30 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c5722f40d65a0b115176d7bd5350baf5.pdf 678d5472019436e15a5fa62ae60130b9 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Types of synonymic groups in Russian Vadim Belov Cherepovets State University, Russia Submitted: 29.04.2014. Accepted: 24.11.2014. Abstract This research has two main purposes: 1) to distinguish structural types of synonymic groups; 2) to verify the headwords of synonymic groups as a linguistic or psycholinguistic concept. Typically, a headword has: 1) common semantic elements, 2) the highest frequency, and 3) no stylistic and emotional connotations. The main source of data is the results of two experiments and data from the Russian National Corpus. The subjects' task was to choose the main words of the submitted groups. We used 32 synonymic groups, taken from the Russian synonymic dictionaries: the first experiment contained 12 synonymic groups and the second had 20 synonymic groups. Forty-five subjects participated in the first experiment, 67 in the second experiment. We distinguished two types of synonymic groups with different structures. The first type (centric synonymic groups) consists of synonymic groups, the headword of which can be uniquely identified by experimental and corpus data. In such cases, the subjects unanimously determined the headword, and the headword is the most frequent word of the synonymic group. There are eight (67%) such groups in the first experiment and 14 such groups (70%) in the second experiment. The second type (non-centric synonymic groups) includes synonymic groups, in which the subjects were not able to choose the main word of the synonymic groups. There are four (33%) such groups in the first experiment and six such groups (30%) in the second experiment. It is impossible to distinguish the headword in non-centric synonymic groups. Such synonymic groups are integrated by a semantic gestalt based on a nonverbal semantic �Types of synonymic groups in Russian code. Formal and component analysis of non-central synonymic groups is not effective. Keywords: Russian language, synonymic groups �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Introduction Synonymy is a problem that is widely discussed in linguistic and philosophic studies because it has an important theoretical and applied relevance. Although synonyms have been studied by people from the days of Aristotle’s “Rhetoric” to present-day scholars, synonymy still provides controversial issues that need further analysis. This phenomenon is connected with semantic relations in language. Synonymy can be found in levels that deal with semantic relations, specifically in lexical (words and lexical phases), morphological (affixes) and syntactic levels (propositions and sentences). This paper focuses only on lexical synonymy. Lexical synonyms are named words (or phases) that have the same or similar meanings. There are many definitions of synonymy, but most of them say that synonymic items have something similar in their meanings: “It is customary to call items having these special similarity synonyms” [3, 265]. Having analyzed linguistic literature, we chose four principal semantic approaches. These approaches try to define the nature of synonymy. 1) Synonyms are words denoting one real thing such as ‘lug’ and ‘earlap’ for ‘ear’. These words denote one real thing but they have different linguistic forms. This approach is the most effective for distinguishing stylistic synonyms. 2) Synonyms are words or expressions that have the same or similar meanings. “Synonymy is held to be sameness of meaning of different expressions” [5, 11]. In other words, synonyms must have the same or similar meanings, but in a pragmatic view it is difficult to precisely determine their semantic identity and similarity. Moreover, synonyms have “the same sense in a given context” [7, 10]. 3) Synonyms are interchangeable in utterances: “Two words are synonyms if they can be used interchangeably in all sentence contexts’ [Jackson 1988: 66]. Interchangeability has a great practical relevance because speakers most often use synonyms as replacements for other words in a sentence. But this approach does not consider the communicative and stylistic nuances of word and sentence meanings. 4) Synonyms have identical semantic and grammatical features. In J. Apresjan’s view, synonyms (1) have the same definition, (2) have the same set of syntactic valencies, (2) are capable of replacing one another in any schemes of syntactic trees [1]. Defining words, J. Apresjan uses a special semantic language. In this language there is no polysemy, and it cannot define all language units. These formal (semantic and �Types of synonymic groups in Russian grammatical) features are typical for absolute synonyms. However, there are not many absolute synonyms in the language but a huge number of near-synonyms. Typically synonyms are integrated into synonymic groups. In essence all dictionaries of synonyms are lists of synonymic groups. The members of a synonymic group have common semantic elements. For example, the synonymic group 'врач' (doctor) – 'доктор' (doctor) – 'медик' (medical man) – 'лекарь' (medico)' has an integrated semantic feature 'medic profession'. In dictionaries of synonyms the integrated semantic feature is expressed by a headword. According to The Oxford Thesaurus: An A-Z Dictionary of Synonyms, “headwords have been selected because of their frequency in the language” [14, 3]. Although frequency in the language is not a primary factor in the selection of headwords: “some headwords of lower frequency have been included because it would otherwise be impossible to find a suitable place to group together what are perceived as useful sets of synonyms” [14]. Headwords usually have no stylistic or emotional connotations. The traditional point of view considers that synonymy is a symmetrical semantic relation, and it differs from hyponymy (taxonomy). G. Miller’s paper [9] is the first step toward making an online lexical reference system, WordNet, whose design is inspired by psycholinguistic approaches of human lexical memory. It was obvious that the inner lexical memory differs from standard alphabetical dictionaries: “The most ambitious feature of WordNet, however, is its attempt to organize lexical information in terms of word meanings, rather than word forms” [9, 237]. WordNet is organized by semantic relations. And synonyms have the central rule in WordNet. According to Miller synonyms can be interchangeable and have symmetrical relations: “It is convenient to assume that the relation is symmetrical: if x is similar to y, then y is equally similar to x” [9, 241]. We can show semantic relations between symmetrical synonyms using the following examples: Figure 1. Synonymic relation ‘тоска' (melancholy) ‘грусть’ (sadness) ‘печаль’ (grief) ‘скука’ (boredom ) �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics At the same time, hyponyms and hyperonyms have a hierarchical (asymmetrical) structure: “These terms both refer to the relationship of semantic inclusion that holds between a more general term” [4, 82]. A hierarchical structure of hyponyms and hyperonyms is named ‘taxonomy’. Writing about taxonomy, A. Cruse [3] has distinguished two types of relations. He called the first type ‘is a kind/type of ’; the second type – ‘is a’ relation. Cruse said that only the first type is taxonomy. For example, spaniel is taxonym of dog because it is normal to say: A spaniel is a kind of dog. But kitten and cat do not have a taxonomy relation: we cannot say: A kitten is a type of cat. The following attempts to demonstrate semantic relations between hyponyms: Figure 2. Taxonomy relation dog spaniel airedale terrier Nevertheless, some research considers synonymy to be both a symmetrical and asymmetrical relationship. For example, The New Collins Thesaurus research group (IBM T.J. Watson Research Center) has determined that 62% of synonyms are asymmetrical [2]. L. Murphy wrote that while prototypical cases of synonymy are symmetrical, in some cases synonymy appears asymmetrical [10, 158]. Hypotheses This research on the semantic relationship among synonyms has two main purposes: 1) to distinguish structural types of synonymic groups; 2) to verify the headwords of synonymic groups as a linguistic or psycholinguistic concept. The hypothesis is that synonymic relationships can have hierarchical and symmetrical structures. Methodology The sources of research data are: 1) The results of two experiments where subjects selected headwords for the submitted synonymic groups; �Types of synonymic groups in Russian 2) The Russian National Corpus (www.ruscorpora.ru), which is used to define the frequency of synonyms in the language; 3) The Russian Associative Dictionary by Sergey Karaulov, where associative word reactions are shown; 4) Russian dictionaries where definitions of words and sets of synonyms are given. In the first experiment, we used 12 synonymic groups taken from several Russian dictionaries of synonyms (dictionaries by N. Abramov, V. Klueva, Z. Aleksandrova, A. Evgenjeva, J. Apresjan). Chosen synonymic groups are presented in all of these dictionaries. Synonymic dictionaries differ by sets of synonyms and selection of group headwords. Table 1. The synonymic group in dictionaries of synonyms Dictionary synonyms of Words of the synonymic group New explanatory еда’ (food), ‘снедь’ (archaic word of food), ‘яства’ synonymic dictionary (archaic and high stylistic word of food ), ‘пища’ (food / of Russian by J. fare) Apresjan Short dictionary of 'пища (food / fare), ‘еда’ (food), ‘корм’ (forage), ‘харчи’ Russian synonyms by (expressive word of food), ‘яства’ (archaic word of food), V. Klueva ‘снедь’ (archaic word of food) Dictionary of Russian ‘пища’ (food / fare), ‘пропитание’ (subsistence), ‘еда’ synonyms by A. (food), ‘съестное’ (foodstuffs), ‘харчи’ (grub), ‘харч’ Evgenjeva (grub), ‘жратва’ (grub), ‘шамовка’ (vulgar word of food) Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions with the similar meaning by N. Abramov ‘пища’ (food / fare), ‘кушанье’ (meal) , ‘снедь’ (archaic word of food), ‘еда’ (food), ‘брашно’ (archaic word of food, ‘яства’ (archaic word of food), ‘стол’ (board), ‘харчи (харч)’ (expressive word of food), ‘хлеб’, ‘хлеба’ (bread), etс. Synonyms of low frequency, synonyms with connotative and emotive meanings and archaic words were deleted. In the second experiment, we used 20 synonymic groups from the most popular dictionary by A. Evgenjeva. The selection of synonymic groups was random. We deleted low-frequency synonyms, emotive and archaic words. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Forty-five subjects participated in the first experiment and 67 in the second experiment. The subjects' task was to choose the main words of the submitted groups. Experimental instruction did not contain any rules for this operation, because it was assumed that a subject had an intuitive ability for semantic selection. However, it was possible that the subjects might not find the headword. Subjects were free to take as much time as they needed to complete the task. Results Having analyzed the results of the experiments, we distinguished two structural types of synonymic groups. These types differ by semantic relationship between synonyms. The first type (named centric synonymic groups) consists of synonymic groups, the headwords of which can be uniquely identified by experimental and corpus data. In such cases, the subjects unanimously determined the headword, and the headword is the most frequent word in the synonymic group. For example, the word ‘пища’ (food / fare) is the headword of the synonymic group ‘пища (food / fare) – 'еда' (food) – 'корм' (forage)’; the word ‘болезнь’ is the headword of the synonymic group ‘болезнь’ (disease) – ‘хворь’ (ailment) – ‘недуг’ (infirmity) –‘заболевание’ (illness). There are eight (67%) such groups in the first experiment and 14 such groups (70%) in the second experiment. The main features of centric synonymic groups are: 1) the results of the experiments have shown that there is one leading synonymy in such groups; 2) the headwords have the highest frequency in these groups; 3) the members of the centric synonymic groups have asymmetrical associative reactions. The Russian Associative Dictionary, which contains a massive number of word reactions, has demonstrated that the headword of a centric group is the most frequent associative reaction of word-stimulus. For example, subjects of our experiment chose the headword ‘болезнь’ (disease) for the synonymic group ‘болезнь’ (disease) – ‘хворь’ (ailment) – ‘недуг’ (infirmity) – ‘заболевание’ (illness). Stimulus ‘хворь’ (ailment) has following associative reactions: a. ‘болезнь’ (disease) in 141 cases of 517 reactions (27 %), b.‘прошла’ (form of verb ‘go’) in 16 cases of 517 reactions (3 %), c.‘боль’ (pain) in 15 cases of 517 reactions (3 %). Stimulus ‘недуг’ (infirmity) has the following associative reactions: a. болезнь’ (disease) in 121 cases of 508 reactions (24 %); b. ‘тяжёлый’ (hard / painful) in 47 cases of 508 reactions (9 %) �Types of synonymic groups in Russian c. боль’ (pain) in 15 cases of 508 reactions (3 %). It is important to note that the headword ‘болезнь’ (disease) has no associative reactions such as ‘хворь’ (ailment), ‘недуг’ (infirmity). Synonymic groups can differ by their degree of asymmetry / symmetry of associative reactions. Among centric synonymic groups we can find groups that have a high degree of asymmetry (like a synonymic group ‘болезнь’ (disease) –‘хворь’ (ailment) – ‘недуг’ (infirmity) –‘заболевание’ (illness)) and groups with a low degree of asymmetry (like 'путь' (way) – 'дорога' (road) – 'стезя' (way) – 'тропа' (path)). Moreover, centric synonymic groups tend to have asymmetrical associative reactions. The asymmetry of semantic distance between a stimulus word and the word associate it activates is interpreted as a reflection of the prototype-variant relationship in consciousness [15]. 4) A definition test has shown that a headword can be used in the analytical definition of members of a synonymic group. For example, the word ‘судьба’ (fate) is the headword of the group ‘фортуна’ (fortune) – ‘удел’ (destiny) – ‘судьба’ (fate) – ‘доля’ (lot). The word ‘судьба’ (fate) is typically used in definitions of the word ‘фортуна’ (fortune). According to V. Dal’s dictionary and V. Vinogradov’s academic dictionary, ‘фортуна’ (fortune) is ‘судьба’ (fate). S. Ozhegov’s dictionary has shown that the word ‘удел’ (destiny) is ‘судьба’ (fate). But the word ‘судьба’ (fate) cannot be defined using the words ‘фортуна’ (fortune) and ‘удел’ (destiny). There are no definitions of ‘судьба’ (fate) using words ‘фортуна’ (fortune), ‘удел’ (destiny) in Russian dictionaries. Centric synonymic groups have an inner semantic structure with a headword as the centre of this hierarchic structure. From the structural point of view, there are two elements: the headword of the synonymic group and other member of the group. They have different semantic statuses: the headword has a dominating status but the other members have a subordinate status. The headword plays a significant role in the semantic descriptions of synonyms that have this headword. It is an important semantic element of their synonyms. The centric synonymic-group headword seems to be a prototype (in cognitive terms) because headwords are “the clearest cases of membership defined operationally by people's judgments of goodness of membership in the category” [12, 38]. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Turning to the reason why one word in the synonymic row is dominant, we should mention L. Vygotsky’s theory, which holds that the main word in the semantic network is the oldest word [16]. According to Vygotsky’s theory, historical linguistic development determines the semantic organization of lexical items. But in cognitive psychology and linguistics, it is argued that linguistic memory is dynamic and “evolves in accordance with a person’s linguistic experience” [13]. Synonymic groups can change: it is important to distinguish the synchrony and the diachrony of synonymic groups. The second type (named non-centric synonymic groups) includes synonymic groups in which the subjects were not able to choose the main word of the synonymic groups. The second type is illustrated by following synonymic groups: ‘буря’ (storm) – ‘ураган’ (hurricane) – ‘метель’ (snowstorm) – ‘вьюга’ (snowstorm) – ‘пурга’ (blizzard); 'плут’ (trickster) – ‘жулик’ (swindler) – ‘похититель’ (kidnapper) – ‘вор’ (thief); – ‘мошенник’ (cheat). There are four (33%) such groups in the first experiment and six such groups (30%) in the second experiment. Below we briefly list the main features of non-centric synonymic groups: 1) the subjects cannot determine the main word of groups; 2) the synonyms of non-centric synonymic have similar frequency characteristics; 3) the synonyms of this group have symmetrical associative reactions. The basis feature of non-centric groups is the absence of hierarchical structure and the independent status of each synonym. It is impossible to distinguish the headword in non-centric synonymic groups. The non-centric synonymic type is integrated by a semantic gestalt [8] based on a nonverbal semantic code. Nonverbal semantic codes differ from verbal units by formal variety, their continuous and unconscious nature and their ambiguous meaning. A. Paivio suggested that there are verbal and nonverbal codes and that memory performance is based on either or both of these codes: “The most general assumption in dual coding theory is that there are two classes of phenomena handled cognitively by separate subsystems, one specialized for representation and processing of information concerning nonverbal objects and events, the other specialized for dealing with language. I will often refer to the nonverbal (symbolic) subsystem as the imagery system because its critical functions include the analysis of scenes and the generation of the mental images” [11, 53]. In the Russian psycholinguistic tradition, L. Vygotsky's and his colleague N. Ginkin's ideas that there are oral speech and thought language are well known [16]. It seems nonverbal codes have a significant role in the meanings of non-centric group synonyms: an integrated base of their synonyms is non-discrete semantic elements �Types of synonymic groups in Russian like pictures, images and circuitries. Their nonverbal code can not be analyzed by logic, component methods. Thus, formal and component analysis of non-central synonymic groups is not effective because there are no common discrete semantic elements. Conclusion Our research has shown that most of synonymic groups have hierarchical structure. It is clear to see that the symmetrical organization is not a prototypical case for synonymy. In conclusion we resume our research results: 1). There are two types of synonymic groups. The groups differ by their inner semantic organization. 2). Сentric synonymic groups have a hierarchical organization and non-centric synonymic groups have a symmetrical organization. 3). Symmetrical organization cannot be a differential feature of synonymy. Most synonymic groups have a hierarchical (asymmetrical) structure. 4). Synonymic relationships can be hierarchical and symmetrical. 5). Only centric synonymic groups have headwords. It is impossible to define the headword of non-centric synonymic groups. References Apresjan, J. (1973) Synonymy and Synonym In Kiefer, F. (ed.), Trends in Soviet Theoretical Linguistics. Dordrecht: Reidel. pp. 173-200. Chodorow M., Ravin Y., Sachar H. A (1988) Tool For Investigating Tile Synonymy Relation In A Sense Disambiguated Thesaurus In Applied Natural Language Processing Conference. pp. 144-151. Cruse A. (1986) Lexical semantics. Cambridge. Geeraerts D. (2010) Theories of lexical semantics. Oxford. Harris R. (1973) Synonymy and Linguistic Analysis. Oxford. Jackson, H. (1988) Words and Their Meaning. London. Kreidler, C. W. (1998) Introducing English semantics. London: Routledge. Lakoff J. (1977) Linguistic Gestalts In Beach W.A., Fox S.E., Philosoph S. (eds.), Thirteenth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society, April 1416,. pp. 236-287. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Miller, G., Beckwith R., Fellbaum C., Gross D., Miller K. Introduction to WordNet: An On-line Lexical Database In International Journal of Lexicography. – 1990. -№ 3(4) — p. 235-244. Murphy L. (2003) Semantic Relation and the Lexicon. Cambridge. Pavio A. (1990) Mental representation. A Dual Coding Approach. Oxford. Rosch E. (1978) Principles of Categorization In E. Rosch, B. Lloyd (eds.) Cognition and Categorization. Hillsdale. – pp. 27–48. Taylor J. (2003) Cognitive Grammar. Oxford. The Oxford Thesaurus: An A-Z Dictionary of Synonyms (1991). Oxford. Tversky, A. (2005) Preference, Belief, and Similarity. Selected Writings. Cambridge, London. Vygotsky L. (1962) Thinking and Speech. The M.I.T. Press. Wittgenstein L. (1986) Philosophical Investigations. Oxford. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2827 Title A name given to the resource Types of synonymic groups in Russian Author Author Belov, Vadim Abstract A summary of the resource. This research has two main purposes: 1) to distinguish structural types of synonymic groups; 2) to verify the headwords of synonymic groups as a linguistic or psycholinguistic concept. Typically, a headword has: 1) common semantic elements, 2) the highest frequency, and 3) no stylistic and emotional connotations. The main source of data is the results of two experiments and data from the Russian National Corpus. The subjects' task was to choose the main words of the submitted groups. We used 32 synonymic groups, taken from the Russian synonymic dictionaries: the first experiment contained 12 synonymic groups and the second had 20 synonymic groups. Forty-five subjects participated in the first experiment, 67 in the second experiment. We distinguished two types of synonymic groups with different structures. The first type (centric synonymic groups) consists of synonymic groups, the headword of which can be uniquely identified by experimental and corpus data. In such cases, the subjects unanimously determined the headword, and the headword is the most frequent word of the synonymic group. There are eight (67%) such groups in the first experiment and 14 such groups (70%) in the second experiment. The second type (non-centric synonymic groups) includes synonymic groups, in which the subjects were not able to choose the main word of the synonymic groups. There are four (33%) such groups in the first experiment and six such groups (30%) in the second experiment. It is impossible to distinguish the headword in non-centric synonymic groups. Such synonymic groups are integrated by a semantic gestalt based on a nonverbal semantic code. Formal and component analysis of non-central synonymic groups is not effective. Keywords: Russian language, synonymic groups Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-29 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22e6f20101adde32da951d136a19d16e.pdf b4be9449854b273c4876b98bac8f668f PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education LoretaChodzkienė Vilnius University, Lithuania Submitted: 21.04.2014. Accepted: 20.11.2014. Abstract The expansion of the borders of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) provides members of academic communities with a challenging opportunity to participate in various exchange programmes. The phenomenon of mobility tests the proficiency level of the participants’ Intercultural Communicative Competence, whichenables them not only to speak a common language but also interact effectively and appropriately in the context of a hosting country. The paper focuses on the case study of internationalisation process implemented by eight European Teacher Training institutions – CáFoscari University (Italy), thePedagogical University of Tirol (Austria), the University of Cyprus (Cyprus), the School of Education of Aarhus University (Denmark), theUniversity of Nantes (France), EötvösLoránd University in Budapest (Hungary), Jagiellonian University, Krakow (Poland), and the Institute of Foreign Languages, Vilnius University (Lithuania) –via the designed educational project carried out within the framework of an Intensive Programme in the socio-cultural context of the Republic of Lithuania. The data of the study based on the participants’ reflections reveals that no matter how positive the respondents’ attitudes towards mobility are, and how willing they are to participate in various exchange programmes, the level of their ICC does not always meet the desired internal and external outcomes. This proves the necessity of Intercultural education to be integrated into the content of many subjects, foreign languages, above all. Keywords: teachers' Intercultural Communicative Competence, Intercultural education, educational project, diary, reflection Introduction Exchange programmes within the EHEA oblige their participants to become interculturally competent. It meansthat mobile members of the academic 159 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education communityare expected to develop their “affective capacity to relinquish ethnocentric attitudes towards and perceptions of others, cognitive ability to establish and maintain a relationship between native cultures and foreign cultures” (Zarate, 1998), and communicate in at least one foreign language. Since the Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) is identified as the key competence of 21st century citizens (Deardorff, 2010), its developmentbecomes one of the prioritized areas in both secondary schools and institutions of higher education(Žydžiūnaitėet al., 2010):“now society expects schools to deal with different languages and student backgrounds effectively, to be sensitive to culture and gender issues, to promote tolerance and social cohesion” (OECD, 2005), and “teachersbecome the main factors of education changes and mediators of society development processes in the alteration of educational systems”(Barkauskaitė, 2005). To support the prevailing demand for ICC development at universities, the target competence has been included in the list of learning outcomes inthe majority of study programmes. Despite the attention given to ICC development,there is stilla feeling of uncertainty with respect to teachers’ readiness to develop younger generations’ICC, which would enable them, first, to grasp the core of their national identity, to become open and curious about other cultures, to be able to recognize the manifestations of behaviour based on the limits of other cultures, and todiscover cultural differences and commonalities, and, second,to shift their attitudes from ethnocentric points of view towards the ability to see the reality from the others’ perspectives (Deardorff, 2009). It is quite complicated to transfer the criteria measuring a person’s ICC from theory to practice. Only a real encounter with an unfamiliar culture can reveal one’s attitudinal and behavioural dynamics,indicating a certain level ofa person’sacquiredICC; therefore, mobility is considered the best educational means for developing a person’s ICC.It provides conditions for creating authentic relationships at the socio-cultural, academic and professional levels. This paper focuses on the development of the ICC of teachers, the people who are responsible for raising their students’ awareness of the existing differences and similarities between their native culture and other cultures, which is the backbone strategy in intercultural education. Thus, the Subject of the paper – a teacher’s intercultural communicative competence. The aim of the paperisto substantiate ICC developmental possibilities theoretically and empirically.In order to fulfil this aim, the following objectives were set: 1. to discuss the scholars’ insights into prevailing tendencies of intercultural training; 2. tohighlight future EUteachers’ ICC manifestation in the socio-cultural context of Lithuania within the framework of an educational project. 