significant lack of qualified personal, the lack of cooperation with the MFA and a general difficult legal and political situation in BiH with issues concerning internal sovereignty, thus discrediting FDI and limiting the government influence and authority. Key Words: Economic diplomacy, globalization, embassy, investment; Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Thesis NonPeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e21fc09b718fa05b0d6463c492372a94.pdf 280a7953b7e1d66d8b87a96d0d7bd095 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Role of Energy Economics in Sustainable Development Tuğrul KANDEMĠR Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey kandemir@aku.edu.tr Mehmet Emre GÖRGÜLÜ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey egorgulu@aku.edu.tr Abstract: For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. Sustainable development on the other hand - most broadly - implies the effective use of resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Therefore, this paper promotes the effective use of energy resources for a growing country from both perspectives of energy economics and sustainable development. Keywords: Energy Economics, Sustainable Development, Effective use of Energy Resources. Energy Economics For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. In this direction, most broadly, energy economics is the field that deals with efficient usage of the energy resources. As Sweeney states (2001, pp. 3-4), according to the energy economics standpoint, energy is neither created nor destroyed (except through nuclear reactions) but energy can be transformed among its various forms. Moreover, energy comes from the nature and ultimately is released back into the nature. Therefore, in Sweeney‘s own words (Sweeney, 2001, pp. 4-5) ―energy economics is the field of human activities using energy resources from naturally available forms, through often complex conversion processes, to forms providing energy services‖. Fossil fuels occupy a remarkable place in the energy economics field. Prior to the 1970s, particularly the oil market worked unilaterally to the benefit of some major Northern oil companies. Seven large oil companies known as the ―Seven Sisters‖ dominated the world oil market. The oil-producing countries, especially those in the Middle East, should have been the rightful owners of their oil resources, but instead they found themselves almost entirely dependent upon the ―Seven Sisters‖ for the revenues from their oil resources. This dependency stemmed from the fact that none of those oil-producing countries had the necessary skills, technology or marketing abilities to turn their resources into cash (Lairson and Skidmore, 1993; Van Suntum, 2005). In the 1970s, however, the ownership rights of oil began to relay. Political situation in oil-producing areas of the world gave rise to a boost of economic power of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). In 1973, as a response to US and other Western support to Israel in Yom Kippur War against Egypt, the Arab members of OPEC cut oil production in remarkable portions and announced an embargo on oil deliveries to those countries. As a result of those actions, in a market with tight supply conditions namely tight worldwide oil production capacity, it was inevitable to face with sharp increases in the world price of oil. This was a major 285 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo indication of relaying ownership rights of oil in favor of oil-producing countries (Lairson and Skidmore, 1993; Van Suntum, 2005). It was 1973 Oil Crisis that marked a milestone in the pages of the history. It was that date the economic system as we know today has been founded. The 1973 crisis was a major cause of the end of the previous economic system of Bretton Woods. It changed the level of world price of oil and the prices remained in high levels well after the crisis. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources and therefore, energy economics has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. After this first crisis, particularly US had realized how dependent she was to the imported oil. Then US decided to carry out policies to lessen the effects of this dependency (Sweeney, 2001). Accordingly US approached to Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as a new strategic partner. The importance of this act solely lies in the fact that Saudi Arabia is one of the co-founders of OPEC and is the largest oil exporter. This partnership with Saudi Arabia led US to secure its oil importing future free from any other embargos - at least not from Saudi Arabia, given that Saudi oil reserves would have met US oil demands at that time. These developments after the first oil crisis are very crucial to understand the role the energy economics played in shaping the new world order. Today, energy economics is somehow underlies nearly every international political issue. Even though those issues would seem to be political at the first glance, the energy needs are the motivating factor for almost all of them. The First Iraq War (The Gulf War) and the ensuing Iraq invasion by US and the dangerous political game