304 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/11fc1e8fda1938b21e3a1bb7e37ecae8.pdf cc7ba7650433ed1cd25acf03ba9d2ea2 PDF Text Text Effects of Different Irrigation Programs on Growth, Yield, and Fruit Quality of Drip-Irrigated Melon in Dardanelles (Çanakkale) Troia region Murat Tekiner 1Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Irrigation and Farm Structure, Turkey mtekiner@yahoo.com Canan Öztokat Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture, Turkey cananoztokat@yahoo.com Đsmail Taş Harran University Agriculture Faculty, Department of Irrigation and Farm Structure, Turkey tas_ismail@yahoo.com Abstract : This research was carried out under field conditions to determine the best proper irrigation interval and amount of irrigation water for pineapple type melon. Evaporations from class-A pan were taken into consideration to determine the amounts of irrigation water to be applied. Three different irrigation intervals (I1= 4 days, I2=8 days and I3=12 days) and four different pan coefficients (Kcp1= 0.50, Kcp2= 1.00, Kcp3= 1.50, Kcp4= 2.00) were used to calculate the amounts of irrigation water. Total amounts of irrigation water varied between 168 – 871 mm and yields varied between 14.20-49.04 Mg.ha-1. The highest yield was obtained from the largest irrigation interval with the lowest pan coefficient (I3Kcp1). Introduction Province of Çanakkale is located over the Biga peninsula in northwest of Turkey. Total surface area of the province is 993 300 ha and 330 337 ha of this area is allocated for agricultural purposes and 111.047 ha (34%) of this agricultural lands is irrigable. However, 73 643 ha of irrigable portion is now under irrigation and 37 404 ha (33.7%) is used under dry conditions. Drip and sprinkler irrigation systems are used over 90% of irrigated lands (ÇTĐM, 2010). Melon (Cucumis melo L.) is an annual fruit with hairy body and superior aroma. Since it has summer and winter varieties, it is consumed all around the year. Turkey with proper climate conditions has a significant role in melon production (Sakaldaş et al. 2009). World melon production is 20 million tons and China meets 6.6 million tons (34.5%) of this world production and Turkey has the second place in production with 1.8 million ton (9.4%) (BATEM, 2010). Melon has the 4th place after tomato, pepper and watermelon among the vegetables produced in Çanakkale and total melon production of the year 2008 was 19 000 tons from 10 855 da land area (ÇTĐM, 2010). Irrigation at proper time with the proper amounts of water is a critical issue to provide optimum yield and quality in plant production. Srinivas et. al. (1989) indicated melon yields of 12-15 Mg.ha-1 under dry conditions and 25-30 Mg.ha-1 under irrigated conditions (Dogan et al. 2008). Sousa et. al. (1999) carried out drip irrigation research for melon over sandy soils of Brazil and applied irrigation intervals of 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 days. Researchers observed that 0.5 and 1 day intervals yielded the highest marketable yields. In another study carried out in Iran, Alizadeh Khazai et al. (1999) used furrow and drip irrigation systems and 25, 50% water deficits for melon over silty soils. Researchers obtained the highest yield from drip irrigation with full irrigation (Yıldırım et al. 2009). Faberio et al. (2002) applied water deficits at flowering, fruit formation and ripening periods of melon and investigated impacts of water deficit on fruit 144 �yield and quality and observed that melon had the highest sensitivity against water deficit at fruit formation period. Barros et al. (2002) applied different amounts of irrigation water (233.8, 222.4, 204.4, 183.5, 158.9 ve 132.2 mm) and nitrogenous fertilizer (0, 75, 150 ve 300 kg.ha-1) and received the highest yield with 222.4 mm irrigation water and 209.2 kg ha-1 application (Şengül 2009). Researchers also indicated that increased amounts of irrigation water instead of nitrogen fertilization didn’t increase the yield. In another research, 6 different amount of irrigation water (0-25-50-75-100 and 125%) determined by using Class-A Pan evaporation data and applied by using surface and subsurface drip irrigation system was studied and the highest yield was obtained from 83% of pan coefficient for subsurface system and 92% of pan coefficient for surface system (Dogan et al. 2008). Cabello et al. (2009) studied the effects of different irrigations and nitrogen fertilization on melon yield and indicated that yield didn’t decrease at 90% irrigation with 90 kg.ha-1 nitrogen fertilization. As it was seen all above literature and researches, irrigation interval and amounts of irrigation water are significant issue for melon yield and quality. In this study, proper irrigation interval and amount of irrigation water providing the optimum yield and quality were tried to be determined for pineapple type (Carna F1) melon. This variety is preferred among the producers of the region. Materials and Methods Field experiments were carried out over the fields of a farmer in Çıplak village at Troia Region of central town of Canakkale Province. Research field is located at 39° 57’ north latitudes and 26° 16’ east longitudes. Pineapple type Carna F1 variety melon was used as the material of the study. Climate of the region is Mediterranean and Black Sea transition climate. According to long-term averages of the nearest meteorological station, annual average temperature of the region is 14.9°C, average total precipitation is 599 mm, average relative humidity is 76%, average wind speed is 3.9 m.s-1 (Anonymous, 2005). Climate data for the year 2009 were presented in Table 1. Mounts 1 2 3 4 Wind Speed 5.5 3.9 3.7 5.0 (m/s) Relative 78.0 78.0 76.1 Humidity 83.2 (%) Temperature 7.8 7.2 8.8 12.2 (°C) Precipitation 22.6 175.2 169.2 119.8 (mm) Source: Turkish State Meteorological Service 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3.1 3.1 3.5 4.6 3.8 3.6 2.6 5.8 61.8 64.4 58.5 62.8 71.5 81.6 81.7 72.0 18.4 22.7 26.4 25.3 20.6 17.6 12.5 11.0 10.8 11.4 0.0 0.0 88.2 39.2 65.8 237.1 Table 1. Data of Canakkale Meteorological station for the year 2009 Soils of experimental fields have medium texture with 23.2% field capacity, 13.5% permanent wilting point and 1.35 g.cm-3 unit weight. Ground water table and impervious barrier were not observed within or around the plots; there were not any drainage problems over the experimental fields. Topography was smooth or close to smooth with maximum 2% slope. Readily available pressurized pipe system was used to receive water and drip irrigation system was applied for irrigations. Three different irrigation intervals (I1= 4 days, I2= 8 days and I3= 12 days) and four different pan coefficients (Kcp1= 0.50, Kcp2= 1.00, Kcp3= 1.50, Kcp4= 2.00) were used as the treatments of the study. All the treatments were irrigated at amounts calculated by the equation given in Doorenbos and Pruitt (1992) until the date of harvest. I = Epan. A.Kcp.P where I irrigation water amounts (mm), Epan evaporation from a standard class A pan (mm), A plot area (m2), Kcp crop pan coefficients (0.50, 1.00, 1.50, 2.00), and P crop coverage (%). Evapotranspiration (ET ) was calculated in accordance with Allen et al. (1998); 145 �ET = I + P ± ∆s where P is precipitation (mm) and ∆s is the change in soil profile water content (mm). Experiments were performed in splitted randomized block design with 3 replications. Seed were planted at 1.20 x 0.60 spacing (row spacing x inner row seed spacing) on 29th of May 2009. There were 4 rows in each plot and 6 plants on each row; therefore there were a total of 24 plants in each plot. A row from each side and top and bottom plants of each row were separated for side effect and 8 plants were observed in each plot. Two hoeing and fungicide applications were performed during the growing period. Fertilization was performed before the plantation with 10 kg.da-1 NH4NO3, 25 kg.da-1 super phosphate and 12 kg.da-1 potassium sulphate. Remaining nitrogenous fertilizer was applied as urea and ammonium sulphate at the rate of 8 kg.da-1. Three harvests were performed on 20th of August, 25th of August and 2nd of September. Yield (Mg.ha–1), single fruit weight (g), fruit width (mm), fruit length (mm), length of seed cavity (mm), flesh thickness (mm), flesh firmness (kg.cm-2), amount of water-soluble dry matter (Brix) (%) and taste analysis were carried out to determine the yield and quality parameters. For flesh firmness determination, 1cm2 area of 3 different point from each fruit for the penetration force measurements were individually recorded using a 5/16 (8 mm) diameter probe on a penetrometer (Bishop, Italy). TSS concentration was determined in each fruit with a digital refractometer Atago PAL-1 (Atago Co. Ltd., Japan) at 20°C. Fruit taste was graded by 10 experienced panelists using a 1 to 5 scale (1: very bad, 2: bad, 3: acceptable, 4: good, 5: very good) for each replicate. Data were subjected to ANOVA test for statistical analysis and “Minitab 15” statistical software was used for statistical analysis. Differences among the averages were tested according to LSD test at P=0.05 significance levels. Results and Conclusions The best irrigation program was tried to be determined for Carna F1 melon cultivar over the farmer fields during the year 2009. The variety was found to be highly resistant to drought and fruits were large. Statistical analyses for yield and quality parameters were carried out and results were given in Table 2. Yield Mean fruit Irrigation ET Width Treatmen amounts weight (Mg.ha– (mm) (mm) t 1 ) (mm) (g) I1 I2 I3 Kcp 1 Kcp 2 Kcp 3 Kcp 4 Kcp 1 Kcp 2 Kcp 3 Kcp 4 Kcp 1 182 336.5 20.65e 3166bcd 528 388 673.0 21.55e 2519g 478 2978def 534 3406bc 533 622 856 1009. 17.66f 5 1346. 16.72f 0 176 327.5 34.35b 3444b 525 380 655.0 29.65c 2776efg 493 611 982.5 24.04d 3045cde 519 871 1310. 14.20g 0 3423b 524 168 303.5 69.04a 3851a 540 146 Lengt Flesh Flesh Lengt h of Thicknes Firmnes h Seed °Brix Taste s s(kg.cm (mm) House -2 ) (mm) (mm) bcd b 634 500 631a 0.623d 11.60de 2.7a 569e 422f 662abc 445def 644bcd 486bc 670abc 498b 617d 453de 641bcd 470cd 677ab 537a 692a 499b 549h 0.643cd 11.83cde 4.3ab 615ab 0.567de 13.62a 605bcd 0.589d 11.66de 2.7e 587def 0.582d 11.68de 4.3ab 558gh 0.604d 12.66bc 4.7a 591ede 0.698bcd 12.33bcd 3.9bcd 566fgh 0.786bc 12.65bc 4.2abc 609bc 0.431e 11.43e 3.5d 3.6cd �Kcp 370 607.0 28.96c 2970def 496 2 Kcp 603 910.5 26.28d 2629fg 494 3 1214. Kcp 869 508 15.66fg 3283bcd 0 4 2.297 361.8 NS LSD (0.05)* * LSD (0.05) irrigation interval x pan coefficient (IxKcp) 635bcd 452de 605de 430ef 631cd 437ef 43.75 26.12 562gh 0.788bc 12.57bc 4.3ab 572efg 0.814b 12.32bcd 4.7a 593bcde 0.999a 13.00ab 4.3ab 22.05 0.1499 0.833 0.6003 Table 2. Statistical analysis results for yield and quality parameters Yield per hectare was found to be significant at p<0.05 level and the highest yield was obtained from the treatment I3-Kcp1 with 49.04 Mg.ha-1 and the lowest was observed in I2-Kcp4 treatment with 14.20 Mg.ha-1. Irrigation intervals and pan coefficients were found to be significant among themselves at p<0.05 level, the best irrigation interval was determined as I3 (12 days) with pan coefficient of Kcp1 (0.5). On the contrary to other melon varieties, yield increases in Carna F1 variety with increased irrigation interval and reduced amount of irrigation water. This can be seen clearly from water-yield relation graphs in Figure 1. With regard to regression analysis, the highest water-yield relationship was observed in I3 treatment with 12 days irrigation interval (R2=0.99). Şalk et.al. (2008) stated that some Thracian farmers were making melon production under dry conditions without any irrigation and they had well yields. With regard to single fruit weight, IxKcp interaction was found to be significant and as it was in the yield per hectare I3-Kcp1 treatment had the highest fruit weight with 3851 g. Fruit weight of I2-Kcp4 was also high (3423 g) but the yield of this treatment was low since fruit per plant was low in this treatment. The lowest fruit weight was observed in I1-Kcp2 treatment with 2519 g. With regard to fruit width, interaction of treatments was not found to be significant but pan coefficients were found to be significant. The lowest fruit width was observed in Kcp2 treatment. Treatment I3-Kcp1 was in front of the group with regard to fruit length (692mm). Pew and Gardner (1983) mentioned about lower size fruit production of local producers with irrigation practices (Şengül, 2009). The highest seed house size was observed in I2Kcp4 treatment (537 mm), the lowest was observed in I1-Kcp2 treatment (422 mm). With regard to flesh thickness, the highest value was observed in I2-Kcp4 treatment (692 mm) and the lowest in I1-Kcp2 treatment (549 mm) and IxKcp interaction was found to be significant for both parameters at p<0.05 levels. I1 (4 days) 23 22 2 y = -0,00001x + 0,00075x + 21,19907 -1 Yield (Mg ha ) 21 2 R = 0,81633 20 19 18 17 FY= -0,00001W2 + 0,00075W + 21,19 16 15 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 -1 Irrigation Water (mm season ) 147 700 800 900 �38 I2 (8 days) Yield (Mg ha-1) 34 2 y = -0,00002x - 0,01078x + 36,62020 30 2 R = 0,99849 26 22 18 FY= 0.00002W2 – 0.01078W + 36.62 14 10 0 200 400 600 Irrigation Water (mm season-1) 50 -1 1000 I3 (12 days) 60 Yield (Mg ha ) 800 y = 1294,63x 40 -0,64 2 R = 0,93 30 20 FY= 1294.63W-0,64 R2 = 0.93 10 0 0 200 400 600 -1 Irrigation Water (mm season ) 800 1000 Fig. 1. Relationship between seasonal applied irrigation water (W) and plant fruit yield (FY) for irrigation interval Flesh firmness is among the most significant parameters determining fruit quality and post-harvest physiology. The highest flesh firmness value was observed in I1-Kcp2 treatment with 0.99 kg.cm-2 and lowest in I3-Kcp1 treatment with 0.43 kg.cm-2. Flesh firmness increased with increased irrigation interval and pan coefficient. Sakaldaş et.al. (2009) stated longer shelf lives for pineapple type melons with higher flesh firmness. Water-soluble dry matter amounts were also found to be significant (p<0.05) like flesh firmness and increased with increasing irrigation interval. The treatment I1-Kcp3 has the highest value with 13.62% and I3-Kcp1 had the lowest with 11.43%. Brix is one of the easiest way to determine the harvest time and this value can reach to 13-17% under high temperatures (Şalk et.al. 2008). Faberio et al. (2002) indicated that water deficit applied at flowering period might negatively affect the fruit quality but increase the rate of sugar in fruits. The lowest Brix value was observed in I3-Kcp1 treatment and the lowest flesh firmness was also observed in this treatment. The taste value of the same group was 3.6 (above average). In other words, although the aforesaid treatment had lower Brix and flesh firmness values than the other treatments, it had allowable shelf life and taste value. Results of taste evaluations were found to be significant (p<0.05) and lowest value was observed in I1-Kcp1 and I1-Kcp4 treatments with 2.7. Based on the results obtained from this study, I3-Kcp2 treatment was found to be the best alternative for regional producers with regard to yield and quality. However, in case of possible water deficiencies in the future, I3-Kcp1 or I2-Kcp2 treatments may be selected. Further researches can be carried 148 �out for the same melon variety with pan coefficients ranging between 0.0 -1.00 and irrigation intervals between 8-12 days and outcomes of these researches should be delivered to local producers. On the other hand bigger melon fruits have some disadvantages in terms of marketing demands but fruits obtained from best irrigation treatment can be used in the point of its harmony according to the changing needs in terms of different consuming types like fresh cut etc. References Alizadeh, K.A., J.M. Baghani, and G.M. Haghnia (1999). Effect of deficit irrigation by drip and furrow systems on the yield and quality of melon at Mashad, Iran. In: 17th ICID Int. Congress on Irrig. and Drain., 1(C), Granada-Spain, 263269. Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No: 56. Food and Agr. Organization, Rome. Anonymous (2005). DMĐ Genel Müdürlüğü 1975-2005 Meteoroloji Bülteni, Ankara. Barros, V. da S., Costa, R.N.T., Aguiar, J.V. de, da S. Barros, V., de Aguiar, J.V. (2002). Irrigation and nitrogen fertilization effect on melon crop yield. IRRIGA. 7 (2), 98-105. Batem (2010). http://www.batem.gov.tr/urunler/sebzelerimiz/kavun/kavun.htm. (Access date: 16.04.2010) Cabello, M.J., Castellanos, M.T., Romojaro, F., Martínez-Madrid, C. and F. Ribas. 2009. Yield and quality of melon grown under different irrigation and nitrogen rates. Agricultural Water Management. 96 (5). 866-874. Çtim (2010). http://www.canakkale-tarim.gov.tr/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=72 (Access date: 15.04.2010) Dogan, E., Kirnak, H., Berekatoglu K., Bilgel, L. and A. Surucu (2008). Water Stress Imposed on Muskmelon (Cucumis Melo L.) with Subsurface and Surface Drip Irrigation Systems under Semi-Arid Climatic Conditions. Irrigation science, 26. 131-138. Doorenbos J. and Pruitt W.O. (1992). Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. FAO. irrigation and drainage. No: 24, Rome. Faberio, C., Martin Santa Olalla F. and J.A. de Juan (2002). Production of muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) under controlled deficit irrigation in a semi-arid climate. Agricultural Water Management. 54 (2). 93-105. Pew, W.D. and Gardner, B.R., (1983). Effects of irrigation practices on vine growth, yield and quality of muskmelons. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108, 134-137. Sakaldaş M., Öztakat C. ve K. Kaynaş (2009). Hasat Sonrası 1-Methylcyclopropane Uygulamalarının Farklı Sıcaklık Derecelerinde Depolanan Kavunlarda (Cucumis Melo L. Cv. Dellteks F1) Meyve Kalitesi Üzerine Olan Etkileri. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Zirat Fakültesi Dergisi. 4 (1). 1-9. Şalk, A., Arın, L., Deveci, M., Bolat, S. (2008). Özel Sebzecilik. Onur Grafik matbaacılık ve Reklam Hizmetleri. Đstanbul. ISBN:978-9944-0786-0-3 Sousa, V.F. de, Coelho E.F. and V.A.B. de Sousa (1999). Irrigation frequency in melon cultivated in sandy soil. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 34 (4) 659-664. Srinivas K, Hegde DM, Havanagi GV (1989). Plant water relations, canopy temperature, yield and water-use efficiency of atermelon (Citrullus Lanatus (Thunb.)) under drip and furrow irrigation. Aust J Agric Res 6 (1).115-124. Şengül N. (2008). Damla Yöntemiyle Sulanan Kavunda Farklı Sulama Programlarının Meyve Verimi ve Kalitesi Üzerine Etkileri. Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bil. Enst. Doktora Tezi. 111 s. Yıldırım O., Halloran N., Çavuşoğlu, Ş. Şengül., N. (2009). Effects of different irrigation programs on the growth, yield, and fruit quality of drip-irrigated melon. Turk. J. Agric. For., 33. 243-255. 149 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 344 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Different Irrigation Programs on Growth, Yield, and Fruit Quality of Drip-Irrigated Melon in Dardanelles (Çanakkale) Troia region Author Author Tekiner, Murat Öztokat, Canan Tas, İsmail Abstract A summary of the resource. This research was carried out under field conditions to determine the best proper irrigation interval and amount of irrigation water for pineapple type melon. Evaporations from class-A pan were taken into consideration to determine the amounts of irrigation water to be applied. Three different irrigation intervals (I1= 4 days, I2=8 days and I3=12 days) and four different pan coefficients (Kcp1= 0.50, Kcp2= 1.00, Kcp3= 1.50, Kcp4= 2.00) were used to calculate the amounts of irrigation water. Total amounts of irrigation water varied between 168 – 871 mm and yields varied between 14.20-49.04 Mg.ha-1. The highest yield was obtained from the largest irrigation interval with the lowest pan coefficient (I3Kcp1). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6be136695b21ea2f49d727045dd590be.pdf 8f3e1bf45f199291444751e5836e855c PDF Text Text Konya Basin Agriculture-Environment Relationships and Sustainability Ramazan Topak Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Farm Buildings and Irrigation Department, Konya-Turkey rtopak@selcuk.edu.tr Bilal Acar Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Farm Buildings and Irrigation Department, Konya-Turkey biacar@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Soil and water resources have to be used efficiently due to the having agricultural potential in Konya Basin. In this study, soil and water potential of Konya Basin, its use in agriculture and problems resulted from the agriculture and sustainability were analyzed with detail. Nowadays in such basin, some problems have observed about the sustainable agriculture, water resources and environmental sustainability issues. The reason is excess water uses in agriculture. Agriculture performed in the present form has led to the excess water uses in agriculture. The most important cause of excess water use is increase of the planting areas of highly water consumption crops and adding highly water consumption new crops to the crop pattern. In this study, it has estimated that irrigation areas in basin have increased by unplanned and senseless, available water potential of basin is insufficient for these areas and unavailable ground water potential of 1.4 billion m3 has extracted. In the other word, for irrigation areas, usable water resources are not enough. To solve the problems related to water and sustainable water resources; excess water uses from the basin resources should be stopped and only consumable water potential must be used. In addition, use of waste water and drainage water, developing crop varieties resisted to the drought and salinity conditions, establishment of new irrigation techniques and use of irrigation technologies that are highly efficient are necessarily prerequisite. Keywords: Agricultural Production, Water Use, Irrigation-Environment Relationships, Sustainability, Konya Basin. Introduction Arid and semi-arid climates are more dominated in the world and consist of 26.3% of the total continents. The arid and semi-arid climates account of 12.1% and 14.2%, respectively (Akman 1992). Drought is one of the most common environmental stresses that may limit agricultural production worldwide. However, in many countries as a consequence of global climate changes and environmental pollution, water use for agriculture is reduced. Water resources are limited for irrigation worldwide; therefore, there is a need for water-saving irrigation practices to be explored. Agriculture is the largest single user of water with 70% of freshwater being currently used for irrigation worldwide (Gerbens-Leenes & Nonhebel 2004). In some cases, it draws up to 90% of the total water available (Allan 1998). Water resources are declining worldwide (Shahnazari et al. 2007) and are already scarce in nearly 80 countries with more than 40% population of the world (Qadir et al. 2003). Projections for 2030 indicate that water withdrawal for irrigation will increase by about 14% because of the increase in the irrigated area from 18% to 34% worldwide (Anonymous 2006). Planning and management for an accurate estimation of irrigation demand by agriculture at a large scale have thus become a main issue worldwide (Maton et al. 2005). Increasing the efficiency of water use within agricultural systems could, therefore, be a necessity for sustainable agricultural development on the global, regional and national level. 204 �Annual rainfall is almost 672 mm in Turkey and semi-arid climate region is presence. Annual available water potential of Turkey is 1540 m3 per capita and according to this, Turkey is a water poor country. Konya closed basin, average annual 378 mm rainfall, has almost arid climate. Therefore, total semi-arid lands of the world are 14.2% and land potential of Konya basin is within semi-arid lands of the world. In the near past (10-15 year before), the water potential of basin was 900 m3, but it has reduced from this value in recently. Under present conditions, 88% available water potential has allocated for agriculture (Anonymous 2007) and currently agriculture has 90% of total water consumption in basin. However, present irrigated agriculture has resulted excess uses of basin water resources (Topak et al. 2008; Anonymous 2007; Göçmez et al. 2008). In this study, soil and water resources potentials of Konya basin, irrigation and water use status in agriculture were analyzed with detail by considering present problems and some projections about sustainability were discussed. The Konya Basin Location There are 25 main river basins in Turkey (Figure 1). Konya Closed Basin is 4th biggest basin according to its precipitation area which is 53850 km2 (approximately 7% of Turkey’s area) (Figure 2). Some characteristics of the basin have been given below. Konya Closed Basin consists of two closed subbasins that known as Tuz Lake Basin and Konya Basin (Figure 2). These are two of several drainless areas of the Central Anatolian Plateau, which is itself also a closed basin (De Meester 1971). Each of the basins is characterized by the presence of a large lake, respectively Tuz Lake and Beyşehir Lake (see Figure 2). Tuz Lake is fed by three major rivers, several ephemeral streams, one manmade drain channel (Camur & Mutlu 1995) and groundwater. Konya basin is fed by rivers and groundwater coming mainly from the south and by melt water and rainfall from the mountain range bordering the basin in the south (Fontunge et al. 1999). Besides the two large lakes, numerous smaller fresh water bodies, wetlands and salt steppes are present. Figure 1. Basin in Turkey and position of Konya Closed Basin 205 �Figure 2. Konya Closed Basin (Schipper & Schot, 2004) Climate and Drought LONG TERMS The annual precipitation varies from 280 mm to 350 mm in most parts of the Konya Basin and is the second grade drought region of Turkey according to the rainfall amount. This area is in Southern part of Middle Anatolia Region within curve of Konya, Karaman and Ulukışla provinces. Rainfall amounts in some important agricultural locations within this curve are given in Table 1. MONTHS 6 7 Stations 1 2 3 4 5 Seydişehi r Beyşehir 125. 0 68.6 45.1 Cihanbey li Ereğli 31.2 Çumra 36.8 Karapına r Konya 29.0 Karaman 36.0 62. 7 50. 4 51. 0 43. 1 44. 0 44. 0 36. 5 39. 5 34. 6 25.5 42.8 73. 9 46. 4 36. 1 32. 4 30. 3 32. 9 26. 5 26. 5 33. 9 46.4 Kulu 91. 1 49. 2 33. 4 30. 8 25. 8 28. 5 23. 5 24. 1 36. 2 30.0 34.8 8 9 10 11 12 10.2 11.5 14.7 55.3 23.5 8.6 8.8 15.1 42.3 101. 1 60.9 142. 4 76.0 48.6 28.9 12.9 6.9 12.5 28.7 40.8 51.4 37.4 23.7 7.6 5.1 9.9 27.1 36.1 37.1 38.2 23.9 5.3 3.9 6.6 22.6 28.7 35.2 39.2 19.0 5.9 3.3 7.5 31.6 35.3 42.5 36.1 26.2 5.6 3.1 7.1 20.5 29.2 36.5 43.5 21.9 7.9 5.5 10.0 32.4 36.1 41.4 37.8 25.3 3.3 7.2 7.3 22.1 24.8 42.5 206 Tota l 759. 8 494. 9 394. 0 321. 0 294. 5 326. 5 278. 8 323. 6 311. 0 �Niğde 32.8 Evaporati on - 33. 2 - 38. 6 - 47. 8 94. 9 40.8 24.6 4.1 6.0 10.8 28.7 25.2 39.2 161. 0 216. 0 277. 0 255. 0 184. 0 107. 0 24.4 3.1 330. 0 1322 .4 Table 1. Long Term Rainfall in Some Important Locations in Second Drought Lands at Konya Basin (mm) (Topak et al. 2008). Following results may be obtained by considering the rainfall records in basin: • Semi-arid climate is dominated. • Annual rainfall distribution is not uniform in different seasons. • In general, rainfall reduces at the end of the spring and almost none precipitation is observed in summers. • The rainfall is insufficient and not uniformly distributed during the crop growth period. • In Konya Closed Basin, severe agricultural drought may be seen for all agricultural crops. • Irrigation is a necessarily prerequisite for agricultural production under these conditions. Konya basin has the arid climate due to the geographical position, rainfall amount and not uniform distribution. It is the special region due to having agricultural drought. As we all know that agricultural drought is not recently occurred in such basin. In recently, the increase of the cultivated land used for high water consumption in Konya plain, transition to the new crop cultivation such as maize and senseless water uses have accelerated the excess water uses. This situation has resulted water level depletion in groundwater so that hydrological drought has observed in Konya basin. Agricultural Potential of Basin Soil and Water Potential Most parts of Konya, Karaman, Niğde and Aksaray cities belong to the Konya basin. Total arable land potential of those cities is 3.158 million hectare and accounts of 12.2% of total arable land of Turkey. The 72.5% of total amount is Konya plain. On the other hand, it has the 2.5% of total available water potential of Turkey (Table 2). Water resources of basin are mostly groundwater and very scant. Agricultural Land Available Water Potential (million ha) % (million ha) % Basin (Konya, Karaman, Aksaray, Niğde) 3.158* 12.2 2.74** 2.5 TURKEY 26.0* 100 110 100 Table 2. Arable and Available Water Potential in Both Konya Basin and Turkey *:Anonymous 2008 **:Anonymous 2007 Annual available water potential is 1540 m3/person in Turkey and almost 900 m3/person in Konya basin. The water potential, available water for irrigation and drinking-residential usage, allocated amount for usage and estimated usage in present condition are presented in Table 3. Water Resources Surface Annual Potential General Basin 5.949 Available Water Potential Finally Available Open for Usage Agriculture Residential Agriculture Residential 1.000 0.069 0.900 0.047 207 �Groundwater Total 1.671 7.620 1.360 2.360 0.311 0.380 1.408 2.308 0.263 0.311 Table 3. Water potential and Available Water potential in Konya Basin (billion m3 /year ) (Topak et al. 2008) It is possible to make some evaluations by analyzing the Table 3. These are as follows; • Available water potential of basin is 2.74 billion m3 and 2.36 billion m3 (86.1%) of it is allocated for agriculture, • Available groundwater potential of Basin is 1.671 billion m3 and 81.4% of this is allocated for agriculture, Crop Patterns of Basin According to the Turkish Statistical Organization (TUIK) records, in general of basin, the fallowing and field crops cultivated lands are 40% and 60%, respectively. Cereals are mostly dominated. The most common cereals are wheat (57%) and barley (33%). The 17.2% of the agricultural land of basin was opened to the irrigation but, dry farming has been performed in other parts. In dry areas, winter sowing cereals, chickpea and lentil crops etc. have growth. Although agricultural drought is very serious in basin, 10% of the total wheat production is obtained from such basin. The sugar beet cultivation land and production in basin are 21% and 35% of Turkey, respectively. Therefore, industry fed by agricultural production is common in such basin. For instance, there are 6 sugar beet factories in basin and 4 of them are in Konya province. The crops types and patterns of Konya basin are presented in Table 4. Area Cereals ha % 1567910 79.1 Field crops Grain Oil crops Legumes StarchSugar crops 154000 7.8 160000 8.0 15000 0.8 Forage crops Vegetable 41000 2.0 45000 2.3 Table 4. The Fallowing Lands and Crop Patterns in Konya Basin *(% ) (Topak et al. 2008) *:2000-2006 (7 years mean) Irrigation and Structure of Irrigated Agriculture The irrigated land with project or without project of basin is almost 542118 ha. The irrigated land with project of 370000 ha is in Konya plain. According to the TUIK records of 7 years means (2001-2007), crop patterns in irrigated lands of basin are given in Table 5. Crops Area Winter wheat Sugar beet Beans ha 203,836 111,130 % 37.6 20.5 Maize (grain+silage) Potato Sunflower Vegetable Alfalfa Others 33,174 28,413 42,541 14,920 43,739 31,448 33,677 6.1 5.2 7.8 2.7 8.1 5.8 6.2 Table 5. Crop Patterns in Irrigated Lands of Konya Basin, % (Topak et al. 2008) According to the Table 5; • The 85% of the winter cereals are not irrigated (production is performed under rainfed conditions). • The winter cereals production area is 37.5% of the irrigated lands of Basin. 