160 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Educational project: Participants The implementation of the educational project is related tothe LLP Erasmus project “EMETT – European Master for European Teacher Training”, (No. 134348-LLP-1IT-ERASMUS-ECDSP), the output of which – the newly designed MA study programme–aimsto devise teacher training that will develop knowledge, abilities, and professional awareness indispensable for teachers practicing in the European context. The study programme comprised a mobility term, the content of which was implemented via the Erasmus Intensive programme (IP) entitled “MEITT Modernisation of Europe by Innovating Teacher Training” (No. LLP-ERA-IP-2009LT-0261-LSS-12400-1133). The educational project provided the background for the IP. Thirty-three student teachers of various subjects representing seven European teacher training institutions –CáFoscari University, thePedagogical University of Tirol, the University of Cyprus, the School of Education at Aarhus University, the University of Nantes, EötvösLoránd University, and Jagiellonian University participated in a two-week educational project carried out atVilnius University. Educational project: Methodology A complex syllabus of the educational project was designed to enhance its participants’ICC both theoretically and practically. Further to the lectures and seminars on teacher profession, a number of activities were dedicated to master student teachers’ ICC: lectures on the history and culture of the host country (Lithuania) and its capital Vilnius, theLithuanian education system, Lithuanian culture, lessons in Lithuanian language, excursionsto the country’shistorical places, anobservation of the festivities dedicated to the Day of the Lithuanian Statehood, a two-day trip to the Open Air Museum of Lithuania in Rumšiškės, the Curonian Spit and the Baltic sea, andnational evenings organized by the project participants. In addition, the future teachershad to carry out an ethnographic survey, i.e., to explore the socio-cultural context of the host country. While applying theethnographic method,there was no intention of turning project participants into ethnographers in any full sense of the term (Roberts et al., 2001). We aimed at equipping them “with the ethnographic skills and knowledge” to carry out their own research (Byram, 2001, p. 79), i.e., to develop enough ethnographic imagination to describe, interpret, explain and construct the socio-cultural reality of the country (Bitinas, 2006). The applied reflection method helped the project participants to unfold some particular objects and situations here and now (Zlataravičienė et al., 2008, p. 89), and also to identify thecorrelation between the similarities and differences between their native culture and that of the host country, to become aware of the importance of their own identity and its impact on discovering and interpreting other cultures,and to expandtheir own worldviews. Thediary was chosen asa data-collection instrument to 161 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education identify the student teachers’ ICC-manifestation tendencies through their reflection, for it encompasses the methods of introspection and retrospection that are of particular importance for revealing one’s cultural experience (Bailey &Ochsner, 1983), which cannot be measured by any other means. From the diary data obtained,it was possible to identifythe teachers’ Englishlanguage proficiency, which, consequently, revealed the range of their abilities to demonstrate the worldview and cultural capital (Bourdieu 1994) they hadobtained. The latter was the background for constructing and interpreting the socio-cultural context of Lithuania. This instrument also allowed us to see the events from the student teachers’ point of view and observe shifts in their attitudes. The analysis of the data obtained by the 33 project participants was based on qualitative content analysis. (Žydžiūnaitė et al.,2005).Cultural anthropologists F. Kluckhohn and F. Strodbeck’s Model of “Value Orientations,” comprising such structural parts as 1) the human orientation to activity; 2) the relationship of humans to each other; 3) the nature of human beings; 4) the relationship of humans to the natural world; 5) the orientation of humans to time (Lustig& Koester, 2010, p. 90)was chosen as a methodological background for data interpretation. Key Aspects of Intercultural Education The revision of the research literature on intercultural education allows us to highlight several prevalenttendencies in this field of the EHEA. First of all, scholars admit the fact higher education institutions are responding to a worldwide demand for “interculturally competent”graduates (Paige& Goode, 2009, p. 333). To satisfy this demand,universities are widely considering the necessity to educate professionals who will “help foster cultural self-awareness and intercultural competence among their students” (Paige & Goode, 2009, p. 341), and manage the process of implementation of internationalisation. Further,R. Paige and M. Goode propose cultural mentoring during the study process that will support incoming students “when they are feeling strongly challenged by cultural differences”(2009, p. 335). Secondly, it has been admitted that institutions of higher education participating in the process of internationalisation started renewing the content of the study programmestargeting thedevelopment of students’ ICC throughout the component of experience (Paige et al., 2004; O’Donovan &Mikelonis, 2005;Cushner, 2009;Ruskamp, 2009). In many cases,theperiod for students’ exposure to a new culture is foreseen, which, naturally, guarantees the students’ immersion into a new socio-cultural context and thedevelopment of their abilities to reflect upon it (Zeichner,1996; Deardorff, 2010).Third,intercultural education is considered to be beneficial when studies abroad are student-oriented and guided by 162 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics experienced professional educators (Paige et al., 2004; Vande Berg et al, 2004; Vande Berg, 2007: Vande Berg & Paige, 2009) who are responsible for ensuring “that students would derive as much benefit as possible from time abroad” (Savicki& Selby, 2008, p. 349). K. Cushner proposes to classify study programmes “according to the degree of immersion into the host culture that the experience provides” and recommends relying on the assumption by L. Engle and J. Engle,which states that “the more integrated a student is in the host culture, the better the programme is assisting the student to develop Intercultural Competence” (2009, p. 158). This contemplation sums up the goals of any study-abroad period: to master competences both in the field of the subject studied and personal development; to cross the boundaries of a personal comfort zone; to get acquainted with the education system andthe prevailing philosophy of education and teaching methods, and to expand one’s knowledge of the culture of the host country and the worldview of the local people. The target of intercultural education is a person’s Intercultural Communicative Competence,defined in this article as “complex abilities ...required to perform effectively and appropriately when interacting with others who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself” (Fantini, 2009, p. 458). According to A. Fantini, effective reflects the view of one’s own performance in the target-language culture (an outsider’s or “etic” view), while appropriate reflects how natives perceive such performance (an insider’s or “emic” view). The research literature presents the conceptualization of the construct of ICC as highly intertwined with the learning outcomes of the study programme and the context it manifests (Neuliep, 2006; Lustig& Koester, 2010). There is neither a common agreement on the content of ICC,nor the subject domain that should cover the development of ICC. Some scholars (Barkauskaitė, 2007; Gaižutis, 2011; Gibson, 2002; Lukšienė, 2000; Schachinger& Taylor, 2000) claim that one discipline alone is not enough to develop a person’s ICC, while others (Bandura, 2005; Byram, 1989, 2008; Fenner, 2006; Lázár, 2003; Little, 2007; Nizegorodcew, 2011; Risager, 2007; Sercu, 2005; Zarate, 1998) maintain that ICC development is a mission of foreign language teachers when language teaching integrates aspects of other sciences such as anthropology, social psychology, sociology. The third group of scientists (Bennet, 2008; Goode, 2008; Cushner, 2009; Cushner&Mahon, 2009; Paige et al., 2009; Sunnugard, 2007) believe that the process of intercultural training should encompass all the three chains of a higher education institution, including administrators, pedagogical staff and students, making them aware of the ICC concept and its importance in the process of internationalisation. The case presented in this paper supports the synergy of two fields – foreign language and anthropology. Results & Discussion 163 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education Culture-revealing Models, both vertical and horizontal (according to G. Weaver, 2000, pp. 75–77), equipped the project participants with abilities to identify cultural aspects typical of the host country’s socio-cultural context and its people. Among the abundance of data obtained the informants’ reflections mainly focused on people’s value orientations, therefore, the Value Orientations Model designed by anthropologists F. Kluckhohnand F. Strodtbeck(see Table 1) was chosen for data interpretation. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations. Table 1. Orientation Activity Postulated Range of Variations Being-inDoing becoming Linearity Collaterality Individualism Relationships Evil Mixture of good Good Human nature and evil Subjugation to Harmony with Mastery over People-nature nature nature nature Past Present Future Time Source:Adapted version by M. Lustig and J. Koester, Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication across Cultures, Boston: Allyn& Bacon, 2010, p. 91. Being The culture’s orientation to the value of activity According to M. Lustig and J. Koester’s insights, a culture’s orientation to the importance and value of activity can range from passive acceptance of the world (a “being” orientation) to a preference for a gradual transformation of the human condition (a “being-in-becoming” orientation) and to a more direct intervention (a “doing” orientation) (Lustig& Koester, 2010, p. 90). Having reviewed the data presented by the participants of the educational project,the first thing that draws a reader’s attention is the student teachers’ surprise at theLithuanian people’s pace of life:“Wealways have to be in a hurry and on time. It is a little bit stressful,”indicate the informants from France. They find it difficult to adapt to such an orientation to time, while the student teachers from Italy demonstrate their impatience,statingthat“Lithuanians have lost the concept of time... there exist 24 hours per day, not 30!”. 164 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Since the participants spent most of the time within the academic context, the majority of the informants’ observations reflect the academic community’s orientation towards the value of activity. They point out Lithuanians’ keenness on intensive work and punctuality,misinterpretation of one’s leisure time and love of organizing everything. The informants from Hungary and France indicate thatLithuanians:“plan everything and try to be prepared for any casein life, though it is impossible!”; “you organise every step and explain how to carry it out”. The last comment was related to the tradition of organizing guided excursions to introduce the country or the city. However, this way of getting acquainted with a new country/city was not acceptable for the student teachers from Denmark and Italy: “Your society members neglect a person’s right to privacy: you foresee the strategies of how to discover your country beforehand: book excursions or appoint students to guide us. But we are mature enough to discover your country on our own. In Denmark we let foreigners discover our country themselves”. Lithuanians’penchant for carrying out activities in an intensive way was stressed in many cases and evaluated differentlyby the informants. Table 2 sums up the education-projectparticipants’ attitudes towardsthe intensity of activities in the Lithuanian academic context: Informants’positive attitudes towardsthe intensity of activities. Table 2a. Informants fromAustria: “Everything is organised very intensively”,“agenda for the whole day”. Informants from Cyprus: “The programme is very intensive, even for the weekend!”. Informants from Poland: “The programme is very intensive. Due to its intensity we can see and discover many valuable things, national evenings among them”. “Although the programme was very intensive and I had to get up early, I really like it and enjoy its every moment”. Informants from Hungary: “The programme was compact and well organised”, “really good according to the lecture – leisure time ratio: lectures-seminarsnational evening”, “although I was tired of the variety of lectures and seminars, and sleepless nights, I would not change anything in the syllabus of the programme. I was happy while participating in it, and my university colleagues were happy too”. 165 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education Informants’ negative attitudes towardsthe intensity of activities. Table 2b. Informants from Italy: “Excellent range of activities: diversity of lectures, keeping the schedules, punctuality. What should I say? A good school for army officers”, “The requirements for the programme participants are too high: preparatory work before coming, extra tasks, including diary writing, during the programme. When shall I do all of them?” “I got tired because of the intensive programme. I keep asking myself all the time I am I on holiday or at work?” “Lithuanians have lost the concept of time: you should study a little of Latin culture, ‘carpe diem’”. “I have never done so much within such a short period of time as in Lithuania.” Informants from Denmark: “You want to grasp everything within such a short period of time”, “This programme is too ambitious. From my point of view it is unfair to leave students without leisure and sleep. First, we are surrounded by unfamiliar people, second, the course is run in a foreign language, third, we find ourselves in a strange city, we need leisure to recover from all these things!” “Why nobody told me that I would have to work? If I had known that I would not have joined the programme”. Having decided to participate in the intensive programme and become familiar with its syllabus, some of its participants forget about the very nature of the programme and tried to establish the rules of their owncultures in the context of the host country. On the other hand, their reflections helped us to reveal a definite fact that our society members’ orientation to activity is the“doing” type, where“work comes before play” (Lustig& Koester, 2010, p. 94) and makes people forget about themselves as personalities. The culture’s orientation to the value of human relationships “A culture’s solution to how it should organize itself to deal with interpersonal relationships can vary along a continuum from hierarchical social organization (‘liniarity’) to group identification (‘collaterality’ or ‘collectivism’) or individual autonomy (‘individualism’)” (Lustig& Koester, 2010, p. 91). To put it another way, the social-relations orientation describes how the people in a culture organize themselves and relate to one another. Student teachers’ reflections on this issue allowed us toidentify four areas of human relationships existing in the country: Lithuanians’ relationship with the country residents of different nationalities; the residents’ inner relationship;student-teacher relationships in the academic context; 166 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics and the country residents’ relationship with foreigners. Lithuanians’ relationship with ethnic minorities residing in the country was illustrated by the reflection found in aninformant from Austria’sdiary:“Lithuanians are very tolerant of the people from minorities living in Lithuania (Karaite case in Trakai).” Thisopinion is supported by an informant from Hungary’s insight: “Lithuanian people open up in the run of time, they are used to live together with Jews, Polish, Russian.” The informant’s reflection sidetracks to the conclusion that generalizes the origins of good relationships demonstrated by the leaders of the country: “The President’s participation in the ceremonies on the Day of Statehood (6 July) demonstrates great respect to common people.” The tendency of good innerrelationships among the citizens of Lithuania was noted by the informants from Hungary, Denmark and France: “Friendly, make easy connections, smiling…; there are many old(er) people on the streets. In general, people are happy, helpful and kind, the same as in my country(Hungary) – they are warm-hearted. It is good that even when the financial situation of the country is difficult people are able to smile.” According to Lithuanian psychologist V. Legkauskas,the interpretation ofpeople’s social relationship is always subjective and biased, and depends either on the nature of our interest (2008, p. 149) oradoptedattitudes. Danish student teachers admitthat “people seem to be supportive to each other and have a strong sense of family”,“people trust each other”.Italianstudent teachers point out a “good atmosphere on the buses and trolley-buses. People here are very supportive,” while informants from France feel a good atmosphere “even on the beach. The relations here are good.” However, the atmosphere in the academic context of the host country dissatisfies the student teachers. They describe it as less friendlythan that of theirown universities, e.g. the student teachers from Austria and Denmarkstate that a“hierarchy is evidentbetween teachers and students. In Austria it is not so strong; the position of a person is more important in our (Austrian) countryside areas.” “The teachers do not have much respect to the students, in my country (Denmark) professors try to listen what their students tell them.” It does not take the participants of the educational project long tonote that the residents of Lithuania have a special attitude towards foreigners. Some of them were surprised at the level of Lithuanians’openness and helpfulness toward foreigners (9 cases): “You are open-minded and very positive towards foreigners. You are interested in our culture! In Austria we are also open-minded, however, the Austrian people’s 167 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education level of tolerance towards foreigners depends on the name of the country they come from. And Austrians are more distant from foreigners.” The respondent from Austria’s reflection is supported by a student teacher from Poland:“People are positive in general, very hospitable and friendly”. However, some criticism is voiced at the customer-service mentality: “Sometimes waiters and waitresses appear to be mean. It is a pity that the service staff of the restaurants do not respect foreign guests”. The informants keep comparing and contrasting their native people’s attitude toward foreigners: “Your people are friendlier to foreigners than we, Hungarians, are. You smile at foreigners and help them. Especially you’re happy when foreigners say something in Lithuanian. Further to it, you are interested in who we are, ask about our culture and traditions. We, Hungarians, try to be friendly to foreigners too, we understand that tourism is important, but we aren‘t as polite to foreigners as Lithuanians are”; or “Your people are much friendlier to foreigners than the French people are: we keep distance from them. We also find that your people are very curious about foreigners”. Describing human relationships in an unfamiliar context is one of the most complicated tasks. It requires specific culture knowledge about the host country, time to feel the new culture and experience to interpret it. Although the informants’ skills in evaluating and interpreting the host-country residents’ orientation to human relationships appear to be rather limited, and there is some evidence that reflections are linked to the people they met or situations they were involved in, the data obtained lead us to the assumption that the Lithuanian culture is oriented to collaterality with sparse manifestations of individualism. The nature of human beings Considering the nature of the host country people, the informants identified 48 character features of the people of Lithuania. Friendliness was pointed out as the most typical feature of the residents of the host country(20 cases): “Lithuanians are nice and friendly, happy and smiling”,“friendly and supportive”. 60 % of the informants said Lithuanians are kindand nice: “Your people are very nice: on the bus a girl came up to us to offer her help. We did not invite her; she did it voluntarily. The other one helped us on the street. In Italy people do not offer their help if they are not asked.” The informant from Austria doubts if this character feature is typical of her compatriots: “Lithuanian students are so kind to us. We have been wondering whether the Austrian students would be as kind as the Lithuanians are to foreigners?” 168 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The third feature on a hierarchical scale happens to be Lithuanians’helpfulness(18 cases): “very supportive, willing to help”, “any time when help was in need we were given a hand”. Lithuanians’ well-known feature of hospitality was remarked uponby nine informants: “very hospitable”, “they know the way how to treat foreigners”. In an investigation into the origin of the Lithuanian hospitality, Lithuanian scholar M. Lukšienėcompares itto the feature of servilism described in M. Shennan‘sEuropean Identity theory, which states that Lithuanians might have inherited this feature during the cultural encounter with the Byzantine empire (2000, p. 37). The Greek Cypriots support the researcher’s idea, stating that our (Lithuanian) and their (Greek) “attitudes toward foreigners match”. The Polish informants are of the same opinion of their compatriots: “Poles try to be as hospitable as possible.”However, the rest of the informants doubt whether they can attribute these characteristicsto people in their homecountries: “In France younger generation are very open-minded, however, people in general are not so welcoming”; “We (Italians) are not as hospitable as you are.” French and Austrians admit that their people “keep away from foreigners”. The other characteristicfeatures of the Lithuanian peoplediscovered by the participants of the education project can be arranged in the following order: open(sevencases): “you’re open to the world, and proud of your origin”. The Lithuanian scholar R. Grigasdiscusses the importance of openness in the process of education, maintaining that theevolution of the nation can only occur only when it is open to the constantly changing world, and, on the other hand, receptive. However, openness should be selective (2005, p. 18). sociable(fivecases): “making easy connections, smiling”,“not greedy for advice”. polite (fivecases): “too polite to very demanding people”. honest (five cases): Lithuanians were discovered as respectingthe“family institution“ and proud of “the history of their country”,“customs and traditions”,“their culture”,“their nation”and“their national identity”. Although the majority of informants pointed out positive features of the people in the host country, there were some cases that highlighted the negative features typical ofthe Lithuanian people: avoiding uncertainty (four cases): “you are not very keen on confrontations with foreigners”,“your people tend to avoid constructive talks”. This featureof the country’s residentsis considered negative in the reflections of Danish and Hungarian student teachers. dishonest(sixcases): service people, mainly taxi drivers whohave a habit of cheating foreign visitors, were described as dishonest. 169 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education rude(sixcases): Lithuanian society members also cannot escape the phenomenon of beingblack sheep in a herd of white. This philosophical insight, revealed by the Cypriot student teachers, was meant to describe the rude service personnel who, further to the lack of foreign language knowledge, hide themselves under a skin of impoliteness, and thus tarnish the image of the residents. Despite some negative featuresthat, according to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, stand for the ingredients of evil, the abundance of data presented by the informants reveal the dominant nature of the host-country people to be good. The relationship of humans to the natural world In F. Kluckhohn and F. Strodtbeck’sValue Orientations Model,a culture’s response to the preferred relationship of humans to the natural world can range from a belief that “people are subjugatedby nature” to “people live in harmony with nature” to “people master nature” (Lustig& Koester, 2010, p. 91). Environmental psychologist Richard Knopf maintains that “the natural environment is valued differently by different people. A culture’s relationship with nature is culture bound”. According to Knopf, culture influences the degree to whichpeople value nature and the symbols they use to communicate about it. People perceive and create symbols of their environment based on their cultural experiences with it. (Knopf, cit. by Neuliep, 2012, p. 135). J. Lang emphasises the importance of the built environment of any culture, which demonstrates people’s adaptations to the terrestrial environment. “The built environment artificially changes natural patterns of behaviour, heat, light, sound, odour, and human communication”(cit. by Neuliep, 2012, p. 139). The abundance of data obtained on the “the incredibly beautiful country with amazingly fantastic views, many rivers, lakes, forests, green landscapes”proved that environment is important to Lithuanian society and allowed us to classify the reflection cases into groups describing: The landscape ofthe city ofVilnius: “While landing I saw the green landscape of Vilnius. It is very impressive”.Student teachers from Austria, Denmark, Italy, Hungary remarked on the greenness of the city, expressing regret that the cities they come from “do not possess as much greenness as Vilnius does”. Vilnius citizens’ relationship with the landscape was noticed too. It was measured by the level of cleanliness in the streets: “Vilnius is so green and very clean. I am sorry to say that Copenhagen is far more dirty” and how the citizens take care of the public places in the city: “Vilnius is very 170 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics green, we do not have so many nice squares in our capital (Budapest)”. Recently the topic of the Built Environment has often been included in the syllabus of Intercultural studies. Lang emphasises the fact that “built environment is not random; it is intentionally designed to facilitate or restrict human interaction”and that it demonstrates relationships between objects and objects, objects and people, people and people (Neuliep, 2012, p. 139). The landscape of Lithuania: C. Sauer, an American geographer, advocated “a strictly geographical way of thinking of culture, namely, as the impress of the works of man upon the area” (Sauer, 1967, p. 326). S. Šalkauskis, a Lithuanian philosopher and teacher trainer, was also of the same opinion and acknowledged the fact that “a culture’s relationship with nature is demonstrated by the state of nature as a result of human activities”(1990, p. 19). According to Neuliep’s insights,“a culture’s orientation toward nature affects how people within that culture communicate about nature and organize their daily activities. Knowing and understanding a particular culture’s orientation toward nature is a helpful step in becoming competent intercultural communicator” (2012, p. 136). J. Neuliepnotes that all cultures exist within specific terrestrial contexts;however, some aspects of the terrestrial environment exist in every culture, while others do not. <...> oceans, lakes, streams, mountain ranges, deserts, valleys, trees, and forms of vegetation vary considerably across cultures. According to Lang, the natural environment of any culture influences life in that culture. Physical and climatic aspects of the environment can restrict the kinds of activitiesthat occur (Neuliep, 2012: 136). Although the project participants’ acquaintance with Lithuania and its landscape was based just on a two-day trip on the arranged Vilnius–Rumšiškės–Klaipėda, Klaipėda–CuronianSpit–Vilnius itineraryand a trip to Trakai, their reflections are full of landscape details. Student teachers not only demonstratethe skills of observation and evaluation,they also relate the landscape of the host country to their native countries. The most impressive landscape pictures of Lithuania and the informants’native countries are presented in Table 3. 171 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education Landscape comparison. Table 3. LandscapeofLithuania 1. From the informants from Austria: “Lithuania is a country of plains, dunes, the sea and greenness reigning everywhere”. From the informants from Cyprus: “Beautiful country with amazingly fantastic views, many rivers, lakes, forests, green landscapes; it is so incredible!” From the informants from Denmark: “Lithuanian nature is lovely, not too much garbage.” “The trip to the Baltic Sea showed Lithuania’s beautiful forest areas and wonderful beaches.” From the informants from France: “You are very rich: you have many rivers and forests, your country is green”. From the informants from Hungary: “The nature of your country is unique: 2824 lakes; ~ 800 rivers, churches, castles, beautiful seaside, sand dunes–all of them contribute to the uniqueness of the country”. From the informants from Italy: “The landscape is nice, pristine and very green”. From the informants from Poland: “Breathtaking! We find the nature of your country wilder and more intense”. 