that US plays with Iran nowadays are all point out the fact that depicted above. Even though the fight for energy resources left its mark on the last century, it has been sharply intensified in the latest decades. As shown in Figure 1 below world total energy consumption has continued to rise in the last three decades. Moreover fossil fuels‘ share in world total energy consumption remains at top for the same period and gives us the strong indication that they will remain as the primary energy resource for the next century. If world‘s energy demand will continue to rise as it did in the last century - last three decades in particular - then this is going to be a clear indication of increasing importance of energy economics field. Thus, Figure 1 particularly suggests that energy economics gains importance within last three decades. Figure 1 - World Energy Consumption Between 1980-2006 500 Petroleum Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu) 450 400 Natural Gas 350 Coal 300 250 Hydro 200 Nuclear 150 100 Geothermal, Solar, Wind, Wood and Waste 50 20 06 20 04 20 02 20 00 19 98 19 96 19 94 19 92 19 90 19 88 19 86 19 84 Total Energy 19 82 19 80 0 Source: EIA 2008, International Energy Annual 2006 In addition, energy economics is also related with the levels of development of the countries. As the level of development of a country increases, her energy need will also increase accordingly. Figure 2 below shows world energy consumption by regions. We can observe from the figure that in relatively more developed regions such as North America, Europe, Asia and Oceania the energy demand is far more beyond than the need of relatively less developed - or developing – regions such as Africa or the Middle East. 286 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 2 - World Energy Consumption by Regions Between 1980-2006 180 North America Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu) 160 Central and South America 140 120 Europe 100 80 Eurasia (Eastern Europe & Former Soviet Union) 60 Middle East 40 Africa 20 Asia & Oceania 20 06 20 04 20 02 20 00 19 98 19 96 19 94 19 92 19 90 19 88 19 86 19 84 19 82 19 80 0 Source: EIA 2008, International Energy Annual 2006 Therefore, the effective use of energy economics whets developed countries‘ appetite on one hand, and on the other hand, is of vital importance for developing countries in the long road of development. The new technologies that developed for seeking new fossil fuel reserves, efforts to make existing resources more efficient and investments in alternative energy resources are all indicators that shows us how dynamic the energy economics field is. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Sustainable Development Perspective United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development in their famous Brundtland Report (1987, p. 43) defines sustainable development as follows: ―Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖. In line with this definition sustainable development implies the effective use of finite resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. Contrary to general conception, major part of the energy economics field particularly concerned with fossil fuels or nuclear energy, when proposes procedures to improve the efficiency of their usage in a cleaner and safer way, can make a remarkable contribution to sustainable development field. As the countries continue to develop, their energy needs tend to increase directly proportional to their level of development and to their population. World‘s total energy need is depicted below in Figure 3. According to International Energy Outlook 2009 projections (EIA, 2009), world‘s energy demand will increase substantially in the near future. However, as our primary energy resources are limited, how we will meet these energy needs is a question of effective usage of energy economics in a sustainable development perspective. 287 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 3 - World Total Energy Consumption Realized (1980-2006) & Projections (2007-2030) Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu) 800 700 678 637 600 596 552 508 500 472 400 398 348 300 283 366 308 200 100 0 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2006 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 World Total Source: EIA 2009, International Energy Outlook 2009 At this point, with the help of Table 1 and Table 2 below, we can have an idea about the remaining lifetime of our primary fossil fuels, oil and natural gas respectively. If we keep our present levels of oil production also in the future, then we can observe from Table 1 that on average remaining oil reserve lifetime will be around 58 years. Table 1: World's Top 15 Oil Reserves Countries Oil - Proved reserves Oil Production Oil Production Reserve Life in bbl (2009 est.) bbl/day (2008 est.) bbl annual Years* Saudi Arabia Canada Iran Iraq Kuwait Venezuela United Arab Emirates Russia Libya Nigeria Kazakhstan United States China Qatar Brazil Total 266,700,000,000 178,100,000,000 137,600,000,000 115,000,000,000 101,500,000,000 99,380,000,000 97,800,000,000 79,000,000,000 43,660,000,000 36,220,000,000 30,000,000,000 21,320,000,000 15,550,000,000 