303 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/76191cf365a48239da0821b054d04b34.pdf 7283e5f7005615d39c3e0fd3e8d58f14 PDF Text Text Constructed Wetland Filter Use for Controlling Nutrient and Sediment Runoff from Golf Course Developments Yasin Çağatay Seçkin College of Architecture Istanbul Technical University Turkey cseckin@itu.edu.tr Abstract: Interest in the control of pollution entering into waterways has risen significantly since the last quarter of 20th Century and golf course developments have been identified as areas that use some of the chemical pollutants found in these waterways. Runoff control of pollutants from golf course developments is vital in assuring clean waterway systems for the future. This study investigates the runoff issues that can be related to golf course turf grass systems and their control through use of wetland filters. Three issues addressed in this study are suspended sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus levels contained in turf grass runoff. Sediment runoff levels were found to be low to moderate for turf grass systems, while nutrient transport in runoff from turf grass areas can become a significant problem. Constructed wetland filtration systems were investigated as one potential method for controlling turf grass runoff. The design and construction of these wetland filters was investigated to determine their potential for filtering runoff from golf course facilities. Data showed that significant levels of runoff sediment and nutrient pollution could be removed if proper design and construction processes are followed. Information The game of golf as it is known today originated in the British Isles hundreds of years ago (Love, 2008) and as knowledge of the game spread, it became increasingly popular, and by the early 1900s had begun to experience tremendous growth. Depending on this growth, the importance of the field of turfgrass science was realized, and the associations, such as USGA or EGU, began sponsoring publications and research through the embodied departments or independent organizations (Beard, 2002). Since the beginning of this process, great steps have been taken to make turf grasses on golf courses the finest of all turfgrass areas. Intensive management practices have resulted in turfgrass areas becoming denser, softer, shorter and greener than previously thought possible. It is needless to say that, for reaching this result, considerable quantities of pesticides and fertilizers are used annually on golf courses throughout the World. The fate of these chemicals can be traced to the creeks, streams, lakes, and groundwater aquifers and the major environmental consequence of these intensive maintenance practices is the potential degradation of adjacent waterways and groundwater aquifers from chemical and nutrient runoff. Runoff Issues Runoff can be defined as any surface flow that may occur on turfgrass, soil, or other related surfaces after evaporation, interception, infiltration, plant uptake, and detention storage has been satisfied. Runoff events typically occur after: � � � � Extended periods of rain in which the soil profile becomes saturated and incapable of storing further water molecules. During rain or irrigation events in which precipitation rates exceed infiltration rates of soil. On areas with extreme slopes where gravity flow provides a quicker gradient for water movement than soil infiltration. On surfaces where soil structure is extremely exposed and compacted so that water cannot readily be absorbed. 493 �These forms of surface runoff are typically the means by which pollutants from golf course developments enter into the waterways and groundwater aquifers. In most cases, sediment runoff is identified as a potential guilty in the pollution of these waterways and aquifers, but more serious problems are posed by the potential eutrophication of downstream lakes and slow-moving water bodies by the nutrients that attach themselves to these soil particles (Balogh et al, 1992). Turfgrass management practices can have a direct effect upon runoff events and the levels of pollutants that they transport. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the nutrients most widely applied through use of fertilizers on golf course turfgrass areas. Especially, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are two of the most important nutrients used for the establishment and maintenance of golf course turf. Nitrogen is needed in the largest amount by turfgrass plants. This nutrient is essential for shoot growth, green-up, hardiness, rate of growth and shoot density. Phosphorus is vital to energy transformations in turfgrass plants and is key in turfgrasss establishment, rooting, growth and reproduction (Beard, 2003). Ideally, all of the fertilizer applied on golf course turf has to be taken up by the plants. But, extended periods of rain, irrigation system malfunction, extreme slopes or extremely compacted soils can cause nutrient runoff into the waterways. It is very crucial to control this kind of runoff from polluting the waterways. According to an USGA-sponsored research, nutrient runoff poses a greater threat to water quality than leaching (Kenna and Snow, 2000) and wetlands provide an effective control of nutrients (Vadineanu, 2005). Sediment and Nutrient Removal by Wetland Systems By definition, wetlands are regions that are flooded or saturated by either surface water or ground water often and long enough to support both flora and fauna specially adapted to saturated soil conditions (LaFlamme, 2005). They receive water from surrounding lacustrine systems, precipitation, groundwater and runoff. They act like a giant sponge absorbing water during wet periods and releasing water during dry periods of the year. In addition, wetlands can be considered as the kidneys of the planet since they have the ability to filter out pollutants, transform nutrients and serve as sinks for many compounds (Jordan et al., 1999). As well as natural wetlands, there exist constructed wetlands. These wetlands are mainly constructed with the purpose of treating wastewater. Constructed wetlands are capable of providing many of the same basic operational benefits of a natural wetland, but with a much greater degree of efficiency and control (Dodson, 2005). Natural wetlands have been used as convenient wastewater discharge sites for as long as sewage has been collected. But, wetlands constructed for the purpose of treating water have a much shorter history. The worldwide spread of this technology originated from research conducted at the Max Planck Institute in West Germany, starting in 1952 (Bastian and Hammer, 1993; Sakadevan and Bavor, 1998; Verhoeven and Meuleman, 1999) and in the western hemisphere during the 1970s. Implementation of wetland technology has been accelerating around the world since 1985 and now there are many thousands of treatment wetlands across the globe (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). Constructed wetlands control water runoff velocities so effectively that they can provide major sinks for suspended sediment. The removal of sediment from golf course watersheds is the first step in providing cleaner water to adjacent ecosystems. Recently, the use of construction wetlands as a means of reducing NPS pollution has garnered more attention. Constructed wetlands assimilate nutrients at remarkable levels and utilize added nutrients to increase net wetland productivity. The rate at which wetlands are able to assimilate these nutrients is dependent on four basic factors (Bayley, 1985): � � � � The hydrologic cycle or regime. The oxidation-reduction state of the soil. The nutrient levels currently in soil. The soil organic material content. If properly designed to satisfy these four factors, the wetland filtration system can be efficient in the removal of nutrient pollutants. However, to be truly effective, constructed wetlands must be carefully designed, constructed, monitored, and maintained. 494 �Guidelines for Constructed Wetlands on Golf Courses For any constructed wetland filtration system to operate correctly, it must be first sited and designed properly. The design process used by many golf course architects is a viable means of accomplishing this goal. The basic design process involves the following steps: (1) inventory, (2) analysis, (3) design, (4) construction, and (5) management. If these five steps are correctly instituted into the use of wetland filtration systems on golf courses, it will insure the designer of an efficient wetland filter design, effective incorporation into the golf course facility, and the most cost effective wetland filter location. Inventory The designers use the inventory process to identify existing site features and site conditions. These features and conditions are important for developing a wetland filtration system. First of all, determination of the effective drainage area that any wetland system will be filtering is a critical factor in the overall design process. The effective drainage area is the land from which water will runoff into a water body in a typical year. This must be identified for runoff calculation and wetland sizing purposes. Effective drainage area is one of the important parameter of the Rational Method, which is widely practiced in runoff calculation and the formulation is presented as follows (Seçkin, 2004): Q = 0.00277 C i A Q = peak flow (m3/s) C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless) i = precipitation intensity (mm/h) A = effective drainage area (ha) After calculating the runoff, next challenge is to find out how big a constructed wetland will be necessary to treat the first flush of polluted runoff from the golf course. As well as turfgrass or meadow areas, residential and commercial neighborhoods may also be located in the same watershed as the golf course facility, and may contribute significant nutrient loading levels to wetland filtration systems. Therefore, watershed areas that contain man-made landscapes such as residential neighborhoods, commercial developments or roadway systems must be included in the sizing of any wetland filter. If wetland filtration systems receive excess nutrient loading, the efficiency level of pollutant filtration will drop in significantly. Soil type and existing site vegetation also needs to be included in this inventory activity. The location of these features is needed to assist in determining the best wetland filtration system location. In addition to these, the golf course’s hole routing will play a major role in the location of a wetland filtration systems. Wetlands should be located as amenities to the golf course, thus proper hole location is critical for identifying runoff problem areas and creating strategic golf hole layouts. Analysis The location of existing site features and their potential relationship to the golf course and watershed areas is a key element in this process. Environmentally sensitive areas and natural drainage systems must be evaluated and identified so that proper wetland location and integration into the golf course development can occur. Calculation of nutrient removal levels to determine the feasibility of utilizing a wetland filtration system on a golf course development is a key evaluation step in this process. Here, it is important to note that there must be enough water in the wetland to maintain saturated soils and emergent plants. Additional volume within the wetland may be needed if the frequency of runoff will not create continuously moist soil conditions to provide habitat in which emergent plants can flourish (Melby and Cathcart, 2002). Storage volume and water elevations can be calculated using the following formula (Hammer, D, 1997): ∆V = V + I – E ∆L = L + ∆V / A x D V = volume of storage I = inputs, E = exports L = water level or elevation A = area of the wetlands 495 �D = depth Design The design process involves the actual implementation of the site inventory and site analysis information. Once the ideal site is found and the wetland filter size figured, incorporation of the wetlands into the golf course can begin. Wetland features can serve as excellent hazards on golf course facilities, and the interaction of wetland and golf course correctly can greatly enhance the strategic aspects of the golf course and the enjoyment of a round of golf. These interactions should be diagrammatically highlighted since alteration of the course or wetland may be necessary to achieve the desired results. Wetland vegetation selection is one of the most vital components of design process. Vegetation plays a vital role in wetlands, as they provide a suitable environment for microbial growth and filtration. The vegetation provides oxygen to the bacteria located in its root zone. It also maintains the permeability of the growth media. The stem and leaves in the water column promote sedimentation and provide a substrate for the growth of beneficial microorganisms (State of Georgia, 2002). In addition, plants add greatly to the aesthetic value of the wetland (USDA, n.d.). Besides vegetation, many factors should be evaluated and incorporated into the process, when designing a wetland filtration system. Some of the more critical factors are listed below (Mitsch, 1993): � � � � � Utilize the natural energies of the watershed systems. Incorporate the wetland system into the existing landscape. Provide sufficient buffering from areas, which experience heavy pedestrian or vehicular traffic. Design the system for ease of maintenance. Orient the wetland filtration system so that the greatest level of runoff flow runs parallel to the wetland. If these factors are met in the design layout, the incorporation of the wetland filter into the landscape could easily be provided as well as successful filtration of runoff. Construction After the site inventory, analysis and design processes have been completed; the site can be directly evaluated for construction purposes. Existing topsoil may be suitable as a substrate base for wetland filtration systems. If the topsoil is not predominantly clay or sand then it will most likely work as an effective rooting base. This soil should be scrapped from the site and stored in an appropriate location for later use. Reuse of this soil will drastically reduce construction costs. In addition, to protect existing environmentally sensitive areas and to prevent excessive soil erosion into adjacent drainage ways, proper Best Management Practices (BMP) for erosion control must also be instituted before any construction begins. Wetlands are frequently constructed by excavating, backfilling, grading, diking and installing water control structures to establish desired hydraulic flow patterns. If the site has highly permeable soils, an impervious, compacted clay liner is usually installed and the original soil placed over the liner. Wetland vegetation is then planted or allowed to establish naturally (U.S. EPA, 2004). After initial plant selection and rough grading of the site, any stockpiled topsoil material can be distributed in the planting zone areas. The best soil for plant establishment is usually a fertile loam or organic soil with a little sand content. Heavy clays should be avoided due to natural settling and compaction, which can make initial vegetation rooting and eventual spreading difficult. The plants should be well established before any wastewater is added to the system. A minimum of 4 to 6 weeks should be allowed for plant establishment after planting before wastewater is added to the wetland (State of Georgia, 2002). 496 �Figure 1: Profile of a free water surface (FWS) constructed wetland (U.S. EPA, 2000). Management Wetland management is vital issue for assuring proper wetland filter function. Wetland systems are not capable of establishing themselves within short periods of time. For example, additional vegetation planting may be required to speed plant coverage, replace damaged plants or to try more suitable varieties. Maintenance may also be needed to control the spread of undesired plant species. In addition, inlets and outlets can become blocked with debris, which will require periodic removal. Inlet and outlet structures should be inspected regularly and especially following big storm events (Jones, 1997). Furthermore, proper turfgrass management practices must occur so that the wetland filtration system does not experience extreme sediment or nutrient loading. Conclusion Water bodies are important strategical areas on most all golf course facilities. These water bodies can provide the golf course architect with a potentially beautiful amenity to use in creating their golf course design goals. To the player, these can become strategical features that must be negotiated in order to achieve an acceptable score. These water bodies can also act as signatures by which the golf course would be remembered, carrying its influence beyond the property of the facility. In other words, water features have and always will be important features in a golf course development; this includes wetlands. Constructed wetlands have been implemented as wastewater treatment facilities in many parts of the world and the wetlands used on a golf course have the potential for accepting, storing and filtering runoff from within the course and from neighboring areas. Today, some golf course developments are experimented with wetlands to filter irrigation runoff for reuse on the course, but the environmental significance of this type of use of constructed wetlands is minor at best. Golf course architects and superintendents must do more to insure the safety of the waterways. It is one of the important jobs of every superintendent to insure that the level of runoff is minimized as much as possible. This is where wetland filtration systems become a valuable amenity on golf course developments. It is time that the golf industry makes an effort to support the study and development of methods for controlling runoff from golf course turfgrass systems, so that the future popularity of the game of golf and the health of our environment will be assured. References Balogh, J.C., Gibeault, V.A., Walker, W.J., Kenna, M.P. & Snow, J.T. (1992). Background and Overview of Environmental Issues, In J.C. Balogh & W.J. Walker (Ed.), Golf Course Management & Construction: Environmental Issues (pp.1-38). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Bastian, R. & Hammer, D. (1993). The Use of Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment and Recycling, In G. Moshiri (Ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement (pp.59-65). New York, NY: CRC Press. 497 �Bayley, S.E. (1985). The Effect of Natural Hydroperiod Fluctuations on Freshwater Wetlands Receiving Added Nutrients, In P.J. Godfrey, E.R. Kaynor, S. Pelczarski & J. Benforado (Ed.), Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewater (pp.180-189). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Beard, J.B. (2003). Turfgrass: Science and Culture, USA: Pearson US Imports & PHIPEs Beard, J.B. (2002). Turf Management for Golf Courses, Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press. Dodson, R.G. (2005). Sustainable Golf Courses: A Guide to Environmental Stewardship, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Hammer, D.A. (1997). Creating Freshwater Wetlands, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Jones, W.W. (1997). Design Features of Constructed Wetlands for Nonpoint Source Treatment, USA: U.S. EPA and the Indiana Department of Environmental Management Jordan, T., Whigham D., Hofmockel, K. & Gerber, N. (1999). Restored wetlands in crop fields control nutrient runoff. In J. Vymasal (Ed.), Wetlands-Nutrients, Metals and Mass Cycling (pp.49-60). Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers. Kadlec, R.H. & Wallece, S.D. (2009). Treatment Wetlands, Boca Raton, FL: Taylor& Francis. Kenna, M.P. & Snow, J.T. (2000). The United States Golf Association Turfgrass and Environmental Research Program Overview, In J.M. Clark & M.P. Kenna (Ed.), Fate and Management of Turfgrass Chemicals (pp.2-35). Washington DC: American Chemical Society. LaFlamme, C. (2005). Nutrient removal using a constructed wetland in Southern Québec, Montreal, Canada: McGill University. Love, B. (2008). An Environmental Approach to Golf Course Development, Brookfield, WI: American Society of Golf Course Architects. Melby, P. & Cathcart, T. (2002). Regenerative Design Techniques: Practical Applications in Landscape Design, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Mitsch, W.J. (1993). Landscape Design and the Role of Created, Restored, and Natural Riparian Wetlands in Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution, In R.K. Olsen (Ed.), Created and Natural Wetlands for Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution (pp.43-70). USA: U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development and Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds. Sakadevan K. & Bavor, H. (1998). Phosphate adsorption characteristics of soils, slags and zeolite to be used as substrates in constructed wetland systems, Water Research. 32(2): 393-399. Seçkin, Ö.B. (2004). Peyzaj Konstrüksiyonu, Đstanbul, Türkiye: Đstanbul Üniversitesi. Seçkin, Y.Ç. (2009). Sustainable Redevelopment of Sanitary Landfills as Future Golf Courses, In H. Padem (Ed.), International Symposium on sustainable Development ISSD 2009 Science and Technology Proceedings, Volume 3, June 9-10, 2009, Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina: IBU Publications. State of Georgia, Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Division (2002). Guidelines for Constructed Wetlands for Municipal Wastewater Facilities, USA: State of Georgia. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service and the US EPA-Region III (n.d.) A Handbook of Constructed Wetlands, Volume 1, USA: USDA & US EPA. U.S. EPA Office of Water (2004). Constructed Treatment Wetlands, USA: US EPA. U.S. EPA (2000). Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, USA: U.S. EPA. Vadineanu, A. (2005). Identification of the Lagoon Ecosystems, In Đ.E. Gönenç & J.P. Wolflin (Ed.), Coastal Lagoons: Ecosystem Processes and Modeling for Sustainable Use and Development (pp.7-42) Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Verhoeven J.T.A & Meuleman, A.F.M. (1999). Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: Opportunities and Limitations. Ecological Engineering. 12: 5-12. 498 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 572 Title A name given to the resource Constructed Wetland Filter Use for Controlling Nutrient and Sediment Runoff from Golf Course Developments Author Author Seçkin, Yasin Çağatay Abstract A summary of the resource. Interest in the control of pollution entering into waterways has risen significantly since the last quarter of 20th Century and golf course developments have been identified as areas that use some of the chemical pollutants found in these waterways. Runoff control of pollutants from golf course developments is vital in assuring clean waterway systems for the future. This study investigates the runoff issues that can be related to golf course turf grass systems and their control through use of wetland filters. Three issues addressed in this study are suspended sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus levels contained in turf grass runoff. Sediment runoff levels were found to be low to moderate for turf grass systems, while nutrient transport in runoff from turf grass areas can become a significant problem. Constructed wetland filtration systems were investigated as one potential method for controlling turf grass runoff. The design and construction of these wetland filters was investigated to determine their potential for filtering runoff from golf course facilities. Data showed that significant levels of runoff sediment and nutrient pollution could be removed if proper design and construction processes are followed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c15003c04d0090b495aa9449c1e62e37.pdf a6d2d9f84212023cc86f449bf8605c6b PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Experimental Fieldwork Study of Methodology, With Classification, On The Collected Bosniak Folk Tales and Identification of These Tales With Their Evaluation Yusuf Ziya Sümbüllü Adnan Menderes University Faculty of Arts and Sciences /Turkey yzsumbullu@yahoo.com Abstract: Tale, which has been the subject of research studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina and around the world, is a type of oral narrative which doesn’t have to be plausible, yet may make the reader believe in its plausibility; based on morality, useful and didactic; whose source dates back to ancient times and which are marked with characteristics from time and culture they were created in. There has been different opinions about the sources and classification of the tale which is in close relation with different sorts of narration. The history of tale extends back to the ages without writing however the history of tale studies could only be extended to the beginning of 20th century. The aim of this study is to bring interpretation to in particular, Bosanski tale culture, and in general, study of tales, in relation with the function and context of the fairy tale, the narrator, and the listener. By transferring social values from one generation to another, tales provide the continuity and unity of community in terms of training the young generations in a better way. Therefore, tales are important with their role and power on guiding and shaping new generations lives. Introduction The Balkans which are found on the strategic point where Black sea and Mediterranean sea touch each other are on the position of extension where old continent Europe connects with the East.( Selver, 2003) This strategic position which stems from geographical position of the Balkans is reflected in historical, political, and cultural facts.( Yürür, 2007) The region of overlapping Muslim, Christian and Jewish believes, the geography for triggering I and II world wars, this seems that as in history being away from the centers of heat and movement it will not loose on own importance in present and future. (Seyhan, 2007) Located in the center of Balkan region Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of three founding nationalities Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs. In the country word the Bosniak is usually identified with Muslim, Croat with Catholic, and Serb with Orthodox religion. Only in the Bosnia and Herzegovina from time to time ‘Bosnian’ and ‘Bosniak’ can be used as synonyms. On the “Muslim Intellectual Congress” in 1993 the name Bosniak was accepted and in this sense nation in question prior to 1993 was defined as “Bosniak”. Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs all together belong to the South Slavic branch of people, but when ethnicity is taken into account other factors in terms of cultural and religious preferences are peculiar to them. Each society preserves own cultural values and national identity with the lookout for their continuity. Be it material or if necessarily spiritual facts of culture, important part of them is consisted of the oral products. Among the fruits of oral culture the fairy tales play more important role in educational sense then the other kinds, they do not serve only the purposes for spending of time or to have a fun, but they rather firstly aim to be coding products of the society’s views on life. Important part of the Bosniak oral culture is fairytales whose structural characteristics constituted the starting point for our study. Types of Fairy Tales In the scope of folk literature products which are based on narration at the first place comes fairytales. The fairytales are anonymous works in an unknown time, at undetermined place, happening to imagined persons narrating a dangerous situation(s) happened to those persons. They are based on past and are important but at the same time are related to present. The most popular in the oral literature is the type of fairytale depicting knowledge models of individual and social life which is orally transferred from generation to generation. (Elçin, 1986) The fairytale which is defined as story said to children and mostly decorated with the supernatural events to attract attention (Agakay, 1966 ), was subject to many researches in the world. Definition of the fairytale can change in accordance of time and people. While Ahmet Vefik Pasa in his work called Lehçe-i Osmânî say:”Saying , still story, saga, in paragraph without thesis, informal postulate” Muallim Naci the word fairytale defines as: ”Saga, the famous story”. 374 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo As opposed to this Semseddin Sami in Kâmûs-i Türkî defines fairytale as: “A small story related to manners, morals and advices”, while Hüseyin Kâzım Kadri define in Türk Lügati:”Arabic parable, example of story, legend, saga” , Ferit Devellioglu in Ottoman-Turkish encyclopedic dictionary defines as: “Useful story purposed for discipline and good manners” (Sakaoğlu, 1995) While according to the Pertev Naili Boratav fairytale is; “Short narration said with prose, independent from religious and magic beliefs and customs, entirely fiction, unrelated to reality without pretension to convince those who listen to it. (Boratav, 1982) While Şükrü Elçin defines fairytale as:”In such a time, connected to a long tradition, with collective character, with a set of topics like; ‘dream-reality’, ‘abstract-concrete’, ‘materialspiritual’, then set of elements like adventure, case, problem and motive, narrated with the language of prose to spend a time, to educate people while having fun with the idea of moving, is written or said in a distinctive style”. Bilge Seyidoğlu says: “Fairytale is a specific oral type said among folk for centuries, contains supernatural persons and events, starts with clichés like “once upon time”, has a certain length, ends with words like “ate, drank, reached goal”, or “they achieved their goals let us be on their positions now”, “three apples have fallen from the sky one to the narrator, one to listener and one to me”, it is also without specified place and time. (Seyidoğlu, 1986) Umay Günay says:”According to the most widely assent logic of fairytales are life stories narrated in a distinctive way. Those life stories generally reflect the world different than ours, realize impossible, make heroes happy at the end and give hope to those who listen.(Günay, 1992) While Esma Şimşek defines fairytale as following: “Type of oral narration product which starts with cliché words, said by private persons in self purposeful framework of (supernatural) time, place and person, describes the real life lived together with imagined life in a systematic way” ( Şimşek, 2001) General Characteristics of The Bosniak Fairytales Bosniak fairytales from the general aspect of structure, framework, topic and heroes have common characteristics of the other fairytales. In this sense it easily can be expressed that Bosniak fairytales are generally similar to the other fairytales. But, with all similarities to the fairytales of the other people Bosniak fairytales again have their own distinctive characteristics. This distinction can be explained with the society’s cultural, economic and historical development in the civilization process. (Nametak, 1998) The Bosniak fairytales as stated above, although in terms of structural characteristics are universal, their mainline is national. It is because Bosniak fairytales reflect altogether interests of the Bosniak society, its needs and expectations with the views of life. These fairytales from the core give knowledge about Bosniak cultural structure, language characteristics, ways of life, religious and historical facts in such a way that from these aspects Bosniak fairytales are different than other fairytales in the world. Perhaps one of the most important distinction of the Bosniak fairytales which makes them national is the synthesis format that stems from the interaction of belief and culture. As a members of the South Slavic branch Bosniaks were exposed to the beliefs of Bogumil Christianity for a long time, in 1463 when starts Ottoman conquest they are directed to the process of Islamization that lasted for 200 of years. Be it ethnic structure or the cultural one, the influence of the new civilization circle was inevitable, and by the time ambivalent expressions in fairytales like mosque-church, Ayşe- Stefan, imam-monk, sultan-tzar seem to become a national character. ( Goric, 1976) One of the most important features of the Bosniak fairytales is stability in the specter of optimist views. In these fairytales there is no insurmountable obstacle, punishments are not creepy, the evil ones instead of being negative are rather passive and sometimes even in a funny role, narrator and listener are not concerned that heroes and good ones will succeed and this is more obvious than in the fairytales of other nations. In the Bosniak fairytales the most important stance is being very flexible with status quo. The youngest son of the poor family, the only son, the only daughter, extraordinary intelligence, taking help from supernatural beings because of the benevolent structure can be reason for changing the social class at once. Motives like; poor young man who becomes tzar, young man who marries tzar’s daughter, poor girl who becomes sultan’ bride, king who is in pathetic situation, expulsion of evil vezir from palace, when step-mothers evil becomes obvious and etc. are characteristics which show that Bosniak cultural structure does not have strong influence of bourgeois as it is case in the European fairytales. It is important to emphasize that during collecting and reviewing of 50 Bosniak fairytales which we had chance to find beside fairytales with supernatural characteristics there are also tales which focus the real life. Characters like king, tzar, ban, sultan, vezir, poor young man, poor girl, step mother, black smith, landlord, baker and etc. are the heroes which turn Bosniak fairytale to real life. Of course it is completely normal in Bosniak fairytales to meet frequently together with characters from the real life supernatural characters like demon, devil, nymph, titan, witch and etc. As it is known the fairytale is distinguished from other narrations not only by fiction but also by inquiries of time, place and person. 