208 �• In irrigated lands, the major crop is sugar beet (20.5%) and the percentages of production of vegetable, potato, dry bean, maize, alfalfa-sainfoin and others are 8.1%, 7.8%, 6.1%, 5.2%, 5.8%, 8.9%, respectively with a total of 62.5%. Irrigation Water Requirement and Water Use In a study conducted by Topak et al. (2008), crop patterns in irrigated conditions, net water requirement and water amounts used in irrigation are present in Table 6. Crops grown in irrigated-area Area Winter wheat Sugar beet ha 203,836 111,130a % 37.6 20.5 Net water 499 783 requirement 1167 Water used 815 (Billion m3/year Total water use(Billion m3/year) Basin General Irrigation Efficiency Beans Maize (grain+silage) Potato Sunflower Vegetable Alfalfa Others 33,174 6.1 158.8 28,413 5.2 177.8 42,541 7.8 228.2 14,920 2.7 73.2 43,739 8.1 309.5 31,448 5.8 314.4 33,677 6.2 168.0 158.8 177.8 228.2 73.2 309.5 314.4 168.0 3.69 73% Table 6. Crop Pattern, Crop Water Consumption, Net Water Requirement and Total Water Use in Konya Basin (Topak et al. 2008) According to the Table 6, in basin general (Topak et al. 2008); • In the exception of winter cereals, it is impossible to growth crops without irrigation. • The largest cultivated lands of high evapotranspiration crops in basin are 33% (sugar beet) and vegetable (13%), respectively • Sugar beet is the most water consumption with a value of 1.167 billion m3. • In basin irrigated lands, net irrigation water requirements of crops are 2.707 billion m3. • In present estimation, annual consumed water in agriculture for basin is almost 3.690 billion m3. • In basin, irrigation efficiency is 73% and this value is quite good. The reason of high irrigation efficiency is that irrigation water is mainly obtained from groundwater and sprinkler irrigation system has been intensely used. • A remarkable example is that only water consumption of maize crop (227 million m3) is 1.5 fold of water that will be obtained from Bağbaşı Dam. Evaluation of Present Case In order to evaluate the water uses in arable lands of basin, water potential allocated for use, amounts of potential according to resources, net water requirement for present irrigated areas, amount of water uses in present irrigated area and distribution of water used according to resources should be known. These are presented in Table 7. Resources Surface Finally Available Water Potential * (billion m3) Total Agriculture 1.509 1.390 Present Available Water Potential* (billion m3) Total Agriculture 0.947 0.900 209 Net Water Requirement in Present Irrigated Area ** (billion m3) Present Water Uses in Agriculture** (billionm3) 0.900 �Groundwater Total 1.671 3.180 1.360 2.750 1.671 2.618 1.408 2.308 2.707 2.790 3.690 Table 7. Available Water Potential of Basin, Net Water Requirement of Irrigated Lands and Water Uses in Irrigated Areas. *: Anonymous 2007 **:Topak et al. 2008 According to Table 7, net irrigation water requirement of crops in basin is almost 2.707 billion m3 for present open the irrigation area of 542000 ha. This is 0.4 (2.707-2.308= 0.4) billion m3 higher than present water potential allocated for irrigation (2.308 billion m3). Irrigation water used basin agriculture is estimated as 3.690 billion m3. However, according to DSI 4th Central Directorate records, the water allocated for agriculture and residential uses are 2.308 billion m3 and 0.263 billion m3, respectively. According to the data, annual 1.382 billion m3 (3.690-2.308=1.382) more basin water resources have been used in agriculture. A total of 3.690 billion m3 water is used in basin agriculture and 2.790 billion m3 of groundwater and 0.9 billion m3 of surface water resources. To use the water from the surface resources, planned water conveyance and distribution networks are necessary. In currently, available water potential of surface water resources conveyed by irrigation networks is almost 0.9 billion m3 in basin (Anonymous 2007). It is obviously seen that the used excess water of 1.382 billion m3 (3.690-2.308=1.382) in basin agriculture is obtained from groundwater resources. However, groundwater potential allocated for agriculture is limited as 1.408 billion m3 but ground water potential used in basin agriculture is 2.790 billion m3 in present condition and is two fold of water potential allocated for utilization. Reasons of excess water use Crop Patterns and Size of The Irrigation Area Although the safely available water potential of basin is 2.308 billion m3, net irrigation water requirement of irrigated area is 2.707 billion m3 under present condition. This is the main and maybe the most important reason of excess water uses in basin. It means that net water requirement of irrigated area is notably greater than the available water potential of basin. There are two reasons; firstly maize crop having high water consuming has added to present crop patterns of basin so that irrigated land of those crops has increased. Second is the most important reason that the cultivated land of high water consuming crops has increased by two fold. In summary, land of high water consuming crops has increased in last 5-6 years. Irrigation Efficiency The low irrigation efficiency is an indicator of excess water utilization. In present study, general irrigation efficiency is almost 73% (Table 7) and can be acceptable as good value. This 73% irrigation efficiency shows that farmers in basin do not apply excess water and the effect of farmer’s irrigation on excess groundwater uses is very little. The high irrigation efficiency may be resulted from two main reasons. The first, sprinkler irrigation systems are very common in Konya plain and others or second, the farmers have applied irrigation water with required amounts. By using the groundwater in sprinkler systems, irrigation efficiency may be reached up to the 85% under well planned and operated systems (Keller& Bliesner 1990; Clemmens &Dedrick 1994; Topak 1996; Topak et al. 2005). There are 200780 sprinkler systems in Turkey and 46589 (23.2%) of them are in Konya basin (Anonymous 2008). However there are 95000 open wells in basin and this shows that the number of the sprinkler systems are higher than 46589 (75000-8000). Thus, irrigation efficiency may be increased up to 83-85% and 10% water saving in groundwater potential will be realized under such conditions. In previous study conducted in Konya Plain results also showed that irrigation efficiency could be increased from 73% to 85%. According to a research carried out in Konya-Çumra Plain, water application efficiency and evaporation losses were found as 80% and 10%, respectively in sprinkler systems (Topak 1996; Topak et al. 2005). It is possible to increase the irrigation efficiency by organizing the education program for farmers related to the irrigation program and 210 �proper design and operation of sprinkler systems. Nowadays, the effect of farmer irrigation applications on excess groundwater uses in basin irrigation is very low (10%). Importance of water in Society People especially in rural areas and other whole society are senseless about the importance of water resources and dangers of drought. The main reason is poor organization of the civil society organization (CSO). Reliable projections in basin: sustainability Total safely available water potential of basin agriculture for current conditions has allocated as 2.308 billion m3 (Anonymous 2007). In respect to the sustainability of water resources, water use in agriculture has to be limited by available safely water potential of 2.308 billion m3/ year. On the other hand, new solutions about the more efficient available water use in water allocated to the agriculture must be studied. Projections about solutions are summarized as follows. Present Crop Pattern and Remain of Current Irrigation Applications In this condition, allowed water in agriculture for basin is 2.308 billion m3/ year and this can irrigate 340 000 ha land. Under this condition, 200 000 ha of total 542 000 ha, opened the irrigation, will be reduced. This projection can not be accepted as a solution. Thus, some alternative solutions must be developed for irrigation land size of 542 000 ha. Improvement of Irrigation Efficiency in Accordance of Current Crop Patterns It possible to increase irrigation efficiency from 0.73 to 0.85. Especially in sprinkler irrigation water is directly obtained from groundwater and irrigation efficiency can be as 85% in well design and managed systems ( Keller & Bliesner 1990; Clemmens & Dedrick 1994; Topak 1996; Topak et al. 2005 ). Under same conditions, efficiency will be also over 85% in drip irrigation. In such case, 384 000 ha land size will be irrigated by 2.308 billion m3 available water potential. This means that current irrigation land size is reduces as 30%. This shows that obtaining target irrigation efficiency is not only solution for improvement of current situation. Changes in Crop Patterns Changes of crop patterns in irrigated areas of basin is necessary prerequisite for sustainability. Land size of high water consuming crops can be reduced and land size of low water consuming crops may be increased or alternative crops can be included to the patterns. However, it is necessary rigid radical decisions to change the crop patterns for preventing the excess water uses in basin under present conditions. High water consuming crops in basin are sugar beet, potato and maize. It can be overcome this problem by 50% land size reduction of such crops even grain maize completely can be count out from the pattern. New Irrigation Techniques Use Result More Low Water Use and Improvement in Irrigation Efficiency Under Present Crop Patterns Beside use of conventional irrigation techniques, application of full crop water requirement, new deficit irrigation techniques, not resulted significant yield reduction, must be applied. These techniques are prerequisite in water shortage and large land size conditions and some studies show that these are suitable for mainly sugar beet and then potato, maize, wheat, sunflower, bean and some vegetables. For instance, if we make a 25% deficit in present consuming water of basin, water amount will be 2.75 billion m3 instead of 3.69 billion m3 and it means that there is a 0.925 billion m3 more low water use from ground water resources. Irrigated land will still remain as 542 000 ha. 211 �Conclusion In summary, irrigated agriculture results in two fold more irrigation water uses than amount of groundwater potential allocated safely uses under present conditions. The main reason of excess water uses is that crop patterns in basin are high water consuming crops and the cultivated lands of those crops have increased. The utilization of water in agriculture is 92.2% under present conditions at basin. If this trend continues, groundwater potential of basin will be wiped out in near future. Thus, irrigated agriculture in basin accelerates the wipe out of the groundwater resources in current conditions. In basin, irrigation agriculture should be performed by allocated water amount and this is necessary prerequisite for sustainability. References Akman, Y. (1992). Đklim ve Bioiklim. Palme Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara (in Turkish). Allan, J.A. (1998). Virtual water: a strategic resource, global solutions to regional deficits. Ground Water 36, 545–546. Anonymous. (2006). Water: A Shared Responsibility. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001444/144409E.pdf (accessed 19 January 2010). Anonymous. (2007). Present Water Resources of Konya Basin, Facing problems, Preferential Projects and Turn out Solution Proposals. General Directotare of State Hydraulic Works, 4 th Reginal Directorship, Konya. Anonymous. (2008). htttp://www.tuik.gov.tr Camur M.Z. & Mutlu H. (1995). Major-ion geochemistry and mineralogy of the salt lake (Tuz Gölü) basin,Turkey. Chemical Geology, 127, 313-329. Clemmens, A.J & Dedrick, A. R. (1994). Irrigation Techniques and Evaluation, Tanji, K. K., Yanon, B (Eds.), Advances in Series in Agricltural Sciences, Springer, Berlin, 64-103. Fontunge M., Kuzucuoğlu M., Karabiyikoğlu, C., Hatté C & Pastre J.F. (1999). From Pleniglacial to Holocene: a 14C chronostratigraphy of environmental changes in the Konya Plain, Turkey. Quaternary Science Reviews 18, 573 – 591. Gerbens-Leenes, P.W & Nonhebel, S. (2004) Critical water requirements for food, methodology and policy consequences for food security. Food Policy, 29, 547–564. Göçmez, G., Dıvrak, B.B & Đş, G. (2008). A Research Summary Report on Determination of Groundwate Changes in Konya Closed Basin. WWF- Turkey (in Turkish). Keller, j & Bliesner, R. D. (1990). Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation. AVI Book. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Ne York. Maton L., Leenhardt D., Goulard M., & Bergez J.-E. (2005) Assessing the irrigation strategies over a wide geographical area from structural data about farming systems. Agricultural Systems, 86, 293–311. De Meester, T. (1971). Highly Calcareous Lacustrine Soils in the Great Konya Basin, Turkey. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen. Qadir, M., Boers Th.M., Schubert S., Ghafoor, A & Murtaza, G. (2003) Agricultural water management in waterstarved countries: challenges and opportunities. Agricultural Water Management, 62, 165–185. Schipper, AM & Schot, PP. (2004). A Water Balance Model for Konya Closed Basin (Turkey). http://www.ru.nl/contents/pages/34390/websitemk-reportaschipper.pdf Shahnazari, A., Liu, F., Andersen, M.N., Jacobsen, S.E & Jensen C.R. (2007) Effects of partial root-zone drying on yield, tuber size and water use efficiency in potato under field conditions. Field Crops Research, 100, 117–124. 212 �Topak, R., Süheri, S., Çiftçi, N & Acar, B. (2005). Performance evaluation of sprinkler irrigation in a semi-arid area. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 8 (1), 97-103. Topak, R. (1996). Application Problems in Konya-Çumra Plain Sprinkler Irrigated Lands. PhD Thesis Konya (Unpublished). Topak, R., Süheri, S., & Acar, B. (2008). Đklim-Tarımsal Kuraklık-Sulama ve Çevre Etkileşimi Yönünden Konya Havzası. Konya Kapalı Havzası Yer altı Suyu ve Kuraklık Konferansı, 11-12 Eylül 2008, Bildiri Kitabı, Konya, 67-76 (in Turkish). 213 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 388 Title A name given to the resource Konya Basin Agriculture-Environment Relationships and Sustainability Author Author Topak, Ramazan Acar, Bilal Abstract A summary of the resource. Soil and water resources have to be used efficiently due to the having agricultural potential in Konya Basin. In this study, soil and water potential of Konya Basin, its use in agriculture and problems resulted from the agriculture and sustainability were analyzed with detail. Nowadays in such basin, some problems have observed about the sustainable agriculture, water resources and environmental sustainability issues. The reason is excess water uses in agriculture. Agriculture performed in the present form has led to the excess water uses in agriculture. The most important cause of excess water use is increase of the planting areas of highly water consumption crops and adding highly water consumption new crops to the crop pattern. In this study, it has estimated that irrigation areas in basin have increased by unplanned and senseless, available water potential of basin is insufficient for these areas and unavailable ground water potential of 1.4 billion m3 has extracted. In the other word, for irrigation areas, usable water resources are not enough. To solve the problems related to water and sustainable water resources; excess water uses from the basin resources should be stopped and only consumable water potential must be used. In addition, use of waste water and drainage water, developing crop varieties resisted to the drought and salinity conditions, establishment of new irrigation techniques and use of irrigation technologies that are highly efficient are necessarily prerequisite. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/09c7901b588d1cb9a10bd7847ec28ae6.pdf e8e4890977c0a631c7fda47f28e0b3b0 PDF Text Text Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti6Al4V Substrate by Biomimetic Method Mustafa Toparli Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Turkey mustafa.toparli@deu.edu.tr Ahmet Pasinli Ege University, Technical Vocational School of Higher Education, Turkey ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr Hasan Yıldız Ege University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Turkey hasan.yildiz@ege.edu.tr Erdal Celik Dokuz Eylul University,Faculty of Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Turkey erdal.celik@deu.edu.tr Rıfat Sami Aksoy Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Turkey, sami.aksoy@deu.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings on Ti6Al4V substrates by biomimetic technique was investigated. In this context, thin and continuous HA coatings were first deposited onto Ti6Al4V implant plates by immersion in 1, 1.5 and 3 times concentrated simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37 °C for different times at pH=7.4. The HA layers were formed in the range of 6 and 19 µm thick. The obtained coatings were characterized by XRD, optical microscope, SEM, surface roughness and microhardness machines. The experimental results clearly show that the biomimetic approach has coated them with HA globular crystals having various diameters. It was found that the coating structure was affected by solution concentration. Introduction Biomaterials have been used to replace or support the human organs or tissues in many years. These materials are classified into four groups as metals, ceramics, polymers and composites (Gumusderelioglu, 2002). Biocompatibility is considered as the most important feature in biomaterials, allowing the surrounding tissue to differentiate normally and preventing undesired reactions such as infection and blood clot (Wintermantel et al., 1996; Bajpai et al., in Yamamuro et al., 1980). Titanium (Ti) and its alloys are the materials of choice for most dental and orthopaedic applications. The many advantages of these materials include high compatibility with the surrounding tissue, good resistance to corrosion, and excellent mechanical properties. However, bone response and implant success depend on the chemical and physical properties of the surface. The integration with bone tissue can be improved and accelerated by the presence of a calcium phosphate (HA) coating onto the metal implant surface (Van Noort, 1987; Bigi et al., 2005). Hydroxyapatite (HA: Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) is a calcium phosphate based bioceramic material and widely applied to the biomaterials for bone tissue implantation due to its good biocompatibility, osteoconductivity and bioactivity as well as the similarity to the inorganic component of the hard tissues in natural bones, and the HA coatings have been extensively applied with the aim of improving fixation between hard tissue and metal implants (Browne & Gregson, 1994; Bayraktar & Tas, 1999; Bigi et al., 2005). In addition, synthetic HA is a biocompatible prosthetic material, bonding strongly to the bone and promoting the formation of bone tissue on 275 �its surface. The HA is mostly used in clinics for making artificial bone due to its biocompatibility (to be used in various prostheses), treating cracks and fractures in the bone and coating of metallic biomaterials (Abe et al., 1990; Tas, 2000; Miao et al., 2005). For these applications, different methods such as plasma spray (Tong et al., 1995), high velocity oxy fuel spray (Li et al., 2002), sol-gel (Milella et al., 2001; Hsieh et al., 2002), electrochemical (Ban & Maruno, 1993), laser ablation (Katto et al., 2002), electrophoretic (Zhitomirsky, 1998), dip coating (Mavis & Tas, 200) and biomimetic are used to coat implant materials with HA. Nonetheless, there have been some problems in the application. The major problem is the gradual weakening of the bond between coating and metal surface. This problem occurs due to the low bonding strength of the coating material (Ishikawa et al., 1997; Nishio et al., 200; Yang & Chang, 2001). Of these methods, one of the most promising techniques for producing HA coatings is the biomimetic approach, which mimics the mineralisation process of bone. The biomimetic route utilises supersaturated aqueous solutions with ionic composition similar to that of human plasma, it allows to coat complex-shaped materials, and to co-precipitate biologically active molecules with apatite crystals onto metal implants (Abe et al., 1990;Browne & Gregson, 1994; Bayraktar & Tas, 1999; Bigi et al., 2005). This situation sometimes necessitates a second operation on patients with implant, which is not desired because of health and financial concerns (Demircioglu et al., 2004). Strengthening and stabilizing the bond between metal surface and HA coating could prevent this from occurring. In addition to the one above, there are some inherent problems associated with these methods. These problems are (a) complex preparation procedures, (b) application of high temperatures which cause structural damages either on host (Ti6Al4V) or coating material, (c) getting unwanted phases in coatings, (d) employing complex equipment, (e) high cost, and (f) bonding strength that depends upon coating thickness (Weng & Baptista, 1999). Because of the difficulties listed above, biomimetic method is chosen. In this method, HA coating is realized in a simple biocompatible environment (under the conditions of human body temperature of 37 ºC and pH=7.4) with chemical in-situ sedimentation method, where no high temperature is applied (Kokubo, 1998). The aim of the present study was to deposit the HA coatings on Ti6Al4V implant substrates by biomimetic technique. The obtained coatings were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and microhardness tester. Experimental procedure Commercial Ti6Al4V alloy substrates (sample size Ø 19.05×1 mm and 3×5×15 mm) were used in the study. The samples were abraded by SiC sandpaper numbers such as 400, 800 and 1200, then washed with acetone and distilled water in an ultrasonic cleaner. The HA coatings were prepared by subjecting the metal to a chemical surface treatment to provide a surface layer conducive to apatite formation in a body environment. The HA layers were formed by soaking in a simulated body fluid (SBF) with pH and ion concentrations (pH 7.40, Na+ 142.0, K+ 5.0, Ca2+ 2.5, Mg2+ 1.5, Cl− 125.0, HCO3− 27.0, HPO42− 1.0, SO42− 0.5 mM) nearly equal to those of human blood plasma. Chemical compositions of SBF solutions were listed in Table 1. Commercially available Ti6Al4V alloy was subjected to 5.0 M NaOH treatment at 60°C for 24 h and subsequently to thermal treatment at 600°C for 1 h, and then soaked in SBF, see [Figure 1]. Chemical precursors g/l 1 SBF mg / 250 1.5 SBF mg/ 250 3 SBF mg / 250 ml ml ml NaCl 6.547 1.6368 2.455 4.910 NaHCO3 2.268 0.5670 0.851 1.701 KCl 0.378 0.0933 0.140 0.280 Na2HPO4.2H2O 0.178 0.0445 0.067 0.134 MgCl2.6H2O 0.305 0.0763 0.114 0.229 CaCl2.2H2O 0.368 0.0920 0.138 0.276 276 �Na2SO4 0.071 0.0178 0.027 0.053 (CH2OH)3CNH2 6.057 1.5143 2.271 4.543 Table 1: Chemical compositions of SBF Figure 1: Coating stages for the HA formation The film structures were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD; Philips X’pert pro) with CuKα radiation 40 kV 200 mA at a scanning speed of 4.00°/min with a scanning range (2θ) from 25° to 45°. The microstructure of sample surface was observed under scanning electron microscopes (SEM-Philips XL 30S FEG), Cross-sections of the films were observed and thickness was measured by optical microscopy (Nickon Eclipse ME600) with image analyzer Lucia 4.1 programme. The surface roughness of the coating was measured using a standard surface roughness machine. The microhardness of the coatings was measured by using a standard microhardness tester with Vickers indenter. The load applied on the samples was 0.98 N and the indentation was applied for 15 s. Five readings were taken for each sample. Results and Discussion Figure 2 shows XRD patterns of HA coatings on Ti6Al4V alloy substrate by using biomimetic method. Small and broad HA peaks were obtained at 2θ of 25.70, 29.32, 32.14 and 40.34 corresponding to (002), (210), (211), 277 �(310) and (113) orientations for the samples that were immersed for 30 days in the 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions. These peak locations were validated and appeared much sharper when the SBF solution was changed from 1.5 SBF to 3 SBF. Similar results can be found in Reference (Baker et al., 2006). It is also clear from Fig. 2 that Ti peaks were obtained at 2θ of 40.26, 35.25, 38.47 and 53.20 corresponding to (001), (010), (002) and (012) orientations respectively. After chemical and heat treatment processes, Na-titanate and TiO2 peaks having rutile and anatase phases were determined from XRD patterns. Rutile TiO2 peaks were determined at 2θ of 27.40, 35.98 and 48.10. It is believed that the TiO2 phases were formed between HA coating and the substrate after heat treatment process as reported (Kukobo, 1998; Li et al., 2002; Baker et al., 2006). In as much as NaOH was chemically treated with HA coatings on Ti6Al4V substrate and the SBF solutions had Na+ ions, NaTiO2, Na2Ti5O11 and Na2TiO3 phases were formed in the coatings. We have a good agreement with research of Takadama’s team. Takadama et al. (2001) commented that the peak values of 2θ=23.31° and 48° in addition to Ti peaks occurred as a result of sodium titanate (Na2Ti5O11) and rutile (TiO2) crystals during their XRD investigation of biomimetic study. In addition to these, Kim at al. (1997) investigated the effects of heat treatment performed at different temperatures (400-800oC) on the apatite formation on chemically treated metal surfaces. Because peak point around 23°, 29° and 48° after the heat treatment at 600 oC were found to be related to sodium titanate hydrogel layer, gel layer was started to turn into Na2Ti5O11 and rutile TiO2 at 600 °C. After 7 days of soaking, the apatite phase was formed at all temperatures. As a result, the apatite coating of titanium implants after chemical and heat treatments increased the bone-implant interface bonding strength, and thus this method was found to be advantageous for load bearing implants. Figure 2: XRD pattern of the HA coatings prepared on Ti6Al4V alloy substrate from (a) 1.5 (top pattern) and (b) 3 SBF (bottom pattern) solutions by using biomimetic method. Characteristic peaks are found at approximately 25.70, 29.32, 32.14, and 40.34 2θ. The most intense peaks correspond to titanium Figure 3 demonstrates cross-sectional optical micrograph of the HA coating on the Ti6Al4V substrate. Thickness of the coatings was measured by using optical microscope for different SBF concentrations. As listed in Table 2, the thicknesses of coatings were in the range of 6.50 µm and 18 µm. It is obvious from Fig. 3 that the structure with sodium titanate was formed on the substrate and the HA started to nucleate and grow in SBF solutions after periods of 4, 12 and 19 days. After obtaining homogeneous HA coatings, the thicknesses of coatings prepared from 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions were found to be as 6.78, 8.93 and 18.25 µm respectively. From these results, it can be concluded that coating thickness increased with increasing the solution concentration. When Ti alloy substrate which had been polished to remove its surface oxide layer was soaked in 3 SBF solutions with ion concentrations 3 times those of SBF, a dense layer of apatite was formed on its surface. The apatite nuclei grew spontaneously by consuming the calcium and phosphate ions from SBF solution. 278 �Figure 3: The cross-sectional optical micrograph of HA coating on the Ti6Al4V substrate The resultant apatite layer was tightly bonded to Ti-based substrate, since it is integrated to the Ti alloy substrate through the hydrated titita and titanium oxide which are gradually changed in their concentration (Kokubo, 1998). Furthermore, surface roughness values of the coatings prepared from 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions were found to be 1.9, 2.2 and 2.6 respectively. In this context, it is said that surface roughness of the HA coatings increased as solution concentration and coating thickness increased as shown in Table 2. Solution concentration Coating thickness (µ µm) Surface roughness (µ µm) 1 SBF 6.50 1.8-2.0 1.5 SBF 10.50 2.0-2.4 3 SBF 18.25 2.0-2.8 Table 2: Thicknesses and surface roughness of the HA coatings Figure 4 depicts surface morphologies of the HA coatings with different concentrations such as 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF concentrations. When the coating thickness increased, cracks were observed from SEM studies. The layers were dense and uniform in thickness, showing some cracks of several tens of microns in length as shown in Fig. 3. The homogeneous HA coatings were formed from diluted SBF solutions. Spherical particles having diameters between 1-5 µm and porous structure of HA crystals are shown in coating with 1.5 SBF at different magnifications in Figure 4.a. However, the structures having cracks were coated from viscous SBF solutions, see [Figure 4.b]. The cracks were formed as a function of solution concentration and coating thickness as explained elsewhere (Barrere et al., 2002; Tas & Bhaduri, 2004). 279 �(a) (b) Figure 4: Surface morphologies of the HA coatings with different concentrations such as (a) 1.5 and (b) 3.0 SBF concentrations. The cracks in SEM micrographs were formed during heat-treatment owing to thermal expansion and thick coating. It is also obvious from SEM observations that the HA coatings have some spherical grain and porosity. Since the coating on the surface is thin, the metal surface is visible through the coating and the apatite nuclei were started to deposit at the peak points of the rough surface. The coating was uniform and contained small particles having diameters about 1-2 µm. It is concluded that the small particles on the surface were found to be important for adhesion and bigger particles affected coating homogeneity. Microhardness values of surface of coating, HA coating and substrate amounted about 343, 445 and 230 HV, respectively (Table 3). The surface microhardness of HA coating is lower than that of coating layer because some inhomogeneities such as open porosity, cracks and so on. In the future, in in-vivo studies, minimum coating thickness can be determined for metal implant surface thus the SBF concentration and soaking time can be optimized. Also, coating adhesion strength can be modeled numerically; effects of coating thickness, coating surface area on the adhesion can be investigated. Conclusion The HA coatings were deposited on Ti6Al4V implant substrates from SBF solutions by biomimetic technique. HA, Ti, TiO2, NaTiO2, Na2Ti5O11 and Na2TiO3 phases were found from XRD study. The thickness of coatings was ranged from 6.50 µm to 18 µm. As the solution concentration is increased the coating thickness increased. The homogeneous HA coating was formed in diluted SBF solutions. The cracks were formed as a function of solution concentration and coating thickness. The HA coatings have some spherical grain and porosity. Microhardness values of surface of coating, HA coating and substrate were measured about 343, 445 and 230 HV, respectively. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Mustafa Demircioglu at Ege University, Izmir for the technical help and Dr. I. Cevdet Alptekin at HIPOKRAT Company, Izmir for some chemical precursors and Ti6Al4V substrates. Also, we specially would like to thank Dr. A. Cuneyt Tas at University of Clemson for his experiences and bright ideas. 280 �References Abe, Y., Kokubo, T., Yamamuro, T. (1990). Apatit Coating on Ceramics, Metals and Polymers. Journal of Material ScienceMaterials in Medicine 1, 233-238. Bajpai, P.K. (1980). Ceramic Amino Acid Composites for Repairing Traumatized Hard Tissues In: Yamamuro, T., Hench, L.L., Wilson-Hench, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Bioactive Ceramics (pp. 255-270) Bato Raton: CRC Press. Baker, K.C., Anderson, M.A,, Oehlke, S.A. et al.(2006). Growth, Characterization and Biocompatibility of Bone-Like Calcium Phosphate Layers Biomimetically Deposited on Metallic Substrate. Material Science and Engineering C 26, 13511360. Ban, S. & Maruno, S.(1993). Deposition of Ca-P on Ti by Electrochemical Process in SBF. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 32, 1577-1580. Barrere, F., Van Blitterswijk, C.A. De Groot, K. et al. (2002). Influence of Ionic Strength and Carbonate on the Ca-P Coating Formation from SBFx5 Solution. Biomaterials 23, 1921–1930. Bayraktar, D. & Tas, A.C. (1999). Chemical Preparation of Carbonated Calcium HA Powders at 37°C in Urea-Containing SBF. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 19, 2573-2579. Bigi, A., Boanini, E., et al. (2005). Nanocrystalline HA Coatings on Ti: A New Fast Biomimetic Method. Biomaterials 26, 4085–4089. Browne, M. & Gregson, P.J.(1994). Surface Modification of Titanium Alloy Implants. Biomaterials 15, 894-898. Demircioglu, M., Pasinli, A., Arda, N. et al. (2004). Fabrication and Mechanical Behavior of Calcium-Phosphate in situ Coating on Ti6Al4V Substrates. Key Engineering Materials 264-268, 2103-2106. Gumusderelioglu, M. (2002). Biomaterials. Journal of Science Technology, Special Issue, 5-10. Hsieh, M.F, Perng, L.H, Chin, T.S. (2002). Hydroxyapatite Coating on Ti6Al4V Alloy using a Sol–Gel Derived Precursor. Materials Chemistry and Physics 74, 245–250. Ishikawa, K., Miyamoto, Y., Nagayama, M. at al. (1997) Blast Coating Method: New Method of Coating Titanium Surface with Hydroxyapatite at Room Temperature. Journal of Biomedical Material Research Part A 38, 129-134. Katto, M., Nakamura, M., Tanaka, T. et al. (2002). Hydroxyapatite Coatings Deposited by Laser-Assisted Laser Ablation Method. Applied Surface Science 197, 768-771. Kim, H.M., Miyaji, F., Kokubo, T. et al. (1997). Effect of Heat treatment on Apatite-Forming Ability of Ti Metal Induced by Alkali treatment. Journal of Material Science-Materials in Medicine 8: 341-347. Kokubo, T. (1998). Apatite Formation on Surfaces of Ceramics, Metals and Polymers in Body Environment. Acta Materialia 46, 2519-2527. Li, F., Feng, Q.L., Cui, F.Z. at al. (2002). A Simple Biomimetic Method for Calcium Phosphate Coating. Surface and Coating Technology 154, 88–93. Li, H., Khor, K.A., Cheang, P. (2002) Properties of Heat-Treated Calcium Phosphate Coating Deposited by High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) Spray. Biomaterials 23, 2105-2112. Mavis, B. & Tas, A.C. (2000). Dip Coating of Calcium Hydroxyapatite on Ti-6Al-4V Substrates. Journal of the American Ceramic Society 83, 989–991. Miao, S., Weng, W., Cheng, K. et al. (2005). Sol–gel Preparation of Zn-Doped Fluoridated Hhydroxyapatite Films. Surface and Coating Technology 198, 223-226. Milella, E., Cosentino, F., Licciulli, A. et al. (2001). Massaro C. Preparation and Characterisation of Titania/HA Composite Coatings Obtained by Sol-Gel Process. Biomaterials 22, 1425-1431. Nishio, K., Neo, M., Akiyama, H. et al. (2000). The Effect of Alkali and Heat Treated Ti and Apatite Formed Ti on Osteoblastic Differentiation of Bone Marrow Cells. Journal of Biomedical Material Research Part A 52, 652-661. Takadama, H., Kim, H.M., Kokubo, T. et al. (2001). TEM-EDX Study of Mechanism of Bonelike Apatite Formation on Bioactive Titanium Metal in Simulated Body Fluid. Journal of Biomedical Material Research Part A 57, 441–448. 