172 Landscape of My Country “In Austria the landscape is very mountainous, there is no sea. We do not have the seaside, though our lakes and mountains are very beautiful.” “We do not have such green landscapes, lakes and forests, neither the rivers to walk along.” “Denmark also has some spots of green nature.” “There are not so many forests in France, there are not so many lakes, either”. “Our landscape does not vary as much as yours”. “In Italy we have less green areas”. “In Poland we have a very similar coastline and seaside. We also have forests and dunes so we feet like we’re at home. We do not have as many lakes as you do.” �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The data obtained prove the informants’ skills not only in comparing/contrastingthelandscapes of the countries, but also in describingnatural objects in detail, e.g. water deposits of the country, the Curonian Spit and“the fairytale like greenery reigning everywhere”. With respect to English-language proficiency, the diary appeared to be the right tool to observe linguistic progress: If there were just a few lines written on the first days of the stay, subsequently, the ideas presentedwere much more elaborate, like the following one: “The Baltic sea and its dunes are so impressive! The Curonian Spit makes you feel like you were in a dream standing at the crossroads of northern Africa, southern Europe and Scandinavia”. Detailed pictures of green forest areas and wild foods were found in the reflections of the informants from Cyprus, France, Italy, Hungary andPoland. Some of them are very interesting, e.g. the Italian student teacher notices Lithuanians’ relationship with bees: “I’ve noticed that there are many hives in the homesteads”and regrets that“in Italy it is a very rare case when people keep bees: the level of pollution is much higher”. The informant from France succeeds in discovering several layers of the soil, Cypriots identify nature’s influence on the people’s character and point out the existing nature-mythology-history synthesis; however, this already leads to the other value orientations related to time. The data collected make us infer that nature is a source of spiritual inspirationfor the Lithuanian people, thus they strive to live in harmony with the natural world. The orientation of humans to time This orientation concerns how people conceptualize time, whether the culture’s preferred time orientation emphasizes events and experiences from the past, the present, or the future. The reflections of student teachers from Hungary and Austria reveal people’s evident respect for their customs and traditions. The data obtained on the country residents’ orientation to time fall into the following groups: 1) preservation of the ethnic culture via embodying its elements in the world of nature; 2) nurture of mother tongue, customs and traditions; 3) commemoration of historic events and famous persons. The past is very important to Lithuanians. This opinion was predominant in many of the informants’ diaries. According to their insights, “Lithuanians still live in the ancient traditions, legends, fairy-tales and myths”,“and they care of the past which, to my mind, is theirgreatest value”. Having gone sightseeing onthe Hill of Witches, one ofthe most beautiful dunes in the region of Juodkrantethat is overgrown with old pine trees sheltering the outdoor exposition of wooden sculptures, the informants reveal Lithuanians’ love ofnature, forests and trees. The local people’s decision to 173 �Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education revive fairy-tale characters in carvings seemed to astonish them, which can be interpreted as a compliment:“the best example for the nation to preserve its past”;orasa sneer at “the people’s total regress revealing how conservative they are”. After the visit to the Rumšiškės open-air ethnographic museum, which displays the rural way of life in Lithuania’s four regions, the majority of the project participants praised the residents of the country for preserving the reality of the past in connection with the present. The informants from Cyprus, Poland and France found such a museum to be a good didactic example for the younger generations to discover the history of the country, otherwise “urban children won’t know where milk comes from, as it often happens to children in Paris”. Student teachers from Denmark and Italy find it boring to explore the past of the host country. They claim that young people do not like talking about the past or history of any country. This will be discussed when describing theplace of history in the people’s lives. All the participants of the project had an opportunity to be exposed to some folklore elements during nearly every cultural evening. At the Lithuanian cultural event, they were taught folk dances and folk songs, how to weaveEaster palms and how to paint eggs. These activities were abundantly reflected uponby the informants. Their opinions differ: Some enjoyed “every minute of dancing and singing”while the others wondered what kind of Lithuanian identity the organisers of the project were creating: “I saw parts of the Lithuanian traditions (egg painting, Easter palm making, dancing and singing) but I do not really know whether, e.g., traditional dances are part of young people’s everyday lives or whether the dances are mostly used to show tourists?”.A third groupmanaged to suspend criticism and remaindiscrete, saying that “It is great when people care about the preservation of their language, folk songs and dances, national foods and commemoration of historic events. My people (Hungarians) do not have so many traditions and we do not live by traditions, we care about the present”, thus demonstrating that their culture’s orientation to time is different from ours. The informants’ reflection on the Lithuanian people’s relationship with history is based on the Day of the Statehood events held in Vilnius. Student teachers from seven EU universities had an opportunity to observe the flag-hoisting ceremony at the Presidential Palace andthe re-enactment of theGrünwald battle at the Cathedral’s Square, visit a number of monuments dedicated to famous Lithuanians or historic events, and interview local people atthe monument and inquire as to who/what it is meant for. This interactive way of familiarizing themselves with the history of the host country appealed to the informants’ feelings,prompting themto review their own identities. They came to the conclusion that “everybody sees that you do care about your history, probably you’re in love with your history.” However, sightseeing the monuments and interviewing local residents made the informants change their minds 174 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics and draw a gap betweenLithuanians’different orientation to time and thevalue of historyto younger and older generations: “are you aware of the fact that your younger generation do not like the monuments of the city? They feel being Europeans now free to go wherever they want”. This could be an indication that in time, people’s orientation to time might change. Currently,it can be stated that Lithuanians live in the past, present and future: They value their traditions and find ways to revive them. They cherish their history and traditionsand they want the younger generation to know and observe them.Thus the people’s orientation to activity expands the range of orientation from the past to the present and adds the component of the future. To sum up, student teachers’ ICC skills allowed them to discover Lithuania as a country whose people’s orientation to activity is of “doing”, whose socio-relationship varies from collaterality to individualism, wherethe nature of people is good, where residentslive in harmony with nature,and where peoplevalue the past, the present and the future. It must be affirmed that diary is a rewarding tool, not only for checking students’ linguistic abilities, but also for tracing out the manifestation of their ICC components. 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Tarpkultūrinėskompetencijosugdymo/simetodologija, 4–19, 41–62.Retrieved from http://www.google.lt/#pq=europos+tarybos+strategijos+%E2%80%9Ceurop a+2020%E2%80%9D+(2011%2Fc+70%2F01)+i%C5%A1vadas&hl=lt&sug exp=kjrmc&cp=57&gs_id=1x&xhr=t&q=177.%09%C5%BDyd%C5%BEi% C5%ABnait%C4%97%2C+V.%2C++Lepait%C4%97%2C+D.%2C++Bubn ys%2C+%C4%8Cepien%C4%97+2010&pf=p&sclient=psyab&source=hp&pbx=1&oq=177.%09%C5%BDyd%C5%BEi%C5%ABnait %C4%97,+V.,++Lepait%C4%97,+D.,++Bubnys,+%C4%8Cepien%C4%97+ 2010&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=&gs_upl=&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb &fp=168bb4bdb303db1&biw=1564&bih=587; [žiūrėta 2010-12-03]. 180 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2816 Title A name given to the resource Forging Synergy between a Foreign Language and Intercultural Education Author Author Chodzkienė, Loreta Abstract A summary of the resource. The expansion of the borders of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) provides members of academic communities with a challenging opportunity to participate in various exchange programmes. The phenomenon of mobility tests the proficiency level of the participants’ Intercultural Communicative Competence, whichenables them not only to speak a common language but also interact effectively and appropriately in the context of a hosting country. The paper focuses on the case study of internationalisation process implemented by eight European Teacher Training institutions – CáFoscari University (Italy), thePedagogical University of Tirol (Austria), the University of Cyprus (Cyprus), the School of Education of Aarhus University (Denmark), theUniversity of Nantes (France), EötvösLoránd University in Budapest (Hungary), Jagiellonian University, Krakow (Poland), and the Institute of Foreign Languages, Vilnius University (Lithuania) –via the designed educational project carried out within the framework of an Intensive Programme in the socio-cultural context of the Republic of Lithuania. The data of the study based on the participants’ reflections reveals that no matter how positive the respondents’ attitudes towards mobility are, and how willing they are to participate in various exchange programmes, the level of their ICC does not always meet the desired internal and external outcomes. This proves the necessity of Intercultural education to be integrated into the content of many subjects, foreign languages, above all. Keywords: teachers' Intercultural Communicative Competence, Intercultural education, educational project, diary, reflection Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-21 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PR English literature Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2820 Title A name given to the resource Lack of Oral Proficiency in English among Secondary Students in Misurata: Reasons and Remedies Author Author Elsaghayer, Mohammed Abstract A summary of the resource. The study was conducted to investigate why the secondary students in Misurata were unable to orallycommunicate in Englishfluently, even though they had studied it as a general subject during their school education. Themain reasons for the students’ poor speaking skills are the traditional teacher-fronted method of teaching, insufficient allocation of time for oral-skills training, and theteachers themselves not taking any interest in developing oral skills. The data for the study, among other things, were mainly based on the classroom observations of the lessons presented by 12 secondary teachers at five schools over a period of more than two months. The data analysis was carried out using tables in percentageto obtain accurate results. The findings clearly proved that the points stated in the hypothesis for the poor oral production of speech by the secondary students in Misurata were correct. Based on the conclusions drawn, recommendations that can positively help to develop oral skills among the students of secondary schools were presented. Keyowrds: secondary school students, Misurata, English language, fluency Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-21 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/16981396805b576cd0cee320e93e2133.pdf b17632859b4428957efdc4f83db4b303 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Product Writing for Better Linguistic Acquisition by English Language Students and Cultural Sanja Josifović-Elezović Svetlana Mitić University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 21.04.2014. Accepted: 11.11.2014. Abstract Product writing is considered uncreative and unstimulating, as it trains students to model their output according to rules and patterns. The risk students might particularly be exposed to when taught such writing is their memorising complete phrases, the most common grammatical forms and lexis used, and leaving a false impression of having mastered the register and form of selected writing patterns, and improved their linguistic and writing ability in general. Teaching product writing to students whose native culture has proven hesitant in regard to adopting correspondence as standard in certain situations, e.g. when applying for a job, complaining about a faulty product or substandard service, or writing a report to an authority, may prove additionally difficult and the achievements of a course based on it unintended. Most people’s daily experience shows that the culture of cultivated writing is losing the battle with truncated correspondence via e-mail and other electronic media. In light of this, learning to write and utilize such basic forms as applications, complaints and reports may prove beneficial for students’ writing, as well as their general linguistic competence and their adoption of the target culture. This paper presents the results of a writing course administered to first-year English undergraduates as part of a general English language skills course and analyses them in terms of the students’ adoption of the grammatical forms and the vocabulary/register that are required, or most commonly used, in the selected forms. This shows the extent of their real progress, as well as changes in their attitudes toward such writing as representative of the target culture. It also reveals the role the course has had in developing the students’ awareness of learning as a process and of formative assessment, or rather, specific assessment that focused on a product, while emphasising the relevance of teaching/learning as a process. �Product Writing for Better Linguistic and Cultural Acquisition by English Language Students Keywords: product writing, teaching/learning writing as a process, linguistic acquisition, cultural acquisition, formative assessment Introduction The practice and benefits of formative assessment Formative assessment refers to the gathering of information about student learning during a course or programme that is used to guide improvements in teaching and learning. Formative assessment can be performed in many forms (from simply posing a question in class or asking for a show of hands in support of different response options in order to guide further teaching, to various practice quizzes, oneminute speeches and papers, clearest/muddiest point exercises, various kinds of pair/group work during and after class, etc.). It provides students with opportunities to practice skills or test knowledge in a “safe” way. It usually consists of low-stakes or no-stakes, and/or ungraded (or peer- or self-evaluated) activities, and these can be combined to comprise all or part of a participation grade or all or a part of a preexam requirement. Even though formative assessment is the kind of assessment that is said to improve learning, students do not seem to value it as highly as they do when it is conspicuously related to summative assessment. Our classroom experience has repeatedly proved that formative assessment serves manifold purposes if it is allowed to serve as a scaffold into summative assessment. The scaffolding would primarily mean that formative-assessment activities are being used to provide the teacher with student feedback about how the course is going, and to create a culture of selfreflection and assessment that is focused on learning rather than solely on grades. However, if formative-assessment activities are designed to scaffold into summative evaluation and are worth points, students are more likely to take the activities seriously and put forth the effort; they will be more aware of the value of formative assessment and will be more likely to participate in a more meaningful way. If done this way, formative-assessment activities deliver a number of benefits for both students and teachers. They inform the teacher about how well his/her students are learning the material, provide valuable feedback about how the course is progressing and offer palpable evidence of student engagement (or the lack thereof) and learning (or not). They encourage attendance, student self-reflection and self-evaluation, and allow even very shy students to earn participation grades. They allow all learners to demonstrate knowledge in multiple ways. Process vs. product writing �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Just as we need both formative and summative assessment, we need both process and product writing. In product writing, the focus is on usage and grammar, topic sentences, paragraphing and rhetorical patterns of moulding the text, i.e. formal accuracy and correctness. Rather than creativity and innovation, mechanical drilling is present, along with fill-ins, substitution, transformation, completion, identifying the topic sentence and reordering scrambled paragraphs. Writing is considered a multi-stage linear process that leads to the gradual evolution of the text: prewriting, writing and rewriting. The process approach, on the other hand, assumes that writing is neither a linear nor a mechanical process; rather, it is an exploratory, recursive and generative process. Thinking and conveying meaning through collaborative work is encouraged, and the writer is the centre of attention. The focus is on the process of writing, consisting of prewriting, drafting, rewriting and presenting. It is supposed to help students understand their own composing process, giving them time to write and rewrite in order to discover what they want to say as they write. The process of revision is of central importance. Students are given feedback throughout the composing process, both from the teacher and their peers. Teaching process writing may take a lot of time because students need to learn the concept (peer editing, planning, stages); we may also encounter a loss of student focus or interest, since it may not be suited to some personalities and may restrict spontaneity. However, the benefits of implementing it outweigh the drawbacks in the long run. After all, the process ends with a creation of a product. Moreover, writing is understood as a communicative and purposeful activity; students learn to plan, research and collaborate. Examples of good practice should be incorporated into process writing and a balance between product and process writing should be reached (Brown, 2007). It is not a question of whether to use one approach or the other, but rather one and the other. Contrasted rhetoric and its implications for teaching writing When teaching writing skills in a foreign language classroom, the differences between cultural writing traditions around the world should be taken into consideration and should be made to work for the students, not against them. Some knowledge of contrasted rhethoric could be shared with students at English faculties from the outset, i.e. their first year of study. From the beginning, students would be made aware that, together with linguistic acquisition, some sort of cultural acquisition is necessary, and that this does not deny their own culture, but enriches it. It is well known that each community in the world consists of members who share similar experiences, beliefs, values, ways of working, and ways of speaking and communicating with each other, reflecting their beliefs and what they see as �Product Writing for Better Linguistic and Cultural Acquisition by English Language Students valuable. The same community system works in academia. In different countries and cultures, the way academics communicate with others in their community reflects their shared assumptions and values. Clearly, it is not possible to put all of this down to culture, as different genres of writing and disciplines (sciences, humanities, etc) have their own specific features. Indeed, as technology makes cross-border communication easier, the similarities between two academics from different cultures writing in the same discipline are becoming closer than the similarities between two academics from the same culture writing in different disciplines. Still, one should not forget that culture plays a large role, too. At English faculties throughout the world students write in English, and through their written work, they may be trying to join the Anglo-American academic community. This means following the conventions and styles that this community has developed over the centuries, which it sees as reflecting its values. Students learn some of these conventions. To meet the expectations of this community, they receive advice on how to structure their work and how to use other authors' work in their writing. It is hoped that they take advantage of this help, because not only will it increase their chances of successfully completing their courses, but also of getting published in the wider English-language academic community. However, the Anglo-American tradition is just one tradition in the world. When writing in our mother tongue, we write to satisfy the requirements of our community. These traditions are in some cases very different from what we encounter in the Anglo-American tradition. From examining texts written by authors of different nationalities, Robert Kaplan (1966) identified thought patterns and structures specific to those languages (pp. 1-20). Figure 1. Kaplan’s models of contrastive rhetoric It is suggested that Russian writing, similar to Roman, contains digressions from the main theme of the text to give extra information that may be relevant, but is not central to the central thesis of the text. In oriental rhetoric it seems we reach the �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics conclusion in a somewhat roundabout manner. Semitic languages seem to include repetition and backtracking, involving colourful and flowery language to engage the reader. In comparison, English is seen as linear, in that it identifies its main theme and follows it through without deviating to the end. One practical use of being aware of these differences is that it can help avoid misunderstandings and reduce frustration. Students may write in English with few grammatical mistakes and even have a strong command of the jargon of their discipline, but still their work may not seem “English”. This may be because they are using a structure or thought pattern from a different culture. Undoubtedly, this is not necessarily wrong, and may at times add colour to a dry text, but the writing community they aspire to join has its ways of doing things and these need to be respected. Making product writing more process-like: A case study of Banja Luka English undergraduates Course structure and requirements The writing course analysed was part of an integrated English language skills unit conducted with the first-year students of English Language and Literature at the Faculty of Philology, Banja Luka University. The contents of the writing course were only partly related or completely unrelated to the contents of the unit. The goal was specifically to teach the students how to write job applications, reports and complaints, all of them closely related to perceived young adolescent/student experience gained in the local context of Republic of Srpska/Bosnia and Herzegovina/the former Yugoslavia. The idea was to deal with the need to do guided writing on specific, familiar issues by amalgamating them with standard application/report/complaint forms in English, as demanded at CEFR B2 Level, which is also the level of competence expected of English students after the first two years of study. The instruction was strictly controlled in that the students were presented with patterns and asked to model their own writing on them. In preparation for the writing task, they did a number of related exercises that tuned them in to the structure, most common phrases, grammatical structures and discourse used in each of the genres taught. The total workload was 12 writing assignments, six original drafts and six revisions (a diary entry, general informal and formal letters as preparatory forms, an application, a complaint and a report). Each first draft was checked by the tutor, who marked the students’ mistakes for them to correct in their second drafts (agreement, use of tenses, use of words/vocabulary, use of prepositions, spelling, word order). �Product Writing for Better Linguistic and Cultural Acquisition by English Language Students The students tried to make corrections based on the tutor’s input. Finally, the second draft was corrected by the tutor. At the start of the unit, the students were informed that the completion of the tasks would count towards the fulfilment of one formal requirement (one written test automatically passed, without taking account of the student’s actual writing ability as demonstrated during the semester) and their writing would not be marked. The students were told that at the end of the semester, they would take a written test and choose between three tasks, each corresponding to one of the genres taught during the semester. The mark they earned on this test was their total writing mark. It was hoped that this approach would help the students realise that real work was expected of them during the semester and that the quality of this work would not affect the final mark. The tutoring was expected to truly help them master the genres and improve their overall language proficiency. It was hoped that amalgamating local content with imported genres would aid cultural approximation in students coming from a culture whose political, social and economic interchange is largely verbal. The students are rarely, if ever, asked to use the taught genres in the local culture. In formal contexts, complaint writing is institutionalised and left to professionals (lawyers, public notaries, filling in forms used by specific institutions). Complaining is often perceived as impractical and impracticable in the ‘crude’ local service and trade market. The practice of writing job applications only takes place at foreign companies, which are few. There is no developed culture of written interaction that the students could be expected to have adopted at home, school or beyond. Questionnaire findings To make the achievements of the writing course measurable from the student perspective, a questionnaire was developed, consisting of 30 open-ended and closedended questions. The students were asked to fill in the questionnaire after they completed the course and sat the final exam, which requires that they take a dictation test, write an essay, do two translation tasks and a grammar test, and take an oral exam. The questionnaire was drawn up to show the extent to which the students were aware of distinctions and appreciation of the culture of writing in their local culture and the target culture, and whether they perceived the conducted activities as instructional and, specifically, as helping them to bridge the gap between some supposedly distinctive elements of the two cultures. Also, it probed the students’ awareness of the nature and consistency of the marking procedure, on its own as well as in the wider context of the unit, and their perception of their linguistic progress, as directly attributable to the writing course. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The questionnaire was answered by 40 of the 55 students who took the course, of whom four repeated the year. Most of the questions addressed the students’ metacognitive ability, and some were specifically concerned with their perception of the purposes of the course and evaluation of its appropriateness in regard to their linguistic and cultural improvement, and to the unit and course as a whole. The answers showed that in some cases, the students were not even aware of the objectives of the writing course and commented on other elements of teaching, such as dictation, practicing pronunciation etc. Relevant for this paper is the group of questions related to the structure and contents of the writing course, its purpose and how motivating the activities were. It was assumed that making the tasks motivating would increase the students’ intrinsic motivation and reinforce the benefits of the prospect of formative assessment. Of the 40 students who answered the questionnaire, 23 found the writing course motivating, and 15 somewhat motivating. Still, most of them said it was both the process and product of the writing activities that the final writing mark reflected (23; for 10, it was the product, and for five, the process), which must be seen as a positive achievement of the course. Defining literacy, most of the respondents said it was an issue of using grammar and vocabulary, and only very few were aware of functional literacy. Thirty respondents found the course relevant for their improvement of English, but fewer than half said it contributed to their literacy in English. This reflects their assessment of their improvement in the use of the English grammar and lexis: Most of them gave both aspects a 3 on a scale of 1 to 5. The fact that half of the respondents did not consider functional writing a significant life skill might lead to an essentialist conclusion that the local culture indeed largely depends on verbal communication and social relations are still significantly verbally organised. Conclusion Whereas the formal limitations do not allow this paper’s authors to more closely examine the types of mistakes and the progress of individual students following the completion of the presented course, it is possible to conclude that for the students appreciating the general method of work at the Department, the writing course has meant general linguistic improvement in English and better approximation to the target culture, which in itself again points to the relevance of affective factors. The practiced forms are generally no longer perceived as strange, and if required, the students would be capable of using them. The procedure of formative assessment used in the course has only partly amended the students’ perception of assessment as necessarily summative, with some students being able to distinguish between the �Product Writing for Better Linguistic and Cultural Acquisition by English Language Students various elements integrated in the assessment practice as formatively and summatively relevant for their progress and studies. References Brown H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles. An interactive approach to Language Pedagogy. Harlow: Longman. Kaplan, R. B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. Language Learning 16 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2823 Title A name given to the resource Product Writing for Better Linguistic and Cultural Acquisition by English Language Students Author Author Josifović-Elezović, Sanja Mitić, Svetlana Abstract A summary of the resource. Product writing is considered uncreative and unstimulating, as it trains students to model their output according to rules and patterns. The risk students might particularly be exposed to when taught such writing is their memorising complete phrases, the most common grammatical forms and lexis used, and leaving a false impression of having mastered the register and form of selected writing patterns, and improved their linguistic and writing ability in general. Teaching product writing to students whose native culture has proven hesitant in regard to adopting correspondence as standard in certain situations, e.g. when applying for a job, complaining about a faulty product or substandard service, or writing a report to an authority, may prove additionally difficult and the achievements of a course based on it unintended. Most people’s daily experience shows that the culture of cultivated writing is losing the battle with truncated correspondence via e-mail and other electronic media. In light of this, learning to write and utilize such basic forms as applications, complaints and reports may prove beneficial for students’ writing, as well as their general linguistic competence and their adoption of the target culture. This paper presents the results of a writing course administered to first-year English undergraduates as part of a general English language skills course and analyses them in terms of the students’ adoption of the grammatical forms and the vocabulary/register that are required, or most commonly used, in the selected forms. This shows the extent of their real progress, as well as changes in their attitudes toward such writing as representative of the target culture. It also reveals the role the course has had in developing the students’ awareness of learning as a process and of formative assessment, or rather, specific assessment that focused on a product, while emphasising the relevance of teaching/learning as a process. Keywords: product writing, teaching/learning writing as a process, linguistic acquisition, cultural acquisition, formative assessment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-21 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/637ae320302cb0e7c17af4d7fae51c65.pdf b75bee6ae7827368750342798cf90280 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science David Dunér Lund University, Sweden Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 23.11.2014. Abstract The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. In this paper I will explain the use of conceptual metaphors in science, with examples from the mechanistic worldview of the 17th and 18th century. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, we could get close to an understanding of how scientists during the scientific revolution shaped their ideas about the invisible geometry of matter. This is a cognitive history of ideas. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. These approaches try to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science. The aim of the cognitive history of science is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories. The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. Keywords: metaphors, cognition, cognitive history, Sweden Introduction Cognitive history concerns how humans in the past used their cognitive abilities in order to understand the world around them and to orient themselves in it, but also 49 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science how the world outside their bodies affected their way of thinking. The objective of this paper is to lay the theoretical basis for a cognitive approach to history, providing the tools for a cognitive history that can be tested on the historical sources in order to providing new insights into how people in history perceived their world as a result of an interaction between mind and its environment. This approach has also interdisciplinary consequences. A cognitive history can provide empirical historical data to the research into the biocultural co-evolution of human cognition. There are three steps towards a cognitive history. First, we have to lay the theoretical foundations for a cognitive approach to history, a new historical theory and method enlightened by cognitive science. If cognitive science is right in its claims concerning human thinking, then its theories must also be valid for people in history with whom we share same cognitive abilities. The second step would be to test the theories of cognitive science on the historical sources to ascertain whether they lead to new explanations and a deeper understanding of human cognitive creativity in history. By these cognitive theories we can open up the hidden thought processes of humans in the past and come closer to an understanding of how people thought, not only what they thought, and further study the interaction between the human mind and the surrounding world. The most ambitious step, the third step, is in the long run also to inform the research on the cognitive evolution of the human mind. History can, I believe, contribute to cognitive science and provide empirical historical data concerning how human cognition is a result of time, of history, personal and collective memories, and as a result of the human mind’s interaction with its specific environment in time and space. The first step, that of identifying plausible theories for a cognitive history, is not enough.These theories should also begin doing some work; it must be possible to implement themon the historical sources. A new theory for historical research is of no use if it cannot show any new results, give new explanations and enhance our understanding of the human past. In the long run, this enterprise can contribute to the research on the evolution of cognition, and, as it were, connect Palaeolithic man with the postmodern by studying the cultural evolution and its impact on human cognition. In order to exemplify the concepts involved, I have chosen examples from the early modern period, that especially was crucial for the emergence of modern scientific thought, but I believe that it could and should be possible to implement a cognitivehistorical method on any kind of historical period, topic or material. The early modern period was a time in human history when modern science began to take shape. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, human beings showed a growing interest in the world around them. A new knowledge of nature was acquired, 50 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics efficient mathematical tools were constructed and inexorable mechanical laws were introduced. The labyrinths of the human body were mapped; merchants and explorers set foot in foreign lands, and plants and animals were classified in an allencompassing system. Humankind sought an order in the world, an assumption that the effect followed the cause, and that nothing happens arbitrarily. In order to understand the world around them, they used their cognitive capacities that had gradually been evolving for millions of years. Metaphors of the mind The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis, proposed in cognitive semantics, is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, in other words, if we consider how people think, not just what they think, we could get close to an understanding of how they shaped their ideas about the world. This is a cognitive history of ideas, a history of thinking. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research into different cognitive explanatory models of human expressions and cultural evolution, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. 1 These approaches are combined in a theory of cognitive science in order to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science.2 The aim of the cognitive history of science suggested here is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories.3 Research in 1 Scott Atran, Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990); Michael Tomasello, The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition (Cambridge MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1999); Mark Turner, ‘The Cognitive Study of Art, Language, and Literature’, Poetics Today, 2002, 1:9–22; Alan Richardson & Francis F. Steen, ‘Literature and the Cognitive Revolution: An Introduction’, Poetics Today, 2002, 1:1–8; Michael Tomasello, ‘Uniquely Human Cognition Is a Product of Human Culture’, Evolution and Culture: A Fryssen Foundation Symposium, eds. S. C. Levinson & P. Jaisson (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2005), p. 203–217; Scott Atran & Douglas L. Medin, The Native Mind and the Cultural Construction of Nature (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2008); Brian Boyd, On the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition, and Fiction (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009); Denis Dutton, The Art Instinct: Beauty, Pleasure, and Human Evolution (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009). 2 Steven Mithen, The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion, and Science (London: Thames & Hudson, 1996); Colin Renfrew, Chris Frith & Lambros Malafouris (eds.), The Sapient Mind: Archaeology Meets Neuroscience (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009). 3 Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘How do Scientists Think? Capturing the Dynamics of Conceptual Change in Science’, Cognitive Models of Science, ed. R. N. Giere (Minneapolis MN: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1992), p. 4–7, 36–38; Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘Opening the Black Box: Cognitive Science and History of Science’, Osiris, 1995, p. 194–211; Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘Interpreting Scientific and Engineering Practices: Integrating the Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Dimensions’, Scientific and Technological 51 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science cognitive history has generally dealt with the fundamental cognitive practices such as reading and counting, as well as scientific and religious perceptions.4 There are at least three assumptions about thought that a cognitive history of ideas can rest on. In cognitive science it has been ascertained, firstly, that our concepts and reason are associated with and structured by the body, the brain, and our everyday action in the world.5 Mind is embodied, situated and distributed. Space, the environment in which we live, the registration of the senses, and the movement of the body through the physical landscape, all are significant for thought. Secondly, it has been shown that most of our thinking takes place without us being aware of it. There are unconscious cognitive processes to which the conscious mind has no access, such as memories, mental images, conclusions, and perceptions of meanings. The unconscious conceptual system structures our conscious thought. Thirdly, reason is metaphorical, that is, abstract concepts are understood in terms of concrete ones, as conceptual metaphors allow us to think about one thing with the aid of something else. Based on a knowledge of the known, we draw conclusions about the unknown. Thinking, eds. M. E. Gorman et al. (Mahwah NJ: L. Erlbaum, 2005); see also E. Thomas Lawson, ‘Counterintuitive Notions and the Problem of Transmission: The Relevance of Cognitive Science for the Study of History’, Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historique, 1994, 3:481–495; David Gooding, ‘Cognitive History of Science: The Roles of Diagrammatic Representations in Discovery and Modeling Discovery’, Theory and Application of Diagrams (Berlin: Springer, 2000); Ryan D. Tweney, ‘Scientific Thinking: A Cognitive-Historical Approach’, Designing for Science: Implications from Everyday, Classroom, and Professional Settings, eds. K. Crowley, C. D. Schunn & T. Okada (Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001), p. 141–173; Peter Carruthers, Stephen Stich & Michael Siegal (eds.), The Cognitive Basis of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002); Christophe Heintz, ‘Introduction: Why There Should Be a Cognitive Anthropology of Science’, Journal of Cognition and Culture, 2004, 3:391–408; E. Thomas Lawson, ‘The Wedding of Psychology, Ethnography, and History: Methodological Bigamy or Tripartite Free Love?’, Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, History, and Cognition, eds. H. Whitehouse & L. H. Martin (Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), p. 1–5; Harvey Whitehouse, ‘Cognitive Historiography: When Science Meets Art’, Historical reflections/Réflexions historiques, 2005, 2:307–318. 4 David R. Olson, The World on Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implications of Writing and Reading (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996); Reviel Netz, The Shaping of Deduction in Greek Mathematics: A Study in Cognitive History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999); Hanne Andersen, Peter Barker & Xiang Chen, The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006); Luther H. Martin & Jesper Sørensen, Past Minds: Studies in Cognitive Historiography (London: Equinox Publishing, 2011). 5 George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought (New York NY: Basic Books, 1999), p. 3, 7, 10; Mark Johnson, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason (Chicago IL: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1987); Francisco J. Varela, Evan Thompson & Eleanor Rosch, The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1991); John Krois et al. (eds.), Embodiment in Cognition and Culture (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2007); Paco Calvo & Toni Gomila (eds.), Handbook of Cognitive Science: An Embodied Approach (Oxford: Elsevier Science, 2008). 52 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. In cognitive semantics, as represented by George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, and others, certain conclusions have been drawn from assumptions in cognitive science about the way humans think. One feature that has been seized on is the fact that humans think metaphorically. Our basic concepts do not function beyond our everyday experiences. To conceptualize non-everyday phenomena or abstract thoughts requires conceptual metaphors. Metaphor can then mean understanding and experiencing something with the aid of something else, or that a structure in one domain is transferred to another, from a source (the sensorimotor domain) to a target (subjective experience) which simultaneously preserves the deductive structure. Metaphors entail conceptualizing something in terms of some other thing, and function in a way as models for less well-known areas. We transfer knowledge about the known to the unknown, from the familiar to the unfamiliar, from the commonplace world, society, human life, engineering and handicraft, to the invisible particle world, to the soul and God. One could say that metaphorical thought means finding similarities between things, but also forgetting dissimilarities, being able to generalize and abstract. The creation and use of metaphors requires creativity and imagination. Many of our fundamental concepts are organized on the basis of one or more spatial metaphors.6 There are metaphors that transfer a structure, or proceed from a spatial orientation that arises from the action of the body in physical reality. Our experiences of physical objects give rise to ontological metaphors, that is, seeing events, emotions, ideas, and states as objects, entities, substances, or containers. They can be metaphors such as imagining life as a journey or intellectual influence as a physical force. Time can be understood spatially as something flowing along a line or in a circle. Thinking can be described in terms of movement, moving forward step by step without skipping any stages, or taking the straightest course to the conclusion without going in circles or getting away from the subject. To think is to travel. It is a walk along a path, a voyage on the sea, a journey with or without a goal. The 6George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago IL: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 14, 17, 25, 30; cf. Peter Gärdenfors, Conceptual Spaces: The Geometry of Thought (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2000), p. 2, 255. 53 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science researcher can get lost in the labyrinth of reality. He cannot find the narrow trail out of the jungle, he can be driven off course on the ocean of knowledge, or after much searching he may find the straight road towards the goal, ‘truth’. The landscape with its settlement, habitability, shifts of light and shade, also gives conceptual patterns. Wilderness and darkness are ignorance and irrationality. Fortified castles and light represent sure knowledge and wisdom. To think is also to see. Knowledge is vision. What is unknown, difficult to comprehend, is obscure darkness. Without knowledge we grope in the dark. To acquire knowledge is to shed light on things, a knowledge that enables us to see and allows new findings to see the light of day. Knowledge brings enlightenment, we see, feel, everything is clear. What is significant and important is of greater weight or size. Similarity is understood as physical nearness, difficulties are burdens, and organizational structures are like physical structures. These metaphors are used unconsciously, automatically in everyday life and arise from our quotidian experience. Without metaphors, abstract reasoning would be impossible.7 Metaphorical concepts have their origin not just in our physical but also in our cultural experience. The more layers of metaphors we employ, the more abstract and culturally specific the concept becomes.8 Some metaphors proceed from some special cultural knowledge, for example metaphors based on Euclidean geometry. People who live in cultures with no knowledge of Euclidean geometry would not understand such metaphors. Euclidean geometry gives the world a specific visual metaphorical structure, a world of relations between points, lines, and circles. In many cases, then, scientific theories and concepts about the world are founded on spatial metaphors with a physical and cultural origin. Philosophers and natural scientists use the same conceptual system as ordinary people in their own culture. In philosophical theories they incorporate the concepts available in the historical context and the general theories, models, and metaphors that are common and typical in the culture to which they belong, but they also rework these basic concepts, see new links, and draw new conclusions. It is the shared concepts and ideas that make a specific philosophical theory comprehensible to people within a particular culture. Philosophical theories can be interpreted as attempts to refine, expand, clarify, and make consistent certain common metaphors and ‘popular’ or ‘general’ theories shared by people in a culture. What a particular philosophical theory also does is to select the ‘right’ metaphors. Differences between philosophical views thus depend on different choices of metaphors. Each philosopher’s metaphysics has its origin in what 7 Lakoff & Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, p. 59; George Lakoff & Rafael E. Núñez, Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being (New York NY: Basic Books, 2000), p. 41. 8 Marcel Danesi, ‘The Dimensionality of Metaphor’, Sign Systems Studies, 1999, 27:60–87, on p. 73– 74, 78. 54 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics he takes as central metaphors. A ‘world-view’ can therefore be regarded as a consistent constellation of concepts, especially metaphorical concepts, over one or more conceptual domains.9 The world-view is the reality for the people of its time. In philosophical analysis and scientific theory formation, then, metaphors play an important part. Philosophical and scientific texts are more or less strewn with metaphors, analogies, metonymies, similes, and comparisons. In the history of science they have often been dismissed as unscientific and uninteresting adornment.10 They have mostly been regarded as poetic whims, educational and rhetorical devices, or simply as superfluous linguistic expressions that obscure the view of the true logical structure of the scientific arguments, the purely rational scientific and mathematical. Against this I claim that metaphors, the linguistic form, the tropes that modify the basic meaning of a word, are of crucial importance. They are not mere external ornament, but a major part of creative thought by establishing visual analogies and abstract ideas. For this reason they also provide valuable clues to how scientists think. Scientific reasoning uses metaphors to a great extent as conceptual tools or as theoretical models of the external world. Structural metaphors and process metaphors are particularly common in scientific reasoning, metaphors that try to get away from the emotional and subjective. In science one must form new concepts for the new phenomena one is describing, and this is often done with the aid of metaphors related to what is already known. Conclusion We can divide the cognitive-historical agenda into three undertakings: i) to delve into the current theories of cognitive science, to evaluate and select the most useful theories for historical research; ii) to collect historical data that is representative, challenging and relevant; and iii) to implement the cognitive theories on the collected data, and through this produce new interpretations and theories, that push the field forward. If this fails, then either (i) the theories and results of cognitive science are false, or (ii) the theories and results of cognitive science are not relevant for historical research. An answer to the first option is that the theories and results of cognitive science are well grounded; there are many experimental proofs that have been carefully checked. If we believe in the scientific enterprise, we can rule out the first explanation. If cognitive science turns out to be completely wrong in its 9 Lakoff & Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, p. 338–341, 511. There are of course exceptions, see Alistair C. Crombie, Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition: The History of Argument and Explanation Especially in the Mathematical and Biomedical Sciences and Arts II (London: Duckworth, 1994), part IV; Marta Spranzi, ‘Galileo and the Mountains of the Moon: Analogical Reasoning, Models and Metaphors in Scientific Discovery’, Journal of Cognition and Culture, 2004, 3:451–483. 10 55 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science proclamations, human beings still use categories, metaphors and objects, etc. in their daily lives and in science. This fact still needs an explanation. Turning to the second option; if these theories and results of cognitive science are universal and valid for all humans, this must also include our immediate ancestors in our own species (they must reasonably have had brains). If this is not so, I cannot find any explanation for this other than that the cognitive historian has not yet convinced other historians about it by showing new results that inspire new research on other topics. My conclusion is that cognitive history is a promising approach for future historical research. First, a cognitive approach to history will give us new tools for analyzing and interpreting ideas in history, explaining events and historical change, and enable us understand in greater detail how people thought, felt and believed as historical beings situated in time and space, and by this enlighten the interaction between the mind and its surroundings. In all, it will let us enter the black box of hidden cognitive processes of human minds in history. Secondly, with a new cognitive-historical method, new sources will be sought and discovered; material that before seemed to be hard to use will now be useful, and well-known sources must be re-interpreted. Successful new methods provide not only new interpretations and explanations, they discover new facts, use known sources in a new way and discover new sources that can be used in historical research. An empirical cognitive history will explain the cognitive processes behind human encounters with the surrounding world, what happened to the mind in unknown environments, how mental images in science and technology were used, how objects and techniques enhanced thinking in science, and unveiling the metaphorical thinking behind concept formation and the categorization strategies in systematics and taxonomy. In all, such cognitive-historical studies will give new explanations to the emergence of human thinking as an interaction between the mind and the world. Thirdly, with a cognitive theory, history will contribute to the ongoing research in cognitive science and on cultural evolution. We will arrive at an interdisciplinary historical theory integrated with our collected knowledge. History cannot only borrow and learn something from other disciplines; it will also contribute to the them, and provide important data that will give the clues as how our distant ancestors thousands of years ago gradually enhanced their cognitive abilities and techniques and finally gave birth to us, we postmodern thinking, feeling, and living beings. The cognitive history outlined hereinrepresents an open field of possibilities. It will take time to explore its vast territory, that is for sure, and the enterprise will require hordes of historians to be occupied for decades. But this endeavor must begin 56 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics someday. A cognitive history of ideas relates to the basic human conditions; it unites people in history that we have the experience of living, that we register and participate in the world around us – the flowing in the veins, the storms of emotions, and the escaping thoughts. It provides an understanding of the thoughts and lives of people in history, as sentient and reflective beings. It unveils the hidden thought processes in the past. 57 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2806 Title A name given to the resource Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science Author Author Dunér, David Abstract A summary of the resource. The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. In this paper I will explain the use of conceptual metaphors in science, with examples from the mechanistic worldview of the 17th and 18th century. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, we could get close to an understanding of how scientists during the scientific revolution shaped their ideas about the invisible geometry of matter. This is a cognitive history of ideas. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. These approaches try to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science. The aim of the cognitive history of science is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories. The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. Keywords: metaphors, cognition, cognitive history, Sweden Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7cadb6c3bee094cdb43e45b321df9770.pdf a6775da6ed55fc70ab5f7a1cdc98a842 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context Alastair Graham-Marr Department of Liberal Arts, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 05.11.2014. Abstract In EFL curricula where language is taught as a knowledge set, links between pedagogical theory and practice can be quite strong. However, links between pedagogical theory and practice seems more tenuous when applied to the teaching of skills, in particular, L2 listening skills which are often left to develop as by-products of a student’s grammatical and lexical understanding. And, in many contexts, this oversight can have serious consequences. Given that English is a stress-timed language, learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages, such as Japanese or Korean, can be robbed of learning opportunities when listening skills are deficient. The crucial role of comprehensible input in second language acquisition is well established, so when learners have developed listening skills, all language that is basically understood is available as a learning opportunity as comprehensible input. However, when learners have incipient listening skills, learners are often unable to comprehend auditory input containing words that are largely understood, thus losing opportunities for L2 language development. Learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages often lack a natural understanding of suprasegmental phonology, impeding comprehension. It is well established in the research literature that listening skills are best taught as a set of sub-skills to help students develop a basic phonetic awareness, however such research findings have not always made it into practice. This qualitative study reports on a set of first year university students at a Japanese university where listening was taught as a set of sub-skills. An overwhelming majority felt this type of instruction helped to improve their listening skills, suggesting that this fundamental pedagogy needs greater emphasis in countries with syllable-timed or mora-timed native languages. The results of this study are described and interpreted in the context of the English education system in Japan. Keywords: listening skills, EFL curricula, comprehensible input 7 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context 8 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Introduction The ability to comprehend spoken forms of a target language is a crucial factor for second language development and yet in many EFL curricula, the explicit teaching of listening skills draws little pedagogical attention. As noted by Nunan, (2002) listening is the Cinderella skill in second language learning, always overlooked for its elder sister— speaking. Teachers and curricula tend to focus on grammar or vocabulary, leaving listening skills to develop on their own. And, in many contexts, this deprives language learners of many opportunities to further learn. Comprehending auditory input requires an understanding of the target language sound system. However, the phonologies of human language are not universal constants. English, for example, is a stress-timed, or foot-timed language, and has a regular rhythm pattern. As Halliday points out, salient syllables tend to occur at regular intervals as “generally speaking, speakers of English like their feet to all be roughly the same length.” (Halliday, 1994: 293) The tendency for salient syllables to be prominent at regular intervals, irrespective of the actual number of syllables between prominence, results in function words being reduced to accomodate the regular spacing of syllable prominence. The tendency to have salient syllables at regular intervals is known as isochrony and is a feature of stress timed languages such as English. Isochrony is the mechanism that governs such suprasegmental phonological features as vowel reduction, elision, elipsis and so on. However, not all language are isochronous. Syllable-timed languages such as Korean, where the time needed to pronounce each syllable is roughly equal, and mora-timed languages such as Japanese, where the time needed to pronounce each mora is roughly equal, are phonologically distinct from English. As a result, syllabletimed and mora-timed languages often lack many of the common suprasegmental phonological features found in English. For Japanese learners, the phonological structure of Japanese can interfere with the comprehension of naturally spoken English. Listening skills can broadly be divided into two categories: bottom-up decoding and top-down interpretation. Bottom-up decoding refers to the process of decoding and assigning meaning to auditory input. Top-down interpretation describes the process of using knowledge of grammar, discourse, context and culture to assign meaning, both filling in the gaps of understanding and augmenting meaning. Received pedagogy, based on numerous empirical studies, has been to explicitly teach learners about the sound system, both its segmentals and suprasegmentals, together with a regime of top-down strategies. (see for example Richards, 1983, 9 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context 1990; Peterson, 1991; Goh 1997, Field 1998; Vandergrift, 1999) Although, well found in the research literature, this aspect of teaching is frequently overlooked. In Japan, listening is very much subservient to grammar. One likely reason is that most Japanese universities do not have a listening component on their entrance exams. As a result, there is little incentive for high schools to add listening to their curricula. Yet, when many students struggle with listening comprehension, this omission puts students at a disadvantage. It is well understood that comprehensible input is crucial for language acquisition (see for example, Krashen, 1985; Long 1985). Students need massive amounts of input to acquire an understanding of a target language. The more comprehensible input one gets, the more one will learn. So when learners from a mora-timed language background are not taught about the English sound system, they are often unable to comprehend auditory input that would otherwise be comprehensible, and thus lose vital opportunities for L2 language acquisition. The development of listening skills should be a priority from early education on to maximize learning opportunities. That it is subservient is perhaps one reason for the chronically low English abilities that the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Technology is currently seeking to change in time for the 2020 Olympics. Purpose of Study A weakness in previous studies has been a lack of awareness that learners from different phonological backgrounds might be different. Studies tend to treat L2 learners as being part of a great monolithic category, L2 learner. There have been many empirical studies which have repeatedly found that explicitly pointing out the phonological features of English can facilitate gains in listening comprehension, however most of these studies have been done with students from mixed phonological backgrounds. This study brings the voice of students coming from a mora-timed phonological background to the table. This study investigates student opinion about whether explicit guidance is needed to help develop listening skills, and secondly, if students feel that such guidance contributes to improved listening comprehension. Participants The participants in the study were 94 first year university students (79 males and 15 females) in three different classes studying English as a required first-year course in the engineering faculty at a well regarded science university in Tokyo. Most of the 10 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics students in the class were quite motivated to learn English, seeing English as important for their futures. Although the English proficiency level of the students was not directly measured during the course of the study, the entrance exam system in Japan acts to level students, in that all of the students in the study had to pass an English exam to enter the university. As a result, most of the students in the engineering department could be said to be at an intermediate or threshold level (CEFR B1) of English proficiency. Although there were 94 students registered in the three classes, survey data from only 80 students was used due to either incomplete data or student absences. Class Procedure The class was typical of many first year English courses in Japan. It was taught by a native speaker of English, the writer, with a focus on oral communication. According to the school handbook, the purpose of the course was to develop a basic foundation in communicative English by giving students exposure to natural, raw English and develop the students’ listening and speaking skills. All the classes were 90 minutes long. Typically each class started with a basic warmup activity which was usually an easy, unchallenging speaking activity. This was usually followed by a listening activity where students were asked to answer a few basic comprehension questions. Following this activity, the listening was deconstructed with a listening activity that focused student attention on a particular suprasegmental feature that was present in the initial listening. Students were made aware of the phonological feature and given opportunities to listen to other short sentences where the target feature was present. After the listening focus, the rest of the class time was spent working on speaking activities and obviously such activities also featured listening, in that students had to listen to each other to complete the speaking activities. The material used for the class was based on CEFR standards for B1 level classes. Listening activities in the class took many forms. There were comprehension listenings where students had to listen to a passage and then answer comprehension questions. There were analytical listenings where students were introduced to a particular phonological feature, then had to identify that feature in a follow-up listening. Lastly, there were teacher sourced dictation activities that were used to either review a particular suprasegmental feature or introduce it. All three listening types were used routinely. The concept was to introduce students to natural, connected speech through exposure to reduced form English with a reduced lexical load. With such material students would often struggle to answer the questions, reporting that they had understood only 11 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context 50% to 60% of the listening. However, when asked to check the scripts, students constantly found that knew close to 100% of the words used in the listening. The analytical listenings were based on the main comprehension listenings, as the audio material consisted of single sentences that had been pulled from the comprehension listenings in order to give students a closer look at the phonological features. For homework students were asked to listen to the comprehension listenings repeatedly, until they could understand each listening with 100% comprehension. The teacher referred this activity as perfect listening. Instrumentation A questionnaire was administered at the end of the course. The questions were asked in Japanese and students were encouraged to make further comments in either English or Japanese. Relevant to this study, the following questions were asked: 1. Do you feel that your listening ability has improved this year? 2. Do you feel knowing about stress, weak vowels, dropped sounds and so on, has helped you to improve your listening ability? 3. Do you think perfect listening is a good way to improve your listening skills? 4. Do you feel it is necessary for students to receive explicit instructions on how to improve their listening skills? The Results Most students in the study felt that their listening abilities had improved over the course of the school year, with 80% reporting some improvement. Asked if knowledge about phonology was helpful in improving one’s listening skills 92.5% answered in the affirmative. Many students commented that knowing about the phonological features made it easier to catch the meaning. Quite clearly, most students felt that knowledge of the English sound system contributed to the development of their own listening abilities. With respect to the perfect listening technique described above, listening to a particular passage repeatedly until it can be perfectly understood, again the overwhelming view was that this was a useful technique with 93.75% of students answering positively. However, even with this positive rating, when asked if they actually tried this technique, just over half of the students reported actually doing this, as many students reported that they did not have the spare time needed to this, 12 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics which possibly suggests that this has to be worked into the curriculum more effectively. With respect to guidance, 80% of students felt that guidance was necessary to help students develop their listening abilities. The most popular reason given was that guidance made learning more efficient. In addition to efficiency gains, most of the others reasons given were was that having guidance helped sustain motivation and that guidance made it easier to tackle the difficult task of learning to comprehend naturally spoken English. The results of the questionnaire are shown in Table 1. Strong Yes 1. Did your listening improve? 2 2. Does knowledge of phonological 20 features help? 3. Do you think perfect listening is 16 helpful? 4. Is guidance necessary? 24 Yes No 62 54 15 5 Strong No 1 1 59 4 1 40 14 2 Discussion Many theories on listening take a global focus on how learners apply meaning to auditory input, postulating that learners use textual schemata—knowledge of discourse, and content schemata— knowledge of the world and its contextual clues, to assign meaning to the incoming auditory input. In these schema-theoretic perspectives learners draw on schema to provide a frame of reference by which listeners assign meaning to auditory input. (see for example Long, 1989). As a result many pedagogies have focused on stimulating and developing these top-down schemata. However, for learners from a mora-timed phonological background, the more problematic area of listening is not appending meaning to decoded input, but rather the decoding process itself. Meaning that pedagogies that focus on the more global processes, tend to assume that the decoding skills are naturally picked up. However, in a Japanese context where learners struggle to decode input, an information processing model might be more helpful to identify and understand where listening comprehension impediments exist. In such a model, learners decode auditory input in an ascending order of complexity, from phonemes, to syllables, to words and lexical chunks, on to a syntactic level where intonation is factored in. Meaning is finally rendered referencing the context, at the apex of this processing stream. (see for example Field, 2008) Suprasegmental decoding difficulties result in many learners getting stuck at the lower levels of this model. However, European13 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context based pedagogical models often focus on higher-level processing, leaving lowerlevel processing to develop as a felicitous by-product of simple exposure, something not so suited for many Asian contexts. However, even in Japan lower-level listening skills are often neglected. There are numerous reasons for this. First of all, pedagogy is often guided by what is done in Europe and America. Secondly but perhaps more importantly, listening is rarely tested in university entrance exams. These influential entrance exams tend to focus on difficult aspects of vocabulary and grammar. As a result, teachers tend to focus on the grammar that will likely come up on these exams. When attention is focussed on test preparation, skills development becomes ancillary. As a result, students with weak listening skills are not often recognized as having weak listening skills. And, given that listening comprehension is a key component of second language acquisition, this inattention to skills development can result in years of lost learning opportunities, opportunities which cannot be replaced. Moreover and somewhat sadly, empirical research shows that listening skills can be taught, meaning that these lost opportunities need not be lost. In an Asian context, Goh (1997) found that an increased learner metacognitive awareness in listening was positively correlated with better listening skills. Tsui and Fullilove (1998) found that bottom-up processing was an important factor for listening performance. The students in this study agreed. Were a pedagogical choice to focus on listening made and listening skills development made a priority, more learning opportunities could be given to language learners during the early stages of their language development. Listening comprehension is a teachable skill. And in the context of Japan, with a mora-timed L1, students can benefit from such instruction. Conclusion Listening is central to learning. It is the foundation of a formal education and it is the foundation of language acquisition. As teachers, perhaps our number one responsibility, irrespective of what we teach, is the responsibility to prepare our students to act in the greater world beyond the classroom, both in the present and in the future. The world is full of learning opportunities and for language learners, there are numerous linguistic resources waiting to be found and exploited to one’s best advantage. Teaching our students how to listen will help them to access the world outside the classroom. 14 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 15 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context References Field, J., (1998). Skills and strategies: towards a new methodology for listening. ELT Journal, 52, 110 - 118. Field, J. (2008). Listening in the Language Classroom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goh, C., (1997). Metacognitive awareness and second language listeners. ELT Journal, 51, 361-369. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd ed.). London: Arnold. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman. Long, D.R. (1989), Second Language Listening Comprehension: A schema-theoretic perspective. Modern Language Journal, 73(1), 32-40. Long, M. (1985). lnput and second language acquisition theory. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 377-393). Rowley, MA; Newbury House. Nunan, D., (2002). Listening in Language Learning, Methodology. In J. Richards & W. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice (pp. 238-241). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peterson, P., (1991). A Synthesis of methods for interactive listening. In M. CelceMurcia, (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (2nd ed.) (pp.106-122). New York: Newbury House. Richards, Jack, (1983). Listening Comprehension: Approach, Design, Procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 219-240. Richards, Jack, (1990). The Language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Tsui, A., & J. Fullilove. (1998). Bottom-up or top-down processing as a discriminator of L2 listening performance. Applied Linguistics, 19(4), 432451. 16 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Vandergrift, L, (1999). Facilitating second language listening comprehension: acquiring successful strategies. ELT Journal, 53(3), 168-176. 17 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2802 Title A name given to the resource Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context Author Author Graham-Marr, Alastair Abstract A summary of the resource. In EFL curricula where language is taught as a knowledge set, links between pedagogical theory and practice can be quite strong. However, links between pedagogical theory and practice seems more tenuous when applied to the teaching of skills, in particular, L2 listening skills which are often left to develop as by-products of a student’s grammatical and lexical understanding. And, in many contexts, this oversight can have serious consequences. Given that English is a stress-timed language, learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages, such as Japanese or Korean, can be robbed of learning opportunities when listening skills are deficient. The crucial role of comprehensible input in second language acquisition is well established, so when learners have developed listening skills, all language that is basically understood is available as a learning opportunity as comprehensible input. However, when learners have incipient listening skills, learners are often unable to comprehend auditory input containing words that are largely understood, thus losing opportunities for L2 language development. Learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages often lack a natural understanding of suprasegmental phonology, impeding comprehension. It is well established in the research literature that listening skills are best taught as a set of sub-skills to help students develop a basic phonetic awareness, however such research findings have not always made it into practice. This qualitative study reports on a set of first year university students at a Japanese university where listening was taught as a set of sub-skills. An overwhelming majority felt this type of instruction helped to improve their listening skills, suggesting that this fundamental pedagogy needs greater emphasis in countries with syllable-timed or mora-timed native languages. The results of this study are described and interpreted in the context of the English education system in Japan. Keywords: listening skills, EFL curricula, comprehensible input Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PL Languages and literatures of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ea16ec50f63d4ba358b69e5a3771b49a.pdf 328c9afa7d71530989109946b9531310 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom Azra Jakupi, Neda Radosavlevikj & Milica Matoska South East European University, Macedonia Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 01.11.2014. Abstract Whether you have been teaching for 20 years or have just started your teaching career, there’s always a possibility you will have a student in your classroom with disruptive behavior. This behavior can go beyond the limits of what is considered to be acceptable in a learning environment. An obvious example of disruptive behavior is when the student verbally attacks, is late for class, experiences angry outbursts, social problems, etc. or simply rebels against something that is happening beyond the classroom door. However, very rarely are we, as teachers, aware of the possibility that the student might be having a mental health crisis. We, the Language Centre at South East European University, have encountered various stressful situations, while at the same time we struggle for balance and try to find appropriate responses for students’ complaints about grades, “unfair” treatment, the policy of the faculty, etc. In an effort to resolve this dilemma, we will conduct research within the Language Centre through interviews with the academic and administrative staff as well as the students and their supervisors. In our presentation, we will present several strategies to deal with stressful situations that affect the entire learning environment, including the teachers themselves, such as: defining the problem, the reason behind it, the time of occurrence, its impact, introducing meta-communication and early communication by setting early expectations, ways to stay calm when responding to a crisis event and setting limits. We will also explore basic principles related to classroom management and a variety of strategies for early intervention in order to create a dynamic learning environment that promotes learning safety. Keywords: Disruptive behaviour, strategies, safe learning environment Introduction 33 �Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom Students’ disruptive behavior may be resolved by selecting effective classroommanagement strategies. One of the best management strategies is to prevent disruptions before they occur. In this paper we will discuss effective strategies applied at the Language Centre at South East European University for creating and sustaining a dynamic learning environment, as well as effective methods that we as teachers find appropriate for early intervention and how we deal with these problems when they occur. The idea for this study emerged from the stressful situations that teachers were exposed to, always struggling for balance as we seek appropriate strategies to answer to students’ problems such as “complaints about grades”, “unfair treatment” and other difficulties. Language Centre teachers use different management strategies to deal with disruptive behavior, some of which are not very effective. The aim of this research is to investigate the effective management strategies that teachers at the Language Centre use and what they do when a student’s behavior disrupts their classes. Furthermore, the research investigates teachers’ reactions towards the success or the failure of their methods as well as the most frequent types of disruptive behavior and the reasons that students engage in such behavior. Discipline problems are listed as the major concern for most new teachers. What can teachers expect and how can they handle disciplinary problems effectively? The key is classroom management combined with an effective discipline plan. This step-by-step look at classroom discipline will help you see some important steps in dealing with discipline problems that may arise in your classroom. Here is a list of strategies for responding to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom: 1. Begin each class period with a positive attitude and high expectations. If you expect your students to misbehave or you approach them negatively, you will get misbehavior. This is an often overlooked aspect of classroom management. 2. Come to class prepared with lessons for the day. In fact, over-plan your lessons. Make sure you have all your materials and methods ready to go. Reducing downtime will help maintain discipline in your classroom. 