375 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Bosniak fairytales usually are realized in unknown part of a time. Long time ago, in very old time, in a time out of a mind and etc. are concepts of time that we meet in Bosniak fairytales. In the Bosniak fairytales place is with the main lines of the fairytale lands, sometimes is undetermined and sometimes it is real places like Istanbul, Sarajevo, Herzegovina and etc. As in the case of place notions Bosniak fairytales give the similar notions of persons who are sometimes real sometimes imaginary. Those Bosniak fairytales that were subject to our review give are shaped in framework of the most obvious messages like: the truth will be rewarded, evil will not be without response, justice will triumph, importance of work, damages of lies and etc. All Bosniak fairytales finish with happy end. This case is appropriate for the usual type of fairy tale fiction. The powers which represent good, beautiful, the right, fighting with the accumulated powers of evil make that good is rewarded and evil punished what at the end gives positive sense to the aim of the fairytale. This fact prepares Bosniak fairytales for the ground of pretty contrast elements like: good-evil, beauty-ugliness, justice-injustice, smart-stupid, big-small and etc. It is important to emphasize those most important contrasting elements in the Bosniak fairytales. There is no impossible in the world of fairytales and this base is also important source for the Bosniak fairytales. Insurmountable mountains, on travelling with winged horses, magic wand with ring, with sword, unopening doors, with magic word, roads old hundreds of years etc. all this can be opened with just one closure of eye. ( Softic, 1977) Classification of The Bosniak Fairytales As a result of our collecting and translation of the 50 fairytales which we had possibility to reach according to the international Andre-Arne catalogue of the fairytales it is possible to distinct three main groups of the Bosniak fairytales: supernatural fairytales, animal fairytales, and realist fairytales. . A. Supernatural Bosniak Fairytales Those fairytales which constitute majority of the Bosniak fairytales in the main line are mythological in the origin. The majority of these fairytales has a universal aspect when characteristics of fiction are taken into account. In terms of motive patterns these supernatural fairytales are in the parallel view of fairytales that belong to other nations. Elements valued in Bosniak culture should not be kept out of a sight. General view of the Bosniak supernatural fairytale is that they are in the framework where hero with help of other objects crosses many barriers and takes emperors daughter or takes the power of magical object. Those fairytales usually start when poor young man in search for solution of the situation leaves his home. Solving quiet hard problems he reaches his aim with his intelligence and courage and the help taken some times from the supernatural objects. Evil, unjust, tzar, sultan, witch, titan, step mother, wizard and trouble maker, if they are old die, lose their position or are turned into some another object. In the supernatural Bosniak fairytales part of the supernatural beings like nymphs, titans, demons, dragoons, flying horses, lord of snakes and etc. helps the hero while part of these supernatural beings are in mission to make the task for hero more harder. In the supernatural fairytales the enemy is usually strong, very dangerous and particularly very powerful. Their strength is much stronger than the strength an ordinary people. However as it is said above in the Bosniak fairytales there is no place for the impossible. Tasks like to reach soul of a hidden titan at the bottom of the sea, taking a magical ring which is source of power from a wizard woman that she does not feel it, despite of their hardship never can result with failure. (Softic, 1977) 376 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo B. Bosniak Animal Fairytales As it is known emergence of fairytales related to animals is older compared to other fairytale types. Considering educational aspect of these fairytales which can have characteristics of human-animal or as allegoric animal-animal relations we can say that they are the most practical means of communication. In these fairytales animals identify themselves with human characteristic and in onomatopoeic art speaks, thinks, argues, humiliates, and understands as a man. Bosniak animal fairytales are in the format where relations humansanimals, and animals-humans are depicted as relations between humans. In some animal fairytales dialogue between humans and animals even if it is little, still exists. In this fairytales we see animals as helping people who have right attributes or in a mission of competitor to an evil person or greedy person.(Softic, 1977) As it is case with the fairytales of other people in the Bosniak fairy tale animals like wolf, fox, bear, lion, snake and etc. are symbolically identified with some human characteristics which stem from their nature, some of those characteristics are smartness, greed, honesty and etc. In these fairytales physically stronger and wilder animals stand in opposition to meeker, small, and thin animal, with their anger, greed, being dishonest and etc, they are in function of reflecting the human relations. C. Bosniak Realist Fairytales The realist fairytales are more focused on the daily life that we know than the other two types. In the Bosniak realist fairytales, the tale events and heroes are shaped in the framework of heroes and events that we can meet in any moment in the daily life. Young girl, young man, poor peasant, rich man, step mother, merchant, robber, end etc. actors and actresses of the daily life, social and moral topics like honesty, injustice, justice, generosity, helpfulness and etc. the natural manners that man takes altogether. ( Hörmann, 1976) It is not striking that in the Bosniak realist fairytales this type of characteristics helps to the heroes to cross all barriers and achieve their aims without any supernatural help. In these fairytales there is no flying horse, magical stick, or nymph which helps to the hero. The hero with his intelligence, honesty, hard working, courage, intuition and personal skills succeeds in winning his competitors and reaches the happy end. In the Bosniak realist fairytales there are opposites on the main lines like; breaking of moral principles of society or individuals, good-evil, justice-injustice, hard working-laziness, smartness-stupidity, greedsatisfaction. Naturally in this type of the fairytales good is rewarded while evil is sanctioned. However in the realist fairytales differentiate from other two types because rewards and sanctions are more in reasonable. (Softıc, 1977) The Formal Structure of The Bosniak Fairytales The formal is defined stereotyped expression having exact particular shape. The fairytale formals firstly aim to take listener from the real life, have listener’s attention, bring him to imaginary world, make him more interested into the fairytale, give time to the narrator from the unknown point, using own skills of narrator he gives the purpose of the tale. The Bosniak fairytale formals are in the order as follows below\ 1. Staring formals In the Bosniak fairytales the starting formals are a little bit out of the usual standard rhyme form. In the Bosniak fairytales the staring formals on the main lines are: once upon time, in ancient times, in one of the times, in ancient time when demons, titans and humans all lived together., in old times. 2. Passing Formals The passing formals in the Bosniak fairytales are merely used. Except couple of examples in those fairytales, we do not have them. Months and months and years and years have passed after, less gone, nice gone, went one step to go away. 3. Ending Formals Bosniak fairytales usually finish with the same ending formals. They reached their goals, they have become happy, were happy, made a huge wedding, and lived happily after. 4. Number Formals In the Bosniak fairytales the numeric formals show the uniting characteristics of eastan west. Among the numbers listed below number 3 is seen more frequently than the others. Three girls, three boys, three titans. 377 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo While it can be seen that number 40 is more popular than other numbers after number 3. 40 titans, 40 gates, 40 bandits. Numbers in the fairytales can be listed as following: 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 21, 22, 40, 5. Time Formals One of the most important distinctions of the fairytale narrations is undetermined time. The Bosniak fairytales in this case do not show big structural difference from the fairytales of other people. The expressions of time in the Bosniak fairytale are as day, month and year. 3 days, 5 days , 7days, 3 months, 5 months, 10 months, 3 years, 5 years, 40 years. 6. Colors In the Bosniak fairytale we face color as related assets associated with function. For example if the demon is dark this mean he is very strong and dangerous, of horse is white this means he is supernatural. In this sense colors used in the fairytales are as following: black, white, yellow, red, blue. 7. Place Formals The most important characteristic of the fairytale is imaginary plot for place. It is impediment without which Bosniak fairytale cannot exist. It is possible to compare these places with the places in the real world. It is important to emphasize that in Bosniak fairytales places are under cultural influence as it is case in Turksih culture. Istanbul, Bosna, Sarajevo, Krajina, Travnik… Characters in the Bosniak Fairytales The first characters who took our attention in the Bosniak fairytales during reviewing is hunter-hero type. To hunt, it is self desire of a tzar who goes on journey, meets with supernatural beings or fighting with evil rulers, where he wins and his noble characteristics of hunter and tzar are listed. Another character that we meet in the Bosniak fairytales is the small boy character. The character of the small boy is widely spread not only in the Bosniak fairytales but in the fairytales of other nations, in Bosniak fairy tales it is a character of hunter-hero who either has ability to save people from supernatural beings, or is in the arbitrary function among siblings who quarrel and fight each other. One more character that we meet in the Bosniak fairytales is the bald character who with the main lines belongs to the Turkish fairytale character of the “bald boy” (keloğlan). In the Bosniak fairytales we see him successful with his vigilance, intelligence, and supernatural adventures which from time to tome need courage. In those fairytales poor bald thanks to ingenuity and foresight changes his status by marrying the tzar’s daughter. Another character in the Bosniak fairytales is the character of the poor young boy. In those fairytales because of search for the solution of material problems young man leaves old mother and father and way leads to one country. Under very hard conditions he succeeds with supernatural support to kill huge demon or dragoon which was the main problem of the country and as a reward marries the kings daughter. One more character that we meet in the Bosniak fairytales is old wise man. This character who is in mission to help a hero in the hardest times, he fulfills his duty by giving useful advices to hero how travel of fight efficiently. One of the very important types that appears in the fairytales is also the type of step mother. We can see her sometimes having also supernatural abilities, wants to remove daughter of her husband from the previous marriage, plays with all possible options without fear, but at the end is always defeated and gets punished. The last character we will present in the Bosniak fairytale is trouble maker or witch. In those fairytales young girl or old woman, represented as very ugly being, is one the most important rivals of heroes. Despite of her supernatural abilities, she cannot save herself from the defeat by hero and is mostly punished with death. Conclusion Bosniak fairytales in terms of quality and quantity keep very important place in the Bosniak folk literature. Type of tale which has the duty to save cultural values and transfer them to the new generations, are big concern because they are unfortunately forgotten very fast from the folk memory and there is lack of interest into field work to collect products of Bosniak culture. Rich both in fiction and structural elements, pretty rich in motives the Bosniak fairytales as it is said in the introduction have their own standing between east and west. Perhaps more attention is needed to the unknown period and elements of Islamic culture which occurred under specific circumstances when those these fairytales were shaped and re-shaped. Historical and social processes in their own conditions on the core of the human community transferred to future generation as any kind of material of spiritual culture as a whole are called culture. Culture which makes one society to be distinctive from another represent DNA of that society. Concern for protection of 378 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo cultural values is so important that question of national independence and national consciousness is nothing less important. A community’s perception, thinking and way of life directly overlap with the cultural views. As mentioned before importance of culture is vital what makes especially oral culture being more important with all types of narration in itself what again makes protection and recording of these types a must. Balkans which connect the Europe to the east have Bosnia and Herzegovina hosting the richest cultural samples as it is perceived, that will be even more richer when Bosniaks as one of the three constitutive nations start discover own cultural treasury. 379 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Boratav, P.N., (1982) 100 Soruda Türk Halk Edebiyatı, Gerçek Yay.,Đstanbul Elçin, Ş., (1986) Halk Edebiyatına Giriş, Akçağ Yay., Ankara Goric, M., (1976) Narodna Proza, Price Puslovice Pıtalıc I Zagonetke, Vaselin Masleca, Sarajevo Günay, U., (1992) Elazığ Masallarının Muhtevası. Fırat Üniversitesi, Fırat Havzası Folklor ve Etnografya Sempozyumu Bildirileri. Elazığ, s. 109. Hörmann,K., (1976) Narodne Pjesma Muslimana BĐH, Priredila Denana Buturovic, Sarajevo Nametak,A., (1998) Traza Zaboravka, Publishing, Sarajevo Sakaoğlu, Saim., (1992) Masallar Türk Dünyası Ortak Edebiyatı,TAV Yay., Ankara Selver, M., (2003)Balkanlara Stratejik Yaklaşım ve Bosna, IQ Kültür Yayıncılık, Đstanbul Seyhan, E. (2007) Bosna-Hersek’in Jeo-Stratejik Önemi ve Türkiye, Yayımlanmamış YL Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Ünv. Sosyal Bililimler Enst., Afyon Seyidoğlu, B., (1975) Erzurum Masalları, Atatürk Ünv., Yay., Erzurum Softic, A., (1977) Antologija, Bošnjacke Usmene Price, Alef, Izdavacka Kuca, Sarajevo Şimşek, E., (2001) Yukarıçukurova Masallarında Motif ve Tip Araştırmas, ıKültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ankara Yürür, P., (2007) Uluslararası Toplumun Bosna-Hersek’i Yeniden Yapuılandırma Süreci ve Modeli, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gazi Ünv. Sosyal Bilimler Enst., Ankara 380 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 721 Title A name given to the resource The Experimental Fieldwork Study of Methodology, With Classification, On The Collected Bosniak Folk Tales and Identification of These Tales With Their Evaluation Author Author Sümbüllü, Yusuf Ziya Abstract A summary of the resource. Tale, which has been the subject of research studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina and around the world, is a type of oral narrative which doesn’t have to be plausible, yet may make the reader believe in its plausibility; based on morality, useful and didactic; whose source dates back to ancient times and which are marked with characteristics from time and culture they were created in. There has been different opinions about the sources and classification of the tale which is in close relation with different sorts of narration. The history of tale extends back to the ages without writing however the history of tale studies could only be extended to the beginning of 20th century. The aim of this study is to bring interpretation to in particular, Bosanski tale culture, and in general, study of tales, in relation with the function and context of the fairy tale, the narrator, and the listener. By transferring social values from one generation to another, tales provide the continuity and unity of community in terms of training the young generations in a better way. Therefore, tales are important with their role and power on guiding and shaping new generations lives. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd3a7f408161e05028bd57ae792cd56d.pdf 2d8dbaebe8b8ad1152f270344a6922d6 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Public Expenditure and Political Business Cycles inTurkey Recep TARI Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Kocaeli University, Turkey rtari@kocaeli.edu.tr Filiz ÖZKAN Kaynarca Vocational School, Department of Economics and Administrative Sciences Sakarya University, Turkey fozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: According to the theory of ―Political Business Cycles (PBC)‖, politicians prefer to pursue opportunistic policies in order to increase their chance of election. For this reason, they apply expansionary policies before the elections. Hence, they start to do this by increasing public expenditures. There is an increase in the indicators of money parallel to the increase in public expenditures. In this study it is examined that whether there have been appropriate developments in terms of PBC theory during the elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980. In order to determine the effect of PBC ―the traditional opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is used to test the PBC effect. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. The results obtained as a result of the empirical analysis support the PBC theory. Introduction The history of economics is the history of debates between the ones who claim that the government intervention is necessary and who claim that it is unnecessary. In the framework of these debates, applications of both of these approaches are observed due to the economic conditions of each period. However, there is a fact which should be accepted that every day the state intervenes in the economic life with different reasons and through various legal and institutional regulations. If the economists are not able to put their developed theories into the application, then they just do brain gymnastic. Thus, this situation is seemed during many years and this distinction between economics and politics give the idea to the politicians that they can arrange the economic life according to their own vote calculations. This idea becomes widespread along with the economists isolate themselves from the legal and institutional structure of the society (SavaĢ, 1997). Especially in the developing countries with a less institutional and legal structure, the public share in the economy is more than others. Through the political instabilities it is understood that the financial issues are not the only reason of this situation. In the beginning the state is seem as maintaining the social order and it is associated with the Leviathan which is a superhuman being, whereas later it is seen that the state is transformed to a monster that gives harm to its environment. Especially, after the Second World War the rapid increase in the contribution of state in the economic life is defined as a very big danger (Erim, 2007). If being away from the economic life is impossible for the state, at least there should be a limit of this contribution. Politics and political institutions should be accepted as endogenous rather than exogenous in the economic theories. After the long historical development process from this view, the Political Economic Theory (PET) is developed. According to the PBC theory economy is manipulated by policy makers during the electoral periods since politicians behave with political interest mostly in these periods. If the politicians are not restricted enough with the laws in terms of their usage of economic policy tools, they prefer to pursue opportunistic policies instead of policies for the interest of the public. In order to affect electorates, they mostly increase public expenditures. The financing of the increased public expenditures is funded through increasing the money supply instead of increasing taxes since taxes are not pleased by the electorates (Azgün, 2006). In this study, it is examined that whether the PBC has an effect on the money variables of public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation during the general elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980 in Turkey. ―The traditional opportunistic model‖ of Nordhaus is used in order to test the effect of PBC. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the 471 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991, 1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. Political Business Cycles Models The concept of Political Business Cycles is firstly used by Nordhaus. According to Nordhaus, by aiming vote maximization politicians pursue expansionary policies before the elections in order to boost the economy whereas they pursue contractionary policies after the elections in order to remove the effects of these expansionary policies. Therefore, a cycle occurs in economy due to the electoral periods (Nordhaus, 1975). When the studies related with Political Business Cycles is examined it is observed that the literature regarding to this issue is developed on two cycles. The first one is ―traditional model‖ that is considered in two categories and the first of these is the opportunistic model developed by Nordhaus and the second one is the partisanship model developed later by Hibbs (Hibbs, 1977). According to opportunistic model, politicians do not have partisan objectives, they just appeal all kinds of manipulations in order to win elections. According to partisanship model, politicians try to gain votes of their own electoral group by implementing ideological policies. Secondly, in the framework of ―rational expectations theory‖ which is popular in 1980s, the PBC theory has been developed as a ―modern approach‖. With the acceptance of rational expectations theory, the PBC theory is criticized at the beginning. However, as a result of the empirical studies positive findings are obtained regarding to that the PBC theory can still be explanatory even though the rational expectations theory is valid. According to the modern PBC theory, because of the asymmetric information between the governments and citizens governments continue to exhibit opportunistic or partisanship behaviors. Methodology In this study, in order to determine whether the politicians pursue opportunistic policies or not in the electoral periods, the autoregressive analysis method is used which is applied by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries (Alesina, 1991). The autoregressive models are preferred instead of the structural models regarding each macroeconomic indicator which is due to the reason that by testing each variable with the same model it is aimed to decrease the probability of difference that can be arisen from modeling error in the determination of the effect of electoral periods. Furthermore, in the literature it is emphasized that structural models are mainly valid in the developed countries with strong economy whereas their validity is questionable in the less developed and developing countries with fragile economic system (Özkan, 2005). General notation of the autoregressive model which is used in this study is as in the following: Yt = α0 + α1 Yt-1+ α2 Yt-2+……+ αn Yt-n+PBCDUMMY + εt (1) Here, Yt represents each macroeconomic indicator. PBCDUMMY is the dummy variable that indicates the dynamic implications of the theory of political business cycles. PBCDUMMY is defined as ―1‖ for the election quarter and three quarters before the election, and defined as ―0‖ for other periods. εt represents the error terms. The lagged values of autoregressive model is determined through the ―from general to special theory‖. The stability of series is examined through the ADF unit root test (Dickey and Fuller, 1990). The Jarque-Bera(JB) test is used in order to test whether the normality assumption, which is one of the necessary assumptions to perform autoregression analysis, is satisfied or not (Bera and Jarque, 1981). After these models are tested, through the Breusch Godfrey (LM) test it is checked whether there is an autocorrelation between the error terms or not (Godfrey, 1988). For error terms having constant variance is another necessary condition for autoregression analysis. The ARCH LM test is used in order to determine whether the error terms have constant variance or not. Test Results Unit Root Analyses Result When the graphic of public expenditures series in real terms is examined, seasonal effects are observed in the series. It is observed that the coefficients are significant in the regression analysis which is performed with the seasonal dummy variables. The seasonality effects are removed from the series and the stability of the series is checked with the ADF test. As seen on Table 1, the real public expenditures series which does not include seasonal effects is not stable as its degree. It is seen that the yearly percentage change of series is stable with 0.05% significance level according to the ADF model which has a constant term and trend. 472 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 12000000 150 10000000 100 8000000 50 6000000 0 4000000 -50 2000000 0 -100 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 92 KAMUHARREEL 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 KAMUHARREELSAYD Figure 1: Degree of Public Expenditures and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics When the graphic of public expenditures series in real terms is examined, seasonal effects are observed in the series. It is observed that the coefficients are significant in the regression analysis which is performed with the seasonal dummy variables. The seasonality effects are removed from the series and the stability of the series is checked with the ADF test. As seen on Table 1, the real public expenditures series which does not include seasonal effects is not stable as its degree. It is seen that the yearly percentage change of series is stable with 0.05% significance level according to the ADF model which has a constant term and trend. 50000000 60 40 40000000 20 30000000 0 20000000 -20 10000000 -40 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 92 94 96 RELM1 98 00 02 04 06 08 RE LM1YD Figure 2: Degree of Real M1 and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics When the graphic of Real M1 series is examined, at first it is observed that the series is not stable. Furthermore, it appears that there can also be seasonal effect. It is seen that the coefficients are significant as a result of the regression analysis done with the seasonal dummy variables. However, when the yearly percentage change is considered the seasonality effect disappears. Furthermore, when Table 1 is examined it is seen that while the real M1 series is not stable, the percentage change is stable in all ADF models in terms of various significance levels. 24000000 60 20000000 40 16000000 20 12000000 0 8000000 -20 4000000 -40 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 REELDOLPARA 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 RE ELDOLPARA YD Figure 3: Degree of Real Money in Circulation and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics 473 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When the graphic of real money in circulation is examined, it is understood that the series is not stable, however it is not certainly understood whether there is a seasonal effect or not. As a result of the regression analysis done with the seasonal dummy variables it is seen that the coefficients are insignificant, therefore it is understood that there is no seasonality effect. When the results of the unit root test is examined, it is observed that the series of real money in circulation is not stable in degree of level whereas the percentage change is stable in all ADF models in terms of various significance levels. The results of ADF unit root test, which is performed to determine the stability structures of series, are shown on Table 1. with constant term Public expenditures -2,04 Public expenditures % -1,80 M1 0,03 M1% -2,70*** Money in circulation 1,62 Money in circulation % -2,85*** %1 -3,51 Kritical values, %5 -2,89 %10 -2,58 Lag. 3 8 4 4 6 4 constant and trend -1,47 -3,79** -1,00 -4,08* 0,37 -4,90* -4,06 -3,46 -3,15 term Lag. 3 3 4 7 6 3 without constant term and trend -0,91 -0,76 0,98 -2,02** 2,12 -2,44** -2,59 -1,94 -1,61 Lag. 4 4 4 8 6 4 Table 1: ADF Test Results Autoregressive Model Analyses Results The summary of statistical values for autoregressive model examining public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation is shown on Table 2. The autoregressive models which are estimated by lagged values are as in the following: Pub.Expen. = 2,53+ 13,6 Pub.Expen. (-2) + 0,18 Pub.Expen. (-4) + 0,39 PBCdummy (0,00) (0,03) (0,08) (0,00) M1 = 7,47 (0.05) (0.00) +0,79 M1(-1) (0,01) +0,42 M1(-5) (0,00) + 0,21 M1(-7) (0,04) – 0,22 M1(-8) (0,03) +8,22PBCdummy (0,06) M.Cir. = 2,95+ 0,49 M.Cir.(-1) + 0,20 M.Cir.(-2) - 0,33 M.Cir.(-4) + 26 M.Cir.(-5) + 11,79 PBCdummy (0,41) (0,00) (0,07) (0,00) (0,01) (0,00) Independent Varieble PBC 2 R Dummy DW F probably JB LM ARCH Dependent Variable Public Money Supply α t ist. t pro αi t ist. t ol. Harcamaları i 13,6 2,17 0,03 8,22 1,87 0,06 ** *** 0,25 0,62 2,07 2,07 0,00 0,00 47,47 (0.00) 1,40 (0,49) 0,85 (0,47) 0,53(0,58) 0,92 (0,40) 0,30(0,73) Money Circulation αi t ist. t prob 11,79* 3,07 0,00 0,44 2,05 0,00 17,10 (0,00) 0,56(0,56) 1,27(0,27) Table 2: Autoregressive Analyses Results According to the regression estimate results on Table 2, it is observed that there is no autocorrelation and changing variance problems in the LM and ARCH tests. Even the normality assumption is not satisfied in the model regarding money supply since the number of observation (80) is sufficient enough and since there is no changing variance problem the regression is highly confidential. 474 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When coefficient estimate results regarding to the examined variables are concerned, it is seen that PBCDummy coefficient is positive and significant as appropriate to the theory. This acquired result confirms the argument of the PBC theory that when the politicians try to affect the electorates they mostly use the ―public expenditures‖ as fiscal policy tool. As a result of the increase in public expenditures there is an increase in money supply and money in circulation. Conclusion Manipulating the macroeconomic policies in the direction of politic interests is one of the significant problems of Turkish economy as in the economies of many countries. In order to come to power and to establish government, politicians do not avoid using macroeconomic policies as instruments. In this study it is aimed to determine whether politicians have opportunistic behavior or not. Therefore, it is analyzed that being appropriate to the PBC theory whether there is a significant change in policy instrument variables such as public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation during the electoral periods. When the obtained results are examined it is observed that the election dummy variable regarding public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation is positive and statistically significant which is appropriate to the theory. These findings assert that governments pursue opportunistic policies in electoral periods in Turkey. References SavaĢ, V.F., (1997), Anayasal Ġktisat, Ġstanbul: Avcıol Basım Yayım. Nordhaus, W,(1975), The Political Business Cycle, The Review of Economic Studies, 42(2), 169-190. Alesina, A., Cohen G.D. & Roubini, N., (1991), Makroeconomic Policy and Elections in OECD Democracies, NBER Working Paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge. Özkan, F., (2005), Döviz Kuru Öngörü Yöntemleri: Türkiye Uygulaması, Y. Lisans Tezi, Zonguldak Karaelmas Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Erim, N., (2007), Ġktisadi DüĢünce Tarihi, Ankara: Palme Yayıncılık. Azgün, S., (2006), Kamu Açığı ve DıĢ Açıkların GeliĢimi: 1980–2004 Dönem Analizi, E-Akademi Hukuk, Ekonomi ve Siyasal Bilimler Dergisi, 53(7). Hibbs, D.G., (1977), Political Parties and Macroeconomic Policy, The American Political Science Review, 71 (4), 1467-1487. Dickey, D.A. & Fuller, W.A., (1979), Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74, 427–431. Perron, P., (1990), Testing for a Unit Root in a Time Series With a Changing Mean, Journal of Business Economic Satistics, 8(2), 19-25. Godfrey, L.G. (1988), Spesicification Test in Econometrics, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge. Bera, A. & Jarque, C. (1981), Efficient est for Normality, Heterosedasticity and Serial Indepence of Regression Residuals: Monte Carlo Evidence, Economics Letter, 7, 313-318. 475 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 249 Title A name given to the resource Public Expenditure and Political Business Cycles inTurkey Author Author TARI, Recep ÖZKAN, Filiz Abstract A summary of the resource. According to the theory of ―Political Business Cycles (PBC)‖, politicians prefer to pursue opportunistic policies in order to increase their chance of election. For this reason, they apply expansionary policies before the elections. Hence, they start to do this by increasing public expenditures. There is an increase in the indicators of money parallel to the increase in public expenditures. In this study it is examined that whether there have been appropriate developments in terms of PBC theory during the elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980. In order to determine the effect of PBC ―the traditional opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is used to test the PBC effect. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. The results obtained as a result of the empirical analysis support the PBC theory. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2da719baef8078325db30f143bd6d94b.pdf 44332d7a0c85a6a5ad99cb7de4215b3e PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo An Experiment Aimed at Gender Apartheids Being Evaluated In Terms of The Trust Factor Hümeyra TAġÇIOĞLU Dr., Sakaraya University humeyratasci@gmail.com Abstract: The trust factor is an important topic for all companies. It is important especially in order to provide the loyalty of employee and high motivation. In that study being experimented the trust factors impacts on the gender apartheid in the companies, it is defined that the perception of gendern apartheid haven‘t developed in the companies having the trust factor and all employees have showed similar tendency , as well. It is concluded that the trust factor for the company is highly in company, having been done research. Introduction The employee to trust themselves, their chefs and each others makes a contribution to establish an organizational environment that prepossess to working conditions. To provide the employee of the organization to work in an atmosphere, in which the trust is prevelant, is not only the duty of the management, but also is the heavy responsibility of the employee. It is known that the voluntary contribution aimed at building up trust is of essential importance. On the other hand, it may be said that these conditions can be easily carried out, provided that the management give the importance of the factors related with building up trust. All of the participants in company to do a work in an environment, that is high trust, increase the performance and job satisfaction and all conclusions have positiv impacts on all parts of thecompany. It is seen as an invitable realitat that the employee that fells as behaved differently than the others or in other words, as discriminated in the organizations will have a distrustful attitude towards both their co-workers and their manager and hereat will come about a distrustful atmosphere. However, the trust of the employees in the company, in which they worked, affects a lot of positive results such as the loyalty, job satisfaction and performance level. The Notion of Trust The trust means that a person has a personal positive expectation and displays psychological sensitivity regarding this expectation. Furthermore; the trust notion includes also emotive loyalty, that represents the essential interest for the persons (Wech, 2002: 354; Asunakutlu,T: 2002). Trust is the belief in which the behaviours of the people in our environment will develop with the aim of meeting our expectations without any control action (Mayer et al., 1995). Trust is a phonemon that is defined as an expectation of any individuals from the other part based on the procedure and the relations between the individuals. Therefore, the trust notion is studied firstly by chracter theorists and then by psyhologists, sociologists, social psyhologists, political scientists and economist, although it is a notion relating quite a few diciplines, The trust, used as a notion in different areas for years, was being a subject of the researchs in the fields of the organization, the management and organizational behaviours in the in 1980s years (Lewicki et al., 1998). When considered from the social aspect, trust is to be perceived as a feature of collective units and be aproached independent from the individuals. In other words, trust develops when the procedures with the aim of that persons, in social system, put eachothers under protection through symbolic representation, is carried out (Lewis ve Weigert, 1985: 968). On account of the fact that the trust topic is approached from different standpoints by the social scientists, there isn‘t any specipic definition of trust, agreed in general. Researchers adressed the trust considering quite a few factors and devoloped quite few different definitions. As a conclusion, it is stated that they let the trust topic remain 764 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo undefined, claiming the diffuculty of its definition because of being in some studies different approachs, related with the trust topic some researchs (Küskü, 1999). However, on the definitions being reviewed, there develops a common consensus across the researchers that the trust has an important place in the arrangement of the organizational activities and in teamworks, leadership, adoption a course of action, performance management and often colloborative attitudes. (Elangovan and Shapiro, 1998:547). Trust is a relation based on confidence, as well (Erdem, 2003:156). The trust in individual relations and also in individual‘s relations with the company and in the company‘s relations with individual is equally important. Since the trust, which is the base item of social capital, is an important factor to maintain the relationship. Any company cannot reach its aims without trust. Furthermore, one of the environments, in which the human relations, interaction and collaboration are common, is the organizational lifes. The base reason is trust issue. Why the people are not open to the cooperation in some companies or why they insist in the all changes in the practices being open or not, are related with the humane features of the company rather than its structural or technical features. While the apparent economical, social or political reasons of the crisis encountered is actually the results of the trust issue, the story of the successful companies is being real through the features such as the trust in the company, in the managers, and in the organizational vision. (Erdem, 2003: 154-155). Lewicki and Bunker (1996) stated through the definitions of trust that there be three situations to provide a trust based relation. These are: a. the uncertainty and konflikts related with the future, b. the decisions and results related with the future being dependent on the attitudes of the others, c. the possibility of the potential loss‘s being more than the possibility of the positive and advantageous conditions. The researchs related with the trust have focused on basically three fields as interpersonal trust, trust in manager and top manager. There is less importance to the trust in company. (Tan and Tan, 2000) The organizational trust can be defined as an effort of one person or the people, included in group, to act the another person or the group in good faith accordingly to express warranty or not express warranty. It has a role in the trust of not taking any advantage of another person, even if there is any opportunity in predetermined contracts. (Cummings and Bromiley, 1996). According to Lewicki et al., organizational trust is both the individual‘s being sure even in the stuations that are risky, about the procedures and policies that affect the company itself, and individual‘s supporting these. (1998). Although there is quite a few definition of organizational trust, confidence and willingness are the key words which are common in all definitions. The most important discrimination of the organizational trust topic is of the trust in the individual and the company. (Blomqvist et al. , 2003). A lot of writers and researchers separate the trust topic of the individual from the company.(Nyhan and Marlowe, 1997; Tan and Tan, 2000). The workers in the company trust the others in the compnay ( to colleagues and managers) and the organization at a different level.(Nyhan and Marlowe, 1997). The trust in the company develops both at a level of individual and at a level of the company. However, the trust in the individual and the trust in the company is different notions from the each others .(Doney and Cannon, 1997, Zaheer et al. , 1998; Blomqvist et al, 2003). Therefore the notion of the trust in the individual and in the company and the trust which concur with these, have developed. (Polat, 2007:35) Costs and losses, encountered on reaching at common aims, can be reduced to the lowest level through the trust medium that will be provided and the uncertainties related with the futures of the company can be reduced, as well (AteĢ, 2004). In this way, the trust is an important factor to keep companies more and also it helps the companies to extend their visions (Rosen,1998). Moreover, the trust medium has a lot of advantage in the compnay. The trust medium has an important role in being open to improvement, qualitative communication and organizational efficiency (Tschannen-Moran, 2001). The trust between the workers and the employers, the company and the participants in a company, is one of the determiners of providing productivity, efficiency and of reaching the aims. There will be certainly deficiencies of reaching the aims in the company (Yücel and Samancı, 2009:117-118). Gender Apartheid The discrimination is the people‘ being subject to the disrimination due to the reasons such as the gender, the laguage, the religion, the race or the ethnic origin. This discrimination means that when taking somebody on, paying sallary, accepting them to the school or allowing them take advantage of various opportunities, the practices against the individuals are carried out according to the stated factors (Demir and Acar, 2002:54). Although the based-gender discrimination has not any effect of the work‘s carried out in terms of working life, the women‘ being excluded from the working life due to their gender and consequently, the satisfaction level‘s 765 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and income‘s being distributed between the men can be defined as and the processed , in ,education , the department of work, payment not in terms of the business which the women and the men carried on, but in terms of the base of the gender ( Kasımoglu and Halıcı, 2000: 374; Demir, 2002). The based- gender discrimination can be defined in a way that that the women lack the basic needs in the society , they have unequal conditions compared to men, they are exposed to violence , and they are represented rarely in politics and the work life . The based-gender discrimination develops through the unequal power distribution in the relations between the men and the women. The unequality of the power distribution between the men and the women brings about the gender apartheid (www.undp.org,2009) . Bringing forward its gender or its gender-specific feature as a reason, to avoid from taking somebody on, to apply different working conditions, to pay different sallaries are regarded as the gender apartheid. (Hoffman and Everett, 2005). The women who are subjected to the dicrimination before joining in the business world and also after taking place in, cause distribution of roles, unequality of education level, the women oriented prejudices and attitudes, discriminatory practices before joining in the business world. After taking place in the business world, the woman, a member of the immediate family, spend less time on housework. The results of this stituation affect her business life and additionally, the social pressure to which they are subjected and the obstacles increase through the dicriminatory behaviours of her employers and workmates. The most important sign of the gender apartheid is that the duties are divided as the women-work and the men-work. It is clear that the common practices, the traditional value judegement and the choices of women cause this phonemon (Çiçek, 2000:14). Due to the general prejuces, the women work mostly gaining less in the fields such as office, houseworks, agriculture. The discrimination notion comprises of the direct and indirect discrimination. Furthermore, the women are preferred less compared to single women in both two discrimination types in terms of their being married or mother. It is the direct discrimination that the individuals are subjected to the disriminatory practices in parallel with their features such as the gender, the race, the ethnic origin in the phase of their acceptance for the job, their promotion and their performance evaluation. The direct discrimination means that person or the group is discriminated from the others due to the gender, the race and disability. (Stredwick, 2000:66). ın this wayi it is clear that there is the direct discrimination between the genders. (www.uknetguide.co.uk, 2010). There are following examples for this stiuation ; • the applications of the man is preferred in an ad which is to meet the lack of personnel, • a difference in payment in favor of the men, • the women‘s being fired because of their pregnance, • the women‘s being fired due to their asking permission for their children, • the women‘s being subject to the sexual disturbance Indirect discrimination appear on the situations that the employer behaves same to all workers apparently, however, the workers are subjected to more negative behaviours due to their features. Although these negative behaviours seems as if they were objective, these are aimed at the people that have a set features with gender, race, age, in practice (Stredwick, 2000: 66). There are some examples of the direct discrimination; • The mothers‘ not being prefered on taking somebody on. • The working women‘s being as part-time workers on the top of the list of the companies to fire , • Single women‘s being assigned showing reason of the quality of the job.( especially in jobs includes business trips (www.eoc.org.uk2010) The perception of discrimination brings about quite a few adverse outcomes from the point of the emloyees. The adverse outcomes such as the sense of mistrust, motivation and underperformance, decrease in bondage are of the unintended consequences from the point of the company, as well. The Purpose of The Study and Its Importance When it is considered that human is so important for the companies, we can see inevitably that it is so important to increase the productivity that individuals trust the company, in which they work, their managers and the other employees. The organizational trust factor will be reviewed from the point of the gender apartheid through this 766 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo claim and also it will be analyzed, which factors is effective on providing a trust atmosphare and if these factors changes according to genders , or not. The Concept of Experiment and Its Process This research is carried out making a quastainnare to 90 persons, working in service industry in sakarya. So researchers have applied qualitative methods. In this research they make use of SPSS statistical program. The survey, applied in the research, aimed at defining the relation between the based-gender discrimination and organizational trust , comprises of three parts. First part of the survey includes 10 questions that measure the based- gender discrimination, second part includes 13 questions aimed at measuring organizatonal trust and the last part of the survey includes 5 questions aimed at defining demographic features of the employees. The Limitations of The Experiment It is one of the most important limitations of the experiment that the field of the experiment includes only one company and as a result of this situation, the relatability and the generability property of the sample is not sufficient. It numbers also the analiysis that the concept of the research is limited. The other limitation of the research is the way of the process. The researchers apply survey method to acquire datas of the research. It is supposed that participants answer correctly when answering surver questions, however, to be applied the survey method as a process can cause them not to research extensively and not to notice the details which maynot appear on survey method. The Questions of The Study 1: Does the sense of the gender apartheid from the point of women and men make a diffenrence? 2: Does the sense of the trust differ according to gender? 3: Does the based-gender discrimination differ according to educational background? 4: Does the based-gender discrimination differ according to maritial status? 5: What is the gender apartheid perception of the company in which the research is carried out? 6: What is the trust perception of the company in which the study is carried out? 7: How does the perception of trust affect the gender apartheid? Findings The Demographic Characters of The Employee Having Participated In This Study %45 of the participative employee in reseach comprises of the women, and its %55 includes the men. %44.8 of the participants from the employees between 25- 30 age , its %36.2 from the employees 31-36 age, and its %19 from the employees being at 36 and the olders are choosed. %34,2 of the sample comprises of high- school graduates, its %40.5 includes university graduates and its %8.9 comprises of people graduated from primary school. %65 of the sample comprises of married workers and its %35 comprises of single workers. %46,8 of the participants includes the workers having worked 0-5 years, its %22,1 the workers having worked 6-10 years and its %31.2 comprises of the employee having worked 10 years or more.. The Analysis Related With The Variables In The Study ANOVA The perception of gender Sum of squares Degree of freedom Average of squares F P 0,666722783 1 0,67 2,13 0,15 In-group 24,46352413 78 0,31 Total 25,13024691 79 Among groups the 767 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo As it is also understood from the table, because p=0,15>0,05 is the sense of gender apartheid differs according to gender. In the company, in which the research is carried out , the perception of gender apartheid doesn‘t differ from the point of women and men ANOVA The perception of trust Sum of squares Degree of freedom Average of sguares F P Among the groups 0,035505947 1 0,04 0,30 0,59 In-group 9,277807662 78 0,12 Total 9,313313609 79 As it is also understood from the table, because p=0,15>0,59 is , the perception of trust doesn‘t differ according to gender. All employees who are working in the same company, have same perception of the trust notion without any difference. All workers in the company have the same perception of the trust factor without any difference. ANOVA The perception of the gender apartheid Sum of squares Degree of freedom Average of squares F 0,582420443 3 0,19 0,61 0,61 In-group 23,96547767 75 0,32 Total 24,54789811 78 Among groups P the As understood from the table, since p=0,61>0,05 is , the sense of gender apartheid doesn‘t change according to education level. Furthermore, it is found that when the relation between the trust factor and the sex discrimination is studied , the level of the relation between these two variable is %13 (r:13) and the trust factor affects the perception of the discrimination %17. there is not any inmportant difference between these two parts in according to the results of the analyse to see whether the perception of the gender apartheid differs in terms of the marital status, or not.(sig=0.46>0.05) it can be said that trust factor‘s being provided in the company means that it helps to feel the gender apartheid less. It is concluded that the level of the trust perception is % 3,46, when compared to the trust perception in the company and the level of the gender apartheid perception is %3.01. Conclusion The self confidence and the trust in the other person is of the base conditions of success and well-being. If the level of workers‘ self confidence and trust in their managers and workmates becomes higher, it can be said that the productivity and efficiency will increase in the company, as well. The trust factor is prerequisite for providing to the adherence to the aims and the connection across the workers. The trust develops through the interindividual relations and organizational practices. The sense of the trust has a vital role to maintain the relationships. The trust notion has an variable feature, that can affect quite a few relations between the parties, such as the transmission of the datas , solution of of the problems, authorization and sharig the responsibilities and the aims. The high level trust sense brings about the loyalty in paralell with this. There must be participation of the all parts to provide the trust notion in the company.Not only the managers but also the workers have the responsibility in this respect. It can prevent the interpersonal discrimination that the people trust each others and believe that they will not be treated unjustly by the other person in companies. 768 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The distrustful mediums cause some interindividual based-gender discriminations to come about and become widespread. The trust medium in the company is important to prevent any the base-gender discrimination. The findings of this research show that if the trust perception is high, the perception of the gender apartheid is lower in this company. Furthermore, the trust perception of the man and women workers doesn‘t differ in the companies, in which the trust factor is prevalent. References Cummings, L. L. and Bromiley, P. (1996). The organizational trust inventory (OTI) Çiçek F., O. (2000). No women executives Women's World Magazine, (Number:8,May, p.14- 15) Demir, Ö. ve ACAR, M. (2002). Glossary of Social Sciences, Vadi Publications, 3.Print, Ankara, Kasımoglu M. and , Halıcı . (2000). A., Toward Human Resources Relating to Discrimination Scale Development, Erciyes University Press, 8.Ulusal Management and Organization Conference Proceedings Lewicki, R.J., McAllister, D.J., Bies, R.J., (1998). Trust and Distrust: New Relationships and Realities, Academy of Management Review. 23: 438-459. Lewis, J.D. and A. Weıgert, (1985). Trust as A Social Reality‖, Social Forces, Vol 63. Asunakutlu T. (2002), Elements for creating a trust, and organizational assessment, Mugla University Institute of Social Sciences Journal Issue, Number: 9 Wech, Barbara A. (2002). Trust Context, Effect on Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Supervisory Fairness, and Job Satisfaction Beyond the Influence of Leader-Member Exchange, Business & Society, Vol. 41 No. 3, September. Elangovan A.R. and Shapiro D.L. (1988). Betrayal of Trust in Organizations. Academy of Management Review, 23, vol.3 Erdem, F. (2003). Confidence in Social Sciences, Vadi Publications , Ankara Hoffman, S. and Everett, S.L. (2005), Women and The Economy: Family, Work and Pay. Pearson Addison Wesley. Mayer, R.C., J.H.,Davis, & F.D., Schooonman. (1995). An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust, Academy of Management Review, 20, 709-734. Polat, S. (2007). Secondary Teachers' Perceptions of Organizational Justice, Organizational Trust Relationship Between Levels of Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Unpublished PhD Thesis, City University Institute of Social Sciences. Stredwick, J. (2000). An Introduction to Human Resource Management, Bath Press, First Edition, Oxford, s.66. Yücel C. and Samancı G. Kalaycı (2009). Organizational Trust and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors, Firat University Journal of Social Sciences, Volume: 19, Issue 1, Page: 113-132, Elazığ―Gender Equality:Practise Note‖, (http://www.undp.org/policy/docs/policynotes/gender-9dec02.doc, (05.03.2009). 769 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 234 Title A name given to the resource An Experiment Aimed at Gender Apartheids Being Evaluated In Terms of The Trust Factor Author Author TAŞÇIOĞLU, Hümeyra Abstract A summary of the resource. The trust factor is an important topic for all companies. It is important especially in order to provide the loyalty of employee and high motivation. In that study being experimented the trust factors impacts on the gender apartheid in the companies, it is defined that the perception of gendern apartheid haven‘t developed in the companies having the trust factor and all employees have showed similar tendency , as well. It is concluded that the trust factor for the company is highly in company, having been done research. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/12c1452d7137914159c7eb96fd17ee3f.pdf 9e6575f056806b29069817a8e82e145a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Who Supports the Eu-Led Reforms for Democratization ın Turkey? Evidence from the Turkish University Youths Yusuf TEKĠN Police Academy, Ankara, Turkey yusuftekin@yahoo.com Muhsin KAR Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey mkar@cu.edu.tr Birol AKGÜN Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey bakgun@selcuk.edu.tr Hüseyin AĞIR K. Maras Sutcu Imam University, K.Maras, Turkey huseyinagir@ksu.edu.tr Bülent ÖZ Osmaniye Korkutata University, Osmaniye, Turkey ozb1@hotmail.com Abstract:It is generally argued that Turkey seems to be different geographically, culturally, politically and economically from the EU. Transformation of Turkey towards the Europe in these terms requires overcoming a broad range of the obstacles and maintaining reforms process without losing public support. This situation exposes the importance of internal dynamics in the accession process in terms of carrying out necessary reforms for the full membership. However, Turkey recently experienced an unprecedented reform process as a result of the synergy between external and internal factors, particularly the EU. This research tries to empirically examine the youth support for the EU-led reform process by utilizing a novel data set obtained from the questionnaire carried out in 26 different universities about 2000 students, during November and December 2009, in Turkey. The empirical findings show that partisanship, both political and religious attachments and national identity are the important factors which explain differences of individual support for the EU-led reform process for democratization in Turkey. Keywords: Democratization, Public Support, European Integration, Partisanship, Religious attachment, National Identity, Turkey. Introduction The integration of Turkey with the EU constitutes an interesting case for several reasons. It is generally argued that Turkey seems to be different geographically, culturally, politically and economically from the EU. Transformation of Turkey towards the Europe in these terms requires overcoming a broad range of the obstacles, changes and maintaining reforms process without losing public support. In other words, the Turkish governments, on the one hand, try to fulfill the EU accession conditionality and, on the other hand, they face with an increasing opposition from the status quo or various segment of the society. This dichotomy exposes the importance of internal dynamics in the accession process in terms of carrying out necessary reforms for the full membership. However, Turkey recently experienced a rapid transformation as a result of the synergy between external and internal factors. The EU particularly has played an anchor role in this period. Especially, Turkey has carried out important political reforms to democratize the political structure after acceptance of an official candidate at the Helsinki summit in 1999. In addition, as the newly elected government in 2002 forced 347 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo aggressively for a date for the start of membership negotiations, it demonstrated an unprecedented performance in both the economic and political realms. However, it is argued that the dynamism of the reform was replaced by the stagnation in the recent years, starting roughly after Turkey secured the launch of the accession process in 2005. Confronted with the opposition and demands of increasingly irritating nationalist voices in the country, as well as adverse international conditions, the ruling AK Party lost the momentum of its reformist path, also leading to a stalemate in Turkish-EU relations. As far as the dynamics of reform process is concerned, one of the important questions is whether there was/has been a sufficient motivation for both reforms in the past and potential transformation in future within the Turkish public and civil society. Although there is a limited literature on why Turkish decision makers are pursuing integration with the Europe (McLaren and Müftüler-Baç, 2003) and why the Turkish citizens would vote for Turkey‘s accession to the EU in a possible membership referendum (Çarkoğlu, 2003; Kentmen, 2008), existing research on the EU-Turkey interactions lacks empirical analyses of whether and to what extent Turkish people support to the reform process in Turkey. In order to sustain the reforms, the public support is well needed for further reforms in the future in Turkey. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to investigate the determinants of individual support for the EU-led reforms on democratization in Turkey. In particular, this research tries to empirically examine the youth support for the EU-led reform process by utilizing a novel data set obtained from the questionnaire carried out in 26 different universities about 2000 students, during November and December 2009, in Turkey. The EU-led Reform Process in Turkey The ruling elite have long seen the economic and political integration into Europe a cherished goal for Turkey. However, Turkey‘s integration process reveals unprecedented challenges and opportunities for both sides in terms of economic and political gains. In particular, Turkey would differentiate from the previous enlargements in the context of its population, size, geographical location, economic, security and military potential, as well as cultural and religious characteristics. These features make Turkey special and interesting not only for the EU but also for researchers in many fields in the social sciences. This subject is still undoubtedly one of the Turkey‘s most important foreign policy problems and also an extremely powerful domestic issue as well. Turkey has been a member in many organizations in the Western Europe since the post war period (the Council of Europe in 1949, the European Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in 1954, the NATO in 1952, the Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1975). Turkey was officially recognized as a candidate for the European Union in Helsinki in 1999, given a date for the beginning of the accession negotiations in December 2004 at which this meeting decided to start the negotiations in October 2005. The negotiations for full membership came four decades after the Ankara Agreement signed between Turkey and the EEC in 1963. In addition, Turkey signed a Customs Union Agreement with the EU in 1995. This brief history states that Turkey qualifies as the longest standing associate partner of the EU. Although the Ankara Agreement was one of the critical turning in Turkey‘s relations with Europe in 1963, this relationship has not followed a smooth process. In particular, this relationship was interrupted by the intervention of the military into the politics in 1980. The EU proved to be an extremely active and vocal source of criticism of the military regime at a time when the US was relatively passive and indifferent actor for strategic and geopolitical objectives (ÖniĢ, 1999b:128). The EU‘s constant pressure clearly was very crucial and encouraged Turkey‘s early transition to democracy in 1983 and the relations were finally normalized in 1986. Turkey surprisingly made an application for membership in 1987 and was rejected mostly on economic grounds. The Commission‘s advisory report at that time makes a very short reference to the poor democracy in Turkey. However gross violations of human rights in Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s overshadowed the normalized relations. The European Parliament played a leading role to draw the attention of the European states and public to the situation of minorities in Turkey, large limitations over political and civil rights, the fate of political prisoners, disappearances and anonymous killings (Dağı, 2001). In particular, the European Parliament declared in 1995, it would vote against the custom union on the grounds of gross human rights in Turkey and this caused the Turkish government to make certain democratic reforms immediately. However, developments after the agreement for the Customs Union with the EU showed that this agreement per se failed to provide an appropriate mix of conditions and incentives to induce a major transformation in domestic politics and economy in Turkey (ÖniĢ, 2003:9). The declaration of the Copenhagen criteria in 1993 opened a new era both in the EU history of enlargement and in Turkey. These criteria indicated that the membership was not only an issue of economic or political integration, but also an integration of democratic values and norms that are usually immaterial and intangible. Due to the terrorist movement in the southern Turkey, security was prioritized and the Turkish government was not ready for such a change and did not prepare a serious plan for democratization which was constantly postponed (Erdogan, 2006). In addition, Turkey‘s relations with the EU had its worst moment in 1997 348 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo at the Luxemburg summit which did not give Turkey as a candidacy status for full membership. This decision created a reaction in the Turkish side which decided to reject all conditions and not to discuss any issue with the EU. Turkey had to wait until the acceptance of an official candidate in 1999 at the Helsinki summit with the same conditions as the other candidates. This candidacy status represented a fundamental turning point in Turkey-EU relations and triggered the democratization in Turkey. Although significant constitutional and legal reforms have been adopted under the influence of the globalization of democratic norms and the encouraging effect of the prospect of the EU membership to strengthen and deepen the democratic values in Turkey ever since 1983, they are not sufficient to complete the transformation of its political system into a liberal or consolidated democracy. In particular, the 1995, 1999, 2001 and 2004 reforms are more important in terms of democratization and liberalization and modified the authoritarian nature of the 1982 constitution (Yazıcı, 2004; Özbudun, 2007). The authoritarian legacy was eliminated not only by these constitutional reforms, but also by several legal reforms, called as ‗harmonization packages‘, which adopted between February 2002 and August 2003. These packages enlarged the scope of certain fundamental rights and liberties such as the freedom of thought, freedom of expression, freedom of press, freedom of association (Yazıcı, 2004:99). In addition, role of the military over the politics substantially reduced by amending the structure of the National Security Council (NSC) which is a decision-making in the course of last two decades. Clearly, a change of this magnitude would have been impossible in the absence of a powerful and highly institutionalized EU anchor in the direction of full membership (ÖniĢ, 2003:13). It is generally argued that the dynamism of this first democratization period was replaced by the stagnation after Turkey secured the launch of the accession process in 2005. Confronted with the opposition and demands of increasingly irritating nationalist voices in the country, as well as adverse international conditions, the ruling AK Party lost the momentum of its reformist path, also leading to a stalemate in Turkish-EU relations. In particular, nature of the negotiation as being ‗open-ended‘, uncertainty about the future of the negotiations, existence of explicit opposition of some member states (i.e. France, Austria and to some extent Germany), internal opposition from the political parties, hard line Republicans and Nationalists and the government‘s reform fatigue seems to slow down the reform process. At this point, it is very important who has supported /supports the EU-led reform process in Turkey, since it is very difficult to continue this process without the internal support. Source of Public Support for the EU-led Reform Process There is a large literature to examine the differences among the public on the support for the EU integration. Several previous studies have identified systematic differences in individual-level support for integration related to partisanship (Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Franklin, Marsh, and McLaren, 1994; Franklin, Marsh, Wlezien, 1994; Franklin, Van der Eijk, and Marsh, 1995; Cichowski, 2000, Tverdova and Anderson, 2004), age, gender (Carey, 2002), income (Anderson and Reichert, 1996; Gabel and Palmer, 1995; Gabel, 1998; Gabel and Whitten, 1997), occupation (McLaren, 2004; Venables, 2003; Jolly and Brinegar, 2003; Hooghe and Marks, 2004; Kentmen, 2008), cognitive skills (Inglehart, 1970a; Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Janssen, 1991), political values (Inglehart, 1970b, 1990; Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Anderson and Reichert, 1996), support for government (Franklin, Marsh, and McLaren, 1994; Franklin, Marsh, Wlezien, 1994; Tanasoiu and Colonescu, 2008), identity (Smith, 1992; Carey, 2002; Hooghe and Marks, 2004; Kentmen, 2008) and religious attachment (Nelsen et al., 2001; Çarkoğlu, 2003; Nelsen and Guth, 2003, Kentmen, 2008) Based on this vast literature, this paper tries to empirically investigate the support for the EU-led reform process in terms of partisanship and political self-description (ideology), religious attachment and national identity in Turkey. Partisanship and Political Attachment With the establishment of the Republic in 1923, the founders of the State clearly stated declared that their objectives were to catch up with and become part of ―contemporary civilization‖ which constituted the fundamentals of the Turkish modernization. The Turkish modernization effort in nature was elite and state driven and these bureaucratic elite controlled the course for the development (Mehmet, 1983:57; ÖniĢ, 1999; Barkey, 2000:88-90). The main characteristic of the Turkish modernization as argued by Black (1967) is that socio-economic developments were formed by this political elite whom play a central role in almost all affairs in a manner of traditional strong state which has acting capacity almost completely independent from civil society (Heper, 1985). Based on this background, a close relationship with the West and especially with the European integration has always been one of the important foreign policy objectives for Turkey. With the full membership perspective for Turkey in the early 2000, Turkey has experienced an increasing reform process and the EU has 349 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo played as an important external anchor in Turkey. The public support for the reform is very essential to push the democratization further. Inglehart, Rabier and Reif (1991:152) put it that the EU represents a vehicle for social, political, and economic reforms. However, every segment of the public may not be affected equally and in the same way by these reforms and therefore while the winners in this process may support the reforms, the losers may oppose the new reforms. In a democratic society, the power of the public is very important and, citizens may halt the reform process by withdrawing their support. Following the literature on the link between partisanship, political attachment and support for the EU integration (Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Franklin, Marsh, and McLaren, 1994; Franklin, Marsh, Wlezien, 1994; Franklin, Van der Eijk, and Marsh, 1995; Cichowski, 2000, Tverdova and Anderson, 2004), this paper proposes that citizens adopt attitudes toward the reform process that reflect the position of the party they support. In other words, the party shapes its supporters' attitudes toward reform independent of their personal characteristics (e.g., occupation, income, and values) that might influence both their choice of party and support for integration. In addition, when the public make up their decision on something that there is not enough knowledge about it, they look at the behavior of the political figures (leaders) or political institutions (parties) they support or vote for. In addition, as Inglehart (1970b, 1990) posited that support for European integration, and therefore for the reform process in Turkey, is associated with value orientations regarding economic and political issues (Gabel 1998). According to the theory, citizens' political behaviors are structured by the socioeconomic conditions surrounding their formative, or preadult, years. These conditions are expected to shape certain values and attitudes that tend to persist over an adult's lifetime. To this end, political attachment of citizens in terms of self-description (social democrat, Turkish nationalist, democrat, Islamist, nationalist (ulusalcı) and Atatürkist (Atatürkçü) etc.) may explain variation in individual attitudes toward the reform process. In Turkey, the harmonization packages changed the military backed 1982 Constitution in the 2000s are more associated with the human rights, freedom of expression, democratic standards. It can be argued that these reforms are directly related with not only the physical security (materialist value) but also intellectual fulfillment and self-actualization (post-materialistic value). Consequently, one might expect that political attachment with the materialist and post-materialist values in terms of political self-description may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform process. In other words, those who support a less nationalistic and a more egalitarian society would be more likely to be supportive for the reform process. Along the conventional leftright ideological divide those who consider themselves to be leftists are significantly more inclined to support the EU-led reforms. Specifically, individuals identifying with conservative parties are found to be more supportive of membership than left-oriented respondents (Shepherd 1975; Inglehart, Rabier & Reif 1991) As far as the attitudes of the main political parties in Turkey toward the EU are concerned, the Republican People Party (RPP) as a founder of the Republic is generally accepted to support the EU membership on the basis of the legacy of Kemalism, westernization, from the beginning (Ahmad, 1993; Özdemir, 2008). The RPP as an opposition party was usually positive in the reform process in 2000s and support the EU Harmonization Packages. Recently, the RPP has been very critical to go further reform on democratization in terms of solution for the Kurdish issue. Therefore the reluctance of the RPP is characterized to be a soft euroskepticism and to resist to reform process (Verney, 2007). ÖniĢ (2007) argues that a conservative, religious based party may play structurally a limited role in promoting Europeanization agenda and highlights the need of a major European-style social democratic party which promotes domestically democratization and supports Turkey‘s bid for full membership externally through the European social democrat parties. The National Action Party (NAP) as a Turkish nationalist party is generally against the reform process, although first two important harmonization packages passed the Parliament during a coalition government including itself. The NAP is against the democratization on the grounds that the reform process may encourage the separatist feelings and actions in the southeast of Turkey and would split the country in two separate entities. The Justice and Development Party (JDP) coming from a pro-Islamic political tradition, namely the National Outlook Movement (Milli GörüĢ Hareketi) (National Order Party (Milli Nizam Partisi) in the late 1960s, National Salvation Party in the 1970s, Welfare Party (WP) (Refah Partisi) from the early 1980s to 1997, Virtue Party (VP) (Fazilet Partisi) from 1997 to 199 and currently Felicity Party (Saadet Partisi)), established, after the closure of the Virtue Party, by ―the reformers‖ of this party in 2002 (Dağı, 2005; Toprak, 2005) and has been ruling the country for the last 8 years (2002-?). The JDP puts forward pro-western external relations in economic and political terms, aimed at being a full member of the EU at the end and has been very enthusiastic for the democratization in Turkey. The JDP‘s impressive politics of reform paved the way to EU accession negotiations and furthered the democratization of Turkey (Karakas, 2007). In particular, after the Copenhagen Summit in 2002 stated that if Turkey meets the Copenhagen Political Criteria until the EU Summit in December 2004, the accession negotiations will start ―without delay‖. Therefore, the JDP started a wave of reform period by amending the constitution and other legal documents to meet the Copenhagen Political Criteria. 