15,210,000,000 12,620,000,000 1,249,660,000,000 10,780,000 3,350,000 3,707,000 2,420,000 2,274,000 2,643,000 3,046,000 9,810,000 1,875,000 2,169,000 1,528,000 8,514,000 3,795,000 797,000 2,422,000 59,130,000 3,934,700,000 1,222,750,000 1,353,055,000 883,300,000 830,010,000 964,695,000 1,111,790,000 3,580,650,000 684,375,000 791,685,000 557,720,000 3,107,610,000 1,385,175,000 290,905,000 884,030,000 21,582,450,000 68 146 102 130 122 103 88 22 64 46 54 7 11 52 14 58 * Proved Reserves / Annual Production ratio gives the estimated remaining reserve lifetime, given that production remains constant. Source: All values have been taken from CIA, the World Factbook (2010). With same conditions in effect 62 years will be the approximate reserve lifetime for natural gas as shown in Table 2. Thus, keeping present levels of energy production from limited resources becomes more difficult each day. Consequently, more efficient, alternative solutions are urgently needed in the field of energy economics. 288 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 2: World's Top 20 Natural Gas Reserves Countries Natural Gas - Proved Reserves Natural Gas Production Reserve cubic meters (2009 est.) cubic meters (2008 est.) Years* Russia Iran Qatar Turkmenistan Saudi Arabia United States United Arab Emirates Nigeria Venezuela Algeria EU Iraq Indonesia China Kazakhstan Malaysia Norway Egypt Uzbekistan Canada Total 43,300,000,000,000 29,610,000,000,000 25,260,000,000,000 7,940,000,000,000 7,319,000,000,000 6,731,000,000,000 6,071,000,000,000 5,215,000,000,000 4,840,000,000,000 4,502,000,000,000 3,605,000,000,000 3,170,000,000,000 3,001,000,000,000 2,460,000,000,000 2,407,000,000,000 2,350,000,000,000 2,313,000,000,000 2,190,000,000,000 1,841,000,000,000 1,640,000,000,000 165,765,000,000,000 662,200,000,000 116,300,000,000 76,980,000,000 34,000,000,000 80,440,000,000 582,200,000,000 50,240,000,000 32,820,000,000 24,010,000,000 86,500,000,000 286,590,000,000 1,880,000,000 70,000,000,000 76,100,000,000 35,610,000,000 57,300,000,000 99,200,000,000 62,700,000,000 67,600,000,000 170,900,000,000 2,673,570,000,000 Life in 65 255 328 234 91 12 121 159 202 52 13 1686 43 32 68 41 23 35 27 10 62 * Proved Reserves / Annual Production ratio gives the estimated remaining reserve lifetime, given that production remains constant. Source: All values have been taken from CIA, the World Factbook (2010). In this context the problem of fair allocation of energy resources among nations, within nations and most importantly among generations arises. If we leave the first two to international and domestic politics, then sustainable development is the field to deal with the problem of fair allocation of energy resources among generations. As Van Suntum (2005, p.133) indicates from a sustainable development standpoint, it should be expected that all future generations should have the opportunity to access the energy resources that we use today. But fair allocation of a depletable energy resource among generations is not easy as it sounds. Since depletable energy resources - let say oil - are limited, even if the present generation consumes a little oil, it will nevertheless consume some share of the future generation. Thus, Van Suntum (2005, p. 133) argues that only optimal consumption of oil for the present generation to achieve sustainable development would be zero. However, he also adds, zero-consumption would not generate any benefit for any generation. Therefore, as a theoretical answer to the sustainable development question we can rule out the solutions based on absolute re-allocation of energy resources among generations. Instead the solution lies in either promoting the usage of alternative nondepletable energy resources or making the usage of existing fossil fuels more efficient. Making “It” More Efficient The problem with alternative clean energy resources is that they are either too expensive or inefficient. However, making widely used fossil fuel based energy resources much cleaner and improving safety regulations on nuclear energy usage would definitely yield far more efficient results in energy economics. Moreover, most processes of production and consumption of energy cost environmental damages. Among those damages, most widely known and most notable one is the combustion of fossil fuels which causes the release of greenhouse gases - in particular carbon dioxide - into the air. However, those environmental costs 289 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo are generally not reflected to the prices of energy consumption which in return generates unconscious consumption of energy (Sweeney, 2001). As Sweeney suggests (2001, pp. 20-21), one solution could be assigning monetary values of those costs and therefore, limit the unconscious consumption of energy. From a sustainable development standpoint, as Bertel and Morrison (2001) state nuclear energy - as it embodies long term commitments from decision makers - could also offer an attractive alternative way to approach efficiently to energy economics field. Although investments on nuclear energy is expensive, once ready to use they have low input and operating costs, which will enable them to amortize their initial