281 �Tas, A.C. (2000). Synthesis of Biomimetic Ca-Hydroxyapatite Powders at 37ºC in Synyhetic Body Fluids. Biomaterials 21, 1429–1438. Tas, A.C. & Bhaduri, S.B. (2004). Rapid Coating of Ti6Al4V at Room Temperature with a Calcium Phosphate Solution Similar to 10×SBF. Journal of Material Research 19, 2742-2749 Tong, W., Chen, J., Zhang, X. (1995). Amorphization and Crystallization during Plasma Spraying of HA. Biomaterials 16, 829-832. Yang, Y.C. & Chang, E. (2001). Influence of Residual Stress on Bonding Strength and Fracture of Plasma-Sprayed Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti-6Al-4V Substrate. Biomaterials 22, 1827-1836. Van Noort, R. (1987). Titanium-The Implant Material of Today. Journal of Material Science 22, 3801-3811. Weng, W. & Baptista, J.L. (1999) Preparation and Characterisation of HA Coatings on Ti6Al4V Alloy by a Sol-Gel Method. Journal of the American Ceramic Society 82, 27-32. Wintermantel, E., Mayer, J. et al. (1996). Tissue Engineering Scaffolds using Superstructures. Biomaterials 17, 83-91. Zhitomirsky, I. (1998). Electrophoretic and Electrolytic Deposition of Ceramic Coatings on Carbon Fibers. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 18, 849-856. 282 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 441 Title A name given to the resource Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti6Al4V Substrate by Biomimetic Method Author Author Toparli, Mustafa Pasinli, Ahmet Yıldız, Hasan Celik, Erdal Aksoy, Rıfat Sami Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings on Ti6Al4V substrates by biomimetic technique was investigated. In this context, thin and continuous HA coatings were first deposited onto Ti6Al4V implant plates by immersion in 1, 1.5 and 3 times concentrated simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37 °C for different times at pH=7.4. The HA layers were formed in the range of 6 and 19 μm thick. The obtained coatings were characterized by XRD, optical microscope, SEM, surface roughness and microhardness machines. The experimental results clearly show that the biomimetic approach has coated them with HA globular crystals having various diameters. It was found that the coating structure was affected by solution concentration. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6478236935dd024e4098349a51fc7b1e.pdf f60abb6706c32ad7d1abd2315844c60a PDF Text Text Discrete Event Modeling Study of AODV Routing Protocol Sinan Tuncel Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY stuncel@sakarya.edu.tr Ahmet Zengin Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY azengin@sakarya.edu.tr Hüseyin Ekiz Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY ekiz@sakarya.edu.tr Bülent Çobanoğlu Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY bcobanoglu@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for researching the complex dynamics of wireless computer networks. The generalpurpose DEVS-Suite Simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of wireless computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2, Omnet++ and OPNET. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of wireless network topologies and the logics of wireless communication protocols. Large scale wireless network models can be simulated and evaluated to show the benefits of DEVS formalism performance. Keywords: AODV, Modeling and Simulation, DEVS, DEVS- Suite 1. Introduction The Ad-Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol is a widely used routing protocol for mobile ad-hoc networking (URL 4, 2009). In order to test and evaluate an ad hoc routing protocol in a real world environment and mostly in a large scale simulation scenario, utilization of modeling and simulation tools is inevitable. Today’s most famous simulators from commercial vendors such as OPNET (URL 3, 2009) and from academic area as such ns-2 (URL 2, 2009) and OMNET++(URL 6, 2009) are commonly used by network research community. But, commerciality, lacks of system theoretic background, need for modular and hierarchical design, parallelism and scalability issues lead network researchers to develop new modeling strategies and high performance simulators. In order to meet current network systems’ demands, a new discrete event model of AODV routing protocol is developed based on DEVS formalism. DEVS formalism renders possible to establish proper and high performance simulation systems (Zeigler, 2000). In this study, an AODV routing protocol for wireless ad hoc network systems is implemented based on DEVS-Suite, especially for large scale simulation scenarios and main features of developed simulation summarized. DEVS-Suite is a general-purpose, discrete event simulation environment which supports visualization and tracking capabilities (Kim, 2009). This is the new generation of the DEVSJAVA simulator (URL 1, 2009) based 381 �on DEVS formalism (Zeigler, 2000). This simulator also supports variable structure modeling (Hu at all, 2005). The DEVS-Suite user-interface provides a consistent, efficient, integrated hierarchical component-based representation of models with run-time I/O and state trajectories and tabular data visualization. The AODV models developed on top of DEVS-Suite is the result of using networking theory as well as software engineering principles. Particular attention is paid to reliability and maintainability in view of the ns-2 simulator. With the developed AODV simulator, users can create arbitrary network topologies, experiment with the models, and in particular track the dynamics of the network related to routing. DEVS-Suite simulator can be run on a personal computer as well as online via DEVS-Suite Web Start (URL 5, 2009) which enables e-learning using Java Web Start technology. In the remainder of this paper, starting in Section 2, presents the State of Art and description of the modeling concepts of DEVS and DEVS-Suite network simulator. In Section 3, the techniques and ideas behind DEVSSuite AODV simulator is given together with some features of it. In Section 4, ongoing research is summarized and we summarize our work and present some future research directions in Section 5. 2.Background 2.1. DEVS Formalism Network systems exhibit very high level complex, dynamic and parallel characteristics. Due to this fact, its complex yet distributed behavior makes modeling effort of the networks difficult. However, discrete event modeling bringing abstraction and simplification mechanisms to modeling and simulation discipline facilitates modeling and simulation study systems such as computer networks demonstrating complex, dynamic, distributed and unpredicted behavior. The dynamics of network systems can be described using discrete event modeling. This is because the dynamics of the network systems can be characterized in terms of components that can process and generate events. Among discrete event modeling approaches, the Discrete Event Systems Specification (DEVS) (Zeigler, 2000). is well suited for formally describing concurrent processing and the event-driven nature of arbitrary configuration of nodes and links forming network systems. This modeling approach supports hierarchical modular model construction, distributed execution, and therefore characterizing complex, large-scale systems with atomic and coupled models. Atomic models represent the structure and behavior of individual components via inputs (X), outputs (Y), states (S), and functions. An atomic model can be described with, Atomic model= (X, S, Y, δext, δint, δconf, λ, ta). The external (δext), internal (δint), confluent (δconf), output (λ), and time advance functions (ta) define a component’s behavior over time. Internal and external transition functions describe autonomous behavior and response to external stimuli, respectively. The time advance function represents the passage of time. Output function is used to generate output messages sent through the output ports of atomic models. Atomic models receive messages which may cause a series of state transitions and output messages generated for consumption by other atomic or coupled models. Atomic models can be coupled together in a strict hierarchy to form more complex models. Parallel DEVS, which extends the classical DEVS, is capable of processing multiple input events and concurrent occurrences of internal and external transition functions. The Parallel DEVS confluent transition function provides local control by handling simultaneous internal and external transition functions. A coupled model can be constructed by composing models into hierarchical tree structures. A coupled model is defined in terms of its constituent atomic and/or coupled models. A coupled model can be constructed by composing models into hierarchical tree structures, and is defined in terms of its constituent (atomic and/or coupled) models. Connections between different atomic models can be performed by a coupled model (CM) (Chow, 1996), (Zeigler, 2000). Coupled model (CM) = < X,Y,D,Md|dϵD,EIC,EOC,IC > The input and output sets X and Y have the same specification as those of the atomic model. D is a set of component names and Md is set of atomic and/or coupled components, and EIC, EOC, and IC are external input, external output, and internal couplings, respectively. The closure under coupling feature allows a coupled model 382 �to be used as an atomic model when constructing other coupled models. Coupled models can be constructed systematically using the concepts of ports and couplings between them. When a component sends messages, the (external input, external output, and internal) couplings between input and output ports immediately relay the messages from the sender to receiver components. Upon receipt of messages by atomic models, the messages are processed, which may result in new states and generation of new outputs for other models. Parallel DEVS is capable of processing multiple input events and provides control for handling simultaneous internal and external events. Mathematical DEVS atomic and coupled models can be concretized in terms of UML. There exist other implementations of the DEVS specification approach based on single and multiprocessor environments. Parallel and distributed environments have been developed using technologies such as HLA (Kim at all, 2003). The formal foundation of DEVS, its efficient execution, and the availability of sequential, parallel, or distributed simulation engines using alternative computational environments such as CORBA, HLA, and Web-services are important considerations. Furthermore, the DEVS models are extended with other kinds of models such as fuzzy logic (Sarjoughian, Cellier, 2003). 2.2. DEVS-Suite DEVS-Suite (Kim, 2009) is the discrete event general purpose simulation environment based on DEVS formalism and also is new version of the DEVSJAVA simulator (URL 1, 2009). In addition of single visualization function of DEVSJAVA, it adds additional functionality in the form of more tracking capabilities. DEVS-Suite has some constituent modules such as Simview, Timeview, DEVS Tracking Environment (Sarjoughian, Singh, 2004). DEVS-Suite can simulate to models specified using the DEVS formalism (Zeigler, 2000). The center piece of the simulator environment is Model Facade View Control (MFVC) by which simulation data can be displayed with its animation and viewing of time trajectories separated from the parallel DEVS abstract simulator. In DEVS-Suite, execution of the models can be tracked as both the animation of the input/output messages for coupled models and the state changes of the atomic models, as well as log files. Simulation experiments can be triggered with test input which are can be selected via a dialogue box at the beginning of the simulation and time-based trajectories generated during simulation. At the end of the simulation, statistical outputs and trajectories can also be obtained for pre-defined phase and sigma state variables. Simulator has also an option window when loading the model which includes Simview and tracking options. As already mentioned, Simview is inherited from DEVSJAVA that provides visualization of DEVS models. However, it is clear that visualization usually decrease of the performance of a software system due fact of high resource demands of visual components and animation schemes. In DEVS-Suite simulation modeler, one can toggle the visualization or tracking capability of the package in case of need for high performance in large-scale experiments. 2.3. AODV Summary AODV routing protocol provides unicast, broadcast, and multicast communication in ad hoc mobile networks (URL 4, 2009). AODV starts a route discovery when a route is needed by a source node or a node needs to join a multicast node group. Much of the complexity of the AODV protocol is to decrease the number of messages to conserve the capacity of the network. The routes are always loop-free through the use of sequence numbers. Nodes use this sequence number so that they do not repeat route requests that they have already passed on. Another such feature is that the route requests have a ”time to live” number that limits how many times they can be retransmitted. If a route request fails, another route request may not be sent until twice as much time has passed as the timeout of the previous route request. The nodes running AODV maintain a routing table in which next hop routing information for destination nodes is stored. In order to model AODV routing protocol and wireless networks, many research have done including DEVSbased approaches such as (Sarjoughian, Shaukat, 2009), (Farooq at all,2007) and (Santoni, 2008). In addition to DEVS based approaches, some modeling effort of AODV protocol has been done as such (Weber, 2007) for power aware wireless networks,(Singh et al. ,2006) using ω calculus approach and (Chiyangwa, Kwiatkowska, 2002) using timed automata. 383 �3. DEVS-Suite-AODV Framework In order to model a wireless network system accommodating routing protocols, architecture can be split into three categories: topology, communication and the mobility. Topology has done with DEVS coupled models including nodes and radio channels, communication is held by network packets stretched from DEVS entities and finally mobility is overcome by initial and final coordinates (m,m) and speed (m/s) fields of every atomic model. AODV simulation framework is based on the DEVS-Suite simulator and written in Java programming language (see Figure 1). Discrete event simulation system processes the consecutive events to change the system’s state. In our implementation, events are defined in terms of packet transmission, mobility and topological errors (see node atomic model definition in Appendix A). Events in developed system are processed by DEVS Engine. DEVS Engine serves as an operating system for events in system under observation. DEVS can process the events in a parallel manner. Due to framework is developed purely in Java, all configurations, environmental and setup parameters and network layout are specified in Java code files, but configuration files can be used. In the following sections, we summarize the basic components of developed system. 3.1. Nodes and radio channels model descriptions In a wireless network, nodes and communication channels are modeled basic processing units (i.e. routing intelligence in the network is done by these components). These models in the form of network coupled model conform to the Parallel DEVS atomic and coupled model specification and are implemented in the DEVS-Suite environment as seen in Figure 3. Figure 1: DEVS-Suite AODV System Structure Wireless node model is typically composed of several modules as depicted in Figure 2. These modules are routing, media access and topography modules. Routing modules provide basic functionality for implementation of routing protocols such as AODV. Its architecture is ultimately generic so that every kind of routing protocols can be readily implemented. Module has different data structures such as routing tables and buffers to keep track of routing packets historically (see Figure 2). Also, each node stores own sequential number and the number of RREQ attempts. One of the main features of DEVS formalism is to establish modular and hierarchical construction (Zeigler, 2000). In this study, this feature is highly utilized in designing network components. Components design and selection is based on design and simulation objectives. Due for scalability, we selected high level abstractions and assumptions on designing the components. Lower memory and CPU utilize is preferable in large-scale experiments. Rather routing module, media access module is designed making several assumptions such as simplification of MAC protocol, implementing basic FIFO queue and 2D topography. In the media access 384 �component, physical channel model simulates the connection of devices, data storage in the buffers and link delays. Location of a node that effect neighborhood and communication is determined by x and y values in the fixed size topography. Speed value defines node’s mobility variance and every node is instantiated by start point (x0,y0) and final point(xn,yn) where movement is completed. 3.2. Modeling AODV with DEVS Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol belonging to distance vector routing algorithms family is a reactive behavioral protocol in which routes is calculated just only when a new data packet to be sent. In other words, it discovers the routes in the wireless network only when required. In this system, every nodes maintain own routing tables in which discovered routes is kept with time stamp or version. In the background section, detailed information of AODV is presented. Full behavior of the AODV protocol specified in (URL 4, 2009) is applied using DEVS modeling and simulation formalism (see Appendix A). By extracting event based behavior of AODV from (URL 4, 2009), some rules can be ordered and implemented in event based manner. Main event is sending and receiving packets in such a distributed system. However, channel down, battery exhaust, mobility change, and node congestions should be taken into considerations to mimic full behavior of a wireless system. As being in inner structure of a node, event abstraction is needed in modeling a highly complex, distributed system. In this work, some abstractions are made including physical layer and antennas simplifications and two dimensional topography. These all abstractions may not actually reflect any real network operation, but highly needed yet because it is impossible to build exact virtual worlds in today’s limited computing environments without making assumptions. A network running AODV is modeled as interconnecting nodes in parallel composition of DEVS atomic models in DEVS-Suite. The states and interfaces of the nodes are initialized so that they mimic conditions of the real nodes placed at the beginning, after than nodes can get information from neighbors and begin to learn about the network. The most important characteristic of the AODV is route discovery in the presence of mobility on taken a data packet. Figure 2: A DEVS-based wireless node is connected to other nodes via medium and emergent network is stimulated by an experimental frame to create applications. In AODV protocol life, a network node that needs a connection to specific destination creates a request for connection as RREQ messages. After receiving RREQ, remaining AODV nodes forward RREQ message, and update their routing table entry of that node that they receive it from. When a node receives such a message and already has a route to the desired node, it sends a message back to originating nodes named RREP message. The requesting node then begins transmitting the data using discovered route that it is shortest path and has least 385 �number of hops through other nodes. When a link fails, a routing error message RRER is passed back to a transmitting node, and the process repeats. The main benefit of AODV routing protocol is that it causes no traffic for communication over links. Communication is set up on demand when two or more nodes need to data exchange. Besides distance vector routing approach is light weight algorithm and needs less computation resources. But AODV causes more time delay in establishing a connection, and this is done heavier that other protocols. 3.3. AODV messages To implement the behavior of AODV protocol, some messages are modeled as DEVS entities such as Data, Hello, Route Request (RREQ), Route Reply (RREP), Route Error (RRER) and acknowledgement. These messages are exchanging between nodes and derived from entity class in DEVS models library. Data can embedded as an object to Data packets to be routed and remaining packets are all control packets. 3.4. Visualization The four complementary views – component and message animation, time-based trajectories, SensorView animating wireless systems dynamism and tree listing of the model – provide a rich basis for researchers as well as students and teachers to view the structural and behavioral aspects of models. The routing protocol can be analyzed step-by-step through animation of nodes and transmission of messages. User selected inputs, outputs, and pre-defined state variables can be plotted as time trajectories. In Figure 3, five wireless nodes communicating via channels are shown. Models and their states, input and output ports (Network Interface Cards – NIC), and couplings, as well as traveling packets can be seen. Also, users can examine the composition hierarchy structure of models. Using DEVS-Suite, its possible to track and view the logic behind the routing protocol as well as the discrete event-based run of the wireless network system. Capabilities of the developed simulator can be extend to cover the protocols of the other layers in the OSI network reference model. Figure 3: AODV network on DEVS-Suite Simview 4. Conclusions We have presented a DEVS model for AODV routing protocol and implementing it as a shell on top of DEVSSuite kernel. DEVS-Suite has emerged to be a good discrete event simulator enables modeler to build models in system theoretic manner and provides more tracking capability and visualization. The DEVS simulation 386 �framework has been proven to be sufficient enough to meet the wireless systems requirements. Since framework’s components are developed generic, it can be used for modeling MANETs as well as wireless sensor networks. Developed models will be publicly available on Sourceforge DEVS-Suite project site. Our AODV implementation will be continued to be refined. Acknowledgments This work has been funded by the Sakarya University Scientific Research Projects Agency under contract 2009-5002-018. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied, of the Sakarya University. References Chiyangwa ,S. & Kwiatkowska,M. (2003). Modeling ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) protocol with timed automata. In Proc. 3rd Workshop on Automated Verification of Critical Systems (AVoCS’03), University of Southampton. Chow, A. 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(2007) Discrete event simulation framework for power aware wireless sensor networks. In Industrial Informatics, 5th IEEE International Conference on, volume 1, (pp. 335–340). Zeigler, B. P., Praehofer, H. and Kim, T. G. (2000). Theory of Modeling and Simulation. Academic Press, New York. URL 1 http://www.acims.arizona.edu/SOFTWARE, (2009). DEVSJAVA modeling and simulation tool. URL 2 http://www.isis.edu/nsnam/ns/, (2009). NS-2. Network simulator. URL 3 http://www.opnet.com, (2009). OPNET. Opnet network simulator. URL 4 http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3561.txt, (2009). Perkins, C., Royer, E. and S. Das. Ad hoc on-demand distance vector (aodv) routing. Internet Engineering Task Force, URL 5 http://acims1.eas.asu.edu/WebStarts/. ( 2009). Sarjoughian, H . Devs-suite webstart. URL 6 http://www.omnetpp.org/, (2009). Varga, A. The omnet++ discrete event simulation system. 387 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 532 Title A name given to the resource Discrete Event Modeling Study of AODV Routing Protocol Author Author Tuncel, Sinan Zengin, Ahmet Ekiz, Hüseyin Çobanoğlu, Bülent Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for researching the complex dynamics of wireless computer networks. The generalpurpose DEVS-Suite Simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of wireless computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2, Omnet++ and OPNET. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of wireless network topologies and the logics of wireless communication protocols. Large scale wireless network models can be simulated and evaluated to show the benefits of DEVS formalism performance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cb2d99d07d1f01fd1628b6b4f52d16b2.pdf 417250bd362b5db88d0bf21f89b4e645 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Unbearable Burden of Being A Woman: A Comparative Analysis of the Female Characters in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen and in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği by Ülker Köksal Fehmi Turgut Department of English Language and Literature Karadeniz Technical University, TURKEY feturgut@yahoo.com Abstract: Literature creates its own universal language. This language has always become the voice of mankind at large. Henrik Ibsen, a Scandinavian author living in the 19th century and Ülker Köksal, a Turkish playwright living in the 20th century depicted women characters confronted with social pressures and patriarchal conformity. Despite the fact that Ibsen and Ülker belong to different traditions, different cultures and different periods, there are striking parallels between these writers in their approach to the treatment of statues of women in a patriarchal society. This study aims at comparing female characters as represented in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House and Ülker’s Ademin Kaburga Kemiği and disclosing important points of contact between these two plays concentrating exclusively on the issue of the unbearable pressure and burden of being a woman in a man-dominated world. Key Words: Ibsen, A Doll’s House, Women, Köksal, Ademin Kaburga Kemiği That literature is alive shows itself in the fact that it puts problems under debate. Any problem which remains untouched in literary circles is also bound to remain unsolvable. By doing so, literature takes on some responsibilities such as exploring the make up and meaning of human experience, creating some alternative worlds in which problems of any kind are portrayed in compelling and complex way, one that people feel them. Therefore, literature has become the most influential medium throughout history. Regardless of where and when it is made, whichever language it uses, and whichever cultural, social, economic, political and historical sources it feeds itself from, literature displays the most realistic, unchangeable and timeless nature of human being. Though men of letters attach to it such nationalities as English, American, Turkish or any other, literature creates its own universal language. This language has become the voice of mankind at large. Henrik Ibsen, a Scandinavian author living in the 19th century and Ülker Köksal, a Turkish playwright living in the 20th century depicted women characters confronted with social pressures and patriarchal conformity. Despite the fact that Ibsen and Ülker belong to different traditions, different cultures and different periods, there are striking parallels between these writers in their approach to the treatment of statues of women in a patriarchal society. Literature is said to be feminine, for it incessantly is fertile, and fertility is a characteristic of the woman; thus literature searches for the woman, and the woman finds herself in literature. Both Ibsen and Köksal look for woman, the lost, non-existing woman humiliated, exploited, abused by man or by the society controlled, organized and governed by man. Ibsen’s Nora in A Doll’s House and Köksal’s Güzin in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği experience the same problems in different ways. The first point of contact between the two plays is their titles. Both are very loaded terms in terms of how women are perceived in society. The title A Doll’s House implies that the house belongs to women. Nora steps into a comfortable and tastefully furnished room. She seems to be happy. The house seems to be a playground, which later in the play Nora will complain about this concept of ‘home as a playground’. Then Helmer gets in greeting her affectionately using endearments such as "little lark," and "squirrel" - terms one might use with a child or a household pet rather than a partner or friend. Whether consciously or unconsciously, Helmer is denying her identity as a human being or member of the society with equal rights. Thus, the play creates a ‘stereotype of woman: doll, docile, reverential, obedient, sexy, with a tendency toward disloyalty, irresponsibility and opportunism, helpless, needy- especially in need of man’s assistance and control. As for Köksal’s play, Ademin Kaburga Kemiği (Adam’s Rib) implies ‘women’s dependence on men from birth’. To justfy this misconception, people refer to Biblical documents: ... for Adam there was not found a help meet for him. And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof; And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her to the man. And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken 340 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo out of Man. Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh. (Gen. 2:20-24 ) By this, patriarchs get the idea that the Bible clearly refers to a definite role in the home: a place for the wife and the mother, a very honored place, and a very particular place that she has in the home, and that it determines and designs her relationship to her husband and to her family, and her children. So ought men to love their wives as their own bodies. He that loveth his wife loveth himself. For no man ever yet hated his own flesh; but nourisheth and cherisheth it, even as the Lord, the church: For we are members of his body, of his flesh, and of his bones. For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall be joined unto his wife, and they two shall be one flesh. This is a great mystery: but I speak concerning Christ and the church. Nevertheless let every one of you in particular so love his wife even as himself; and the wife see that she reverence her husband. (St. Paul's epistle:2833) Both plays reveal such a patriarchal attitude towards the woman’s role in the family and in the outside world: HELMER: … No, no; only lean on me; I will advise you and direct you. I should not be a man if this womanly helplessness did not just give you a double attractiveness in my eyes. (64) HELMER: … Be at rest, and feel secure; I have broad wings to shelter you under… How warm and cosy our home is, Nora. Here is shelter for you; here I will protect you like a hunted dove that I have saved from a hawk's claws… (65) HELMER: ... You talk like a child. You don't understand the conditions of the world in which you live. HELMER: … no man would sacrifice his honour for the one he loves… (70) HELMER: … Now, you must go and play through the Tarantella and practise with your tambourine. I shall go into the inner office and shut the door, and I shall hear nothing; you can make as much noise as you please. (38) (Güzin and Fazıl are home... Güzin walks hastily between the kitchen and the bedroom with the baby’s bottle and diapers in her hands) GÜZĐN: The baby’s bottles are ready… the glass grater, the colander, the muslins… FAZIL: (reading a newspaper) Look at this… Another wild fire… GÜZĐN: The baby food is ready… But why hasn’t this woman come yet? She ought to have come earlier. Fazıl, this woman still hasn’t come. FAZIL: (still reads the paper) She will come soon…Don’t worry… Coal prices are up again... No good news in the paper. (134) FAZIL: Do as you wish to do, darling…. You are free… GÜZĐN: So you say… Is that right? Thank you. FAZIL: Look, honey… You don’t have to work… Just sit at home… GÜZĐN: (Angrily) No… I have to work. Though I do not know whether I will be freer when I work or not. Maybe one day I will have a better job. There must be other meanings of life. Other than the kitchen and diapers. I should do something for human beings. Just to change the world a bit. (137) In the very opening scene, both plays get their women characters exposed to a ‘patriarchal siege’. HELMER: When did my squirrel come home? NORA: Just now. Come in here, Torvald, and see what I have bought. HELMER: Don't disturb me. Bought, did you say? All these things? Has my little spendthrift been wasting money again? NORA: Yes but, Torvald, this year we really can let ourselves go a little. This is the first Christmas that we have not needed to economise. HELMER: Still, you know, we can't spend money recklessly. NORA: Yes, Torvald, we may be a wee bit more reckless now, mayn't we? Just a tiny wee bit! You are going to have a big salary and earn lots and lots of money. 