350 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The ruling JDP‘s enthusiastic efforts for Turkey‘s EU membership, in contrast to the hesitations of the Kemalists, is indicative of the changing positions of political forces in Turkish politics. As the Kemalists seemed to have abandoned the idea and ideal of westernization, the Islamists have moved towards advocating further westernization, which entails deeper democracy, broader human rights, closer integration with the EU and a lesser (Kemalist) state (Dağı, 2005). Verney (2007) argues that the moderate Islamists of the JDP have become the most vigorous elements of the globalizing pro-reform coalition, being transformed in the process into selfprocessed ‗Muslim democrats‘. With the entrance of the JDP to the political arena, the Turkish politics cannot be evaluated in the traditional left-right axis. While the JDP pushes for reform, the RPP resists to it. Normally it is expected that reluctance of the RPP as agent for westernization for a long time and central left for asking further democratization is not well understood in Turkey. Therefore, in order to emphasize the complexity in the political arena, ÖniĢ (2007) states that the political struggle currently goes on between ‗conservative globalists‘, promoting the domestic reform process, and ‗defensive nationalists‘, resisting it. Many of the secular elites which have traditionally supported Westernization, including the military, are uncomfortable with the political reforms promoted through EU conditionality. There is also a shift on the attitudes of the Felicity Party (FP) toward the EU. In the past, Coming from the National Outlook Movement tradition, the parties (the WP and the VP) before the FP was against the EU and openly declared this discourse in the 1980s and 1990s. The 28 February Process seems to be an important element and has resulted in a change in the attitudes of the party towards the EU (Taniyici, 2003). Since then the FP emphasizes the democratic principles and human rights and seems to be in favor of the EU membership. It is expected that the supporters of the FP would approve the EU-led reform process. On the other hand, the Democratic Society Party (DSP) as a Kurdish nationalist party (banned by the constitutional court and re-structured under the Peace and Democracy Party recently) pushed for further reform in terms of minority rights, cultural right, asking the military to stop the military actions against the Kurdish separatist in the southeast of Turkey. The DSP was supportive in the Parliament in these harmonization packages. Based upon these ideological backgrounds and political practices, one might argue that the central left (RPP) and central right (JDP) parties, in addition to the pro-Kurdish one (DSP), favor for reform which proposes further democratization in the country. On the other hand, the Turkish nationalist party (NAP) is against for the reform process. Following this discussion, it is claimed that: H1: The supporters of the mainstream political parties (central-left and central-right) are more likely to be in favor of the EU-led reforms. H2: The supporters of the Kurdish nationalist party are more likely to be in favor of the EU-led reforms. H3: The supporters of the Turkish nationalist party are more likely to be skeptical about the EU-led reforms. H4: Type of political attachment (ideological self-description) may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform process. Religious Attachment Recently, there is a growing literature whether social norms and religious beliefs are predictors of individual opinion about European integration. In order to evaluate complex and relatively new social issues, individual attachment to a religion might be very important. In particular, Seul (1999) argues that religious beliefs may have implications for evaluating political and social life and therefore may propose specific rules to provide sense stability for individuals in a changing world. New and relatively unknown developments in the social, economic and political areas may bring about insecurity and ambiguity for the future and may result in resistance for these new formations. The topic is covered in the researches whether a Protestant or a Catholic behaves differently towards the European integration (Hagevi, 2002; Nelsen and Guth, 2003; Nelsen et al., 2001; Vollaard, 2006). In addition, this literature emphasizes that the degree of attachment to religious norms and values might be matter. In particular, the effect of religion on the behaviors may change with the religiosity of the individual (Nelsen et al., 2001; Nelsen and Guth, 2003, Kentmen, 2008) However empirical research on how Islamic beliefs shape attitudes toward the EU is very limited (Çarkoğlu, 2003; Kentmen, 2008). A popular perception is that Islamist fundamentalists disapprove of Western values and the West‘s cultural, political and economic hegemony. This link between Islam and the West has long been one of the hotly debated issues on two grounds (Kentmen, 2008). First one is about a popular perception on whether Islam is anti-western, following the attacks of 11 September 2001 (Dagi, 2005). If this argument is valid, alienation of Muslim from Europe would lead Muslim individuals with strong religious beliefs to be less supportive for the EU. In this case, Muslims are more likely to be reluctant for supporting main principles of the western ideals. Second one is whether the religiosity plays any role in supporting the Western ideas. To what extent, greater attachment to Islamic norms and values may influence the individual approaches toward the West. 351 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In order to truly evaluate Turkish Islamic attitudes towards the West, one should go back to the period of Ottoman Empire. Especially when the Empire lagged behind the West in terms of political and economic developments and technological achievements, some Islamic elites mainly directed their criticism to the West and did not look for the roots of the collapse in the Empire. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, many Islamists continued to criticize Western influences because they believed that the secular reforms achieved by the Turkish Republic had originated in the West and therefore did not have any place in Islamic teaching (Kentmen, 2008). The Islamic elite in the 1970s and the 1980s generally saw the European Community as a Christian Club, further secularism, and new form of westernization and opposed to Turkey‘s attempt to join in it (Canefe and Bora, 2003). This perception radically changed after indirect military intervention into the politics in 1997, known as ―the 28 February Process‖. This intervention was the result of accepting the political Islam as a threat to the Republic and tried to control ―all forms of Islamist expression in the public sphere‖ (Dağı, 2004:138). This move from the secular forces of the Republic increased the fear among the Islamic elite who evaluate that a more radical and oppressive form of implementation of secularism is unbearable. As a result, many Islamists have become supporters of ‗Western ideals‘ and loud advocates of Western values such as liberalism, democracy, freedom of thought and freedom of religion in recent years as a response to state control over religious expression in Turkey (Dağı, 2004). Canefe and Uğur (2004) specifically revealed that compared with the past, the state elite had become relatively cautious about accession, whereas antiestablishment groups, such as Islamists and ethnic minorities, had become more supportive in Turkey. Given this very brief historical background, it seems plausible to expect many Muslim individuals in Turkey at the present time to have a positive view of the EU, which is seen as promoting and guaranteeing liberal rights (Kentmen, 2008). Following this discussion, it is claimed that: H5: Level of attachment to religion may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the EU-led reforms. H6: Level of attachment to Islam may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the EU-led reforms. National Identity Recently there is a growing literature which points to national identity as an important explanation of (lack of) support for European integration (Carey 2002, Marks and Hooghe 2003, Hooghe and Marks 2004, Netjes and Edwards 2004). The discussion on identity draws on psychology of group membership to consider how national identity affects support for European integration (De Vries and van Kersbergen, 2007). Urry (2000) argues that individuals rely on their national identity to frame their needs and to differentiate themselves from others. The literature developed by Smith (1992), Shore (1993), Christin and Trechsel (2002) and Hooghe and Marks (2005) emphasizes that individuals who have strong attachments to their national identity might perceive the integration of member states as a threat causing to lose their national identity, because it dissolves the differences among the national communities. Carey (2002:393) highlights that individuals may prefer the ―protection of the in-group (the nation), and the group identity at stake, from the out-group (the EU)‖. However Hooghe and Marks (2004) points to the multi-layered and flexible nature of social identity and suggest that some individual can prefer two identities (national and European identities) simultaneously. This preference imply that these individuals do not see their national identity as their only reference point and are happy with weakening of national identity in the process of the unification (Kentmen, 2008). At this point, Marks and Hooghe (2003) make an important classification which argues that one needs to distinguish between several types of national identity, by evaluating the extent to which national identity is exclusive or inclusive. Individuals who consider their national identity as exclusive will see supranational governance as a threat, whereas those with multiple identities will be favorably disposed to governance beyond the nation-state (Kentmen, 2008). As far as empirical research on this issue is concerned, the link between national identity and support for the European integration is ambiguous. On the one hand, Marks (1999) and Haesly (2001) argue that national identity is consistent with European identity and support for European integration and, on the other hand, Carey (2002) and Ketmen (2008) reveal that attachment to national identity have a significant negative impact on support for European integration. In other words, the literature states that individuals who attach themselves more closely with their nation than with the EU to be less supportive of European unification (Hooghe and Marks, 2004).Based on the discussion above, one might argue that there is a direct link between national identity and support for the EU-led reforms. As far as the political discussion recently taking place in Turkey on further democratization is concerned, especially the Turkish nationalist considers that democratization in the way to the EU membership and attempts to build the unity and peace in the country may result in breaking away of Turkey. Following this discussion, it is claimed that: 352 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo H7: Level of attachment to national identity may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the EU-led reforms. Empirical Analysis Data In order to test the hypotheses about the micro-level determinants of support for the EU, a novel data set, collected through the questionnaires which were applied to 2047 university youths in 26 universities in November and December 2009 throughout Turkey, is utilized. Distribution of the universities in 7 regions is as follows: Ġstanbul, Uludağ (Bursa), Kocaeli and Beykent Universities in the Marmara Region; Dokuz Eylül University (Ġzmir), Ġzmir Economics and Ege Universities in the Agean Region; Akdeniz Bölgesinden Akdeniz (Antalya), Çukurova (Adana) and KahramanmaraĢ Sütçü Ġmam Universities in the Mediteranean Region; Selçuk (Konya), Ankara, Erciyes (Akyseri) and Afyon Kocatepe Universities in the Central Anatolia Region; Zonguldak Karaelmas, Ondokuz Mayıs (Samsun), GaziosmanpaĢa (Tokat) ve Karadeniz Teknik Universities in the Black Sea Region; Kafkas (Kars), Ġnönü (Malatya), Atatürk (Erzurum) and Van Yüzüncü Yıl Universities in the East Anatolia Region and Dicle (Diyarbakır), Fırat (Elazığ), Gaziantep and Harran (ġanlıurfa) Universities in the South East Anatolia Region. Distribution of the student in each university is presented in the Appendix A. Initially, the base line date for the registered student in each university is obtained from the Educational Statistics of the Higher Educational Council of Turkey. The number of target student for the questionnaire in each university is determined by weighing the registered students in each university. During the application of the questionnaire to target students, the number of students in each department in each faculty in each university and gender are carefully designed to get random information to represent the full sample, the university youths. The distribution of the sample in terms of gender is 52,6 percent man and %47,4 percent female. The logistic regression is employed in the empirical analysis. The use logistic regression is commonly utilized statistical tool for the analysis which uses the binary dependent variable (approval or disapproval of the EU-led reforms in Turkey). Logistic regression results provide probabilities that an individual will support for the EU-led reforms, given a certain combination of values on the independent variables. It proves to be a useful tool as it allows us to differentiate between groups of respondents and compare the likelihoods that they will support for the EU-led reforms. Operationalization of Variables Support for the EU-led reforms, the dependent variable is operationalized using the question: ―The reforms carried out in the framework of the EU membership in Turkey is necessary‖ The answer for this question is constructed in terms of a 5-item Likert- Scale (1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= undecided, 4== agree and 5= strongly agree). The final distribution of the dependent variable is 51,2 percent in favor (agree plus strongly agree) and 25,4 percent opposed (strongly disagree plus disagree) or 23,4 percent undecided as presented in Table 1. It is very interesting that about 23 percent of the student did not provide any information and stated as ―undecided‖. ―The reforms carried out in the framework of the EU membership in Turkey is necessary” Valid Missing Total strongly disagree disagree undecided agree strongly agree Total System Frequency 177 324 462 680 332 1975 72 2047 Percent 8,6 15,8 22,6 33,2 16,2 96,5 3,5 100,0 Valid Percent 9,0 16,4 23,4 34,4 16,8 100,0 Cumulative Percent 9,0 25,4 48,8 83,2 100,0 Table 1: Distribution of the Answers for the Necessity of Reforms For the purposes of this study, support for the EU-led reforms is operationalized as a binary variable, coded 1 when the respondent (agree plus strongly agree) believes in necessity of the reforms, and 0 when the respondent (strongly disagree plus disagree plus undecided) do not support the reforms or when s/he is undecided. This sort of coding has significant methodological advantages, in terms of larger sample size and more equal distribution, compared to a ‗clean‘ dichotomy of ‗in favor‘ and ‗against‘ answers (Ehin, 2001). Also, 353 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the theoretically interesting question is not what distinguishes firm supporters of reforms from firm opponents but what distinguishes firm supporters from everybody else (Ehin, 2001:43). The proposed hypotheses require the introduction of five concepts that need to be operationalized: Partisanship, political attachment (ideological self-description), religious attachment, Islamic attachment, national identity. Partisanship, the first set of the independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―If there is a general election tomorrow, which party would vote for?‖ The answer for this question constitutes of the mainstream political parties in Turkey. In addition, the respondent is free to write down any other party which is not in the answer. The JDP, the RPP, the NAP, the FP and the DSP denotes the Justice and Development Party, the Republican People Party, National Action Party, Felicity Party and Democratic Society Party (recently banned by the Constitutional Court and re-established currently under the Peace and Democracy Party). Distribution of possible vote for the political parties is presented in Table 2. The other parties are DP, Democrat Party; DLP, Democratic Left Party; GUP, Great Unity Party. These small parties are not included in the analysis. As can be seen from Table 2, the biggest party student would vote for is ―none of the established party‖. This information is very interesting and implies that the university youths are not happy with the existing parties. Five dummy variables for mainstream political parties (JDP, RPP, NAP, FP, DSP) are created. This dummy is obtained in the binary form, coded 1 when the respondent would vote one of the political parties and 0 when the respondent would vote for the other parties or when s/he is undecided. In addition, one more dummy as ―None‖ created as the same methodology to represent the biggest group who would not vote for ―none of the existing parties‖. If there is a general election tomorrow, which party would vote for? Valid Missing Total JDP RPP NAP FP DP DLP DSP GUP Other None Not Classified Total System Frequency 420 425 256 36 18 22 92 47 99 524 Percent 20,5 20,8 12,5 1,8 ,9 1,1 4,5 2,3 4,8 25,6 1966 81 2047 96,0 4,0 100,0 Valid Percent 21,4 21,6 13,0 1,8 ,9 1,1 4,7 2,4 5,0 26,7 1,4 100,0 Cumulative Percent 21,4 43,0 56,0 57,8 58,7 59,9 64,5 66,9 72,0 98,6 100,0 Table 2: Distribution of Possible Vote for the Political Parties Political attachment (ideological self-description), this independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―Which of the following identities commonly used in Turkey describes you best?‖ The answer for this question includes ―Turkish Nationalist, Atatürkist, Kemalist, Nationalist (Ulusalcı), Feminist, Social Democrat, Socialist/Marxist, Islamist, Other (please state:…..)‖. For the purpose of this study, five dummies for each mainstream self-description (Atatürkist, 27,9 percent; Turkish nationalist, 21,7 percent; Social democrat, 14,3 percent; nationalist (ulusalcı), 9,9 percent; Islamist, 7,8) is created in a binary form as coded 1 if the respondent describes himself as one of the above identities, and 0 if the respondent describes himself as the others of the above identities. Religious attachment, this independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―How would you define yourself in terms of your approach towards religion?‖ There is a ten-item scale in the questionnaire, and the answers 1 to 10 means that zero if the respondent is disinterested in religion in extreme case (atheist) and 10 if the respondent is interested in religion in the other extreme case (radical). Distribution of the students‘ answers is presented in Table 3. 354 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo How would you define yourself in terms of your approach towards religion? Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1,00 57 2,8 2,9 2,00 51 2,5 2,6 3,00 94 4,6 4,7 4,00 72 3,5 3,6 5,00 320 15,6 16,0 6,00 291 14,2 14,6 7,00 366 17,9 18,3 8,00 458 22,4 22,9 9,00 175 8,5 8,8 10,00 116 5,7 5,8 Total 2000 97,7 100,0 Missing System 47 2,3 Total 2047 100,0 Cumulative Percent 2,9 5,4 10,1 13,7 29,7 44,3 62,6 85,5 94,2 100,0 Table 3: Approaches of Students towards Religion As seen in Table 3, the answers are unevenly distributed and focus on 5-8 range. Two binary variables are created from these answers. First one is ―Moderately Religious‖, accounted for 48,9 percent, coded 1 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as 5-7, and 0 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as others. Second one is ―Religious‖, accounted for 22,9 percent, coded 1 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as 8, and 0 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as others. Islamic attachment, this variable is operationalized using the question: ―How would you describe yourself in terms of adherence to Islamic values?‖ There is a ten-item scale in the questionnaire, and the answers 1 to 10 means that zero if the respondent does not adhere to Islamic values at all and 10 if the respondent completely adheres to Islamic values. Distribution of the students‘ answers is presented in Table 4. How would you describe yourself in terms of adherence to Islamic values? Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1,00 54 2,6 2,7 2,00 66 3,2 3,3 3,00 93 4,5 4,6 4,00 79 3,9 3,9 5,00 270 13,2 13,5 6,00 257 12,6 12,8 7,00 345 16,9 17,2 8,00 442 21,6 22,1 9,00 212 10,4 10,6 10,00 183 8,9 9,1 Total 2001 97,8 100,0 Missing System 46 2,2 Total 2047 100,0 Cumulative Percent 2,7 6,0 10,6 14,6 28,1 40,9 58,2 80,3 90,9 100,0 Table 4: Adherence of Students to Islamic values National identity, this independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―How would you feel/define yourself whether you are European or not?‖ The answer for this question is ―European, European and Turkish, Turkish and European, Turkish, European and Other (please write down:…..), Other (please write down:…..) and European, Other (please write down:…….)‖. Distribution of the answers is presented in Table 5. As can be seen from Table 4, 56,6 percent of the students feel themselves as ―Turkish‖, 21,2 percent of them feel as ―Turkish and European‖ and 4,3 percent feels as ―European and Turkish‖ and 1,3 percent feel as ―Kurdish‖. As far as ―European and Other‖, ―Other and European‖ and ―Other‖ together account for 12,1 percent which might also include some Kurdish, albeit uncertain. Four binary dummies are structured from this information. ―European‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as European and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. ―European and Turkish‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as European and Turkish (simultaneously) and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other 355 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo identities. ―Turkish and European‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as Turkish and European (simultaneously) and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. ―Turkish‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as Turkish and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. ―Kurdish‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as Kurdish and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. How would you feel/define yourself whether you are European or not? Valid Missing Total European European and Turkish Turkish and European Turkish European and Other Other and European Other Kurdish Not Classified Total System Frequency 36 84 416 1110 20 43 174 25 Percent 1,8 4,1 20,3 54,2 1,0 2,1 8,5 1,2 1961 86 2047 95,8 4,2 100,0 Valid Percent 1,8 4,3 21,2 56,6 1,0 2,2 8,9 1,3 2,7 100,0 Cumulative Percent 1,8 6,1 27,3 83,9 85,0 87,1 96,0 97,3 100 Table 5: National Identity Other variables, Gender: 1 if the respondent is a man, and zero otherwise. Urban: 1 if parents of the respondent live in city center and zero otherwise. Residence: 1 if the respondent lives at least 3 months in any EU countries and zero otherwise. Statistical Findings The logistic regression is employed to empirically investigate the determinants of ―support for the EUled reforms‖ in the empirical analysis because the dependent variable is dichotomous and the results are presented in Table 6. In order to test the above proposed hypothesis, a model for each category is developed. In particular, Model I provides evidence how and to what extent the partisanship contributes to determine the support for the reform in Turkey. Model II deals with the issue whether the political attachment (self-description) is an important factor to explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform. Model III and IV look at the role of religion and the adherence to Islam whether they play any role in this issue respectively. Model V examines whether the national identity explains the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform. Model VI includes all the variables in the previous models (I-V). Finally Model VII shows the most important factors which contribute to explain the determinants of the EU-led reforms in Turkey. Table 1 show that the empirical findings are robust. In particular, Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test indicates that the utilized models in the analysis are well-fit with the data set at hand. In addition, the predicted powers of the estimated models are at statistically acceptable level. Model I reveals that whereas the supporters of the JDP and the DSP approve the EU-led reforms, those of both the NAP and the FP disapprove this process. Interestingly the coefficient for the RPP, albeit negative, is statistically insignificant. These findings show that supporters of the RPP as a mainstream party are skeptical about the reforms. Model II indicates that political attachment may be important to explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reforms. While those who describe themselves as Atatürkist are against the reforms, social democrats are in favor of the reforms. The self-description of the university students in terms of Turkish nationalist, Nationalist (Ulusalcı) and Islamist does not contribute to explain the variations in individual attitudes. Model III and IV provide evidence on the attachment to religion and adherence to Islam. The findings show that whereas attachment to religion has a statistically significant impact on the individual attitudes toward the reform, adherence to Islam does not indicate a significant influence on this issue. Model V examines the effect of national identity on the individual attitudes toward the reforms. The results indicate that while those who feel as European are in favor of reforms, those who feel as Turkish are against the reforms. 356 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Explanatory Variables Model I Model II Model III Model IV Model V JDP 0,57 (0,18)*** RPP -0,21 (0,17) NAP -0,76 (0,19)*** DSP 0,84 (0,30)*** FP -0,85 (0,38)** None -0,14 (0,17) Political Atatürkist -0,30 (0,14)** Attachment Turkish Nationalist -0,05 (0,15) Social Democrat 0,92 (0,18)*** Nationalist 0,14 (0,18) Islamist 0,14 (0,20) Religious Moderately Religious 0,26 (0,11)** Attachment Religious 0,36 (0,13)*** Islamic Moderately Muslim 0,06 (0,14) Attachment Devoted Muslim 0,08 (0,11) National European 0,75 (0,42)* identity European and Turkish 0,38 (0,27) Turkish and European 0,02 (0,16) Turkish -0,60 (0,13)*** Kurdish 0,69 (0,49) Other Residence 0,36 (0,25) 0,48 (0,26)* 0,37 (0,25) 0,37 (0,24) 0,20 (0,25) variables Urban 0,09 (0,09) 0,00 (0,09) 0,03 (0,09) 0,04 (0,09) 0,04 (0,09) Gender 0,50 (0,09)*** 0,45 (0,10)*** 0,51 (0,09)*** 0,52 (0,09)*** 0,47 (0,09)*** Constant -0,19 (0,16) -0,26 (0,14)* -0,44 (0,12)*** -0,27 (0,09)*** 0,09 (0,15) N 1851 1787 1877 1881 1866 Predicted Correctly (%) 62,4 57,3 56,7 56,8 59,2 Hosmer Lemeshow Test 8,15 9,64 2,46 1,57 1,59 2 Nagelkerke R 0,08 0,06 0,03 0,02 0,07 Note: Values in the parenthesis are the standard error. ***, ** and * denotes significance at 1, 5 and 10 percent level respectively. Partisanship Table 6. Results of Logistic Regression on Determinants of the Support for the EU-Led Reforms in Turkey 357 Model VI 0,62 (0,20)*** -0,06 (0,20) -0,6 (0,21)*** 0,39 (0,34) -0,53 (0,40) -0,08 (0,18) -0,08 (0,17) 0,25 (0,18) 0,75 (0,19)*** 0,16 (0,21) 0,004 (0,23) 0,23 (0,13)* 0,33 (0,16)** 0,13 (0,16) 0,02 (0,14) 0,85 (0,47)* 0,57 (0,30)* 0,20 (0,19) -0,36 (0,17)** 0,82 (0,59) 0,51 (0,27)* 0,05 (0,10) 0,46 (0,11)*** -0,50 (0,24)** 1712 63,1 6,89 0,14 Model VII 0,73 (0,14)*** -0,39 (0,15)** 0,78 (0,16)*** 0,28 (0,12)** 0,37 (0,14)*** 0,74 (0,45)* -0,57 (0,11)*** 0,50 (0,26)* 0,44 (0,10)*** -0,31 (0,13)** 1728 62,3 2,99 0,13 �In the econometrical analysis, adding the model may change the significance of the independent variables. Considering the multi-facet nature of the reform process, one should take into account these factors. Model VII provides an overall picture on this issue as a final model. In particular, statistical findings show that signs and significance of the variables for the NAP and Turkish (proxy for the national identity) states that supporters of the NAP and those who feel Turkish does not approve the reform process. On the other hand, the variables for the JDP, Social Democrat (proxy for the political attachment), both Moderately Religious and Religious (proxies for the religious attachment), European (proxy for the national identity), Residence (proxy for social learning) and Gender are positive and statistically significant. These findings show that these variables explain the variation in individual attitudes toward the reform. In particular, the supporters of the JDP, social democrats, religious people, feeling to be European, living in the member countries and finally man approve the EU-led reforms in Turkey. Interestingly while supporters of the RPP disapprove the reforms, the Social Democrats approve the reforms. Similarly the coefficients of the DSP (pro-Kurdish party) and Kurdish (as a national identity) are not significant in final model (VII). Conclusion It is usually argued among the academics and policy makers that the Turkey‘s EU perspective is very important because it plays as an external anchor to push further the democratization of the country. On the hand, reforms process for the democratization needs to be designed very carefully because the internal support are very vital for the sustainability of the reforms in every society. The approval of the reforms are especially very important for Turkey as a divided society in terms of secular and conservative, Turks and Kurds, center and periphery. Turkey has experiencing a reform process with the support and conditionality of the EU since 2000. The reforms for democratization show a cycle process which is very closely associated with the EU‘s perspectives for Turkey. In other words, when the EU send a clear signs for the possible full membership, democratization has increased in Turkey or vice versa. It is generally argued that reform process has been slowed especially after 2005 when Turkey got the negotiation for the full membership. One of the reasons might be the lack of support for further reform on democratization in Turkey because the recent reform attempts has started to exacerbate the decades-old political problems such as the Kurdish issue in the country. This paper, therefore, tries to examine the youth support for the EU-led reforms in Turkey. In order to test the possible source of the support for the EU-led reforms in Turkey, a novel data set is collected from the university students in Turkey and utilized by the logistic regression. The Empirical findings reveal that the partisanship, political attachment, religious attachment and national identity contribute to explanation of the variations in individual attitudes. 