investment - generally more than two decades (Bertel and Morrison, 2001, p. 14). According to Bertel and Morrison (2001, p. 14), the technical lifetimes of nuclear plants can reach more than 60 years which is in fact in line with sustainable development perspective of decision makers. Moreover, production of nuclear energy process needs limited amounts of resources due to effective energy output of nuclear energy. Natural resources that are inputs for the production of nuclear energy process - mainly uranium and thorium - are relatively cost efficient, easily accessible and are generally only able to be used in the process of nuclear energy production. Easy access to those resources and the opportunity to store nuclear energy for years enable us to overcome any potential supply shortages in the near future. In addition, retrieval of energy from those resources - otherwise would be useless would entail decline in the demand for other energy resources that could inherent environmental damages and thus, contribute more to sustainable development (Bertel and Morrison, 2001, p. 15). Cogeneration process, on the other hand, can offer an effective way in energy use. In this process, energy production is focused on simultaneously generate both thermal and electrical energy. The major advantage of this process is that less input energy is needed to produce the same energy levels than in separate processes (Rosen, 1996, p. 24). Additionally, by using less energy this process releases less waste to the nature, which makes it more economical and safe (Rosen, 1996, p. 24). In his case study for Ontario, Canada, Rosen (1996, pp. 24-26) finds evidence to support the energy efficiency of cogeneration process. He concluded that by using cogeneration in Ontario, Canada, energy-utilization efficiency levels have increased more than they do in independent processes. Due to cogeneration process, energy requirements to satisfy energy demands in the province in question have significantly reduced and thus environmental emissions have reduced accordingly (Rosen, 2001, p. 25). Another viable option to use energy resources can be found in producing energy from coal waste. Prior to this process, coal waste had no value and was stored in the coal mines as piles. High levels of sulfur are inherent in these piles, thus when these piles come into contact with water, they generate acid rains. Today technological advancements allow us to burn this coal waste without creating acid rains or any other environmental damages and generate electrical energy. To sum up, in the long road of attaining sustainable development, using alternative and cleaner ways to produce and consume fossil fuels and applying nuclear energy with improved safety regulations and skilled labor force would be valuable assets. Additionally, sound governmental institutions that will back up the efficient energy economics policies in the long-run and altruistic politicians that will not decide policies based on whether or not they will be re-elected in the next term, would be remarkably important to achieve sustainable development. References Bertel, E., and R. Morrison, (2001), Nuclear Energy Economics in a Sustainable Development Perspective, NEA News, No. 19:1, pp.14-17. CIA, the World Factbook, the online Factbook, (2010), https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/rankorderguide.html (accessed: May 09, 2010). Lairson, T. D., and D. Skidmore, (1993), International Political Economy - The Struggle for Power and Wealth, Harcourt Brace Collage Publishers. Rosen, M., (1996), Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Development, IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, Winter 1996/1997, pp.21-28. Sweeney, J. L., (2001), Economics of Energy, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 4.9, Article: 48. United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, (1987), Our Common Future (The Brundtlund Report) Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2008, International Energy Annual 2006, http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/wecbtu.html (accessed: May 09, 2010). 290 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2009, International Energy Outlook 2009, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html (accessed: May 09, 2010). Van Suntum, U., (2005), The Invisible Hand Economic Thought Yesterday and Today, Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 291 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 182 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Energy Economics in Sustainable Development Author Author KANDEMİR, Tuğrul GÖRGÜLÜ, Mehmet Emre Abstract A summary of the resource. For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. Sustainable development on the other hand - most broadly - implies the effective use of resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Therefore, this paper promotes the effective use of energy resources for a growing country from both perspectives of energy economics and sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/83705c838deeadb9132877dbc0b90171.pdf f050ad05c52467feada986f4142ff618 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The