3. Work on making smooth transitions between lesson segments. In other words, as you move from group discussion to independent work, try to minimize disruption to the class. Have your papers ready to go or your assignment already written on the board. Disruptions frequently occur during lesson transitions. Watch your students as they come into class. Look for signs of possible problems before class even begins. For example, if you notice a heated 34 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics discussion or problem before class starts, try to deal with the problem there and then. Allow the students a few moments to talk with you or with each other before you start your lesson to try and work things out. Separate them if necessary and try to get them to agree to drop whatever issue they have during your class. Have a posted discipline plan that you follow consistently for effective classroom management. This should ensure that students will receive a warning or two before punishment begins, depending on the severity of the offense. Your plan should be easy to follow and also should cause a minimum of disruption in your class. For example, your discipline plan might be - First Offense: Verbal Warning, Second Offense: Detention with teacher, Third Offense: Referral. Meet disruptions that arise in your class with in kind measures. In other words, don't elevate disruptions above their current level. Your discipline plan should provide for this; however, sometimes your own personal issues can get in the way. For example, if two students are talking in the back of the room and your first step in the plan is to give your students a verbal warning, don't stop your instruction to begin yelling at the students. Instead, have a set policy that simply saying a student's name is enough of a clue for them to get back on task. Another technique is to ask one of them a question. Try to use humor to defuse situations before things get out of hand. Note: Know your students. The following example would be used with students whom you know will not escalate the situation: If you tell the class to open their books to page 51 and three students are busy talking, do not immediately yell at them. Instead, smile, say their names, and ask them kindly if they could please wait until later to finish their conversation because you would really like to hear how it ends and you have to get this class finished. This will probably get a few laughs and also get your point across. If a student becomes verbally confrontational with you, remain calm and remove them from the situation as quickly as possible. Do not get into yelling matches with your students. There will always be a winner and a loser which sets up a power struggle that could continue throughout the year. Further, do not bring the rest of the class into the situation by involving them in the discipline or the writing of the referral. If a student becomes physical, remember the safety of the other students is paramount. Remain as calm as possible; your demeanor can sometimes defuse the situation. You should have a plan for dealing with violence that you discuss with students early in the year. You should use the call button for assistance. You could also designate a student to get help from another teacher. Send the other students from the room if it appears they could get hurt. If the fight is 35 �Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom between two students, follow your school's rules on teacher involvement, as many want teachers to stay out of fights until help arrives. Keep an anecdotal record of major issues that arise in your class. This might be necessary if you are asked for a history of classroom disruptions or other documentation. Let it go at the end of the day. Classroom management and disruption issues should be left in class so that you can have some down time to recharge before coming back to another day of teaching. Analysis and Evidence/Findings In order to find out about teachers’ and students’ views on disruptive behaviors and how to deal with such situations, we constructed two surveys. One was teacherspecific and the other was student-oriented. We asked both groups the same questions. The findings from the student-oriented survey are as follows: 1. Both female and male students generally think (98%) that the overall atmosphere in the classroom is positive. 2. 25% of the male students think that discipline is not important and that the current disciplinary methods are utterly inefficient and 20% of female students think that the rules of conduct should be more flexible. 3. The male students (5%) state that the teachers are unable to manage the classroom and deal with undisciplined students, while the female students (2%) think it is due to the lack of a psychologist at the university. 4. 90% of students from both genders think that, in order to deal with disruptive behaviors, teachers should increase students’ obligations. While female students (50%) do not hold teachers responsible for disruptive behaviors, saying they cannot possibly know and be responsible for ‘everything’ in the classroom, the male students (90%) state the opposite. 5. 15% of female and male students think that the students should be involved in designing the curriculum and 90% of them think that students should be involved in setting the rules of conduct. In conclusion, generally speaking, male students place greater responsibility on the teachers; question their competence to manage the classroom and emphasize the importance of the students’ role. On the other hand, female students emphasize the students’ responsibility to control their own behavior. Both groups agree that there should be a co-operation between teachers and students in order to improve and eliminate disruptive behavior. While female students think that behavior is more important than students’ inner thoughts and feelings, male students state the opposite. 36 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The findings from the teacher specific survey were the following: 1. Both female and male teachers (98%) describe the overall classroom atmosphere as positive. 2. All teachers agree that discipline is very important. 5% of teachers think disciplinary methods are utterly inefficient and recommend penalties. 3. All teachers agree that they are responsible for shaping the desired behavior in the classroom; it is their responsibility to design the curriculum and to motivate and engage the students. Moreover, they all agree that they cannot possibly be responsible for ‘everything’ in the classroom. 4. 99% of the teachers think that students can control their behavior, but that they should take their students’ needs into consideration. 5. 100% of the female and 50% of the male teachers think that students’ inner thoughts and feelings are more important than their evident behavior. The teachers reject the notion that they could ‘know everything’ in the classroom at all times. However, they emphasize their own responsibility for managing the classroom and dealing with disruptive behavior (5% of them suggest the introduction of penalization is an efficient method). All of the teachers agree that they should have background knowledge when dealing with infractions. Although the students can control their own behavior, the teachers agree that it is their responsibility to motivate the students, get their co-operation and create a positive atmosphere. The teachers must decide what the students will learn, but they should take the students’ needs into consideration. While the male teachers think that students’ inner thoughts and feelings are less important than their evident behavior, 100% of the female teachers state the opposite. Literature review Reasons for and types of disruptive behavior There is no specific definition for disruptive behavior since the definition differs according to its relevance to the specific case of each study (Arbuckle & Little, 2004). Nevertheless, many studies identify some types such as self-reported data from schoolteachers that help identify types of the most frequent disruptive behaviors. Ranking which behavior is more frequent differs in Western and Eastern cultures. In China, some studies report that “day dreaming (also called non-attention and off task) behavior” is the most frequent disruptive behavior in some of their schools (Ding, Li, Li, & Kulm, 2008; Shen et al., 2009). Other studies report that “talking out of turn” is the most frequent disruptive behavior in some schools in England (Arbuckle & Little, 2004) and Australia (Ross, Little, Kienhuis, 2008). 37 �Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom Teachers and students have different perceptions of the reasons behind disruptive behavior. Some students view disruptive behavior as a result of bad teaching skills. Other students mention that they use this behavior to deal with their problems against the whole school system; in other words, they choose to act against teachers’ power in order to assert their own power (Verkuyten 2002). On the other hand, some schoolteachers believe that some students use disruptive behavior as a way of rejecting work and drawing attention to themselves. They also think students use such behavior to defy teachers’ power (Axup & Gersch, 2008; Shumate & Wills, 2010). Further, other teachers mention that students may practice disruptive behavior to establish an identity in order to belong to a “peer group” (Axup & Gersch, 2008). Sometimes the injustice of teachers and the vulnerability of students can be the main causes of disruptive behavior (Miller, Ferguson and Byrne, 2000). The relation between disruptive behavior and the learning and teaching process Inappropriate behavior impacts learning and teaching. It wastes classroom time, distracts students from learning and teachers from teaching, lessens students’ motivation and causes stress for students and teachers (Charles and Senter cited in Ding et al., 2008). Many studies have investigated the stressors that lead to teachers’ burnout and annoyance, which could hinder the teaching process. In a study done on 1,386 secondary teachers working in Spanish schools, disruptive behavior was identified as a major source of teachers’ stress and annoyance (López et al., 2008). Furthermore, students’ disruptive behaviors can provoke negative feelings in teachers such as frustration and lack of confidence. As a result, teachers become too stressed to make the right decisions (Arbuckle & Little , 2004; Ross et al., 2008; Thompson & Webber, 2008). For instance, teachers sometimes give up on disruptive students, remove them from their classes and let others deal with them (Egyed and Short, 2006). What is more, some teachers, especially inexperienced ones, decide to quit teaching and change their careers (Ross et al., 2008;Tsouloupas et al., 2010). Teachers’ selection of management strategies and disruptive behaviors Some teachers do not always realize that they are repeatedly using ineffective management strategies in order to handle disruptive behaviors in their classes. Before deciding which management strategies to apply, teachers could first try to understand why students are practicing this kind of behavior (Stoughton, 2006). Recognizing how disruptive students think can help teachers decide on which management strategies to apply in order to deal with disruptive students (Ding et al., 2008). Furthermore, it is advisable for some teachers to realize that if they want to reduce 38 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics disruptive behaviors, they have to abandon their authoritative identity and maintain a strong relationship with their students (Lee and Powell, 2006). Some teachers lack knowledge of the kind of management strategies that they need to select in order to handle disruptive behavior. Therefore, it is always important to provide teachers with the necessary consultation on this kind of information (Egyed & Short, 2006; Thompson & Webber, 2010). Consultation can help teachers feel more capable of and knowledgeable about handling disruptive behaviors. This may also help increase teachers’ confidence and reduce their stress (Egyed & Short, 2006; Reinke, Palmer & Merrell, 2008). Effective management strategies can help reduce disruptive behaviors and improve the learning process (Reinke et al., 2008). Some teachers believe that positive management strategies such as praise and engaging students in decision-making are the best management strategies for handling students’ disruptive behaviors. Other teachers believe that negative management strategies such as punishment and reprimands are more effective than the positive ones. Some studies show that teachers who lack patience, confidence and the necessary consultation skills tend to use more negative management strategies to control disruptive behavior (Axup & Gersch, 2008). On the other hand, some studies show that students’ disruptive behaviors decrease when teachers apply positive management strategies and avoid using the negative ones (Reinke et al., 2008). Applying positive management strategies to classrooms is also found beneficial as it increases on-task behavior and enhances students’ learning identity (Arbuckle & Little, 2004; Lee & Powell, 2005; Ross et al, 2008). Most studies that investigated teachers’ perceptions of effective classroommanagement strategies and students’ disruptive behaviors used either questionnaires or surveys in collecting the necessary data. In spite of the limitations of these methods, they remain the most frequent methods of reflecting teachers’ real practices in classrooms (Ross et al., 2008). For this reason one of these methods, a questionnaire, was used as the method of collecting data in this small-scale study. Conclusions Every teacher should have a set of tips for managing teacher burnout and effectively deal with unforeseen disruptive situations. Here are some tips to get you started: 1. Recognize the warning signs of disruption. Obviously this comes with practice of classroom management. However, some signs are fairly obvious. 2. Sarcasm should be used sparingly if at all. If you do use it, make sure you know the student who you are using it with well. Many students do not have the capacity to know that sarcasm is not meant to be taken literally. Further, other 39 �Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom students could find your sarcasm as inflammatory, which would defeat your purpose of greater classroom management. 3. Consistency and fairness are essential for effective classroom management. If you ignore disruptions one day and come down hard on them the next, you will not be seen as consistent. You will lose respect and disruptions will probably increase. Further, if you are not fair in your punishments, making sure to treat all students fairly then students will quickly realize this and lose respect for you. You should also start each day fresh, not holding disruptions against students and instead expecting them to behave. 4. It's easier to get easier. Start the year very strict so that students see that you are willing to do what it takes to have your classroom under control. They will understand that you expect learning to occur in your room. You can always let up as the year goes on. 5. Classroom rules must be easy to understand and manageable. Make sure that you don't have such a large number of rules that your students can't consistently follow them. Appendix Questionnaire for the Teachers Please mark (a) Male (b) Female, Teaching Experience: (a) 0 (b) 1-5 yrs. (c) 6- 10 yrs (d) 11 - 15 yrs. (e) 16+ yrs. Degree Earned : (a) BA (b) Master's (c) EdS (d) Doctorate (e) Undergraduate Directions: On the following scale how much do you agree with the following statement? 1. How would you describe the overall atmosphere in the classroom? 1-very negative 2- barely positive 3- somewhat positive 4- mostly positive 5- very positive 2. It is important for students to be disciplined. (Circle one) 1-strongly agree 2- agree 3-neither agree nor disagree 4-disagree 5strongly disagree 3. How efficient do you think the discipline strategies are right now? (Circle one) 1-very efficient 2- efficient 3-neither efficient nor inefficient 4-inefficient 5-very inefficient 4. If you could change one thing about the behavior management in the school what would it be? Please specify. 40 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Directions: Please read the following carefully and select one answer from the scale below. SA=Strongly Agree A = Agree N = Neither Agree nor Disagree D = Disagree SD-Strongly Disagree 1. Teachers must have knowledge of group dynamics. SA A N D SD 2. Teachers need to have background information when dealing with rule infractions. SA A N D SD 3. Teachers are responsible for knowing everything that goes on in the classroom at all times. SA A N D SD 4. Teachers should create a "democratic” classroom. SA A N D SD 5. Teachers should “invite” student cooperation. SA A N D SD 6. Teachers are responsible for "shaping" desired behavior in the classroom. SA A N D SD 7. Teachers must take student needs into consideration. SA A N D SD 8. Teachers are responsible for controlling the behavior of their students. SA A N D SD 9. Students are able to control their behavior. SA A N D SD 41 �Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom 10. Conflict resolution should be employed in the school setting. SA A N D SD 11. Teachers must deal with all students in the same manner when using disciplinary measures. SA A N D SD 12. A "sense of belonging" needs to be created by the teacher within the classroom setting. SA A N D SD 13. Rules of conduct must be set by the teachers. SA A N D SD 14. What students must learn and the tasks to be performed must be determined by the teacher. And, a specific sequence of instruction to accomplish these goals must be followed. SA A N D SD 15. If a student disrupts class, I would ignore the disruption if possible and/or remove the student to the back of the room as a consequence for his/her behavior. SA A N D SD 16. If a student disrupts class, I would express discomfort to the student about being disrupted from my task and then continue on with the lesson. SA A N D SD 17. Rules are never written "in stone," and can be renegotiated by the class; consequences will vary with students. SA A N D SD 18. Teachers should intervene quickly when misbehavior occurs. SA A N D SD 19. Inner thoughts and feelings of students are more important than evident behavior. SA A N D SD 20. Student autonomy is very important in the classroom. SA A N D SD 42 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 21. Extrinsic “rewards” may decrease intrinsic motivation. SA A N D SD Questionnaire for the Students a. Gender (check a box) ___ Female ___Male b. Age____________ Ethnicity _________________ d. Faculty ____________________ c. Directions: On the following scale how much do you agree with the following statement? 1. How would you describe the overall atmosphere in the classroom? 1-very negative 2- barely positive 3- somewhat positive 4- mostly positive 5- very positive 2. It is important for students to be disciplined. (Circle one) 1-strongly agree 2- agree 3-neither agree nor disagree 4-disagree 5strongly disagree 3. How efficient do you think the discipline strategies are right now? (Circle one) 1-very efficient 2- efficient 3-neither efficient nor inefficient 4-inefficient 5-very inefficient 4. If you were a teacher and you could change one thing about the behavior management in the school what would it be? Please specify. Directions: Please read the following carefully and select one answer from the scale below. SA=Strongly Agree A = Agree N = Neither Agree nor Disagree D = Disagree SD-Strongly Disagree 1. Teachers must have knowledge of group dynamics. SA A N D SD 43 �Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom 2. Teachers need to have background information when dealing with rule infractions. SA A N D SD 3. Teachers are responsible for knowing everything that goes on in the classroom at all times. SA A N D SD 4. Teachers should create a "democratic” classroom. SA A N D SD 5. Teachers should “invite” student cooperation. SA A N D SD 6. Teachers are responsible for "shaping" desired behavior in the classroom. SA A N D SD 7. Teachers must take student needs into consideration. SA A N D SD 8. Teachers are responsible for controlling the behavior of their students. SA A N D SD 9. Students are able to control their behavior. SA A N D SD 10. Conflict resolution should be employed in the school setting. SA A N D SD 11. Teachers must deal with all students in the same manner when using disciplinary measures. SA A N D SD 12. A "sense of belonging" needs to be created by the teacher within the classroom setting. SA A N D SD 13. Rules of conduct must be set by the teachers. SA A N D SD 44 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 14. What students must learn and the tasks to be performed must be determined by the teacher. And, a specific sequence of instruction to accomplish these goals must be followed. SA A N D SD 15. If I were a teacher, if a student disrupted my class, I would ignore the disruption if possible and/or remove the student to the back of the room as a consequence for his/her behavior. SA A N D SD 16. If I were a teacher, if a student disrupted my class, I would express discomfort to the student about being disrupted from my task and then continue on with the lesson. SA A N D SD 17. Rules are never written "in stone," and can be renegotiated by the class; consequences will vary with students. SA A N D SD 18. Teachers should intervene quickly when misbehavior occurs. SA A N D SD 19. Inner thoughts and feelings of students are more important than evident behavior. SA A N D SD 20. Student autonomy is very important in the classroom. SA A N D SD 21. Extrinsic (external) “rewards” may decrease intrinsic (internal) motivation. SA A N D SD 45 �Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom References Arbuckle,C., & Little, E. (2004). Teachers’ perceptions and management of disruptive classroom behavior during the middle years. Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 4, 59-70. Axup, T.,& Gersch, I. (2008). The impact of challenging student behavior upon teachers’ lives in a secondary school: teachers’ perceptions. British Journal of Special Education, 35(3), 144-151. Ding, M., Li, Y., Li, X., & Kulm, G. (2008). Chinese teachers’ perceptions of students’classroom misbehavior.Educational Psychology, 28(3), 305-324. Egyed,C. J., Short, R. J. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy, burnout, experience and decision to refer a disruptive student. School Psychology International, 27(4), 462-474. Lee, S., Powell,J. V. (2005). Using computer-based technology to determine emergent classroom discipline styles in preservice teacher education. Educational Technology Systems,34(1). López, J. M., Santiago, M. J., Godás, A., Castro, C., Villardefrancos, E., & Ponte, D. (2008). An integrative approach to burnout in secondary school teachers: examining the role of student disruptive behavior and disciplinary issues. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 8(2), 85-96. Reinke, W. M., Palmer, T., & Merrell, K. (2008). The classroom check-up: A classwide teacher consultation model for increasing praise and decreasing disruptive behavior. School Psych Rev., 37(3), 315–332. Ross, P., Little, E, & Kienhuis, M. (2008). Self-reported and actual use of proactive and reactive classroom management strategies and relationship with teacher stress and student behavior. Educational Psychology, 28(6), 693–710. Shen, J., Zhang, N., Zhang, C., Caldarella, P., Richardson, M. J., & Shatzer, R. H. (2009). Chinese elementary school teachers’ perceptions of students’ classroom behavior problems. Educational Psychology, 29(2), 187-201. 46 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Shumate, E. D., & Wills, H. P. (2010). Classroom-based functional analysis and intervention for disruptive and off-task behaviors. Education and Treatment of Children, 33(1), 23-48. Stoughton, E. H. (2006). ‘‘How will I get them to behave?’’: Pre service teachers reflect on classroom management.Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 1024-1037. Thompson,A. M., & Webber, K. C. (2010). Realigning student and teacher perceptions of school rules: A behavior management strategy for students with challenging behaviors. Children &Schools, 32(2), 71-79. Tsouloupas, C. N., Carson, R. L., Matthew, R., Grawitch, M. J., & Barber, L. K. (2010). Exploring the association between teachers’ perceived student misbehaviour and emotional exhaustion: the importance of teacher efficacy beliefs and emotion regulation. Educational Psychology, 30(2). Verkuyten,M.(2002). Making teachers accountable for students' disruptive classroom behavior. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 23(1), 107122. 47 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2805 Title A name given to the resource Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom Author Author Jakupi, Azra Radosavlevikj, Neda Matoska, Milica Abstract A summary of the resource. Whether you have been teaching for 20 years or have just started your teaching career, there’s always a possibility you will have a student in your classroom with disruptive behavior. This behavior can go beyond the limits of what is considered to be acceptable in a learning environment. An obvious example of disruptive behavior is when the student verbally attacks, is late for class, experiences angry outbursts, social problems, etc. or simply rebels against something that is happening beyond the classroom door. However, very rarely are we, as teachers, aware of the possibility that the student might be having a mental health crisis. We, the Language Centre at South East European University, have encountered various stressful situations, while at the same time we struggle for balance and try to find appropriate responses for students’ complaints about grades, “unfair” treatment, the policy of the faculty, etc. In an effort to resolve this dilemma, we will conduct research within the Language Centre through interviews with the academic and administrative staff as well as the students and their supervisors. In our presentation, we will present several strategies to deal with stressful situations that affect the entire learning environment, including the teachers themselves, such as: defining the problem, the reason behind it, the time of occurrence, its impact, introducing meta-communication and early communication by setting early expectations, ways to stay calm when responding to a crisis event and setting limits. We will also explore basic principles related to classroom management and a variety of strategies for early intervention in order to create a dynamic learning environment that promotes learning safety. Keywords: Disruptive behaviour, strategies, safe learning environment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),P Philology. Linguistics,PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ebd20cc4420a4ea16d67532e27b9f240.pdf 330ba4f8f4ad94bb7d09ac03d8a5b629 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Emotion and colour: conceptualisation Physiology, lexicalisation and Draženka Molnar University of J.J. Strossmayer, Croatia Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 22.11.2014. Abstract In English and in many other European languages, Croatian included, it is quite common to use colour terms as an indicator of different emotions. When we talk about colour and humans, we areactually referring to the colour of their skin, more precisely their face. The main goal of this study is to investigate the correlation between the primary colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions in English and Croatian. Since most of the current research on emotion concepts has focused on English, we would like to provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis of the two language corpora (the British National Corpus and the Croatian National Corpus) in the first part of the paper should offer a better insight into the salience of basic emotion categories in reference to basic colour categories. The second part of the paper investigates the motivation behind some of the linguistic expressions within the framework of cognitive linguistics. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Key words: emotion, colour, collocational units, conceptual metaphor, metonymy Introduction The present paper investigatesthe reasons why colour terms and emotions are frequently associated in the different languages of the world.Within the confines of this study, it will be possible to show what corpus data of two unrelated languages, English and Croatian, reveal about the correlation between the colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions. Since most of the current 59 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation research on either emotion or colour concepts has focused on English, the present study will provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. The cross-linguistic overlap between the colour terms and emotion terms and the salient nature of their basic categories is investigated within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In line with the bulk of recent cognitive developments(Lakoff, 1987; Kövecses, 1990, 1991), the findings suggest two relevant sources of conceptual motivation – conceptual metaphor and metonymy. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Furthermore, it will be suggested that universality would be assigned to the bodily bases of language and cognition, whereas cultural variation to the interaction between body and culture (Gibbs, 1999, 2003). Although this paper is not a direct contrastive study with English, we believe it is a small but important contribution regardingthe similarities and differences between the two languages. The main questions to be answered in this study are (i) to what extent do the corpus data support the claim of preferable colour-emotion co-occurrence and (ii) what do contextualised linguistic instantiations reveal about the sources of conceptual motivation and their productivity in regard to the integration of universality and culture? Basic-Level Emotion and Colour Concepts Emotions and colours are a natural part of human experience. Even though we constantly experience and talk about them, the interrelations between the experience, concepts and lexicalisation is far from obvious.Over the past few decades, there has been a growing interdisciplinary interest in the universalities and specificities of emotions and emotion concepts. Several theorists (Kövecses,1986; Shaver et al., 1987) have discussed, and in some cases began to explore empirically, the concept of emotion with respect to the notions of basic-level categories and prototype theory (Rosch, 1973). Despite the cross-linguistic differences in the range and scope of specific emotion terms, the very principles of conceptualising emotions have been claimed to be universal (Wierzbicka, 1999). Hupka et al, 1997 made an attempt to demonstrate the universal development of emotion categories in 64 natural languages. Similarly, Berlin and Kay's contrastive study into colour semantics proposesthe evolutionary universality of basic colour terms by claiming that “a total universal 60 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics inventory of exactly eleven basic colour categories exists from which the eleven of fewer basic colour terms of any given language are always drawn” (Berlin and Kay, 1969: 2). Whereas a great deal of theoretical progress was made by adopting the notion of basic in colour semantics, no such progress was achieved in the case of emotions. However, for the purpose of this study, we have adopted Shaver et al. (1987) five basic-level emotion terms: fear, sadness, anger, joy and love. Facial Colour and Mood When we talk about colour and humans, we actually refer to the colour of their skin. Since we would be primarily concerned with the fuzzy territory between literal and figurative use of colour, we only take into account those occasions in which the colour term refers to skin, more precisely the face. As we already know, skin colour is susceptible to change under the influence of several factors: sun exposure, emotions and sickness. The flexible nature and fuzziness of emotion categories point to the existence of many emotion words that denote emotional blends that are related to more than one prototype. Polysemous nature of colour terms, on the other hand, makes them equally productive, with meaning variants not primarily related to colour properties. The following section aims to attest the possible systematicity of the emotion-facial colour co-occurrence and offer some explanations regarding their salience. Colour Terms and Emotions in the BNC and the CNC In this study, we have taken into account 136 highest ranked emotion words in Shaver et al. (1987). However, the fact that all the emotion words are nouns might somewhat affect the final results. The emotion words were searched for in the British National Corpus (BNC) and the Croatian National Corpus (CNC) in combination with eleven basic colour terms(which exist in both languages) and two additional elaborate colour terms. TheCroatian National Corpus, although limited in size (30 million words) and considered a work in progress, is the only avalilable source of text for the present analysis. Aware of its limitations and different structure, we made an effort to retrieve and use the data to the best of our abilities.The amount of context taken into account for the search was a span of 5:5, which means that to be registered, the colour word had to appear within five words on either side of the emotional words. On the completion of the search, all the data were examined manually since a large number of the retrieved examples with colour terms had no relation to the emotion term. Additionally, numerous examples, such as black thoughts / crne misli were excluded from the search becausethere is no explicit connection between the colour term and the emotion term. 61 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation 62 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Corpora analysis Results of the English and Croatian data analysis are presented in the Table 1 and are discussed in greater detail below. The table is divided into three parts that represent three different foci in the colour domain. Individual colours are therefore mentioned twice, but only for expository reasons. The number of occurrences is distributed along the five major clustersLOVE, JOY, ANGER, SADNESS and FEAR.The subcategory names suggested by Shaver et al. (1987: 1067) are slightly altered by the author of this paper. The total number of emotion terms co-occurring with a mention of skin colour was relatively high, namely 25. However, the number of colour terms referring to the skin colour connected to the emotion was surprisingly low. Only 10 colours were recorded in this context (white, pink, red, scarlet, crimson, purple, black, yellow, green and grey). Some colours, such as brown, orange and surprisingly blue were completely missing from the search in both language corpora. Whereas the association of blue with the melancholic character survives in Englisheveryday expressions to feel blue, to have the blues, there are no such attested corpus findings. Similarly, black is traditionally associated with sadness and sorrow in both cultures, but the concept itself does not seem to be transferred into any linguistic expression. While the association of blue and melancholy might be initially motivated by facial colour (Niemeier, 1998), black seems to be less accurate indicator of the exact skin colour, but rather metaphoric in nature. Much larger in size, the BNC offered a consequently greater number and variety of the retrieved data (121). Versatility is shown in the range of both colour terms and emotion terms. In both languages the most attested, although not exclusive, language structureis 'colour term with emotion term', as in red with anger / crven od ljutnje;white with fear / blijed od straha; green with envy / zelen od muke. Table 1 clearly illustrates some colour preferences regarding the positive and the negative emotional concepts. Emotional domains of LOVE and JOY are only vaguely associated with facial expressions. The colour terms with such a reference are pink, red, scarlet and occasionally white. The colour pink, standing in the midway between red and white, can temper the fiery passion of red and intensify the clarity of white. However, it is only attested in the BNC, in the fixed expressions such as in the pink, pink with pleasure, pink with excitement. 63 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation The negative emotional concepts of ANGER and SADNESS illustrate a rather similar distribution of colour terms in both languages under study. Without a doubt, the category red functions as the most dominant centre of gravity, especially cooccurring with the subcategoriesRAGE, SHAME and EMBARRASSMENT). Red has a very long and powerful historical background, from by far the largest number of meaning extensions over the years, to the highest increase in lexis nowadays. Due to its stability over time, it has received a prominent status among speakers of different language communities. It is not surprising that it has easily found its way into the language in the form of numerous and very colourful collocational units (red in the face, to be red with anger, to see red). In comparison to English data, which exhibit a strong connection between the colour term red and the emotion term anger, Croatian expressions with red are much more inclined to the subcategory of SHAME and EMBARRASSMENT. While English prefers the pink-red-scarlet-crimson-purple range to express variation in intensity of anger (e.g. pink-red-crimson-black with anger, red-scarlet-crimsonpurple with rage), and white (mostly related to fear and shock) as the emphatic form, Croatian exhibits no such ranges in the subordinate level of the category. Slightly different in motivational interpretation is the association of the colour term green with the emotion concept ENVY. Underlying cognitive mechanisms employed as the motivational force behind most of the previously mentioned expressions would not explain whether the colour green actually refers to facial colour. One of the possible interpretations might bring us back to an ancient cultural model of "humoral pathology" (primarily ascribed to Hippocrates), the doctrine that is still effective in the analysis of the contemporary metaphoric expressions of emotions. According to this theory, combinations of the four fluid humours of the body—blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile—determined the four prototypical temperaments, namely the sanguine, the phlegmatic, the melancholic and the choleric temperament. In order to reach the appropriate interpretation of the expressions to feel green or to be green with envy, envy as an intense feeling should be associated with the bile which subsequently causes a person to feel unwell and manifests itself in the facial colour green. The lack of a clear-cut boundary between yellow and green in historical sources has often resulted in their overlap regarding the emotional concepts they refer to – ENVY, JEALOUSY, WORRY, ANGER and SUFFERING. Despite the rising tendency of their interchangeable connection and the existence of similar expressions in different languages, no clear corpora evidence would support the claim. 64 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Table 1. Emotional terms co-occurring with colour terms in the BNC and the CNC 65 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation The final emotional concept FEAR is predominantly associated with the colour white. The connection is based on the experience of people turning pale and blood leaving people's face when exposed to shock or danger. As was true of black, the apparent positive associations of white are not fully reflected in language. The number of collocational units in Croatian is substantially lower than in English. The reasons for it may lie in the co-existence of another lexical term – blijed (pale). Conceptual Motivation In line with the bulk of recent cognitive developments and the bodily bases of language and cognition, the findings suggest two relevant sources of conceptual motivation – conceptual metaphor and metonymy. The major tenets of the usagebased model (Langacker, 2000) will help us analyse some of the linguistic instantiations retrieved from the corpora. Niemeier (1998) suggests metonymically based metaphors as primal examples of colour associations and natural prototypes. As already mentioned, blood is a wellknown standard of redness and therefore often cited as a metaphorical motivation to describe emotions, e.g. anger (red in the face, go red, red with anger, see red, make someone red-hot, red-headed, be a red flag to someone). If we take a look at the linguistic unit to go red, we can see that its complex meaning cannot be reduced to just a facial colour.Moreover, we know that this colour is a symptom of physiological reaction to feelings of shame, anger or physical exertion. The initial categorisation of the colour red against the complex colour category behind the adjective red will not help us detect the right hue. However, if we consider the redness of the face as an instance of EFFECT FOR CAUSE metonymy, we could simultaneously activate our knowledge of the related emotions and complete the final stage of categorisation in our attempt to detect the right hue of red. It is also a part of general knowledge structures that the exact redness of the face behind the linguistic expression is far beyond its prototypical designation. Due to the essential sameness of human beings and their physiological functioning across cultures, this body-based conceptual metonymy has been regarded as ubiquitous in all cultures, if not “universal”. Most of the retrieved corpus data are consistent with the PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION/EFFECT FOR CAUSE metonymic mapping. These types of metonymy seem extremely productive in everyday life, partly because they are associated with our folk model understanding of human body symptoms and feelings. In order to avoid the dilemma of the "appropriate" interpretation as either the conceptual metonymy physiological EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION, or the conceptual metaphor CHANGE OF COLOUR IS A CHANGE OF STATE, we would try to suggest Kövecses' (2000) line of reasoning concerning metaphor-metonymy relationship, and the newer version of 66 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics conceptual metaphor theory that acknowledges the integration of universality and culture (Gibbs 1999, 2003). Thus, both speakers of English and Croatian might be green with envy, red with anger, or white with fear, but hardly ever would Croatians feel blue or be purple with rage. A large body of other research has shown that such expressions are somewhat problematic because, aside from their universal character (as a result of psychological and physiological processes), they are also conceptual structures cultural in origin (Kövecses 2000). Conclusion The aim of this paper was twofold. First, we explored the salience of some colour terms in their co-occurrence with the emotional terms based on the available empirical data. Secondly, we offered some cognitive mechanisms as the underlying motivational force in creation and interpretation of the individual linguistic expressions. The research into two national corpora point to the following conclusions: (i) the highest cluster of emotional categories is organised around three basic colour terms: red, white and green, (ii) the colour term red is highly dominant in both languages, (iii) English prefers larger variety of colour range and offers subtler nuances in order to depict the exact intensity of emotions, (iv) colour words go well beyond their perceptual quality, (v) there is a wide discrepancy between the scope of human conceptual categories and the amount of linguistic units rendered to communicate them, (vi) the findings suggest that cross-linguisticsimilarities originate in universal human experiences, whereas differences and in culture-specific variables, (vii) it is inevitable to employ cognitive mechanisms such as metaphor and metonymy to extend the meanings of the existing linguistic expressions, (viii) the most productive metonymic mapping among the retrieved data isPHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION/EFFECT FOR CAUSE, (ix) although the fruitful interplay of both cognitive mechanisms – metaphor and metonymy – account for majority of meaning extensions, knowledge of the world, knowledge of the language and relevant cultural factors should not be ignored. 67 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation References Berlin, B.& Kay, P. (1969). Basic Color Terms. Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Gibbs, R. W. (1999). Taking metaphor out of our head and putting it into the cultural world. In R. Gibbs & G. Steen (Eds.), Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics (pp. 145-166). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Gibbs, R. W. (2003). Embodied experience and linguistics meaning. Brain and Language, 84, 1-15. Hupka, R.B., Zaleski, Z., Otto, J., Reidl, L. & Tarabrina, N. V. (1997). The colors of Anger, Envy, FEAR, AND Jealousy: A Cross-Cultural Study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28(2), 156-171. Kövecses, Z. (1986).Metaphors of anger, pride, and love: A lexical approach to the structure of concepts. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kövecses, Z. (1990). Emotion Concepts. New York: Springer Verlag. Kövecses, Z. (1991).Happiness: A definitional effort. Metaphor & Symbolic Activity, 6(1), 29-46. Kövecses, Z. (2000).Metaphor and emotion: Language, culture, and the body in human feeling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Langacker, Ronald W. (2000b). “A dynamic usage-based model.” Barlow, Michael, Suzanne Kemmer, eds. (2000). Usage-Based Models of Language. Stanford: CSLI Publications, 1-63. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Niemeier, S. (1998). Colourless Green Ideas Metonymise Furiously. In Ungerer, F. (Ed.), Kognitive Lexikologie und Syntax. Rostock: Universität Rostock (Rostocker Beiträge zurSprachwissenschaft: 5), 119-146. Rosch, E. (1973). Natural Categories. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 328-350. 68 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D. & O'Connor, C. (1987). Emotion Knowledge: Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061-1086. Wierzbicka, A. (1999). Emotions across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and Universals. Cambridge: University Press. Webpages British National Corpus BNC.Retrieved from http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk. (Access March 30, 2014) Croatian National Corpus HNK. Retrieved from http://www.hnk.ffzg.hr. (Access March 30, 2014) 69 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2807 Title A name given to the resource Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation Author Author Molnar, Draženka Abstract A summary of the resource. In English and in many other European languages, Croatian included, it is quite common to use colour terms as an indicator of different emotions. When we talk about colour and humans, we areactually referring to the colour of their skin, more precisely their face. The main goal of this study is to investigate the correlation between the primary colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions in English and Croatian. Since most of the current research on emotion concepts has focused on English, we would like to provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis of the two language corpora (the British National Corpus and the Croatian National Corpus) in the first part of the paper should offer a better insight into the salience of basic emotion categories in reference to basic colour categories. The second part of the paper investigates the motivation behind some of the linguistic expressions within the framework of cognitive linguistics. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Key words: emotion, colour, collocational units, conceptual metaphor, metonymy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/193f2509e547effd21bd12f5fca8923a.pdf d189bc6e4d6d8ae6e22e71f9fe0a08d7 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia Magdalena Nigoević & Koraljka Pejić & Trišnja Pejić University of Split, Croatia Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 19.11.2014. Abstract It is a general belief that students need to receive substantial input of authentic materials in FLT. The combination of verbal information with full visual experiences, such as films, has been found most appealing. Not only a large amount of natural language, but also a rich variety of cultural forms and expressions are mediated by this kind of “comprehensible input” (Krashen 1985). Various studies have demonstrated the ways in which intralingual subtitled audio-visual material can improve the effectiveness of general foreign language comprehension (Caimi 2002, Vanderplank 1988) and how it can be a useful tool in foreign language teaching and foreign language acquisition (Neuman & Koskinen 1992). Most foreign television and cinema programs distributed in Croatia have always been accompanied by interlingual subtitles; therefore the viewers are accustomed to them. Consequently, such a habit can be efficiently exploited in foreign language learning among Croatian students who will certainly more easily develop strategies to derive benefits from subtitled films. The main aim of this study was to examine whether and to what extent film subtitles (captions) increase learners’ ability to process languages. Our hypothesis was that subtitles facilitate general comprehension of a film, provided that the linguistic difficulty of the authentic film material has been carefully selected in order to match the students’ overall competency in L2. Our research was conducted among students of B1/B2 level of English L2. Students were divided into two groups: one group watched a sequence of a feature film without subtitles, while the other was shown the same material with subtitles. Both groups were given a specially designed test to assess their general comprehension of the viewed material. The findings revealed that the group of students viewing the subtitled film showed better results than the other group. Keywords: FLT, authentic audio-visual material, intralingual film subtitles, Croatian learners 181 �Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia Introduction Learners of a foreign language do not always have an opportunity to communicate with ‘native speakers’. Therefore, it is exceptionally important that they are continually exposed to interactional and speech patterns of L2. This can easily be achieved by using audio-visual materials. The role of audio-visual materials as a stimulating and facilitating tool in the process of teaching and learning a foreign language has been widely acknowledged. “They can provide (a) the motivation achieved by basing lessons on attractively informative content material; (b) the exposure to a varied range of authentic speech, with different registers, and (c) language used in the context of real situations, which adds relevance and interest to the learning process” (Carrasquillo 1994:140). Through such materials students become acquainted with various sorts of verbal and non-verbal behaviour in L2, conversational strategies (opening and closing, turn taking) and various cultural patterns. Among other audio-visual materials, film is probably the most authentic, that is, “authentic, in the sense that the language is not artificially constrained, and is, at the same time, amenable to exploitation for language teaching purposes” (MacWilliam 1986: 134). It is an excellent medium for introducing various aspects of the foreign language in the classroom. Furthermore, films allow teachers and learners to explore the nonverbal and cultural aspects of language as well as verbal. It can also be highly motivating since it shows real-life situations and characters, thus giving an authentic and often amusing way to get acquainted with the (extra)linguistic and cultural aspects of the target reality. Subtitles in foreign language learning Various studies have been carried out on the ways in which intralingual1 subtitled audio-visual material can improve the effectiveness of general foreign language comprehension (Caimi 2002, Markham 1993 and 1999, Vanderplank 1988) and how it can be a useful tool in foreign language teaching and foreign language acquisition. Among others, Garza (1991) studied the way in which subtitles (captions) affect the study of vocabulary at higher level learners and concluded that the use of subtitles increases the comprehension and acquisition of vocabulary. Neuman & Koskinen (1992) obtained similar results in their study with advanced EFL students and came to a conclusion that students who watched subtitled (captioned) videos demonstrate better comprehension and vocabulary acquisition results. Baltova (1999) conducted 182 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics an experiment with French students in Canada whose native language was English. The purpose of her study was to find out how the learning and retention of content and vocabulary in French were affected by different authentic video formats. She also proved that the retention of the video content was superior under the subtitled conditions. The special edition of R.I.L.A. (Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata), edited by Annamaria Caimi in 2002, contains the proceedings of a scientific conference on subtitled films and several papers are focused on the role of subtitles in foreign language teaching and learning. Most the studies have focused on short-term effects of text aids, although some authors advocate the systematic collection of long-term data (Danan 2004: 75-76). The insight into both short- and long-term effects of subtitling can be seen in the experiment done by Bianchi e Ciabattoni (2008) in a broad-range investigation among the Italian adult learners of English. There were also past experiences and projects which encouraged the use of foreign language learning methods based on the creation of subtitles by students and pupils.2 All the findings agree that subtitling can contribute to language learning and that in formal learning contexts, subtitling can reduce the anxiety experienced by foreign language learners. The use of subtitled audio-visual material has the advantages of providing simultaneous exposure to spoken language, printed text and visual information, all conveying the same message (see: Baltova 1999: 33). Moreover, subtitles can function as an important element that bridges the gap between reading and listening skills (see: Borrás & Lafayette 1994). Most foreign programs distributed in Croatia, as in other so-called “subtitling countries”3, have always been accompanied by interlingual subtitles; therefore the viewers are exposed to subtitled foreign television and cinema programs from a very young age. As the viewers are accustomed to the logic of subtitling, they can easily switch to the use of intralingual or same-language subtitles. Consequently, such a habit can be efficiently exploited in foreign language learning among Croatian students who will certainly more easily develop strategies to derive benefits from subtitled films.4 However, the integration of film subtitles into language learning and teaching practice in Croatia has so far been unsatisfactory and few studies (Strmečki Marković 2003) investigated the use of film subtitles. Method of the Study The main objective of this study was to examine whether and to what extent film subtitles increase the language-processing ability of the learners. We wanted to determine whether watching a subtitled film facilitates general comprehension among Croatian learners. For the purpose of this study the opening sequence (7’50’’) of the feature film About a Boy (2002, directed by Paul Weitz) was chosen. The 183 �Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia actors in the sequence are native speakers and use contemporary, standard variant of the English language. The topics of their conversations and monologues are common and deal with everyday situations, well known to the learners. The vocabulary and structures used in the sequence are already familiar to upper-intermediate level students. Our research was conducted among Croatian secondary school students of English L2 at B1/B2 level of the Common European Framework. The students were divided in two groups. The groups were homogenous in terms of the number of hours of studying English in secondary school (380), in terms of age (17-18) and accordingly, in terms of general culture and cineliteracy. The Treatment group viewed the selected sequence with subtitles, while the Control group watched the same sequence without subtitles. The general comprehension of the viewed material was tested by a particularly designed test. The test consisted of fifteen (15) open questions that the participants had to fill in, based on the information they heard in the sequence. Some questions required several elements in the answer, so the total score was 19. For each correct answer the participants scored one point. Each test was corrected by two independent, experienced English language teachers. Synonyms were also accepted as correct answers, provided that participant’s comprehension was confirmed. The experiment was conducted among secondary school students in Split (Croatia) in March 2014. The total number of students was one hundred (100), divided in two groups of fifty (50) participants each. They were given precise instructions for the activity: first they had to read the comprehension test questions, then carefully watch the sequence and afterwards answer the questions. They were not allowed to look at the questions while watching the sequence. Immediately after watching it, they were asked to complete the previously designed test and were given ten minutes (10’) for the task. The collected data were processed using t-test (SPSS programme) in order to determine the statistical difference between the Treatment group and the Control group. Our hypothesis was that the group that watched the film sequence with subtitles (Treatment group) would have a higher score in the comprehension test than the Control group that had watched the same sequence without subtitles. Discussion and findings 184 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics After the answer sheets were collected and corrected, the score for each group was calculated. We ran these data through t-test to assess whether the means of the two groups were statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate whenever it is important to compare two groups. As can be seen in Figure 1: the Treatment group had a mean score of 13.06, while the Control group had 6.58. The mean of the Treatment Group minus that of the Control Group equals -6.48. Given the 95% confidence interval, the difference is from -7.94 to -5.02. The standard error of difference was 0.736 (see Table 1). Table 1. Results of the comprehension test Control Group Mean 6.58 Standard deviation 3.85 N (number of participants) 50 Treatment Group 13.06 3.45 50 By conventional criteria, the t-test showed that the difference is considered to be extremely statistically significant. All the participants watched the same film sequence and the comprehension was tested by the same test. All the participants were equal in terms of all relevant criteria (age, numbers of hours of studying English, general culture and cineliteracy). The only difference between the groups 185 �Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia was the intervention with subtitles, in that the Treatment group had the opportunity to listen to the speech and simultaneously read the uttered words in the form of subtitles, while the participants of the Control group based their understanding only on the spoken utterances. Since all participants were equal and tested in equal conditions, the difference in the scores can be attributed exclusively to the presence or absence of subtitles. Conclusion The findings are in accordance with previously conducted studies and these results lead us to the conclusion that subtitled film strategies have a positive impact to students’ overall comprehension skills. Because of its realistic use of language, its undemanding grasp and its attractiveness, watching a foreign language film as an activity has an encouraging effect. Not only is film an important source of different themes and topics, it also offers audio-visual stimulation for developing listening, speaking reading and general comprehension skills in foreign language learning. It is important, however, to take into account that a film may be an assisting medium in covering a topic and that it has to be adequate to the level of students’ language competences. If used appropriately, such exposure to film subtitles with Croatian students should definitely strengthen their foreign language comprehension and acquisition of language functions and structures. Nevertheless, the authors are aware of the fact that this study was conducted on a relatively small sample, homogenous in their age and education level. These data were collected exclusively from learners of English as L2 in a country where foreign TV and cinema programmes are usually subtitled and rarely dubbed, so viewers are accustomed to subtitles. Therefore, these data should be applied with caution when making inferences about other types of L2 learners. Notes 1 This refers to audio-visual material subtitled in the same language as the original. Same-language subtitles are also labelled captions or bimodal, unilingual, or intralingual subtitles in scholarly literature (Danan 2004: 68). Captioning was initially intended for individuals who are hearing impaired, but later was used in all spheres of life, both as didactic material and as an assisting tool in daily watching video programmes and films. On the other hand, interlingual (or interlinguistic) subtitling refers to audio-visual material in a foreign language subtitled in the learner's language and it is the most common way of translating a medium into 186 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics another language so that speakers of other languages can follow it. For the purpose of this study we will use the term ‘subtitles,’ which has become a common term in Europe referring only to intralingual subtitles. 2 Such as the LeViS (Learning via Subtitling) project, was coordinated by Hellenic Open University in Greece within the framework of Socrates Programme, LINGUA 2 (2006-2008) which developed the educational material for active foreign language learning based on film subtitling. (see: http://levis.cti.gr/) 3 Subtitling is the language transfer practice used most widely in Europe. It concerns 28 countries (26 countries plus two regions in two countries): Belgium (Flemishspeaking), Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland (German-speaking), Turkey and United Kingdom. (Retrieved 13 April 2014 from: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/llp/studies/documents/study_on_the_use_of_subtitling/rapp ort_final-en.pdf) 4 Some American authors even emphasise “the incidental language learning occurring in Europe with spectators of American films” (Danan 2004: 68). References Baltova, I. (1999). Multisensory language teaching in a multidimensional curriculum: The use of authentic bimodal video in core French. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 56 (1), 32-48. Bianchi, F. & Ciabattoni, T. (2008). Captions and Subtitles in EFL Learning: an investigative study in a comprehensive computer environment. In: Baldry A., M.Pavesi, C.Taylor Torsello & C.Taylor (eds) From Didactas to Ecolingua: an ongoing research project n translation, 69-90. EUT, Edizioni Università di Trieste. Retrieved from www.openstarts.units.it/dspace/bitstream/10077/2848/1/bianchi_ciabattoni.pdf Borrás, I. & Lafayette, R. (1994). Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling on the speaking performance on college students of French. The Modern Language Journal, 78 (1), 61-75. Caimi, A. (ed.) (2002). Cinema: Paradiso delle lingue. I sottotitoli nell’apprendimento linguistico. Special issue of RILA – Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 34 (1-2). 187 �Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia Carrasquillo, A. L. (1994). Teaching English as a second language: A resource guide. New York: Garland Publishing. Danan, M. (2004). Captioning and subtitling: Undervalued language learning strategies. Meta, 49(1), 67-77. Garza, T. (1991). Evaluating the use of captioned video materials in advanced foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 24 (3), 239-258. Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. London: Longman. MacWilliam, I. (1986). Video and language comprehension. ELT Journal, 40 (2): 131-135. Markham, P. (1993). Captioned TV videotapes: Effects of visual support on second language comprehension. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 21 (3), 183-191. Markham, P. (1999). Captioned videotapes and second-language listening word recognition. Foreign Language Annals, 32 (3), 321-328. Neuman, S.B. & Koskinen, P. (1992). Captioned TV as comprehensible input: Effects of incidental word learning from context for language minority students. Reading Research Quarterly, 27 (1), 94-106. Strmečki Marković, S. (2003). Igrani film u nastavi jezičnih vježbi u sklopu studija germanistike u Zagrebu. Strani jezici, 32 (3), 59-68. Vanderplank, R. (1988). The value of teletext subtitles in language learning. English Language Teaching (ELT) Journal, 42 (4), 272-281. 188 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2818 Title A name given to the resource Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia Author Author Nigoević, Magdalena Pejić, Koraljka Pejić, Trišnja Abstract A summary of the resource. It is a general belief that students need to receive substantial input of authentic materials in FLT. The combination of verbal information with full visual experiences, such as films, has been found most appealing. Not only a large amount of natural language, but also a rich variety of cultural forms and expressions are mediated by this kind of “comprehensible input” (Krashen 1985). Various studies have demonstrated the ways in which intralingual subtitled audio-visual material can improve the effectiveness of general foreign language comprehension (Caimi 2002, Vanderplank 1988) and how it can be a useful tool in foreign language teaching and foreign language acquisition (Neuman & Koskinen 1992). Most foreign television and cinema programs distributed in Croatia have always been accompanied by interlingual subtitles; therefore the viewers are accustomed to them. Consequently, such a habit can be efficiently exploited in foreign language learning among Croatian students who will certainly more easily develop strategies to derive benefits from subtitled films. The main aim of this study was to examine whether and to what extent film subtitles (captions) increase learners’ ability to process languages. Our hypothesis was that subtitles facilitate general comprehension of a film, provided that the linguistic difficulty of the authentic film material has been carefully selected in order to match the students’ overall competency in L2. Our research was conducted among students of B1/B2 level of English L2. Students were divided into two groups: one group watched a sequence of a feature film without subtitles, while the other was shown the same material with subtitles. Both groups were given a specially designed test to assess their general comprehension of the viewed material. The findings revealed that the group of students viewing the subtitled film showed better results than the other group. Keywords: FLT, authentic audio-visual material, intralingual film subtitles, Croatian learners Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/df375b2eb4f4b2d6c641ca40a327573c.pdf 0eec75207b0409271a7d90d7d1d180a4 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German Snježana Babić Tanja Gradečak-Erdeljić Josip Juraj Strossmayer University, Croatia Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 02.11.2014. Abstract The aim of this research is to establish the relevance of the results from a survey conducted among university students of English and German at the University of Osijek. The survey was construed in order to establish the degree of awareness among non-native users of English on how anglicisms are treated in the context of Croatian and German language systems and what strategies are used to cope with the pervasive influence of English vocabulary. Preliminary results show that English lexical borrowings from the field of IT technology are used very frequently in their communication via computers and mobile phones and the students are rather slow to acquire the suggested Croatian and German equivalents and neologisms in the IT terminology. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation, and neologisms will be researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students. The goal is to elicit responses that will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a "language of identification" or a "language of communication" (House, 2003). Keywords: Anglicism, borrowings, neologisms, Croatian, German Introduction The process of language change is an essential and natural part of the development of every language and in this sense it abides by the principles of a descriptive approach to the study of (a) language. By its very nature, the process of describing the changing and fluctuating characteristics of language must rely on describing the external factors of change, namely, its speakers and their linguistic production such as it is. Approaching the language as it is spoken by its users follows the �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German tenets of the usage-based model of language (Langacker, 1987), which seeks to ground language structure in the actual instances of language – the usage event. Following the approach to language change as a natural process that spreads from the domain of historical linguistics into the area of sociolinguistics, pragmatics, linguistic anthropology and cognitive sciences in general (Aitchinson, 2004), linguistic changes can be studied at their micro and macro levels. Relevant in that sense are the length of the research period, which is usually labelled as a diachronic (longitudinal) approach, as opposed to the synchronic approach within a shorter period and at several sociolinguistic levels. In the case of the research conducted in the classes of German and English as a second language, we adopted the synchronic approach of testing the current state of affairs with reference to a particular sociolinguistic group of young people, students at the Department of English and the Department of German at the University of Osijek, Croatia. Our aim was to establish how the most up-to-date lexical units from the field of IT technology, in our case lexemes, abbreviations and acronyms used in texting, chatting, emailing and social networking break the barrier of English as a source language and enter students' Croatian and German as mother tongue and other second language, respectively. We wanted to establish the degree of their awareness of potential equivalents to English terms and abbreviations and thus suggest some preliminary guidelines for the treatment of anglicisms in both Croatian and German language classes. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation, and neologisms were researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students. Their responses will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a ‘language of identification’ or a ‘language of communication’ (House, 2003). As a ‘language of communication’ English has established its firm leading position as a useful instrument for communicating in international encounters with others who do not speak one’s own native language. Croatian has been recognized as a ‘language of identification’ by the participants in the survey and the elicited results in the use of English terms and their Croatian equivalents clearly point in that direction. The affective stance of Croatian students toward their mother tongue defines it as a ‘language of identification’, possessing the necessary affective-emotive quality necessary for the identification of an individual with a larger linguistic-cultural community. In our research German straddles a fine line between those two types because it is neither the students’ mother tongue, nor the imposing lingua franca, but a second language taught at a tertiary level. Precisely thus, the results from the research conducted among the students of German as L2 show the most interesting results, pointing to a current battle between anglicisms, German �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics counterparts and Croatian equivalents as a potential buffer zone between the two camps. Due to the limitation of space, the affective element in the process of deciding between the counterparts has been left out and will probably be part of some further analysis. English as a global language and a lingua franca As Crystal observed (1997:2): ”A language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognized in every country.” The ways in which it may achieve its special status is either for it to become ‘a second language’, an official language of government and media and where the speakers learn it form an early age along with their mother tongue, or when it achieves priority status in foreign-language teaching in schools. English long ago acquired its status as the global language, mostly due to the phenomenon described by Crystal as the closest of links between language dominance and cultural power. The British political and industrial imperialism of the 19th century gave way to the American economic supremacy of the 20th century, which is now extending into the third millennium. Suffice it to say that the brunt of both types of power types produced a strong cultural revolution, mostly based on the ever-present entertainment industry and technological advancements. The means of communication involving the keyboard-to-screen (KTS) channel (Jucker & Dürscheid, 2012) indeed put a spin on the famous description of English as ‘the language on which the sun never sets’ (Crystal, 1997: 67) since the virtual space of electronically powered devices enables its users to communicate day and night, spanning the reach of English both in space and time. Every consideration about the extent to which English influences other languages and other cultures must keep in mind the limitations of its linguistic system, or, rather, lack thereof, because, as House (2003:557) points out, some of the major characteristics of today’s global English are its functional flexibility and its spread across many different domains. The typological mixture of English and its relative morphological simplicity is a basis on its own for the internal adaptability to new concepts to be linguistically encoded. Native speakers of English are themselves continuously producing innumerable examples of new, inventive lexical and idiomatic structures adjusting their vocabulary to the given linguistic system of English, but, at the same time, slightly shifting the boundaries of the already existing system in haphazard, but persistent processes of lexicalization and grammaticalisation. English has thus earned its role as a legitimate lingua franca of the modern world and more recently a strand of EFL research suggested a new term of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). According to House (ibid.), ELF can't be treated as either a pidgin or a language for specific purposes, or as a form of interlanguage in Selinker's terms, but as a type of a contact language for speakers �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German sharing neither a native tongue or national culture, who use English as their chosen language of communication. The position of the English language as a potential threat for native languages is thus defied by a free-willing approach to its use by a heterogeneous group of speakers from all strands of life and all around the globe. Rather than acting as a killer language, ELF can also give rise to the following paradoxical situation: using ELF as a language for communication often strengthens the use of native languages for identification purposes and as a vehicle of protest against ELF dominance. We therefore witness today strong and healthy counter-currents, not only in particular language policies by different state authorities trying to promote vocabulary of a national language, but even among different generations of speakers of national languages, i.e. even among the members of the young generation who treat their national language as a first line of defence in the struggle for their personal identification. The treatment of jargon and slang in SLA As noted by Birdsong (2004: 86) the conceptualization of the mature state in the process of L1 or L2 acquisition presupposes incremental progress, and thus no absolute finality, in learning. This lack of finality subsumes all the aspects of language change mentioned above, particularly additions of novel lexical items (along with idioms, slang, dialectal variants, technical jargon, etc.) and occasional changes in surface morphological or phonetic forms, but not re-representation of the underlying grammar. The classroom treatment of jargon (business jargon, medical jargon etc.) is, of course, a necessary element for any studiously created curriculum of English for Specific Purposes course, but in the cases of more general SLA class, when the use of terminology includes elements of a particular professional jargon (in our case IT terminology or KTS communication jargon), and the fluctuating basis of slang expressions, the teaching attitude should be approached from a more tentative angle and the advantages and disadvantages. Methodology The corpus consists of 20 electronic RAs in the field of general psychology consisting of 105 307 running words selected from two online journals available in PsychInfo base: Motivaton and Emotion (IF=1,339) and Cognition and Emotion (IF=1,901)2. The RAs were selected according to the following criteria. They were all original research reports of correlational studies published between 2008 and �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 2009. Additionally, they followed a standard IMRD framework and were approximately of the same length, ranging from 4,000-6,000 words. As for the data analysis procedure, the corpus was divided into four sub-corpora, each consisting of one of the four obligatory sections of RAs3. The text analysis was done by means of the lexical analysis software WordSmith Tools 5.0 (Scott, 1996), in particular its analytical tool Concordancer. The raw frequency counts were normed to a basis per 1,000 words, using the following method: raw frequency count/a total length of a text x 1,000 words= normed frequency count4. Results Fig.1. presents the distribution of three categories of epistemic modality markers selected for frequency analysis across IMRD structure of RAs. As can be seen, the Method section shows the lowest incidence of epistemic markers, unlike the Discussion section with the highest frequency of epistemic modality markers. The most frequent type of epistemic markers used in Introductions includes epistemic modals, followed by epistemic lexical verbs, whereas in Discussions these two categories seem to be quite evenly distributed. The overall use of epistemic adverbs, adjectives, and nouns is the lowest in frequency although they show rather even distribution across Introductions and Discussions. Relative frequency of most commonly used epistemic markers across IMRD structure is given in Fig.2. Discussion As can be seen in Fig.1. the distribution of epistemic modality markers seem to match well with the rhetorical functions of each RA section. According to Nwogu's (1997) schemata of RA moves in medical RA, the Method section deals with the conventionalized descriptions of data collection and data-analysis procedures. This implies that writers generally do not need to qualify their claims in this section, which is reflected in low frequency of epistemic occurrences. The Result section is rhetorically different in that it generally refers to the presentation of the results of statistical analysis. The higher frequency of evaluative language in this section indicates that while presenting the research results, writers seem to simultaneously comment on them and to some extent qualify their claims tentatively, implying that there might be alternative explanations for the results obtained. (e.g. It is possible that co-variation among the variables may account for this result.). As is evident in Fig. 1, epistemic lexical verbs were used most frequently compared to the other two categories under study. Their overall use across IMRD tends to be largely conventionalized in academic discourse (see Fig.2), especially as constituents of frequently occurring lexical bundles such as: Results suggest. However, due to their polysemous nature, the pragmatic interpretation of their epistemic status demands a larger-scale study and is therefore beyond the scope of this paper. �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German The second highest epistemically modalized section is Introduction, which is also in accordance with its rhetorical purpose. In this section writers primarily present the current state of knowledge taking positions towards them where relevant. Also they offer interpretations of the previous research in an attempt to establish a niche for their own (Swales, 1990). Unlike the Discussion section, where writers are more often the sources of epistemic judgments that make them more subjective in their evaluations, the epistemic judgments presented in Introductions are more descriptive (Nuyts, 2000), i.e. they are frequently reports of other people's evaluations. (e.g. Ickes et al. (2000) proposed that women’s typical advantage on tests of interpersonal sensitivity might be due to motivational differences stemming from the stereotypically female nature of such tasks.). The results suggest the highest incidence of epistemic modal verbs, although the use of other categories does not seem to be significantly lower. Among the modal verbs, the findings indicate the predominant use of the modal verb may, which matches its chief semantic role as a hedging device (Coates, 1983), followed by might, indicating an even higher degree of tentativeness and indirectness. Finally, the densest section regarding epistemic qualifications is the Discussion with the highest overall incidence of epistemic markers, which is motivated by its information structure. It is in this section that writers interpret their results, draw tentative conclusions, admit limitations of their research that might have contributed to the nature of their findings, and suggest possible implications of their research, which are some of the chief reasons why greater caution is required when presenting claims. The distribution of modal verbs (f/1000=5.61) and epistemic lexical verbs (f/1000=5.92) seems to be relatively close, which suggests their conventional use by psychology writers when making epistemic judgments. (e.g. Indeed, it may be that self-discrepancies predict emotional distress predominantly among those individuals who believe that one’s discrepancies are unlikely to change./This seems to indicate that dispositional pessimists neither plan nor prepare the task to be undertaken, which suggests they are in a state of helplessness.) Based on the research findings, the most salient pragmatic aspects of epistemic markers in the corpus indicate their hedging function. Authors hedge the strong, assertive claims, admitting, among others, that their findings can be considered plausible given the limited nature of the research conducted (Hyland, 1998). The reliability and plausibility of the research findings are to be viewed as the logical inferences of the research rather than as individual speculations. To sum up, the results of the corpus-based analysis point to some of the most salient aspects regarding the distribution and use of selected epistemic modality markers. However, this picture is far from complete and might be considered as the first step in �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics exploring the complexity of epistemic modality and its pragmatics in the field of psychology. Figure.1. Distribution of anglicisms and their Croatian and German equivalents 100 80 60 English 40 Croatian 20 0 Input 1 Input 2 Input 3 Input 4 Input 5 Input 6 Figure 2. Relative percentage of most commonly used Croatian and German equivalents English Croatian favorites 2.05 71 1.35 47 0.37 13 0.80 28 0.66 23 0.28 10 download password attachment update paste file refresh edit German 0.04 1 0.24 6 0.40 10 0.08 2 0.04 1 0.25 5 0.60 12 1.80 36 0.10 2 0.45 9 0.35 7 3.03 79 2.57 67 1.19 31 1.69 44 0.96 25 0.65 17 1.48 156 1.25 132 0.85 90 0.72 76 0.54 57 0.33 35 �How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German record Implications for classroom teaching The second section of the paper outlines the classroom tasks designed to acquire some information about the extent to which the undergraduates understand the concept of epistemic modality and use of epistemic markers in their field of study. It should be noted that the students were made familiar with the basic aspects of this linguistic category prior to the completion of tasks. The undergraduates are first-year students of psychology at the Faculty of Philosophy in Osijek. Given the length of the paper, the task instructions and only one example per task are outlined followed by a summarized discussion of students' responses. Conclusion Overall, the responses suggest that the majority of first-year students understand the concept of epistemic modality and can recognize its typical exponents in the authentic sentences extracted from a specialized RA corpus. We find that the inclusion of epistemic modality should be an integral component of EAP courses, due to the complexity of the concept which, however, has been proved to be one of the most characteristic elements of written academic discourse. At this level of language learning the students should be guided by being exposed to the highly frequent epistemic markers through awareness-raising tasks. These tasks should be based on authentic material, bringing students’ attention to the actual language in use. Still, the production should be guided in the manner of providing prompts in the form of hedging devices (see Discussion point 3). Only at the higher level of language learning could we expect a greater degree of independent use of structures containing epistemic markers leading to the development of more advanced academic writing skills. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics References Birdsong, D. (2004). Second Language Acquisition and Ultimate Attainment. In Davies, Alan and Catherine Elder (Eds.). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. (pp. 82-105). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jucker, A. H.& C. Dürscheid. (2012). The Linguistics of Keyboard-to-screen Communication. A New Terminological Framework. Linguistik online 56, 6/2012 Langacker, R.W. (1987). The Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. 1. Stanford: Stanford University Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2825 Title A name given to the resource How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German Author Author Babić, Snežana Gradečak-Erdeljić, Tanja Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this research is to establish the relevance of the results from a survey conducted among university students of English and German at the University of Osijek. The survey was construed in order to establish the degree of awareness among non-native users of English on how anglicisms are treated in the context of Croatian and German language systems and what strategies are used to cope with the pervasive influence of English vocabulary. Preliminary results show that English lexical borrowings from the field of IT technology are used very frequently in their communication via computers and mobile phones and the students are rather slow to acquire the suggested Croatian and German equivalents and neologisms in the IT terminology. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation, and neologisms will be researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students. The goal is to elicit responses that will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a "language of identification" or a "language of communication" (House, 2003). Keywords: Anglicism, borrowings, neologisms, Croatian, German Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PD Germanic languages,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PT Germanic literature