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Margulies, (1988), ―Austery Packages and Beyond: Turkey since 1980‖, Capital and Class, 36. 361 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Appendix A Distribution of the Student in Each University University Frequency Valid Ġstanbul 216 Uludağ 107 Beykent 25 Kocaeli 97 Dokuz Eylül 120 Ege 128 Ġzmir 27 Akdeniz 35 Çukurova 98 Sütçü Ġmam 33 Selçuk 182 Ankara 136 Erciyes 75 Afyon Kocatepe 52 Zonguldak Karaelmas 34 Ondokuz Mayıs 104 GaziosmanpaĢa 29 Karadeniz 126 Kafkas 30 Ġnönü 53 Atatürk 111 Yüzüncü Yıl 42 Dicle 66 Harran 21 Fırat 64 Gaziantep 36 Total 2047 Percent 10,6 5,2 1,2 4,7 5,9 6,3 1,3 1,7 4,8 1,6 8,9 6,6 3,7 2,5 1,7 5,1 1,4 6,2 1,5 2,6 5,4 2,1 3,2 1,0 3,1 1,8 100,0 362 Valid Percent 10,6 5,2 1,2 4,7 5,9 6,3 1,3 1,7 4,8 1,6 8,9 6,6 3,7 2,5 1,7 5,1 1,4 6,2 1,5 2,6 5,4 2,1 3,2 1,0 3,1 1,8 100,0 Cumulative Percent 10,6 15,8 17,0 21,7 27,6 33,9 35,2 36,9 41,7 43,3 52,2 58,8 62,5 65,0 66,7 71,8 73,2 79,3 80,8 83,4 88,8 90,9 94,1 95,1 98,2 100,0 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 194 Title A name given to the resource Who Supports the Eu-Led Reforms for Democratization ın Turkey? Evidence from the Turkish University Youths Author Author TEKİN, Yusuf KAR, Muhsin AKGÜN, Birol AĞIR, Hüseyin ÖZ, Bülent Abstract A summary of the resource. It is generally argued that Turkey seems to be different geographically, culturally, politically and economically from the EU. Transformation of Turkey towards the Europe in these terms requires overcoming a broad range of the obstacles and maintaining reforms process without losing public support. This situation exposes the importance of internal dynamics in the accession process in terms of carrying out necessary reforms for the full membership. However, Turkey recently experienced an unprecedented reform process as a result of the synergy between external and internal factors, particularly the EU. This research tries to empirically examine the youth support for the EU-led reform process by utilizing a novel data set obtained from the questionnaire carried out in 26 different universities about 2000 students, during November and December 2009, in Turkey. The empirical findings show that partisanship, both political and religious attachments and national identity are the important factors which explain differences of individual support for the EU-led reform process for democratization in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/da2d5c18446084740443447b0c620514.pdf 7955c2837ca681c1420b6d04e9f82493 PDF Text Text Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustaınable Development of Aquculture: Crustaceans Erol TOKŞEN Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr Egemen NEMLĐ Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr Uğur DEĞĐRMENCĐ Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr Ulviye KARACALAR Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Fin fish the primary source of production for humans in many part of world and this is especially true in most developing countries. Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is now the main problem in cage-cultured salmon in the marine environment in Scandinavian countries. In recent years however, Argulus spp. have been reported to cause problems in UK stillwater trout fisheries. A survey of such fisheries found 29% of them suffered from problem infections by the parasite in the year 2000. Argulus spp. were perceived to cause economic losses in infected fisheries through a reduction in the number of anglers due to reduced aesthetic appeal and catchability of fish. Lernaea spp. in the eyes of trout cause blindness. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, diagnosis, control, treatment Introduction Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips. Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 152 186 tonnes in 2008. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that trout pruducts have reached to 68,649 tons in Turkey (TUIK, 2009). The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Parasites in fish have become increasingly visible 256 �during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries in the world. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic infections in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Type of fish Inland water Trout Marine water Trout Total 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 43 432 48 033 56 026 58 433 65 928 1 650 1 249 1 633 2 740 2 721 45 082 49 282 57 659 61 173 68 649 Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (TUIK, 2009) Diseases problem caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases on the trout. This study consist of crustaceans parasites. This research presents the individual parasites types producing problems in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4. symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled. 1. Lernaea spp. Lernaeosis is caused by parasitic copepods (Lernaea spp.) that infect many freshwater fish important to aquacutture and recreation. Lernaea spp or anchor worms are common pests in cyprinids and to a lesse extent of salmonids and other fish. Epizootics in cultured fish are often associated with high mortality. The paraistes also cause problems in man-made lakes (Anon, 1980; Berry et al., 1991) and in commercial aquaria (Shariff et al., 1986; Dempster et al., 1988). The parasite particularly pathogenic to small fish because of their relatively large size. 1.1. Aetiyology: In the genus of Lernae of Lernaeidae family, there are over 40 species. The taxonomy is based on the shape of the anchors. L. cyprinacea is specific to Carassius species. L. cruciata, a parasite of Lepomis, Ambloplites, Micropterus and Morone spp. in North America (Kabata, 1988). L. elegans is found on a range of fishes. L. cyprinacea was found on rainbow tout (Berry et al., 1991). The adult female L. cyprinacea has a small semispherical cephalothorax which contains the mouth. Behind it is a well-developed holdfast normally consisting of a birfurcate dorsal process and a simple ventral process. The elongate neck and trunk carrythe four pairs of legs of the premetamorphosed female. The abdomen is short (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 1.2. Epizootiology: L. cyprinacea requires only one host to complete its life cycle. It has three free-living naupliar stages and five copepodid stages which are usally on the gill and are relatively immobile although they are not permanently attached. The male is fre-moving and the post-metamorphosed female attached. At 27 ºC the larval stages take 12 to 17 days to develop into adult male or premetamorphosed females. Adult male die within 24 hours. Females are fertilized and either attack the same host or swim to another host short (Lester and Roubal, 1995). Trout in the United States are infected by L. cyprinacea, whereas L. esocina and L. minima are of concern in salmonid fisheries in Europe (Kabata, 1970; Hoffman, 1973). The disease is enzootic in several Utah reservoirs (USA) where fingerling rainbow trout (7 cm long) are stocked, and the fisheryis managed to maximize the return of stocked fish to the angler. On the premise that stocking the best-performing rainbow trout strain might be an economical means of improving the fishery, Anchorworms were first detected in midsummer each year and were most abundant in the fall. The mean parasite intensity was highest in October 1982 (19 anchorworms per fish); in other years, maximum density was 7 to 9. The dorsal and caudal areas of the fish were the most heavily parasitized. 1.3. Pathogenicity: Fish less than 20 mm long may be killed by the parasites if vital organs are penetrated by the anchors (Khalifa and Post, 1976). Uzmann and Rayner (1958) reported that “heavy” infections of L. cyprinacea caused death of yearling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Copepods may open routes for secondary infection; however, quantitative data on these secondary effects are scant (Hoffman, 1976; Dempster et at., 1988). 257 �Moreover, the attached copepods may make the fish undesirable to anglers, thus affecting fishery management goals. The histological response to parasite attachment included an infectious granuloma similar to that reported in other fish hosts. Bacteria were not found in the kidneys of fish before stocking, but afterward bacteria that were presumptively identified as belonging to the genus Aeromonas, were found in the kidneys of up to 45% of the parasitized fish. Most (94%) anglers noticed the anchorworms, but few (8%) discarded parasitized fish. Some 28% used special cleaning techniques to prepare fish but 49% did nothing special to clean them. Lernaeosis probably had little effect on the fishery management goals for the reservoir. fishing, Oncorhynchus mykiss, copepoda. The mechanical destruction of epidermis and dermis caused by grazing copepodids stimulates inflammation (Shields and Tidd, 1974). When tha parasites abundant on the gills, this presumably precipitates distress trough oedema and slowed blood circulation in the lamellae. Host mortality caused by adult females is generally the result of the physical destruction of tissues. They also induce prssure necrosis and may secrete a histolytic and digestive anzyme (Shields and Goode, 1978). Small fish (4-6 cm) suffer more than large fish because the head of the parasite often enters the body cavity and penetrates the liver, or brain, spinal cord, or other vital organs. 1.4. Symptoms: The bases of the dorsal and anal fins were common attachment sites. Ulcers are commonly observed with and without an attached parasite. The loss of scales and skin resulted in circular ulcers that averaged about 1.4 mm (diameter). Sometimes ulcerations are not observed around some parasites. The parasite cause disruption and necrosis of gill epithelium and large numbers of larvae on the gills cause the death of fish. The embedded anchors are surrounded by fibrous granulation tissue, and there are considerable leucocytic response below the dermis. Myofibril degeneration and hemorrhage are noted in most sections, but these reactions were not extensive. Bacteria were occasionally seen in histological sections. Fish were initially free of bacteria in the kidney but bacteria appeared in the kidney when parasites appeared on the skin. Bacteria were presumptively identified as a species of the genus Aeromonas. The number of ulcers declined and the number of scars increased in the fall. Scars were whitish, scaleless pockets that could not be penetrated by gentle probing with a blunt instrument. Microscopic examination revealed epidermal regeneration. Dermal collagen bridged the wound below the basal epidermal tissue, but was thinner than that in the adjacent stratum compactum layer. The amount of granulation tissue under scars was less than that observed in lesions. Melanocytes were scattered throughout the fibrotic tissue but were not abundant. Muscle bundles under most scars appeared normal (Berry et al., 1991). 1.5. Diagnosis: Adult female can be seen macroscopically; copepodids require the use of a dissecting microscope. 1.6. Treatment: To eliminate of the parasite requires treatment over several weeks to break the life cycle at the larval stage because embedded females are difficult to kill. To treatment, Organophosphate insecticides, particularly trichlorfon are commonly employed. Trichlorphon at 0.25 ppm will kill the copepodid stage but not the nauplii or adults. Bromexs at 0.12-0.15 ppm kils both nauplii and copepodids (Sarig, 1971). NaCl at 20-40 ppm eradicate L. cyprinacea. Dimilin at 0.03 ppm eradicate parasite (Hoffman and Lester, 1987). 2. Caligus rogercressyi Caligus Müller, 1785 is the largest genus of parasitic copepods, containing more than 250 species. In recent years, epizootics of sea lice Caligus elongatus and Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a common marine ectoparasitic copepod of salmonids, have resulted in heavy losses and millions of dollars worth of damage to aquaculture throughout the northern hemisphere (Pike, 1989). L. salmonis feed on mucus, skin and blood of salmonids causing osmoregulatory stress and death in extreme cases (Grimnes & Jakobsen 1996, Björn & Finstad 1997). 2.1. Aetiyology: Caligus rogercressyi (originally identified as C. flexispina) is the most common species and Caligus teres is occasionally found on farmed trout in Chile. Adult caligids usally show sexual dimorphisim; the female is usally larger then thr male. The average length of adult females is 4.96 mm, (range: 4.46–5.49 mm) (Boxshall and Bravo, 2000). 2.2. Epizootiology: The parasite was transmitted to the farmed fish by the native rock cod Eleginops maclovinus and Odonthestes regia (Carvajal et al. 1998). Caligus flexispina have a life cycle consisting of the following stages: two nauplius, one infectious copepodid, four attached chalimus stages, one pre-adult and the adult. The life cycle of C. rogercresseyi has eight development stages, three planktonic and five parasitic. The planktonic stages comprise two nauplius and a copepodid, the infective stage. The copepodid settles on the host, holding on with its hooked pair of antennae. During moulting, the copepodid extrudes its frontal filament to 258 �attach itself permanently to the fish. The parasite moults into the four different chalimus stages always attached by a frontal filament. The size of the parasite increases at each stage. The planktonic stage begins with the first nauplius whose average length was 425 µm that moults in the second nauplius with an average length of 463 µm and then to the copepodid of 658 µm in average length. The parasitic stage begins with first chalimus up to fourth chalimus ending in the adult females and males (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 2003). 2.3. Pathogenicity: Caligus rogercresseyi Boxshall and Bravo (2000) is the dominant sea lice parasite affecting the salmon and trout industry in Southern Chile. At the beginning of salmon production in the country, Reyes and Bravo (1983) reported the presence of Caligus teres Wilson (1905) in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum). Another species, initially identified as Caligus flexispina, but now identified as a new species, C. rogercresseyi by Boxshall and Bravo (2000) was also reported in 1992 (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994) on rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). In Chile, Caligus has become a threat for the farmers, producing economic losses of US$ 0.30/kg due to the costs of delousing the fish in the processing plant and the slower growth of the fish, because of the presence of the copepods which stress them (Sievers et al., 1996). The excessive use of expensive drugs as bath or oral treatments to control the parasite is producing economic impact as well as pollution in coastal areas. Because this parasite causes less impact in farmed fish than microbial diseases (BKD), few studies on this Chilean parasitosis exist (Reyes and Bravo, 1983; Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994). With the exception of the naupliar stages, sea lice feed on host mucus, skin and blood. Sea lice have been reported to reduced productivity and cause disease outbreaks in a variety of farmed fish species (Pike, 1989; Berland, 1993; Grimnes and Jakobsen, 1996). 2.4. Symptoms: Salmon lice are caligid parasitic copepod species that have been reported to cause skin lesions in fish and losses in productivity in several farmed species in different parts of the world (Boxshall and Defaye, 1993). 2.5. Diagnosis: Tee large female parasites are usally visible to the dicerning eye on the gill, fins or body of fish or in the buccal and opercular cavities. The main characteristics used to identify the first chalimus of Caligus rogercresseyi is the cephalothorax with rounded posterior margins and frontal filament with a rounded base as defined by Kim (1993) and Piasecki and MacKinnon (1993) for other species of Caligus. The average length was 830 µm (range: 700–900) based on 21 specimens. The cephalothorax of the second chalimus has posterolateral corners. The frontal filament has two bases: a distal one corresponding to the first chalimus and a proximal one, newly formed and bilobed (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994). . 2.6. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate 50 mg/kg a day, for seven day (Stone et al., 1999). Ivermectin in feed, dosage of 0.05 mg kg-l, every third day for either 3 or 6 doses (Johnson and Margolis, 1993). 3. Ergasilus spp. Ergasilid copepods damage the gills and cause commercially significant epizootics in cultured and wild fish. Ergasilus sieboldi affects tench, pike, whitefish, ell, flounder (Woo, 1995) and trout (Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). Recenly, E. labracis killed large numbers of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, parr (85-125 mm long) over a 4 day period in New Brunswick, Canada (Hogans, 1989). 3.1. Aetiyology: Ergasilids copepods are less modified than fish-parasitic copepods and resemble free-living copepods in segmentation. Only fertilized females are parasitic; males and developmental stages live in the water column. The mature female of Ergasilus sieboldi is 1.5 mm long, Body, cyclopiform, has a cephalothorax formed from the cephalosome and the firt leg-bearing segment (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 3.2. Epizootiology: Adult females are external parasites, infesting the gills of a wide range of freshwater fishes and attaching to the gill filaments. Developmental stages are planktonic and occur in the water column of freshwater bodies. Parasites have unique lifecycle: eggs hatch into free-swimming naupliar phase. Only adult female is parasitic, seeking and attaching to a wide variety of freshwater fishes. Female attaches to gill filament of host, using clawed antennae that penetrate host gill epithelium. The life cycle of E. sieboldiconsist of six nauplii and five copepodid stages and adultr stage. It takes 22 days forth eggs of E. sieboldi to develop into freeliving males and females at 17-20 ºC. After fertilization, the female attaches to a fish (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 3.3. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: There is extensive gill damage and severe haemorrhage with inflammation and exsanguination associated with the attachment and feeding of the parasite. Blood vessels in the gill filaments are blocked and this leads to atrophy of gill tips (Paperna and Zwerner, 1981). Gill damage resulted in loss of gill 259 �surface area for respiration and led to suffocatio, particularly at high water temperatures. Heavy infections cause death (Grabda, 1991; Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 3.4. Diagnosis: Detection of parasites attached to the fish gill. 3.5. Treatment: Trichlorfon bath of 0.15 ppm 6 h. , malathion at 0.2 ppm 6 h. are suggested (Kabata, 1985). 4. Argulus spp Argulids have been recognized as pest of cultured trout in Europe (Kabata, 1985). They cause mortalities of fish in aquaria (Toksen, 2006), in lakes and estuarines and occasionally cause problem in sea caged salmonids (Stuart, 1990). The three best known species are Argulus foliaceus, A. coregoni, A. japonicus. 4.1. Aetiyology: The genus Argulus spp (Crustacea: Branchiura), or fish louse, are 5-10 mm in size. The general body-form of Argulus is a dorso-ventrally flattened and covered by a large chitinous carapace. The body can be divided into 3 distinct regions: cephalothorax; thorax and abdomen (Soulsby 1982; Fryer, 1982; Lester and Roubal, 1995). 4.2. Epizootiology: Argulus spp. have direct life cycle (Mikheev et al., 2001). The female is clasped by the smaller male and his genital opening is brougth into contact with the female spermatheca where the female deposits the sperm. The female then lay eggs on different objects in the water and they are fertilized at the time of deposition. Just after hatching the larva isable to parasitize the host. The first stage larvae which has a resemblance to adults but without suckers. Following 5-8 moults the adult stage is reached. The development is highly temperature dependent. The parasite feeds by puncturing host cells with its ventral stylet and susbsequently suckink up extracellulary digested cell debris (Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 4.3. Pathogenicity: The direct effects of this parasite on its host depend on the number of parasites and the size of the host. One or two parasites on a small fish cause the local damage on the epithelia. Several parasites have a very significant effect. 4.4. Clinical Signs: Fish with heavy infestations become lethargic, can cease feeding and show a general deterioration in their condition as reduced pigmentation, fins drooping (Lester and Roubal 1995). As well as the damage and stress caused by Argulus itself, one of the main worries for fish producers is the associated secondary infestations that can result from infestations with parasite. Several studies have examined the role of parasites as vectors for other diseases such as Aeromoniasis or Pseudomoniasis (Bauer 1991, Richards 1977). 4.5. Diagnosis: Argulus spp. can be seen scuttling over the surface of the fish with the naked eye. 4.6. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate 50 µg/kg for a period of 7 d. (Hakalahti et al., 2004), potassium permanganate (2-5 mg/lt, bath) or dimilin (0.01 mg/lt, bath) (Öge 2002), pyrethrum (20-100 ppm for 10-20 minutes); malathion (0.25 ppm for 6 hours); dipterex (100 ppm for 1 hour); trichlorfon (0.25 ppm for several hours); quinine hydrochloride (13.5 ppm for several days); atebrine (10 ppm for sevaral days) (Kabata 1985); DTHP (2.5 ppm 1 hour) (Puffer and Beal 1981), DDVP (1 ppm 1 h.) (Toksen, 2006) are effective againt to Argulus spp. 5. Salmincola spp. Members of genus Salmincola, especially, Salmincola californiensis are potential threat to salmonids farmed freshwater (Woo, 1995). Salmincola edwardsii is found mainly in cold northern climates. It has a holarctic distribution and infects only fish of the genis Salvelinus. Salmincola edwardsii is limited to the locations that Salvelinus exists. A few places in which Salmincola edwardsii have been reported are northern North America, Britain, and Scandinavia. Common places for Salmincola edwardsii to exist are in rivers with free access to the sea (Black, 1982; Black et al., 1983). 5.1. Aetiyology: Salmincola edwardsii is a relatively small organism. The average length of an adult male is 718.6 µm. The females are considerably larger averaging around 2055.8 µm. Size of the organism may be directly related to the site of attachment on the host fish. The gills of the fish offer protection and a more nutritious food supply; this location may support larger and more rapid development. The larvae are smaller than the adults approximately 512.4 µm. The adult female has an impermeable cuticle. Salmincola edwardsii body structure is modified away from the ancestral copepod. In the adult all external signs of segmentation have disappeared. Adult females are permanently anchored to the host's flesh. They are attached by a structure called a "bulla". The bulla is nonliving. It is formed from head and maxillary gland secretions. This structure is the 260 �anchor that holds the female onto the host. The females of this family, Lernaeopodidae, are attached almost completely outside the host, which is different than most other parasitic copepod families. Salmincola edwardsii have huge maxillae that are fused to the bulla. Located and functioning anteriorly Salmincola edwardsii has modified maxillipeds for a grasping structure. The swimming legs and abdomen that is seen in most copepods is absent or vestigial in adult female Salmincola edwardsii (Conley and Curtis, 1992; Conley and Curtis, 1994; Roberts and Janovy, 2000). 5.2. Epizootiyology: Salmincola edwardsii is found in aquatic habitats. The first larval stage of S. edwardsii swims in the water to find a host. Salmincola edwardsii need to be where its host genus Salvelinus lives, which is in lakes, and rivers that usually have outlets to the sea. Salmincola edwardsii spends most of its time near the bottom of the water column prior to attaching to a host. (Poulin et al., 1990). 5.3. Pathogenicity: Salmonid fish, such as trout that are raised in commercial hatcheries are at high risk for heavy infestations of S. edwardsii. Salmincola edwardsii can cause infections and create serious health problems for fish in cage culture. Larger fish circulate more water over their gills and thus bring more S. edwardsii (also other copepodids) in contact with them. Ironically, in natural fish populations the occurrence and intensity of the infection of S. edwardsii are usually low and have little impact of the fish. The fish is only vulnerable for the period of time when S. edwardsii is in its infective, free-living stage looking for a host. If the timing of egg hatching and the release of the free-living stage can be timed, hatcheries will know when the fish can become infected and hopefully in the future control S. edwardsii infection. In times of high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen, fish with many S. edwardsii attached to their gills have an especially difficult time. Also as a result of high infestation, growth and sexual maturation is stunted. (Amundsen et al., 1997; Conley and Curtis, 1992; Poulin et al., 1989). 5.4. Clinical Signs: The parasitized fish were found to develop anemia, expressed by the reduction in red cell counts, hemoglobin concentrations and hematocrit values. This anemic condition is attributed to hemodilution of the blood, resulting from damage to the gill and skin epithelia, and, in turn, leading to an osmotic imbalance between the water and the internal fluids. In addition, the progressive reduction of the red cells in the circulating blood may be a result of the absorption of parasite metabolic secretions through the gills or the bulla. Such absorption seems likely because of the observed variations of the cells in the leucocytic system and the significant increase in lymphocytes, neutrophils and "granulocyte cells" in relation to infection time. Furthermore, the blood of the infected fish clotted faster than that of the non-infected fish. During the course of infection a marked increase was also observed in the number of thrombocytes. Parasitized fish were less able to cope with environmental stresses. A water temperature of 21°C was found to be the median lethal temperature o infected fish. The swimming ability of infected fish was also reduced. The parasitized fish reached 50% fatigue when they swam in water of a velocity of 65 cm/sec for only 250 min. The chance of survival for the infected fish in this high water velocity is only 6.6% over the period of 600 min. The ability of the infected fish to transfer from fresh water to salt water was also affected. Mortality of the infected fish increased during this transition and these fish, as indicated by the salinity preference test, also avoided high salinity, suggesting that they may not have been ready to migrate. The critical period of infection where marked differences were found in all the parameters was that period when the parasites reached maximum size and a second infection took place with copepodids hatched from the original group (Pawaputanon, 1980; Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 5.5. Treatment: Ivermectin is intubated with 0.2 mg/kg fish, orally. A second treatment is administered after a further 14 days (Roberts et al., 2004). Conclusion: Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. In summary, parasitic diseases are economically important parasites in frehwater aquaculture. Disease outbreaks and subsequent mortalities caused by parasite are now rare due to the development of a variety of effective treatments. However, large economic losses still occur as the result of reduced feed conversion and growth, indirect mortality, loss of product value, and treatment costs. Although it is well understood that parasites have a major impact on trout aquaculture, there are relatively few published reports of disease and/or disease treatments. There are no reports of economic costs associated with these infections. Husbandry practices as well as a variety of engineering, environmental, and biological factors can have an impact on the level of 261 �infection by parasitic copepods. However, the relative importance of these factors in controlling parasite abundance varies between sites. There is no evidence from field studies to support the suggestion that parasites can act as vectors for fish diseases. The aim of this paper is to present general overview of parasitic diseases occured on trout. References Amundsen, P., R. Kristoffersen, R. Knudsen, A. Klemetsen. (1997). Infection of Salmincola edwardsii (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae) in an age-structured population of Artic charr-a long term study. Journal of Fish Biology, 51: 1033-1046. Anonymous. (1980). ACT lake fish killed by parasite. Australian Fisheries, 39(6), 13. Bauer, R. (1991). Erkrankungen der Aquarienfishe. Verlag Paul Parey. Berlin und Hamburg. Berland, B. (1993). Salmon lice on wild salmon (Salmo salar L.) in western Norway. In: Boxshall, G.A., Defaye, D. (Eds.), Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: Sea Lice. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, pp. 179–187. Berry, C.R. Jr., Babey, G.J. and Shrader, T. (1991). Effects of Lernaea cyprinacea (Crustacea:Copepoda) on stocked rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss), Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 27, 206-213. Bjorn P.A. and Finstad B. (1997). The physiological effects of salmon lice infection on sea trout post smolts. Nordic J. Freshwat. Res., 73: 60-72. Black, G. (1982). Gills as an attachment site for Salmincola edwardsii (Copepoda: Lernaeopodidae). Journal of Parasitology, 68 (6): 1172-1173. Black, G. (1983). Abundance and distribution of Salmincola edwardsii on anadromous brook tout, Salvelinus fontinalis in the Moisie River system, Quebec. The Fisheries Society of the British Isles, 22 (5): 567-575. Boxshall, G.A. and Bravo, S. (2000). On the identity of the common Caligus (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida: Caligidae) from salmonid netpen systems in southern Chile. Contributions to Zoology 69 (1/2): 137-146. Boxshall, G.A. and Defaye, D. (1993). Pathogens of wild and farmed fish: sea lice. Ellis Horwood: Chchester, UK. 374 pp. Buchmann, K. and Bresciani, J. (2001). An Introduction to Parasitic Diseases of Freshwater Trout. DSR Publishers, 76 p. Carvajal, J., Gonzalez, L. and George-Nascimento, M. (1998). Native sea lice (Copepoda: Caligidae) infestation of salmonids reared in netpen systems in southern Chile. Aquaculture, 166: 241–246. Conley, D. and Curtis, M. (1992). Effects of temperature and photoperiod on the duration of hatching, swimming, and copepodid survival of the parasitic copepod Salmincola edwardsii. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 71 (5): 972-976. Conley, D. and Curtis, M. (1994). Larval development of the parasitic copepod Salmincola edwardsii on brook trout (Salvelinus frontinalis). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 72 (1): 154-159. Dempster, R.P., Morales, P. and Glennon, F.X. (1988). Use of sodium chlorite to combat anchorworm infestations of fish. Progressive Fish-Culturist 50: 51-55. Fryer G. (1982). The Parasitic Copepoda and Branchiura of British Freshwater Fishes: A handbook and key. Freshwater Biological Association, Scientific Publication, 46 Gonzalez, L. and Carvajal, J. (1994). Parasitos en los cultivos marinos de salmo´nidos en el Sur de Chile. Investigacion Pesquera (Chile) 38, 87– 96 Gonzalez, L. and Carvajal, J. (2003) Life cycle of Caligus rogercresseyi, (Copepoda: Caligidae) parasite of Chilean reared salmonids, Aquaculture, 220, 101– 117 Grabda, J. (1991). Marine Parasitology. Polish Scientific Publishers,Warszawa, 304 p. Grimnes, A. and Jakobsen, P.J. (1996). The physiological effects of salmon lice infection on post-smolt of Atlantic salmon. J. Fish Biol. 48: 1179-1194. Hakalahti, T., Y. Lankinen and E.T. Valtonen. (2004). 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(1993). Efficacy of ivermectin for control of the salmon louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, on Atlantic salmon. Dis. Aquat. Org., 17: 101-105. Kabata, Z. (1970). Diseases of fishes,Book I: Crustacea as enemies of fishes. TFH Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey, 171 pp. Kabata, Z. (1985). Parasites and Diseases of Fish Cultured in the Tropics. Taylor & Francis, London. Kabata, Z. (1988). Copepoda and Branchiura. In L Margolis, Z Kabata, eds. Guide to the parasites of fishes of Canada. Part II-Crustacea. Can. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 101, 184. Khalifa, A.K. and Post, C. (1976). Histopathological effect of Lernaea cyprinacea (a copepod parasite) on fish. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 38: 110-1 13. Kim, I.H. (1993). Developmental stages of Caligus punctatus Shiino, 1955 (Copepoda: Caligidae). In: Boxshall, G.A., Defaye, D. (Eds.), Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: Sea Lice. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 16–29. Lester, R.J.G. and Roubal, F.R. (1995). Phylum Arthropoda, In: Fish Diseases and Disorders, Volume 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections. Woo, P.T.K. (ed), CAB International, Wallingford, U.K. Mikheev, V.N., A.F. Pasternak, E.T. Valtonen, Y.A.N. Lankinen. 2001. Spatial distribution and hatching of overwintered eggs of a fish ectoparasite, Argulus coregoni (Crustacea: Branchiura). Diseases of Aquatic Organisims, 46: 123–128. Öge, S. (2002). Chemotherapy for parasites of freshwater fish. Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 26: 113-118. Paperna I. and Zwerner, D.E. (1981). Host–parasite relationship of Ergasilus labracis Kroyer (Cyclopidea, Ergasilidae) and the striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum) from the lower Chesapeake Bay. Annales de Parasit. Humaine et Comparee, 57, pp. 393–405. Pawaputanon, K. (1980). Effects of parasitic copepod, Salmincola californiensis (Dana, 1852) on juvenile sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum), Thesis of PhD, The University of British Colombia, Dep. Zoology, 181 p. 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Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, University Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Journal of Fish Diseases, 9: 393–401. Shields R. J., Tidd, W.M. (1974). Effect of temperature on the development of larval and transformed females of Lernaea cyprinacea L. (Lernaeidae). Crustaceana, 15 (Suppl 1): 87.95. Shields, R.J. and Goode, R.P. (1978). Host rejection of Lernaea cyprinacea L. (Copepoda). Crustaceana, 35: 301-307. Sievers, G., Lobos, C., Inostroza, R. anf Erns, S. (1996). The effect of the isopod parasite Ceratothoa gaudichaudii on the body weight of farmed Salmo salar in southern Chile. Aquaculture, 143: 1–6. Soulsby, E.J.L. (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals. 7th Ed. Baillière Tindall, London, U.K. Stone, J., Sutherland, I.H., Sommerville, C.S., Richards, R.H., Varma, K.J. (1999). The efficacy of emamectin benzoate as an oral treatment of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Kroyer), infestations in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Journal of Fish Diseases, 22: 261-270. Stuart, (1990). Sea lice, a maritime perspective. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association of Canada, 1:18-24. Toksen, E. (2006). Argulus foliacesus (Crustacea: Branchiura) Infestation on Oscar, Astronotus ocellatus (Cuvier, 1829) and Its Treatment, E.U. Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences , 23(1-2): 177–179 Uzmann, J.R. and Rayner, H.J. (1958). Record of the parasitic copepod Lernaea cyprinacea L. in Oregon and Washington fishes. Journal of Parasitology 44, 452–453 Woo, P.T.K. (1995). Fish Diseases and Disorders, CAB International, 808 p. 264 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 438 Title A name given to the resource Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustaınable Development of Aquculture: Crustaceans Author Author TOKSEN, Erol NEMLİ, Egemen DEĞİRMENCİ, Uğur KARACALAR, Ulviye Abstract A summary of the resource. Fin fish the primary source of production for humans in many part of world and this is especially true in most developing countries. Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is now the main problem in cage-cultured salmon in the marine environment in Scandinavian countries. In recent years however, Argulus spp. have been reported to cause problems in UK stillwater trout fisheries. A survey of such fisheries found 29% of them suffered from problem infections by the parasite in the year 2000. Argulus spp. were perceived to cause economic losses in infected fisheries through a reduction in the number of anglers due to reduced aesthetic appeal and catchability of fish. Lernaea spp. in the eyes of trout cause blindness. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc0631ee1fa9fc7518671d046252d26f.pdf 2507cebbc83a3d00013856740966b6af PDF Text Text Treatment Trials Of Parasites Of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and Sea Bream (Sparus Aurata) in Turkey Erol TOKŞEN Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 Đzmir, TURKEY erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr T. Tansel TANRIKUL Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 Đzmir, TURKEY tansel.tanrikul@ege.edu.tr Fikri BALTA Rize University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, 53100 Rize, TURKEY fikribalta@hotmail.com Erkin KOYUNCU Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin, TURKEY ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr Abstract: With over 8300 km of coastline and 25 million square hectares of useably sea, Turkey has particularly bright future in aquaculture. Interest has centred on two major species sea bream, sea bass, Those are most favourable have been the Aegean and Western Mediterranean coasts. Sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 75,000 tons in Turkey. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Thus, focus has been placed on fish diseases in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Especially, parasitical diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. In this study, various studies were carried out in different time about parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Turkey and their treatment were investigated. Different species such as Trichodina spp., Costia spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Ceratothoa oestroides were reported on the gills of sea bream and sea bass in these studies. In this review, the parasites observed on sea bass and sea bream, and their epizootiology, clinical signs, pathogenicity of the parasites and their treatment were given, separately. Keywords: Sea bass, sea bream, parasite, diagnosis, control, treatment Introduction Turkey is a country of which three sides have been surrounded by the seas. Its coastline is 8333 km and 25 million square hectares of useable sea. There is a great aquaculture potential in Turkey. Therefore, Turkey is a most important aquaculture producer in the Mediterranean. The Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) are the main cultured fish specieses in the Mediterranean area. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 80,940 tons in Turkey (TUIK, 2009). The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Vibriosis, pasteurellosis and tenacibaculosis are serious threatening bacterial infections of sea bass and sea bream. The most important parasites for cultured sea bass and/or sea bream are Trichodina spp., Ichthyobodo spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus 667 �minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Meinertia oestroides. This research presents the individual parasies types producing probles in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4. symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled. Type of fish Inland water Trout Carp Marine water Trout Sea bream Sea bass Mussel Prawn Other Total 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 43 432 683 48 033 571 56 026 668 58 433 600 65 928 629 1 650 20 435 26 297 1 513 - 1 249 27 634 37 290 1 500 2 000 1 633 28 463 38 408 1 545 2 200 2 740 33 500 41 900 1 100 1 600 2 721 31 670 49 270 1 772 196 94 010 118 277 128 943 139 873 152 186 Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (TUIK, 2009) 1. Trichodina Spp. Trichodinid protozoans are cosmopolitan aquatic parasites, common on gills and skin of fish in both the freshwater and marine environments. Trichodinids are peritrich ciliates (order Mobilina, family Trichodinidae) that glide on the surface of the fish. They normally feed on bacteria and mucus and are often considered as ectocommensal nuisances rather than true parasites. 1.1. Aethiology: Trichodina spp. are a group of dorsal-ventrally flattened oval ciliated protozoan parasites of marine and freshwater species of finfish. The diameter of the ciliate is mostly about 50 to 100 µm. A readily distinguishable characteristic of these organisms is the presence of a prominent denticular or “tooth-like” internal cytoskeleton ring. There are four additional genera of trichodinids (Trichodina, Trichodinella, Paratrichodina, Tripartiellea, Hemitrichodina) which are similar in description and life cycle. 1.2. Epizootiology: Trichodinids reproduce by simple binary fission under conditions that are usually optimal for the host fish. Most species are host specific and presumably spread from fish to fish by incidental contact between susceptible host fish, as well as through contact with the organism in the water column. Transmission is direct, from fish to fish. Within 8 to 10 h’s of the host’s death, trichodinids leave the host but, depending on the temperature, may survive for several days in the water (Lom, 1995). 1.3. Patogenicity: While small numbers of these organisms on a fish generally do not cause much of a health problem, large numbers can cause moderate to serious pathology and ultimately, death of fish. Small fish and fry are especially susceptible, and mortality can occur quickly if undiagnosed (Toksen, 2004). Trichodina spp. cause irritation by feeding on the epithelial layer of cells covering the surface of the gills and skin of the fish. This can result in hyperplasia (proliferation) of the epithelial cells, clubbing of the gill filaments and even fussion of the gill filaments. This affects the ability of the gills to maintain optimal respiratory and excretory activities, and the ability of the skin to maintain proper homeostatic osmoregulatory properties. Massive infestations of these parasites on fish can also directly result in superficial to deep ulcerative skin lesions which then allow for secondary bacterial and fungal infections to develop at the affected site (Lom 1995). Trichodina spp can cause extensive fish mortality in an aquaculture system. The ability of this parasite to quickly multiply under certain environmental conditions or when the fish are stressed by other factors makes early detection of this parasite a high priority in an aquaculture facility. Once diagnosed, an appropriate treatment or management response is essential to prevent rapid loss of fish stocks (Samartin-Duran et al., 1991). 668 �1.4. Symptoms: Heavily infected fish may have a greyish-blue coat, which is formed by excessively secreted mucus and peeled epithelia. The fins may be frayed (Lom, 1995). 1.5. Diagnose : The following measurements and counts are of primary diagnostic value; diameter of the adhesiv disc, diameter of the denticulate ring, number and size of denticles. The diameter of the horseshape macronucleus and position of the micronucleus in relation to the macronucleus is also of diagnostic value. 1.6. Treatment: There are several methods by which Trichodina spp. may be controlled in the aquaculture of foodfish. These include chemical treatments, freshwater baths, and flushing. UV is generally considered ineffective due to the high dosage rates required to kill the organism. A formalin bath of 170-250 ppm for 60 minutes is applied effectively (Toksen, 2004). However, experience has shown that a single formalin bath may not completely remove all of the parasites from fish, especially marine fish, and long term or periodic treatments may be needed to keep this parasite under control. Therefore a continuous bath of 25 ppm formalin is also approved for use on foodfish. Another common method for controlling Trichodina spp. on marine finfish is to utilize periodic fresh water dips. Though stressful on fish due to increased handling and the osmotic stress, this method can be very effective in reducing the overall number of parasites on fish. This is an effective method for treating individual fish such as broodstock, but may not be a viable option in a production facility due to the logistics associated with handling and treating large numbers of fish (Brown and Markus, 1998). Flushing of production systems (i.e., the removal of system water prior to treatment) is another means of reducing infestation levels of Trichodina spp. This method may be effective by physically removing any dislodged parasites in the water column from the system. 2. Ichthyobodo Spp. Ichthyobodo necator (former Costia necator) is a common parasite that infects a wide range of freshwater fish species. The parasite is found on the skin and gills of fish, most commonly attaching to the edges of the gills. Infected fish have a disease called ichthyobodosis. The first observation of Ichthyobodo spp. infection in cultured seabream in Turkey carried out by Toksen. Fifty to sixty percent of mortality was observed in a farm of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) (1g) which were trasferred from Yumurtalık, South-East Mediterranean Sea to Kokar Bay, Western Coast of Aegean Sea (Toksen, 2000). 2.1. Aetiyoloy: Free swimming form is ovoid to spherical and measures 5-18 µm. It has two flagella, one of them longer than the other. It uses flagella for motility and to attach to the host fish (Lom, 1995; Toksen, 2000). 2.2. Epizootiology: Both free swimming and parasitic stages multiply by longitudinal binary fission. The parasit is not host spesific. Malnourished and young fish are more secerely affected then healthy adults (Robertson, 1985; Toksen, 2000). 2.3. Pathogenicitiy: These parasites do not cause distinctive lesions on the fish but do block the flow of oxygen when heavily loaded on the gills. As with most protozoa, environmental degradation and crowded conditions cause them to become more damaging. However, prevention measures such as reducing stocking densities and lowering feeding rates may make fish production unprofitable. But stocking and feeding rates should be kept reasonable. Contact a qualified aquaculture or fisheries scientist for advice on proper stocking densities for the fish species you are raising skin and fins. The base of the stalk attaches to a hard, calcified surface such as scales and fin rays or spines. Ichthyobodo occurs on the skin and gills (Lom, 1995). . 2.4. Symptoms: Ichthyobodosis causes damage to the gills and skin of fish. Infected fish can lose condition, become emaciated and be very lethargic. These symptoms can be seen in fish with only a light infection. The attachment and feeding of Ichthyobodo necator causes severe damage to skin and gill cells. Hyperplasia can occur within the gills, reducing respiratory efficiency. The gills may also swell with fluid, and fish often die as they are unable to control the movement of water in and out of their bodies. The parasite also causes irritation and infected fish produce excess mucus (Lom, 1995). 2.5. Treatments: Formalin is used against to Ichthyobodo spp. effectiveliy (Toksen, 2000). Bithionol (25 ppm for 3 h or 2 consecutive days) is very effective in eliminating the paraiste from rainbow trout (Tojo et al., 1994). 669 �3. Amyloodinium Ocellatum 3.1. Amyloodinium ocellatum is an important and the most common dinoflagellate that infects the gills and skin of both marine and brackish water fishes (Lauckner, 1984). A similar organism, Oodinium spp., is found in freshwater fish. The disease caused by these organisms has been referred to as "velvet," "rust" and "gold dust disease" because of the shiny sheen the parasite imparts to heavily infected fish. 3.2. Amyloodinium spp. can cause great losses of aquarium fish or fish held in high-density culture systems and has caused serious problems in public aquaria, aquaculture facilities and home aquaria (Montgomery-Brock et al, 2001). If allowed to become established in high-density recirculating systems, it can be difficult to control. For example, cultured red drum have been shown to be extremely susceptible to this infection. Amyloodinium infects a wide variety of fish and has been reported to occur in more than 100 species in North America. In Turkey, first Amyloodinium enfestation was observed on cultured 15-20 g of sea bass in pond with 100% mortality (Cagirgan and Toksen, 1996). 3.3. Aetiyology: The trophont is pear-shaped to ovoid and up to 350 um long. An osmophilic ring encircle the basal region, and an attachment plate bearing numerous filiform rhizoids exista through the break in the theca. Divisions withina common cyst wall produce up to 256 dinosporea. Dinospores are 8-13.5 µm long by 10-12.5 µm wide (Lom, 1995). 3.4. Symptoms: Often, the first indication of an amyloodinium infection is dead or dying fish. Amyloodinium should always be considered as a possible cause of mortality when a disease outbreak involving marine or brackish water fish occurs. Behavioral signs may include a decrease in or complete lack of feeding activity, flashing (rubbing against objects in the tank or on the bottom substrate) and coughing (backflushing water across the gills). The skin of heavily infected fish may have a dull gold or brown sheen. Closer examination of the skin may reveal scale loss and patchy accumulation of mucus (Reed and Francis-Floyd, 1994). Diseased fish shows sluggishness and asphyxia symptoms with darkened pigmentation of the skin and V shaped loss by the reason of necrosis of tail. The gill is pale and haemorrhagic in infected fish. Extensive necrotic areas are observed in macroscopycally on the gill (Cagirgan and Toksen, 1996). 3.5. Epizootiology: Amyloodiniosis is limited to warm waters. The optimal temperature for tomont division and sporulation ranges from 23-27 ºC. Completion of tomont division is limited to 16-30 ºC (Paperna, 1984). Infections do not occur at less than 17 ºC. The minimum effective salinity varied from 1 to 20 ppt, depending upon the isolate (Paperna, 1984). Tomonts or infective dinospores can be introduced directly with incoming seawater, becoming a source of infection for fish in the system. Obviously, introducing fish infected with trophonts into a culture system will serve as a source of infection as soon as the throphonts detach and begin the reproductive process. 3.6. Diagnosis: The only sure way to diagnose an amyloodinium infestation is by identification of the parasite in infected tissue. Preparations of gill, fin and skin (scrapings of mucus and scales) can be examined with a light microscope. The trophont attaches to the tissue of the fish by means of an attachment plate, which may be visible with a light microscope. Trophonts are removed brushing the fish gently, followed by microscopic examination of the sediment, which contains detached parasites (Noga, 2000). 3.7. Treatment: The most commonly applied treatment for control of amyloodinium is copper. In marine recirculating systems, which do not contain invertebrates, copper is added to the system gradually over a period of several days until the free copper ion (Cu2+) is at a concentration of 0.12-0.15 mg/l; this level is then maintained for up to 3 weeks (Cardeilhac and Whitaker, 1988). This standard procedure, observed for many years, is moderately effective but requires repeated testing of the copper concentration to ensure that amyloodinium is being controlled without killing fish. This treatment will kill all invertebrates present in the system and certain groups of fish. Freshwater dips are effective in killing free-swimming stages of amyloodinium; however, since encysted stages are protected, a single freshwater dip is not an effective treatment. Decreasing the salinity in a system has been suggested as a method for controlling amyloodinium epizootics, but because the organism flourishes in brackish water, the effectiveness of this strategy is doubtful. Given the lack of a safe, effective therapeutant for the control of amyloodinium, avoidance is an extremely important means of preventing outbreaks of this parasite. All incoming fish should be quarantined for a minimum of 3 weeks before being introduced into an existing system. Do not feed live or frozen food items 670 �that may be infected with amyloodinium. Do not introduce water into a system that may be contaminated with amyloodinium dinospores without using effective filtration or sanitation procedures (Reed and Francis-Floyd, 1994). 4. Furnestinia Echeneis The monogenean was found on the gill of sea bream Chrysophrys aurata by Wagener in 1857 and formerly named as Dactylogyrus echeneis Euzet ve Audouin (1959) renamed as F. echeneis (Oliver, 1969). 4.1. Aetiyology: F. echeneis is 560-890 µm in length, 140-230 µm in width in ovary level. Parasite has a haptor 190-270 µm in diameter and lamellar shaped squamodisc 180-220 µm in diameter in haptor. 4.2. Epizootiology: Infestation is successfully transmitted to naïve gilthead seabream by egg exposure. Parasite occure in all seasons of year but the number of parasite increase in spring (Revarsat et al., 1992). Furnestia echeneis caused high mortality in Siganus auratus (Paperna, 1978). 4.3. Symptoms: Infested fish showing severe signs of asphyxia due to necrosis on the gill and mass mucuos secretion. Myxobacterium spp. is found in necrotic lessions on the gill (Paperna et al., 1977). 4.4. Pathogenicity: No pathological signs are referred to F. echeneis infections, also with 50 specimens/gill arch infection intensity (Quaglio et al., 2007). But in heavily infestation shows hyperplasia of gill epithelium with thickening of lamellae up to fusion.The gills show diffused degeneration and necrosis in the filament epithelial tissue (Reversat et al., 1992). It has been reported to cause mortalities in natural sea bream in Red Sea and Acabe Bay (Paperna and Baudin Laurencin, 1979). 4.5. Treatment: Formalin bath 200 ppm 1 h is effective (Paperna et al., 1977; Toksen, 1999). 5. Microcotyle Chrysophrii S. chrysophrii Euzet and Noisy 1981, originally called Microcotyle chrysophrii (van Beneden and Hesse 1863) (Microcotylidae: Polyopisthocotylea), is a common parasite of cultured Gilthead sea bream which has caused lethal epizootics in sea cages (Alvarez-Pellitero 2004). 5.1. Aetiyology: The parasite belong to genus Microcotyle (Microcotylidae, Polyopisthocotylea) comprising 17 recognized species in European waters. Monogenean is 3-5 mm in length, 0.5-0.7 mm in width in ovary level (Euzet et Noisy, 1979). 5.2. Epizootiology: Sparicotyle chrysophrii is successfully transmitted to naïve gilthead seabream by egg exposure and cohabitation with parasitized fish (Sitjà-Bobadilla and Alvarez-Pellitero, 2009). Parasite occure in all seasons of year (Reversat et al., 1992). 5.3. Pathogenicity: S. chrysophrii shows a high pathogenicity at low infection intensity (8 parasites/gill arch) with gross lesions such as gill and systemic anaemia already noticeable at necropsy. In this case histology shows severe hyperplasia of gill epithelium with thickening of lamellae up to fusion, and heavy sloughing off of the epithelial cells. Moreover the gills show diffused degeneration and necrosis in the residual epithelial tissue. The hematophagous attitude of S. chrysophrii is evident for the presence of several erythrocytes in the parasite gut (Quaglio et al., 2007; Reversat et al., 1992). It has been reported to produce mortalities in farmed fish (AlvarezPellitero, 2004), and it is frequently found in mixed infections with other parasites and bacterial infections (Padros and Crespo, 1995). 5.4. Symptoms: Infested fish swim near the water surface, showing severe signs of anemia as lethargy, emaciation, anoreksi and excessive mucus production (Padros and Crespo, 1995). 5.5. Treatment: Formalin bath of 250 ppm for 60 minutes is applied effectively (Toksen, 1999). 671 �6. Diplectanum Aequans Diplectanum aequans (Wagener, 1857) Diesing, 1858 is a common parasite of both wild and cultured European sea bass D. aequans is considered to be potentially harmful in intensive sea bass farming (GonzalezLanza et al., 1991; Toksen, 1999). 6.1. Aetiyology: Monogenean parasite is 650-1.700 µm. in length and 260-500 µm. in width in ovary level. There is a haptor in the posterior end of body. The diameter of haptor is 0.11-0.30 µm. and has a squamodisc (180 µm. in diameter), two pairs of hamuli and 14 marginal hooks (Oliver, 1980; Toksen, 1999). The adult of D. aeqauans is observed on the gills of sea bass (Cecchini et al., 1991; Toksen, 1999) but larval stages of parasites can be also observed on the skin. parazitin genç evrelerine deride de rastlanılmaktadır (Cognetti, et al., 1992; Gonzales et al., 1991). 6.2. Epizootiology: The life span of D. aequans at 20°C is estimated to be 30 days. The parasites are oviparous and produce the eggs on the gill of sea bass. The diameter of egg is 59.14±6.96 µm. The parasite has 5 stages in ith life cycle; larval stage (oncomiracidium), post larval stage, 2. post larval stage, intermedier stage and adult stage (Silan and Maillard, 1989). The adult parasite is exhibiting hermaphroditism. The contamination is occured bye means of eggs between hosts. 6.3. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: D. aequans attaches to the gill lamellae and cause hyperplasia of the epithelium and mucuos cells, with resulting deformation and fusion of the secondary lamellae. Heavily infected fish exibit lethargy, anorexia and asphyxia symptoms (Oliver, 1977; Toksen, 1999). 6.4. Diagnosis: D. aequans is easiliy distinguished on the basis of the shape and size of the haptor, hamuli and hooks on the haptor, and male copulatory organ of adult parasite (Silan and Maillard, 1989; Lambert et Maillard, 1974). 6.5. Treatment: Rafoxanid bath of 6 ppm for 48 hours is applied effectively (Cognetti et al., 1992), trichlorfon bath in dose 0.15 ppm for 2 days is effective (Cognetti et al, 1991). Formalin has not good effect against D. aequans affect the parasite (Toksen, 1999). 7. Caligus Minimus Caligus sp. or ‘sea lice’ are common copepod parasites in the family Caligidae, infesting a wide range of fish species in the coastal zones and cultured fish. 7.1. Aetiyology: Caligus minimus is seen in the mouth cavity and on the gill of sea bass in Mediterranean Sea, Adriyatic Sea and Atlantic ocean. Adult parasites show sexual dimorphism, the female is larger then the male. The female 3-5.5 mm in length, the male parasite is 8 mm in length with 4. legs (Radujkovic and Raibaut, 1989). 7.2. Epizootiology: Caligid copepods have direct life cycle, consisting of a free-living planktonic I. nauplii stage, II. nauplii stage, copepodid stage, I-VI chalimus stages, pre-adult stage and adult stage, and last 17 days at 2224°C after hatchig (Hallett and Rroubal, 1995). The intensity of copepod infestation generally increases after rainfall and late spring and decline in winter and summer due to the lack of recruitment and parasite death. This is a major problem in cage cultured fishes (Jithendran et al., 2008). 7.3. Clinical Sings and Pathogenicity: The main lesions are observed on the skin of the head region, the buccal cavity, the palate, the tongue and the base of the gill arch (Ragiasa et al., 2004). The integument where parasites are located showed ulceration of the epidermis with marked inflammatory of the dermis as a result of the attachment and feeding activity of the parasites. The attachment is achieved by means of second pair of the antennae which were inserted into the host epidermal tissue. A marked reactive epidermal hyperplasia is observed at those areas as well as at the periphery of ulcerated lesions. Many epidermal cells around the damaged area show signs of necrosis, the vacuolar degeneration of basal cells was prominent and epidermis is also characterized by diffuse areas of spongiosis. In many cases, increased fibroplasia and spongiosis is noticed within dermal collagenous connective tissue (Ragiasa et al., 2004). 7.4. Treatment: Trichlorfon bath of 300 ppm at 20 minutes (Pike, 1989), dichlorvos 1 ppm 1 h (Branson, 1996), hydrogen peroxide 1500 ppm 20 minutes (Branson, 1996; Hodneland et al, 1993) and freshwater bath (Landsberg et al., 1991) are effective. 672 �8. Ceratothoa Oestroides Ceratothoa oestroides (Cymothoidae) is a ubiquitous fish parasite. It has been reported in 6 different fish families, Sparidae, Carangidae, Clupeidae, Maenidae, Scorpaenidea and Mugilidae, and has been most frequently isolated from the bogue bream Boops boops and sea bream Sparus aurata (Sparidae) (CharfiCheikhrouha et al., 2000; Toksen, 1999). 8.1. Aetiyology: The body of parasite is dorso ventrally flattened and is lacking a carapace. The isopod thorax consists of 7 free segments with 7 pairs of thoracic legs. As a result of the well-sheltered environment of the buccal cavity, species that establish there have evolved a thinner cuticular mineralisation and the pleopods of the three last pairs have transformed into respiratory organs. Paired eyes consist of numerous eyelets. On its ventral side, between the swimming legs, the female bears a brood pouch or "marsupium", shielded by special plates, called "oostegites", to carry the eggs and the larvae for some time after hatching. 8.2. Epizootiology: Female C. oestroides bear embryonated eggs in the brood pouch that develop first into stage I pullus, and then into pulli II and III (with rudimentary periopods of VII pairs), and finally into pullus IV, at which stage postlarval evolution begins (Mladineo, 2002). As a protandric hermaphrodite, the parasite passes through different developmental stages: male puberty, prolonged male puberty, transitory stage, female puberty and finally prolonged female puberty (Trilles 1969). During the male puberty stage, the parasite loses its swimming capacity and, once settled in the buccal cavity of a fish, it is incapable of active migration to another host. This fact is important in the epizootic evaluation of the route of infection. After settlement in the host, the parasite begins hematophagic nourishment, which comprises alternating cyclic periods of blood-sucking and blood absorption by the intestine (Trilles, 1969). As a consequence of its sedentary life in the wellsheltered buccal cavity, the parasite has evolved some structural changes, e.g. a thinner cuticle, the last 3 pairs of pleopods transformed into respiratory organs and a thinner-walled incubation chamber (Trilles, 1969). 8.3 Symptoms and Pathogenicity: Heavy infestations of parasitic larvae may kill smaller fish when they first infect them seeking permanent attachment. Pulli II larvae and juveniles attack relatively younger fish, about 5g20g of weight and cause considerable damage to the skin around the head, the eyes and the gill epithelium by injuring the gill lamellae. Their voracious haematophagy and the mechanical damage of their hooks lead to severe inflammation and necrosis of head, eye and gill tissues. The infested fish are usually apathetic and anorexic and may show respiratory distress. The haemorrhagic and necrotic head tissues are evident when observing the fish in their cage. When the sick fish are removed from the water, several isopod larvae may be seen in their buccal and gill cavities and/or on the skin near the opercula (Varvarigos, 2003; Mladineo, 2002; Toksen, 1999). Injured tissues are frequently invaded by secondary bacterial pathogens, such as Aeromonas spp., Tenacibaculum spp., Vibrio spp. and this may lead to severe escalation of mortality. In young stocks, the cumulative mortality due to parasitism by the pulli II larvae may run as high as 15% even without any bacterial implications (Varvarigos, 2003). The adult isopods are haematophagus and cause anaemia. The parasitised fish have significantly lower erythrocyte counts as well as haematocrit and haemoglobin values. The leukocyte counts are increased, obviating the host's immune response to the presence of the isopods. In addition, the established adult isopods can cause considerable damage to the mouth tissues with their biting and sucking mouth parts, or their copulation activity. Their large size (up to 6 cm in length) may cause atrophy of the tongue, dysplasia of teeth and slackening of the cartilagenous tissues leading to a "bag-shaped" lower jaw. Invariably, the presence of large adult parasites in the buccal cavity interferes with feeding, causes chronic stress and results in growth retardation and a predisposition to bacterial and/or endo-parasitic invasions (Varvarigos, 2003). Isopod infestation is confirmed by gross observation of the parasites on the skin, mouth, or in the gill chamber of the fish. In addition, they often produce the lesions described above that characterise 8.4. Treatment: Cypermethrin and deltamethrin are effective in dose of 10 ppb for 60 minutes (Martinsen et al., 2001) 9. Lernanthropus Kroyeri Lernanthropus is the most common genus of parasitic copepods. So far, more than 100 species isolated from gills of different marine teleosts have been described. Some species of Lernanthropus are strictly host specific, but many are parasitic on several species of fish within one or several genera (Sharp et al., 2003). 673 �9.1. Aetiyology: Female parasite body is elongate, 2,9 mm including fourth legs 3.7 mm in length (Toksen et al., 2008). 9.2. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: Fish infected with L. kroyeri spp. show signs of respiratory distress, enhanced mucus secretion, congestion, haemorrhages associated with the feeding activity of the parasite, primary gill lamella erosions and lethargy, dark coloured skin and surface swimming (Toksen, 2007). Histologically, erosion, desquamation and vacuolar degeneration occurred near the site of attachment. Lamellar fusion in the distal ends of the filaments was observed. Compression of gill tissue by the head and second antennae of female parasite resulted in erosion of the branchial lamellar epithelium and lacerate tissue. Second antennae and maxilliped of parasite has caused partial occlusion and ruptures in capillary (Toksen, 2007) . 9.3. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate of 100 µg kg-1 in feed is effective (Toksen, et al., 2006). Conclusion The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Toksen (2000; 2004) reported that Ichthbodosis and trichodiniasis caused fifty to sixty percent of mortality in different two farm of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.). Recently, almost 400,000 gilt head bream died in a single night on fish farms located in the southwestern province of Muğla's Güllük Gulf this week. But the reason of death could not determine. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. In summary, parasitic diseases are economically important parasites in marine aquaculture. Disease outbreaks and subsequent mortalities caused by parasite are now rare due to the development of a variety of effective treatments. However, large economic losses still occur as the result of reduced feed conversion and growth, indirect mortality, loss of product value, and treatment costs. Although it is well understood that parasites have a major impact on sea bream and sea bass aquaculture, there are relatively few published reports of disease and/or disease treatments. There are no reports of economic costs associated with these infections. Husbandry practices as well as a variety of engineering, environmental, and biological factors can have an impact on the level of infection by parasitic copepods. However, the relative importance of these factors in controlling parasite abundance varies between sites. 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Pharmacological treatments against Ichthyobodo necator (Henneguy, 1883) in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), Journal of Fish Diseases, 17, 135–143. Toksen, E. (2004). The effect of formaldehyde baths on Trichodiniasis of juvenile Sea Bream (Sparus aurata L., 1758). E.U. Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences, 21,(1-2): 31 – 33. Toksen, E. (1999). Metazoan gill parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Aegean Sea coast and their treatment. PhD Thesis, 10.7777.10000.000, Ege University, Institute of Science and Tecnology, Đzmir, Turkey. Toksen, E. (2000). The first observation of Ichthyobodo spp. ınfection in a farm of Sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) in Izmir and Its Therapy, Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 24 (3), 321-325. 676 �Toksen, E. (2007). Lernanthropus kroyeri van Beneden, 1851 (Crustacea: Copepoda) infections of cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.), Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 27, 49-53. Toksen, E., Çağırgan, H., Tanrıkul, T. and Saygı, H. (2006). The Effect of Emamectin Benzoate in the Control of Lernanthropus kroyeri (van Beneden, 1851) (Lernanthropidae) Infestations in Cultured Sea Bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758)”, TUBĐTAK, Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science, 30, 405-409. Toksen, E., Nemli, E. and Değirmenci, U. (2008). The Morphology of Lernanthropus kroyeri van Beneden, 1851 (Copepoda: Lernanthropidae) Parasitic on Sea Bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L., 1758), from the Aegean Sea, Turkey, Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 32 (4), 386-389. Trilles, J.P. (1969). Recherches sur les Isopodes Cymothoidae’ des cotes fracaises. Apercu general et comparatif sur la bionomie et la sexualite de ces Crustaces. Bulletin de la Société zoologique de France, 94 (3),433. TUIK (2009). Fisheries Statistics, Ankara, Turkey. Varvarigos, P. (2003). Parasitic Isopods (Suborder Flabellifera) Affecting The Farmed Marine Fish In Greece, With Special Reference To Ceratothoa Oestroides (Family Cymothoidae), Vetcare, Veterinary Services To Aquaculture And Distribution Of Fish Health Products, http://www.vetcare.gr/Pathogenic_isopoda.htm. 677 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 615 Title A name given to the resource Treatment Trials Of Parasites Of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and Sea Bream (Sparus Aurata) in Turkey Author Author TOKSEN, Erol TANRIKUL, T. Tansel BALTA, Fikri KOYUNCU, Erkin Abstract A summary of the resource. With over 8300 km of coastline and 25 million square hectares of useably sea, Turkey has particularly bright future in aquaculture. Interest has centred on two major species sea bream, sea bass, Those are most favourable have been the Aegean and Western Mediterranean coasts. Sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 75,000 tons in Turkey. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Thus, focus has been placed on fish diseases in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Especially, parasitical diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. In this study, various studies were carried out in different time about parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Turkey and their treatment were investigated. Different species such as Trichodina spp., Costia spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Ceratothoa oestroides were reported on the gills of sea bream and sea bass in these studies. In this review, the parasites observed on sea bass and sea bream, and their epizootiology, clinical signs, pathogenicity of the parasites and their treatment were given, separately. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/89fea734b952ac399024e1d519d932ec.pdf 84795b2118291da49f1fb9f3b1c50a61 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Relevance of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II to 21st Century Ethnocentrism and Islamophobia Evren TUÇ Department of English Language and Literature Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey evrentuc@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: The obscure and often make-believe portraits of the Turks, coupled with preconceptions and prejudices against Islamic nations of the East always occupied a significant place in English dramatic literature, particularly during the Elizabethan England. In fact, stereotypical portrayal of the Turkish characters was never absent from the Renaissance drama in Europe. Christopher Marlowe was undoubtedly one of those English dramatists who extensively employed Turkish characters and the images pertinent to Islamic cultures and geographies. Among those images are Turkish slave, frequently identified with the Jews, fearful Janissary Army, Turkish Pashas, or Sultans, and other unfamiliar characters that always captivated the imagination of the Elizabethan audience. The aim of this study is to make an in-depth analysis of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II, as a typical example of Elizabethan drama that gives a biased and prejudiced portrayal of Turks and Islamic nations, and to find out how these biased and pejorative images related to this particular geography prevailed throughout the centuries and, finally to seek an answer to the reason why these images remained virtually unchanged even in the 21st century, referring to his above mentioned work. Key Words: Islamophobia, Ethnocentrism, Muslims, Tamburlaine the Great, Elizabethan Period. Turks, Christopher Marlowe, Throughout the history prevailing prejudices have always caused a miscommunication between the East and the West. Though the studies on the reasons of that miscommunication are limitless, very few of them have focused on the literature based reasons. Despite the orientalist images attracted the attention of the western researchers and scholars, and Muslim or Turkish images have an extensive coverage in English Literature, studies on the political and social implications of these misconceptions are very rare. In this study, sixteenth century English points of view towards the Turks and Islam are going to be analysed in order to find out how these biased and pejorative images related to this particular geography prevailed throughout the centuries and, finally to seek an answer to the reason why these images remained virtually unchanged even in the 21st century, referring to Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine the Great Part II. Following the very significant events like the discovery of the continent of America, ‘the Act of Supremacy’, the defeat of The Spanish Armada, “explorations, trade, and the first steps of colonization …, England was truly finding its own national identity and it was a time of great cultural development” (Levin, 2002, p. 1). In this period, dramatic literature reached its peak and covered such a long distance that the era was named the ‘Golden Age of English Drama’. The age was a milestone not only for the dramatic literature and other branches of art but also for the development and future of England. The first political and economic relations between England and Turks were inaugurated and “there was a fashion for plays about Turks (and other Islamic nations) in late Elizabethan drama” (Shepherd, 1986, p. 142). And major themes of these plays were ‘brutal’ Janissary Army, arrogant Turkish Sultans, disdained pashas, ‘infidel’ Muslims and Islam. This fashion was the consequence of the publications about Turks all around Europe, because, “in the 16th century about 2500 publications about Turks … were spread around Europe and in these too the image of the ‘bloodthirsty’ Turk was imprinted. In the period 1480 to 1610, twice as many books were published about the Turkish threat, [which are directly related to besieges of the Eastern Europe by the Ottoman Empire and the conquest of Istanbul by the Conqueror, Mehmed II], as about the discovery of the continent of America” (Karlsson, 2006, p. 6). And The Elizabethans, like all the rest of Europe, were the enthusiastic readers of these books (Wann, 1915, p. 445). The reason for literature based text analyses within the context of historical or political studies on Elizabethan Period Turks or Muslims is a frequently asked question. This is not a choice or an inclination to cite the plays or playwrights because, “if one searches for non-literary evidence of an English ‘colonial discourse’ about [Turks], Islam and the Muslims, one would come up with very little (Matar, 1999, p. 8), so it imposes a necessity to analyse, comprehend and have a grasp of the dramatic literature of the era to have an insight into this colonial discourse. Consequently, “in regard to the source material, critics and historians who have examined Renaissance ‘Islam’ and [Turks] have relied predominantly on works by playwrights such as Peele, Kyd, 348 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Marlowe [and] Shakespeare … as there were dozens of plays about Turks and Moors from the 1580s until 1630s” (Matar, 1999, p. 6). Before an in-depth analysis of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II within the context of Islamophobia and ethnocentrism, the definitions of the terms, their contents should be made in order not to cause confusions and to indicate what is meant by these terms. Islamophobia is a neologism, in fact, “a new word for an old fear” (Stone, 2004, p. vii). Among the numerous definitions, the Runnymede Trust, the UK's leading race equality think tank, identifies the perceptions of Islamophobia in the report on British Muslims and Islamophobia entitled “Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All” as follows: • • • • • • • • Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change. It is seen as separate and "other," it does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them. It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist. It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a clash of civilizations. It is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage. Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal (Richardson, 1996, p. 5). And the second term, ethnocentrism, has numerous components, and as it contains lots of notions as to human being, different approaches and definitions cause confusions. However, Sullivan summarizes the term clearly in his comprehensive study as: Ethnocentrism [is] a perspective on the relationship between one’s own culture and that of others. An ethnocentric perspective evaluates anything from another culture using one’s own values and beliefs, filtering everything seen in that culture with a bias that promotes the superiority of one’s own culture. Under ethnocentrism, any cultural entity of another culture−its religion, dress, language, behavior, religion, political system−is automatically inferior or suspect, [moreover] … difference is viewed as problematic and something that should be ignored, eliminated, or assimilated (2009, p. 186). “Christopher Marlowe holds a most important place in English literature through his brilliant poetic gift and also as Shakespeare’s exact contemporary … and his forerunner in the creation of poetic drama. He died a violent death, stabbed under curious circumstances, in 1593, a time when Shakespeare was beginning to emerge in his full stature” (Yates, 1979, p. 135). Marlowe, who is also known as a spy for the Queen Elizabeth I, “is particularly prone to provocative juxtapositions of allegedly opposed religious systems [and nations], particularly in Tamburlaine Part Two, where religious affiliation first starts to emerge as a serious issue in Marlovian drama” (Hopkins, 2008, p. 114). Like most of the works of Elizabethan Period, Marlowe’s approach to Turks and Islam was nefarious, pejorative, farcical, barbarous insulting, unenlightened and preconceived, and all these images constituted the basis of his drama and these works always captivated the imagination of the Elizabethan audience who were claiming a share on the glorious East against the expanding Ottoman Empire. The second part of Tamburlaine the Great begins with the conversation between Orcanes, king of Natolia and Gazelleus, viceroy of Byron. Ottoman Janissary Army is on the banks of Danubius, and Gazellus and Orcanes express an opinion about a truce between Turks and Sigismund, the king of Hungary. When Orcanes asks about Gazelleus’ idea, his short but significant answer evokes a ‘bloodthirsty’ Turkish image to the audience even in the first scene of the first part via the lines: “King of Natolia, let us treat of peace: / We all are glutted with the Christians' blood …” (I,i,13-4). Just after Gazelleus, Uribassa adds and warns Orcanes about the huge army of Hungary. Orcanes’ reply reflects them as a tyrannical nation: … Millions of soldiers cut the arctic line, Bringing the strength of Europe to these arms, Our Turkey blades shall glide through all their throats, 349 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo And make this champion mead a bloody fen: … (I,i,29-32) Towards the end of the first act, Tamburlaine is seen with his wife and sons while trying to train his sons about how to be a real, courageous and fearless soldier. Though Zenocrate is not pleased with the atmosphere and anxious about his sons, Amyras and Calyphas antagonise and pass their opinions in their trial conversation with Tamburlaine as follows: AMYRAS: And I would strive to swim through pools of blood, Or make a bridge of murder'd carcasses, Whose arches should be fram'd with bones of Turks, Ere I would lose the title of a king. TAMBURLAINE: … And, sirrah, if you mean to wear a crown, When we shall meet the Turkish deputy And all his viceroys, snatch it from his head, And cleave his pericranion with thy sword. CALYPHAS: If any man will hold him, I will strike, And cleave him to the channel with my sword. (I,iv,92-101) Marlowe achieves his goal with these lines most probably to incite the Turkish hatred and to show the Turks as a nation who deserves death and sorrow. Tamburlaine the Great’s hate is boundless and “Marlowe does not attempt to find an answer to the paradox of Tamburlaine's having used vice to achieve greatness and this is left conveniently unresolved” (Burnett, 1987, p. 322). Major provocative attacks of Marlowe towards the Turks and Islam can be analysed under three subtitles. The first is ‘debasement of women’ which is put into stage by the raped and debased Turk/Muslim women figures. And the discourse referring to the Turk and Muslim women should be detected attentively to gain insight into implications, definitions and adjectives. Of these implications, the first one belongs to Calyphas. Though Calyphas hates the wars, though he never resembles his father, and though he is slaughtered by Tamburlaine towards the end of the play because of his anti-war and feminine inclinations, he dreams of the Turkish women as a sexual fantasy. This fantasy is reflected in his conversation with Perdicas to play cards for kissing the captive Turkish women first, and the word chosen for the women is ‘concubines”: CALYPHAS: Come, thou and I will go to cards to drive away the time. PERDICAS: Content, my lord: but what shall we play for? CALYPHAS: Who shall kiss the fairest of the Turks' concubines first, when my father hath conquered them. (IV,i,61-5) Having won the war and captured the Ottoman Sultans, Tamburlaine boasts for his victory and asks his companies to ransack the tents of the Turks and take the Turkish women to bring them to his own tent to celebrate the victory. His command echoes with the following lines; “Ransack the tents and the pavilions / Of these proud Turks, and take their concubines” (IV,i,162-63). His intention is beyond question, because his discourse clarifies everything. Marlowe’s choice of words is over humiliating, amazingly insolent, and outstandingly derogatory. All these approaches are summed up in Tamburlaine’s words: “Then bring those Turkish harlots to my tent, / And I'll dispose them as it likes me best” (IV,i,167-68). The rapes, cuss words and abuses continue in Act Four and despite the words of Orcanes and the women’s begging and crying, no change is seen in Tamburlaine’s decision and he replies Orcanes: “Live 350 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo continent, then, ye slaves, and meet not me / With troops of harlots at your slothful heels (IV,iii,81-2). And just before few lines of his reply, Tamburlaine calls his soldiers: TAMBURLAINE: Hold ye, tall soldiers, take ye queens a-piece,-I mean such queens as were kings' concubines; Take them; divide them, and their jewels too, And let them equally serve all your turns. SOLDIERS: We thank your majesty. (IV,iii,70-73) Before marching to Babylon, Theridamas explains the reason of the Turkish women being with their sultans on the battlefield: “It seems they meant to conquer us, my lord, / And make us jesting pageants for their trulls” (IV,iii,88-9). The words Marlowe uses for the women such as ‘spoil, trull’ are still very pejorative, and affront. Muslim and Turkish women are all reduced to sexual objects and they are exposed to verbal and sexual torture by Tamburlaine. This torture is observed in lines below: TAMBURLAINE: And now themselves shall make our pageant, And common soldiers jest with all their trulls. Let them take pleasure soundly in their spoils, Till we prepare our march to Babylon, Whither we next make expedition. (IV,iii,90-4) The second subtitle can be ‘the humiliation of the Turks as a nation’. The obscurity and abstruseness mixed with preconception on Turks and Islam continue to be seen with the same figures, biases and debates with no change throughout the play. In addition to all the above mentioned scenes, several others which are full of negative identifications and definitions of Turks are directly delivered via Tamburlaine by Marlowe. The level of the hatred is absolutely obvious in these lines: TAMBURLAINE: … Usumcasane, now come, let us march Towards Techelles and Theridamas, That we have sent before to fire the towns, The towers and cities of these hateful Turks (III,ii,144-47) And now, ye canker'd curs of Asia, (IV,i,134) Well, bark, ye dogs: I'll bridle all your tongues, And bind them close with bits of burnish'd steel, Down to the channels of your hateful throats; And, with the pains my rigour shall inflict, I'll make ye roar, that earth may echo forth The far-resounding torments ye sustain; … I will, with engines never exercis'd, Conquer, sack, and utterly consume Your cities and your golden palaces, And, with the flames that beat against the clouds, Incense the heavens, and make the stars to melt, As if they were the tears of Mahomet For hot consumption of his country's pride; (IV,i,184-89/194-200) 351 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo These provocative lines towards the Turks are fairly enough to cause tough prejudices and provoke the Elizabethan audience. The message of ‘cruel, barbaric, atrocious Turks’ is conveyed directly and insistently. As a consequence of these repetitions about the images of Turks, Elizabethan society begins to “apply the word … ‘Turk’ to anyone guilty of infidelity or greed” (Honan, 2005, 41). Third and the last but the most radical subtitle is surely the debasement of Islam and Prophet of Islam. The first attack begins in the Act Three when Theridamas tries to persuade Olympia to go with him to Tamburlaine. Before Theridamas declares his love to Olympia, Theridamas tries to convince her: “But, lady, go with us to Tamburlaine, / And thou shalt see a man greater than Mahomet” (III,iv,45-6). Here, Theridamas compares the prophet with Tamburlaine and identifies him with godlike characteristics. Not only does he underestimate the prophet but also he exalts Tamburlaine. On the other hand, the religion of Tamburlaine or his theism or atheism is one of the most important puzzling issues in the play. As “the details of his life are scarcely known in the West” (qtd. In Marozzi, 2006, Back Cover), many know the historical character Tamerlane as an anti-Muslim. So most critics allege that Marlowe’s Tamburlaine was an atheist and lots of critics assert that the Tamburlaine character was a Christian. In fact, the Tamburlaine character was neither a Christian nor an atheist. Like the historical character Tamerlane, he was a Muslim but towards the end of the play he refuses his own religion. When one reads between the lines, this later refusal is seen clear. For instance, when Calyphas tries to prove his courage to his father, he begins to tell what he would do if they met the Turkish Sultan. Tamburlaine’s reply to his son reveals the entire questions about the religion of him. TAMBURLAINE: Hold him, and cleave him too, or I'll cleave thee; For we will march against them presently. Theridamas, Techelles, and Casane Promis'd to meet me on Larissa-plains, With hosts a-piece against this Turkish crew; For I have sworn by sacred Mahomet To make it parcel of my empery. … (I,iv,104-10) Here, the last two lines divulge all the confusions, because if Tamburlaine were an atheist or a Christian, or if he were not a Muslim, he would not swear by the Prophet of Islam. Moreover, he would not say ‘sacred Mahomet’, because only the Muslims use the word ‘sacred’ for the Islam prophet. Throughout play, we come across the adjective ‘sacred’ in various scenes, but all of them are uttered by the Muslim characters like Orcanes, Callapine and Olympia. One may put forward an antithesis about the religion of Tamburlaine because of two reasons. The first one is the words of Frederick as follows: FREDERICK: Your majesty remembers, I am sure, What cruel slaughter of our Christian bloods These heathenish Turks and pagans lately made Betwixt the city Zula and Danubius; … (II,i,4-7) Here, Marlowe either commits a logical error as Frederick says “…our Christian bloods” (II,i,5) or excludes Tamburlaine from the society of Frederick. And the second reason which may prompt one to think that Tamburlaine was not a Muslim is the first scene of the last act which is the most pejorative, shameful and hideous of the whole play about the Turks and Muslims. “Having ordered the massacre of every citizen of Babylon, Tamburlaine now turns on ‘Mahomet’ (or Mohammed). He calls on Usumcasane to present him with the ‘Alcoran’ (the Koran) and other religious books and orders them to be burnt” (Simkin, 2001, p. 82). This provocation is verbalised as follows: TAMBURLAINE: Now, Casane, where's the Turkish Alcoran, And all the heaps of superstitious books Found in the temples of that Mahomet 352 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Whom I have thought a god? They shall be burnt. (V,ii,171-74) However that never means that Tamburlaine is a Muslim, as “we know from Marlowe’s sources that the historical Timur the Lame was a devout follower of Mohammed, and the poetic licence Marlowe allows himself should alert us at once to the significance of this moment at the climax of the play. He speaks of ‘that Mahomet / Whom I have thought a god?’ (V,ii,173-74) implying a conscious rejection of beliefs previously held” (Simkin, 2001, p. 82). Following lighting a fire, Tamburlaine continues his words as: … In vain, I see, men worship Mahomet. My sword hath sent millions of Turks to hell, Slew all his priests, his kinsmen, and his friends, And yet I live untouch'd by Mahomet. (V,ii,177-80) The point of view of Stevie Simkin to the lines “Now, Mahomet, if thou have any power, / Come down thyself and work a miracle:” (V,ii,185-86) is quite a change and interesting: “The challenge may actually be a sly (and, if detected, deeply shocking) reference to the crucifixion, when Christ was mocked by those standing around and told to save himself and come down from the cross” (Simkin, 2001, p. 84). And finally, Tamburlaine finishes his words: … Well, soldiers, Mahomet remains in hell; He cannot hear the voice of Tamburlaine. Seek out another godhead to adore: The God that sits in heaven, if any god, For he is God alone, and none but he. (V,ii,196-200) Just about five hundred years, scholars, men of letters and critics have talked comprehensively of this scene, Tamburlaine’s burning the Koran, and Tamburlaine’s religious confusions, but Simkin’s words are enlightening and significant enough to be quoted at length: Tamburlaine was a monstrous figure in the annals of history and, as a follower of Islam, a heathen. Marlowe evokes the Islamic prophet Mohammed only to have Tamburlaine blaspheme against him; in so doing, Marlowe was simultaneously raising a spectre that an Elizabethan audience would have instinctively reacted against (Mohammed) and depicting Tamburlaine as a heretic to his own religion. As so often, Marlowe seems to be playing a double game: it is likely that the Elizabethans may have enjoyed hearing a heathen religion attacked, but at the same time it is likely that many would have been shocked by Tamburlaine’s godlessness. Tamburlaine offers another challenge: for him, Mahomet’s failure to respond to the outrages he has committed against Islam is proof of his non-existence, or at least of his powerlessness (2001, p. 83). This provocative scene, which cannot be more depreciatory and degrading for any religion, had already rung the bells of Islamophobia and ethnocentric approaches towards the Turks and Muslims centuries ago. Hence, literary and historical scholars like Honan accept that “Tamburlaine’s three worst acts of cruelty and impious pride occur in Act V, when he destroys Babylon, breaks his oath with its governor, whom he kills in cold blood, and mocks Islam while burning copies of the Koran” (2005, ps. 179-180). Wilson quotes Edward Said as having stated that “Marlowe's ‘oriental stage’ helped fabricate the stereotype of Islam as Christendom's other …” (1995, p. 56), but this argument would be much more proper with the words ‘constituted the basic stereotype’ than ‘helped fabricate’. And although “several explanations for Marlowe's radical debasement of the Turk … character[s] have been proposed” (Brown, 1971, p. 38), they generally can not go forward than an assumption. Of these explanations, Marlowe’s being patronized by the Queen Elizabeth to protect and spread her policies causing these debasements can never be accepted, because according to historical sources, it is surely known that Marlowe wrote the first part of Tamburlaine the Great when he was in Cambridge and after a short time of his graduation, he wrote the second part. 353 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo After all, “In the absence of a translation of the Qur’an or of documents from Arabic, Turkish or other Islamic civilizations, Britons saw Islam exclusively through the prism of Muslims attacking, enslaving, converting (as with the Janissaries especially) and killing Christians” (Matar, 2009, p. 217). But despite the centuries, communication technologies, mobilized interreligious and intercultural studies, businessmen’s and politicians’ co-operations, the negative approaches towards the Turks and Muslim still remain unchanged and “the images that had been constructed in Britain about Muslims over the centuries still dictated both the perception and the treatment of the Mahometan” (Matar, 2009, ps. 230-31). Among the numerous examples which may clarify this unchanged status-quo, two quotations are enough to summarize. First, Charles Issawi, who was a scholar on history of Ottoman at Princeton and Columbia Universities, defines the 15th and 16th centuries’ Europe in that subjective touch: A new act in the Christian-Muslim drama opened with the coming of the Turks, who captured Constantinople, subjugated the Balkans and converted many of their inhabitants, invaded Italy, and twice besieged Vienna. They inspired terror all over Europe, as may be seen from the contemporary literature and also from the prayers offered in churches for deliverance from the Turks (Issawi, 1998, p. 147). Second, a few years ago, Tamburlaine the Great Part II was performed in Barbican which is known as the most popular and the largest arts centre in England and in the Continent. The book burning scene, of course, was omitted and on this omission Dalya Alberge, commented that “Marlowe's Koran-burning hero is censored to avoid Muslim anger” (the Times, 24 Nov 2005). However, it is interesting that the reason of the censorship is not to be respectful to the followers of a religion or to the religion itself but to avoid Muslim anger. Consequently, “the exercise of placing Marlowe within the political, social, cultural, and literary controversies of his age, and occasionally within those of later periods, makes us aware of the degree to which the ideological debates that so intrigued Marlowe continue to be relevant to our own troubled times” (Deats and Logan, 2008, p. 9). And although Derek McGhee says “in the early twenty-first century, hatred, prejudice, intolerance and antagonism between groups are commonplace in the UK, just as they are throughout the world” (2005, p. 1), it is absolutely clear that the background of this history is based on an old story. The examples demonstrated throughout the analysis suggest that those prejudices, misconceptions, misrepresentations, ethnocentric approaches, misunderstandings, bigotries, cultural and religious intolerance are primary reasons for wars and conflicts horror and terror all over the world as in Bosnia, Iraq, Afghanistan, Chechnya, North Ossetia, Ireland, Catalonia and so on, and “the world is not a safer place as a result of the war on terrorism (Lyon, 2005, p. 78). References Alberge, D. (2005). Marlowe's Koran-Burning Hero is Censored to Avoid Muslim Anger. The Times. 24 November 2005. Brown, W. J. (1971). Marlowe’s Debasement of Bajazet: Foxe’s Actes and Monuments and Tamburlaine, Part I. Renaissance Quarterly, 24(1), 28-48. Burnett, M. T. (1987). Tamburlaine: An Elizabeth Vagabond. Studies in Philology, 84 (3), 308-323. Deats, S. M. and Logan, R. A. (2008). Placing the Plays of Christopher Marlowe: Fresh Cultural Contexts. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Honan, P. (2005). Christopher Marlowe: Poet & Spy. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Hopkins, L. (2008). Christopher Marlowe: Renaissance Dramatist. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Issawi, C. (1998). Cross-Cultural Encounters and Conflicts. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, Inc. Karlsson, I. (2006). The Turk as a Threat and Europe’s “Other”. Turkey Sweden and the European Union Experiences and Expectations. Stockholm: EO-print AB. Levin, C. (2002). The Reign of Elizabeth I. Hong Kong: Palgrave Macmillian. 354 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Lyon, S. (2005). “In the Shadow of September 11: Multiculturalism and Identity Politics.” Muslim Britain: Communities under Pressure. Ed. Tahir Abbas. London: Zed Books Ltd. Marlowe, C. (1978). Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays. Ed. J. B. Steane. Great Britain: Penguin Books Limited. Marozzi, J. (2006). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. USA: Da Capo Press. Matar, N. (1999). Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery. New York: Columbia University Press. Matar, N. (2009). Britons and Muslims in the Early Modern Period: From Prejudice to (a Theory of) Toleration. Patterns of Prejudice, 43(3), 213-231. McGhee, D. (2005). Intolerant Britain? Glasgow: Bell & Bain Limited. Richardson, R. (1997). Ed. The Report of The Runnymede Trust Commision on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All. England: The Runnymede Trust. Shepherd, S. (1986). Marlowe and Politics of Elizabethan Theatre. Sussex: The Harvester Press Limited. Simkin, S. (2001). Marlowe: The Plays. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Stone, Richard. (2004). Foreward Part of A report by the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia Issues, Challenges and Action. Wiltshire: Cromwell Press Ltd. Sullivan, L. E. (2009). The Sage Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. California, USA: Sage Publications, Inc. Wann, L. (1915). The Oriental in Elizabethan Drama. Modern Philology, 12 (7), 423-447. Wilson, R. (1995). Visible Bullets: Tamburlaine the Great and Ivan the Terrible. The Johns Hopkins University ELH, 62 (1), 47-68. Yates, F. A. (1979). The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age. London: Routledge 355 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 717 Title A name given to the resource Relevance of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II to 21st Century Ethnocentrism and Islamophobia Author Author TUÇ, Evren Abstract A summary of the resource. The obscure and often make-believe portraits of the Turks, coupled with preconceptions and prejudices against Islamic nations of the East always occupied a significant place in English dramatic literature, particularly during the Elizabethan England. In fact, stereotypical portrayal of the Turkish characters was never absent from the Renaissance drama in Europe. Christopher Marlowe was undoubtedly one of those English dramatists who extensively employed Turkish characters and the images pertinent to Islamic cultures and geographies. Among those images are Turkish slave, frequently identified with the Jews, fearful Janissary Army, Turkish Pashas, or Sultans, and other unfamiliar characters that always captivated the imagination of the Elizabethan audience. The aim of this study is to make an in-depth analysis of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II, as a typical example of Elizabethan drama that gives a biased and prejudiced portrayal of Turks and Islamic nations, and to find out how these biased and pejorative images related to this particular geography prevailed throughout the centuries and, finally to seek an answer to the reason why these images remained virtually unchanged even in the 21st century, referring to his above mentioned work. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8e5b8fce26441670935754343636962.pdf defbce2a3e6e8f84e62d16622e3f208d PDF Text Text Ecological Importance of Birds Mehmet Ali Tabur Suleyman Demirel University, Science and Art Faculty, Biology Department, 32260 Isparta Turkey Yusuf Ayvaz Suleyman Demirel University, Science and Art Faculty, Biology Department, 32260 Isparta Turkey Abstract:There are about 10000 bird species in the world. From the poles to the equatorial forests, from the deserts to the centres of the oceans, from the highest mountains to the hearts of our cities, everywhere birds are amongst the most conspicuous forms of animal life. Of all the animals, birds have been the most well-known classis because human beings have used them for feeding, communication, pollinating plants, and decorate the home, etc. Also, birds are important to some animals for biological control, for example Rodentia. Birds are important to continue ecologic circle, specially in food chain. For the last three centuries, industrial developments and anthropological effects have degraded habitats and caused the natural balance to deteriorate. Approximately 200 bird species had been affected directly or indirectly from these negative changes. Key Words: Birds, Ecological importance, Aves, Ornithology. Introduction Ornithological research has always a central role in the development of certain aspects of our science. In other words, birds have attracted more than their fair share of our zoological attention. Reasons for this are: 1. most species are diurnal and conspicuous. 2. they can be trapped and marked with leg rings or other tags. 3. because in most species individuals raise their young in discrete nests, their individual reproductive rates can be measured accurately in a way not possible for most other organisms which lack parental care. 4. the huge popular interest that birds engender has given rise to an extensive network of skilled amateur observers (Newton 1995). Given the significance of birds for conservation planning and environmental assessments, there is a need for a better ecological understanding of the role of avian community structure in conservation decision-making. Thus, they are widely used in conservation and population trends in farmland are one of the 15 ‘Quality of Life’ indicators. In additon, small landbirds in particular have often been proposed as potential indicators for the presence of other unrelated taxa or as environmental change indicators to be integrated into broader monitoring schemes. Furthermore, they are frequently included in evaluation studies for overall biodiversity conservation (Gregory et al. 2004; Kati and Şekercioğlu 2006). Although bird species have an important mission to continue for ecological balance, 1,012 species are being threatened by threats that habitat loss, human persecution and introduced predators. For example, habitat loss was cited as a source of risk for over 70% of threatened species, whereas human persecution and/or introduced predators were cited in 35% of cases. Overall, twice as many species (54%) were classified as being threatened by either habitat loss alone or human persecution/introduced predators alone than being threatened by both sources together (27%) (Owens and Bennett 2000). 