Role Of Innovation In The Development Of South Korea Sibel Yegül, Ayse Durgun, Dilek Memisoglu Abstract In recent years, innovation and innovative science have completely become a manufacturing factor. Countries which comprehended the importance of innovation activities earlier than others and which developed their policies accordingly are now among developed countries. And, South Korea has become one of the most important ones of these countries. The subject of this study covers the South Korean economy, the role of innovation in the development of South Korea and development processes of innovation in South Korea. Keywords: Innovation, South Korea, Development, Development Processes 1.INTRODUCTION Economic growth can be achieved in long term mainly through information and innovation of new technologies. Today, countries with high technology levels are on their way to gain total control of all economic areas, starting with the industry. In brief, technology has become the single and the most important determinant of competitive advantage among countries. Therefore, countries with a technological superiority play a determining role on an international level not only in the increase of social welfare and life standards but also in the distribution of World's limited resources. Innovation has a huge place in the economy and development of South Korea which took its place among G20 countries. South Korea has understood the importance of innovation at a very early stage and built its development exclusively on innovation and change processes. 1.1. SOUTH KOREA ECONOMY After World War II, Paris Peace Treaties were signed as a result of Paris Peace Conference in 1945. Upon the recommendation of Truman, powerless countries were given the chance to determine their own future. With this decision, South Korea gained its independence like tens of others. Between the years 1945 and 1953, Korea had a very weak economy and an unsatisfactory industrial structure. In the course of these years, the most apparent feature of the Korean economy is the exportation of primary products and importation of manufacturing products. In this period, almost the whole exportation activity of Korea consisted of agricultural products and raw materials. (Sung, 1992:77). Between 1953 and 1962, various economic policies were implemented in order to restructure the Korean economy, initiate rapid development and eliminate economic stagnation. Despite political instability and increasing inflation which appeared at that time, targeted economic policies were 453 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo applied. Syngman Rhee left his mark on the period between 1945 and 1961 by carrying out ultranationalist policies throughout his mandate. (Koo and Kim, 1992:123) South Korea led its economic development in accordance with five year-development plans. The first of such plans came into effect in 1962. Initially, the State made common cause with private sector and gave particular importance to big private sector companies. In the beginning, development of big companies was facilitated in order to improve foreign trade and then, the attention was redirected to the development of small and medium enterprises within the framework of implemented policies. (Karabiber, 1997:2) When Korea decided to prioritize exportation-oriented industrialization in 1960, companies which were supposed to do it adapted their organization to these new strategies under the conditions of that period. In addition to this, adequately trained, highly motivated and wellprepared workforce took its place in this rapid development, too. In 1960, the State tried to build its economic policies and choices on five principals. These principals included development of highly qualified workforce, stable and regular marcoeconomic policies, creation of efficient and secure financial markets, minimization of price fluctuations, development of agricultural sector and importation of foreign technologies. Intervening measures determined by the State for the success of economic policies include export promotion, control of financial markets, causerelated direct credits, discriminative and different supporting stimulus measures. Furthermore, the success of basic economic policies had depended on such different factors as protection of technicians and bureaucrats from political abuse by selection and employment of well-trained professionals, restructuring of the State organization, continuous follow-up of objectives predefined within the State's basic economic policies and industrialization strategy as well as timely and appropriate realization of corrections (TÜSİAD (Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association), Görüş Dergisi (Görüş Magazine), 1996: 32-36). Years Billion Korean Wons Billion $ Per Capita Growth Rate Income in $ 454 1993 265,517 330 7,484 5.8 1994 303,772 378 8,467 8.6 1995 348,979 452 10,037 9.0 1996 386,640 480 10,548 6.9 1997 450,853 437 9,511 4.9 1998 443,127 316 6,823 -5.8 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 1999 483,800 406 8,581 10.7 Table 1: General Economic Conditions (1993-1999) Source: Turkish Embassy of Seoul, Trade Consultancy Office,http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr Access Date, January 25, 2012) Table 1 displays general economic conditions of South Korea between the years 1993-1999. While the growth rate in 1993 is 5.8%, it progressively increased and reached 9.0% in 1995. Even though a certain decrease can be observed in 1995, this rate climbed to 10.7% in 1999. 