341 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo HELMER: Yes, after the New Year; but then it will be a whole quarter before the salary is due. NORA: Pooh! we can borrow till then. HELMER: Nora! The same little featherhead! Suppose, now, that I borrowed fifty pounds to-day, and you spent it all in the Christmas week, and then on New Year's Eve a slate fell on my head and killed me, and— … (Ibsen 1879:1) This is way of alienation and rejection of the woman who steps into an economic life in some way or another, even if she is dependent on her husband. Güzin’s case is a little different. First, she is exposed to ‘a cultural patriarchal siege’. That in her childhood she is reminded of her gender roles as a grown up woman by her mother, another woman, is significant. This means women should play not achieved roles but ascribed ones (Stark 2007). GÜZĐN: Mother! I have a lot to study MOTHER: Don’t tell me anything. You have to finish it first. You have had four days off and done nothing. Now you say you have to study. No! You have to do the ironing. When you are married, you will not be responsible for your lessons but the ironing. Get it? GÜZĐN: I wish I were a boy MOTHER: ‘Tis a pity that you are a girl. I wish I had born you all boys. GÜZĐN: I will be a celebrity person when I am grown up, Mum! MOTHER: Of course… If you get married to a celebrity man. GÜZĐN: I will never do it. MOTHER: You have to. You should have a home. An unmarried woman is nothing in the society. At all events, the best is your husband’s bread. GÜZĐN: No… The best is one’s own bread. (Köksal 1994: 130) In Ademin Kaburga Kemiği, Köksal argues that conventional limitations on women, which are regarded as the foundations of a ‘masculine society’, start at the very beginning of the childhood period. In a sense, this is a struggle for keeping ‘conventional patriarchal wisdom’ in society just by ascribing gender roles to girls and educating them with an understanding of ‘as the twig is bent so is the tree inclined’. In Köksal, this cultural infamily education tries to make grown-up women out of little girls. Therefore, Köksal brings us face to face with an ‘oppressed little girl’ who is forced to give up her childhood dreams, ideals and goals. Güzin carries the traces of this oppression up to her old age. Nora is by no means different from Güzin as a child. As a child, she is treated by her father as a doll, which also serves as another way of isolating the woman from the real world. NORA: In all these eight years--longer than that--from the very beginning of our acquaintance, we have never exchanged a word on any serious subject. HELMER: Was it likely that I would be continually and forever telling you about worries that you could no help me to bear? NORA: I am not speaking about business matters. I say that we have never sat down in earnest together to try and get at the bottom of anything. HELMER: But, dearest Nora, would it have been any good to you? NORA: That is just it; you have never understood me. I have been greatly wronged, Torvald--first by papa and then by you. HELMER: What! By us two--by us two, who have loved you better than anyone else in the world? NORA: You have never loved me. You have only thought it pleasant to be in love with me. HELMER: Nora, what do I hear you saying? NORA: It is perfectly true, Torvald. When I was at home with papa, he told me his opinion about everything, and so I had the same opinions; and if I differed from him I concealed the fact, because he would not have liked it. He called me his doll-child, and he played with me just as I used to play with my dolls. And when I came to live with you-HELMER: What sort of an expression is that to use about our marriage? NORA: I mean that I was simply transferred from papa's hands into yours. You arranged everything according to your own taste, and so I got the same tastes as your else I pretended to, I am really not quite sure which--I think sometimes the one and 342 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo sometimes the other. When I look back on it, it seems to me as if I had been living here like a poor woman--just from hand to mouth. I have existed merely to perform tricks for you, Torvald. But you would have it so. You and papa have committed a great sin against me. It is your fault that I have made nothing of my life. (Ibsen 1879, 66-67) MOTHER: What have you done to your hair, Güzin? You are no longer a baby. You are a young girl. Come on. I will teach you how to spin yarn. GÜZĐN: (She is twelve. She doesn’t want to drop the book she is reading.) I don’t want, Mum. MOTHER: I haven’t asked about your idea. You have to learn. (Köksal 1994:129) GÜZĐN: I hate knitting. MOTHER: … This is not knitting but embroidery. It teaches you how to be patient. A woman must be patient. (Köksal 1994:130) GÜZĐN: (She is eighteen) … I will go to university… MOTHER: What will happen? You can’t get married then… GÜZĐN: I am going to be an engineer. MOTHER: Engineer? Are you crazy? Have you seen any woman engineer? GÜZĐN: I have. MOTHER: Who put this into your head? GÜZĐN: My teachers. They say I have an engineer’s mind. MOTHER: Do they say anything about how we can afford to send you to school? GÜZĐN: But you send my brother… MOTHER: He is male. We have to send him to school. He must have a job. (Köksal 1994:132) Both characters are shaped in their childhood, Nora by her father and Güzin by her mother, and transferred into the arms of a patriarchal society, their husbands and other masculine members of that society, as a doll, as a caring mother, an obedient wife, forced to be inured to their gender roles in the early periods of their lives. Both plays shed light on the concept of marriage. Lord (1882) asserts that it is Ibsen who has so far shed some of the clearest light on marriage based on the character of Nora. She goes on to claim that the working of marriage between Nora and Helmer is hindered by some unfavorable circumstances. She attributes their failure to a false view of life. This view of life deprives women of reality (Lord 1882). How can we define the term ‘realities of life’? Economic affairs, social affairs, professional affairs, intellectual affairs, career-making, decision making, freedom, and sharing responsibilities with man (husbands) can be included in the list of realities of ‘modern’ life. In both plays, Nora and Güzin are denied getting involved in such realities. Therefore, both of them question their marriages towards the end of the plays. This questioning then turns into a settling old scores with life, husbands and society: HELMER: How unreasonable and how ungrateful you are, Nora! Have you not been happy here? NORA: No, I have never been happy. I thought I was, but it has never really been so. HELMER: Not--not happy! NORA: No, only merry. And you have always been so kind to me. But our home has been nothing but a playroom. I have been your doll-wife, just as at home I was papa's doll-child; and here the children have been my dolls. I thought it great fun when you played with me, just as they thought it great fun when I played with them. That is what our marriage has been, Torvald. (Ibsen 1879: 67) … GÜZĐN: Do I look so ridiculous? If a housewife is interested in literature, it is only a matter of fool. Is that so? I have the right to read sentimental novels and cry. But when I want to write, it becomes an object of derision. Funny, isn’t it? A woman whose main job is to do the ironing and washing up wants to write! How foolish! Besides, you think she cannot succeed, don’t you? You can’t imagine her fingers touching on the keys of a typewriter because they are for cleaning vegetables and mending a rip. Funny, isn’t it? All accomplishments are for you… To have a master degree… To study in a laboratory… To become a giant business person… All for you… You can have dreams… But I can only become a part of your dreams… I can’t have dreams… The ideal present for a woman is a pair of dish-gloves or a kitchen 343 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo apron…Those presents just suitable for my actual jobs… Or a brilliant ring… For you want your servant ornamented… And all these are not funny… But a typewriter? It is funny. I do not seem funny when I am doing the cleaning; but I do when I am writing… (Köksal, 1994, p. 175) Nora’s story is one which tells us her struggle to survive against her husband’s ego-centerism. Whenever he judges Nora, he puts himself in the center and brings his ideas, feelings and realities, which are also the realities of the dominant patriarchal culture, to the fore. This egocentrism determines Nora’s role in the family, and naturally in society, as the minor. He has a conservative theory on women’s role in the family and thus in the society. Also he shows his real ides in the guise of some ‘pregnant words’ like ‘extravagant’, ‘spendthrift’, ‘That’s like a woman’, ‘reckless’, ‘odd little soul’, ‘skylark’, ‘featherbrained’ etc. Of course, the discourse Helmer uses when talking to Nora should not be excluded from what we call ‘pressures upon women exerted by man’. Both Güzin and Nora get exposed to a humiliating, reductionist, sexist, mocking, authoritative, destructive, dictating, dehumanizing, intolerant, hypocritic, oppressive, fatalist and a discriminative language: HELMER: Nora!... The same little featherhead! Suppose, now, that I borrowed fifty pounds today, and you spent it all in the Christmas week, and then on New Year's Eve a slate fell on my head and killed me, and--Nora. Oh! don't say such horrid things. (4) HELMER: Don't disturb me… Bought, did you say? All these things? Has my little spendthrift been wasting money again? (4) HELMER: What are little people called that are always wasting money? (5) HELMER: You are an odd little soul. Very like your father. You always find some new way of wheedling money out of me, and, as soon as you have got it, it seems to melt in your hands. You never know where it has gone. Still, one must take you as you are. It is in the blood; for indeed it is true that you can inherit these things, Nora. (7) HELMER: Nice?--because you do as your husband wishes? (35) HELMER: Have you really the courage to open up that question again? (35) HELMER: My little Nora, there is an important difference between your father and me. Your father's reputation as a public official was not above suspicion. Mine is, and I hope it will continue to be so, as long as I hold my office. (36) HELMER: My dear Nora, I can forgive the anxiety you are in, although really it is an insult to me. It is, indeed. Isn't it an insult to think that I should be afraid of a starving quill-driver's vengeance? But I forgive you nevertheless, because it is such eloquent witness to your great love for me… And that is as it should be, my own darling Nora. Come what will, you may be sure I shall have both courage and strength if they be needed. You will see I am man enough to take everything upon myself. (37) HELMER: Doesn't she look remarkably pretty? Everyone thought so at the dance. But she is terribly self-willed, this sweet little person. What are we to do with her? You will hardly believe that I had almost to bring her away by force. (56) HELMER: Why shouldn't I look at my dearest treasure?--at all the beauty that is mine, all my very own? HELMER: Just listen!--little Nora talking about scientific investigations! (59) HELMER: Little featherbrain!--are you thinking of the next already? (59) HELMER: Miserable creature--what have you done? NORA: Let me go. You shall not suffer for my sake. You shall not take it upon yourself. HELMER: No tragic airs, please. (Locks the hall door.) Here you shall stay and give me an explanation. Do you understand what you have done? Answer me! Do you understand what you have done? (62) HELMER: What a horrible awakening! All these eight years--she who was my joy and pride--a hypocrite, a liar--worse, worse--a criminal! The unutterable ugliness of it all!--For shame! For shame! (NORA is silent and looks steadily at him. He stops in front of her.) I ought to have suspected that something of the sort would happen. I ought to have foreseen it. All your father's want of principle--be silent!--all your father's want of principle has come out in you. No religion, no morality, no sense of duty--. How I am punished for having winked at what he did! I did it for your sake, and this is how you repay me. (62-63) 344 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo HELMER: … And I must sink to such miserable depths because of a thoughtless woman! (63) HELMER. You have loved me as a wife ought to love her husband. Only you had not sufficient knowledge to judge of the means you used. But do you suppose you are any the less dear to me, because you don't understand how to act on your own responsibility? No, no; only lean on me; I will advise you and direct you. I should not be a man if this womanly helplessness did not just give you a double attractiveness in my eyes. You must not think anymore about the hard things I said in my first moment of consternation, when I thought everything was going to overwhelm me. I have forgiven you, Nora; I swear to you I have forgiven you. (64-65) NORA. No, that is just it. You don't understand me, and I have never understood you either--before tonight. No, you mustn't interrupt me. You must simply listen to what I say. Torvald, this is a settling of accounts. HELMER: What do you mean by that? NORA: Isn't there one thing that strikes you as strange in our sitting here like this? HELMER: What is that? NORA: We have been married now eight years. Does it not occur to you that this is the first time we two, you and I, husband and wife, have had a serious conversation? HELMER: What do you mean by serious? NORA: In all these eight years--longer than that--from the very beginning of our acquaintance, we have never exchanged a word on any serious subject. HELMER: Was it likely that I would be continually and forever telling you about worries that you could not help me to bear? NORA: I am not speaking about business matters. I say that we have never sat down in earnest together to try and get at the bottom of anything. (66) HELMER: Playtime shall be over, and lesson-time shall begin. NORA: Whose lessons? Mine, or the children's? HELMER: Both yours and the children's, my darling Nora. NORA: Alas, Torvald, you are not the man to educate me into being a proper wife for you. HELMER: And you can say that! NORA: And I--how am I fitted to bring up the children? HELMER: Nora! NORA: Didn't you say so yourself a little while ago--that you dare not trust me to bring them up? (67) … FAZIL: Never mind. All your sufferings will vanish soon. We will have a lot of money, and you will not have to work then. You will cast your resignation in the director’s teeth then. Get it? Then you will sit home and look after your children…(Köksal 1994:135) FAZIL: That’s the natural order. I can’t do anything. You have to do what other women do. (Köksal, 1994, p. 178) In Nora, Ibsen depicts the full glory of a woman who finally finds herself in opposition to all social norms. Leaving behind what she has collected and saved until that time, Nora walks away from the security of her household and from all traditionally sacred values of marriage and motherhood to face an uncertain but compelling future of self-becoming (Schwarez 1975). Nora escapes to an unknown and unknowable future from a sterilized doll’s house where she is not allowed to grow up as a woman and individual. This escape, in a sense, is a silent criticism of the society as well: Nora wants to see which idea is right: her idea or the society’s and naturally the man’s idea. She is blamed for being unaware of the burden and troubles of life and of being irresponsible. HELMER: You talk like a child. You don't understand the conditions of the world in which you live. NORA: No, I don't. But now I am going to try. I am going to see if I can make out who is right, the world or I. HELMER: You are ill, Nora; you are delirious; I almost think you are out of your mind. 345 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo NORA: I have never felt my mind so clear and certain as tonight. Nevertheless, she is fully aware of the heavy burden of being a woman in a man’s dominated world. The roles attached her by this society evaporate her natural identity. In Güzün’s case, one can say that she is too matured to have an identity of her own. She does not live her own life rather is forced to live her husband, her daughter and her son’s lives. Unlike Nora, Güzin surrenders herself to the oppressions: GÜZĐN: (to her daughter) Günseli, I thought… well... You should accept that job in that laboratory… GÜNSELĐ: No, mum. I can’t carry on with it after I have born my baby in any case… It requires a great deal of responsibility to work there… GÜZĐN: But you have to… If you are to promote in your profession… Just accept it… You are much more talented than others… I will look after the baby… GÜNSELĐ: No, mum… We have already hired a baby-sitter… we will get along with it… GÜZĐN: No…I want you to go to the whole length in your job… Don’t give in… I don’t want you to cut short your career. GÜNSELĐ: But mum… GÜZĐN: Accept it… I will look after my grand baby… I will get retired any way… The vast difference between appearance and reality in Nora’s life drives us to the idea that women have two worlds: one is the world imposed on them by their husbands, if they are married, or by the society, the other is their inner world which is a constant conflict with the first one. They are suspended between these two worlds. The same oppressive and evaporating impact can be said to be implemented on Güzin. She has to give up many of her dreams and expectations from life. At the beginning of the play she says she is going to become an engineer, not get married and lead a free life. Soon we see her as a married woman with two children and a boring job getting drowned in routines. Our heroines are not allowed to hold tight onto their dreams. The two women characters strongly feel ‘time strain’ throughout the plays as well. Nora’s case comes from her past involvements. Her past, which hangs above her head like the sword of Democles, deeply shapes her present. As for Güzin, she is also a product of her past and present. The roles imposed on her even at an early age, harsh working conditions for women, social constraints, then familial duties and responsibilities make Güzin appear as a desperate woman just at the beginning of the play. The present time also puts pressure on Güzün in the form of her colleagues, her husband and children’s expectations of her retirement. Güzin can be considered to be a little luckier when compared to Nora: both have deferred their dreams, but Güzin, with the help of an old friend, has the ability and opportunity to fulfill her most ambitious dream; to be a writer. Unfortunately, Nora looses all her dreams and expectations. From here, a burning question awaits its answer: is there an after-life for these women? (Ondul 2007) The answer is not clear; but for Nora, it seems impossible or very difficult to lead an afterlife. Similarly, for Güzin, it seems to be difficult but not impossible for she keeps at least one of her ambitions still warm and alive: to be a writer. In A Doll’s House , Ibsen guides and haunts for the emancipation of women (Schwarez 1975). Koksal tries to do the same in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği. Güzin’s arduous struggle to exist as a woman in an environment surrounded by patriarchal principles is no less striking than Nora’s. For some time, both Nora and Güzin think principles or orders might bring happiness. When Güzin says “I know principles do not make us happy”, she has already understood that the society or the world needs reorganizing. This might come as a counter-attack, perhaps not launched directly; but at least Güzin reorganizes her inner world. Similarly, Ibsen’s Nora realizes or individualizes herself just by opposing the social rules. For some, this is a glory because of Nora’s slamming the door to the face of her husband and, in the name of her husband, to the society. Güzin’s final decision can also be considered to be a glory, for she says enough is enough, which can be called an uprising. Both writers, just because of the societies into which they were born, in which they grew, just because of their interests and sensitivities, dealt with the oppressed, isolated members of the society, those who did not live in easy circumstance. Actually, to bring such characters to the stage and to show other people that somewhere in the world some are suffering is the responsibility of literature. Both Ibsen and Köksal felt this responsibility in the depths of their hearts. 346 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Ibsen, H. (1879) A Doll’s House. Translated by Sharp and Aveling, Adline Pres, London 1958 Köksal, Ü. (1994) Toplu Oyunları 2; Kadın Dörtlemesi. Mitos Boyut Yayınları, Đstanbul. Lord, H.F. (1882) The Life of Henrik Ibsen. Cited in Egan (1972). Henrik Ibsen: The Critical Heritage, Routledge, NY. (p. 59) New American Standard Bible 1995, The Lockman Foundation, La Habra, California, USA Öndül, S. (2007) Is There An Afterlife For Ibsen’s Women? Tiyatro Araştırmaları Dergisi, 23:2007 • ISSN: 1300-1523 Schwarez V. (1975) Ibsen's Nora: the Promise and the Trap Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 7, 1975. (p.3) Stark, R. (2007). Sociology, Tenth Edition. Baylor University. Thomson Wadsworth, California. The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments with the Apocryphal / Deuterocanonical books. New York: Collins, 1989. Print. New Revised Standard Vers. 347 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 716 Title A name given to the resource The Unbearable Burden of Being A Woman: A Comparative Analysis of the Female Characters in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen and in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği by Ülker Köksal Author Author Turgut, Fehmi Abstract A summary of the resource. Literature creates its own universal language. This language has always become the voice of mankind at large. Henrik Ibsen, a Scandinavian author living in the 19th century and Ülker Köksal, a Turkish playwright living in the 20th century depicted women characters confronted with social pressures and patriarchal conformity. Despite the fact that Ibsen and Ülker belong to different traditions, different cultures and different periods, there are striking parallels between these writers in their approach to the treatment of statues of women in a patriarchal society. This study aims at comparing female characters as represented in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House and Ülker’s Ademin Kaburga Kemiği and disclosing important points of contact between these two plays concentrating exclusively on the issue of the unbearable pressure and burden of being a woman in a man-dominated world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bf2b7703fee4496646533051368c083b.pdf 7cfdf3a9a12c2ae9ec16e026b49c66c4 PDF Text Text Aquaponic (Integrating Fish and Plant Culture) Systems Gurel Turkmen Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Yusuf Guner Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey yusuf.guner@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Aquaponic is the combined culture of fish and plants in recirculation systems, has become increasingly popular. Nutrients, which are excreted directly by the fish or generated by the microbial breakdown of organic wastes, are absorbed by plants cultured hydroponically (without soil). Fish feed provides most of the nutrients required for plant growth. As the aquaculture effluent flows through the hydroponic component of the recirculation system, fish waste metabolites are removed by nitrification and direct uptake by the plants, thereby treating the water, which flows back to the fish-rearing component for reuse. Aquaponic has several advantages over other recirculation aquaculture systems and hydroponic systems that use inorganic nutrient solutions. The hydroponic component serves as a biofilter, and therefore a separate biofilter is not needed as in other recirculating systems. Aquaponic systems have the only biofilter that generates income, which is obtained from the sale of hydroponic produce such as vegetables, herbs and flowers. In the UVI system, which employs raft hydroponics, only calcium, potassium and iron are supplemented. The nutrients provided by the fish would normally be discharged and could contribute to pollution. Removal of nutrients by plants prolongs water use and minimizes discharge. Aquaponic systems require less water quality monitoring than individual recirculation systems for fish or hydroponic plant production. Aquaponic increases profit potential due to free nutrients for plants, lower water requirements, elimination of a separate biofilter, less water quality monitoring and shared costs for operation and infrastructure. Keywords: Aquaponic, Aquaculture, Agriculture 1. Introduction Aquaponic, also known as the integration of hydroponics with aquaculture, is gaining increased attention as a bio-integrated food production system. In aquaponics, nutrient-rich effluent from fish tanks is used to fertigate hydroponic production beds. This is good for the fish because plant roots and rhizobacteria remove nutrients from the water. These nutrients generated from fish manure, algae, and decomposing fish feed are contaminants that would otherwise build up to toxic levels in the fish tanks, but instead serve as liquid fertilizer to hydroponically grown plants. In turn, the hydroponic beds function as a biofilter stripping off ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, and phosphorus so the freshly cleansed water can then be recirculated back into the fish tanks. The nitrifying bacteria living in the gravel and plant roots play a critical role in nutrient cycling. In hydroponics applications, the nutrient solution needs to be prepared measured, mixed, and then added to the reservoir. In aquaponic, there's no mixing fertilizer involved, making it a great way for beginners to cultivate plants. Only the fish needs to be fed. In closed recirculation systems with very little daily water exchange (less than 2%); dissolved nutrients accumulate in concentrations similar to those in hydroponic nutrient solutions. Dissolved nitrogen, in particular, can occur at very high levels in recirculation systems. Fish excrete waste nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, directly into the water through their gills. Bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate Ammonia and nitrite are toxic to fish, but nitrate is relatively harmless and is the preferred form of nitrogen for growing higher plants such as fruiting vegetables. Aquaponic systems offer several benefits. Dissolved waste nutrients are recovered by the plants, reducing discharge to the environment and extending water. Minimizing water exchange reduces the costs of operating aquaponic systems in arid climates and heated greenhouses where water or heated water is a significant expense. Having a secondary plant crop that receives most of its required nutrients at no cost improves a system’s profit potential. The plants remove nutrients from the culture water and eliminate the need for separate and expensive biofilters. Aquaponic systems require substantially less water quality monitoring than separate hydroponic or recirculation aquaculture systems. Savings are also realized by sharing operational and 657 �infrastructural costs such as pumps, reservoirs, heaters and alarm systems. In addition, the intensive, integrated production of fish and plants requires less land than ponds and gardens. Aquaponic systems do require a large capital investment, moderate energy inputs and skilled management. Niche markets may be required for profitability. A number of universities globally are currently exploring the science of aquaponics to advance this extreme cultivation technique (Dunning et al. 1998, Edwards, 2003, Diver 2006, Rakocy et al. 2004, 2006). 2. Aquaponic Systems 2.1. System Design The design of aquaponic systems closely mirrors that of recirculation systems in general, with the addition of a hydroponic component and the possible elimination of a separate biofilter and devices (foam fractionators) for removing fine and dissolved solids. Fine solids and dissolved organic matter generally do not reach levels that require foam fractionation if aquaponic systems have the recommended design ratio. The essential elements of an aquaponic system are the fish-rearing tank, a settleable and suspended solids removal component, a biofilter, a hydroponic component, and a sump (Fig. 1). Figure 1: Optimum Arrangement of Aquaponic System Components (Rakocy et al. 2006). Effluent from the fish-rearing tank is treated first to reduce organic matter in the form of settleable and suspended solids. Next, the culture water is treated to remove ammonia and nitrate in a biofilter. Then, water flows through the hydroponic unit where some dissolved nutrients are taken up by plants and additional ammonia and nitrite are removed by bacteria growing on the sides of the tank and the underside of the polystyrene sheets (i.e., fixed-film nitrification). Finally, water collects in a reservoir (sump) and is returned to the rearing tank. The location of the sump may vary. If elevated hydroponic troughs are used, the sump can be located after the biofilter and water would be pumped up to the troughs and returned by gravity to the fishrearing tank. The system can be configured that a small side-stream flow may go to a hydroponic component after solids are removed, while most of the water passes through a biofilter and returns to the rearing tank. The biofilter and hydroponic components can be combined by using plant support media such as gravel or sand that also functions as biofilter media. Raft hydroponics, which consists of floating sheets of polystyrene and net pots for plant support, can also provide sufficient biofiltration if the plant production area is large enough. Combining biofiltration with hydroponics is a desirable goal because eliminating the expense of a separate biofilter is one of the main advantages of aquaponic. An alternative design combines solids removal, biofiltration and hydroponics in one unit. The hydroponic support media (pea gravel or coarse sand) captures solids and provides surface area for fixedfilm nitrification, although with this design it is important not to overload the unit with suspended solids. As an example, Fig. 2 shows the commercial-scale aquaponic system that has been developed at the University of the Virgin Islands (UVI). It employs raft hydroponics (Rakocy et al. 2004, 2006). 2.2. Fish Production Tilapia is the fish species most commonly cultured in aquaponic systems. Although some aquaponic systems have used channel catfish, Clarias spp., largemouth bass, crappies, rainbow trout, sturgeon pacu, common carp, koi carp, silver carp, grass carp, goldfish, Asian sea bass (barramundi) and Murray cod, most commercial systems are used to raise tilapia. Most freshwater species, which can tolerate crowding, will do well 658 �in aquaponic systems (including ornamental fish). One species reported to perform poorly is hybrid striped bass. They cannot tolerate high levels of potassium, which is often supplemented to promote plant growth. To recover the high capital cost and operating expenses of aquaponic systems and earn a profit, both the fish rearing and the hydroponic vegetable components must be operated continuously near maximum production capacity. The maximum biomass of fish a system can support without restricting fish growth is called the critical standing crop. Operating a system near its critical standing crop uses space efficiently, maximizes production and reduces variation in the daily feed input to the system, an important factor in sizing the hydroponic component. There are three stocking methods that can maintain fish biomass near the critical standing crop: sequential rearing, stock splitting and multiple rearing units (Szyper 1989, Rakocy et al. 2006, Lorena et al. 2008). Figure 2. Layout of UVI Aquaponic System (Rakocy et al. 2006). 2.2.1. Sequential Rearing Sequential rearing involves the culture of several age groups (multiple cohorts) of fish in the same rearing tank. When one age group reaches marketable size, it is selectively harvested with nets and a grading system, and an equal number of fingerlings are immediately restocked in the same tank. There are three problems with this system: 1) the periodic harvests stress the remaining fish and could trigger disease outbreaks; 2) stunted fish avoid capture and accumulate in the system, wasting space and feed; and 3) it is difficult to maintain accurate stock records over time, which leads to a high degree of management uncertainty and unpredictable harvests. 