560 �The Role of Birds in Plant Distribution Birds have a good system for spreading seeds. They eat berries and then when they dispose of their waste, the berry seeds are disposed along with it. Bird feces provide good fertilization for the seeds with which they are dropped, giving seeds very good conditions with which to grow. In addition, a lot of bird species may have been significant browsers of forest vegetation. For example, McEwen (1978) stated a large proportion of forest tree and shrub species had fleshy fruits which were attractive to birds. And also, Godley (1979) stated that birds performed a relatively minor role as pollinators in New Zealand forests and that foliage of all kinds was eaten mainly in late winter, spring and early summer, when fruit was least available. Because of extensive dietary overlap between different herbivorous birds and the turnover of both bird and plant species through evolutionary time, it is unlikely that particular plant species have evolved adaptations to browsing by particular birds, although evolutionary responses to bird browsing in general are possible. With the extinction of moas and the recent decline of other birds such as kokako and kakapo, browsing by birds no longer has a great impact on forest plants (Clouth and Hay 1989). The habitat heterogeneity hypothesis is one of the cornerstones of ecology. It assumes that structurally complex habitats may provide more niches and diverse ways of exploiting the environmental resources and thus increase species diversity (Bazzaz 1975). In most habitats, plant communities determine the physical structure of the environment, and therefore, have a considerable influence on the distributions and interactions of animal species. For example, for bird species diversity in forests, MacArthur & MacArthur (1961) evidenced that the physical structure of a plant community, how the foliage was distributed vertically, might be more important than the actual composition of plant species. Depending on the taxonomic group, the structural parameter of the vegetation and the spatial scale, species diversity might also decrease with increase in habitat heterogeneity. Moreover, effects of habitat heterogeneity might vary considerably depending on what was perceived as a habitat by the species group studied. Structural attributes of the vegetation that constitute habitat heterogeneity for one group might be perceived as habitat fragmentation by another taxonomic group (Tews et all 2004). Bird Extinction in Habitats Ecosystem has biotic and abiotic compenents. There is constant interaction between. But, recently, this relationship has been changed negatively. For example, habitat loss is the major factor affecting directly or indirectly the global decline of biodiversity. Being complex to measure directly, biodiversity trends are often monitored as the extent and rate of species extinctions. Therefore, species’ responses to habitat loss are a central issue of contemporary conservation biology (Mikusiński and Angelstam 2004). Critical thresholds for habitat loss have been demonstrated in a wide range of studies using theoretical models. Two kinds of thresholds have been addressed: 1) the fragmentation threshold, which is the amount of habitat below which habitat fragmentation (spatial pattern) may affect population persistence and 2) the extinction threshold, which is the minimum amount of habitat which the population goes extinct (Mikusiński and Per Angelstam 2004). Owens and Bennett (2000) suggested that different lineages are vulnerable to different mechanisms of extinction, with lineages that are highly threatened by one source usually being relatively secure with respect to the other source. Such results point strongly to the possibility that different ecological factors will be associated with different sources of extinction risk. Whereas extinction risk via habitat loss was positively correlated with the degree of habitat specialization and small body size but not significantly associated with residual generation time, extinction risk incurred via human persecution and/or introduced predators was correlated with large body size and slow life history but was not significantly associated with variation in ecological specialization. These results confirm the prediction that different ecological factors are responsible for making a lineage vulnerable to different sources of extinction (Owens and Bennett 2000). 561 �The Role of Birds in Agriculture Agricultural land currently occupies approximately 38% of the planet’s land surface, or around half its habitable area (Clay 2004). The modification and management of landscapes to produce food or other agricultural commodities for human consumption represents one of the most severe and widespread threats to global biodiversity (BirdLife International 2004; Foley et al 2005). The distribution of agricultural land is a beter predictor of wildlife threat status than the distribution of people (Scharlemann, Balmford & Green 2005). Agriculture affects natural ecosystems in more diverse ways, including modifications of landscape, soils, and water supply through deforestation, erosion, channeling, flooding, draining, etc., as well as the elimination or propagation of selected species of plants and animals (Steadman 1996). Agriculture impacts on biodiversity in two main ways. The first is through the clearance of pristine habitats for new planting, with the accompanying pressures of fragmentation of remaining habitats, pollution and disturbance. The second driver of biodiversity decline is the intensification of existing agricultural systems, aimed at increasing crop yields per unit area. This has contributed more to increasing overall productivity of most commodities over the last 30 years than the planting of new land (Donald and Evans 2006). Birds patterns of behaviour, distribution, seasonal phenology and demography track closely onto the spatial and temporal scales of agricultural change. Foraging, nest-site selection or breeding performance reflect features within the patchwork of agricultural habitats. The pattern of events in the annual farming calendar interact with key events in their own lives such as breeding or migration. Their populations or communities vary in ways that reflect local, regional or international variations in land use or management. The effects of year-to-year drift in their demography means that their population trends match the march of agricultural change. Perhaps most importantly of all, the availability of well-organized and geographically extensive data on bird populations over time has drawn our attention to the major environmental changes that have occurred on agricultural land. When coupled with equally valuable long-term monitoring of land use, these data have special importance in illustrating how ecological trends and agricultural practices are so closely linked (Ormerod & Watkinson, 2000). The possible ecological effects of changing agricultural practice or land conversion are many. Some arise as a direct consequence of structural or composition changes to vegetation and the associated faunal communities. Others are mediated more subtly, for example through the changing phenology of crops. In addition, a wide array of indirect influences arise, for example through changing predator-prey dynamics or the chemical influences of agro-chemicals on species composition. There are also knock-on effects on other ecosystems, for example downstream or in adjacent bordering areas. Moreover, the major restructuring of land surfaces that accompanies agriculture is one of the principal ways through which the remaining semi-natural habitats are fragmented, with consequences for species' populations and dispersal (Ormerod and Watkinson 2000). Negative effects of habitat heterogeneity may occur as a consequence of fragmentation, causing the disruption of key biological processes such as dispersal and resource acquisition. However, there is general consensus that not all species in an ecosystem are equally affected by spatial structures, depending on whether they cause heterogeneity or fragmentation (Tews et all 2004). Birds have been widely used as indicators of agricultural environments, and increases in agricultural intensity have been linked with severe declines in farmland bird populations in Europe, North America, Africa and Asia (Donald & Evans 2006). Kati and Sekercioglu (2006) determined that there are 10 specialist species that are highly characteristic and strongly dependent on the habitat types they are found in, as they are found in almost all sites of that habitat type and rarely in others. When distinct ecosystems, such as forests or wetlands, are destroyed, the ecological roles of birds often disappear with them. In many cases, however, bird declines occur independent of habitat loss; exploitation, introduced species, pathogens, fragmentation, and other factors eliminate birds and their services from ecosystems. In fact, half of threatened species are threatened by a factor besides habitat loss. This result is particularly the case for scavengers (100%), piscivores (80%), herbivores (78%), omnivores (76%), granivores (56%), frugivores (53%), and birds that weigh 100 g (73%), all of which, except granivores, are groups significantly more threatened than average. Given the momentum of climate change, widespread habitat loss, and increasing numbers of invasive species, avian declines and extinctions are predicted to continue unabated in the nearfuture. By 2100, we expect 6–14% of all historic bird species to be extinct, 7–25% to be functionally extinct, and 13–52% to be functionally deficient (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). 562 �The Importance of Birds for Biological Conservation The resulting effect of habitat heterogeneity/diversity on species diversity is subject to the measurement of species diversity. In general, species diversity is a measure of the number of component species and their abundance at a defined point in space and time. On the smallest spatial scale the diversity of animal species measured is the result of individual behaviour, i.e. habitat selection, and of course sampling chance. On larger spatial scales species diversity depends on, e.g. the size of the regional species pool and evolutionary history. Considering these aspects, the measurement of species diversity is always a snapshot and results may vary even for similar habitats. Furthermore, correlations between species diversity and habitat heterogeneity in different locations are subject to equilibrium and nonequilibrium dynamics. For example, if species diversity patterns show year-to-year variations this will have great implications for across-study comparison (Tews et all 2004). The ‘structural extent’ can be used when the gradient is characterized by a single variable, whereas ‘structural gradients’ apply to multivariate gradients. For instance, the structural complexity of the vegetation depends on a variety of parameters like height, coverage and vegetation types. While correlating carabid beetle diversity in a field study to gradients of any one of these variables did not yield significant results, the correlation with the multivariate structural gradient was highly significant (Tews et all 2004). The ecosystem approach is also the only way to conserve organisms and processes in poorly known or unknown habitats and ecological subsystems. There are many examples from ecological science of the richness of previously unappreciated habitats, such as forest canopies, belowground subsystems, and the hyporheic zones (Franklin 1993). Habitat reserves are an essential element in any comprehensive program to conserve biological diversity for the foreseeable future. The objective in designing a reserve system is to try to ensure that the reserves are sufficient in number and size and appropriately distributed over the landscape in terms of geography and ecosystem type. Much of the emphasis on reserves for maintenance of biological diversity is appropriate. Native habitats are disappearing at a rapid rate. Saving some pieces has a high priority if we are to retain the species and the processes dependent upon them. In the Pacific Northwest it is highly probable that there are species and processes that depend upon old-growth forest as habitat. Over the short term, existing old-growth forests are our only source of reserves. Hence, decisions about the amount and distribution of late successional forest habitats have high priority (Franklin 1993). Conclusion Based on the criteria used by the IUCN, 21% of 9,916 historic bird species are extinction-prone, a category that includes species that are extinct (1.3%), threatened with extinction in the next 10–100 years (12%), and close to qualifying or likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future (7.4%, near threatened). Extinctionprone birds are not randomly distributed across different functional groups (based on primary diet) or guilds (based on diet and order of food preference). Even though primary diet is not a good predictor of threat status, some functional groups have more extinction-prone species than average: frugivores, herbivores (consumers of nonreproductive plant parts), omnivores, piscivores, and scavengers. Insectivores have slightly fewer extinction-prone species than average. Increased specialization is highly correlated with increased likelihood of extinction, and 41% of bird species limited to one habitat type are extinction-prone (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Higher concentrations of extinction-prone birds in certain groups may lead to community disassembly and to more pronounced ecological consequences than one would expect from global aggregated extinction probabilities. There are significant differences in the distribution of extinction-prone species among categories other than diet, such as habitat, region, altitudinal distribution, body mass, clutch size, and evolutionary uniqueness. Island birds are particularly at risk, although this is due to their small global ranges rather than an ‘‘island effect’’; in our stepwise regression model with forward selection (4,515 species), compared with ‘‘range size’’ alone, addition of ‘‘island status’’ was a negligible improvement (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Bird extinctions and population reductions in the 21st century may disrupt ecosystem processes and services of potential importance to society. Declines in bird species that are important for a particular ecosystem process service may not necessarily mean a decline in that process service if the populations of other functionally equivalent species increase in response. In addition, avian dispersers and pollinators for some plant communities 563 �have low equivalence, resulting in a high risk of plant extinctions from lost mutualisms. Because highly specialized and evolutionarily unique species are more likely to go extinct, the probability of others taking their place is reduced (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Among the bird functional groups that are expected to have more extinctions than average, nectarivores pollinate many plant species and frugivores are important seed dispersers, both of which have important consequences for plant populations and community dynamics. Declines in pollination and seed dispersal as a result of bird extinctions may lead to extinctions of dependent plant species. The former is particularly important in the Austral, New Zealand, and Oceanic regions, where the proportion of bird-pollinated plants is higher than other parts of the world, and, in the case of the latter two regions, most of the presettlement avifauna is already extinct (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Little is known about the potential consequences of widespread disappearance of fish eating and scavenging bird species. There is an urgent need to investigate whether ongoing declines in seabird populations may have unanticipated top-down or bottom-up consequences as a result of trophic cascades or significant reductions in nutrient deposition. Because most scavenging birds are highly specialized to rapidly dispose of the bodies of large animals, these birds are important in the recycling of nutrients, leading other scavengers to dead animals, and limiting the spread of diseases to human communities as a result of slowly decomposing carcasses. In South Asia, the combination of extremely rapid crash of vulture populations, highly virulent diseases, and high human population density may cause increases in incidences of anthrax, bubonic plague, and rabies, but this potentially crucial interaction has not been studied. In 1997, 30,000 of the world’s 35,000–50,000 rabies deaths took place in India where feral dog and rat populations have exploded after the decline of vultures. Although less threatened than average, insectivorous birds include more extinction-prone species than any other group (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Because of their high ecological specialization, many tropical forest insectivores are highly sensitive to habitat fragmentation , and 26% of these species are extinction-prone. Exclusions of insectivorous birds from apple trees, coffee shrubs, oak trees, and other plants have resulted in significant increases in insect pests and consequent plant damage. Natural pest-control services are increasing in importance as invertebrate pests develop resistance to chemicals, and pesticide use is curbed by environmental regulations and consumer trends (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Overall, 21% of bird species are currently extinction-prone and 6.5% are functionally extinct, contributing negligibly to ecosystem processes. A quarter or more of frugivorous and omnivorous species and one-third or more of herbivorous, piscivorous, and scavenger species are extinctionprone. Furthermore, by 2100, 6–14% of all bird species will be extinct, and 7–25% (28–56% on oceanic islands) will be functionally extinct. Important ecosystem processes, particularly decomposition, pollination, and seed dispersal, will likely decline as a result (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Although much research has been carried out in the field of habitat heterogeneity and species diversity patterns, empirical support is almost restricted to studies of vertebrate communities and habitats under anthropogenic influence. In addition, the measurement of habitat heterogeneity is very inconsistent making across-study comparisons difficult. For example, across-study comparison may include the relative effect of habitat heterogeneity between species groups. Furthermore, there is a significant lack of studies that consider multiple spatial scales and species groups within one ecosystem. This approach, however, is particularly important, as it enables detection of keystone structures that are crucial for maintaining species diversity. Examples from temporary wetlands in agricultural fields and solitary trees in South African savannas have demonstrated that keystone structures may simplify biodiversity conservation by protecting a wide array of species and functional mechanisms at the same time(Tews et all 2004). References Bazzaz, F.A. (1975). Plant species diversity in old-field successional ecosystems in southern Illinois. Ecology, 56, 485–488. BirdLife International, 2004. State of the World’s Birds 2004: Indicators for Our Changing World (BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.) Clay, J. (2004). World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices. Island Press, Washington, DC. 564 �Clouth, M.N. & Hay, J.R. (1989). The Importance of Birds as Browsers, Pollinators and Seed Dispers in New Zealand Forest. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, Vol 12 (Supplement), 27-33. Donald, P.F. & Evans, A.D. (2006). Habitat connectivity and matrix restoration: the wider implications of agri-environment schemes. Journal of Applied Ecology 43, 209–218. Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P. et al. (2005). Global consequences of land use. Science, 309, 570–574. Franklin, J.F. (1993). Preserving Biodiversity: Species, Ecosystems, or Landscapes? Ecological Applications, 3 (2), 202-205. Godley, E.J. (1979). Flower biology in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 17: 441-446. Gregory, R.D., Noble, D.G., Custance, J. (2004). The state of play of farmland birds: population trends and conservation status of lowland farmland birds in the United Kingdom. Ibis, 146 (Suppl. 2), 1–13 Kati, V.I. & Şekercioğlu, Ç.H. (2006). Diversity, ecological structure, and conservation of the landbird community of Dadia reserve, Greece. Diversity and Distributions, 12, 620-629. McEwan, W.M. (1978). The food of the New Zealand pigeon (Hemiphaga novaseelandiae novaeseelandiae). New Zealand Journal of Ecology 1: 99-108. MacArthur, R.H. & MacArthur, J.W. (1961). On bird species diversity. Ecology, 42, 594–598. in Tews J. , Brose, U. et all (2004). Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. Journal of Biogeography 31, 79–92. Mikusiński, G. & Angelstam, P., (2004). Occurrence of mammals and birds with different ecological characteristics in relation to forest cover in Europe – do macroecological data make sense? – Ecol. Bull. 51: 265–275. Newton, I. (1995). The contribution of some recent research on birds to ecological understanding. Journal of Animal Ecology 1995, 64, 675-696. Ormerod, S.J. & Watkinson, A.R. (2000). Special Profile: Birds and Agriculture. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 699-705. Owens, I. P. F. & Bennett, P. M. (2000). Ecological basis of extinction risk in birds: Habitat loss versus human persecution and introduced predators. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.200223397. Scharlemann, J.P.W., Green, R.E. & Balmford, A. (2004). Land-use trends in endemic bird areas: global expansion of agriculture in areas of high conservation value. Global Change Biology, 10, 2046–2051. Steadman, D.W. (1996). Human-Caused Extinction of Birds. Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources, http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309052270/html/139.html. Şekercioğlu, Ç.H, Daily, G.C., Ehrlich, Pnas.org/cgl/dol/10.1073/pnas.0408049101. P.R. (2004). Ecosystem consequences of bird declines. www. Tews J. , Brose, U., Grimm, V., Tielbörger, K., et al (2004). Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. Journal of Biogeography 31, 79–92. 565 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 601 Title A name given to the resource Ecological Importance of Birds Author Author Tabur, Mehmet Ali Ayvaz, Yusuf Abstract A summary of the resource. There are about 10000 bird species in the world. From the poles to the equatorial forests, from the deserts to the centres of the oceans, from the highest mountains to the hearts of our cities, everywhere birds are amongst the most conspicuous forms of animal life. Of all the animals, birds have been the most well-known classis because human beings have used them for feeding, communication, pollinating plants, and decorate the home, etc. Also, birds are important to some animals for biological control, for example Rodentia. Birds are important to continue ecologic circle, specially in food chain. For the last three centuries, industrial developments and anthropological effects have degraded habitats and caused the natural balance to deteriorate. Approximately 200 bird species had been affected directly or indirectly from these negative changes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e60a4c35112f3f9ae89cb8d488687c7.pdf 9423d6d78194b2cfc76bed87613bb112 PDF Text Text Production of Organic Essential Oils from Conifers Nezir Tanovic Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina nezir_tanovic@yahoo.com Ahmed Dzubur Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina ahmed.dzubur@unmo.ba Semina Hadziabulic Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina semina.hadziabulic@unmo.ba Elma Temim Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina adnan023@bih.net.ba Alma Leto Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina alma.leto@unmo.ba Alisa Hadziabulic Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina alisa.hadziabulic@unmo.ba Abstract: The aim of this project is dissemination of innovative technologies and knowledge related to the technologies of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs with the goal of production of essential oils. Production of essential oils in rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina is done in the conditions, which are not, at this moment, at the level of sophisticated techniques and technologies. Essential oils are produced partly from widely grown medicinal and aromatic herbs and mostly from plantation-grown herbs. The aspects of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs into distillates and all the measures, which follow the processing, should go through the transfer of technologies, so we could meet quality requirements as well as the European standards. Therefore, the intention is to certify the products as organic and according to HACCP system. Concerning the distillation of medicinal and aromatic herbs grown in natural population, we want to become a part of sustainable and rational exploitation in the way that we will identify economically important, rare, endangered and protected plants and to take care about the total biodiversity. Introduction Bosnia and Herzegovina has a significant amount of resources in the form of evergreen forest trees, especially fir, spruce, and pine trees, for the organic production of essential oil. In comparison with other medicinal plant 319 �species, the production of essential oil from fir, spruce, and pine trees is significantly simpler and more profitable. Especially favorable conditions are the availability of raw materials throughout the whole year and the simplicity of the procedure of essential oil production. The number of processing facilities that have adjusted their production concept to the process of separation of essential oils from the aforementioned forest woods and that are particularly certified on organic principles is small. Production of essential oils from conifers is labor-intensive, export-oriented, and highly profitable. The interest in a greater number of producers of essential oil, particularly conifer oil, is constantly growing. Steam distillation is mostly used for production of essential oil. Water distillation has not yielded good results in broader production practice, because, using this procedure, it is not possible to ensure a vapor pressure necessary for efficient separation of essential oil. Conifer essential oil is used in medicine and pharmaceutical industry. Those are aromatic, readily evaporable substances, compounds of terpenic hydrocarbons and their derivatives. They are transparent and usually colourless. When exposed to air, they get dark and evaporate quickly. They are dissolved in organic solvents, fats, and oils. Essential oils do not have a specific and constant structure. Their structure often depends on different agroecological conditions. Sometimes the structure of conifer essential oil differs in content depending on the stage of the raw materials used for distillation. Essential oils of different organs of the same plant have different compositions, sometimes of the same organ in different stages of development, and sometimes the differences are significant depending on the procedure used for distillation. In principle, forest plant species that grow in conditions with more sun have a greater content of essential oil in relation to temperate areas. Extraction of essential oils from medicinal plant species and conifers is done by means of “extractors”. This concept implies all devices in which isolation, i.e. extraction, of contained active substances from drugs is done regardless of the specific features and physicochemical characteristics of the extraction itself. For more precise definition of the procedure, the terms used are: extraction with organic solvents, water extraction, liquid gas extraction, water vapour extraction (often called hydro distillation), oil extraction, etc. In a part of the scientific community, there is a division into extraction and hydro distillation. It is common to call every isolation of active substances from drugs “extraction”, and differentiate them only based on the kind of extractant and not by the state of matter of the extractant and manner of separation of the extract. The term “extractors” encompasses all devices in which diffusion of active substances from drugs into extractant is directly performed. The basic classification of extractors by the manner of operation is into continuous and discontinuous. It is not necessary to particularly explain that the continuous devices have a much greater capacity than the discontinuous and that is why they are applied only in the cases when the processing of greater quantities of one or at most a few drugs is planned. Material and Methodology The raw material for the production of essential oil is needles of fir, spruce, and pine trees, with the presence of twigs of a diameter of one centimetre. Those are mostly one-year growths of green and wood mass. For our analysis, the raw material in two production areas, primarily the area of Olovo and the area of Mostar, was distilled. The distillation was done in the production plant Vogosca on a test distiller. Before the distillation, the conifer needles with wood mass were cut to the length of one centimetre. The cutting was done on an electric cutter intended for the cutting of conifer materials. Extraction of essential oil was done in two parallel procedures, by hydro distillation and steam distillation. The source of energy for hydro distillation was the gas on the test distiller with the construction for determination of precise analyses and steam distillation with the usual distillation procedure. The chemical composition of essential oil was examined on the gas chromatograph of the Federation Institute of Agriculture in Sarajevo. The chromatographic method allows for quick and accurate extraction of numerous compounds that compose essential oil. Certain constituents of essential oil appear in the form of peaks. Each peak corresponds to a certain component from which the quantitative value of the component of essential oil is determined. 320 �In the production of essential oil, both hydro and steam distillation was performed on two distillers of different construction and operation. With hydro distillation, water vapor required for the distillation developed in the same part of the distiller in which the plant mass was located. A characteristic of this principle of distillation is the inability of creation of higher pressure. With steam distillation, the vapor under greater pressure comes from the boiler and has the ability of a greater effect in relation to hydro distillation. Results The constants that were determined in the determination of essential oil are primarily the acid and ester content. The acid content is the KOH quantity expressed in milligrams, which is required to neutralize the acid located in one gram of essential oil. The ester content EN is the KOH quantity expressed in milligrams, which is required to saponify the ester located in one gram of essential oil. Ester content is calculated on bornyl acetate and is expressed in percents. The most important components used in evaluation of essential oils are the specific gravity, optical activity and refractive index. On the bases of these values, evaluation of quality of the essential oil is made. According to Gildemeister, the average values of essential oil in the region of Tyrol (P. Miletic and associates) are within the ranges stated in Table no. 1, and the results of our research are in the same range. Constants Specific gravity Optical activity Refractive index Acid content Esters (bornyl acetate) Fir Pine Olovo Spruce Mostar Olovo Mostar Olovo Mostar 0.78 0.81 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.88 - 33.8 - 40.2 6.2 7.8 -28.5 -31.5 1.46 1.48 1.50 1.55 1.46 1.46 2.2 2.2 2.6 2.8 0.5 0.7 5.5 -9% 6.2 – 10.5% 1.3 – 1.9% 1.5 – 1.8% 6.5 – 8.5% 7.2 – 9.5% Table. 1 Constant of essential oils at the locality of Mostar and Olovo obtained by steam distillation It is important to note that conifer essential oil contains other extracts as well, but bronyl acetate is predominant, and that is why it is the basis for calculation (S. Kapetanovic, 1988). The main component used in evaluation of essential oil are specific gravity, optical activity and refractive index. Specific gravity is determined by means of pycnometer and analytical scales; optical activity by means of polarimeter, and refractive index by means of refractometer. On the basis of such analysis, conclusion can be made about the value of individual essential oils. Constants Olovo Specific gravity Optical activity Refractive index Acid content Esters (bornyl acetate) Fir Mostar Pine Olovo Mostar Olovo Spruce Mostar 0.43 0.49 0.42 0.53 0.58 0.58 - 32.0 - 38.2 5.2 4.8 -17.0 -21.8 1.32 1.34 1.40 1.46 1.50 1.39 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.5 0.4 0.6 5.2 – 9% 1.1 – 1.6% 1.5 – 1.6% 5.5 – 8.0% 7.0 – 9.2% 5.2 -8% Table . 2 Constant of essential oils at the locality of Mostar and Olovo obtained by hudro distillation 321 �In relation to steam distillation, the values obtained by hydro distillation are significantly lower, and primarily: the specific gravity, optical activity and refractive index. Therefore, the very principle and procedure of distillation on different types of distillers affects not only the quantity of essential oil but its quality as well. Raw material Fir White pine Spruce Olovo 0.24 0.27 0.16 Mostar 0.29 0.32 0.17 Average 0.27 0.29 0.16 Table. 3 Yield of conifer essential oil (% of essential oil fir, pine and spruce) obtained by steam distillation Essential oil yields in different localities differ significantly, although they range within the limits of average values of 0.1 – 0.5 (Miletic and associates). In different periods of vegetation, the differences in the content of essential oil are significant. In all species of evergreen trees, the percentage is significantly greater during vegetation (spring and summer) in relation to fall and winter. Raw material Fir White pine Spruce Olovo 0.14 0.22 0.11 Mostar 0.22 0.24 0.13 Prosjek 0.18 0.23 0.12 Table. 4 Yield of conifer essential oil (% of essential oil fir, pine and spruce) obtained by hydro distillation Essential oil yields obtained from the same mass on a distiller for hydro distillation are significantly lower in relation to the results for all the coniferous trees obtained by steam distillation. Conclusion Coniferous tress (fir, pine and spruce) are a good raw material for production of high-quality essential oil certified as organic raw material. The distillation of conifers is optimal by using the system of introduction of steam into the distillation apparatus with the lowest pressure of 0.5 bars. Prior to that, it is necessary to cut the raw material with the wood mass to the thickness of up to 1 cm. By their chemical structure, essential oils are a compound composed of a greater number of different compounds, primarily of terpenic character. The main components of essential oil are hydrocarbons, different alcohols and esters. The yield (%) of essential oil of all analyzed coniferous trees is greater in the Mediterranean region in relation to the continental region, i.e. the oil content is greater at the locality of Mostar in comparison with the locality of Olovo. The yield and quality of essential oil is greater when it is obtained by steam distillation in relation to hydro distillation. From the economic point of view, the production of essential oil from coniferous trees is justified and significantly more profitable in relation to the majority of medicinal plan species. References Ašić Simon (1989): Pomoć iz domaće lekarne, Mohorjeva družba, Celje, Burger Guy, Claude (1999) : Die Rohkosttherapie , Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Eiden, Annette (1992): Praxis der Naturheilkunde, Südwest Verlag, Steier, Rihter, Isolde (1994): Atlas für Heilpraktiker, Anatomie, Physologie Urband und Schwanzerberger Verlag, Münhen – Wein – Baltimore,. Siegmund, Ferdinand (1995): Omas Lexikon der Krauter und heinphlanzen Behtemünz Verlag, Ausburg,. 322 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 447 Title A name given to the resource Production of Organic Essential Oils from Conifers Author Author Tanovic, Nezir Dzubur, Ahmed Hadziabulic, Semina Temim, Elma Leto, Alma Hadziabulic, Alisa Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this project is dissemination of innovative technologies and knowledge related to the technologies of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs with the goal of production of essential oils. Production of essential oils in rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina is done in the conditions, which are not, at this moment, at the level of sophisticated techniques and technologies. Essential oils are produced partly from widely grown medicinal and aromatic herbs and mostly from plantation-grown herbs. The aspects of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs into distillates and all the measures, which follow the processing, should go through the transfer of technologies, so we could meet quality requirements as well as the European standards. Therefore, the intention is to certify the products as organic and according to HACCP system. Concerning the distillation of medicinal and aromatic herbs grown in natural population, we want to become a part of sustainable and rational exploitation in the way that we will identify economically important, rare, endangered and protected plants and to take care about the total biodiversity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)