2. THE ROLE OF INNOVATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH KOREA South Korea can be seen as the most striking example in the subject of "keeping up with the state-of-the-art technology". Korea is one of the eight Asian countries which were indicated by the World Bank (1993) to experience a "miraculous" growth between 1965 and 1990 and particularly, the electronics industry had seen a major advancement within these 25 years. R&D activities have been highly privileged in South Korea. 'They have built research centres, technology parks and zones where industry and technology come together since 1960' (Kozlu, 1995:29) 2.1. DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF INNOVATION IN SOUTH KOREA Innovation activities which have played an important role in the development of South Korea are analysed under 2 main categories as follows; R&D Activities Miraculous economic growth of South Korea and its superior ability in scientific and technological fields require even more developed and dynamic research and development activities because the rate of development and growth is very high since 1980. In 1980s, the government shifted its focus from industrial policies to technological policies. This shift resulted in a significant increase of R&D expenditure, particularly in the private sector. The share of private sector in total R&D expenditure increased from 32% in 1971 to 80% in 1987 (Hassink, 2001:8). South Korea's investments in the field of technology increased twenty times from $480 Million in 1980 to $10 Billion in 2000 while at the same time, the rate of technological investment per domestic product increased from 0.84% to 2.68%. Even in the middle of foreign currency crises occurred in 1997-98 and successive economic crises, South Korea had achieved to increase its R&D investments to USD3.85 billion in 2002, in other words, from 3.6% to 4.7% of total government budget. The number of scientific and technological experts increased from 18,500 in 1980 to 160,000 in 2000 (South Korea Guide: 16) 455 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Years Research and High-technology Researchers in Technicians in development Expenditure exports (current billion R&D (per million R&D (per (% of GDP) US$) people) million people) 1996 2.42 27,416.00 2,209.32 635.47 1997 2.48 31,182.00 2,262.26 581.43 1998 2.34 30,645.00 2,022.51 534.23 1999 2.25 41,080.00 2,173.24 567.33 2000 2.30 53,950.00 2,334.09 456.65 2001 2.47 40,042.00 2,919.01 456.34 2002 2.40 46,600.00 3,022.83 499.02 2003 2.49 57,160.00 3,206.99 570.90 2004 2.68 75,742.00 3,298.11 585.35 2005 2.79 83,526.00 3,780.23 552.31 2006 3.01 92,944.00 4,186.86 586.94 2007 3.21 110,633.00 4,627.16 719.93 Table 2: R&D Indicators between 1996-2007 Source: The World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org/ , Access Date: January 25, 2012) As can be seen from Table 2, R&D expenditure/GDP rate of South Korea in 1996 was 2.42% while this rate reaches 3.21% in 2007. High technology exportation amounts to 27 billion Dollars in 1996 while this amount is 110 billion Dollars in 2007. Private companies called "Chaebol" contributed to the South Korean economy at a large scale since they dominate the economy. Especially, 5 big Chaebols possessed the majority of Korean patents in 1990. Along with the positive influence of R&D on yield, big enterprises planned out a special management and tended to make expansions in this matter. In 2000, 4 big Chaebols, Samsung, LG, Hyundai and SK, spent 4,731 billion Korean Wons for R&D activities and this trend continued in 2001, as well. While private companies made a R&D expansion of 20% in 2000, this rate is only 9% in laboratories, institutes and universities controlled by the government (Luthria and Maskus: 144) In 1997, South Korean private sector made the 77% of R&D expenditure of the country and this trend has persisted afterwards. High-end technology was the main subject of increasingly popular 456 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo R&D investments and a great deal of effort was put into attracting South Korean engineers working in American companies. Engineers who agreed to return have played a key role in the learning process and have had positive influences on the yield of research activities of Korean companies. On the other hand, Korean government contributed to these activities, too, by following an adequate policy (Luthria and Maskus: 145-146). 2.2.Scientific and Technological Activities: South Korea is one of the OECD countries which allocate the largest share to R&D from GNP. But the role of government in the resources allocated to R&D is rather low. Accordingly, finance and performance are mostly under the control of private sector. It has been observed that universities put a lot of effort into R&D activities. The number of R&D employees within universities is at the same level as the European average. Korea takes the fifth position regarding total patent numbers with a global percentage of 5%. This great number of patents is mostly the contribution of Chaebols, notably Samsung. Patent percentages; Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. (40%) Daewoo Electronics (9.7%) LG Semiconductor Co. Ltd (7.2%) LG Electronics Inc. (6.6%) Hyundai Electronics Ind. Co. Ltd. (6.5%) Patent numbers have the foregoing distribution within the country. (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office Report, 1998: 75). The government founded in April 1999 the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) in order to reinforce the coordination of national scientific and technological policies. The reasons of foundation of the NSTC include the recent decrease in the number of young people who choose to build a career on a science or technology-related subject in comparison with previous years as well as the increase of concern for yield due to high amount of investments in science and technology. Having the main objective to coordinate essential policies targeting scientific and technological advancement, to broaden investments in science and technology and to define the priorities of national R&D programmes, the NSTC targets at the same time to increase the yield of expansion-oriented R&D activities related to information technology, bioengineering, nanotechnology, environmental technology, cultural technology and space science. The NSTC is composed of 19 cabinet members working in the field of science and technology. The president chairs the council. The government planned to establish a National Research Scholarship System in order to increase the motivation of scientists and engineers. Thus, researchers who dedicate themselves to their work will be rewarded with prizes of the president and will have access to the benefits of a pension fund thanks to research funds. In addition, the government actively tries to internationalize the R&D activities of South Korea in terms of the competition among global R&D networks and currents. As a result of this, Korea incrementally opened its R&D projects to foreign institutes in order to form a quality research environment for leading foreign investors and local scientists. 457 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The government increased basic research investments budget from 19% in 2002 to 25% in 2006 and encouraged 400,000 experts in six nationally strategic fields in 2005 in order to support basic research activities and highly capable, creative researchers and scientists. These nationally strategic fields are information technology, bioengineering, nanotechnology and space science as well as environmental and cultural technologies. This has also permitted to take numerous steps towards the augmentation of women talents in technological development. Some measures taken with regard to this subject include women employment, a quota system and positive discrimination towards women concerning employment in scientific and technological fields. (Foreign Information Service of Korea, South Korea Guide: 16). 3.CONCLUSION Innovation stands for the implementation of new methods and practices within cultural, social and administrative environments. Innovation can be achieved in all fields. South Korea succeeded in accomplishing a striking development of innovation and attracting high levels of attention thanks to its economic development. In 1980s, South Korea saw a rapid technological development in addition to a significant growth and advancement. Growth and advancement were attained as a result of innovative undertakings as well as the importance given to education, skills development, human resources and workforce. The secret to this success consists mostly of their R&D activities, the importance given to the technology, prioritization of innovation and acceleration of education and advancement. They have taken important steps in the path of competing with developed countries and experienced various change processes. The prominent factor of these change processes is the development of innovation and making a government policy out of it. South Korea's investments in the field of technology and innovation increased twenty times from $480 Million in 1980 to $10 Billion in 2000 while at the same time, the rate of technological investment per domestic product increased from 0.84% to 2.68%. In 1997, private sector raised its R&D expenditure and initiated investments in high-end technology. When engineers working in American companies agreed to return, they played a key role and contributed to the yield of Korean companies. Korean government contributed to this development by implementing adequate policies, too. In conclusion, South Korea has built its development strategy upon innovation. And to that end, it followed other countries like the United States who achieved their development in a similar way. They have accomplished the learning and development processes thanks to innovation. Big private business enterprises called Chaebols have gained more and more importance in the economy, and the State and the private sector have acted in concert with regard to the development strategy. South Korea is now among those countries which have developed though innovation. REFERENCES Amabile T.; Conti R., Coon H. (1996), et al, "Assessing the Workplace for Creativity", Academy of Management. 458 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Cabral R., (1998)"Refining the Cabral-Dahab Science Park Management Paradigm", Int. J. Technology Management, Vol.16. Donald W. M. & Bruckner C. (2003), The Ultimate Competitive Advantage: Secrets of Continually Developing a More Profitable Business Model, Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Foreign Information Service of Korea, "South Korea Guide". Görüş Dergisi (Görüş Magazine), (September-October 1996)TÜSİAD (Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association). Hassink R., “Towards Regionally embedded Innovation Support Systems in South Korea?”, Urban Studies, 00420980, Vol.38, Issue.8, Jul.2001. Karabiber M. (1997), “Kore Kalkınmasının Temelleri ve Türk-Kore İlişkileri” (Foundations of the Korean Development and Turkish-Korean Relations), Undersecretariat of Treasury of the Turkish Prime Ministry, Directorate General of Economic Researches, Koo H. and Kim E. M. (1992), “The Developmental State and Capital accumulation in South Korea”, States and Development in the Asian Pacific Rim, London: Sage Publications. Kozlu, C. (1995), Türkiye Mucizesi İçin Vizyon Arayışları ve Asya Modelleri (Seeking Vision for Turkish Miracle and Asian Models), İş Bankası Yayınları (Eds.) Luthria M., Maskus K., “Protecting Industrial Inventions, Authors’ Rights, and Traditional Knowledge: Relevance, Lessons, and Unresolved Issues”, the World Bank and University of Colorado at Bouldert. Osterwalder A.( 2012), http://www.businessmodelalchemist.com/, Sung M. P., “Korea Leading Developing Nations: Economy, Democracy, and Welfare", University Press of America, 1992. The World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org/ , (Access Date: January 25, 2012) Turkish Embassy of Seoul, Trade Consultancy Office, "General Economic Conditions of the Republic of Korea and its Economic and Commercial Relations with Turkey", June 2010, Seoul. Turkish Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade, http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr, (Access Date: January 25, 2012). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office Report, 1998. 459 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1353 Title A name given to the resource The Role Of Innovation In The Development Of South Korea Author Author Sibel , Yegül Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, innovation and innovative science have completely become a manufacturing factor. Countries which comprehended the importance of innovation activities earlier than others and which developed their policies accordingly are now among developed countries. And, South Korea has become one of the most important ones of these countries. The subject of this study covers the South Korean economy, the role of innovation in the development of South Korea and development processes of innovation in South Korea. Keywords: Innovation, South Korea, Development, Development Processes Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3364 Title A name given to the resource THE ROLE OF INPUT PROCESSING INSTRUCTION IN THE L2 ACQUISITION OF COMPLEX SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES Author Author Trenc, Andreja Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper is concerned with the applicability of psycholinguistic findings made in the process of acquisition of complex syntactic structures in Spanish as a Second Language. It is argued that the observed errors which occur in impersonal structures in the Spanish Language in foreign learners' interpretation and production can be related to certain default principles which focus the learner's conscious attention on syntactical forms in a preferred, yet not always grammatically correct order. It has been claimed that assignation of the first noun as a subject or agent by default (this is known as First Noun Strategy) may explain the great difficulties which a learner encounters when attempting to correctly interpret the role of the first noun in impersonal and passive structures (such as the impersonal »se« structures in Spanish, the Passive Voice in English, subject-object shifts in languages with flexible word order, etc.). The paper proposes that a didactic means which is found in the input processing model (first introduced by VanPatten, 1996) can be used for the creation of a counter algorithm to this natural strategy. This enables the learner to correctly assign the order of syntactic functions in complex structures during the early stage of acquisition. Empirical observations based on pilot-testing of the input processing model with university undergraduates are presented which argue in favour of the benefits of the use of such an algorithm for the acquisition of impersonal structures in Spanish as a Second Language, as well as its methodological relevance for English Passive Structures and a more learner-centred approach. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English