2.2.2. Stock Splitting Stock splitting involves stocking very high densities of fingerlings and periodically splitting the population in half as the critical standing crop of the rearing tank is reached. This method avoids the carryover problem of stunted fish and improves stock inventory. However, the moves can be very stressful on the fish unless some sort of “swimway” is installed to connect all the rearing tanks. The fish can be herded into the swimway through a hatch in the wall of a rearing tank and manoeuvred into another rearing tank by movable screens. With swimways, dividing the populations in half involves some guesswork because the fish cannot be weighed or counted. An alternative method is to crowd the fish with screens and pump them to another tank with a fish pump. 2.2.3. Multiple Rearing Units With multiple rearing units, the entire population is moved to larger rearing tanks when the critical stand-ing crop of the initial rearing tank is reached. The fish are either herded through a hatch between adjoining tanks or into “swimways” connecting distant tanks. Multiple rearing units usually come in modules of two to four tanks and are connected to a common filtration system. After the largest tank is harvested, all of the remaining groups of fish are moved to the next largest tank and the smallest tank is restocked with fingerlings. A variation of the multiple rearing unit concepts is the division of a long raceway into compartments with movable 659 �screens. As the fish grow, their compartment is increased in size and moved closer to one end of the raceway where they will eventually be harvested. These should be cross-flow raceways, with influent water entering the raceway through a series of ports down one side of the raceway and effluent water leaving the raceway through a series of drains down the other side. This system ensures that water is uniformly high quality throughout the length of the raceway. Another variation is the use of several tanks of the same size. Each rearing tank contains a different age group of fish, but they are not moved during the production cycle. This system does not use space efficiently in the early stages of growth, but the fish are never disturbed and the labour involved in moving the fish is eliminated. A system of four multiple rearing tanks has been used successfully with tilapia in the UVI commercial scale aquaponic system (Fig 2). Production is staggered so one of the rearing tanks is harvested every 6 weeks. At harvest, the rearing tank is drained and all of the fish are removed. The rearing tank is then refilled with the same water and immediately restocked with fingerlings for a 24-week production cycle. Each circular rearing tank has a water volume of 7,800 litters and is heavily aerated with 22 air diffusers. The flow rate to all four tanks is 375 litters/minute, but the flow rate to individual tanks is apportioned so that tanks receive a higher flow rate as the fish grow. The average rearing tank retention time is 82 minutes. Nile tilapia are stocked at 77 fish/m3 and red tilapia are stocked at 154 fish/m3. Annual production has been 4.16 mt. for Nile tilapia and 4.78 mt for red tilapia (Tab. 1). However, production can be increased to 5 mt. with close observation of the ad libitum feeding response (Rakocy et al. 2006). Tilapia Nile Red Harvest weight per tank (kg) 480 551 Harvest weight per unit volume (kg/m3) 61.5 70.7 Initial Weight (g/fish) 79.2 58.8 Final Weight (g/fish) 813.8 512.5 Growth Rate (g/day) 4.4 2.7 Survival (%) FCR 98.3 89.9 1.7 1.8 Table 1: Average Production Values for Male Mono-Sex Nile and Red Tilapia in the UVI Aquaponic System. The logistics of working with both fish and plants can be challenging. In the UVI system, one rearing tank is stocked every 6 weeks. Therefore, it takes 18 weeks to fully stock the system. If multiple units are used, fish may be stocked and harvested as frequently as once a week. Similarly, staggered crop production requires frequent seeding, transplanting, harvesting and marketing. Therefore, the goal of the design process is to reduce labour wherever possible and make operations as simple as possible. For example, purchasing four fish-rearing tanks adds extra expense. One larger tank could be purchased instead and partially harvested and partially restocked every 6 weeks. However, this operation requires additional labour, which is a recurring cost and makes management more complex. In the long run, having several smaller tanks in which the fish are not disturbed until harvest (hence, less mortality and better growth) will be more cost effective (Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.3. Solids Most of the fecal waste fish generate should be removed from the waste stream before it enters the hydroponic tanks. Other sources of particulate waste are uneaten feed and organisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi and algae) that grow in the system. If this organic matter accumulates in the system, it will depress dissolved oxygen (DO) levels as it decays and produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. If deep deposits of sludge form, they will decompose anaerobically (without oxygen) and produce methane and hydrogen sulphide, which are very toxic to fish. Suspended solids have special significance in aquaponic systems. Suspended solids entering the hydroponic component may accumulate on plant roots and create anaerobic zones that prevent nutrient uptake by active transport, a process that requires oxygen. However, some accumulation of solids may be beneficial. As solids are decomposed by microorganisms, inorganic nutrients essential to plant growth are released to the water, a process known as mineralization. Mineralization supplies several essential nutrients. Without sufficient solids for mineralization, more nutrient supplementation is required, which increases the operating expense and management complexity of the system. However, it may be possible to minimize or eliminate the need for nutrient supplementation if fish stocking and feeding rates are increased relative to plants. Another benefit of solids is that the microorganisms that decompose them are antagonistic to plant root pathogens and help maintain healthy root growth. Sand and gravel hydroponic substrates can remove solid waste from system water. Solids remain in the system to provide nutrients to plants through mineralization. With the high potential of sand and gravel media to clog, bed tillage or periodic media replacement may be required. The use of sand is becoming less common, but one popular aquaponic system uses small beds (250 cm by 125 cm) containing pea gravel 660 �ranging from 0.31 to 0.63 cm in diameter. The hydroponic beds are flooded several times daily with system water and then allowed to drain completely, and the water returned to the rearing tank. During the draining phase, air is brought into the gravel. The high oxygen content of air (com- pared to water) speeds the decomposition of organic matter in the gravel. The beds are inoculated with red worms (Eisenia foetida), which improve bed aeration and assimilate organic matter (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.3.1. Solids Removal The most appropriate device for solids removal in a particular system depends primarily on the organic loading rate (daily feed input and feces production) and secondarily on the plant growing area. For example, if large numbers of fish (high organic loading) are raised relative to the plant growing area, a highly efficient solids removal device, such as a microscreen drum filter, is desirable. Microscreen drum filters capture fine organic particles, which are retained by the screen for only a few minutes before backwashing removes them from the system. In this system, the dissolved nutrients excreted directly by the fish or produced by mineralization of very fine particles and dissolved organic matter may be sufficient for the size of the plant growing area. If small amounts of fish (low organic loading) are raised relative to the plant growing area, then solids removal may be unnecessary, as more mineralization is needed to produce sufficient nutrients for the plants. However, unstabilized solids (solids that have not undergone microbial decomposition) should not be allowed to accumulate on the tank bottom and form anaerobic zones. A reciprocating pea gravel filter (subject to flood and drain cycles), in which incoming water is spread evenly over the entire bed surface, may be the most appropriate device in this situation because solids are evenly distributed in the gravel and exposed to high oxygen levels (21 percent in air as compared to 0.0005 to 0.0007 percent in fish culture water) on the drain cycle. This enhances microbial activity and increases the mineralization rate. With clarification as the sole method of solids removal, large quantities of solids would be discharged to the hydroponic component. Therefore, another treatment stage is needed to remove re-suspended and fine solids. In the UVI system, two rectangular tanks, each with a volume of 700 litres, are filled with orchard/bird netting and installed after each of the two clarifiers (Fig. 2). Effluent from each clarifier flows through a set of two filter tanks in series. Orchard netting is effective in removing fine solids. The filter tanks remove the remaining 50 percent of total particulate solids. The orchard netting is cleaned once or twice each week. Before cleaning, a small sump pump is used to carefully return the filter tank water to the rearing tanks without dislodging the solids. This process conserves water and nutrients. The netting is cleaned with a highpressure water spray and the sludge is discharged to line holding ponds. The organic matter that accumulates on the orchard netting between cleanings forms a thick sludge. Anaerobic conditions develop in the sludge, which leads to the formation of gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane and nitrogen. Therefore, a degassing tank is used in the UVI system to receive the effluent from the filter tanks (Fig. 2). A number of air diffusers vent the gasses into the atmosphere before the culture water reaches the hydroponic plants. The degassing tank has an internal standpipe well that splits the water flow into three sets of hydroponic tanks. Solids discharged from aquaponic systems must be disposed of appropriately. There are several methods for effluent treatment and disposal. Effluent can be stored in aerated ponds and applied as relatively dilute sludge to land after the organic matter in it has stabilized. This method is advantageous in dry areas where sludge can be used to irrigate and fertilize field crops. The solid fraction of sludge can be separated from water and used with other waste products from the system (vegetable matter) to form compost. Urban facilities might have to discharge solid waste into sewer lines for treatment and disposal at the municipal wastewater treatment plant (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.4. Biofiltration A major concern in aquaponic systems is the removal of ammonia, a metabolic waste product excreted through the gills of fish. Ammonia will accumulate and reach toxic levels unless it is removed by the process of nitrification (referred to more generally as biofiltration), in which ammonia is oxidized first to nitrite, which is toxic, and then to nitrate, which is relatively non-toxic. Two groups of naturally occurring bacteria (Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter) mediate this two-step process (Fig 3) (Cacchione 2007). Nitrifying bacteria grow as a film (referred to as biofilm) on the surface of inert material or they adhere to organic particles. Biofilters contain media with large surface areas for the growth of nitrifying bacteria. Aquaponic systems have used biofilters with sand, gravel, shells or various plastic media as substrate. Biofilters perform optimally at a temperature range of 25 to 30 °C, a pH range of 7.0 to 9.0, saturated DO, low BOD (<20 mg/liter) and total alkalinity of 100 mg/liter or more. Nitrification is an acid-producing process. Therefore, an alkaline base must be added frequently, depending on feeding rate, to maintain relatively stable pH values. Some method of removing dead biofilm is necessary to prevent media clogging, short circuiting of water flow, decreasing DO values and declining biofilter performance (Hutchinson et al. 2004). 661 �If a separate biofilter is required or if a combined biofilter (biofiltration and hydroponic substrate) is used, the standard equations used to size biofilters may not apply to aquaponic systems, as additional surface area is provided by plant roots and a considerable amount of ammonia is taken up by plants. However, the contribution of various hydroponic subsystem designs and plant species to water treatment in aquaponic systems has not been studied. Therefore, aquaponic system biofilters should be sized fairly close to the recommendations for recirculation systems. Nitrification efficiency is affected by pH. The optimum pH range for nitrification is 7.0 to 9.0, although most studies indicate that nitrification efficiency is greater at the higher end of this range (high 8s). Recommended pH ranges for hydroponic systems are between 5.5 and 6.5 and for aquaculture systems are between 6.5 and 8.5 (Tyson et al. 2004). The pH of a solution affects the solubility of nutrients, especially trace metals. Essential nutrients such as iron, manganese, copper, zinc and boron are less available to plants at a pH higher than 7.0, while the solubility of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and molybdenum sharply decreases at a pH lower than 6.0. Compromise between nitrification and nutrient availability is reached in aquaponic systems by maintaining pH close to 7.0. Nitrification is most efficient when water is saturated with DO. The UVI commercial-scale system maintains DO levels near 80 percent saturation (6 to 7 mg/L) by aerating the hydroponic tanks with numerous small air diffusers (one every 4 feet) distributed along the long axis of the tanks. Reciprocating (ebb and flow) gravel systems expose nitrifying bacteria to high atmospheric oxygen levels during the dewatering phase. The thin film of water that flows through NFT (nutrient film technique) channels absorbs oxygen by diffusion, but dense plant roots and associated organic matter can block water flow and create anaerobic zones, which precludes the growth of nitrifying bacteria and further necessitates the installation of a separate biofilter. Ideally, aquaponic systems should be designed so that the hydroponic subsystem also serves as the biofilter, which eliminates the capital cost and operational expense of a separate biofilter. Granular hydroponic media such as gravel, sand and perlite provide sufficient substrate for nitrifying bacteria and generally serve as the sole biofilter in some aquaponic systems, although the media has a tendency to clog. If serious clogging occurs from organic matter overloading, gravel and sand filters can actually produce ammonia as organic matter decays, rather than remove it. If this occurs, the gravel or sand must be washed and the system design must be modified by installing a solids removal device before the media, or else the organic loading rate must be decreased by stocking fewer fish and reducing feeding rates. Raft hydroponics, which consists of channels (with 30 cm of water depth) covered by floating sheets of polystyrene for plant support, also provides sufficient nitrification if solids are removed from the flow before it reaches the hydroponic component. The waste treatment capacity of raft hydroponics is equivalent to a feeding ratio of 180 g of fish feed/m2 of plant growing area/day. This is equivalent to about 4.5 kg of feed for each 250 cm x 125 cm sheet of polystyrene foam. After an initial acclimation period of 1 month, it is not necessary to monitor ammonia and nitrite values in the UVI raft system A significant amount of nitrification occurs on the undersides of the polystyrene sheets, especially in the areas exposed to strong currents above air diffusers where the biofilm is noticeably thicker (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). Figure 3: The Nitrogen Cycle in Aquaponic Systems (Cacchione 2007). 662 �2.5. Hydroponic Subsystems A number of hydroponic subsystems have been used in aquaponic. Gravel hydroponic subsystems are common in small operations. To ensure adequate aeration of plant roots, gravel beds have been operated in a reciprocating (ebb and flow) mode, where the beds are alternately flooded and drained, or in a non flooded state, where culture water is applied continuously to the base of the individual plants through small diameter plastic tubing. Depending on its composition, gravel can provide some nutrients for plant growth (e.g., calcium is slowly released as the gravel reacts with acid produced during nitrification). One popular gravel-based aquaponic system uses pea gravel in small beds that are irrigated through a distribution system of PVC pipes over the gravel surface. Numerous small holes in the pipes distribute culture water on the flood cycle. The beds are allowed to drain completely between flood cycles. Solids are not removed from the culture water and organic matter accumulates, but the beds are tilled between planting cycles so that some organic matter can be dislodged and discharged. Sand has been used as hydroponic media in aquaponic systems and is an excellent substrate for plant growth. In an experimental system, sand beds (7.5 m long by 1.5 m wide by 15 cm deep) were constructed on slightly sloped ground covered by polyethylene sheets adjacent to in-ground rearing tanks, with the tank floors sloping to one side. A pump in the deep end of the rearing tank was activated for 30 minutes five times daily to furrow irrigate the adjacent sand bed. The culture water percolated through the sand and returned to the rearing tank. A coarse grade of sand is needed to reduce the potential for clogging over time and some solids should be removed before irrigation. Perlite is another media that has been used in aquaponic systems. Perlite is placed in shallow aluminium trays (7.5 cm deep) with a baked enamel finish. The trays vary from 20 cm to 10 cm wide and can be fabricated to any length; with 50 cm the maximum recommended length. At intervals of 50 cm, adjoining trays should be separated by 7.5 cm or more in elevation so that water drops to the lower tray and becomes re-aerated. A slope of 2.5 cm in 30 cm is needed for water flow. A small trickle of water enters at the top of the tray, flows through the perlite and keeps it moist, and discharges into a trough at the lower end. Solids must be removed from the water before it enters the perlite tray. Full solids loading will clog the perlite, form short-circuiting channels, create anaerobic zones and lead to non-uniform plant growth. Shallow perlite trays provide minimal area for root growth and are better for smaller plants such as lettuce and herbs. A floating or raft hydroponic subsystem is ideal for the cultivation of leafy green and other types of vegetables. The UVI system uses three sets of two raft hydroponic tanks that are 30 m long by 125 cm wide by 4 m deep and contain 3 m of water. The channels are lined with low-density polyethylene liners (20 mil thick) and covered by expanded polystyrene sheets (rafts) that are 250 cm long by 125 cm wide by 3.8 cm thick. Net pots are placed in holes in the raft and just touch the water surface. Two-inch net pots are generally used for leafy green plants, while 7.5 cm net pots are used for larger plants such as tomatoes or okra. Holes of the same size are cut into the polystyrene sheet. A lip at the top of the net pot secures it and keeps it from falling through the hole into the water. Seedlings are nursed in a greenhouse and then placed into net pots. Their roots grow into the culture water while their canopy grows above the raft surface. The system provides maximum exposure of roots to the culture water and avoids clogging. The sheets shield the water from direct sunlight and maintain lower than ambient water temperature, which is a beneficial feature in tropical systems. A disruption in pumping does not affect the plant’s water supply as in gravel, sand and NFT subsystems. The sheets are easily moved along the channel to a harvesting point where they can be lifted out of the water and placed on supports at an elevation that is comfortable for workers (Alka et al. 2000, Racoky et al. 2006). 2.6. Sump Water flows by gravity from gravel, sand and raft hydroponic subsystems to a sump, which is the lowest point in the system. The sump contains a pump or pump inlet that returns the treated culture water to the rearing tanks. There should be only one pump to circulate water in an aquaponic system. The sump should be the only tank in the system where the water level decreases as a result of overall water loss from evaporation, transpiration, sludge removal and splashing. The sump is a good location for the addition of base to the system. Soluble base such as potassium hydroxide causes high and toxic pH levels in the sump. However, as water is pumped into the rearing tank, it is diluted and pH decreases to acceptable levels (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2006). 2.7. Construction Materials Many materials can be used to construct aquaponic systems. Budget limitations often lead to the selection of inexpensive and questionable materials such as vinyl-lined, steel walled swimming pools. Fibreglass is the best construction material for rearing tanks, sumps and filter tanks. Fibreglass tanks are sturdy, durable, non-toxic, movable and easy to plumb. Polyethylene tanks are also very popular for fish rearing and gravel hydroponics because of their low cost. NFT troughs made from extruded polyethylene are specifically designed 663 �to prevent the pudding and water stagnation that lead to root death and are preferable to makeshift structures such as PVC pipes. Plastic troughs are commercially available for floating hydroponic subsystems, but they are expensive. A good alternative is the 20-mil polyethylene liners that are placed inside concrete block or pouredconcrete side walls. They are easy to install, relatively inexpensive and durable, with an expected life of 12 to 15 years. A soil floor covered with fine sand will prevent sharp objects from puncturing the liners. Lined hydroponic tanks can be constructed to very large sizes hundreds of feet long and up to 9 m wide (Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.8. Component Ratios Aquaponic systems are generally designed to meet the size requirements for solids removal (for those systems requiring solids removal) and biofiltration (if a separate biofilter is used) for the quantity of fish being raised. After the size requirements are calculated, it is prudent to add excess capacity as a safety margin. However, if a separate biofilter is used, the hydroponic component is the safety factor because a significant amount of ammonia uptake and nitrification will occur regardless of hydroponic technique. The optimum ratio of daily fish feed input to plant growing area will maximize plant production while maintaining relatively stable levels of dissolved nutrients. A volume ratio of 30 litter of fish-rearing tank to 220 litter of pea gravel hydroponic media (0.31 cm to 0.63 cm in diameter ) is recommended for reciprocating (flood and drain) gravel aquaponic systems. This ratio requires that tilapia be raised to a final density of 250 g/4 l and fed appropriately. With the recommended ratio, no solids are removed from the system. The hydroponic beds should be cultivated (stirred up) between crops and inoculated with red worms to help break down and assimilate the organic matter. With this system, nutrient supplementation may not be necessary. As a general guide for raft aquaponics, a ratio in the range of 60 to 100 g of fish feed/m2 of plant growing area per day should be used. Ratios within this range have been used successfully in the UVI system for the production of tilapia, lettuce, basil and several other plants. In the UVI system all solids are removed, with a residence time of <1 day for settleable solids (>100 micrometers) removed by a clarifier, and 3 to 7 days for suspended solids removed by an orchard netting filter. The system uses rainwater and requires supplementation for potassium, calcium and iron (Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.9. Plant Growth Requirements For maximum growth, plants in aquaponic systems require 16 essential nutrients. These are listed below in the order of their concentrations in plant tissue, with carbon and oxygen being the highest. The essential elements are arbitrarily divided into macronutrients, those required in relatively large quantities, and micronutrients, those required in considerably smaller amounts. Three of the macronutrients carbon (C), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) are supplied by water (H2O) and carbon dioxide gas (CO2). The remaining nutrients are absorbed from the culture water. Other macronutrients include nitrogen (N), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). The seven micronutrients include chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and boron (B), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and molybdenum (Mo). These nutrients must be balanced for optimum plant growth. High levels of one nutrient can influence the bioavailability of others. For example, excessive amounts of potassium may interfere with the uptake of magnesium or calcium, while excessive amounts of either of the latter nutrients may interfere with the uptake of the other two nutrients. Water temperature is far more important than air temperature for hydroponic plant production. The best water temperature for most hydroponic crops is about 24 °C. However, water temperature can go as low as the mid-60s for most common garden crops and slightly lower for winter crops such as cabbage, brussel sprouts and broccoli (Alka et al. 2000, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.10. Vegetable Selection Many types of vegetables have been grown in aquaponic systems. However, the goal is to culture a vegetable that will generate the highest level of income per unit area per unit time. With this criterion, culinary herbs are the best choice. They grow very rapidly and command high market prices. The income from herbs such as basil, cilantro, chives, parsley, portulaca and mint is much higher than that from fruiting crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplant and okra. For example, in experiments in UVI’s commercial scale system, basil production was 5,000 kg annually at a value of $110,000, compared to okra production of 2,900 kg annually at a value of $ 6,400. Fruiting crops also require longer culture periods (90 days or more) and have more pest problems and diseases. Lettuce is another good crop for aquaponic systems because it can be produced in a short period (3 to 4 weeks in the system) and, as a consequence, has relatively few pest problems. Unlike fruiting crops, a large portion of the harvested biomass is edible. Other suitable crops are Swiss chard, pak choi, Chinese cabbage, collard and watercress. The cultivation of flowers has potential in aquaponic systems. Good results 664 �have been obtained with marigold and zinnia in UVI’s aquaponic system. Traditional medicinal plants and plants used for the extraction of modern pharmaceuticals have not been cultivated in aquaponic systems, but there may be potential for growing some of these plants. All plant production has to be coupled to the producer’s ability to market the final product (Rakocy et al. 2006). In Canada, greenhouse tomato and cucumber production in aquaponic system in 2004/2005 reached 20.7 kg/plant/year and 33.4 kg/plant/year respectively exceeding average yields of these crops in greenhouse sector in Alberta for the first time. The average yield of basil increased in from 8.7 kg/m2 of greenhouse area to 11.9 kg/m2 in 2005 compared to 2005 (Savidow 2005). 2.11. Pest and Disease Control Pesticides should not be used to control insects on aquaponic plant crops. Even pesticides that are registered would pose a threat to fish and would not be permitted in a fish culture system. Similarly, therapeutants for treating fish parasites and diseases should not be used because vegetables may absorb and concentrate them. The common practice of adding salt to treat fish diseases or reduce nitrite toxicity is detrimental to plant crops. Nonchemical methods of integrated pest management must be used. These include biological control (resistant cultivars, predators, pathogens, antagonistic organisms), physical barriers, traps, and manipulation of the physical environment. There are more opportunities to use biological control methods in enclosed greenhouse environments than in exterior installations. Parasitic wasps and ladybugs can be used to control white flies and aphids. In UVI’s systems, caterpillars are effectively controlled by twice weekly spraying with Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterial pathogen that is specific to caterpillars. Fungal root pathogens (Pythium), which are encountered in summer at UVI and reduce production, dissipate in winter in response to lower water temperature. The prohibition on the use of pesticides makes crop production in aquaponic systems more difficult. However, this restriction ensures that crops from aquaponic systems will be raised in an environmentally sound manner and be free of pesticide residues. A major advantage of aquaponic systems is that crops are less susceptible to attack from soil borne diseases. Plants grown in aquaponic systems may be more resistant to diseases that affect plants grown in standard hydroponics. This resistance may be due to the presence of some organic matter in the culture water that creates a stable growing environment with a wide diversity of microorganisms, some of which may be antagonistic to plant root pathogens (Racoky et 2006). 2.12. Economics The economics of aquaponic systems depends on specific site conditions and markets. It would be inaccurate to make sweeping generalizations because material costs, construction costs, operating costs and market prices vary by location. The UVI system is capable of producing approximately 5,000 kg of tilapia and 630 cases of lettuce or 5,000 kg of basil annually based on studies in the Virgin Islands. Enterprise budgets for tilapia production combined with either lettuce or basil have been developed. The U.S. Virgin Islands represent a small niche market with very high prices for fresh tilapia, lettuce and basil, as more than 95 percent of vegetable supplies and nearly 80 percent of fish supplies are imported. The budgets were prepared to show revenues, costs and profits from six production units. A commercial enterprise consisting of six production units is recommended because one fish-rearing tank (out of 24) could be harvested weekly, thereby providing a continuous supply of fish for market development (Rakocy et al. 2006). In Canada, water use efficiency in mixed basil/tilapia operation was 394.3 liters per $100 of output, which is for 65.7% more efficient than in the best hydroponics system (600 liters per $100 of output) (Savidow, 2005). 3. Conclusion Aquaponic systems retain water for long periods of time, require less monitoring, and provide free nutrients. Aquaponic system encounters fewer pest and disease problems than traditional hydroponic systems due to the amount of organic material in the water. In contrast to the sought after sterile environment of hydroponics, the aquaponic system thrives on a diversity of bacteria – bacteria that can be antagonistic to pathogens and bacteria that boost plants’ immune systems. In fact, the aquaponic system has operated for several years without changing the water. Unlike traditional hydroponic solutions that require a complete nutrient mix, the UVI system’s tilapia provides adequate amounts of 10 of the 13 nutrients essential to plants. Only potassium, calcium and iron must be supplemented. And to maintain the proper pH level the operators add either calcium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, which provide the missing potassium and calcium nutrients. Iron is added separately Normal recirculation aquaculture systems discharge an estimated five to ten percent of system water daily due to excess nitrate accumulation. UVI’s system uses nitrates and other nutrients for plant growth, so it discharges less than one percent of system water daily, alleviating the potential for pollution related to water 665 �discharge. Aquaponic is the only system in the world that has a biofilter that makes money (Sherrill 2008). New technologies take time to be accepted and implemented. However, global water shortages have created a more urgent interest in aquaponic, one of the most water-efficient systems in the world. References Alka, G., Muali, G., & Tilak, K.V.B.R. (2000). Mechanism of Plant Growth Promotion by Rhizobacteria. Indian Journal of Experiment Biology, 38, 856-862. Cacchione, S. (2007). The Nitrogen Cycle. Backyard Aquaponics, 1, 6-8. Diver, S. (2006). Aquaponics-Integration of Hydroponics with Aquaculture. Natioanal Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. ATTRA Publication. 28pp. Dunning, R.D., Losordo, T.M., & Hobbs, A.O. (1998). The Economics of Recirculating Tank Systems: A Spreadsheet for Individual Analysis SRAC Publication No:456, Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, USA, 8p. Edwards, P. (2003). Philosophy Principles and Concepts of Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Systems, 6-13. In (eds, Gooley, G.J. & Gavine, F.M.) Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Systems. A Resource Handbook for Australian Industry Devepoment, RIRD Publication, 183pp. Hutchinson, W., Jeffry, M, O’Sullivan, D., Casement, D., & Clarke, S. (2004). Recirculating Aquaculture Systems Minimum Standards For Design, Costraction and Management. Inland Aquaculture Association of South Australia Inc.70pp. Lorena, S., Cristea, V., & Oprea, L. (2008). Nutrents Dynimic in an Aquaponic Recirculating System For Sturgeon And Lettuce (Lactuca Satıva) Productıon. Zootehnie si Biotehnologii, 41 (2), 137-143. Rakocy, J.E., Bailey, D.S.R., Shultz, C., & Thoman, E.S. (2004). Update on tilapia and vegetable production in the UVI aquaponic system. p. 676-690. In: New Dimensions on Farmed Tilapia: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, Held September 12-16, 2004 in Manila, Philippines. Rakocy, J.E., Massor, M.P., & Losordo, T.M. (2006). Recirculating Aquaculture Tank Production Systems: Aquaponics— Integrating Fish and Plant Culture. SRAC Publication No. 454, 16pp. Savidow, N. (2005). Evaluation and Development of Aquaponics Production and Product Market Cababilities in Alberta Phase II. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 57pp. Sherrill, G. (2008).Working Together. The Growing Edge, March/April, 24-26. Szyper, J. (1989). Backyard Aquaculture in Hawaii A Practical Manual. Windward Community College, Aquaculture Development Program, Dept. of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawaii.87pp. Tyson, R.V., Simonne, E.H., White, J.M., & Lamb, E.M. (2004). Reconciling Water Quality Parameters Impacting Nitrification in Aquaponics: The pH Levels. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc., 117, 79-83. 666 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 614 Title A name given to the resource Aquaponic (Integrating Fish and Plant Culture) Systems Author Author Turkmen, Gurel Guner, Yusuf Abstract A summary of the resource. Aquaponic is the combined culture of fish and plants in recirculation systems, has become increasingly popular. Nutrients, which are excreted directly by the fish or generated by the microbial breakdown of organic wastes, are absorbed by plants cultured hydroponically (without soil). Fish feed provides most of the nutrients required for plant growth. As the aquaculture effluent flows through the hydroponic component of the recirculation system, fish waste metabolites are removed by nitrification and direct uptake by the plants, thereby treating the water, which flows back to the fish-rearing component for reuse. Aquaponic has several advantages over other recirculation aquaculture systems and hydroponic systems that use inorganic nutrient solutions. The hydroponic component serves as a biofilter, and therefore a separate biofilter is not needed as in other recirculating systems. Aquaponic systems have the only biofilter that generates income, which is obtained from the sale of hydroponic produce such as vegetables, herbs and flowers. In the UVI system, which employs raft hydroponics, only calcium, potassium and iron are supplemented. The nutrients provided by the fish would normally be discharged and could contribute to pollution. Removal of nutrients by plants prolongs water use and minimizes discharge. Aquaponic systems require less water quality monitoring than individual recirculation systems for fish or hydroponic plant production. Aquaponic increases profit potential due to free nutrients for plants, lower water requirements, elimination of a separate biofilter, less water quality monitoring and shared costs for operation and infrastructure. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6a021d5b952e453ea45688ddb9d5aeca.pdf 5e68e537da16e051d84d3703963e05da PDF Text Text Biosecurity and Major Diseases in Shrimp Culture Gurel Turkmen Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Erol Toksen Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: The global shrimp aquaculture has passed its 30th year as a significant and rapidly growing and now represents a multi-billion dollar a year industry. More than half of the global shrimp supply now comes from farms. Recent statistics show that in 2008, 3,399,105 metric tons (MT) of the total world supply of 6,519,671 MT of shrimp (or 52%) were produced from aquaculture. However, shrimp farmers have suffered significant economic losses over the last decade, largely from viral diseases that have plagued the industry. In Asia, mortalities of cultured shrimp due to White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Yellow Head Virus (YHV) have resulted in significant economic losses, and Taura syndrome virus (TSV) is now spreading throughout this region. Similarly, in the Western Hemisphere, both WSSV and TSV have caused catastrophic losses on shrimp farms. In Ecuador alone, WSSV was responsible for an estimated 53% decline in shrimp production from 1998 to 2000, resulting in a loss of export revenue in excess of $516 million. It is believed that these diseases are transferred between regions through the importation of hatchery broodstock, postlarvae and shrimp products. Once new pathogens are imported to an area, infection of wild stock appears to be inevitable, eliminating future possibilities of using uncontaminated wild stock to culture. Good biosecurity measures are vital to maintaining healthy animals, to reducing the risk of acquiring diseases in aquaculture facilities and to harvest high quality good yield. Thus, biosecurity measurements for a shrimp farming facility includes; disease prevention, disease monitoring, effectively managing disease outbreaks, cleaning and disinfection between production cycles and general security precautions. Key words: Shrimp, Culture, Biosecurity, Disease, Prevention, 1. Introduction The global shrimp farming industry has passed its 30th year as a significant and rapidly growing industry. More than half of the global penaeid shrimp supply now comes from farms. Recent statistics (FAO, 2010) show that in 2008, 3,399,105 metric tons (MT) of the total world supply of 6,519,671 MT of shrimp (or 52%) were produced from aquaculture. The huge scale of the shrimp farming industry represents fourteen of billions of dollars of physical assets and hundreds of thousands of jobs. Two species are dominant in the global shrimp farming industry. These are the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon and the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. In Asia, the dominant species of choice was the Giant Tiger shrimp P. monodon native to tropical, coastal regions of the Indo-Pacific basin. In the West, the principal farmed species was P. vannamei, the Pacific White shrimp which is native to the tropical Pacific coast of Latin America. In the early 1990s, Asian shrimp farmers contributed more than 90% of total world production while farmers in the West contributed less than 10% of the total. Development of specific pathogen-free SPF stocks of P. vannamei in the U.S. in the early 1990s and their industry-wide use caused a doubling of U.S. industry production. Subsequent introduction of the domesticated non-native SPF P. vannamei to Asia in the late 90s, produced dramatic increases in shrimp production and rapid spread through Southeast Asia. Rapid and sustained increases in Asian shrimp production resulted from P. vannamei’s widespread adoption and these drove global shrimp production to double since 2000. By 2004, P. vannamei emerged as the leading shrimp species in worldwide production contributing more than 50% of total world farmed-shrimp production. In 2008, P. vannamei production accounted for more than 70% of total world production and was the dominant species farmed in China, Thailand, and Indonesia the world’s three leading production countries. 606 �The vast majority of shrimp culture in the world is conducted in outdoor earthen ponds that are typically located in coastal zones and exposed to a variety of pathogens. The worldwide experience of the shrimp farming industry is that pathogens, especially viruses, are a serious threat to the productivity and even survival of the industry. Although farmed shrimp now represent more than 50% of the global penaeid shrimp supply, farmers have suffered significant economic losses over the last decade, largely from viral diseases that have plagued the industry (Table 1. Lightner, 2005 ). In Asia, mortalities of cultured shrimp due to White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) and Yellow head virus (YHV) have resulted in significant economic losses (Flegel and Alday-Sanz 1998), and Taura syndrome virus (TSV) is now spreading throughout this region. Similarly, in the Western Hemisphere, both WSSV and TSV have caused catastrophic losses on shrimp farms (Lightner, 2003). In Ecuador alone, WSSV was responsible for an estimated 53% decline in shrimp production from 1998 to 2000, resulting in a loss of export revenue in excess of $516 million (Rosenberry, 2000). Virus WSSV - Asia WSSV - Americas TSV YHV IHHNV Year of emergence to 2001 1992 1999 1991-1992 1991 1981 Product loss (US dollars) 4-6 billion > 1 billion 1-2 billion 0.1-0.5 billion 0.5-1.0 billion Table 1. Estimated Economic Losses Since The Emergence of Certain Diseases in Penaeid Shrimp Aquaculture The pandemics due to the penaeid viruses WSSV and TSV, and to a lesser extent to IHHNV and Yellow Head Virus (YHV), have cost the penaeid shrimp industry billions of dollars in lost crops, jobs, and export revenue. In response to these viral pathogens, the global shrimp farming industry is changing the way shrimp aquaculture is practiced. The social and economic impacts of the pandemics caused by these pathogens in countries in which shrimp farming constitutes a significant industry have been profound. In the wake of the viral pandemics the shrimp culture industry has sought ways to restore the industry’s levels of production to the “previrus” years. The application of biosecurity to shrimp farming is central to those efforts (Lightner 2005). At the shrimp farm level, biosecurity refers to producing healthy shrimp in a well-controlled environment that excludes the introduction or propagation of unwanted organisms and includes the prevention or escape of organisms back into the natural environment. The primary goal of a biosecurity program in shrimp farming is to prevent the introduction of any infectious organism into a shrimp farming system. In this study a brief review was given of basic farm management strategies to improve the outlook for more biosecure production and control of disease in shrimp culture. A series of standard operating procedure recommendations was presented including farm location and design, pond preparation, stocking strategies, water exchange, feed management, health monitoring, and disease exclusion. 2. Biosecurity in Shrimp Farming Biosecurity, as it is being applied to shrimp aquaculture, may be defined as the practice of exclusion of specific pathogens from cultured aquatic stocks in broodstock facilities, hatcheries, and farms, or from entire regions or countries for the purpose of disease prevention (Lightner 2003). Lightner (2003), discussed ways of excluding pathogens from stock (i.e., post larvae and broodstock), especially through the use of quarantine and specific pathogen-free (SPF) certified stocks, and restricting imports of live and frozen shrimp. Excluding vectors and external sources of contamination and preventing internal cross contamination were suggested methods for excluding pathogens from hatcheries and farms. In the poultry industry, biosecurity has been defined as an essential group of tools for the prevention, control, and eradication of economically important infectious diseases. While biosecurity in this context may have many facets, central to its application in shrimp farming are the concepts of stock control and pathogen exclusion. This has been accomplished through the practice of stocking farms only with shrimp that are free of the diseases of concern into farms with controlled water sources. The latter issue of controlled water sources is being accomplished through better farm siting, farm design and water management through the use of such strategies as inland shrimp farming, “zero” water exchange, and the use of water treatment devices that remove potential vectors from the source water (Browdy et al. 2001). Horowitz and Horowitz (2003) described physical, chemical, and biological precautionary measures to be taken as well as a second line of defense against potential disease outbreaks. Physical measures are those that aim at preventing the intrusion of disease-carrying vectors to the farm site, and include physical barriers, water treatment, and quarantine. Chemical measures are those used to treat materials before they enter the facility. 607 �Chlorination and ozonization are often used to treat incoming water, and iodine and chlorine are used to treat other potential vectors such as tools, footwear, and clothing. Biological measures include the use of SPF shrimp, which are readily available commercially. A second line of defense for the shrimp industry is to use specific pathogen-resistant shrimp, which, in addition to being disease-free, are resistant to specific diseases. Since shrimp do not develop a specific immune response, common immunostimulants, such as β-1-3 glucan, lipopolysaccharides, and peptidoglycans are used to improve the ability of the shrimp to prevent infection. The pathogens WSSV and IHHNV are considered to have been introduced into the Americas from Asia with live shrimp or with frozen infected commodity shrimp (FAO 2003; Tang et al. 2003). Both WSSV and IHHNV have been demonstrated in wild penaeid shrimp in the Americas (Motte et al. 2003) and Asia (Fegan and Clifford 2001). The establishment of these and other pathogens in wild shrimp stocks in the Americas has changed the way shrimp are farmed. Gone are the days when broodstock and postlarvae could be collected from the wild without concern that they might be carrying disease. Also gone are the days when shrimp farms, in all but the most geographically isolated locations, could be designed and operated without a biosecurity program. In the decade following the emergence and spread of WSSV throughout Asia and into the Americas and the emergence and spread of TSV throughout the Americas and into Asia, the industry has begun to adopt a variety of biosecurity measures and programs as its best defense against these and other diseases. In some shrimp farming regions, the application of the principles of biosecurity has helped farms in those regions to reduce losses due to disease and to improve production (Fegan and Clifford 2001). If a disease presents itself at a particular pond, effective biosecurity measures should prevent the complete loss of the crop and the spread of disease to other ponds. Lightner (2003) recommended an approach to eliminating pathogens at the stock level and partial disinfection at the facility level. To eliminate pathogens in post-larvae and broodstock, affected tanks and ponds should be depopulated, disinfected, and restocked with SPF shrimp. It may, however, be necessary to depopulate the entire stock and to fallow the entire facility if partial disinfection (using lime, chlorine, or drying) is not successful. Horowitz and Horowitz (2003) suggested providing better environmental and biological conditions to the infected population to increase its ability to resist diseases. They discussed the following steps: a) effect physical measures (increase aeration, control temperature, improve the feeding regime, remove sludge and organic matter, and treat wastewater) to improve the environmental conditions, b) effect chemical measures, including control of pH and salinity, reduction of ammonia and nitrite, and application of antibiotics, and c) to use effective biological measures, consisting mainly of the use of probiotics containing a mix of bacterial species to establish beneficial microbial communities under culture conditions. 2.1. Control of Shrimp Stocks The single most important principle of biosecurity is stock control, which may be simply defined as the use of captive or domesticated stocks, cultured under controlled conditions, and which have been the subject of an active disease surveillance and control program (Lightner 2003). While numerous methods have been incorporated into the operational design and management of shrimp farms previously affected by TSV and WSSV to eradicate them and to insure that they are not reintroduced, none can be expected to provide much protection against crop losses in farms that use seed stock derived from wild stock sources. The use of only domesticated shrimp stocks that have a known history of being free of pathogens of concern can help to mitigate this risk. However, an SPF history comes only from a long-term captive breeding and disease surveillance program at a facility that has a fully functional and effective biosecurity plan (Fegan and Clifford 2001). The successful application of the SPF concept is dependent upon the absence of the pathogen(s) of concern in the stocks being reared (or that are present), on the availability of sensitive and accurate detection and diagnostic methods for the pathogen(s), and the presence of an effective barrier (i.e., facility design and geographic location, government mandated import restrictions, etc.) to prevent the introduction of the specific pathogen(s) intended to be excluded. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Guidelines (Code of Practice to Reduce the Risks of Adverse Effects Arising from the Introduction on Nonindigenous Marine Species, 1973, as reviewed in Sindermann (1988, 1990) was followed for the development of these stocks (Table 2). Original ICES Guidelines 1. Conduct comprehensive disease study in native habitat 2. Transfer {founder stock} system in recipient area 3. Maintain and study closed system population 4. Develop broodstock in closed system Adapted to SPF Shrimp Development 1. Identify stock of interest (i.e., cultured or wild) 2. Evaluate stock's healtlddisease history. 3. Acquire and test samples for specific listed pathogens (SLPs) and pests. 4. Import and quarantine founder (F0) population; 608 �5. Grow isolated F1 individuals; destroyoriginal introductions 6. Introduce small lots to natural waters - continue disease study. monitor F0 stock. 5. Produce F1 generation from F0 stock. 6. Culture F1 stock through criticmonitor general health and test for SLPs. al stage(s); 7. If SLPs, pests, other significant pathologies are not detected, F-1 stock may be defined as SPF and released from quarantine. Table 2. Recommended Steps in The ICES Guidelines for Risk Reduction in Aquatic Species Introductions 2.2. SPF and SPR Shrimp Stocks Stock control requirements are being addressed in at least three ways. Where the industry has remained dependent upon wild (adult or postlarval = PL) stocks as its source of “seed,” routine polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of broodstock and PLs for important pathogens like WSSV, TSV, YHV, and IHHNV has been adopted. Other components of the industry have chosen to attempt to develop and use specific pathogen resistant stocks (SPR) when pathogen exclusion from other sources such as the water supply is not a practical option (Lightner and Redman 1998). Nonetheless, the development and use of “specific pathogen free” (SPF) stocks is emerging as perhaps the best management strategy for stock control in farms, regions or countries with biosecurity programs. Although marketers commonly use the term “disease-free” to describe the live shrimp products in commerce, they are in reality marketing shrimp that are free of specific disease causing agents. Because nothing that is living is completely free of some sort of disease, such “disease free shrimp” are more correctly referred to as being free of certain specific pathogens or SPF. The term SPF implies that the stock of interest is free of one or more specific pathogens (Fegan and Clifford 2001). To the USMSFP, SPF means the stock of interest has at least 2 yr of documented historical freedom of the disease agents listed on its working list of specific pathogens, that the stock has been cultured in biosecure facilities, and that the stock was either cultured under conditions where the listed disease agents would have produced recognizable disease if any were present and/or that the stock has been subjected to routine surveillance and testing for the listed pathogens. Those pathogens on the USMSFP SPF list have also met certain criteria including: 1) the pathogen(s) must be excludable; 2) adequate diagnostic and pathogen detection methods are available; and 3) the pathogen(s) poses significant threat of disease and production losses (Lotz et al. 1995; Lightner 2003), which are also among the criteria required for disease listing by the Office International des Epizooties, OIE (OIE 2003a, 2003b) Secondary Quarantine Facility Primary Quarantine of F0: test for pathogens/pests negative nenegati + = no nenegati Produce Produce negative adult F Generation nenegati 1 broodstock + = no (SPF/SPR) negative Breeding nenegati Center(s)& + = no hatcheries + = no nenegati nenegati negative nenegati FARMS Figure 2. Schematic of The Steps in Developing Specific Pathogen Free Breeding Lines. Specific pathogen free stocks developed by the USMSFP were developed in the spirit of the ICES Guidelines (Table 2; Fig. 1). To begin the process, each “SPF candidate population” of wild or cultured shrimpstocks of interest was identified. Samples of the stock were taken and tested using appropriate diagnostic and pathogen detection methods for the specific pathogens of concern. If none were found, a founder population (F,) of the “candidate SPF” stock was acquired and reared in primary quarantine. During primary quarantine, the F, stock was monitored for signs of disease, sampled, and tested periodically for specific pathogens. If any pathogens of concern were detected, the stock was destroyed. Those stocks that tested negative for pathogens of concern through primary quarantine (which ran from 30 d to as much as 1 yr for some stocks) were moved to a separate secondary quarantine facility for maturation, selection, mating, and production of a second (F,) 609 �generation. The F, stocks were maintained in quarantine for further testing for specific pathogens of concern. Those that tested negative were designated as SPF, and used to produce domesticated lines of SPF and “high health” shrimp (Wyban et al. 1992; Brock and Main 1994; Pruder et al. 1995; Lotz et al. 1995) 3. Major Diseases in Shrimp Culture Farmed shrimp are infected by a range of disease agents including bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. This overview focuses mainly on viral and bacterial diseases that have had a significant impact on the shrimp farming industry. There are a number of viruses that infect shrimp, but not all of them cause fatal diseases. Infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) has been observed in most commercially farmed shrimp species. It appears to be harmless in some species such as the Asian tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, but malicious in others causing mortality and growth retardation. There are a number of other viruses such as the monodon baculovirus (MBV), hepatopancreatic parvo-like virus (HPV), and baculovirus penaei (BP) that damage the cells of the hepatopancreas and make the shrimp susceptible to other disease agents. It is believed that infection by these viruses causes a reduction in growth rates. As noted earlier, the three viruses that cause acutely fatal diseases in shrimp farming are the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head virus (YHV) and Taura syndrome virus (TSV). All three viruses can cause extensive mortality within a few days of the first clinical signs of the disease. As discussed below, the severity of a viral disease typically subsides in about two years after the first incidence of the given disease. This apparently indicates some type of an adaptive response to the disease agent. However, the viruses are never completely eliminated. They resurface periodically, particularly at times of stress, to cause large-scale mortalities. Furthermore, growth retardation often coincides with viral infections resulting in economic losses. The most important diseases of cultured penaeid shrimp, in terms of economic impact, in Asia, the Indo-Pacific, and the Americas have infectious agents as their cause (Tables 3, 4). Among the infectious diseases of cultured shrimp, certain viruscaused diseases stand out as the most significant. The impact of White Spot Disease (WSD) due to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) has been particularly noteworthy. Rosenberry (2001) estimated that disease due to WSSV “robbed the industry” of approximately 200,000 MT of production in 2000 worth more than $1 billion. The viral disease pandemics caused by WSSV and Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV) that began in 1992 and caused billions in lost revenue have forever changed the shrimp farming industry (Table 1; Lightner 2005). The social and economic impacts of the pandemics caused by these pathogens in countries in which shrimp farming constitutes a significant industry have been profound. In the wake of the viral pandemics the shrimp culture industry has sought ways to restore the industry’s levels of production to the “pre-virus” years. The application of biosecurity to shrimp farming is central to those efforts. Some of the most important diseases (and their etiological agents) were once limited in distribution to either the Western or Eastern Hemisphere and many of the most significant shrimp pathogens were moved from the regions where they initially appeared to new regions even before the “new” pathogen had been recognized, named, proven to cause the disease, and before reliable diagnostic methods were developed. The diseases, due to the shrimp viruses IHHNV (infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus), TSV, and WSSV, were all transferred with live shrimp stocks from country to country and from one continent to another well before their etiology was understood (Lightner 2003). Viral diseases White Spot Syndrome Virus Yellow head Virus group Taura Syndrome Virus MBV group IHHNV HPV group RE0 group Bacterial and fungal diseases Vibriosis: -septic HP necrosis -hatchery vibriosis -luminescent vibrio Other bacteria: -Rickettsia Fungal: -Larval mycosis -Fusariosis Other diseases Epicommensals and parasites: -Leucothrix mucor -peritrich protozoans -gregarines -microsporidians Nutritional imbalances Toxic syndromes and environmental extremes Table 3. Major Diseases of IndoPacific and East Asian Penaeid Shrimp (Lightner, 2005) 610 �Viral diseases White Spot Syndrome Virus Taura Syndrome Virus IHHNV BP group HPV group IMNV RE0 III LOVV RPS Bacterial and fungal diseases Vibriosis: -Sindrome Gaviota” -hatchery vibriosis -luminescent vibrio -shell disease -septic HP necrosis Other bacteria: -NHP bacterium Fungal: -Larval Mycosis -Fusariosis Other diseases Epicommensals and parasites: -Leucothrix mucor -peritrich protozoans -gregarines -microsporidians Nutritional imbalances Toxic syndromes and environmental extremes Zoea II syndrome Table 4. Major Diseases of The American Penaeids (Lightner, 2005) 3.1. Yellow Head Virus Yellow head virus was first reported in Thailand in 1991. A related virus called Gill Associated Virus (GAV) was reported from Australia in 1996. Yellow head virus caused severe disease outbreaks in Thailand until 1994. The disease typically occurs in juveniles or sub-adults. A spurt in feed consumption followed by loss in appetite, lethargy and erratic swimming are the gross signs first observed. Pale yellow coloration of the gills and cephalothorax is often noted. Mortalities start within a few days and can reach as high as 100% in 3-5 days after the gross signs are observed. Sporadic disease outbreaks still occur, mainly in Asia, but the mortalities are less severe than past (Lightner, 2005). 3.2. White Spot Syndrome Virus White spot syndrome virus was first reported in Japan in 1993, although it might have originated in China. This virus has caused the most damage to the shrimp farming industry. It spread to almost all shrimp farming countries of Asia in a span of three years. It was reported in the United States in 1995, and spread to Central and South American countries in a span of four years. Almost all shrimp species have been affected. Further, most crustaceans can be infected with the virus and become carriers. The characteristic feature of WSSV infection is the presence of white spots or patches under the carapace, although this may not be present in all diseased shrimp. Soon after showing general signs of ill-health such as reduced feed intake and erratic swimming, mortalities occur. Mortality up to 100% may occur within seven days after the first sign of problems. The infection may occur at any stage in the life cycle of the shrimp. Stressful conditions such as sudden changes in environmental conditions, particularly lowered temperatures, trigger disease. Frequent WSSV disease outbreaks still occur worldwide, but there are more and more cases of shrimp populations escaping severe mortality in spite of WSSV infections (Lightner, 2005; Wyaban, 2009). 3.3. Taura Syndrome Virus Taura syndrome was reported first in 1992 in Ecuador. Presence of TSV was reported in 1995. TSV spread throughout the Pacific coast of Central and South America and mainly affected the Pacifc White Shrimp, P. vannamei. Distinguishable gross signs of TSV are pale reddish coloration of the body, red tail fans, necrosis of the cuticular epithelium, and soft shells. Mortality during molting is common. Sometimes, the shrimp are affected only transitionally: gross signs of the disease may occur, but the shrimp may behave and feed normally. While TSV still occurs, the catastrophic losses suffered in the early years of TSV infection are less common now. 3.4. Vibriosis Infection by Vibrio spp. is the most common bacterial disease problem in shrimp culture. Vibrio spp. are ubiquitous and naturally present in most aquatic ecosystems. Infections occur when shrimp are stressed or unhealthy. Infections may also occur as a result of high concentrations of Vibrio spp. in the culture system. Some species and strains, particularly V. harveyi, are more infectious than others. Shell lesions, black coloration of gills and discoloration of shells occur as a result of vibriosis. Severe mortalities may follow acute infections. 611 �Chronic infections may result in erratic swimming behavior, abnormal coloration, external fouling and less severe, but sustained mortalities (Lightner 2003, 2005). 4. Biosecurity Protocol for Shrimp Farming Biosecurity protocol for shrimp farming included three main management strategies focusing on: (a) pond bottom preparation and water management prior to stocking, (b) seed selection and stocking, and (c) poststocking management (Clifford and Cook, 2002; Wyaban 2009). 4.1. Pond Bottom Preparation and Water Management Prior to Stocking - Removal of bottom sludge, Particularly in ponds stocking higher densities (up to 8 PL/m2). - Plowing on wet soil if the sludge has not been removed completely. - Use of lime in pond preparation. - Disinfection of pond water - Fertilization reduces the risk of disease outbreak in lower stocking density farms. - Water filtration using twin bag filters of 250 µm mesh size. - Water conditioning for 10–15 days before stocking. 4.2. Seed Selection and Stocking - Uniform size and color post-larvae (PLs), actively swimming against the water current. Stocking of poor quality of seed (less active, more mortality during transportation and size of less than 16 mm in case of nursery reared juveniles increases the risk of shrimp disease outbreak. - Stocking Pathogen Free (SPF) Larvae (SPF shrimp stocks are avaible in some countries) - Longer transport time (>6 hours) of the seed from hatchery or nursery to the pond also increases the likelihood of a subsequent disease outbreak. - Weak PL elimination before stocking using formalin (100 ppm) stress for 15–20 minutes in continuously aerated water. - On-farm nursery rearing of PLs for 15–20 days. - Stocking into green water and avoiding transparent water during stocking. 4.3. Post Stocking Management - Perform a visual inspection of the pond on a daily basis. - Sampling for growth and survival - Monitor shrimp health and the appearance of disease using animals collected in the weekly growth and population samples - Gut content and their color. In general, 80% or more of the shrimp randomly sampled from a healthy, well nourished, recently fed pond should display the intestinal tract (mid-gut) running the length of the tail to be full of food. In addition to quantifying gut fullness and using it to detect under-feeding or predict the onset of disease, the color of the shrimp’s gut contents can also be very informative (Table 5). Gut Content Color Black, dark brown Light or golden brown Red, pinkish Green Pale, whitish Probable Food Item Benthic detritus, sediment Manufactured feed Cannibalized body parts from shrimp Benthic algae None (disease condition) Probable Cause(S) Under-feeding; inadequate feeding Normal dead Disease event in pond Under-feeding Gregarines, or some other disease Table 5. The Color of The Shrimp’s Gut Contents and Predict The Onset of Disease - Use of water reservoirs, and 10–15 days aging before use in grow out ponds. 612 �- Water filtration-ponds using water filter nets of fine mesh have better production. - Aeration-ponds using aeration tend to have higher shrimp production. - High salinity and pH (>8.5) have an affect on risk of disease outbreaks - Green water (pond color) ponds have better production and lower risk of disease outbreak. - Clear water with bentic and filamentous algae lead to lower production. - Regular use of agricultural lime, especially after water exchange and rain. - No use of any harmful/banned chemicals. - Use of feed check trays to ensure feeding based on shrimp demand. - Feeding across the pond using boat/floating device to avoid local waste accumulation. - Regular removal of benthic algae. - Water exchanges only during critical periods. - Weekly checking of pond bottom mud for blackish organic waste accumulation and unpleasant odor. - Regular shrimp health checks, and weekly health and growth monitoring using a cast net. - Removal and safe disposal of sick or dead shrimp. - Emergency harvesting after proper decision-making. - No draining or abandoning of disease-affected stock 4.4. A Biosecure Farm Model A drawing showing a 100-ha farm comprised of fifty 2.0-ha ponds with a centralized pumping and ozone contact facility is presented in Fig. 2. The gross farm area of 182 ha includes 18 ha of pond surface area committed to a series of sedimentation, aeration, and retention ponds (Schuur, 2003). The mechanical area includes a forebay or pumping basin that is accessed by gates for selecting water supply from either the treatment pond in a recirculation mode, or the raw water source in an exchange replenishment mode. From the forebay the water is pumped through an ozone injection device and then through a contact channel with sufficient volume to allow a minimum of 10 min retention time in a maximum flow situation. The effluent from the contact chamber is discharged into the primary supply channel that encircles the entire perimeter of the farm. The pump lift from the forebay is about 3 m in order to provide a sufficient hydraulic gradient for gravity distribution by the supply channel network to all of the ponds. The supply channel has cross-sectional area sufficient to carry peak flows to the furthermost ponds with only a minor loss of head. The nearly square configuration is optimal for reducing the farm perimeter to a minimum for biosecurity purposes. There is an all-weather dike-top roadway outside the supply channel encircling the farm perimeter of roughly 5.4 km. For security purposes the farm perimeter can be circuited in about 10 min at a modest vehicle speed. The external roadway traffic naturally inhibits plant growth and cover for terrestrial crabs that might seek access. A further barrier to intrusion inside the roadway is a short fence constructed with metal or plastic sheet material embedded in the ground and suspended by stakes. This barrier is a common feature of many intensive farms in combination with lime and pesticide application. The roadway also provides a ‘killing zone’ before the barrier where any potential carriers can be detected and eliminated. About 18% of the production pond surface is allocated to serial treatment ponds that provide sedimentation, aeration, and retention in order to improve water quality within the farm. The two sedimentation areas can be used in series or parallel flow, or in some cases one at time while the other is being dried and reconditioned. Additional retention time improves the water quality by providing additional area for autotrophic and/or heterotrophic processes to absorb and digest ammonia and organic matter. Mechanical aeration applied in the series provides more efficient oxygen transfer efficiency to the farm as a whole. This is due to the additional driving force provided by the difference between oxygen-depleted water from sedimentation ponds and the effluent concentration at the discharge of the aeration lagoon. References Brock, J. A., Main, K. (1994). A guide to the common problems and diseases of cultured Penaeus vannamei. The Oceanic Institute, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Browdy, C. L., D. Bratvold, A. D. Stokes, Mclntosh, R. P. (2001). Perspectives on the application of closed shrimp culture systems. p. 2-34 in C. L. Browdy and D. E. Jory, editors. The new wave, Proceedings of the Special Session on Sustainable Shrimp Culture. Aquaculture 2001. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Clifford, H.C., Cook, H.L. (2002). Disease Management in Shrimp Culture Ponds. Aquaculture Magazine: 28(4): 18-26 613 �FAO (2003). Health management and biosecurity maintance in white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) hatcheries in Latin America. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 450. FAO, Rome. 62p. FAO (2010). Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. http://www.fao.org/crop/statistics/en/ Fegan, D. F. Clifford III., H. C. (2001). Health management for viral diseases in shrimp farms. p. 168-198 in C. L. Browdy and D. E. Jory, editors. The new wave, Proceedings of the Special Session on Sustainable Shrimp Culture. Aquaculture 2001. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Flegel, T.W. Alday-Sanz, V. (1998). The crisis in Asian shrimp aquaculture: current status and future needs. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 14: 269-273. Horowitz, A. Horowitz, S. (2003). Alleviation and prevention of disease in shrimp farms in Central and South America: A microbiological approach. p. 117-138 in C.-S. Lee and P.J. O’Bryen, editors. Biosecurity in Aquaculture Production Systems: Exclusion of Pathogens and Other Undesirables. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Lightner, D. V. (2003). Exclusion of specific pathogens for disease control in a penaeid shrimp biosecurity program. p. 81116 in C. -S. Lee and P. J. O’Bryen, editors. Biosecurity in aquaculture production systems: Exclusion of pathogens and other undesirables. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Lightner, D.V. (2005). Biosecurity in Shrimp Farming: Pathogen Exclusion through Use of SPF Stock and Routine Surveillance. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 36(3): 229-248. Lightner, D. V., Redman, R. M. (1998). Strategies for the control of viral diseases of shrimp in the Americas. Fish Pathology, 33: 165-180. Lotz, J. M., C. L Browdy, W. H. Carr, P. F. Frelier, Lightner, D. V. (1995). USMSFP suggested procedures and guidelines for assuring the specific pathogen status of shrimp broodstock and seed. p. 66-75 in C. L. Browdy and J. S. Hopkins, editors. Swimming through troubled water, Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Aquaculture ‘95. San Diego, California, 1 4 February 1995. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Motte, E., E. Yagcha, J. Luzardo, F. Castro, G. Leclercq, J. Rodriguez, P. Miranda, 0. Borja, J. Serrano, M. Terrems, K. Montalvo, A. Namaez, N. Tenorio, V. Cedeno, E. Mialhe, Boulo, V. (2003). Prevention of IHHNV vertical transmission in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Aquaculture, 219: 57-70. OIE (Office International des Epizooties) (2003a). Manual of diagnostic tests for aquatic animal diseases, 4th edition. Office International des Epizooties, Paris, France. OIE (Office International des Epizooties) (2003b). Aquatic animal diseases health code, 6th edition. Office International des Epizooties, Paris, France. Pruder G. D., C. L. Brown, J. N. Sweeney, Carr, W. H. (1995). High health shrimp systems: seed supply - theory and practice. p. 40-52 in C. L. Browdy and J. S. Hopkins, editors. Swimming through troubled water, Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Aquaculture ‘95, San Diego, California, 14 February 1995. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Rosenberry, B. (2000). World Shrimp Farming 2000. San Diego, California, Shrimp News International. Rosenberry, B. (2001). World shrimp farming 2000, number 13. Shrimp News International, San Diego, California, USA. Schuur, A.M. (2003). Evaluation of biosecurity applications for intensive shrimp farming. Aquacultural Engineering, 28: 320. Sindermann, C. J. (1988). Disease problems created by introduced species. p. 394-398 in C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner, editors. Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine Aaquaculture. Developments in aquaculture and fisheries science, volume 17. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Sindermann C. J. (1990). Principal diseases of marine fish and shellfish, volume 2, 2nd Edition. Academic Press, New York, USA. Tang, K. F. J., B. T. Poulos, J. Wang, R. M. Redman, H. -H. Shih, Lightner, D. V. (2003). Geographic variations among infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) isolates and characteristics of their infection. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 53:91-99. 614 �Wyaban, J. (2009). World Shrimp Farming Revolution: Industry Impact of Domestication, Breeding and Widespread Use of Specific Pathogen Free Penaeus vannamei. Craig L. Browdy and Darryl E. Jory, editors. The Rising Tide, Proceedings of the Special Session on Sustainable Shrimp Farming, World Aquaculture 2009. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge Louisiana USA. 12-21p. Wyban J. A., J. Swingle, J. N. Sweeney, Pruder, G. D. (1992). Development and commercial performance of high health shrimp from SPF broodstock Penaeus vannamei. p. 254-260 in J. Wyban, editor. Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Orlando, Florida, 22-25 May 1992. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. 615 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 608 Title A name given to the resource Biosecurity and Major Diseases in Shrimp Culture Author Author Turkmen, Gurel Toksen, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. The global shrimp aquaculture has passed its 30th year as a significant and rapidly growing and now represents a multi-billion dollar a year industry. More than half of the global shrimp supply now comes from farms. Recent statistics show that in 2008, 3,399,105 metric tons (MT) of the total world supply of 6,519,671 MT of shrimp (or 52%) were produced from aquaculture. However, shrimp farmers have suffered significant economic losses over the last decade, largely from viral diseases that have plagued the industry. In Asia, mortalities of cultured shrimp due to White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Yellow Head Virus (YHV) have resulted in significant economic losses, and Taura syndrome virus (TSV) is now spreading throughout this region. Similarly, in the Western Hemisphere, both WSSV and TSV have caused catastrophic losses on shrimp farms. In Ecuador alone, WSSV was responsible for an estimated 53% decline in shrimp production from 1998 to 2000, resulting in a loss of export revenue in excess of $516 million. It is believed that these diseases are transferred between regions through the importation of hatchery broodstock, postlarvae and shrimp products. Once new pathogens are imported to an area, infection of wild stock appears to be inevitable, eliminating future possibilities of using uncontaminated wild stock to culture. Good biosecurity measures are vital to maintaining healthy animals, to reducing the risk of acquiring diseases in aquaculture facilities and to harvest high quality good yield. Thus, biosecurity measurements for a shrimp farming facility includes; disease prevention, disease monitoring, effectively managing disease outbreaks, cleaning and disinfection between production cycles and general security precautions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/aa99e904aba28b57be82df43d6ba272e.pdf bc83e460816c3d9ddfd3719fa6d1b157 PDF Text Text Effects of Different AMF Species on Some Bean Cultivars Grown in Salty Conditions Önder Türkmen Department of Horticulture Agricultural Faculty Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey turkmen@selcuk.edu.tr Vahdettin Çiftçi Department of Field Crops Agricultural Faculty Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey Çeknas Erdinç Department of Horticulture Agricultural Faculty Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey Suat Şensoy Department of Horticulture Agricultural Faculty Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey Abstract: This study was carried out to determine the effects of three different Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) species (Glomus mosseae, G. intraradices and G. fasciculatum ) on the growth and nutrient contents of four bean cultivars (Onceler, Seker, Terzibaba and Sehirali) grown under salt stress. The constant amount of NaCl (50 ppm) was added the autoclaved growth medium containing 1:1:1: ratios of soil, sand, and manure. The five g (25 spores g-1) of inoculum was placed in the seedling growth medium before the seeds were sown. At the end of the study, some nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and plant growth parameters such as shoot height, stem diameter, root length, leaf number, leaf area, and dry and fresh weights of shoots and roots were investigated. Moreover, the plant colonization rates of AMF species were determined. The AMF species had positive effects on the plant growth and nutrient intake. Among the bean cultivars, Onceler and Terzibaba, and among the AMF species, G. mosseae, had the best results for plant growth. Introduction Bean is the most widely produced legumes in the world, especially in Asia and South America (Ozdemir, 2002). Fresh bean productions of the world and Turkey (the second biggest producer) are 6.37 and 0.49 million tons, respectively (Anonymous, 2007). Bean is easily produced in all parts of Turkey and has an important place in human consumption. Soil salinity is one of the limiting environmental factors for agricultural productivity in the world and Turkey and more than one third of the world’s agricultural land faces with this problem (Greenway & Munns, 2000, Kaynak et al. 2000). Turkey faces with salinity problem in 32.5 % of its irrigated land (1.5 millions ha). Especially seed emergence and seedling growth are adversely affected in salt accumulated soil. Salinity may occur when there is irregular irrigation, inadequate drainage, wrong fertilizer application, and it extremely increases especially in protected cultivation. Some physiological disorders and even plant dies might be observed due to high osmotic pressure and toxic effects of Na+ and Cl- ions (Franca Dantas et al. 2007; Greenway & Munns, 1980; Ekmekçi et al. 2005; Kaynak et al. 2000). In soils having salinity problems, there are accumulations of Na+ and Cl- ions, increase in Na+:Ca2+, Na+:K+, Ca2+:Mg2+ and Cl-: NO-3 ratios; consequently, there are ion toxicity and imbalance (Hu & Schmidhalted, 2005). Increase in Na+ inhibits K+ uptake, and Increase in Cl- reduces NO-3 uptake (Turkmen et al. 2005). Higher amounts of salty substances in soil hinder water uptake and destroy soil structure (Ekmekci et al. 2005). 117 �Plant species are called salt intolerant if they can only survive in EC values ranged from 0 to 4 ds m-1 (Ekmekci et al. 2005). Bean is a salt intolerant plant species. The significant yield losses are observed in bean even at below 2 ds m-1 (Gama et al. 2007). The yield loss migth be 50 % above2 ds m-1 EC values (Ekmekci et al. 2005). The harmful effects of salinity can be lessened with the use of tolerant cultivars beside several cultural practices. Moreover, the humic substances in the soil (Türkmen et al., 2005) and some useful microorganisms such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can give encouraging results in salt tolerance (Türkmen et al., 2005; Gosling et al. 2006; Aroca et al., 2007; Türkmen et al., 2008). AM Fungi are the most widespread root fungal symbionts and are associated with the vast majority of higher plants (Selvaraj & Chellappan, 2006). AMF enable plants to cope with detrimental environmental conditions; therefore, AMF increase plant growth and yield (Bolandnazar et al., 2007). Approximately 96 % of the plants in the world is dependent and associated with AMF (Quilambo, 2003;Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). The degree of this dependence varies among the plant species. Bean is one of the species having high mycorrhizal dependency (Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). While plants provide carbohydrates to AMF, AMF alleviate certain nutrient deficiencies by increasing nutrient uptake (Ortas & Akpınar, 2004; Selvaraj & Chellappan, 2006). AMF’s hyphae improve the uptake of some water insoluble nutrients by the help of their enzymatic activities and by the alteration of physical and chemical properties in the soil (Abdelhafez & Abdel-Monsief, 2006). Beside improving soil properties, AMF also enable plants to cope with both biotic and abiotic stresses (Aroca et al., 2007; Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). Salinity is among these troubles (Juniper & Abbott, 2004). It was observed that AMF could be effective for salt tolerance in bean (Rabie, 2005; Trujillo, 2006). Therefore, this study was carried out to determine the effects of different AMF species on the seedling growth and nutrient contents of some bean cultivars grown under salt stress. Material and Methods Four bean cultivars were examined, as follows: (1) Onceler; (2) Seker; (3) Terzibaba; (4) Sehirali. Three AMF inoculums were tested in the study -Glomus intraradices (Gi) and G. mosseae (Gm), and G. fasciculatum (Gf). Inocula consisted of spores, extraradical mycelium and mycorrhizal roots Growth medium was comprised of an autoclaved mixture of sand, manure and soil with a pH of 8.70 and a composition of 3.19% organic matter, 0.0032% salt (Kacar, 1994). The experiment used an 4x4 factorial design (four bean genotypes, three AMF plus one control) with four random replications of ten pots (no drainage) each, for a total of 640 pots. One bean seed was sown per pot, each of which contained 250 cm3 of sterilized growth medium. In the AMF inoculated samples, 5 g (25 spores g-1) of inoculum was placed in the growth medium before the seeds were sown (Demir & Onogur, 1999). The constant rate of 50 ppm NaCl was added to the growth medium after seed sowing. Seedlings were thinned to one per pot shortly after seed emergence, placed in a growth chamber at a temperature of 22 ± 10C with 12 h fluorescent illumination (8000 lx light intensity), and irrigated with distilled water. Plants were harvested 6 weeks after seed sowing and inoculation. At the end of the study, some nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and plant growth parameters such as shoot height, stem diameter, root length, leaf number, leaf area, and dry and fresh weights of shoots and roots were investigated. Moreover, the plant colonization rates of AMF species were determined after harvesting. Samples were then oven-dried at 68 0C for 48 h, ground, and nitrogenous (N) content was analyzed with Kjeldahl method; phosphorous (P) content was measured with spectrophotometer (Kacar, 1984). K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn contents were analyzed using the Association of Official Analytical Chemists’ method with atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AOAC, 1990). Bean roots were dyed to detect AMF presence, which was determined using a modification of Phillips and Hayman’s (1970) method, and the percentage and intensity of mycorrhizal colonization was estimated using the Grid Line Intersect Method (Giovanetti & Mosse, 1980). Data were analyzed using the SAS statistical program, with variance analysis conducted for all data. Differences between treatments were determined using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (SAS Software, 1997). 118 �Results Plant Growth Parameters At the end of the study, the significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for fresh shoot weight [Table 1]. While Onceler cv had the highest fresh shoot weight (5.08 g plant-1), Sehirali cv had the lowest fresh shoot weight (3.72 g plant-1). While Gm had the highest fresh shoot weight (5.10 g plant-1), Gf had the lowest fresh shoot weight (3.96 g plant-1). The Terzibaba cv x Gm had the highest fresh shoot weight (5.72 g plant-1) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among only bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for dry shoot weight [Table 2]. The Terzibaba cv x control AMF had the highest dry shoot weight (0.55 g plant-1), while Sehirali cv x Gi had the lowest dry shoot weight (0.32 g plant-1). Similar to the fresh shoot weight, the significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for fresh root weight [Table 1]. While Seker cv had the highest fresh root weight (1.43 g plant-1), Sehirali cv had the lowest fresh root weight (0.67 g plant-1). While Gm had the highest fresh root weight (1.45 g plant-1), Gf had the lowest fresh root weight (0.95 g plant-1). Seker cv x Gm had the highest fresh root weight (1.93 g plant-1) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivar and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for dry root weight [Table 1]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest dry root weight (0.13 g plant-1), Sehirali cv had the lowest dry root weight (0.08 g plant-1). Similar to the dry shoot weight data, Terzibaba cv x control AMF had the highest dry root weight (0.16 g plant-1), while Sehirali cv x Gi had the lowest dry root weight (0.06 g plant-1). The significant differences were observed among bean cultivars (P<0.01), AMF species(P<0.05) for shoot height [Table 2]. While Onceler cv had the highest shoot height (16.95 cm), Sehirali cv had the lowest shoot height (13.25 cm). While Gi had the highest shoot height (16.34 cm), Gm had the lowest shoot height (14.45 cm). The significant differences were observed among bean cultivars (P<0.01), AMF species (P<0.05) for root length [Table 2]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest root length (13.44 cm), Sehirali cv had the lowest root length (11.31 cm). While the control AMF treatment had the highest root length (12.84 cm), Gf had the lowest root length (11.86 cm). The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for shoot diameter [Table 3]. While Onceler cv had the highest shoot diameter (4.31 mm), Terzibaba cv had the lowest shoot diameter (3.49 mm). While Gi had the highest shoot diameter (3.97 mm), Gm had the lowest shoot diameter (3.73 mm). The Onceler cv x Gi had the highest shoot diameter (4.91 mm) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for leaf number [Table 3]. While Seker cv had the highest leaf number (8.08), Onceler cv had the lowest leaf number (5.52). While Gm had the highest leaf number (7.30), Gi had the lowest leaf number (6.70). The Seker cv x Gi had the highest leaf number (9.03) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for leaf area [Table 3]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest leaf area (157.74 cm2), Seker cv had the lowest leaf area (121.73 cm2). The Terzibaba cv x Gf had the highest leaf area (185.53 cm2) when compared to all of the other interactions. Plant Nutrient Contents Cultivars, AMF species and cultivar x AMF species interaction had significant (P<0.01) effects on N contents of bean shoots [Table 4]. While Sehirali cv had the highest shoot N content (5.41 %), Seker cv had the lowest shoot N content (4.62 %). While Gm had the highest shoot N content (5.59 %), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot N content (4.48 %). The Sehirali cv x Gm had the highest shoot N content (7.61 %) when compared to all of the other interactions. Due to the insufficient sample amounts root N contents were not determined. The shoot P contents of bean seedlings were significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species and cultivar x AMF species interaction [Table 5]. While Gm had the highest shoot P content (0.99 %), the 119 �control AMF application had the lowest shoot P content (0.77 %). The Terzibaba cv x Gm had the highest shoot P content (1.11 %) when compared to all of the other interactions. There were only significant differences (P<0.01) among AMF species for the root P contents [Table 5]. While Gi had the highest root P content (1.11 %), the control AMF application had the lowest root P content (0.84 %). There were only significant differences (P<0.01) among AMF species for the shoot K contents [Table 6]. While Gi had the highest shoot K content (10.05 %), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot K content (7.43 %). Cultivars and AMF species had significant (P<0.01) effects on K contents of bean roots [Table 6]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest root K content (5.27 %), Onceler cv had the lowest root K content (4.27 %). While Gf had the highest root K content (5.24 %), Gi had the lowest root K content (4.36 %). There were only significant differences (P<0.05) among AMF species for the root Ca contents [Table 7]. While Terzibab cv had the highest root Ca content (3.01 %), Onceler cv had the lowest root Ca content (2.35 %). There were no significant differences among the treatments for the root and shoot Mg contents [Table 8]. There were no significant differences among the treatments for the shoot Fe contents, but the root Fe contents of bean seedlings were significantly affected from AMF species (P<0.01), bean cultivars (P<0.05), and cultivar x AMF species interaction (P<0.01) [Table 9]. While Gi had the highest root Fe content (6.71 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Fe content (5.50 mg-1kg). While Onceler cv had the highest root Fe content (6.20 mg-1kg), Sehirali cv had the lowest root Fe content (5.52 mg-1kg). The Sehirali cv x Gi had the highest root Fe content (7.27 mg-1kg) when compared to all of the other interactions. The shoot Cu contents of bean seedlings were significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species and bean cultivars [Table 10]. While Gm had the highest shoot Cu content (14.65 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot Cu content (10.40 mg-1kg). While Onceler cv had the highest shoot Cu content (13.96 mg-1kg), Sehirali cv had the lowest shoot Cu content (11.08 mg-1kg). The root Cu contents of bean seedlings were also significantly affected from AMF species (P<0.01) and bean cultivars (P<0.05) [Table 10]. While Gf had the highest root Cu content (32.28 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Cu content (26.17 mg-1kg). While Sehirali cv had the highest root Cu content (32.08 mg-1kg), Seker cv had the lowest root Cu content (28.05 mg-1kg). TheTerzibaba cv x Gm and Sehirali cv x Gf had the highest root Cu contents (35.88 and 35.70 mg-1kg, respectively) when compared to all of the other interactions. The shoot Mn contents of bean seedlings were only significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species [Table 11]. While Gi had the highest shoot Mn content (65.46 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot Mn content (52.55 mg-1kg). The root Mn contents of bean seedlings were significantly affected from AMF species (P<0.01) and bean cultivars (P<0.05) [Table 11]. While Gi had the highest root Mn content (174.08 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Cu content (138.41 mg-1kg). While Sehirali cv had the highest root Mn content (168.00 mg-1kg), Terzibaba cv had the lowest root Mn content (147.38 mg-1kg). The Sehirali cv x Gi had the highest root Mn content (221.47 mg1 kg) when compared to all of the other interactions. There were no significant differences among the treatments for the shoot Zn contents, but the root Zn contents of bean seedlings were significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species and bean cultivars [Table 12]. While Gf had the highest root Zn content (37.20 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Zn content (30.41 mg-1kg). While Seker cv had the highest root Zn content (38.90 mg-1kg), Terzibaba cv had the lowest root Zn content (30.48 mg-1kg). AMF Colonization The extent of root colonization varied significantly (P<0.01) among the bean cultivars, AMF species and cultivar-AMF combinations tested [Table 13]. The colonization rates (33%) of Gm and Gf were higher than that of Gi (24 %). The colonization rates of Seker (35%) and Sehirali (33%) bean cultivars and Gf were the highest, while the colonization rates of Onceler bean cultivar was the lowest (23 %). The Sehirali cv x Gf, the Seker cv x Gf and the Seker cv x Gm combinations had the highest colonization rates. 120 �Conclusions AMF are well known to have significant positive effects on bean and many other crops grown under various a/biotic stress conditions. However, several studies have been demonstrating that genetic differences in plant responses to AMF are widespread, regardless of crop (Declerck et al., 1995; Parke & Kaeppler, 2000; Linderman & Davis, 2004; Sensoy et al. 2007). The present study aimed to evaluate the responsiveness of four different bean cultivars to inoculation by three different AMF under salty seedling growing conditions. There were generally positive effects of AMF on the development of bean seedlings. Among the bean cultivars, Onceler and Terzibaba, and among the AMF species, G. mosseae, had the best results for plant growth. G. mosseae was followed by G. intraradices. On the other hand, there were significant variation among the results of cultivar-AMF combinations tested for most of the traits. Mycorrhizal dependency varies among plant species and cultivars; and this dependency was influenced by the genetic structure (Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). In the symbiotic relation, AMF alleviate certain nutrient deficiencies in plants by increasing nutrient uptake (Demir, 2004;Ortas & Akpınar 2006; Sensoy et al., 2007; Sharifi et al., 2007; Turkmen et al., 2008). The results of the presents study are in line with the literature. AMF especially supply P and Zn to the plants (Ortas & Akpınar, 2006). In the present study, P and Zn contents obtained from these three AMF species were generally higher than those of the control treatment. Moreover, Cu and Mn contents obtained from these three AMF species were also in general higher than those of the control treatment. The potassium (K) is an important mineral in salt tolerance mechanism (Gama at al., 2007); the more K/Na ratio, the higher tolerance to salt in the plants (Erdal et al., 2000; Türkmen et al., 2000). In the present study, the shoot K contents obtained from these three AMF species were significantly higher than that of the control treatment. In overall, it can be said that the AMF applications had generally positive effects on the plant growth and nutrient intake in the bean seedlings. In conclusion, as seen in the example of bean demonstrated in the present study, AMF might improve plant growth traits in vegetable species. 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African Journal of Biotechnology, 7: 4, 392-396. 123 �Cultivar/AMF Onceler Terzibaba Sehirali Seker Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler Terzibaba Sehirali Seker Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler Terzibaba Sehirali Seker Mean Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 0.80 de** 0.93 bc 1.00 b 0.96 bc 0.92 Terzibaba 0.71 e 1.11 a 0.93 bc 1.00 b 0.93 Sehirali 0.79 de 0.91 bc 0.87 cd 0.99 b 0.89 Seker 0.78 de 1.01 b 0.91 bc 0.93 bc 0.91 Mean 0.77 C** 0.99 A 0.93 B 0.97 AB **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Tablo 5: Shoot and root P contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Shoot N contents (%) Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 4.66 c-e** 5.08 bc 5.08 bc 5.09 bc 4.97 B** Terzibaba 4.35 de 4.75 cd 4.77 cd 4.81 cd 4.66 BC Sehirali 4.37 de 7.61 a 4.63 c-e 5.65 b 5.41 A Seker 4.60 c-e 5.22 bc 4.06 e 4.60 c-e 4.62 C Mean 4.48 C** 5.59 A 4.63 C 5.02 B **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 4: Shoot N content of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Control 4.29 b** 3.52 f-h 3.79 c-g 3.45 gh 3.76 B** Gf 5.44 f 7.35 b-d 7.12 cd 7.67 bc 6.89 AB 124 Control 0.78 1.00 0.71 0.81 0.84 B** Leaf Number Gi 4.26 g 7.10 cd 6.41 de 9.03 a 6.70 B P (%) Stem Diameter, mm Gm Gi Gf Mean Control Gm 3.98 bc 4.91 a 4.04 bc 4.31 A** 6.43 de** 5.94 ef 3.53 e-h 3.40 h 3.50f-h 3.49 C 7.66 bc 7.63 bc 3.95 b-d 3.90 c-e 3.86 c-f 3.87 B 7.50 bc 7.47 bc 3.47 gh 3.68 c-h 3.58 d-h 3.55 C 7.46 bc 8.16 b 3.73 B 3.97 A 3.74 B 7.26 A** 7.30 A **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 3: Stem diameter, leaf number and leaf area of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Mean 1.28 A** 1.40 A 0.67 B 1.43 A Control 12.95 a-c** 14.09 a 12.80 a-c 11.53 cd 12.84 A* Control 0.10 b-e** 0.16 a 0.10 b-e 0.09 c-e 0.11 Root Gi 1.07 1.23 1.25 1.00 1.11 A Control 166.22 ab** 126.59 c-f 153.28 a-d 135.31 b-f 145.35 Mean 16.95 A** 13.25 B 15.76 A 16.28 A Mean 5.52 C** 7.43 B 7.12 B 8.08 A Gm 1.04 1.09 1.10 1.16 1.09 A Shoot Heigth, cm Shoot Dry Weigth, g plant-1 Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Control Gm Gi Gf 0.46 a-c** 0.49 ab 0.50 ab 0.41 b-d 0.46 16.66** 15.84 17.17 18.15 0.55 a 0.50 ab 0.40 b-d 0.43 a-d 0.47 13.22 13.15 14.55 12.07 0.50 ab 0.44 a-d 0.32 d 0.46 a-c 0.43 15.13 15.81 17.32 14.79 0.35 cd 0.45 a-c 0.50 ab 0.40 b-d 0.43 18.32 13.01 16.34 17.47 0.47 0.47 0.43 0.43 15.83 AB* 14.45 B 16.34 A 15.62 AB *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 2: Dry shoot weigth and shoot and root lengths of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species Shoot Fresh Weigth, g plant-1 Root Fresh Weigth, g plant-1 Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Control Gm Gi Gf 4.63 b-d** 5.47 ab 5.55 ab 4.67 b-d 5.08 A** 1.15 cd** 1.31 cd 1.45 cd 1.22 cd 5.02 a-c 5.72 a 4.36 cd 4.34 cd 4.86 A 1.37 cd 1.86 ab 1.22 cd 1.13 cd 4.72 a-c 4.11 cd 2.93 e 3.15 e 3.72 B 1.05 de 0.70 ef 0.35 f 0.57 f 5.13 a-c 5.13 a-c 4.94 de 3.71 de 4.70 A 1.52 bc 1.93 a 1.56 a-c 0.73 ef 4.86 AB** 5.10 A 4.44 B 3.96 C 1.25 B** 1.45 A 1.14 B 0.91 C **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 1: Fresh shoot, fresh and dry root weigths of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Gf 0.80 0.99 0.81 0.89 0.88 B Gm 145.31 b-e 157.37 a-d 131.13 b-f 104.55 f 134.59 Gm 12.18 b-d 13.74 ab 11.68 cd 11.68 cd 12.32 AB Gm 0.11 b-d 0.14 ab 0.08 de 0.13 a-c 0.12 Mean 0.92 1.07 0.95 0.96 Leaf Area, cm2 Gi 136.80 b-f 161.48 a-c 123.47 d-f 125.93 c-f 136.92 Root Length, cm Gi 13.46 ab 12.94 a-c 9.75 e 13.51 ab 12.41 AB Gf 112.80 ef 185.53 a 135.89 b-f 121.13d-f 138.84 Gf 12.28 b-d 13.00 a-c 10.99 de 11.18 de 11.86 B Root Dry Weigth, g plant-1 Gi Gf 0.10 b-e 0.09 c-e 0.11 b-d 0.11 b-d 0.06 e 0.10 b-e 0.14 ab 0.09 c-e 0.10 0.10 Mean 140.28 B** 157.74 A 135.94 BC 121.73 C Mean 12.72 B** 13.44 A 11.31 C 11.97 C Mean 0.10 BC** 0.13 A 0.08 C 0.11 AB �Ca (%) K (%) Control 2.38 3.57 2.15 2.45 2.63 Control 4.37 cd** 5.10 c 4.45 cd 4.42 cd 4.59 BC** 125 Control 5.76 c-e** 6.90 a-c 4.14 fg 5.20 ef 5.50 B** Fe (mg-1kg) Control 1.35 1.77 1.52 1.48 1.53 Mg (mg-1kg) Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 1.61 2.09 2.29 1.88 1.92 Terzibaba 2.04 1.61 2.04 1.61 1.84 Sehirali 1.81 1.78 1.83 1.83 1.81 Seker 1.68 1.35 1.69 1.84 1.64 Mean 1.79 1.74 1.93 1.79 *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 9: Shoot and root Fe contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 1.29 1.76 1.63 1.63 1.57 Terzibaba 1.42 1.34 1.55 1.51 1.46 Sehirali 1.60 1.53 1.50 1.46 1.52 Seker 1.38 1.68 1.33 1.48 1.47 Mena 1.43 1.59 1.49 1.52 Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Tablo 8: Shoot and root Mg contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 2.61 3.67 3.57 4.40 3.56 Terzibaba 3.85 3.35 3.57 3.97 3.71 Sehirali 4.88 4.00 3.74 3.14 3.93 Seker 3.08 4.34 2.27 3.45 3.29 Mean 3.64 3.82 3.32 3.76 *P < 0.05; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 7: Shoot and root Ca contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 6.78 9.01 10.46 7.36 8.11 Terzibaba 8.89 8.61 11.52 8.64 9.47 Sehirali 7.40 8.62 8.86 10.58 8.88 Seker 6.39 11.02 9.41 10.22 9.26 Mean 7.43 B** 9.29 A 10.05 A 9.13 A **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Tablo 6: Shoot and root K contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Gm 6.60 a-d 6.61 a-d 5.49 de 5.48 de 6.00 B Gm 1.48 1.44 1.53 1.44 1.47 Gm 2.39 3.55 2.62 2.34 2.67 Gm 4.28 cd 5.99 b 4.82 cd 4.77 cd 4.90 AB Root Root Root Gi 6.54 a-d 7.17 ab 7.27 a 6.14 a-e 6.71 A Gi 1.56 1.26 1.19 1.51 1.40 Gi 2.35 2.45 2.73 2.44 2.46 Root Gi 3.86 de 3.12 e 3.92 dc 6.32 ab 4.36 C Gf 5.90 b-e 3.56 g 6.25 a-e 6.87 a-c 5.60 B Gf 1.37 1.61 1.34 1.56 1.48 Gf 2.26 2.60 3.18 2.73 2.66 Gf 4.56 cd 7.04 a 4.60 cd 4.61 cd 5.24 A Mean 6.20 A* 6.02 AB 5.52 B 5.92 AB Mean 1.44 1.52 1.43 1.49 Mean 2.35 B* 3.01 A 2.62 AB 2.49 AB Mean 4.27 B** 5.27 A 4.52 B 5.03 A �Table 13: AMF colonisation of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species AMF colonisation rate (%) Cultivar/AMF Gm Gi Onceler 35 b** 15 d Terzibaba 31 b 29 bc Sehirali 29 bc 28 bc Seker 40 a 25 bc Mean 33 A** 24 B **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) . 126 Control 34.21 24.79 26.90 35.75 30.41 B** Zn (mg-1kg) Gf 22 c 26 bc 43 a 40 a 33 A Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 21.88 28.19 20.76 24.47 24.26 Terzibaba 23.91 20.09 26.21 22.31 23.33 Sehirali 23.95 25.01 23.84 23.62 24.05 Seker 23.67 20.27 20.10 22.03 21.52 Mean 23.33 23.76 23.23 23.18 **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 12: Shoot and root Zn contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control 154.67 cd** 133.57 de 116.25 e 149.17 c-e 138.41 C** Mn (mg-1kg) Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 50.20 61.57 63.91 60.72 58.41 Terzibaba 53.56 63.86 68.53 57.88 60.76 Sehirali 54.97 60.14 66.65 52.45 58.74 Seker 49.60 61.46 60.84 64.71 59.08 Mean 52.55 C** 61.74 AB 65.46 A 58.49 B *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 11: Shoot and root Mn contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control 25.58 de** 24.21 e 27.23 c-e 27.69 b-e 26.17 C** Cu (mg-1kg) Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 10.24 18.73 17.45 11.17 13.96 A** Terzibaba 13.29 15.55 13.25 12.67 13.57 A Sehirali 9.06 10.76 12.35 12.07 11.08 B Seker 8.55 12.19 11.86 12.21 11.20 B Mean 10.40 C** 14.65 A 13.30 AB 12.02 BC *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 10: Shoot and root Cu contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Mean 23 C** 29 B 33 A 35 A Gm 38.17 36.02 35.31 38.37 37.03 A Gm 166.72 cd 178.67 bc 159.74 cd 156.63 cd 164.56 A Gm 24.40 e 35.88 a 34.79 ab 26.73 de 30.09 AB Root Gi 34.51 29.23 36.45 45.58 36.65 A Root Gi 168.54 cd 172.92 cd 221.47 a 157.07 cd 174.08 A Root Gi 32.13 a-d 17.56 f 30.96 a-e 29.34 a-e 27.00 BC Gf 40.58 32.53 40.63 35.91 37.20 A Gf 161.89 cd 112.18 e 212.36 ab 179.80 bc 163.50 A Gf 34.32 a-c 31.54 a-e 35.70 a 28.43 a-e 32.28 A Mean 36.87 A** 30.48 B 34.13 AB 38.90 A Mean 162.95 AB* 147.38 B 168.00 A 160.67 AB Mean 29.11 AB* 26.72 B 32.08 A 28.05 B � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 341 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Different AMF Species on Some Bean Cultivars Grown in Salty Conditions Author Author Türkmen, Önder Çiftçi, Vahdettin Erdinç, Çeknas Sensoy, Suat Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was carried out to determine the effects of three different Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) species (Glomus mosseae, G. intraradices and G. fasciculatum ) on the growth and nutrient contents of four bean cultivars (Onceler, Seker, Terzibaba and Sehirali) grown under salt stress. The constant amount of NaCl (50 ppm) was added the autoclaved growth medium containing 1:1:1: ratios of soil, sand, and manure. The five g (25 spores g-1) of inoculum was placed in the seedling growth medium before the seeds were sown. At the end of the study, some nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and plant growth parameters such as shoot height, stem diameter, root length, leaf number, leaf area, and dry and fresh weights of shoots and roots were investigated. Moreover, the plant colonization rates of AMF species were determined. The AMF species had positive effects on the plant growth and nutrient intake. Among the bean cultivars, Onceler and Terzibaba, and among the AMF species, G. mosseae, had the best results for plant growth. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e1c6b40d5a4bc82d770256377d943f11.pdf 4218c0c79f043641b5e816fd552e8ee5 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo A Perspective on the Foundations of Democratic Governance in American Public Schools M. Uğur Türkyılmaz International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina uturkyilmaz@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: In this paper I will try to lay out how I define and implement the most valued concept of our time at the school I have been working in for two years. I will analyze the questions below that I see critical in terms of “realizing” the democratic goals in a school environment. As the principal of a public school, what are difficulties that I face when I fight to incorporate the principles of democracy into governing bodies of our school? Where do I get the most challenge? What are the real benefits of having a school, which is “as democratic as possible”? Is there a dead end where you cannot further democratize the school? More tangibly, how do I democratically reestablish the relation between the school administration and students? How do I organize teacher and administration relations to make sure that their voices are heard and their votes are counted? What is the principal’s position within the community regarding getting all parties involved in the decision-making process? What is a Democratic School? Dewey defines democracy as “A democracy is more than a form of a government; it is primarily a mode of associated living, of joint communicate experience.” (Dewey, 1916) I define democracy as the practice of the freedom that every human being has when s/he is born. Democratic education is the implementation of how we make ways to have students internalizes the very basic life requirement to be a human. “Life is a self-renewing process.” (Dewey, 1916) So do the democratic schools. A democratic school is a living organism that grows everyday toward the goal of having a totally democratic world. “We have seen that a community or social group sustains itself through continuous self-renewal, and that this renewal takes place by means of the educational growth of the immature members of the group ” (Dewey, 1916). Those schools are the enterprises committing to the world peace beyond our imagination. Those students will some day turn this world a place that everybody takes the pleasure of “having a say.” If you want to talk about a democratic school, you should start with the question of where the decisions are made at that school. Is it at the discretion of an individual? Do the committees make it? Who is making the decision on what and how to teach? Who defines the goal of the school? Understanding the Framework of Democratic Governance At a democratic school, decisions should be made at where the majority wants them to be made. More clearly, before you make a decision, you ask who should make it. Just minutes ago, a social studies teacher asked me what she should do about the students who are suspended and their parents ask for the homework that they missed. I asked if you think it is me who should and can answer that. She puzzled a little. I said we have to make the policy at our staff meeting. I cannot tell you how you should proceed. There are several cases new to almost everyone. Teachers think they should be just instructed of what to do. That feeling is one of the enemies of the democratic thinking ability. “Effective principals value dialogue that encourages teachers to reflect on their learning and practice. The study revealed five primary talking strategies: make suggestions, give feedback, model, use inquiry and solicit advice/ opinions, and praise.” (Joseph, 2001) My duty is to encourage all teachers to regard themselves as a part of decision making. My position might be just to vote at the meeting just like one of them. At one of the department head meetings last year, I suggested that we should set up some committees. Those committees will function like the think tank groups of the school and advice on their mission to several entities. One of them will be a group who would solely reflect on how democratic the school is. At first sight, this might be regarded as an easy task. But when you start taking a look around and see how many holes there are, you just get overwhelmed. They came with tons of suggestions and criticism varying from election systems to the 205 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo positions of the school. They came to the conclusion that the school is not democratic at all! I am not offended with that, though. What I am trying to say is if democratizing our schools is just in the hands of some individuals, the process is already doomed to fail. What those individuals should first do is to encourage the entire community to get on board. It is critical that everybody should be accountable and feel accountable to democratize the school at the same level. “Democratic schools need to be based on a broad definition of “WE”.” (Apple, Beane, 1995) Students, teachers, parents, administrators, paraprofessionals and all other elements of community must be on the same page. That is the only way to avoid looking for scapegoats. If we succeed, it is all our success. If we fail, that is the sin of all of us. The Role of Principals The principal should be the advocate of democratization at every aspect of the school program. “A trained person is one who can do the chief things…” (Dewey, 1916) Therefore, he/she should regard the institutionalization of democracy as his primary job description. The more the school democratized the more functional and efficient the school becomes. Here at this point the challenge might seem like to be losing the authority to rule. Actually sharing responsibility just saves the principal in the future if anything goes wrong. Don’t you think so? Another difficulty is getting the staff members to believe that they are the ones who should make decisions. Most people are used to the routine and do not want to take responsibility. “The leaders’ ability to keep and maintain engaging personal relations with teacher, students and staff members enhanced the flow of information they received and increased their chances of encouraging experimenters at just the right time.” (Gross, 1998) That’s where we need the talents of the administrators. Teachers are the ones actually realizing the reasons of being in a school. “Methods of instruction and administration need to be modified to allow and to secure direct and continuous occupations with things.” (Dewey, 1916) Hence, it is absurd to ignore their roles in the decisionmaking policy. However, it is even harder to draw students into the system, as they are the most neglected ones. What good is education if we are making people out of those students who do not even have the self-confidence to raise his/her voice? “If teachers are to succeed, they must meet students where they are…” (Hammond, 1997). What good is a school if interaction between the all others and students is not democratic? One of the best ways students might actualize themselves is helping out to democratize the school. They should consider themselves right at the center of this process. “Children, if they could express themselves articulate and sincerely, would tell a different tale…” (Dewey, 1916) When they have that freedom, they would be the ones who would change. Curriculum, discipline policy and all the other major plans of the school governance should be made considering their point of views. They might be able to change if some things go wrong. “Learners often bring with them very firm expectations of how their problems should be addressed.” (Farquharson, 1995) Therefore, at every step of the decision making process, their voices should be heard. If you have the least idea about leadership, it is to get things done through others. If you know anything about sorting problems out in the school, it is all about getting the community in the game, especially parents. “Our action is socially controlled because we endeavor to refer what we are to do the same situation in which he is acting.” (Dewey, 1916) Therefore, school and education is not and cannot be isolated from the society. Actually what we are doing is just enforcing what is happening at home or in the street or in the society. If we have discipline problems, that is just the extension of whatever is out there. If the students have a lack of an interest in learning, it is safe to say they lack motivation out there. “The presence of authentic instructional leadership can be witnessed in the everyday acts of people who take the responsibility for improving the teaching and learning in the entire school community, and its effectiveness revealed in a variety of measures of student achievement. (King, 2002) In essence, life out of the school is somewhat shaping up the schools. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the principal to make sure everyone who has a touch on what is going on at the school should be at the school, too. Parents should not just show up at the PTAs or PACs. They have to make a habit of making themselves visible for everything that might affect the future of their kids. “An education which should unify the disposition of the members of society would do much to unify the society itself.” (Dewey, 1916) Having such fancy ideas about parental involvement, I cannot forget my disappointment at the day I attended the first PAC meeting. Out of three hundred parents, only a handful showed up. I took the issue up with the PAC president and told her how disappointed I was. What might be turning off those parents to join at least one meeting? I wrote a letter to all parents and did not try to hide my disappointment at all. They have to understand that without their support we are nothing. 206 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo I will take further steps to make sure they feel more pressure from me to get them more democratized and care for their children. I provided them my direct phone line number. I have an open door policy. I asked them to take advantage of it. I booked a hotel conference room downtown to eliminate the distance problem. It is also clear that there are some other factors outside of the school that really have an effect on education. “In what is termed politics, democratic social organization makes provision for this direct participation in control: in the economic region, control remains external and autocratic.”(Dewey, 1916) I am sure most politicians would not like that! However I do agree with Dewey on that! Politicians and all other policy makers who are not in daily operation of the schools should also be involved in reality. Conclusion As a conclusion, I will go with what Dewey says almost a century ago. “But we are doubtless far from realizing the potential efficacy of education as a constructive agency of improving society, from realizing that it represents not only a development of children and youth, but also of the future of the society of which they will be the constituents. ” (Dewey, 1916) We have to see that school and society are two sides of the same coin. We cannot solve the problems of one component if one is just feeding each other. We have to develop policies that will not just be enforced at the school but also in the society, as well. “Administrators, teachers, parents, parents and community members work hard to make education especially valuable for students in these schools.” (Gross, 1998) “In many ways unequal access to education threatens the foundation of democratic society” (Hammond, 1997) Therefore, parents, politicians and the other agents of the society should be equally accountable. It is not enough to fail the child and the school! References: Apple, M., & Beane, A. J. (1995). Democratic Schools. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Blasé, J., & Blasé J. (2001). The teacher’s principal. National Staff Development Council (22,25). Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. NY: The Free Press Farquharson, A. (1995). Teaching in Practice. (1st Ed) California: Jossey Bass Hammond, D. L. (1998). The Right to Learn (1st Ed). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Gross, S. (1998) Staying Centered Curriculum Leadership in Turbulent Era. Virginia: ASCD King, D. (2002). The Changing Shape of Leadership. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (61,63). 207 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 457 Title A name given to the resource A Perspective on the Foundations of Democratic Governance in American Public Schools Author Author Türkyılmaz, M. Uğur Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper I will try to lay out how I define and implement the most valued concept of our time at the school I have been working in for two years. I will analyze the questions below that I see critical in terms of “realizing” the democratic goals in a school environment. As the principal of a public school, what are difficulties that I face when I fight to incorporate the principles of democracy into governing bodies of our school? Where do I get the most challenge? What are the real benefits of having a school, which is “as democratic as possible”? Is there a dead end where you cannot further democratize the school? More tangibly, how do I democratically reestablish the relation between the school administration and students? How do I organize teacher and administration relations to make sure that their voices are heard and their votes are counted? What is the principal’s position within the community regarding getting all parties involved in the decision-making process? Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/caf71428da4a4b317a0a3c24c4138697.pdf fd2a5c1e13364f5abddc6a6060add964 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Activity Based Costing System and Model Application in a Marble Business Ġsmet TĠTĠZ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University,Turkey titiz@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Harun ÖZTÜRK Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University,Turkey hazrunozt@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Davut KARAMAN Alanya Vocatıonal Hıgh School Akdeniz University,Turkey davutkaraman07@hotmail.com Abstract : As well as being the key of economic developement, the growth of national economies is the most important factor that pollutes environment, because it increases the consumption. Companies are the biggest producer and consumer in economy. Businesses manifacture their products in multiple countries and remove borders because of today‘s economic and competitive conditions. Protection and development of resources is the basis of sustainable development. Today, most businesses face difficulties about rival businesses‘ competitive power and price politics. But,for well established firms ―crises are temporary, competitiveness is permanent‖, so the target of businesses is to obtain this competitive power and sustain it. ABC system is a more accurate cost calculation method. ABC system focuses on activities instead of traditional volume based costing. ABC system focuses on what causes the formation of costs and how to make contact with costs and products. Application is made by taking a marble company as an example, and results have been evaluated. Keywords : Activity based costing system, Marble Industry, Cost Introduction The technological advences experienced in our day is not only affected the production systems but also these advences have necessitated changes in accounting structures. Because of these interactions, businesses were forced to move to the new costing system in order to adapt economic development. Companies had to use new production technologies because of the acceleration of communication and international competition (Kaygusuz & Dokur, 2009). With 1980s completely aggravated new environment and global computitive conditions, were the reasons why companies tried to develop management. The other reasons fort his efforts were (Öker, 2003): - Rapid transformation of computer use in the production process - Innovations in production technology and quality control. - Developments in the field of communication and logistics In accordance with the above-mentioned reasons, new methods and approachs that applied in production management, provided the companies to improve quality, to reduce the level of stock and losses (Hacırüstemoğlu & ġakrak, 2002) 637 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study, the concepts of cost and accounting are analysed seperately. The advantages and disadvantages of activity-based costing system are revealed. It is tried to be understood wheter this design is appropriate for the companies by an application for marble companies. The concept of Cost The goal of all companies is to create a new value at the end of their activities. General meaning of cost is the monetary expression of sacrifices incurred for reaching the goal (Uragun, 1993). Activity-Based Cost System Activity-Based Cost System has emerged as a result of inadequacy of traditional methods . Cost elements, make distribution costs , moving from the fact that activity uses resources. Cooper and Kaplan (1988) first introduced the activity-based cost system and increased its popularity. According to Cooper and Kaplan, Activitybased cost is a strategy aimed tool not a formal accounting method. In todays increasingly competitive conditions, cost factors which used for production has to be determined exactly . Besides determining the production costs, ABC makes a database about activities and gives important information about the functions of the company. Here the concept of activity, is defined as work made in an organization (ġakrak, 1997). ABC method is based on certain assumptions. These are (Holmen, 1995): - Activities use resources, - Product/services use activities - In the method of ABC, using approach is dominant instead of spending. These assumptions reveals the structure of the model and gives the direction for operation. There is a cost pool for each activity. Process value analysis Process value analysis is a systematical analysis that is required for service fulfillment. This analysis determines all the activities that consumes the sources for producing or serving. It defines activities as creating add value and not (Arzova, 2001). The selection of distribution key ABC system provides more reliable information about cost by using multiple distribution switches instead of traditional cost methods while loading costs to products;/ services. According to this there have to be a distribution key for all activities made by the company. The key of ABC system which represents the activity best must be determined and overall production costs of the organization should be distributed with this key. Inappropriate selection of keywords can lead all efforts in vain. Therefore keys have to be determined completely. ABC system focuses on activities instead of chapters. While loading costs on products, the activities are undertaken. Products are manufactured as a result of activities. Activities consists of several subactivities. Production preparation activities can be shown as an example for sub-activities. Monitoring costs for activity headquarters ABC first installs resource costs to activity centers. Also it performs a two stage action by loading these costs to products/services. Cost carriers reflect the causation relations between activities and cost group. To avoid any distortion in product costs, they should be distributed directly to cost centers (Erdoğan, 1995). Cost Carrier Selection One of the most important stage in the design process is the selection of carrier operations. According to Cooper the selection of activitiy carriers requires two important decisions that are seperated but related (Cooper, 638 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 1993: 34). How many activity carriers will be used? Which activity carriers will be used? These two decisiosare related because the quality of selected activity carrier affects the number of required activity carrier. The limits of Activity Based Cost There are certain issues that must be emphasized about activity based costing method. The following two conditions must be considered to avoid false results. First, excess capacity costs must not be loaded to product costs, because this situation causes the reduction of demand. Secondly, all research and development costs related to new products and product lines. The companies which prepare a wide R & D program for short life circled products , have to measure costs and incomes, according to the life time of the products. Marble Supply and Usage in Turkey Rock formations which can be used as marble are found in many parts of our country., Different organizations and their studies indicate that Turkey‘s marble reserves are around 14 billion tonnes. There are about 550 marble quarries. The working field is about %8. In other words, 92% of known fields are not operational. Uses of marble is construction industry, cemeteries, sculpture, jewelry making and decoration. The correct choice of marble is possible by complying with qualification standards of marble. Many factors influence to determine using places of marble. Cost Calculation of Marble At the end of each production process, production loss should be estimated and its impact on costs should be measured. While making the process of calculating, production cost is accepted for production cut. The costs of products and semi products are calculated seperately. Costs which are created in help service locations, should be loaded to products which are produced at appropriate measures. It is important to calculate the costs, correctly, in time and reliable. Therefore it is necessary to be careful about determining methods. Information about the company which ABCS application will be applied to X marble industry and Trade Company operates since 1984 in Afyon district. Its subsidiary, X Marble Industry Trade LĠmited company operates since 1998. Business manager and his assistant undertakes the administrative staff and some jobs in the department of production. There are 28 staff workers, 9 administrative staff in total 37 staff in may 2009. They produce 12000 cubic meters of marble per year. X marble industry and Trade Company exports to United States,Canada ,Germany,Italy,Middle East and Gulf Countries such as Israel,Saudi Arabia,United Arab Emirates where its a large part of exports. Existing Cost Analysis Method Businesses have a wide range of production.Production quantities and production techniques of these products differ. These differences, hardens to calculate the product costs exactly. Direct first material and tool costs are loaded directly to products and labour and general production costs are loaded indirectly. Activity Based Costing Application Activity Based Costing System based on activities in which the costs of activities consists of the resources consumed. These informations are measured from the balance of three months , january-march 2009. Direct labour costs 90.944,25 TL Business material costs 7.533,545 TL Spare parts costs 8.143,336 TL Other indirect material costs 1.403,690 TL Meal expenses 4.856,647 TL 639 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Electricity expenses 2.537,226 TL Water expenses 3.870.433 TL Fuel expenses 13.230,575 TL Repair and maintenance labor costs 8.000,000 TL Vehicles expenses 1.104,267 TL Communication expenses 874,359 TL Depreciation of fixed asset management 122,152 TL departmend Stationery expenses 125,901 TL Cleaning materials expenses 432,863 TL Photocopying costs 27,669 TL Computer equipment expenses 223,933 TL Photocopying material costs 55,203 TL Fax material costs 42,000 TL Drinking water expenses 487,500 TL Comprehensive business insurance 1,895 TL Above expenses are given from balance of business. Traditional Costing System 1) Lilac Beige Marble Unit Cost = 20,14 TL Unit Sales Price = 27 TL Unit Profit = 6,86TL 2) Afyon White Marble Unit Cost = 18,97 TL Unit Sales Price = 24,5 TL Unit Profit = 5,53TL %25,4 %22,5 Activity Based costing System 1) Lilac Beige Marble Unit Cost = 14,804 TL Unit Sales Price = 27 TL Unit Profit = 12,196TL 2) Afyon White Marble Unit Cost = 12,207 TL Unit Sales Price = 24,5 TL Unit Profit = 12,293 %45,7 %50,17 Conclusions According to the results of the traditional cost system, unit cost of lilac beige marble is 20.14TL and the unit cost of Afyon marble is 18.97TL. According to the result of this method,the price of lilac beige marble is 27 TL/M2 and Afyon white marble is 24.5 TL/M2 . According to results of activity based costing system, unit cost of lilac beige marble is 14.804TL and Afyon marble is 12.207 TL. Unit sales price of lilac beige marble is 27 TL/M2 and afyon white marble is 24.5 TL/M2. The unit profit in traditional method is 5.53 TL. In activity based costing system unit profit is 12.293 TL. According to ABC system unit profit rate is 50.17% and in traditional costing system unit profit rate is 22.5%. ABC system gives more accurate and reliable information than traditional costing system. Besides all well designed and developed an activity based costing system gives positive results in both production business and service business. References ARZOVA, B.S., Faaliyet Tabanlı Maliyet Yönetimi ve Muhasebe Sistemi, Doktora Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ġstanbul, 2001. COOPER, R.,R. S. KAPLAN, "How Cost Accounting Distorts Product Cost", Management Accounting, April, 1988. COOPER, R. , Activity Based Costing For Improved Product Costing, Hand Boook of Cost Management, Edited by Barry Brinker, New York, 1993. HACIRÜSTEMOĞLU, R. ve M ġAKRAK,. , Maliyet Muhasebesinde Güncel YaklaĢımlar, Ġstanbul: Türkmen Kitapevi, 2002. HOLMEN, J. S., ―ABC vs. TOC: It‘s A Matter of Time‖, Management Accounting, Vol: 76, No: 7, 1995. 640 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ERDOĞAN, N. , Faaliyete Dayalı Maliyetleme, Anadolu Üniv. Yayınları, EskiĢehir, 1995 KAYGUSUZ, Sait Y., ġükrü Dokur; Maliyet Muhasebesi, Dora Yay:31, Bursa-2009 ÖKER F., ―Faaliyet Tabanlı Maliyetleme‖, Literatür Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 2003., s.17. ġAKRAK, M. , Maliyet Yönetimi, Yasa Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1997. URAGUN, M. Maliyet Muhasebesi ve Mali Tablolar, Yetkin Basımevi, Ankara, 1993. 641 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 248 Title A name given to the resource Activity Based Costing System and Model Application in a Marble Business Author Author TİTİZ, İsmet ÖZTÜRK, Harun KARAMAN, Davut Abstract A summary of the resource. As well as being the key of economic developement, the growth of national economies is the most important factor that pollutes environment, because it increases the consumption. Companies are the biggest producer and consumer in economy. Businesses manifacture their products in multiple countries and remove borders because of today‘s economic and competitive conditions. Protection and development of resources is the basis of sustainable development. Today, most businesses face difficulties about rival businesses‘ competitive power and price politics. But,for well established firms ―crises are temporary, competitiveness is permanent‖, so the target of businesses is to obtain this competitive power and sustain it. ABC system is a more accurate cost calculation method. ABC system focuses on activities instead of traditional volume based costing. ABC system focuses on what causes the formation of costs and how to make contact with costs and products. Application is made by taking a marble company as an example, and results have been evaluated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory