30 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7a02adb6afdd6d6fb710c726e46a5acd.pdf 5561f46c30eeabffd42febc87cef4827 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Ratio of Elements Uptake from the Soil by Yellow Weed (Boreava Orientalis Jaub And Spach.) Which Causes Problems for Barley Cultivated Under Arid Conditions M urat Karaca Selcuk University,Agricultural Faculty, Plant Production Department Konya, -Turkey mkaraca@selcuk.edu.tr Ayşen Akay Selcuk University,Agricultural Faculty, Department of Soil Science Konya-Turkey Abstract: Study was conducted in order to determine the amount of elements uptake from the soil by different densities of yellow weed depending on its competition against barley in barley cultivated areas in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of Central Selcuklu Konya in 2007. At the harvesting time of barley, yellow weed samples in all the plots were extracted with their roots and analysed following the necessary pre-treatments. As a consequence, when the yellow weed numbers are 1, 3 and 6 number /m2, the amounts of N uptake from the soil by yellow weed were determined to be 32.09 – 146.67 – 311.07 g/da; P , 15.57 - 72.56 -144.28 g/da; K , 76.94 - 375.94 – 961.21 g/da, respectively. As the result of the analysis performed, depending on the numbers of yellow weed in the plots were observed statistically significant differences between the amounts of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn and Mo uptake from soil by yellow weed at P<0.05 level. Keywords: Barley, yellow weed (Boreava orientalis Jaub and Spach.), element uptake, competition. Introduction According to the data from 2007, barley production is 7.306.800 ton in Turkey and itis 606.630 ton in Konya,the land of cultivation is 34.280.165 da in Turkey and 3.579.806 da in Konya (Anonymous, 2008). As in many countries,the main vermin of cereal are weeds. Weeds getin competition with wheatin terms of nutrient,water,light and place and every yearitleads to about 25-35 % yield loss (Özer, 1993; Vencill ve ark., 1993; Rodosevich ve Holt, 1984). Because many kinds of weeds have a strong root system and very much branched out, they compete with plants which have been cultivated. Because of weed competition, the average cereal loss all over the world is about 20-40 % (Koch, 1970). The wheat yield loss because of weeds was researched in different regions of Turkey, and it was found out that the loss is 30 % in Aegean region (Bilgir, 1965; Tepe, 1998), 24 % in East Anatolia (Güncan, 1976), 22,5 % in Central Anatolia (Güncan, 2006 referring to FAO) and 20 % in Cukurova region (Uygur et al.,1986). Yellow weed (Boreava orientalis) is a weed of widespread occurrence in barley and wheat field in middle of Turkey, Konya and other locaties in which barley and wheat are cultivated as a winter crop.This weed is also distributed all overthe world. In a survey study carried out in Central Anatolia, 76 species were determined. It was reported that the most common types are Galium tricornutum Dandy (rough bedstraw) 3.75 number/m2, Boreava orientalis (yellow weed) 3.48 number/m2 , Centaurea depressa Bieb. (dark blue bottle) 3.48 number/m2 and B. radians Bieb. (bifora) 2.16 number/m2 , respectively(Taştan and Erciş, 1994). The level competition of weed have in grain cultivation fields and to what extent these weeds use nutrients in soil or nutrient elements applied to the soil for culture plants is not known for every type of weed. With this aim,this study was carried outin 2007 to determine different amounts of nutrient uptake by weeds as a result of barley-weed competition in different densities of yellow weed. 20 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Material and Method This study was carried out in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of Central Selcuklu-Konya-Turkey, which can represent Konya province. The trial was carried out on barley cultivated fields(arid) which exemplified the Province of Konya. The trial plots were 1 m² each , the experiments were conducted with four repetitions and security lines of atleast 25 cm were drawn between them. The plots setincluded weeds. The density of yellow weed varies between 1, 3 and 6 number/m². Allthe other wide and narrow leafed weed plantsin the plots were manually extracted atintervals often days atthe latest and plots of desired density were arranged. All weeds in the plots were harvested together with their roots in the time of harvest,the sample weeds whose roots were cleaned off soil in laboratories were burned in a microwave device(200 PSI) (CE M-Mars -5 model) after necessary pre-processes, and filtrates were obtained. The element analyses of these were carried out with ICPOES devices (Varian, Vista model). The statistical analyses ofthe results obtained were done with of MINITAB and Mstat packet programs. Conclusions Some physical and chemicalfeatures of barley field soil on which the trailis applied are given Table 1. The soil of the trailfield has a clay loam texture, and is slightly alkaline, unsalted, highly limy and low amount of organic substances. The potassium and copperlevels ofthe soil are sufficient, phosphorus and manganese are low (compared to values given for wheat cultivation in Central Anatolia (Yurtsever ,1975), zinc level is very low and iron contentis at medium level. Depending on the number of yellow weed, the weight of weed left on the plot(g/plot) and the N,P,K,Ca,Mg and S contentsuptake from soil by weeds are given in Table 2. Depending on the number of weeds in plot,the difference between amount of N, K, P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo ve Cr contents uptake from soil by yellow weed are significant at P<0.05 level and the difference between S content uptake from soil by yellow weed is atsignificantlevel P<0.01. As the number of yellow weed inthe plotincrease,the amount of element uptake increases significantly. Itisinteresting to note thatthe increase in the number of weed in a plot and the increase inthe amount of nutrient uptake are not simply correlated. In other words, the increase in the amount of nutrient uptake is much more than the increase in number. For example,the amount of nitrogen uptake by 1 weed is 26.15 g/da and the amount of nitrogen uptake by 6 weeds is 262.57 g/da,the amount of phosphorus uptake by one weed is 13.03 g/da and the amount of nitrogen uptake by 6 weeds is 144.28 g/da. Whilethe amount of Ca for 1 weed/m2 is 90.05 g/da,itraised up to 1233.61 g/da in 6 weed/m2. Thisshows us thatthe increase in the number of weeds in plots increase the amount of element uptake 10-13 folds. In wheat cultivation fields in Tokat, the nitrogen uptake by Papaver rhoeas is 0.023 kg/ha, phosphorus is 0.0037 kg/ha and potassium is 0.0371 kg/ha (Sırma ve Güncan,1997).N, P, K uptake from soil by the common weed speciesin wheatfieldin Tokat-Turkey were found Nitrogen 17.81 kg /ha, Phosphorus 2.86 kg/ha and Potassium 21.51 kg /ha respectively (Sırma and Güncan, 1997). 21 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters Clay (%) Silt(%) Sand (%) Texture class pH (1:2,5) EC (1:5)(µS/cm) CaCO3 (%) Organic matter (%) Available P2 O5 ( mg/kg ) Soluble Ca ( mg/kg ) Soluble K2 O ( mg/kg ) Soluble Mg (mg/kg) Soluble Na ( mg/kg) DTPA-extractable Cu ( mg/kg) DTPA-extractable Fe ( mg/kg ) DTPA-extractable Mn ( mg/kg ) DTPA-extractable Zn ( mg/kg ) Values 38.80 28.54 32.66 Clay loam (CL) 7.79 158.5 41.45 1.62 6.40 7529 234.9 275.95 14.89 0.531 3.3 9.72 0.145 Table 1. Some Physical and Chemical Features of Experiment Area Soil The weed element contents depending on the number of yellow weed left in trial plots are given in Table 3. As it can be seen from the table, K content ranges between 0.986-1.117 %, phosphorus content ranges between 0.193-0.208 %, Ca content ranges between 1.28-1.81 % and Mg content ranges between 0.113-0.168. In a study conducted by Güncan (1980) in Erzurum on 76 types of weed,the P contentin weeds ranged between 0.10-1.15 % and K content ranged between 0.66-4.56 %. In a study conducted by Tepe et al.(1997), when the amount of nutrients are considered interms proportion,itisseen thatthe plants sufferfrom N, P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn insufficiency, and the weeds are in a better situation. In our study,the Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn content of yellow weed ranges from 382.88-463.07 mg/kg, 25.2026.71 mg/kg, 0.00-0.005 mg/kg and 14.67-24.93 mg/kg, respectively. In a study conducted by Kadıoğlu et al. (2005) found Mn content of S.halepense 96.5 µg/g and C.regalis 95.0 µg/g. Mendil et al.(2004) found iron and manganese contents as 714-1206 µg/g in weed samples. Ajasa et al.(2004) reported iron and copper contents as 35-241 µg/g and 2.96-24.4 µg/g in some weeds. Calcium values of the weeds ranged from 27-800 mg/100 gr, Mg values 30.33-293.08 mg/100 gr, Fe values 0.17-4.88 mg/100 gr, Mn values 0.04-1.27 mg/100 gr, Zn values 0.10-2.29 mg/100 gr and Cu values 0.005-1.17 mg/100 gr obtained in weeds in Eastern Anatolia (Turan et al., 2003). The element concentrations in some weeds collected from Tokat in Turkey were found to be 122-695, 13.9-96.5, 4.3-17.3, 1.9-8.5, 13.1-30.3 and 1.0-5.5µ/g for Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn and Cr respectively (Kadıoğlu et al., 2005). In Table 3,the sufficient nutrient element contents of barley at beginning of earring stage are also given (Alpaslan et al., 2004). When these values are compared with nutrient elements of yellow weed, itis seen that especially Ca, Mn and Fe contents are highly above the sufficiency limit values for barley. As a result,itis found out that yellow weed which is one the outstanding weeds causing problems in wheat and barley cultivation uptakes significant amount of nutrient element from soil.It was designated that as the number of yellow weed -which competes with barley- per m2 increase, the amount of nutrient element it uptakes from soil increases at a higher speed. These results reveal the importance of combat against weeds in barley cultivation. 22 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2.Depending on the Number of Yellow Weed in Plot, Weed Weight in Trial Plot (g/plot) and the Amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Na Uptakes From the Soil by Yellow Weed ( ± Se, N = 4) Yellow weed number in plot(number/m2) Weed weight in trial plot(g/m2) 1 The amount of element uptakes from soil by yellow weed (g/da) N P K Ca Mg S 6,97±3,44 26,15±13,68 13,03±5,82 76,94±55,7 90,05±48,7 8,58±5,68 3296,28±1622 3 37,06±21,14 146,67±80,64 72,56±43,38 486,64±225,5 675,97±422 61,88±34,41 17727,13±9992 6 Yellow weed number in plot(number/m2) 67,97±28,53 262,57±126,10 144,28±70,64 795,05±415,7 1233,61±828 105,86±60,14 32451,83±13257 Fe Cu Mn Zn B Mo(mg/da) Na 1 2,69±0,62 0±0 0,175±0,084 0,103±0,0764 0,0498±0,0341 0,25±0,5 5,16±1,43 3 18,06±14,24 0±0 0,996±0,576 0,873±0,5598 0,3193±0,2004 5±5,033 28,61±15,6 6 27,08±14,62 0,005±0,01 1,764±0,857 1,304±0,5894 0,449±0,4542 16,25±12,685 99,27±91,26 23 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 3. The Amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Na of Yellow Weed and Nutrient Element Contents of Barley at Beginning of Earring Stage Yellow weed number in plot(number/m2) % mg/kg N K P Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn Cr Na Mo 1 0,37 0,986 0,193 1,28 0,113 463,07 0,00 25,26 14,67 1,95 884,58 0,03 3 0,40 1,359 0,194 1,81 0,168 456,55 0,00 26,71 24,93 2,12 791,78 0,12 6 Arpa(Hordeum vulgare) * The sufficient nutrient element contents of barley at beginning of earring stage 0,38 1,117 0,208 1,68 0,147 382,88 0,05 25,20 19,78 2,19 1356,56 0,20 N K P Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn Cr Na Mo 1.75-3.0 1.5-3.0 0.20-0.50 0.30-1.20 0.15-0.50 25-100 5-25 0.11-0.18 15-70 *Alpaslan et al.,2004. 24 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Ajasa, A.M.O., Bello, M.O., Đbrahim, A.O., Ogunwander, I.A. & Olawore, N.O. (2004). Foot Chem.; 85, 67 Alpaslan, M., Güneş, A. & Đnal A. (2004). Gübreleme Çalışmalarında Bitki Analizlerinin Yeri ve Farklı Bitkiler Đçin Bitki Besin Maddesi Kritik Düzeyleri. Türkiye 3. Ulusal gübre Kongresi, Tarım-Sanayi-Çevre, No: 12151312, Tokat. Anonymous, (2008). TUIK, Türkiye Đstatistik Kurumu Verileri Bilgir, S. (1965). Ege Bölgesi hububat tarlalarında görülen önemli yabancı otlar ve savaş imkanları üzerinde bazı incelemeler. Tarım Bakanlığı Yayınları Tek. Bül. No: 14. Güncan, A. (1976). Erzurum Çevresinde Bulunan Yabancı Otlar ve Önemlilerinden Bazılarının Yazlık Arpa ve Buğdayda Mücadele Đmkanları Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Atatürk Üniv. Yay. Araşt. Serisi No:135, 79 s. Weed Abst. 27 (8): 271. (Doktora Tezinden) Güncan A., (1980). Die unkrautdicthe in der umgebung von Erzurum im getreidanbau und der naehrstoffe durch eininge unkraeuter aus dem boden. Journal of Turkish Phytopathology Vol. 9, Num: 1,1-19. Kadıoğlu, Đ., Mendi, D., Sarı, H., & Hasdemir, E. (2005). Determination of heavy metal levels in some weeds collected from Tokat, Turkey. Asian Journal of Chemistry Vol. 17. No: 1, 564-568 Koch, W. (1970). Unkrautbekampfung. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. Mendil D., Tuzen M., Sari H. & Hasdemir E. (2004). Trace elements and elect rolytes (impress) Özer, Z. (1993). Niçin Yabancı Ot Bilimi (Herboloji). Türkiye I. Herboloji Kongresi. 3-5 Şubat 1993. Adana, s. 17. Radosevich, S.R., & Holt, J.S. (1984). Weed ecology implications self vegetation management. John Wiley and Sons. Newyork. Sırma, M., & Güncan, A. (1997). Tokat Yöresinde Buğday Ekim Alanlarında Sorun Oluşturan Yabancı Otlar ve Önemlilerinden Bazılarının Topraktan Kaldırdıkları N, P, K, Miktarı Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Türkiye II. Herboloji Kongresi. 1-4 Eylül 1997. Ayvalık/ Đzmir. Taştan, B., & Erciş, A. (1994). Orta Anadolu Bölgesi buğday ekim alanlarında gözlenen yabancı otların yayılış ve yoğunlukları üzerinde araştırmalar. Bitki Koruma Bülteni Cilt: 31, No: 1-4, 39-60. Mart-Aralık 1991. Tepe I., Tüfenkçi Ş., Kaya Đ., & Ceylan Ş. (1997). Van’da Bitki Besin Maddesi Alınımı Açısından BuğdayYabancı Ot Rekabeti. Türkiye 2. Herboloji Kongresi. No: 359-368. Bornova-ĐZMĐR Vencill, W.K., Girayda, L.J., & Langdole, G.W. (1993). Soil moisture relations and critical period of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (coastal bermudagrass) competition in conservation-tillage cotton (Gossypium hirsitum L.). Weed Research, Vol. 33, Number, 89-96. 25 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 463 Title A name given to the resource The Ratio of Elements Uptake from the Soil by Yellow Weed (Boreava Orientalis Jaub And Spach.) Which Causes Problems for Barley Cultivated Under Arid Conditions Author Author Karaca, Murat Akay, Aysen Abstract A summary of the resource. Study was conducted in order to determine the amount of elements uptake from the soil by different densities of yellow weed depending on its competition against barley in barley cultivated areas in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of Central Selcuklu Konya in 2007. At the harvesting time of barley, yellow weed samples in all the plots were extracted with their roots and analysed following the necessary pre-treatments. As a consequence, when the yellow weed numbers are 1, 3 and 6 number /m2, the amounts of N uptake from the soil by yellow weed were determined to be 32.09 – 146.67 – 311.07 g/da; P , 15.57 - 72.56 -144.28 g/da; K , 76.94 - 375.94 – 961.21 g/da, respectively. As the result of the analysis performed, depending on the numbers of yellow weed in the plots were observed statistically significant differences between the amounts of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn and Mo uptake from soil by yellow weed at P<0.05 level. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a51913841ede913811b601270c97e677.pdf ba3043d28158b912dc0d0923ad4a041b PDF Text Text The Ratio of Elements Uptake From The Soil By Yellow Weed (Boreava Orientalis Jaub And Spach) Which Causes Problems For Barley Cultivated Under Arid Conditions M urat Karaca Selcuk University,Agricultural Faculty Plant Production Department Konya, Turkey mkaraca@selcuk.edu.tr Ayşen Akay Selcuk University,Agricultural Faculty Department of Soil Science Konya, Turkey Abstract: Study was conducted in order to determine the amount of elements uptake from the soil by different densities of yellow weed depending on its competition against barley in barley cultivated areas in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of Central Selcuklu Konya in 2007. At the harvesting time of barley, yellow weed samples in all the plots were extracted with their roots and analysed following the necessary pre-treatments. As a consequence, when the yellow weed numbers are 1, 3 and 6 number /m2, the amounts of N uptake from the soil by yellow weed were determined to be 32.09 – 146.67 – 311.07 g/da; P , 15.57 - 72.56 -144.28 g/da; K , 76.94 - 375.94 – 961.21 g/da, respectively. As the result of the analysis performed, depending on the numbers of yellow weed in the plots were observed statistically significant differences between the amounts of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn and Mo uptake from soil by yellow weed at P<0.05 level. Keywords: Barley, yellow weed (Boreava orientalis Jaub and Spach.), element uptake, competition. Introduction According to the data from 2007, barley production is 7.306.800 ton in Turkey and itis 606.630 ton in Konya,the land of cultivation is 34.280.165 da in Turkey and 3.579.806 da in Konya (Anonymous, 2008). As in many countries,the main vermin of cereal are weeds. Weeds getin competition with wheatin terms of nutrient,water,light and place and every yearitleads to about 25-35 % yield loss (Özer, 1993; Vencill ve ark., 1993; Rodosevich ve Holt, 1984). Because many kinds of weeds have a strong root system and very much branched out, they compete with plants which have been cultivated. Because of weed competition, the average cereal loss all over the world is about 20-40 % (Koch, 1970). The wheat yield loss because of weeds was researched in different regions of Turkey, and it was found out that the loss is 30 % in Aegean region (Bilgir, 1965; Tepe, 1998), 24 % in East Anatolia (Güncan, 1976), 22,5 % in Central Anatolia (Güncan, 2006 referring to FAO) and 20 % in Cukurova region (Uygur et al.,1986). Yellow weed (Boreava orientalis) is a weed of widespread occurrence in barley and wheat field in middle of Turkey, Konya and other locaties in which barley and wheat are cultivated as a winter crop.This weed is also distributed all overthe world. In a survey study carried out in Central Anatolia, 76 species were determined. It was reported that the most common types are Galium tricornutum Dandy (rough bedstraw) 3.75 number/m2, Boreava orientalis (yellow weed) 3.48 number/m2 , Centaurea depressa Bieb. (dark blue bottle) 3.48 number/m2 and B. radians Bieb. (bifora) 2.16 number/m2 , respectively(Taştan and Erciş, 1994). The level competition of weed have in grain cultivation fields and to what extent these weeds use nutrients in soil or nutrient elements applied to the soil for culture plants is not known for every type of weed. With this aim,this study was carried outin 2007 to determine different amounts of nutrient uptake by weeds as a result of barley-weed competition in different densities of yellow weed. 431 �Material and Method This study was carried out in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of Central Selcuklu-Konya-Turkey, which can represent Konya province. The trial was carried out on barley cultivated fields(arid) which exemplified the Province of Konya. The trial plots were 1 m² each , the experiments were conducted with four repetitions and security lines of atleast 25 cm were drawn between them. The plots setincluded weeds. The density of yellow weed varies between 1, 3 and 6 number/m². Allthe other wide and narrow leafed weed plantsin the plots were manually extracted atintervals often days atthe latest and plots of desired density were arranged. All weeds in the plots were harvested together with their roots in the time of harvest,the sample weeds whose roots were cleaned off soil in laboratories were burned in a microwave device(200 PSI) (CE M-Mars -5 model) after necessary pre-processes, and filtrates were obtained. The element analyses of these were carried out with ICPOES devices (Varian, Vista model). The statistical analyses ofthe results obtained were done with of MINITAB and Mstat packet programs. Conclusions Some physical and chemicalfeatures of barley field soil on which the trailis applied are given Table 1. The soil of the trailfield has a clay loam texture, and is slightly alkaline, unsalted, highly limy and low amount of organic substances. The potassium and copperlevels ofthe soil are sufficient, phosphorus and manganese are low (compared to values given for wheat cultivation in Central Anatolia (Yurtsever ,1975), zinc level is very low and iron contentis at medium level. Depending on the number of yellow weed, the weight of weed left on the plot(g/plot) and the N,P,K,Ca,Mg and S contentsuptake from soil by weeds are given in Table 2. Depending on the number of weeds in plot,the difference between amount of N, K, P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo ve Cr contents uptake from soil by yellow weed are significant at P<0.05 level and the difference between S content uptake from soil by yellow weed is atsignificantlevel P<0.01. As the number of yellow weed inthe plotincrease,the amount of element uptake increases significantly. Itisinteresting to note thatthe increase in the number of weed in a plot and the increase inthe amount of nutrient uptake are not simply correlated. In other words, the increase in the amount of nutrient uptake is much more than the increase in number. For example,the amount of nitrogen uptake by 1 weed is 26.15 g/da and the amount of nitrogen uptake by 6 weeds is 262.57 g/da,the amount of phosphorus uptake by one weed is 13.03 g/da and the amount of nitrogen uptake by 6 weeds is 144.28 g/da. Whilethe amount of Ca for 1 weed/m2 is 90.05 g/da,itraised up to 1233.61 g/da in 6 weed/m2. Thisshows us thatthe increase in the number of weeds in plots increase the amount of element uptake 10-13 folds. In wheat cultivation fields in Tokat, the nitrogen uptake by Papaver rhoeas is 0.023 kg/ha, phosphorus is 0.0037 kg/ha and potassium is 0.0371 kg/ha (Sırma ve Güncan,1997).N, P, K uptake from soil by the common weed speciesin wheatfieldin Tokat-Turkey were found Nitrogen 17.81 kg /ha, Phosphorus 2.86 kg/ha and Potassium 21.51 kg /ha respectively (Sırma and Güncan, 1997). Parameters Values Clay (%) 38.80 Silt(%) 28.54 Sand (%) 32.66 Texture class Clay loam (CL) pH (1:2,5) 7.79 EC (1:5)(µS/cm) 158.5 CaCO3 (%) 41.45 Organic matter (%) 1.62 Available P2 O5 ( mg/kg ) 6.40 Soluble Ca ( mg/kg ) 7529 Soluble K2 O ( mg/kg ) 234.9 Soluble Mg (mg/kg) 275.95 Soluble Na ( mg/kg) 14.89 DTPA-extractable Cu ( mg/kg) 0.531 DTPA-extractable Fe ( mg/kg ) 3.3 DTPA-extractable Mn ( mg/kg ) 9.72 DTPA-extractable Zn ( mg/kg ) 0.145 Table 1. Some Physical and Chemical Features of Experiment Area Soil 432 �The weed element contents depending on the number of yellow weed left in trial plots are given in Table 3. As it can be seen from the table, K content ranges between 0.986-1.117 %, phosphorus content ranges between 0.193-0.208 %, Ca content ranges between 1.28-1.81 % and Mg content ranges between 0.113-0.168. In a study conducted by Güncan (1980) in Erzurum on 76 types of weed,the P contentin weeds ranged between 0.10-1.15 % and K content ranged between 0.66-4.56 %. In a study conducted by Tepe et al.(1997), when the amount of nutrients are considered interms proportion,itisseen thatthe plants sufferfrom N, P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn insufficiency, and the weeds are in a better situation. In our study,the Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn content of yellow weed ranges from 382.88-463.07 mg/kg, 25.2026.71 mg/kg, 0.00-0.005 mg/kg and 14.67-24.93 mg/kg, respectively. In a study conducted by Kadıoğlu et al. (2005) found Mn content of S.halepense 96.5 µg/g and C.regalis 95.0 µg/g. Mendil et al.(2004) found iron and manganese contents as 714-1206 µg/g in weed samples. Ajasa et al.(2004) reported iron and copper contents as 35-241 µg/g and 2.96-24.4 µg/g in some weeds. Calcium values of the weeds ranged from 27-800 mg/100 gr, Mg values 30.33-293.08 mg/100 gr, Fe values 0.17-4.88 mg/100 gr, Mn values 0.04-1.27 mg/100 gr, Zn values 0.10-2.29 mg/100 gr and Cu values 0.005-1.17 mg/100 gr obtained in weeds in Eastern Anatolia (Turan et al., 2003). The element concentrations in some weeds collected from Tokat in Turkey were found to be 122-695, 13.9-96.5, 4.3-17.3, 1.9-8.5, 13.1-30.3 and 1.0-5.5µ/g for Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn and Cr respectively (Kadıoğlu et al., 2005). In Table 3,the sufficient nutrient element contents of barley at beginning of earring stage are also given (Alpaslan et al., 2004). When these values are compared with nutrient elements of yellow weed, itis seen that especially Ca, Mn and Fe contents are highly above the sufficiency limit values for barley. As a result,itis found out that yellow weed which is one the outstanding weeds causing problems in wheat and barley cultivation uptakes significant amount of nutrient element from soil.It was designated that as the number of yellow weed -which competes with barley- per m2 increase, the amount of nutrient element it uptakes from soil increases at a higher speed. These results reveal the importance of combat against weeds in barley cultivation. 433 �Table 2.Depending on the Number of Yellow Weed in Plot, Weed Weight in Trial Plot (g/plot) and the Amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Na Uptakes From the Soil by Yellow Weed ( ± Se, N = 4) Yellow weed number in plot(number/m2) Weed weight in trial plot(g/m2) 1 The amount of element uptakes from soil by yellow weed (g/da) N P K Ca Mg S 6,97±3,44 26,15±13,68 13,03±5,82 76,94±55,7 90,05±48,7 8,58±5,68 3296,28±1622 3 37,06±21,14 146,67±80,64 72,56±43,38 486,64±225,5 675,97±422 61,88±34,41 17727,13±9992 6 Yellow weed number in plot(number/m2) 67,97±28,53 262,57±126,10 144,28±70,64 795,05±415,7 1233,61±828 105,86±60,14 32451,83±13257 Fe Cu Mn Zn B Mo(mg/da) Na 1 2,69±0,62 0±0 0,175±0,084 0,103±0,0764 0,0498±0,0341 0,25±0,5 5,16±1,43 3 18,06±14,24 0±0 0,996±0,576 0,873±0,5598 0,3193±0,2004 5±5,033 28,61±15,6 6 27,08±14,62 0,005±0,01 1,764±0,857 1,304±0,5894 0,449±0,4542 16,25±12,685 99,27±91,26 Table 2.Depending on the Number of Yellow Weed in Plot, Weed Weight in Trial Plot (g/plot) and the Amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Na Uptakes From the Soil by Yellow Weed ( ± Se, N = 4) 434 �Yellow weed number in plot(number/m2) % mg/kg N K P Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn Cr Na Mo 1 0,37 0,986 0,193 1,28 0,113 463,07 0,00 25,26 14,67 1,95 884,58 0,03 3 0,40 1,359 0,194 1,81 0,168 456,55 0,00 26,71 24,93 2,12 791,78 0,12 6 Arpa(Hordeum vulgare) * The sufficient nutrient element contents of barley at beginning of earring stage 0,38 1,117 0,208 1,68 0,147 382,88 0,05 25,20 19,78 2,19 1356,56 0,20 N K P Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn Cr Na Mo 1.75-3.0 1.5-3.0 0.20-0.50 0.30-1.20 0.15-0.50 25-100 5-25 0.11-0.18 15-70 Table 3. The Amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Na of Yellow Weed and Nutrient Element Contents of Barley at Beginning of Earring Stage *Alpaslan et al.,2004. 435 �References Ajasa, A.M.O., Bello, M.O., Đbrahim, A.O., Ogunwander, I.A. & Olawore, N.O. (2004). Foot Chem.; 85, 67 Alpaslan, M., Güneş, A. & Đnal A. (2004). Gübreleme Çalışmalarında Bitki Analizlerinin Yeri ve Farklı Bitkiler Đçin Bitki Besin Maddesi Kritik Düzeyleri. Türkiye 3. Ulusal gübre Kongresi, Tarım-Sanayi-Çevre, No: 12151312, Tokat. Anonymous, (2008). TUIK, Türkiye Đstatistik Kurumu Verileri Bilgir, S. (1965). Ege Bölgesi hububat tarlalarında görülen önemli yabancı otlar ve savaş imkanları üzerinde bazı incelemeler. Tarım Bakanlığı Yayınları Tek. Bül. No: 14. Güncan, A. (1976). Erzurum Çevresinde Bulunan Yabancı Otlar ve Önemlilerinden Bazılarının Yazlık Arpa ve Buğdayda Mücadele Đmkanları Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Atatürk Üniv. Yay. Araşt. Serisi No:135, 79 s. Weed Abst. 27 (8): 271. (Doktora Tezinden) Güncan A., (1980). Die unkrautdicthe in der umgebung von Erzurum im getreidanbau und der naehrstoffe durch eininge unkraeuter aus dem boden. Journal of Turkish Phytopathology Vol. 9, Num: 1,1-19. Kadıoğlu, Đ., Mendi, D., Sarı, H., & Hasdemir, E. (2005). Determination of heavy metal levels in some weeds collected from Tokat, Turkey. Asian Journal of Chemistry Vol. 17. No: 1, 564-568 Koch, W. (1970). Unkrautbekampfung. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. Mendil D., Tuzen M., Sari H. & Hasdemir E. (2004). Trace elements and elect rolytes (impress) Özer, Z. (1993). Niçin Yabancı Ot Bilimi (Herboloji). Türkiye I. Herboloji Kongresi. 3-5 Şubat 1993. Adana, s. 17. Radosevich, S.R., & Holt, J.S. (1984). Weed ecology implications self vegetation management. John Wiley and Sons. Newyork. Sırma, M., & Güncan, A. (1997). Tokat Yöresinde Buğday Ekim Alanlarında Sorun Oluşturan Yabancı Otlar ve Önemlilerinden Bazılarının Topraktan Kaldırdıkları N, P, K, Miktarı Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Türkiye II. Herboloji Kongresi. 1-4 Eylül 1997. Ayvalık/ Đzmir. Taştan, B., & Erciş, A. (1994). Orta Anadolu Bölgesi buğday ekim alanlarında gözlenen yabancı otların yayılış ve yoğunlukları üzerinde araştırmalar. Bitki Koruma Bülteni Cilt: 31, No: 1-4, 39-60. Mart-Aralık 1991. Tepe I., Tüfenkçi Ş., Kaya Đ., & Ceylan Ş. (1997). Van’da Bitki Besin Maddesi Alınımı Açısından BuğdayYabancı Ot Rekabeti. Türkiye 2. Herboloji Kongresi. No: 359-368. Bornova-Izmir Vencill, W.K., Girayda, L.J., & Langdole, G.W. (1993). Soil moisture relations and critical period of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (coastal bermudagrass) competition in conservation-tillage cotton (Gossypium hirsitum L.). Weed Research, Vol. 33, Number, 89-96. 436 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 523 Title A name given to the resource The Ratio of Elements Uptake From The Soil By Yellow Weed (Boreava Orientalis Jaub And Spach) Which Causes Problems For Barley Cultivated Under Arid Conditions Author Author Karaca, Murat Akay, Aysen Abstract A summary of the resource. Study was conducted in order to determine the amount of elements uptake from the soil by different densities of yellow weed depending on its competition against barley in barley cultivated areas in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of Central Selcuklu Konya in 2007. At the harvesting time of barley, yellow weed samples in all the plots were extracted with their roots and analysed following the necessary pre-treatments. As a consequence, when the yellow weed numbers are 1, 3 and 6 number /m2, the amounts of N uptake from the soil by yellow weed were determined to be 32.09 – 146.67 – 311.07 g/da; P , 15.57 - 72.56 -144.28 g/da; K , 76.94 - 375.94 – 961.21 g/da, respectively. As the result of the analysis performed, depending on the numbers of yellow weed in the plots were observed statistically significant differences between the amounts of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn and Mo uptake from soil by yellow weed at P<0.05 level. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/749f12a474708538ab790e388dc9dc18.pdf 6f39ccc386fdcb6bda3beffd26d4d842 PDF Text Text The Capacity of the Evaluation of Linguistic Abilities of FLE Examinations Applied in Turkey by OSYM Şeref Kara Uludag University, Bursa/Turkey serefk@uludag.edu.tr Melih Karakuzu Atatürk University, Erzurum/Turkey karakuzu@atauni.edu.tr Abstract : Since the ultimate object of the assessment and the evaluation in foreign language is the communication competence, it remains custom to determine the parameters and the performance criteria of the foreign language users. However, the multiple choice items used in Turkey generally do not allow us to measure different types of learners such as oral communication. It is limited only to the measurement of mental processes such as knowledge comprehension and application. En the contrary, the multiple choice items are still mostly preferred. Within the framework of this research, our aim is to analyze the multiple choice tests prepared and applied in Turkey by the OSYM in various examinations such as the OSS, the KPDS and the UDS. Key words: evaluation, competence, communication, test, validity. 1. Introduction The evaluation means certain number of various things in various contexts. Sometimes, as teachers, we evaluate our classes as spaces of study and as in teaching; other times, we evaluate the tests or written work that our learners produce. By many theories of language evaluation the institutional character of the evaluation means is taken into account rather than the learners needs. It is well known that evaluation is an extremely complex field where there are various human and teaching variables. The evaluation helps an educational system to provide the data which is needed to renew itself. So what to evaluate: knowledge or competence? Which type of evaluation use: formative/sommative, directe/indirecte? How to evaluate: questions/responses, free expression/expression, open questionnaire/questionnaire with multiple choices? It should be noted that it is very difficult to be able to find a real answer miracle, because each teaching method privileges such or such type of evaluation with a precise aim. However, it is not impossible to set up referents to recognize the learners acquisitions according to equivalences of levels. The convergent validity with existing tests should not be significant. According to Morrow (1979), it is significant to consider 1) the validity of the contents (items of which the test made up constitute a representative sample for a linguistic capacity?), 2) validity of the psycholinguistic concepts (does the test reflect with precision the principles of a valid theory of a foreign language learners?) and 3) predictive validity (can one determine by the result of the test foreseeable success in a given discipline). False objectivity will not be determining any more, even if, in certain situations it is advantageous to have formats of possible tests corrected by using a machine. Gary Buck (2001) is among the most known specialists for construction and the evaluation in tests in written comprehension. He quotes Bachman and Palmer (1996) by saying that the most significant characteristic of a test is its utility. According to their definition, this concept includes the following features: validity of psycholinguistic concepts, interactivity, authenticity, reliability, practice and impact. Buck adds the effectiveness to it. To build a test and to evaluate it, it is necessary to start firstly by defining the "pattern" or psycholinguistic concept: aptitudes and the capacities on which must carry the test and what it must measure. In the curricular area of the languages, particularly in programs of FLE, there are many proposals on the way of applying evaluations to the activities of class and the evaluation of program. The teachers and learners can objectively look at their work and their execution during the course. In the second place, they can understand the progression of the course and its relation with the goals of the program more thoroughly. Thirdly, the teachers and learners can benefit from the evaluation to modify their teaching or study 155 �strategies whilst improving their achievements. By taking part in the continuing programme of evaluation, teachers and learners become more implied in the program. In short, the project of evaluation can help to create a good relationship between the teachers and learners. Continual evaluation is a systematic and reflective process to measure the program. With the difference in other evaluations, this approach comprises only teachers it and learners. One can regard it as a process of auto evaluation. 2. Scales of levels In this study, we will present the principal tests, certifications and scales of levels used in foreign language (LT) in Turkey. There are three types of tests in FLT prepared and applied by the OSYM which is the OSS, the KPDS and the UDS. Intended to choose candidates and historically to place them in the sections of FLE of the universities according to the points obtained and the preferences, oldest of these test is that of the OSS which is more than 20 years old. The OSS is a test of French language, conceived and created to evaluate the people of an intermediate level. It validates about 250 hours of formation. One can qualify it like a diagnostic test which has a paramount objective to classify and to select the participants. The second, KPDS has existed for 12 years. The third, most recent, the UDS is addressed to those who want to make academic studies after the diploma of licence at the end of 5 years. The test of the KPDS follows the same format as the test of the OSS and measurement mainly knowledge in general language It covers subjects accessible to the candidates concerned. It should be noted that the idea of the creation of the KPDS comes from the request of the official institutions for the living languages. The KPDS and the OSS consist of multiple choice questions which last 3 hours, divided into six sections from 20 to 15 questions each one. The three hours of the test prove indeed often long and discouraging. It is presented in the form of a multiple-choice questionnaire, comprising 100 questions for which only one answer is possible among the 5 choices suggested. The questions are conceived according to a principle of progressive difficulty. But the test of the UDS is composed of 80 questions for which 3 hours also allocated Though reliable the KPDS is not a reference recognized on an international scale. The total objective is thus well targeted: linguistic abilities in writing. The certificate given to each candidate indicates a total score spreading out between 0 and 100. But the disadvantage is that none of these three tests provides detailed certificate of linguistic competences in grammar, vocabulary, or written comprehension in order to accompany progress and to personalize the teaching course. As we announced above the obligatory tests appear as a multiple-choice questionnaire of 100 questions, for a fine evaluation of linguistic competences. The first part of the tests treats the words of the lexicon: (comprehension of the words according to their usual or rare character); of morphosyntaxe: (the agreement of the adjectives, the substantives, the past participle, simplest); elements of the nominal group: (determinants, adjectives, possessive phrases), the pronouns in general, relate to the relative ones (differences who/which); the most current times; adverbs of time, place, the prepositions; of syntax: construction negative, interrogative, the simple sentence. In 2003, there were 100 questions with multiple choices as in the preceding tests. The tests, built by the commission of the OSS, were distributed to the schools with the optical cards of answers and then they were sent to the OSYM in Ankara for the final evaluation. The answers of the participants are corrected and recorded on computers and the results of all the participants are announced on the Internet. Then the test of the KPDS which aims to evaluate candidates the linguistic level in foreign language in an occupational context is intended to the civil servants, to professionals who would like to know their linguistic level, to companies who would like to determine French level of their current or future employees, it is also intended to organizations of formation for the installation of homogeneous groups or continuous or final evaluation. At the end of the test candidate obtains a certificate of level. The texts of questionnaire relate to the social sciences, economic and legal, mathematical sciences and sciences of the matter, life sciences. These tests are a measuring instrument of general knowledge in French. They make it possible to get a detailed vision of the learner or employees level in writing and operation of the language. But oral competence is not evaluated. As KPDS is the validation of knowledge, the certificate is valid only for 5 years, knowledge being able to undergo positive or negative changes. In fact tests give little information would enable us to comprehend the candidate’s difficulties. The opinions and interpretations must be changed, and their exchange and evaluation are an essential part of the interactive training, comprising the development of the language, the cultural conscience and the 156 �increase of learners in general terms of education. Because very often there is not only one correct answer to a question. While preparing this work we were relied on our experiments as well as well as on testimonies of the participants of various levels at the exit of the examination rooms. Although a large audience is concerned with these tests, unfortunately we did not find a serious study which relates to them. Normally a tool for evaluation in FLE must measure all the linguistic abilities. But unfortunately the tests of languages of the OSYM completely neglect the oral competence which is of primary importance for the linguistic communication. Within the framework of this work our objective is to highlight some axes which could help the decision makers and the inspectors to change their policy and their approach simply by taking account the communicative function of the language. Rather than to analyze and highlight the gaps or the weaknesses of these tests about which we spoke here, let us try to propose some ways for their future improvement. 3. Stages in the evaluation The teacher and learners should carry out continuous evaluations periodically. First continuous evaluation can be carried out in the first week. In a language program, there are many factors which must be considered and studied in order to obtain an objective sight of the process of teaching (Braskamp and others, 1984). These factors can be classified in four categories. 4. Gathering of the data Manners of gathering data are changed. In our own practice, we employed questionnaires of the tests of the OSYM. 5. Feedback and advantages The continuous evaluations should not ever be means of sanction for the teacher or learner. They should rather help the two parts in their practices. The teachers and learners them should adopt positive attitudes and concentrate on the achievement of the objectives of the texts, but they can also get information about the models of study and the strategies of learners. In addition, learners find out about teaching style of the teacher and can understand why certain methods are employed. By mutual observations and the exchange of the ideas learners and teachers help each other to improve the learning. Learners can also profit from different studying strategies and the teachers will be able to see learner models and can adjust their methods to satisfy learner needs. A continuous evaluation is a systematic examination of a language program. By changing the roles of teacher and learner in a program, teaching and the study can be improved. The process should include teachers and learners and various kinds of activities at the various stages of the evaluation. The evaluation also benefits the teacher who becomes a researcher. All the methods of evaluation have some disadvantages, and it is essential to determine which MCQ can play an essential role in the strategy of total evaluation by examining the results of the study envisaged by module. However it should be remembered that any form of valid evaluation is likely to require learner to show a certain form of the basic knowledge which is acquired by memorisation. The questions based on basic knowledge are also a formative evaluation tool to check if learner has comprehended it. The preparation of MCQ which tests the knowledge in depth of the learner is more difficult to realize than traditional questions. 6. Comprehension and the application It is necessary to formulate as clear and concise questions as possible, while avoiding the complex language and the composition of the axes which give more than one indication. It is better also to concentrate on common errors of learner like sectors for questions and/or options. One must accept both answers as correct if two of the choices are possible. But if necessary, if the question requires it, it should be specified that there is only one correct answer. How can one provide effective feedback for the MCQ? The assistance of feedback can be desirable in the sommative and essential evaluation in the formative evaluation. Contrary to the traditional evaluations where feedback depends on various answers, the closed range of response for MCQ means that the tutors know the possible 157 �errors which can be made before the test. Thus the proposal of a MCQ is an excellent chance for the tutor to get focused generic feedback. This can be in the form of oral test of the answers following a written test or feedback on the questions, where learners can identify their errors by themselves. The effective feedback does not indicate simply to learners where they were mistaken but also gives the reasons as to why. 7. Useful indicators for feedback: In the best of the cases, it is to better to write feedback while writing the questions. The principal strengths and the weaknesses of the multiple choice questions are as follows: they examine a wide range of subjects in little time. The evaluation is not affected by a capacity of writing or orthography of learner. They can be surely pointed while all the answers are predetermined. They can also quickly be marked by computer. The inscription on computer gives the easy access to an analysis of article of the questions in the specific problematic fields for learners. A large bank of the questions which reduces the future preparation time can be made up. They can be employed for the fast revision at the beginning or the end of a class and to be marked by learners. 8. Conclusion One of the advantages of MCQ is the documentation of the statistics on the tests which are easily accessible, especially if these tests are marked by a computer. Multiple choices questions can be employed to examine the comprehension of a reading passage. Inscription of the MCQ, as mentioned above, is often difficult. As for true/false items, they should not directly quote the words of the passage and they should reflect a certain possible ambiguity of the text. None of the possible answers should stand out for example in comparison, having one longer or shorter than the others. None of the possible answers should be the opposite of correct answers. (as that states that usually one of the opposites is the correct answers). The distracters should not have similar meaning, since they can not both be correct, they must both be false. On the other hand the items should equally examine the information which can be implied from reading passage and require the candidates to reassemble the information from more than one place in the passage. The pretests are always significant but in particular with MCQ because obtaining a fresh prospect about the test is significant. The effectiveness is a feature added by Buck, which stresses the importance to be able to draw from a test as mach information as possible on the capacities of written comprehension of the participants within the limited time. Thus it could be possible to avoid it by making easier tests. In MCG, it is very significant to write good correct and incorrect replacement choices. The correct choice in question should not come directly from the text. It should be reformulated, so that participant can understand the significance of the text and not simply to identify the repeated words. Incorrect replacement choices should be based on a possible misunderstanding of the text. They should be clearly incorrect, but not illogical. If they are illogical, tested will eliminate them, even if they do not understand the text. The problem in writing goods items is often that it is difficult to write three or four good replacement choices which are logical and clearly incorrect. By writing MCG, one should avoid giving indications for the correct response the multiple choice test preparers have a tendency to put the correct response to the medium, C-to-D., if there are four choices, they prefer B or C, or if there are five choices C is preferred. One must make sure that the correct answers are not prevalent matter in the medium of the solutions of replacement. As mentioned above, one must also avoid employing the opposites of the correct answers as incorrect alternative, and it is better to employ two incorrect replacement choices with very similar significances. While preparing the items, one must consider carefully which qualifications or knowledge are necessary to answer the question. If a competence other than that that we want to examine is necessary, this type of item is probably not a good item. By considering what we said about our test, we can conclude that the test functions relatively well in its context. Principal criticism comes owing to the fact that the written text does not represent the authentic spoken language clearly enough and that the texts could be varied with regard to the topic and the type of text. But one also needs radical changes so that these tests have conformity and an international validity Finally, there are two significant points that we want to draw from this discussion. First of all, considering the established concept in the specifications of the test, MCT can be useful at least as a part of written comprehension tests. It can show the validity even according to communicative approaches. What is significant and what constitutes a challenge for the specialists. From which our second point comes, is to be able to build a valid test which measures the targeted concept. The difficulty lies in other factors; finding a representative sample of texts and 158 �tasks, having as result a degree of interactivity and satisfactory effectiveness. Especially by building a big relatively significant test like the test of the OSS for about of 45000 participants, it is necessary to analyze and check the results before and after the test with people similar to the target group of the test and with the specialists of the discipline, considering the answers and the results obtained. Conceived and developed by the OSYM, the tree tests of evaluation of French language in Turkey allow to test only competences in written comprehension and completely neglect competences in oral and written expression in non specialized French language. This causes a great weakness with regard to the reliability and the validity of these tests. "How can I evaluate myself?", "I am not a teacher!″ The traditional school culture does not encourage the learners taking responsibility in the evaluation, the only person who really knows if you understood something is you! At school and university you can often pass from the examinations if you know only 50% of a subject. If you carry out your own test, you can discover what you really know. The evaluation is the responsibility of the teacher at the school and the university partly "yes". However, after the university you’ll have to learn from new things for your profession. You’ll have to be evaluated yourself to discover what you do not know, so that you can project what you have to learn. That is called "needs analysis”. For what is known as in the evaluation of oneself, one needs many supports and counselling from the teachers The examinations are not a goal but they are means. They measure simply the degree of what learners know. If education has ten essential objectives the examinations and their result constitute simply one of them. But in Turkish education system, the examinations became the only objective in itself. The other objectives lost all their importance. All the actors of education concentrated only on the examinations. The children grow up simply with examinations. They are completely isolated from everyday life and they lost their creativity because of the memorisation system. Everything is evaluated and relied on the result obtained from one examination. The state as well as the parents does not see anything beyond the examinations. The results are not questioned. On the other hand the results are worse for the participants as well as the educational establishments. We insist on something wrong just because of the increase in number of students at the university gates. Because of the examinations the life of the parents is upside down as that of the thousands of youngsters. Here is a debate for the awakening of the utility of the evaluation and the validity of the written comprehension test. It is clear that there is still a lot to do make in this field, to arrive at the interesting but complex process of written comprehension, and at its valid measurement. C’est pourquoi les tests devraient plutôt être conçus de manière à encourager le recours à des activités d’acquisition. Les tests en usage se doivent de mesurer avant tout la compétence de communication des learners. Pour cette raison ce sont surtout les habilités de compréhension et de communication des idées qui doivent être testées. This is why the tests should rather be conceived so as to encourage the recourse to activities of acquisition. The tests of use must measure before all the competence of communication of the learners. For this reason they are especially the abilities of comprehension and communication of the ideas which must be tested. This is why the tests should rather be conceived so as to encourage the recourse to activities of acquisition. The tests of use must measure before all the competence of communication of the learners. For this reason they are especially the abilities of comprehension and communication of the ideas which must be tested. Contest of selection and placement of the students. 1 Examination of competence of foreign language of the employees of state. 1 Examination of foreign language of the council interuniversitaire. References Bachman, L., Palmer, A. (1996). Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buck, G. (2001). Assessing Listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bolton, S.(1991). Évaluation de la compétence communicative en langue étrangère. Paris: Les Éditions Didier. Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues:apprendre, enseigner, évaluer (2001) Didier. Chapelle, C.A.(1998). Construct definition and validity inquiry in SLA research. In: Bachman L.F, A.D. Cohen: Interfaces Between Second Language Acquisition and Language. Cornaire, C. (1998). La compréhension écrite. CLE International. 159 �Galisson, R,D.Coste (1986). Dictionnaire de didactiques des langues Hachette Germain,C.(1993). Evolution de l’enseignement des langues: 5000 ans d’histoire Cle Int. Hilton,S C.Veltcheff (2003). L’évaluation en FLE Hachette. Hymes D., (1984). Vers la compétence de communication, CREDIF-Hatier. Hutchinson, J.A. et Pauline M. Rankin (1987). “Employement profiles and compensation for educational technologists:1983-86” Educational Media and technologie yearbook:1987. Littleton, Co: Librairies Unlimited. Landsheere, G. (1992). Dictionnaire de l’évaluation et de la recherche en éducation, PUF Lhote, E. (1995). Enseigner l’écrit en interaction. Paris: Hachette. Lussier, D.(1992). Évaluer les apprentissages dans une approche communicative. Paris ,Hachette. Nimier, J. (1996). La formation psychologique des enseignants: Collection Formation Permanente en Sciences Humaines. Edition: E.S.F Morrow, K. (1979). Communicative Language testing: revolution or evolution?, in: Brumfit. Porcher, L. (1995). Le français langue étrangère Hachette. 160 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 376 Title A name given to the resource The Capacity of the Evaluation of Linguistic Abilities of FLE Examinations Applied in Turkey by OSYM Author Author Kara, Şeref Karakuzu, Melih Abstract A summary of the resource. : Since the ultimate object of the assessment and the evaluation in foreign language is the communication competence, it remains custom to determine the parameters and the performance criteria of the foreign language users. However, the multiple choice items used in Turkey generally do not allow us to measure different types of learners such as oral communication. It is limited only to the measurement of mental processes such as knowledge comprehension and application. En the contrary, the multiple choice items are still mostly preferred. Within the framework of this research, our aim is to analyze the multiple choice tests prepared and applied in Turkey by the OSYM in various examinations such as the OSS, the KPDS and the UDS. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/80a7d842bacdcc1f032feae0823e1145.pdf bfab0f0a50b940ad13986281b68f5ad3 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Nuclear Model Calculations on the Excitation Functions of Some Radionuclides Produced by Proton Cyclotron Abdullah Kaplan Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Physics Department,Isparta,TURKEY kaplan@fef.sdu.edu.tr Halim Büyükuslu Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Physics Department,Isparta,TURKEY halimbuyukuslu@gmail.com Gülçin Sağlam Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Physics Department,Isparta,TURKEY gulcin_saglam @hotmail.com Abstract: By using the intermediate energetic proton induced reactions, we can produce radionuclides and these radionuclides can be used in medicine and industry. In the last decade, a big success has been provided usage of radionuclides. Nuclear reaction calculations which are based on standard nuclear reaction models can be helpful for determining the accuracy of various parameters of nuclear models and experimental measurements. In this study, production routes of medical isotopes used for diagnostic or a therapeutic radionuclide such as 225Ac, 140Nd, 43Sc and 44Ti were investigated in a range of 10–50 MeV incident proton energy. The excitation functions for (p,2n) reactions were calculated by equilibrium and pre-equilibrium reaction mechanisms. The pre-equilibrium calculations were calculated by using hybrid, geometry dependent hybrid and cascade exciton model. The reaction equilibrium component was calculated with a traditional compound nucleus model developed by Weisskopf-Ewing. Calculation results have been also compared with the available measurements in literature. 1. Introduction Nuclear reactions induced by incident intermediate and high energetic protons are very important because of wide range technical applications. Especially,the radioisotopes obtained from using charged particles play an important role in medical applications (Aydın et al. 2008; Beyer 2006; Qaim 2002; Qaim 2001). A medical radioisotope can be classified as a diagnostic or a therapeutic radionuclide, depending on its decay properties. These radionuclides are used in diagnostic studies via emission tomography, i.e. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), and in endoradiotheraphy (internaltherapy with radio nuclides) (Qaim 2001; Wolf & Jones 1983). Nowadays, by using cyclotrons and nuclear reactors can be produced a lot of radioisotopes (Beyer 2006). A cyclotron can accelerate alpha particles to 28-30 MeV and also it can principally accelerate proton particles to energies higher than 30 MeV. Consequently, higher reaction processes such as (p,4n) or generally (p,xn) or even (p,xn,yp) processes are possible (x = 1,2,3…. and y = 1,2,3,…). Such a multipurpose cyclotron with the option of high particle beam intensity and well developed tools for beam diagnosis and a certain variation of particle beam energy is an universal instrument supporting commercial isotope production and Research and Development (R&D) in the field of medical isotope application for diagnosis and therapy. Especially (R&D) needed for development of alternative technologies producing carrier-free radioisotope preparations fortherapy. Recently, many evaluated excitation functions of commonly used production reactions can be found in the literature (Broeders & Konobeyev 2007; Sohn & Mattes 1992; Broeders et al. 2006; Gul 2001). Nuclear reaction calculations which are based on standard nuclear reaction models can be helpful for determining the accuracy of various parameters of nuclear models and experimental measurements. In this study, the new calculations on the excitation functions of 226 Ra(p,2n)225 Ac,141 Pr(p,2n)140 Nd, 44 Ca(p,2n)43 Sc and 45 Sc(p,2n)44 Ti reactions have been carried out up to 50 MeV incident proton energy. In these calculations,the pre-equilibrium and equilibrium effects have been investigated. The pre-equilibrium calculationsinvolvethe geometry dependent 172 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo hybrid model, hybrid model and the cascade exciton model. Equilibrium effect has been calculated according to the Weisskopf–Ewing model.The calculated results have been compared with the experimental data taken from the literature. 2. Calculation Methods and Parameters Used in Nuclear Reaction Models The Cascade-Exciton Model (CE M) assumes that the nuclear reactions proceed through three stages: INC, pre-equilibrium and equilibrium (or compound nucleus). Generally,thesethree components may contribute to any experimentally measured quantity in particular, for the inclusive particle spectrum (Gudima et al. 1983; Barashenkov & Toneev 1972; Barashenkov et al. 1969), we have σ ( p ) dp = σ in  N cas ( p ) + N prq ( p ) + N eq ( p )  dp, cas prq (1) eq where p is a linear momentum, N , N and N are the cascade , the pre-equilibrium and the equilibrium components,respectively. The inelastic cross section σ in is nottaken from the experimental data orindependent optical model calculations, but it is calculated within the cascade model itself. Hence the CE M predicts the absolute values for calculated characteristics and does notrequire any additional data or special normalization of itsresults. The INC calculations results indicated that the exciton model gave only a prescription for calculating the shape of the pre-equilibrium spectrum and the exciton model deficiency resulted from a failure to properly reproduce enhanced emission from the nuclear surface (Harp & Miller 1971; Feshbach et al. 1980; Tamura et al. 1982).In orderto provide a first order correction forthis deficiency the hybrid model was reformulated by Blann (Blann 1971; Blann 1975; Blann & Bisplinghoff 1982; Blann et al. 1976). This model, known as geometry dependent hybrid model (GDH) has been developed considered as density distribution of nuclei by Blann and Vonach (Blann & Vonach 1983). Inthe density dependent version,the GDH takesinto accountthe density distribution ofthe nucleus (Blann et al. 1976; Blann & Vonach 1983). This means a longer mean free path atthe surface of the nucleus because of a lower density,and a limitto the depth ofthe holes below the Fermi energy. The differentialemission spectrum is given in the GDH as ∞ dσ υ (ε ) (2) = π D 2 ∑ ( 2 l + 1) Tl Pυ (l, ε ) , dε l =0 where D isthe reduced de Broglie wavelength ofthe projectile and Tl representsthe transmission coefficient forthe lth partial wave. Pυ (l, ε ) is number of particles ofthe type ν (neutrons and protons) emitted into the unbound continuum with channel energy between ε and ε + dε forthe lth partial wave. The GD H model is made according to incoming orbital angular momentum l in order to account for the effects of the nucleardensity distribution. This leads to increased emission from the surface region of the nucleus, and thus to increased emission of high-energetic particles.In this way the diffuse surface properties sampled by the higher impact parameters were crudelyincorporated into the pre-compound decay formalism in the GDH. 3. Results and discussion In the calculations ofthe hybrid and GDH model,the code as ALICE/ASH was used. The ALICE/ASH code is an advanced and modified version ofthe ALICE codes (Broeders et al.2006). The generalized superfluid (Ignatyuk et al. 1979) has been applied for nuclear level density calculations in the ALICE/ASH code. The ALICE-91 (Blann 1991) and ALICE/ASH codes use the initialexciton number as no =3. But inthese modelsthe different neutron (n) and proton (p) exciton numbers are used inthe pre-equilibrium GDH model calculations.In details, the other code model parameters can be found in Ref. (Broeders et al. 2006). In the present work, Cascade Exciton Model (CE M) calculations have been made by using CE M95 (Mashnik 1995) (extended version of the previous version named CE M92M (Gudima et al. 1983; Mashnik & Toneev 1974) computer code with the level density parameter by using the systematic of Iljinov et al.(Iljinov et al. 1992). In details,the other code model parameters can be found in Ref.(Mashnik 1995; Mashnik & Toneev 1974). Although there are some discrepancies between the calculations and the experimental data,in generally, hybrid and GDH model calculations (with ALICE/ASH) are in best agreement with the experimental data above 10 MeV incident proton energies in Figs. 1-3 except for Fig. 4. While the Weisskopf-Ewing model (equilibriumALICE/ASH) calculations are only in agreement with the measurements up to 15-30 MeV energy regions (in 173 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figs.1,2),the cascade exciton model calculations and hybrid model calculations are in good harmony with the experimental data above 10 MeV incident proton energies except for Figs.1,3. As a result, the production of 225 Ac, 140 Nd, 43 Sc and 44 Ti radionuclides can be employed ata medium-sized cyclotron. 1000 Cross Section (mb) 100 10 1 226 Ra (p,2n) 225Ac C.Apostolidis et al, 2005 Equilibrium (ALICE/ASH) Hybrid Model (ALICE/ASH) GDH Model (ALICE/ASH) Cascade Exciton Model 0.1 5 10 15 20 Proton Energy (MeV) 25 30 Fig. 1. The comparison of calculated excitation function of 226 Ra(p,2n)225 Ac reaction with the values reported in Ref.(EXFOR/CSISRS 2007). 10000 Cross Section (mb) 1000 100 141 Pr (p,2n) 140Nd K.Hilgers et al., 2005 Equilibrium (ALICE/ASH) Hybrid Model (ALICE/ASH) GDH Model (ALICE/ASH) Cascade Exciton Model 10 1 0 10 20 30 Proton Energy (MeV) 141 40 140 50 Fig. 2. The comparison of calculated excitation function of Pr(p,2n) Nd reaction with the values reported in Ref.(EXFOR/CSISRS 2007). 174 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1000 Cross Section (mb) 100 44 Ca (p,2n) 43Sc V.N.Levkovskij, 1991 Equilibrium (ALICE/ASH) Hybrid Model (ALICE/ASH) GDH Model (ALICE/ASH) Cascade Exciton Model 10 1 12 16 20 24 Proton Energy (MeV) 28 32 Fig. 3. The comparison of calculated excitation function of 44 Ca(p,2n)43 Sc reaction with the values reported in Ref.(EXFOR/CSISRS 2007). 1000 Cross Section (mb) 100 45 Sc (p,2n) 44Ti V.N.Levkovskij, 1991 Equilibrium (ALICE/ASH) Hybrid Model (ALICE/ASH) GDH Model (ALICE/ASH) Cascade Exciton Model 10 1 12 16 20 24 Proton Energy (MeV) 28 32 Fig. 4. The comparison of calculated excitation function of 45 Sc(p,2n)44 Ti reaction with the values reported in Ref.(EXFOR/CSISRS 2007). 175 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Aydın, E.G., Tel, E., Kaplan, A., Aydın, A. (2008). New calculations of excitation functions of some positron emitting and single photon emitting radioisotopes. Kerntechnik, 73 (4), 184-189. Barashenkov, V.S., Gudima, K.K., & Toneev, V.D. (1969). JINR Report No. P2-4065, 1968; JINR Report No. P2-4066, 1968; Acta Physica Polonica, 36, p. 415. Barashenkov, V.S. & Toneev, V.D. (1972). Interaction of High Energy Particle and Nuclei with Atomic Nuclei, Atomizdat, Moscow. Beyer, G.J. (2006). The potential of accelerators, XXXV European Cyclotron Progress Meeting, Nice (France) November 1– 4, 2006. Blann, M. (1971). Hybrid Model for pre-equilibrium decay in nuclear reactions. Physics Review Letters 27, 337-340. Blann, M. (1975). Preequilibrium Decay. Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 25, 123-166. Blann, M., Mignerey A., & Scobel, W. (1976). Nukleonika 21, 335. Blann, M., & Bisplinghoff, J. (1982). Livermore Lawrance Laboratory, UCID-19614. Blann, M., & Vonach, H.K. (1983). Global test of modified pre-compound decay models. Physical Review C 28, 1475-1492. Blann, M. (1991). Code ALICE-91, PSR-146, Statistical Model Code System with Fission Competition, OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY, RSICC PERIPHERAL SHIELDING ROUTINE COLLECTION, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California and IAEA. Broeders, C.H.M., Konobeyev, A.Yu., Korovin,Yu.A., Lunev,V.P., & Blann, M. (2006). ALICE/ASH—pre-compound and evaporation model code system for calculation of excitation functions, energy and angular distributions of emitted particles in nuclear reactions at intermediate energies, FZK 7183, May 2006, http://bibliothek.fzk.de/zb/berichte/FZKA7183.pdf. Broeders, C.H.M., & Konobeyev, A.Yu. (2007). Systematics of (p,α) (p,nα), and (p,np) reaction cross-sections. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 65 (11), 1249-1264. EXFOR/CSISRS (Experimental Nuclear Reaction Data File). (2007). Database Version of December 19, 2007, Brookhaven National Laboratory, National Nuclear Data Center, (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/exfor/exfor00.htm) Feshbach, H., Kerman, A., & Koonin, S. (1980). The Statistical Theory of Multi-Step Compound and Direct Reactions. Annals of Physics (NY) 125(2), 429-476. Gudima, K.K., Mashnik, S.G., & Toneev, V.D. (1983). Cascade-exciton model of nuclear reactions. Nuclear Physics A, 401, 329-361. Gul, K. (2001). Calculations for the excitation functions of 3–26 MeV proton reactions on Radiation and Isotopes, 54, 311-318. 66 Zn, 67 Zn and 68 Zn. Applied Harp, G.D., & Miller, J.M. (1971). Precompound Decay from a Time-Dependent Point of View. Physical Review C 3, 18471855. Ignatyuk, A.V., Istekov, K.K., & Smirenkin, G.N. (1979) Yadernaya Fizika 29, 875-883 [(1979). Soviet Journal of Nuclear Physics. 29, 450-454]. Iljinov, A.S., Mebel, M.V., Bianchi, N. et al. (1992). Phenomenological statistical analysis of level densities, decay widths and lifetimes of excited nuclei. Nuclear Physics A, 543, 517-557. Mashnik, S.G., & Toneev, V.D. (1974). Modex-The Program for Calculation of the Energy Spectra of Particles Emitted in the Reactions of Pre-Equilibrium and Equilibrium Statistical Decays, Communications of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, P4-8417, Dubna. Mashnik, S.G. (1995). User Manual for the Code CEM95, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Moskow Region. Qaim, S.M. (2001). Nuclear data relevant to the production and application of diagnostic radionuclides, Radiochimica Acta, 89, p. 223. 176 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Qaim, S.M. (2002). Nuclear data for production of new medical radionuclides. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology (Japan), (Suppl. 2), 1272-1277. Sohn, A., & Mattes, M. (1992). Pre-equilibrium emission in differential cross-sections calculations. Kerntechnik, 57 (4), 237242. Tamura, T., Udagawa, T., & Lenske, H. (1982). Multistep direct reaction analysis of continuum spectra in reactions induced by light ions. Physical Review C 26, 379-404. Wolf, A.P., & Jones, W. B. (1983). Cyclotrons for biomedical radioisotope production. Radiochimica Acta, 34, 1-7. 177 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 503 Title A name given to the resource Nuclear Model Calculations on the Excitation Functions of Some Radionuclides Produced by Proton Cyclotron Author Author Kaplan, Abdullah Büyükuslu, Halim Sağlam, Gülçin Abstract A summary of the resource. By using the intermediate energetic proton induced reactions, we can produce radionuclides and these radionuclides can be used in medicine and industry. In the last decade, a big success has been provided usage of radionuclides. Nuclear reaction calculations which are based on standard nuclear reaction models can be helpful for determining the accuracy of various parameters of nuclear models and experimental measurements. In this study, production routes of medical isotopes used for diagnostic or a therapeutic radionuclide such as 225Ac, 140Nd, 43Sc and 44Ti were investigated in a range of 10–50 MeV incident proton energy. The excitation functions for (p,2n) reactions were calculated by equilibrium and pre-equilibrium reaction mechanisms. The pre-equilibrium calculations were calculated by using hybrid, geometry dependent hybrid and cascade exciton model. The reaction equilibrium component was calculated with a traditional compound nucleus model developed by Weisskopf-Ewing. Calculation results have been also compared with the available measurements in literature. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2cd2207b8e2ba446166dcd7c3f3d7201.pdf af52faceef0c791af7bd89ef24f28594 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Genetic Diversity in the Dwarf Dry Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris l.) Populations Grown in Konya Ali Kahraman Research Assistant Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY kahramanali@selcuk.edu.tr M ustafa Onder Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY monder@selcuk.edu.tr, Abstract : This research was conducted to determine the genetic differences among the dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations collected from the Konya province of Turkey. Seedlings were grown in a controlled greenhouse of Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture during the year 2007. A total of 38 populations were gathered from the city center, the towns and the villages. Genetic differences were determined via ISSR method. By using 10 primers a total of 85 DNA bands were obtained of which 71 were found to be polymorphic. Our results have demonstrated that the populations used were clustered into 3 major groups. Similarity degrees were in between 0.48 – 097. Knowledge about the genetic characteristics of a population is fundamental in breeding programs and it involves the local farmers. This strategy allows to improve and, at the same time, safeguard the genetic reliability of landrace genetic resources. Keywords: Dry bean, ISSR, Phaseolus vulgaris, polymorphism. Introduction Com mon bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)is an annual, diploid (2n=22) species derived from wild ancestors distributed from Northern Mexico to Northwestern Argentina. Com mon bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important economic food legume widely grown in many countriesinthe world. Konya ranks first in Turkey in terms of the bean cultivation areas with a total area of 14.869 ha and a production level of 27.818 tons (Anonymous 2008). The necessity of preserving important germplasm has led to the construction and maintenance of very large germplasm collections. For accurate determination of the genetic relationships, DNA markers have advantages over morphological traits, such as distinguishing among accessions with similar morphology and discriminating polymorphism over far more locithan isozymes and seed proteins. Many molecular marker techniques have been developed in recent years. They started to be used successfully in molecular genetics laboratories. Those that are PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) based include SSR (Simple Sequence Repeat), AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), RAPD (Random A mplified Polymorphic DN A) and ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeats). Cultivar lines that are morphologically similar could be separated and defined with the use of markers (Lowe et al. 1996). The relationship degree that is found in between genetic materials can be used in selection programs in order to improve the agricultural material. Polymorphism is much higher in DNA-based systems when compared to classical and biochemical markers. According to research on wheat,ISSR provides resultssimilarto RAPD and RFLP in determining genetic relationships and diversity. Additionally, ISSR markers were found to be more reliable (Nagaoka and Ogihara 1997). Like RAPDs, ISSRs are quick and easy to handle, but they seem to have the reproducibility of SSR markers because of the longer length of their primers (Bornet and Branchard 2001). Kantety et al. (1995) reported that ISSRs can be used to determine the polymorphism among species and for plant improvement. Using ISSR in maize was found to be easy and cheap, taking short time and giving more polymorphic bands when compared to RAPDs. ISSR technique have been widely applied in various plant varieties in recent years. It was successfully used in bean (Galvan et al. 2003; Marotti et al. 2007), chickpea (Iruela et al. 2002; Rajesh et al. 2002; Sudupak 2004), pea (Kuznetsova et al.2005),lentil(Duran et al. 2004) and barley (Hou et al.(2005). It is amazing to see that farmers obtain high yields from the populations without using certified lines. 13 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo There are a numerous genotypes in the hands of the farmers. Usually the farmers give differentlocal names for the same seeds. This study aims to demonstrate both the applicability of ISSR-PCR method and to reveal the D N A fingerprints belonging to the populations involved.D N A level identification of genetic diversity among dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations, which are grown in Konya province was also targetted. Material and Method Plant Material and DNA Isolation Each of 10 samples used were collected from 38 dry bean seed populations that were grown widely in the center, county and villages ofKonya (Table 1). Seeds were germinated in a glasshouse on wet sand under controlled conditions (20 C0 oftemperature and 12 h photoperiod). After 21 days,the primary leaves were harvested and DNAs were extracted. For DNA isolations 2xCTAB method was used. 14 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1. The codes, origins and local names of the dry bean populations used in DNA isoloations Code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13* 14 15 16 17 18 19 * 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 * Certified Origin Başarakavak County Başarakavak County Başarakavak County Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Altınekin (Center) Altınekin (Center) Altınekin (Mantar Village) Çumra (Center) Konya (Center) Ereğli(Center) Ereğli(Center) Kadınhanı (Center) Kadınhanı (Center) Kadınhanı (Center) Derbent (Center) Derbent (Center) Derbent (Center) Beyşehir(Göçü Village) Seydişehir(Center) Ilgın (Beykonak Village) Ilgın (Center) Sarayönü (Center) Sarayönü (Center) Yunak (Center) Yunak (Center) Çumra (Center) Derbent (Center) Akşehir(Center) Akşehir (Sorkun Village) Akşehir(Center) Akşehir(Center) Kazım Karabekir Kazım Karabekir Local name Horoz Sarıkız Kanada Şeker (Bıyıklı) Kırgız Çalısı Horoz Beyşehir Çalısı Bombay (Bomba) Kanada A merikan Kollu Fasulye Sarnıç A merikan Çalısı Niğde Barbunyası Gina Dermason Horoz Weıhıng Kanada Akman - 98 A merikan (Beretta) Sarhoş (Washington) Şeker Horoz Sıra Beyaz Horoz Horoz (Kırk Günlük) Kanada A merikan Çalısı Üveynk (Veynk) Kanada Kırgız Yuvarlak (Kollu) Barbunya Yuvarlak Barbunya Dermason Ayşe Kadın Horoz (Oturak) Dermason (Oturak) Kanada (Kara Yaprak) Dermason (Kırgız) line Figure 1 shows the geographical origins ofthe common beans used. 15 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. The geographical origins ofthe dwarf dry bean that were used in the study PCR Amplification Genomic DNAs were extracted from leaf samples using 2xCTAB mini-prep (cetilthree metil amonyum bromid) method (Hulbert and Bennetzen, 1993).Sequences of ISSR markers used are listed in Table 2. Concentrations of DNA samples that were dissolved in 100 ul TE buffer were read by using a spectrophotometer. DNA concentrations were equalized to 20 ng/ul with sterile pure water. PCR mixture was consisted of 2.5 µl 10 X Taq buffer (Bioron), 2.5µl 25m M MgCl2, 0.4 µl dNTPs (25 m M of each) (Lavron), 0.5 µl Primer (50 pmol/µl) and 0.3 µl Taq DNA Polymerase (Bioron 5 U/µl), 14.8µl distilled water and 20 ng of genomic DNAs. The finalreaction volume was 25 µl. PCR conditions The PCR conditions included initial denaturation step for 1 min at 95°C, followed by 20 cycles with denaturation at 94°C for 1 min; annealing at 55°C for 2 min;extension at 72 °C for 2 min and final extension for 10 min at 72°C. Amplification products were fractioned in 2% agarose gel,stained using ethidium bromide and viewed under UV light. Scoring and analysis of ISSRs ISSR analysis of 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)populations was conducted with 10 primers (Table 2). DNA bands were scored fortheir presence (1) or absence (0)inthe ISSR profileof populations used. from all populations. UPG M A dendogram and Principal Coordinate Analysis (PcoA) was obtained using a commercial software named as NTSYS-PC. Results 16 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In this study, ISSR markers were used for quick, easy to practice and economic application possibilities. ISSR fragments from 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations were obtained using 10 primers. The primers used in the study and the totalfragment numbers, number of polymorphic,fragments and polymorphism ratios are given in Table 2. Base Melting Length of Polymorphic G/C Fragment Sequence (5'Tempeture the primer fragment (%) numbers 3') T m (oC) (bp) numbers G A G(CAA)5 49.1 18 38.9 7 4 F1 CTC(GT)8 56.7 19 52.6 6 6 F2 (AG)8 CG 56.0 18 55.6 5 5 F3 (AG)8 TG 53.7 18 50.0 6 2 F4 (AG)8 49.2 16 50.0 15 15 F5 C(CAC)4 CA 53.3 15 66.7 6 4 F6 (AC)8 49.2 16 50.0 9 7 F7 (GCC)5 67.0 15 100 10 7 F8 (GAA)5 39.6 15 33.3 10 10 F9 (AGC) 5 G 63.1 16 68.4 11 11 M1 Total and Mean 53.7 16.6 56.6 85 71 Table 2. Primers used in the study and the total number of fragments,number of polymorphic fragments and polymorphism ratios Primers Polymorphism ratios (%) 57.14 100 100 33.33 100 66.67 77.78 70 100 100 83.53 As itcan be seen from Table 2,intotal 85 DNA fragments were obtained, 71 of which were polymorphic, the remaining 14 being monomorphic. While fragments obtained from all populations, F5 primer was the one which yielded the highest number of fragments (15), and F3 was the one that yielded the lowest number of fragments (5). F2, F3, F5, F9 and M1 primers gave the highest polymorphism ratios (100%) while F4 primer had the lowest polymorphism ratio (33.33%). Taken into consideration all of the primers, the overall ratio of polymorphism obtained in the study was identified as 83.53%. Genetic similarity values of 38 bean populations were in between 0.48 and 0.97 based on the results of applied 10 ISSR markers. Figure 2. The UPG M A dendogram ofthe 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations based on 10 ISSR markers In the study NTSYS-pc 2.0 software was used in order to identify the genetic relationship and genotypic diversity of the populations through UPG M A method. As it can be seen in Figure 2, the populations were divided into three main groups, one of which were constituted of V8 and V21 populations that were genetically different from the other populations. The populations that constituted the other groups were also divided into sub-groups. C2 and C3 which were genetically the closest populations. The populations C2 and C3, which are found to be closestto each otherin genetic constitution on the dendogram 17 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo were also found to be genetically related in the Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) (Figure 3). In addition, genetically the most distantindividuals were found to be the populations V8 and V21. Figure 3. PCoA analysis ofthe 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)interms of ISSR markers Discussion According to the resultsit can be said that the ISSR markers present high level of polymorphism in dry bean populations that were applied. Thus, they can serve as markers to be used in determination of genetic relationships. They are attractive since it is easy to apply them and they are very sensitive tools in molecular studies. They also have high level of reproducibi,lity.(Bornet and Branchard 2001; Reddy et al. 2002; Galvan et al. 2003; Duran et al. 2004; Sudupak 2004; Gonzalez et al. 2006; Kuznetsova et al. 2005; Hakkı, E. E. et al. 2007; Marotti et al. 2007). A previous study has considered the utility of ISSR markers forthe genetic diversity and to determine the relationships among thirteen cultivars of common bean, eight ofthe nine primersthat were used were same with this study (Galvan et al. 2003). In that research primers (F1-2-3-4-5-7-8-9) provided 85 amplified bands and 71 of them were polymorphic. Inter simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) may be usable and reliable genetic markers to provide accurate information forthe identification of germplasms. As a result, it can be said that these dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations have a heterogenous nature and they could be used for purposes of genetic improvement in Konya province. At the same time, with a more comprehensive study with other ISSR primers and different molecular markers the power of the analysis may be improved. Additionally, the number of populations may be extended to include additional genetic material,so that alarger genetic background may be used in further breeding programs. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Scientific Research Coordination Center of Selcuk University, Turkey (Project No: 06401030). Support of TUBITAK (Project No: 104O547) is gratefully acknowledged. References Anonymous (2008). www.tuik.gov.tr Bornet, B. & Branchard, M. (2001). Nonanchored inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers: Reproducible and specific tools for genome fingerprinting. Plant Mol Biol Reporter 19: 209–215. 18 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bovenhuis, H., & Meuwissen, T. (1996). Detection and Mapping of Quantitative Trait Loci. Animal Genetics and Breeding Unit, University of New England Armidale. Duran, Y., Fratini, R., García, P. & Pérez de la Vega, M. (2004). An intersubspecific genetic map of Lens TAG Theoretical and Applied Genetics Volume 108. Galván, M.Z., Bornet, B., Balatti , P.A. & Branchard, M. (2003). Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers as a tool for the assessment of both genetic diversity and gene pool origin in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Euphytica Volume 132. Gonzalez, A.M., Monteagudo, A.B., Casquero, P.A., Ron, A.M. & Santalla, M. (2006). Genetic variation and enviromental effects on agronomical and commercial quality traits in the main European market classes of dwarf dry bean. Field Crops Research 95: 336-347. Hakkı, E. E., Kayis, S. A., Pınarkara, E. & Sağ, A. (2007). Inter simple sequence repeats separate efficiently hemp from marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.). Electronıc Journal Of Bıotechnology 10 (4): 570-581. Hou, Yong-Cui, Yan, Ze-Hong, Wei, Yu-Ming & Zheng, Y. L. (2005). Genetic diversity in barley from west China based on RAPD and ISSR analysis Barley Genetics Newsletter 35:9-22. Hulbert SH, Bennetzen JL. Recombination at the Rp1 locus of maize. Mol Gen Genet. 1991 May;226 (3): 377–382. Iruela, M., Rubio, J., J.I. Cubero, Gil, J. & Millán, T. (2002). Phylogenetic analysis in the genus Cicer and cultivated chickpea using RAPD and ISSR markers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 104: 643–651. Kantety, R.V., Zeng, X.P., Bennetzen, J.L. & Zehr, B.E. (1995). Assessment of genetic diversity in Dent and Popcorn (Zea mays L.) inbred lines using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) amplification. Mol Breed 1: 365–373. Kuznetsova, O. I., Ash, O. I., Hartina, G. A. & Gostimskij, S. A. (2005). RAPD and ISSR analyses of regenerated pea Pisum sativum l. Plants Russian Journal of Genetics Volume 41. Lowe, A. J., Hanotte, O. & Guarino, L. (1996). Standardization of Molecular Genetic Techniques for the Characterization of Germplasm Collections: The Caase of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter. 107: 50-54. Marotti, I., Bonetti, A., Minelli, M., Catizone, P. & Dineli, G. (2007). Characterization of some Italian common bean landraces by RAPD, semi-random and ISSR molecular markers. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 54: 175-188. Nagaoka, T. & Ogihara, Y. (1997). Applicability of inter-simple sequence repeat polymorphisms in wheat for use as DNA markers in comparison to RFLP and RAPD markers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 94: 597-602. Rajesh, P.N., Sant, VJ, Gupta, V.S., Muehlbauer, F.J. & Ranjekar, P.K. (2002). Genetic relationships among annual and perennial wild species of Cicer using inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) polymorphism. Euphytica 129:15–23 Reddy, M.P., Sarla, N. & Siddiq, A. (2002). Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) polymorphism and its application in plant breeding Euphytica 128: 9–17. Sudupak, M.A. (2004). Inter and intra-species inter simple sequences repeat (ISSR) variations in the genus Cicer. Euphytica 135:229– 238. 19 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 462 Title A name given to the resource Genetic Diversity in the Dwarf Dry Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris l.) Populations Grown in Konya Author Author Kahraman, Ali Onder, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. This research was conducted to determine the genetic differences among the dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations collected from the Konya province of Turkey. Seedlings were grown in a controlled greenhouse of Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture during the year 2007. A total of 38 populations were gathered from the city center, the towns and the villages. Genetic differences were determined via ISSR method. By using 10 primers a total of 85 DNA bands were obtained of which 71 were found to be polymorphic. Our results have demonstrated that the populations used were clustered into 3 major groups. Similarity degrees were in between 0.48 – 097. Knowledge about the genetic characteristics of a population is fundamental in breeding programs and it involves the local farmers. This strategy allows to improve and, at the same time, safeguard the genetic reliability of landrace genetic resources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08e1f1b88f6b1af435e93fdbaa389391.pdf 67eee59a9595f3b00753d7d68b951d42 PDF Text Text Bosna-Hersek ve Türkiye Arasındaki Kültürel Etkileşim ile Türkçeden Kalan Sözcüklerin Anlambilimi Sanja KREHIC International Burch University Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı sanja_krehic@hotmail.com Summary: Even before the times when Ottoman Empire arrived to the Balkans area, words have been borrowed through trading of goods and cultural interaction from Avarian Tatars, who have borrowed lexemes not only to Bosnian language, but also to the whole teritory of languages that have Slavic origin (Serbian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Hungarian etc.). Because of direct contact and interaction of Turks and Bosnians, majority of words were borrowed during the time of long-term existance of Ottomans on the teritory of Bosnia-Herzegovina. For native speakers of Bosnian language, those words are not felt as borrowed, but they became part of Bosnians’ national, intelectual and spiritual being. After many centuries and numerous linguistic changes that have occured, these words have gone through various processes on semantical level, which is described in this paper. Anahtar kelimeler: semantik, anlambilim, turcizam, anlam değişimleri, semantik adaptasyon, semantik değişim. Giriş Fatih Sultan Mehmet’in 1463 yılının mart ayında Bosna’yı fethetmesiyle birlikte Türkçe ve Boşnakça dilleri arasında doğrudan bir etkileşim başlamıştır. Bu etkileşim zamanla Boşnakça’ya Türkçe kelimelerin girmesini sağlamıştır. Boşnak dilinde yaklaşık 9000 Türkçe kelime günlük hayatta kulanılmaya başlanmıştır.8 Boşnakça’da Türkçe’nin etkisi sadece Osmanlı’nın bölgede hakim olduğu dönemlerde değil, Osmanlı’nın Bosna’yı terk etmesinden sonra da Türkçe etkisini devam ettirmiştir. Gerek konuşma gerek yazı dilinde Türkçe kelimeler bulunmaktadır ve Boşnaklar için milli kimliklerine önemli bir katkı olarak görülmekte birlikte bu sözcükleri kendi kültürlerinin kucağına alan Boşnaklar bu tür kelimeleri kendilerinden bir parça olarak görmektedirler. Türkçe’den Boşnakça’ya Geçen Kelimelere Genel Bir Bakış Türkiye ve Bosna-Hersek arasındaki kültürel etkileşim (burada göçmenleri, boşnak bilim adamlarının Osmanlı imparatorluğu’nun dört köşesinde okumalarını, ticaret, bilgi, kültür, gelenek, müzik ve mutfak değişimleriniö folklor vb. kast ediyoruz) ile ilgili gözlemlerimiz sırasında başlangıç hipotezimiz Boşnak dilini konuşanlar için Türkçe kelimelerin yabancı kelimeler olarak değil de onların, kültürel, ulusal ve ruhani varlıkların bir parçası olarak görüldüğüdür, ve onları bu mantık çerçevesinde anlambiliminin güneşinin ışıklarıyla ışıklandırmaya çalışacagız. Boşnakça’daki Türkçe etkilerine girmeden önce bazı teknik terimleri ifade etmek gerekmektedir. Bu terimlerin başında Turcizmi ve Oriyentalizmi kavramı gelmektedir. Orijentalizmi u književom djelu – lingvistička analiza – (Edebi Eserlerde Oriyental Kelimeler – Dilbilim analizi) adlı çalışmasında Dr. Hanka Vajzoviç yeni tarihli Türkçeden veya Türkçe aracılığıyla Arapça ve Farsça gıbi dillerden gelen tüm yabancı sözcüklerin terimi olarak Oryantalizmi (oriyental dillerinden alınmış kelimeler) olarak belirtiyor. Öte yandan, bu sözcüklerin sadece doğu dillerinden (Arapça, Farsça) değil de Yunanca (avlija) gibi diğer dillerden de geldiğini savunan Porf. Dr. Dalibor Brozoviç’in gibi farklı görüşler de var ve o görüşlerden birincisine göre bu sözcüklerin Boşnakçaya Türkçe vasıtasıyla geldiği öne sürülmüş, ve bu nedenle onlara ancak Turcizmi denilebilir. 8 Abdulah, Škaljić, Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, 1965. (Bu çalışmada Abdulah Şkalyiç 8742 Türkçe’den kalan kelime toplamış ve bu numara daha büyük olduğunu belirtmektedir. 314 �Söz konusu Bosna-Hersek ile Türkiye arasındaki iletişim olduğu ve bu tür kelimelerin Türkçe’ye ve Türçe’nin gramerine uyuduğu için daha önce üzerinde bahsettiğimiz Turcizmi terimini kabul edip destekliyoruz ve daha iyi terim olduğunu kanaatındayız. Kendimize bazı Türk kelimelerinin Bosna halkı arasında yabancı kelimeler kategorisinde mi hissedildiği sorusunu soruyoruz. Bu sorunun cevabı olumsuz olacaktır! Kesin bir örnek ve gösterge olarak da bu kelimelerin Hırvat edebiyatında, alınmış yahut yabancı kelime olarak hissedildiğini söyleyebiliriz. Budala, kašika, sevdah, mahala, šećer, sat gibi Türkçe kelimeler Boşnak edebiyatında hiç yabancı kelime gibi dikkat çekmezler, çünkü Türkçe kelimelerin çoğu yerli sözcük gibi hissedilir. Balkanlarda yaşayan bir şahsiyet günlük yaşamda daha çok Avrupa ve batı amaçlı lisan kullandığını gösterir bizlere, ama bu konuda elden gelen bir şey yoktur. Neden, çünkü hatırı sayılır sayıdaki Türk dilinden alıntıların yerli kelime haznesi olarak bilinir. Vuk9 zamanında bile dilde temizlik gibi bir amaca yönelmemiştirler. Alınan kelimeler arasında en fazla yeri, isimler alır, sonrasında da iştikak ve iki ayrı dilden alınan kelimelerle yapılan bileşik kelimeler yer alır.10 Bu kelimelerin büyük çoğunluğu ya tavsif edilmiş ya da artık kullanılmayan bir deyim olarak belirtilmiş ve kullanımdan çekilmiştir, hatta genç nesillerde bu lisan tarihinin bir bölümü olmuştur11 – ama, bu gerçekten böyle mi, yoksa artık kullanımda olmayan deyimler, tekrardan onların kullanım ihtiyacına bağlı olarak, dile geri mi dönüyorlar? Kaç kere genç bir kişiden, ait olduğu toplumala ilişkisinde farklı bir ışık koyma hevesinde olarak, o kişiden bu düşünceler altında argo söylemler, tam olarak turcizam kullandığını duyduk (örn. Kokuz)?! Yabanci Dillerinden Alinmiş Kelimelerin Semantiği Diğer her kelime hazineleri gibi özellikle de alınmış olanlarla turcizam da farklı kriterlerde en çok: alfabetik, konulara göre, kelime çeşitlerine göre, dil bilgisi seviyesine göre, tümlevleme derecesi ve yoluna göre, isteğe ve ihtiyaca göre değerlendirilmesi yapılır. Tüm bunlardan farklı olarak semantik kullanım ve kelime haznesini uygulama olarak bölümlemekteyiz, çünkü her lisani alıntıyı, dilin yapısının semantik kademesinde farklılıklar oluşumu takip eder. Semantik, bildiğimiz üzere kelimelerin anlamını inceleyen bilim dalıdır, bu şekilde bu çalışmadaki bizim hedeflerimiz alınmış ve kabul edilmiş kelimeler hazinesini semantik olguda betimlemek, tanımaya çalışmak ve semantizim ışığında aydınlatmaktır. Kelime hazinesi – semantik karışmasında alıntının iki temel ögesininin ayırmak gerekir12: 1. 2. Yeni kelime hazinesi alınımı tanışması fikrince medeni şahıslarca önceden kullanılan anlam alımıda olur, bu yeni bir mananın yer alması, konular vs., ve bununla birlikte bunu niteleyen kelime de alınır, yani hem mana hem belirti alınır. Kelimen özellikle dil alıntısı olarak düşünüldüğünde, bunu alan lisan sadece manası bulunan bir durumu isimlendirmesi açısından kelime hazinesine dahil eder, yani sadece belirtiyi alır. Prof. Dr. Filipoviç'in dediği gibi yabancı kökenli kelimelerin semantik plan doğrultusunda kaçınılmaz olarak ya temel yada ikinci derecedan değişim olarak analiz edilir13. Temel semantik adaptasyon o anda lisan konteksine ve kabul eden dilin ihtiyacına göre kendi manasında alınan yabancı kelimeler olarak anlaşılır. Bu durumlarda en sık salt düşüncedeki semantik büyümedeki kelimede mana değişimi için herhangi bir semantik değişimin olmadığıdır. Model = replik'e göre model manası replik'in içinde nihai sadece özel veya görevli olarak bulunabilir, ama mana uzatması ya da değişimi olmaz. Ikinci dereceden semantik adaptasyon, zamanla temel adaptasyon şemalarına olan, kabul eden roldeki dilde belirli alıntılar difüzyonu mühletinde gerçekleşmesidir, 9 Vuk Stefanoviç Karaciç, Osmanlı zamanında Sırpça reformu başlatan ve Početni udžbenik srpskog jezika (1814), Riječnik srpskog jezika (1818. i 1852), Srpsko epsko pjesništvo (1845) yanısıra ilk Türkçeden geçen kelimelerin sözlüğü yazan kişidir. 10 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 11 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. , sayfa 34. 12 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 13 R. Filipović, Jezici u kontaktu i jezičko posuđivanje, SL, 4, Zagreb, 1978. 315 �ayrıca kökenine bakılmaksızın bir dildeki maruz kalan kelimeleri de içine alan çok sayıda ve komplike olan süreci de kabul eder. Ikinci dereceden değişimler, mananın sayıca ve anlam alanında uzatılması, kısmi ve bütün olarak anlam değişimleri vb. durumlar olarak sayılabilecek farklı semantik büyümeleri de içine alır. Bu değişimler güçlü etkileri ile sadece lisan içinde değil, kabul eden dildeki lisan dışı gerçeklerce de vuku bulmaktadır, bunlar: sosyolojik, psikolojik, tarihi psikolojik, ayrıca sosyoligvistik ve model fonksiyonları kriterleri ve yapımlarının etkisiyle birlikte analoji, asosyoloji, etimoloji camiası vs. Prof. Dr. Petkoviç'in uyardığı gibi leksik ünitenin semantik analizi için, leksik14 ve sözün gelişi15 manasına göre ayırmalıyız.16 Bilfiil, semantik değeri tasdiklemek açısından bilhassa yabancı kökenli kelimeleri belirtilen iki seviyede de çokanlamlılık, tekanlamlılık, sinonomi, antonomi ve benzeri çok sayıda semantik süreç ve mananın tanıması bâbından üzerinde durulmalıdır.17 Yerli ve alıntı kelimelerin anlamlarını takip eden tüm leksik – semantik kategoriler ve süreçlerde bulunan, boşnak dilinin diğer leksikleri analog olarak davranmaktadır turcizma, bu yüzde de leksik – semantik değerini ispatlamak için, alınan kelimeyi (temel ve ikinci dereceden) ve anlam şekillerini (leksik ve sözün gelişi) olarak takip eden yukarıda belirtilmiş değişim seviyelerine özellikle dikkat edilmeli ve kazara18 olmamasından kesin bir manaya sevk edilmesi, semantik ölçüm derecesindeki gibi, gerekmektedir.19 Uzun süren süreçte turcizam alıntıları Türk diliyle olan doğrudan münasebet ve bu ilişkinin bitişinden günümüze uzun bir süre aralığı varlığı dil yapısındaki semantik dereceyi ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu durum bizlere, hasseten anlamlarına etki yapan zamanın büyük bir sayıda turcizamı idare altına alındığını gösterir. Boşnakça’daki Türkçe Kelimelerin Semantiği Belirtilen bu bilgileri tasdiklemek ve kuvvetlendirmek için, göstergelere ve aşağıda şekillendirilmiş örneklere geçiyoruz. Temel semantik adaptasyonda üç farklı anlam değişimi ile karşılaşıyoruz: 1. İlk olarak, kendi öz anlamını korumuş turcizam kelimeler, bunlar genelde nesnesel gerçeklikleri olan, bir konuyu bir terimi anlatan kelimelerdir. Örneğin; arslan, badem, baglama, bakar, begenisati, berićet, bešika, bez, čalma, čarapa, čekić, čelik, česma, čizma, čorba, čerpić, ćilim, dembel, deniz, denjak, dert, deva, din, direk, dost, dova, dućan, dugme, dušek, dušmanin, duvar, džamija, dževap, fajda, fetva, fukara, fursat, haber, hastaluk, hefta, hurma, iladž, insan, jangija, jemek, kadija, kajmak, kašika, komšija, kopča, kreč, kum, mehana, meraja, meram, mešćema, milet, muhur, mumin, odaja, oluk, pamuk, pejgamber, pendžer, peškir, sanduk, sapun, selam, sevap, sevlija, sirće, soj, srča, sultan, sunđer, šenluk, tahta, tapija, tefter, tespih, testera, vaz, veresija itd. 2. İkinci olarak anlam değişimi, kısmi olarak asıl ve yeni anlamı arasında bir ilişki kurulmasını göreceğimiz aşağıdaki örnekler: araba – teretna zaprežna kola; (yük taşıyan araç) bardak – zemljani ili drveni sud; (toprak veya tahtadan tas) čanak – drvena zdjela;(tahta kap) domazluk – domaćinstvo, gospodarstvo. (mesken) Yukarıda belirtilen örneklerden bu kısmi semantik değişimlerin, asıl semantik alandaki değişimlerin anlaşıldığını fark etmekteyiz 1. Tamamen semantik değişim, asıl manası ve yeni manası arasında hiçbir korelasyon olmayan yepyeni bir mananın gelişimini gösterir. Dürtü az tanınmakta ama genelde fark edilen ya da tam manasıyla tanınmamaktadır, örnek: ašlama – vrsta kalemljene trešnje / kiraz tarzı (asilamak – kalemiti); basma – vrsta tkanine / kumaş çeşidi (basmak – štampati); bašlija – pribadača / çengeli iğne (basli – s glavom); 14 Beli bir dilinin kelime hazinesinin öğesi olarak işaretın taşıdığı anlamların atomu. 15 Konuşma dizisinde beli kelimenin yerine ve kulanmasına bağlı olan leksik anlamlarından birinin kesin gerçekleşmesi. 16 N., Petković, Jezik u književnom djelu, Nolit, Beograd, 1975. 17 V. Bajraktarević, Pomeranje značenja kod riječi, KiJ, XXXI, 3-4, Beograd, 1984. 18 Aslı anlamın karşısında diğer anlamın tamamlaması düşünmektedir burada. 19 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 316 �čevra – rubac obrubljen vezom / oyalı mendil (cevre – okolina); parmak – letva na ogradi / çit (parmak – prst); jabana – tuđina, tuđa zemlja / gurbet (jaban – divljina). Örneklerden görüldüğü üzere ve dediğimize göre dürtüsü tanıdık (basma) veya zor tanımlanabilr (parmak) ya da tamamen gizli olabilir, bu durumda daha çok ortalamaya (jabana) temayül ederiz. İkinci dereceden semantik adaptasyona gelince, burada anlamların telafi değişimlerini telafi ediyoruz. Bunula görüyoruz ki, verilen dilde yaşayan diğer leksikler gibi, kendi değerlerinde ve semantik fonksiyonlarda değişiyor ve zamanla yok oluyorlar. Burada bir kez daha, psikolojik, eğitimsel, medeni, kültür-tarih ve diğer koşulların ikinci dereceden semantik manada büyük bir rollerinin olduğunu belirtmeliyiz Çalışmamızın giriş kısmında belirttiğimiz gibi ikinci dereceden adaptasyon hem kısmi hem de bütünüylen bir değişimi kabul eder. Kısmi değişim ise semantik alanda genişleme ve uzatma üzerinden anlam şekli ölçümünü gösterir, örneğin: ajluk: 1) plata mjesečna, 2) primanja uopće bez vremenske odredbe; 1) Aylık ödenek, 2) vakit sınırı olmadan elde edilen demir: 1) željezo, 2) gvozdene rešetke, 3) rešetke uopće; 1) Demir, 2) demirli balya 3) genel olarak balya; marifetluk: 1) vještina, 2) smicalica. 1) Kabiliyet 2) kurnazlık. İkinci dereceden adaptasyonda bütün semantik ölçümü, tebdilin çok anlamlılık içinde olduğunu, yeni dildeki bir belirti olarak anlar. Bunu, çok anlamlılık ve tek anlamlılık olarak, diğer iki leksik-semantik süreç olan sinomim ve antonomim ile birlikte göstereceğimiz iki temel manayı beyan etmektedir. Çok anlamlılık, kelime hazinesinin kabiliyeti olarak, semantik manada uyumlu olan daha fazla semantik gerçeklilik olduğunu anlatmaktadır. Türkçe kökenli kelimelerde bu durum daha çok ikinci dereceden adaptasyondaki semantik değişimler için kullanılır. Bu çalışma sırasında fark ettik ki büyük bir oranda turcizim şu şekildedir, örnek: badava: 1) uzalud,(bedava) 2) besplatno, (beleş); berićet: 1) sreća,(mutluluk) 2) rod / plod (bereket); pazar: 1) pijačni dan,(pazar günü) 2) trgovina,(pazarlık) 3) zarada (kâr). Tek anlamlılık, aynı morfem – morfolojik şekil muntazamının varlığını anlatır ve bunlar semantik manada ayrıştırılır. Alıntı kelimelerde iki çeşit tek anlamlılık bulunur: lisanlararası20 ve tek lisan21. Lisanlararası tek anlamlılık, türkçe kökenli olmayan turcizam tipi ilişkiyi gösterir. Örneğin: atlas – vrsta svilene tkanine (ipek kumaşın çeşidi) / zbirka geografskih karata (harita atlası); bešika – kolijevka (beşik)/ mokraćni mjehur (idrar tprbası); bina – zgrada (bina) / pozornica (sahne); kum – pijesak (kum)/ svjedok na vjenčanju (şahit); para – novčana jedinica (para) / gasovito stanje (buhar). İkinci grup ise yani teklisan tek anlamlılığı turcizam-turcizam modelini ortaya koyar, örneğin: alat – oruđe za rad (alet)/ konj riđe dlake (alaca at); bent – brana (bend)/ strofa (mısra); horoz – pijetao (horoz) / obarač na puškama (tüfeklerde bulunan horoz); kapak – poklopac (kapak) / dio oka (göz kapağı); top – vrsta artiljerijskog oružja (top) / vrsta igre (oyun tarzı) / figura u šahu (satrançta kale taşı) / smotak tkanine (kumaş topu). Sinonim, farklı aksanlarda seslendirilen ama aynı manayı taşıdığını gösteren leksik – semantik manadır. ahbab / dost / jaran; vakat / zeman; 20 Farklı dil kökenli aynı dil sisteminin tek anlamlı kelimeleri. 21 Aynı dil kökenli tek anlamlı kelimeler. 317 �ahmedija / čalma / saruk / turban; ibliz / šejtan / šer; kuršum / tane; minder / sećija / divan; sinonim, çoklisanlı (turcizam – Türkçe kökenli olmayan) da olabilir, örneğin; bajrak / zastava; boja / farba; alat / oruđe; cifra / brojka; peškir / ubrus / ručnik; sirće / ocat. Aynı şekilde sözlüklerde çevirilieri olan belirtiler ve örnekler de önemlidir : akšamlučenje, ćeif, dert, fursat, mahmurluk, muštuluk... Antonomi zıt anlamda kelimelerin varlığını gösterir. Tükçeden alınan kelimelerden çoğunda onu karşılayan antonomisi alınmamıştır, bu yüzden bu durum turcizamda az görülmektedir. Seyrek olmalarına rağmen, her iki durumda da bulmaktayız. Teklisan ve çoklulisan antonomisi vardır: bajat / taze; kuvet / nemoć (güçsüzlük); budala / pametan (akılı); šejtan / melek; muhtač / neovisan (müstani). Sonuç Türkçe’den Boşnakçaya geçen kelimeler semantik, morfolojik ve fonetik açıdan Boşnak diline yaklaşmıştır. Bu kelimeler Boşnakça gramer yapısına uygun olarak kullanılmaktadır. Standart ve günlük ihtiyaçta çoklukla olan örnekleri en iyi ışıkla yansıtarak tekanlamlılığı, çokanlamlılığı, sinonimi ve antonomiyi dahili, geniş ve çok yaygın olduğunu görünmektedir. Boşnakça’daki Türkçe kelimelerin bir kısmı anlam açısından Türkçedeki anlamıyla birebir örtüşmekdir. Bu kelimelerin bir kısmının anlamı kısmen değişmiştir. Diğer bazı Turcizam kelimeler ise anlam olarak tamamen değişmiş ve Boşnakça’da yeni bir anlam kazanmıştır. Kaynaklar Bajraktarević, V., Pomeranje značenja kod riječi, KiJ, XXXI, 3-4, Beograd, 1984. Filipović, R., Jezici u kontaktu i jezičko posuđivanje, SL, 4, Zagreb, 1978. Gortan-Premk, D. Polisemija i Homonimija u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, JF, XL, Beograd, 1984. Petković, N., Jezik u književnom djelu, Nolit, Beograd, 1975. Škaljić, Abdulah, Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, 1965. Vajzović, Dr. Hanka, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 318 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 377 Title A name given to the resource Bosna-Hersek ve Türkiye Arasındaki Kültürel Etkileşim ile Türkçeden Kalan Sözcüklerin Anlambilimi Author Author KREHIC, Sanja Abstract A summary of the resource. Even before the times when Ottoman Empire arrived to the Balkans area, words have been borrowed through trading of goods and cultural interaction from Avarian Tatars, who have borrowed lexemes not only to Bosnian language, but also to the whole teritory of languages that have Slavic origin (Serbian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Hungarian etc.). Because of direct contact and interaction of Turks and Bosnians, majority of words were borrowed during the time of long-term existance of Ottomans on the teritory of Bosnia-Herzegovina. For native speakers of Bosnian language, those words are not felt as borrowed, but they became part of Bosnians’ national, intelectual and spiritual being. After many centuries and numerous linguistic changes that have occured, these words have gone through various processes on semantical level, which is described in this paper. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/623886844b802b5ad0f364d2abb15301.pdf 9e63cae35e31791cb78f2bd1284b856e PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Management of Historic Environment in the Context of Sustainable Development Hüseyin KOÇAK Department of Sociology , Afyon Kocatepe University kocak@aku.edu.tr Hasan KORKUT Department of International Relations, International University Of Sarejevo hkorkut@ius.edu.ba Abstract: This study examines the relation between sustainable development and the management of historic environment. The historic environment is a resource that should be sustained for the benefit of both present and future generations. The term "sustainable development" has risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. The fundamental understanding of the sustainable development is that environment and economy can not be seen separately. It can be defined as policies for economic growth which allow the needs of the present to be met without jeopardizing those of future generations. Historic environment and traditional residence patterns should not be regarded only as our cultural variables, but in accordance with the concept of “sustainable development”, as housing stocks too. They have been accepted as a “public trust”. In order to achieve a sustainable management of historic environment, changes in attitudes and behavior will be required on all levels of society. For a smooth transition, all segments of society need to be aware of and accept the need to change. Education, research, and full-scale demonstration projects with local participation will be necessary. Besides these changes, international cooperation in both technical and financial fields is crucial. Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Environment, Historic Environment, Sustainability, Sustainable Development Introduction In a world faced with the dangers entailed by rapid growth and development, depleting resources, and impairment of the historic environment, preservation-related issues have become urgent. A global world is not a uniform world for societies. But, there are threats to the global environment. So, more attention has to be paid for a global identity around environmental issues. Urbanization as such is not a problem. On the contrary, it brings considerable social and economic benefits. The problem is that the development of infrastructure and services in the towns and cities is not keeping pace with the rapid population growth. As a result, living and environmental conditions are deteriorating. There is an urgent need to plan and manage the cities in order to sustain them. Thus, sustaining cities is an imperative. Preservation of Historic environment is crucial for sustainability. Historic environment and cultural heritage are more than old monuments. If the preservation and restoration of unique historic environments should be justified on its own merits, as a universal value in itself, it may actually also plays an important and integral part in promoting sustainable social and economic development. There is a link between signs and symbols; decoration and motifs; iconographic structures and shared cultural wisdom. This is a silent language, which bonds a people together through a meaning system. The tangible and intangible relationships between man and his environment, both natural and built, are historical phenomena in human civilization. They are evident in the historic urban settlements where the reciprocating relationship between man and nature is reflected in distinctive and responsive environments, and it is related to human needs. In relatively recent times, this historical symbiosis was disregarded in the process of city making, which has caused catastrophic environmental problems in varying degrees according to the country. This has led to a growing appreciation of historic urban forms resulting in intense conservation movements and strongly influenced new urban design approaches (Özaslan, 2002). 369 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Throughout this article, we have used the word “place” to describe any immovable part of historic environment that people perceive as having a distinct identity. It can be of any scale from a milestone to a building, an historic area, a town, or a region. Sustainable management of a place begins with understanding and articulating how, why and to what extent it has heritage values-its significance. Communicating that significance to everyone concerned with a place, and particularly to people whose actions may affect it, is then essential if they are to act in awareness of those heritage values. Our country is geographically located in a cradle of humanity, history and civilization. Turkey has many clear and priceless historical treasures. We should appreciate this fact and preserve them carefully. Our people today and new generations to come must be oriented toward interest, love and respect for history. Basic Concepts and Terms Related To Historic Environment and Sustainable Management The aim of this paper is to focus on the relation between historic environment and sustainable management. But before that, initially, it is essential to explain some definitions of words in a specific or technical sense. We can talk about some of them according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Object; Anything not (now) fixed to or incorporated within the structure of a place, but historically associated with it. Place; Any part of the historic environment, of any scale, that has a distinctive identity perceived by people. Preserve; To keep safe from harm. Conservation; The process of managing change to a significant place in its setting in ways that will best sustain its heritage values, while recognizing opportunities to reveal or reinforce those values for present and future generations. Historic environment; All aspects of the environment resulting from the interaction between people and places through time, including all surviving physical remains of past human activity, whether visible or buried, and deliberately planted or managed flora. Heritage; All inherited resources which people value for reasons beyond mere utility. Heritage, cultural inherited assets which people identify and value as a reflection and expression of their evolving knowledge, beliefs and traditions, and of their understanding of the beliefs and traditions of others. Heritage, natural inherited habitats, species, ecosystems, geology and landforms, including those in and under water, to which people attach value. Sustain; Maintain, nurture and affirm validity. Sustainable; Capable of meeting present needs without compromising ability to meet future needs (www.helm.org.uk, 2009). The term “sustainable management” and the associated notion of sustainability have risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. Sustainable management refers to a form of socioeconomic advancement which can continue indefinitely without exhausting the world’s resources or overburdening the ability of natural systems to cope with pollution (Yılmaz, 2005). Sustainability requires profound changes to occur on all levels of society. UN Preparatory Committee for Habitat II stated that: Cities can be part of the world economy and be the engines for sustained economic growth and sustainable development. If present urban problems are not solved, however, they will become obstacles to stability wellbeing and the attainment of sustainable development. Definition and Analysis of Historic Environment The historic cores and quarters represent the genuine culture of their societies as they were formed by the major historical determinants that are derived from local characteristics of place, social conditions and the environment itself. The architectural quality of the pre-industrial city is often hidden in its fabric, where architecture not only forms the city but is also formed by the city. This mutual relationship between the city and its architectural language and production demands that the design principles need to be derived from the preindustrial fabric; the architectural product of that place, time and society, with its own spatial and aesthetic values (Özaslan, 2002). The historic environment is a shared resource. Our environment contains a unique and dynamic record of human activity. It has been shaped by people responding to the surroundings they inherit, and embodies the aspirations, skills and investment of successive generations. People value this historic environment as part of their cultural and natural heritage. It reflects the knowledge, beliefs and traditions of diverse communities. It gives distinctiveness, meaning and quality to the places in which we live, providing a sense of continuity and a source of identity. It is a social and economic asset and a resource for learning and enjoyment. Each generation should therefore shape and sustain the historic environment in ways that allow people to use, enjoy and benefit from it, without compromising the ability of future generations to do the same. Significant places should be managed to sustain their values. Change in the historic environment is inevitable, caused by natural processes, the wear and tear of use, and people’s responses to social, economic and technological change. 370 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conservation is the process of managing change to a significant place in its setting in ways that will best sustain its heritage values, while recognizing opportunities to reveal or reinforce those values for present and future generations. Conservation is achieved by all concerned with a significant place sharing an understanding of its significance, and using that understanding to: judge how its heritage values are vulnerable to change. Action taken to counter harmful effects of natural change, or to minimize the risk of disaster, should be timely, proportionate to the severity and likelihood of identified consequences, and sustainable. The Importance of the Sustainability of Historic Environment Nothing can be defined by itself nor has a value of its own, but always in relation to the others and to the whole. A city can be defined as a complex system consisting of different structures and relationships built up through an incremental process. Every one of these structures represents a sub-system such as social, economic, political or cultural. If we understand the city as a system of relationships then we perceive continuity in the historic urban fabric as the consequence of an unbreakable succession of its qualities. Continuity can be seen as the memory of the city but also the generator for new formations. Everyone should be able to participate in sustaining the historic environment. Everyone should have the opportunity to contribute his or her knowledge of the value of places, and to participate in decisions about their future, by means that are accessible, inclusive and informed. Learning is central to sustaining the historic environment. It raises people’s awareness and understanding of their heritage, including the varied ways in which its values are perceived by different generations and communities. It encourages informed and active participation in caring for the historic environment (www.helm.org.uk). Experts should use their knowledge and skills to encourage and enable others to learn about, value and care for the historic environment. They play a crucial role in discerning, communicating and sustaining the established values of places, and in helping people to refine and articulate the values they attach to places. It is essential to develop, maintain and pass on the specialist knowledge and skills necessary to sustain the historic environment. Sustainable conservation policies of historic environments in Turkey In many excavations of old cities in Turkey, archeologists have encountered various settlements. This is very important and exciting. Our country has much material that will provide new and original information about past and shed light on the ancient ages. Some of our caves even bear traces of the Stone Age. Anatolian cities abound with tombs, mosques and countless other historical heritages. Moreover, many nations known to us such as the Hittites, Lydian, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Persians, and Ottomans and others set their rich and diverse civilization on this land. They left us many splendid traces and monuments. The conservation of historic environment is manifest now in virtually every part of the world. In the case of the “developing” world, with special reference to Muslim countries, the introduction of the Western philosophy of conservation was largely accepted with little questions a similar attitude towards accepting the introduction of modernization. Warren indicates that conservation ideas and legislation based on Western models have been introduced without critical analysis of their social, economic and cultural contexts (Warren, 1976). On the other hand, the current tendency of conservation in the Muslim countries is seen as a cultural decision and the preservation of the cultural heritage as an insurance of the continuity of their cultural identity (Kuban, 1983) Turkey is a land where rich civilizations have flourished for thousands of years in the past and a leader among the countries which bear great universal responsibilities for the protection of the cultural heritage of humanity. The importance of preserving this cultural heritage cannot be limited only to the aim of introducing our past values to future generations, also using the remains from the past as the most important resources to create the future is a critical necessity. It is becoming significant for nations to integrate their cultural identities with their new environment of life. Modern creations in architecture and urban planning which are both carried out with no consideration for national and historical values, hasten alienation. Preserving the cultural heritage of different cultures with equal care and respect will help the feelings of peace and brotherhood to find roots in a world under globalization, while at the same time providing a propelling force towards the development of a rich and multi-colored cultural mosaic with the interaction of different cultures (Erder, 1971). Kuban says "If my observations and judgments are accurate, urban preservation especially is impossible in Turkey through the methods indicated by the teaching of orthodox preservation. We should not fool ourselves by making examples of back alley, weak, random applications. The Antalya Harbor, the Sogukcesme Street or region that were conserved without preservation in Safranbolu could not erase the memories of destruction in Istanbul, Izmir, Kayseri, Urfa, Erzurum, Gaziantep, Konya, Antakya and innumerable cities and towns”(Kuban,1983). As Kuban remarks, it is not possible to state that the preservation policies for the historical and cultural environment in Turkey have achieved their aim to date. In particular, the immigration from rural to urban areas 371 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo and the rapid urbanization following 1950, the residence and tourism aimed second wave of shore plundering following 1980, and immigration phenomena from the Eastern and South-Eastern Regions, for security and economical reasons, have reduced to tatters the balance of cities which were formed over hundreds of years ago. The illegal buildings wave, that first began at the fringes of cities (gecekondus/squatters), has, through building pardons, gradually extended the rest of the cities like a cancer, and has become one of the main urban problems today (Tunçer, 1996). In the preservation and improvement natural sites and historic environment, success can be achieved in application through the cooperation and synchronization of the Ministry of Environment and the Prime-Ministry Specially Protected Areas Department of Environmental Preservation, a long with the support and involvement of local administrations. Conclusion The idea of “preservation of environment and historic heritage” should have a more comprehensive meaning in Turkish culture than in western culture. Our culture aims to exalt its function. The idea of development and protection of intrinsic human values together with studies about the inter-relationship between man and nature can comprise the essence of the preservation approach which has appeared in recent times(Arslanoğlu,1986). Balanced and justifiable decisions about change in the historic environment depend upon understanding who values a place and why they do so, leading to a clear statement of its significance and, with it, the ability to understand the impact of the proposed change on that significance. The historic environment is constantly changing, but each significant part of it represents a finite resource. If it is not sustained, not only are its heritage values eroded or lost, but so is its potential to give distinctiveness, meaning and quality to the places in which people live, and provide people with a sense of continuity and a source of identity. The historic environment is a social and economic asset and a cultural resource for learning and enjoyment. It can be said that the point arrived at after decades of disregard and looting in the matter of the preservation of historical and cultural values, is the point of losing, if not all, most of these values. The local and central administrations, which are supposed to prevent this, are observed to be unequal to this task. It is our belief that the duty required of every educated person is to participate actively in the efforts of preservation of the cultural and historical values. Finally, we have to talk about the importance and necessity of “the heritage cycle” in the sustainable management of historic environment. By understanding the historic environment people value it. By valuing it they will want to care for it. By caring for it they will help people enjoy it. Informing the people of the region about the historic environment and giving them an awareness of it, and thus assuring their positive aid and involvement in the matter of preservation is regarded as the most important means of preservation. References Arslanoğlu, A.,(1986), The Phenomena and Concept of Protectionism in The Light of Our Architectural Characteristics and Our Human Values, Đlim ve Sanat, Sept-Oct, 28-31. Erder, C.,(1971) Introduction To The History Of Concern On The Historical Environment, Ankara. HELM, Historic Environment Local Management, http://www.helm.org.uk/, 15.05.2009. Kuban, D.,(1983), Conservation of the Historic Environment for Cultural Survival. In Architecture and Community-Building in the Islamic World Today, The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, 32-37, New York. Özaslan, Nuray.,(2002), Understanding the Historic City, Anadolu University Press, Eskişehir/Turkey. Tunçer, M.,(1996) Writings On The Preservation Of Historical Environment, Lecture Notes, Ankara. Warren, J.,(1976), Conservation in Islam, The Architect, June, 20-24. Yılmaz, M.,,(2005), Sustainable Urban Environment, WSEAS Int. Conf. on Environment, Ecosystems and Development, Venice, Italy, November 2-4, (pp-96-102). 372 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 262 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Management of Historic Environment in the Context of Sustainable Development Author Author KOÇAK, Hüseyin KORKUT, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study examines the relation between sustainable development and the management of historic environment. The historic environment is a resource that should be sustained for the benefit of both present and future generations. The term "sustainable development" has risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. The fundamental understanding of the sustainable development is that environment and economy can not be seen separately. It can be defined as policies for economic growth which allow the needs of the present to be met without jeopardizing those of future generations. Historic environment and traditional residence patterns should not be regarded only as our cultural variables, but in accordance with the concept of “sustainable development”, as housing stocks too. They have been accepted as a “public trust”. In order to achieve a sustainable management of historic environment, changes in attitudes and behavior will be required on all levels of society. For a smooth transition, all segments of society need to be aware of and accept the need to change. Education, research, and full-scale demonstration projects with local participation will be necessary. Besides these changes, international cooperation in both technical and financial fields is crucial. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0974ed71bce2722c4bbdccdcd7f22852.pdf 18c72ecfa3ac580c05358b45cbc82758 PDF Text Text Toplumsal Değişim Sürecinde Ahmet Mithat Efendi'nin Eğitim Anlayışı Okan KOÇ Sakarya Üniversitesi Sakarya, Türkiye okoc@sakarya.edu.tr Özet: Türk Edebiyatının en velut yazarlarından olan Ahmet Mithat Efendi, Türk roman ve hikâyeciliğinin ilk örneklerini veren isimlerdendir. Bir medeniyet değiştirme süreci olarak değerlendirilen Tanzimat Dönemi’yle birlikte birçok toplumsal algı değişikliğe uğramaya başlamış, bu süreçte Ahmet Mithat, Namık Kemal’in tiyatro için söylediği “faydalı eğlence” ifadesini roman ve hikâyeye uyarlayarak halkı eğitmeyi amaçlamıştır. Yazar, eserlerindeki çeşitli tip ve karakterler üzerinden faydalı olduğunu düşünerek toplumsal mesajlar da vermektedir. Ahmet Mithat, dönemin okuyucu kitlesini de göz ardı etmeden birçok konuya temas eder. Ele aldığı konular arasında eğitim meselesi de önemli bir yer tutmaktadır: Toplumdaki çeşitli bireylerin eğitilmesi, eğitim süreci boyunca takip edilecek yöntemler, nelerin nasıl öğretilmesi gerektiği, verilen eğitimin insanı ne derece değiştirip dönüştürebileceği, eğitim sürecince yapılan yanlışlıklar v.b. konular kimi zaman Batılı toplumlarla karşılaştırmalar yapılarak okuyucuya aktarılır. Bu bildirimizde, Tanzimat sonrası Türk Edebiyatı’nda sosyal meselelere en fazla yer veren yazarlardan olan Ahmet Mithat’ın, değişim sürecinde eğitim meselesine nasıl yaklaştığını göstermek istiyoruz. Amacımız, Ahmet Mithat örneğinden hareketle toplumun edebî eserler vasıtasıyla nasıl değiştirilmek / eğitilmek istendiğini göstermektir. Anahtar kelimeler:Tanzimat, Ahmet Mithat, Eğitim, Toplum, Değişim Giriş Türk edebiyatının Tanzimat sonrası tanıştığı edebî türlerden olan roman ve hikâye ilk yerli ürünlerini Ahmet Mithat’la verir. Batılı anlamda şiir ve tiyatrodan sonra edebiyatımıza giren roman ve hikâyenin bu dönemde birbirinden kesin olarak ayrıldıkları düşünülemez.1 Ahmet Mithat, 1870’li yıllardan itibaren Kıssadan Hisse ve Letaif-i Rivâyât başlığı altında neşretmeye başladığı eserlerinin sayısını zaman içerisinde sayı ve hacim olarak hızla çoğaltır. Denilebilir ki; ilk örneklerini Batıdan yapılan tercümelerin oluşturduğu roman ve hikâye türü, Ahmet Mithat’la birlikte edebiyatımızda adı bilinen ve kabul gören bir tür haline gelmiştir. Tanzimat Döneminin yol açıcılarından olan Şinasi; Tanpınar’ın da belirttiği gibi, şahsiyetinin durgunluğuna, hamlesinin devamsız oluşuna, üslubunun tıkızlığına rağmen tesiri büyük olmuştur( Tanpınar,1998: 190). Şinasi fikir hayatının Batılılaşmasıyla birlikte edebiyatın da yenileşmesi için mücadele eder. Döneminin bir diğer önemli ismi Namık Kemal, Meşhur “Lisân-ı Osmanînin Edebiyatı Hakkında Mülâhazâtı Şâmildir” isimli makalesi başta olmak üzere birçok yazısında eski edebiyatın eksik ve yanlış bulduğu taraflarını eleştirirken, yeni edebiyatın kendisi için doğru olarak kabul ettiği vasıflarını da saymaktan geri durmaz. Genel olarak, Tanzimat döneminin ilk isimleri edebiyatta sosyal fayda prensibinden hareket etmekteydiler. Edebiyat; halkın eğitilmesi, fikir seviyesinin yükseltilmesi için vazgeçilmez bir vasıta olarak görülmekteydi. Bu prensibin öncülüğünü yapan Namık Kemal’e göre edebiyatta sosyal fayda esastır. Namık Kemal’in özellikle tiyatro türü için söylediği eğlencelerin “en edîbanesi” , “en fâidelisi” sözünü hatırlamakta yarar vardır.2 Tanzimat Döneminde; Şinasi’nin halkı eğitmek gayesiyle gazeteye yüklediği fonksiyonu Namık Kemal tiyatroya, Ahmet Mithat Efendi’nin ise roman ve hikâyeye uygulamaya çalıştığı söylenebilir. Şinasi’nin halka inmek için yeni ve sade bir dile ihtiyaç duyması yeni bir nesrin ortaya çıkmasına yol açar. Aynı düşüncelerden hareket eden Namık Kemal de yeni bir dil ihtiyacının farkındadır. Ziya Paşa ise “Şiir ve İnşâ” makalesinde eski nesir dilinin terk edilmesi gerektiğini belirtirken Harabat adlı şiir antolojisinin önsözünde bunun tam tersi bir beyanda bulunacaktır. Tanzimat fermanında maârifle ilgili bir kayıt olmamasına karşılık padişah başta olmak üzere devletin en yüksek organlarının bu konuyla yakından ilgilendikleri ve Osmanlı Devleti’nin ancak maârifle, ilimle, mekteple 1 Halit Ziya’ya kadar problemli gözüken hikâye ve roman türü, özellikle bu dönem için edebiyat tarihçileri tarafından tek bir tür olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Örneğin Orhan Okay bu konuda: “Tanzimat devri için, bu iki türün birbirinden ayırt edilmesi mümkün olmadığından tek bir tür olarak mütalaâsı daha uygundur.” Demektedir (Okay, 1998: 51). 2 Namık Kemal’in Türk edebiyatı üzerine görüşleri için: (Yetiş,1996: 512s.)’ya bakılabilir. 387 �ayakta duracağına inandıkları görülmektedir.3 Her Ne kadar Tanzimat Fermanında bu konuya yer verilmemiş de olsa Fermanın yayınlanışını takip eden yıllarda Batı modeli eğitim kurumları faaliyete geçmeye başlamıştır.4 Tanzimat öncesi açılan Askeri okulların akabinde Rüştiye Nezaretleri, Mekteb-i Mülkiye, Mekteb-i Tıbbiye, Mekteb-i Hukuk gibi okulların yanında Sultanîler de açılmaya başlar. Tanzimat sonrası yoğun bir şekilde ortaya çıkan Batılılaşma hareketi sosyal ve kültürel hayatta birçok değişimi de beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu çabanın bir kültür medeniyet değiştirme çabası olduğu bilinmektedir.5 Edebiyat; bu dönemle birlikte hayatın, düşüncelerin değişmesinde, Batılı kültür değerlerinin topluma aktarılmasında önemli bir işlev üstlenir.6 Üslubun ve İdealizmin Kaynağı Ahmet Mithat, yazdığı eserlerle kendini adeta toplumu eğitmeye adar. Toplumu önce okumaya alıştırmak sonra da onu kültür ve ahlâk bakımından belli bir seviyeye taşımak ister. Madde ve kültür sahalarındaki terakkiyi hürriyet ve rejim meselesinden daha öncelikli gören Ahmet Mithat’ın bu yaklaşımı devrin hükümdarı II. Abdülhamid’le de örtüşmektedir (Okay, 1989: 8). O, her iki problemin de kültür bakımından Batı seviyesine eriştikten sonra ele alınması gerektiği kanaatindedir. Bu yüzden toplumu eğitmek için vasıta olarak gördüğü eserleriyle okumaktan çok dinlemeye alışmış halk kitlelerini, alışık olduğu tarzdan uzaklaştırmadan okutmak, eğitmek düşüncesindedir. “Hikâye söylemek ve dinlemek eski hayatımızın köklü bir geleneğiydi. Eski mahalle kahvelerinde, uzun kış gecelerinin eğlenceli geçmesi için yapılan toplantılarda, helva sohbetlerinde hikâyeye ayrılmış saatler vardı. Kadınların kendi aralarındaki toplantılarda da hikâyenin geniş bir yer tuttuğunu biliyoruz. İşte bu gelenekten doğan bir hikâye dinlemek sevgisi bugün bile vardır. Ahmet Mithat, hikâye anlatma sistemi olarak bizim eski meddahlar yöntemini kabul etmiştir. Meddahın konuşması, gündelik hayatın üslubudur.”( Özön, 2009: 292). Ahmet Mithat’ı döneminin yazarlarından bir adım öne çıkaran özelliği eserlerinde kullanmış olduğu bu üslupta ısrarcı olmasıdır. Bu üslubun gereği olarak okuyucusuna kimi zaman dostane, kimi zaman öğretici bir tavırla yaklaşır. Örneğin Çengi romanın girişinde Don Kişot hakkında okuyucuyu bilgilendirmek ister. “ ‘İstanbul’da Don Kişot’ denildiği zaman, İstanbul şehrinde Don Kişot denilir bir şeyin vücudu anlaşılır ise de, bu Don Kişot yenir mi? Yenmez mi? Canlı mı? Cansız mı? Buralara dair bazı mertebe izahat verilmeyince Don Kişot mahiyeti nazarlarda taayyün edemez. Ama erbab-ı mütâlâa içinde Don Kişot’un ne olduğunu bilenler dahi bulunacakmış. Mâlumdur ki, bir hikâye yalnız havas için yazılmaz. Avam için yazılır. Havas indinde pek meşhur ve maruf olan Don Kişot’un mahiyetini avama tanıttırmak lazımdır.”( Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2000:5 ). Felsefe-i Zenan isimli hikâyesinde okuyucunun bu konuda bir bilgisinin olmadığını düşünerek “ Görmez misin ki ressamlığı sanayi-i âliyenin birincilerinden addederler. Şimdi bir kere mütalâa et ki ressamlık ne demektir? Ressamlık aynen gözümüz önünde olmayan bir şeyi bize resmen göstermek değil midir?”(Ahmet Mithat, 2001: 65) deyişi sınıfta ders anlatan bir öğretmenin edasını bize hatırlatır. Yine Felâtun Bey ile Rakım Efendi romanında bazı beyitlerden sonra “Râkım bu beyti dahi şu suretle tercüme eylemişti.” diyerek beyiti açıklaması insanları eğitme konusunda ne kadar farklı yollar denediğinin küçük bir örneğidir. Ahmet Mithat’ın, Kıssadan Hisse’ isimli küçük hikâyelerinden itibaren, her hikâyesini bir hisse çıkarılması amacıyla düzenlediği bilinmektedir. Ahmet Mithat’ın birçok eseri- kendisinden önceki anlatılarda da rastladığımız- iyilerin ödüllendirilmesi, kötülerin cezalandırılmasıyla sonlanır. Yazar böylelikle okuyucuya bir ders vermek istemektedir. Ahmet Mithat’ın konuşma dilini kendisinden öncekilerden olduğu gibi almasına rağmen edebiyatı yaşanan hayatın sınırlarına kadar genişletmiştir (Tanpınar, 1995: 119). Böylelikle konusu günlük hayattan alınan hikâye, doğal olarak okuyucunun ilgisini daha çok çekeceği gibi, yazarın da anlatacaklarından okuyucuya hayat dersi vermesini kolaylaştıracaktır. Ahmet Mithat, devrinin birçok özelliğini eserlerine taşıdığı gibi, kendi kişiliğini de eserlerinde sergiler (Uğurcan, 1987: 185-199). Müşahedat romanında bizzat roman kahramanı olarak yer alırken, Pariste Bir Türk isimli romanında Nasuh Efendi’nin de yine Ahmet Mithat olduğu, Felâtun Bey ile Râkım Efendi romanındaki Râkım’ın Ahmet Mithat’tan izler taşıdığı bilinmektedir. Hikâye ve romanlarında gördüğümüz oldukça fazla idealleştirilmiş tipler yazarın yaşantısından izler taşır. Bilindiği üzere Ahmet Mithat, ömrü boyunca sürekli 3 Bayram Kodaman, Tanzimat Fermanı’nda maârifle ilgili bir kayıt olmamasını, yadırgatıcı bulsa da, bunun Tanzimat adamlarının bu konuya değer vermemiş oldukları anlamına gelmeyeceğini belirtiyor ( Kodaman, 1991: 6-9). 4 Tanzimat Fermanında maârifle ilgili hiçbir kayıt olmamasına karşılık Islâhat Fermanı’nda (1856) bu konuya yer verilmiştir. “Islahat Fermanı’nın açılmasına müsaade ettiği okullar zaten 1839’dan beri, Türkler için açılmağa devam ediyordu. Böyle olunca Fermandaki maârifle ilgili hükümler, daha çok gayr-i Müslim unsurlara kültür bağımsızlığı, okul açma hakkı, hatta fazladan Türk okullarına giriş serbestîsi veriyordu. Bu bakımdan Fermanda maârife yer verilmesini Türk maârifi yönünden önemli bir aşama olarak görmek mümkün değildir.” (Kodaman, 1991: 15). 5 Bu konuda bkz., “Medeniyet Değiştirmesi Ve İç İnsan” (Tanpınar, 2000: 34-39). 6 Tanzimat Dönemiyle birlikte Türk edebiyatındaki temalar da çeşitlenir. Hikâyelerde görülen başlıca temalar için: Daşcıoğlu, Yılmaz – Koç, Okan, “Batı Tarzı Türk Hikâyesinin Doğusu ve Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Ana Temalar” Turkish Studies, Volume 4/1-I Winter 2009, s. 799-900 388 �olarak kendini yetiştirme gayretinde olmuştur. Hayat hikâyesine baktığımızda durup dinlenmeden çalışan, yorulmak bilmeyen bir portreyle karşılaşıyoruz. Roman ve hikâyenin yanında çeviri, adaptasyon, siyasî ve iktisadî makaleler, çeşitli gazete yazıları, başta olmak üzere birçok alanda yazan ve üreten bir yazardır. Bir kısmı zorunluluktan da kaynaklansa sürekli okumak ve öğrenmek iştiyakındadır (Özön,2009: 185-197). Bu yüzden olsa gerektir, roman ve hikâyelerinde türün gerektirdiği estetik bütünlüğün dışına çıktığına şahit oluruz. Yazarın aynı anda hem doğu kültürüne hem de batıdan gelen yeni kültür değerlerine olan ilgisi eserlerinde konuyu çeşitlendirmiş, bununla birlikte bazı aksamaları da beraberinde getirmiştir. Okuma Saatlerinden Öğrenme Anlarına Tanpınar, Ahmet Mithat’ı değerlendirdiği bir yazısında : “Ahmet Mithat Efendi’nin eserleri 1870 senlerinin okuyucu kitlesinin seviyesinden başlar. Bu biraz da kendi seviyesi yâni aşağı yukarı deniz sathının seviyesidir. Büyük özleyişlerle hareket eden Namık Kemal’de daima münevver kalabalığa hitap vardır” diyerek onun eserlerindeki dil ve üslubunu küçümser. Tanpınar tespitlerini daha ileri götürür ve “onun sanatı yoktur daima halka yönelen iyi niyetleri vardır”, der.(Tanpınar, 1988: 65) Gerçekten de Ahmet Mithat bütün eserleri göz önüne alındığında iyi niyetlerin yazarı olduğu görülür. Bu iyi niyet son merhalede kendisiyle birilikte okuyucuyu da eğitmek amacı taşır. Bu yüzden de Ahmet Mithat, her eserin öğretebileceği bir şeylerin olduğu inancındadır. “Bu alafranga denilen âlemin batak köşelerini sen benden âlâ bilirsin. Bu kadar Fransız romanları okumuşsundur. Bir tiyatro aktristine alâka edip de feyiz almış bir kimsenin sergüzeştini okudun mu? Bu hikâyelerin filvaki vuku bulmuş olması lazım değildir. Muharrirler daima ihtimalattan bahsederler. Onları okuyarak hem lezzet almalı, hem de mütenebbih olmalı”( Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2005:138). Roman ve hikâyelerinde başlangıçtan eserin tamamlanışına kadar geçen sürede olgunlaşan ve kendini yetiştiren roman kahramanları adeta onun ulaşmak istediği gayeyi temsil eder. Gittikçe kendini her alanda yetiştirmiş, birçok konuda malumatı olan, kısa zaman içerisinde hızla yol alan kahramanlardır bunlar.7 Ahmet Mithat böylelikle okuyucuya ideal olanı göstermek ister. Onun anlayışında; durmaya, tembellik yapmaya müsaade yoktur. Ahmet Mithat’ın eserlerinde eğitimle ilgili üç farklı yaklaşım görmekteyiz. Bunlardan ilki belli bir bilginin, kültürün ya bir eğitici(hoca, madam, mürebbiye, dadı) vasıtasıyla verilmesidir. İkincisi ise bir eğitim kurumu aracılığıyla edinilen eğitimdir. Bunun yanında eserlerinde daha çok görmeye alıştığımız ise bunların ötesinde, bunları da kapsayan, özel çabalar sonucu edinilen bilgidir ki Ahmet Mithat’ın şahsi hayatı da daha çok böyle bir gayretin ürünüdür. İnsan her ne şekilde olursa olsun bu bilgiyi elde etse de bu onun için yeterli değildir. Bilgi ve kültür de insanı bir yere kadar getirebilir. Ahmet Mithat’a göre bilmek insanı ahlaklı ve erdemli kılmaya yetmeyebilir. Onun bazı eserlerinde bu türden karşılaştırmalara yer verdiğini görmekteyiz. Bahtiyarlık isimli eserinde Mekteb-i Sultanî’de okuyan Senai ve Şinasi isimli iki genci hayat anlayışları bakımından karşılaştırır. Senai, bir köy ağasının oğludur ve babasının da arzusu oğlunun şehirde okuyarak, görerek büyük adam olmasıdır. Senai’nin babası, oğlunun okuyarak bir devlet kapısına girmesini arzular. Şinasi ise, şehirde yaşayan ve şehrin gürültüsünden bıkmış bir babanın oğlu olması dolayısıyla bu hayatı istememektedir. Ahmet Mithat, burada aynı okulu okumuş oldukları halde ortaya çıkan tamamen farklı iki şahsiyeti ele alır. Ailenin yönlendirmesinin çocuklar üzerindeki etkisini göstermeye çalışır. Aynı okulu(Mekteb-i Sultanî)bitirmelerine karşılık Senai tam bir Avrupa hayranı, Şinasi ise kır hayatını seven bir şahsiyet olarak ortaya çıkmıştır (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 282-338). Ahmet Mithat’ın temelde eğitimi konu olarak ele aldığı eserlerinden biri Çingene isimli uzun hikâyesidir.(Okay, 1989: 314) Yazar bu hikâyede, bir İstanbul medenîsi olan Şems Hikmet Bey’in gayretleriyle bir Çingene kızı olan Ziba’nın hayatının nasıl değiştiğini ele alır. Şems Hikmet Bey, bir Kâğıthane gezisi esnasında karşılaştığı Ziba’dan çok etkilenir, onu terbiyesi altına alarak eğitmek ister. Yazar, bu hikâyede, birtakım tavır ve davranışlarını terk etmeyeceği düşünülen insanların bile eğer istenilirse belli bir eğitimin sonucunda değişebileceğini göstermek ister. Hikâye boyunca; her insanın eğitilebileceği, davranışlarının değiştirilerek belli bir seviyeye getirilebileceği fikrinin sürekli telkin edildiği görülür. Buna karşılık hikâyenin sonlarında Şems Hikmet Bey’in eniştesi Râkım Bey, insanların soy soy farklılık gösterdiğini, Ziba’nın kökeninden(soy) dolayı değişmeyeceğini, zira uzun zamandır burada bulunmalarına karşılık kökenleri olan Hindistan’ın etkisini suretlerinde taşıdıkları gibi, siretleri de cinslerinden kaynaklanan etkilerden kurtulamaz, görüşünü dile getirir. Râkım Bey’e göre mesele biraz da asaletle ilgilidir. Her şeyin bir yabanisi, ehlîsi olduğu unutulmamalıdır. Hikâyenin bu noktasında dikkat çeken ise, o zamana kadar Şems Hikmet ile özdeşleşen, onu yaptığı her şeyi onaylayan anlatıcının “Vakıa bizce Râkım Efendiyi haklı bulmak daha doğrudur. Ancak bîçare 7 Ahmet Mithat’ın Üss-i inkılâp’da dile getirdiği ‘..bir adamın bugün sırf câhili olduğu bir meselede bile iki saatcikçe tetebbu ile o meselenin â’lem-i ulemâsı olacağı behemehâl hükmolunur’ cümlesinden hareketle Orhan Okay, kısa zamanda kendini yetiştirebilen bu ve benzer tipler için: “Çok mükemmel bir kütüphane de olsa iki saatlik bir tetebbu ile echel-i cüheladan a’lem-i ulemâ olmak suretini elbette Ahmed Midhat Efendi ölçüsünde tutmak lazımdır. O Ahmed Mithad ki ilim adamı deyince ilmin prensip ve metodlarından ziyâde malûmat yığını sahibi olmayı düşünmüştür.” demektedir (Okay, 1989: 44). 389 �Şems Hikmet Bey eniştesini haklı bulmamış idi.”( Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 490) diyerek Râkım Efendinin düşüncesinde olduğunu dile getirmesidir. Bütün karşıt fikirlere rağmen hikâyede, Râkım Efendi’nin söylemiş olduğu bir cümle Ahmet Mithat’ın düşüncelerinin de özeti hükmündedir: “…bir yabani fidana aşıyı ustalıkla vururlar ise semere-i matlubeyi iktitaf mümkün imiş.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 495). Ahmet Mithat, eğitimin küçük yaşlardan itibaren verilmesinin gereği üzerinde durur. Bu yüzden de eserlerinde kahramanların küçük yaşlardan itibaren eğitilmeye başladıklarını görürüz. Buna rağmen belli bir olgunluk çağına gelmiş de olsa, insanların eğitilebileceği inancı işlenir. Çingene isimli hikâyede bir Çingene kızı olan Ziba’nın eğitimle değişip değişmeyeceği konusu uzun uzun tartışılır: “Şems Hikmet Bey, Ziba’nın eğitilebileceği konusunda ümitlidir: “—Aziz üstadım ‘Ağaç yaş iken eğilir’ derler’ ki vakıa dürubdandır. Lâkin terakkiyat-ı sanaiye kuru ağacı da ıslatıp ateşe göstermek suretiyle eğmek bükmek imkânı bulmuştur. Hele istim ile ısıtıldıktan sonra en kalın direkler bile eğiliyor. Ağacın terbiyesi hususundaki terakkiye mütenasip olarak bir de terbiye-i insaniye terakkisi tasavvur olunur ise o zaman yalnız ‘Ağaç yaş iken eğilir’demekle iktifa etmeyiz. ‘Her ağaç her zaman eğilebilir’ diye terbiye hususundaki kudretimizle iftihar ederiz.”(Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 455) Konuşmanın devamında hikâye kahramanlarından Selimcan, sözü Avrupadaki terbiye sistemine getirir: “Bilakis terbiyenin insan üzerindeki tesirinin pek büyük olduğundan bir bahis açarak şu asırda pedagoji yani talim-i eftalin bir fenn-i mahsus, bir sanat-ı müstakilde suretini aldığı ve bilhassa Almanya’da buna pek ziyade ehemmiyet verildiği hakkında tafsilata girişti.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 455). Ahmet Mithat, insanların eğitilirken yeteneklerinin, eğilimlerinin dikkate alınması taraftarıdır. Bu yüzden sesi şarkı söylemeye ve çeşitli müzik aletleri çalmaya yatkın olan Ziba’ya öncelikle yetenekli olduğu müzikle ilgili eğitim verilir. Ziba, kısa bir zaman içerisinde keman çalmayı öğrenir. Yazarın eğitim meselesini ele aldığı eserlerden biri de Diplomalı Kız ismini taşımaktadır. Hikâyede maddi durumu gittikçe kötüleşen, evinin asli ihtiyaçlarını dahi karşılayamayan ama buna rağmen kızını okula göndermekten vazgeçmeyen bir babanın kızıyla birlikte vermiş olduğu mücadele anlatılır. Hikâye kahramanlardan Madam Döpre, maddi durumlarının kötü olması sebebiyle: “Bir fakir çocuğa o kadar süslü elbiseye lüzum var mıdır? Bir demircinin kızı o kadar pahalı şekerlemeleri, gatoları filanları yer mi?” diyerekten eşine söylenir. Bu söz üzerine eşi Jan Döpre ise : “- Sen o kadar anlarsın. Çocuk beşinci altıncı yaşında nasıl yaşar ise terbiyesi, tahsili de ona göre olur. Sonradan verilen terbiye-i kibarâne her zaman insanda yabancı kalır. ‘Sonradan görme’ diye tabir ederler ya? Ama böyle çekirdekten bir terbiye alırsa kibar doğmuş sayılır, diye karısını susturur idi.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 601). Anne ile kızı arasındaki tartışmalar bir süre sonra eğitim için yapılan masrafa odaklanır: “- Hep kuru ekmek, hep kuru ekmek! -Ne şikâyet ediyorsun? Katık da ister isen ekmek dilimlerinin üzerine biraz Rasin beyitleri, Bosue nesirleri oku” - Yine mi tahsilimi başıma kakacaksın? - Hayır, doğruyu söylemekten memnuiyete dair bir kanun mu neşr olundu? Kızları bu kadar okutmak neye yarayacak diye baban ile kavgalar ettiğim zaman o bana gülüyor idi. Sen ise kızıyor idin. Şu halimize sebep ancak senin tahsilindir. Dişimizden tırnağımızdan artırdığımızı sana harcettik.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 595) Baba ise annenin aksine okumanın önemini kavramıştır. Kızı için yaptıklarını masraf olarak değerlendirmez. “ - Ziyanı yok! Ziyanı yok! Şimdi Juli için ne sarf ediyor isek onu masraf saymamalı. Yine tasarruf yine iddihar saymalı. Zira o paraları kıza ikraz ediyoruz demektir. Faizi de işliyor. O faiz ise Juli’nin terakkisidir. Juli ikmali tahsil eyledikten sonra birden aldığını ma-ziyadeten bize verecektir. İhtiyarlığımızda Juli sayesinde nail-i nimet-i refah olacağız.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 603). Ahmet Mithat, bu hikâyede babanın ağzından çocukların özellikle de kız çocuklarının okutulmasının önemine işaret etmektedir. Eserin “Hatime” kısmında yazar son söz olarak okuyucuya şöyle seslenir: “Bir kız her ne olacak olursa talim ve terbiyesini ikmal etmiş bulunmalı. ‘Bizde kızların talim ve terbiyesine lüzum yoktur.’ Demek için ‘bizde erkeklerin de talim ve terbiyesine lüzum yoktur’ diyebilmek cesaretini peyda etmelidir, ama kızların terbiyesine ‘ o kadar lüzum olmadığı dava edilecek imiş. Terbiye ve talimin o kadarı bu kadarı olamaz.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 662). Ahmet Mithat’a göre kızların eğitime ihtiyacı olmadığını söyleyenleri gelecek yalanlayacaktır. Doğu ve Batının Arasında Ahmet Mithat’ın önemli eserlerinden biri olan Felâtun Bey ile Râkım Efendi isimli romanı iki tipin karşılaştırılması üzerine kurulmuş bir eserdir. Romanın kahramanlarından Felâtun Bey, alafranga yaşayışı benimsemiş olan babası Mustafa Merakî Efendi tarafından adet yerini bulsun diye eğitilir, bunun yanında Merakî Efendi’nin çocuğunun giyim kuşamı konusunda daha hassas davrandığı görülmektedir. Romanın bir diğer kahramanı Râkım Efendi ise yazar tarafından toplum için gerekli bir tip olarak çizilir. Eğitimine aralıksız 390 �devam eder. Bunun sonucunda isteklerine kavuşur. Felâtun Bey ise vaktini gereksiz işler peşinde geçirdiğinden babadan kalan son mirası da Polini isimli bir kadının peşinde borçlanarak yaşadığı yeri terk etmek zorunda kalır. Râkım Efendi ise ailesini ve çevresini önemsemiş, onların ihtiyaçlarını karşılamayı ise her zaman bir zorunluluk olarak gördüğü için mutlu sona ulaşmıştır. Ahmet Mithat Efendi, bu romanında da Diplomalı Kız hikâyesinde olduğu gibi babanın eğitim üzerindeki etkisini göstermeye çalışır. Felâtun Bey’in babası “Mustafa Merakî Efendi kemal derecede alaturkalıktan yine kemal derecede alafrangalığa birdenbire sıçramış bir adam olduğu” için yetiştireceği çocuk da bu terbiye altında büyüyecektir (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2005: 3). Felâtun Bey’in babası oğluna bir Fransızca hocası tutmuş, bu hoca haftada iki defa gelip gitmektedir. Fakat Mustafa Merakî Efendi öyle tahsil görmüş biri olmadığı için çocuğun mektebe gidip gelmesini ve Fransızca hocasının dahi eve gitmesini terbiyesi için yeterli görmektedir. Öte yandan Râkım Efendi’nin aldığı terbiyeyi yazar şöyle ifade etmektedir.8 “ Lâkin Râkım Efendi’nin aldığı terbiye ve gördüğü tahsil öyle her hâl ü vakti yolunda adam evladına müyesser olamaz. Kendi hâhişi ve dadısının sevk ve teşviki sâyesinde Arabîden sarf ve nahiv filândan maada Risale-i Erbaa’yı şerhleriyle beraber lâyıkıyla gördü. Hele mantık cihetini tasdikat-ı hitâmına kadar pek kuvvetli tahsil eyledi. İlm-i hadis ve tefsirde oldukça behre kazandı. Fıkhı dahi gözden geçirdi. Farisîden Gülistan ve Baharistan ve Bostan ve Pend-i Attar ve Hafız ve Sâib’i tekmil etmekten kat’ı nazar en müntehip parçalarını ezber dahi eyledi. Fransızcaya gelince: Bir kere lisanda rüsuh peyda eyledi. Ba’de Galata’daki dostundan hikmet-i tabiye, kimya, teşrih-i menâfi-ül-âzayı oldukça tahsil edip Beyoğlu’ndaki Ermeni dostunun kütüphanesinde dahi coğrafya tarih, hukuk ve muahedât-ı düveliyeye dair lüzum derecesinin fevkinde dahi mâlumat topladı. Hele okuduğu Fransız romanlarının ve tiyatro namelerinin eş’ar ve edebiyatının âdeta nihayeti yok gibiydi.”(Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2005: 14). Ahmet Mithat, kadınların da birçok açıdan kendini yetiştirmiş olması taraftarıdır. Devrinde bazı romancılar ahlaklarını bozacağı düşüncesiyle kadınların roman okumasını hoş karşılamamıştır(Andı, 2004: 37). Ahmet Mithat ise bu duruma itiraz eder. Ona göre roman, kimi durumlarda insana birçok şeyi öğretebilir. Felatun Bey ile Râkım Efendi romanında dikkati çeken bir başka husus ise kadınların eğitimiyle ilgilidir. Ahmet Mithat’ın bu romanda ve diğer eserlerindeki anlayışına erkek kadının eğitiminden sorumludur. Bu yüzden erkek, evleneceği kadını kendisi eğitir. Râkım Efendi, evine aldığı Canan isimli esir kızın eğitimine büyük önem verir. Râkım Efendi Canan’ı önce eğitir, azat eder ve sonunda onunla evlenir. Esaret isimli hikâyede de odalık olarak alınan küçük kız okuma yazmayı, piyano çalmayı evin beyi sayesinde öğrenir. Ahmet Mithat, Râkım Efendi benzeri karakterlere diğer hikâye ve romanlarında da yer vermiştir. Firkat isimli hikâyede, çalışkanlık, okuma ve öğrenmeye azmet gibi özellikleri dolayısıyla Râkım Efendi’ye benzeyen Memduh dört sene mektebe gider. Bu dört yıl içerisinde mantık, sarf nahiv, fıkıh gibi derslerin yanında Farisî’den Nasihat-ı Hükema’yı, Pend-i Attar, Gülistan, Hafız Divanı ve Mesnevi-i Şerif’i okumuştur. Ayrıca Ceride-i Havadis’te çalıştığı dönemde Fransızcasını ilm-i hukuku okuyacak derecede ilerletmiştir. Ayrıca İsevilik, Musevilik başta olmak üzere çeşitli dinler konusunda da bilgi sahibi olmuştur (Ahmet Mithat Efendi 2001:121-122). Bu hikâyede de Memduh’un bitmek bilmez öğrenme iştiyakı şaşırtıcıdır. Ahmet Mithat roman ve hikâyelerinde madam ve mürebbiyelerin eğitim üzerindeki etkisinden de söz eder. Bahtiyarlık isimli hikâyede Madam Terniye, yedi buçuk ve beş buçuk yaşlarında iki çocuğu eğitmektedir. Nusret ve Mansur kısa sürede madamı severler. Çocuklar zaman içerisinde Fransızcayla birlikte piyano çalıp şarkı söylemek gibi bir Fransız kibarzâde kızının öğreneceği bütün bilgileri de Madam Terniye’den öğrenir. Madam, vermiş olduğu eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklara Hıristiyanlığa ait bilgileri de öğretmeye başlar. Çocukların babası Abdülcebbar Bey’in bu durumdan haberi olmaz. Yazara göre Madam Terniye, İslam’ın karşısında olduğu için değil, kendi dini gereği olduğu için gayet iyi niyetle çocuklara dini bilgiler öğretmektedir. Çocukların bir madam tarafından eğitilmesinde bunun dışında bir sakınca görmeyen Ahmet Mithat, bu noktada suçun madamda değil, dinî ve millî değerlerimizi öğretmeyen bizde olduğunu düşünür. Bütün bu mahzurlarına rağmen, Ahmet Mithat’ın yabancı mürebbiyeyi önemsemesi dikkat çeker. 9 Sonuç Türk roman ve hikâyeciliğinin önemli isimlerinden olan Ahmet Mithat Efendi, “sosyal fayda” prensibini bir kurgusal metnin tanıdığı imkânları da zorlayarak uygulamaya çalışır. Yazar, toplumu eğitmek için bir vasıta olarak düşündüğü roman ve hikâyede okuyucuyu sıkmadan, kimi zaman dolaylı, kimi zaman ise direkt olarak çeşitli konulardaki düşüncelerini dile getirir. Onun eğitim anlayışı, iyi ile kötünün birlikte örneklenmesi metoduna dayanır. Yazar, çoğu zaman yorumu dahi okuyucuya bırakmaz, okuyucuyu yönlendirmek ister. Ahmet 8 Râkım Efendi’nin Doğu ve Batı kültürünün kaynaklarına olan ilgisi yazarın bir sentez düşüncesinde olduğunun ipucu olarak görülebilir. Orhan Okay ise, bütün Tanzimatçılar gibi Ahmet Mithat’ın da Batı edebiyatı ile Doğu edebiyatının sentezini yapmak gibi bir düşüncesinin olmadığını belirtmektedir ( Okay, 1989: 348). 9 Orhan Okay, bu durumu o devirde eğitim kurumlarının yeterli olmayışıyla açıklıyor (Okay, 1989: 322). 391 �Mithat; zihninde ideal olarak kurguladığı kişileri, eserlerinde gerek aile bireylerinin yönlendirmesiyle, gerek kişilerin kendi özel gayretleriyle olsun bir eğitim sürecinin içerisinden geçirir. Ahmet Mithat’ın eserlerinde gördüğümüz bir başka hususiyet ise geleneksel metodun dışında yeni yeni ortaya çıkan eğitim politikalarına itirazı olmadığı gibi; devrinden sonra da bugün de üzerinde durulan Fransızca öğrenmek, piyano çalmak, mürebbiyelerin eğiticiliği gibi eğitimle ilgili birtakım meselelere de ciddi bir itirazının olmadığı görülüyor. Hatta Ahmet Mithat’ın, kimi zaman bazı itirazları seslendirmekle beraber, onun eserlerindeki eğitimli insan portresinin daha çok bu özelliklere sahip şahıslardan oluştuğu görülüyor. Roman ve hikâye kahramanlarından bazılarının Tanzimat sonrası gelişen yeni eğitim kurumlarında eğitim gördükleri, yazarın da bu okullara dair faydalı kabul ettiği birtakım bilgileri okuyucuyla paylaştığı görülmektedir. Roman ve hikâyelerde isimleri zikredilen eserlere baktığımızda ise hem Doğudan hem de Batıdan kaynakların yer aldığı görülüyor. Yazarın (Batı romanına olan ilgisi bilinmekle birlikte) Batı edebiyatından çeşitli eserlerin yanında Doğu edebiyatından Gülistan Bostan, Mesnevi gibi klasik eserlerin de eserlerde yer aldığı görülüyor. Hikâye ve roman kahramanlarının yabancı dil olarak öncelik Fransızcada olmakla birlikte Fransızcanın yanında kimi zaman Arapça ve Farsçayı da hatta Çerkezce gibi dilleri de öğrenmeye ihtiyaç hissettikleri görülüyor. Aynı şekilde pozitif ilimlerin yanında dinî ilimlerin ve dine dair tartışmaların da eserlerde yer bulduğunu görüyoruz. Bütün bu yaklaşımlar metnin elverdiği şartlar içerisinde okuyucuya aktarılır. Ahmet Mithat’taki bu yönelimin, ondaki terkip düşüncesiyle ilgili olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Ahmet Mithat’ın, o günkü şartlar içerisinde geçmişe ait değerleri tamamen terk etmeden yeniliğe de açık olması onun eğitimin anlayışının önemli bir yanını oluşturmaktadır. Kaynakça Ahmet Mithat Efendi, (2001). Letaif-i Rivayat, Firkat, Çağrı Yayınları, İstanbul Ahmet Mithat Efendi,(2000). Bütün Eserleri, Romanlar V, Çengi, Kafkas, Süleyman Muslî (hzl. Erol Ülgen- Fatih Andı), TDK Yayınları, Ankara Ahmet Midhat Efendi, (2005). Felâtun Bey ile Râkım Efendi, Akçağ Yayınları, 5. Bas. Ankara Andı, M. F.(2004). Roman ve Hayat, Türk Edebiyatı Vakfı Yay., 2. Bas. İstanbul Daşcıoğlu, Y. – Koç, O. (Winter 2009). “Batı Tarzı Türk Hikâyesinin Doğusu ve Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Ana Temalar” Turkish Studies, Volume 4/1-I, s. 799-900 Kodaman, B. (1991). Abdülhamid Devri Eğitim Sistemi, Atatürk Kültür Dil Tarih Yüksek Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara Okay, O. (1989). Batı Medeniyeti Karşısında Ahmet Mithat Efendi, M.E.G.S.B Yayınları, Ankara Okay, O. (1998). Sanat ve Edebiyat Yazıları, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul Özön, M. N. ( 2009). Türkçede Roman, İletişim Yayınları İstanbul Tanpınar, A. H.(1995) Edebiyat Üzerine Makaleler, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul Tanpınar, A. H. (1988). 19 uncu Asır Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Çağlayan Kitabevi Yayınları, İstanbul Tanpınar, A. H. (2000) Yaşadığım Gibi, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul Uğurcan, S. (1987). “Ahmet Mithat’ın Hatıratı ile Romanları Arasındaki Münasebet”, Türklük araştırmaları Dergisi, Marmara Ü. Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, İstanbul Yetiş, K. (1996). Nâmık Kemal’in Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Üzerine Görüşleri ve Yazıları, Alfa Yayınları, 2.bas. İstanbul 392 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 427 Title A name given to the resource Toplumsal Değişim Sürecinde Ahmet Mithat Efendi'nin Eğitim Anlayışı Author Author KOÇ, Okan Abstract A summary of the resource. Türk Edebiyatının en velut yazarlarından olan Ahmet Mithat Efendi, Türk roman ve hikâyeciliğinin ilk örneklerini veren isimlerdendir. Bir medeniyet değiştirme süreci olarak değerlendirilen Tanzimat Dönemi’yle birlikte birçok toplumsal algı değişikliğe uğramaya başlamış, bu süreçte Ahmet Mithat, Namık Kemal’in tiyatro için söylediği “faydalı eğlence” ifadesini roman ve hikâyeye uyarlayarak halkı eğitmeyi amaçlamıştır. Yazar, eserlerindeki çeşitli tip ve karakterler üzerinden faydalı olduğunu düşünerek toplumsal mesajlar da vermektedir. Ahmet Mithat, dönemin okuyucu kitlesini de göz ardı etmeden birçok konuya temas eder. Ele aldığı konular arasında eğitim meselesi de önemli bir yer tutmaktadır: Toplumdaki çeşitli bireylerin eğitilmesi, eğitim süreci boyunca takip edilecek yöntemler, nelerin nasıl öğretilmesi gerektiği, verilen eğitimin insanı ne derece değiştirip dönüştürebileceği, eğitim sürecince yapılan yanlışlıklar v.b. konular kimi zaman Batılı toplumlarla karşılaştırmalar yapılarak okuyucuya aktarılır. Bu bildirimizde, Tanzimat sonrası Türk Edebiyatı’nda sosyal meselelere en fazla yer veren yazarlardan olan Ahmet Mithat’ın, değişim sürecinde eğitim meselesine nasıl yaklaştığını göstermek istiyoruz. Amacımız, Ahmet Mithat örneğinden hareketle toplumun edebî eserler vasıtasıyla nasıl değiştirilmek / eğitilmek istendiğini göstermektir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1e6a2798ef5f138d15a77b1955795da9.pdf 5274ca90b414e08e4f180df5f247ca40 PDF Text Text An Investigation into the Nature of Academic Procrastination M. Yavuz KONCA Ataturk University Kâzim Karabekir Education Faculty English Teaching Department Erzurum/Turkey ykonca@hotmail.com Öznur SEMIZ Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Letters English Department Trabzon/Turkey oznozr@hotmail.com Abstract: Academic procrastination is the voluntary delay of the completion of an academic task within the expected or desired time frame despite expecting to be worse off for the delay (Senécal et al. 1995; Steel 2007) . It is a dispositional trait that can have particularly serious consequences for students who are required to meet frequent deadlines. Research claims that 80%–95% of college students engage in procrastination (Ellis and Knaus 1977) and about 50% procrastinate in a consistent and problematic fashion (Day et al. 2000), delaying essential school-related activities. Some of the major causes of academic procrastination include fear of failure, inability to complete the task, a lack of time management or study skills, stress, or feeling overwhelmed with their work. This paper discusses the reasons why academic procrastination is a problem, why students procrastinate, and techniques for managing it. Implications for teachers will also be discussed. Keywords: academic procrastination, motivation, college performance procrastinatory behaviour, Introduction Procrastination is one of the greatest problems affecting academicians as well as students while achieving their academic performance. According to Ferrari (1995), difficulty in meeting schedules, submitting assignment late, delaying writing of notes, delaying tasks till assumed convenient time, being reluctant in performing tasks and waiting for dying minutes to accomplish a task are some of the various ways through which students procrastinate. Today, scientists all over the world agree that procrastination is an extremely complicated and influential act, which is more serious than can be imagined by those who have not experienced it themselves. Naturally, it is not so easy to help people overcome this problem of habitually postponing their work. As in other parts of society, procrastination emerges as a serious problem among university students. Some university students show the tendency to postpone the work they are expected to do. The simple excuse for their postponement is that they are trying to find convenient time to act; some of them always feel hesitant or unwilling in doing work that should be done without any delay whereas some other university students hang around until the very last moment to study for examinations. The conduct sometimes develops to become a common practice or even a habit. In the end, this habit may become a chronic behavioral disease that these students suffer from throughout their lives. 128 �What is Procrastination? The term procrastination originates from the Latin word "procrastinare" which means, "to put off until tomorrow. (“pro-“ prefix meaning “favour for” + “crastinare” derived from the Latin combination “crastinus” formed by Latin “cras” meaning “tomorrow” + “ –tinus the Latin suffix forming adjective”(Random House Dictionary, 1987; p.1543). Procrastination is the act or practice of continually, and in a sense habitually, putting significant tasks off until the last minute rather than doing them in a way that gives the individual sufficient time to complete the task without having to rush, and this practice can have unfortunate effects on an individual. Academic definitions of procrastination vary depending on the scientific field or approach. For instance, according to the approach considering procrastination as a psychological pain: “Procrastination is delay in conjunction with subjective discomfort (e.g., Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). One other approach states that procrastination is an Intended Action “when we delay beginning or completing an intended course of action (e.g., Beswick & Mann, 1994). Another view is that there is irrationality in procrastination and so “Procrastination is the illogical delay of behavior (Sabini & Silver, 1982). A common definition, in reference to the published research can be made stating that procrastination is the experience of psychological discomfort or distress as a result of failing to complete, or indefinitely postponing, a task or activity (e.g. Ferrari, McCown & Johnson, 1995; Johnson & Bloom, 1995; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). History of Procrastination Milgram (1992), claiming that societies that developed industrially need various commitments and time limits, is known to have written the first concrete historical investigation on procrastination, and this study encouraged further studies on procrastination (Steel, 2007). As a matter of fact, undeveloped rural societies are not so badly affected by procrastination. In their book, Ferrari, Johnson, and McCown (1995) took a similar although lighter position. They argued that procrastination had been present throughout history but that it only gained truly disappointing implications with the arrival of the industrial revolution in 1750s. Before then, procrastination was viewed neutrally and could be interpreted as a clever course of both action and inaction. Having considered all the facts, it may be said that, the belief that procrastination is a modern trouble may, to a certain extent, be true. Because self-reports of procrastination have indicated that it may be on the rise (Kachgal et al., 2001). Despite this increase, historical references have indicated that views about procrastination have been reasonably constant over the ages: It is and has long been a prevalent problem. (Steel, 2007). It is interesting that while searching classical texts we are shown the way to informative references to the natural perception of procrastination. Hesiod who is known to be one of the first recorded Ancient Greek poets and who is known to have written around 800 B.C., provides one of the earliest possible citations. Regarding procrastination he says: “Do not put your work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not fill his barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man who puts off work is always at hand-grips with ruin. (Works and Days, l.413)” Considering this consistency of belief, extending to a time about three thousand years ago, we are forced to regard procrastination as a typical human weakness. Hence, the fact that procrastination was not dealt with by scientists sooner is somewhat surprising and paradoxical. Again in about 450 B.C., Thucydides, who lived between c.460-400 B.C. also remarked about procrastination. He was an Athenian general writing much on the Athenian war with the Spartans, including various aspects of personalities and strategies, Thucydides was also a historian and he considered procrastination to be the most criticized of character qualities. To him procrastination was useful only in delaying the commencement of war so as to allow preparations that speeded its conclusion to be made. (Histoires, 1.84.1). Going back to year of 44 BC, we see Marcus Tullius Cicero as the consul whose position was the highest political office of Rome and as a very well-known spokesman who spoke against several political antagonists, such as Marcus Antonius, who later had him murdered. In one of a series of speeches criticizing Marcus Antonius, Cicero declared: "In the conduct of almost every affair slowness and procrastination are hateful" (Philippics, 6.7). Roman Emperor Marcus Annius Verus Antonius Aurelius, who reigned in 161-180 A.D. and who was a Stoic philosopher, commented on procrastination saying: "Think of all the years passed by in which you said to yourself "I'll do it tomorrow," and how the gods have again and again granted you periods of grace of which you have not availed yourself. It is time to realize that you are a member of the Universe, that you are born of Nature itself, and to know that a limit has been set to your time. Use every moment wisely, to perceive your inner refulgence, or 'twill be gone and nevermore within your reach."(Meditations,2.4). The English novelist John Lyly, who was supported by Queen Elizabeth I and who was well-known for his work titled Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, a book that relied heavily on proverbs for its content and which he wrote in 1579 (as cited in Gales' quotations, 1995), wrote in that work "Delays breed dangers; nothing is so perilous as procrastination"(p.513), a comment proving that procrastination was considered to be an illness in those days. 129 �Starting from the industrial revolution, The famous English Writer Samuel Johnson (1751) described procrastination as "one of the general weaknesses, which, in spite of the instruction of moralists, and the remonstrances of reason, prevail to a greater or less degree in every mind." A contemporary of Johnson, Phillip Stanhope (1749/1968), Earl of Chesterfield, advised, "No idleness, no laziness, no procrastination; never put off till tomorrow what you can do today." (Steel, 2007). Why Do We Procrastinate? The question Why We Procrastinate is a so frequently asked. Although the answers vary greatly, some excuses included in the answers appear to be expressed more often than can be imagined. Numerous reasons may be listed to describe the excuses for procrastination. Some major ones have been proposed by various researchers. The grouping below made by Timothy Quek (2009) seems to be worth quoting : 4.1. Disorganization It is a commonly accepted truth that procrastination and disorganization are fundamentally associated. Yet not all disorganization should be admitted to be the same. In fact, procrastination-oriented disorganization occurs in four primary areas. 4.1.1. A poor distinction between urgency and priority. In the beginning of the urgency-priority phase, procrastinators tend to concentrate on "comfort" tasks that are most convenient, interesting, or within reach. Here, it is apparent that priority is sacrificed for convenience. As these tasks are being focused to, however, other tasks begin to pile up, and soon an excess of tasks come very badly to need being given attention. An untidy heap of new and old tasks becomes marked as urgent, and the procrastinator is obliged to drop current tasks to attend to the urgent ones. In a sense, what is urgent has become priority. This disorder goes on as tasks divide into three categories which become badly in need of attention and which are increasingly difficult to distinguish, that is to say, priority/urgent; priority/non-urgent; nonpriority/urgent. In the meantime, the charm of the non-urgent, non-priority comfort tasks still attracts the procrastinator to do them. What comes out as the result is that the procrastinator becomes subject to the domination of the urgent, he becomes unable to set up appropriate priorities, and constantly seeks reprieve from these stresses by attending to tasks that are neither urgent nor priority! 4.1.2. Distractibility. The problem of distractibility is closely associated with the tendency of procrastinators to attend to comfort tasks. It is not surprising to find procrastinators explaining that a task is left unattended to because "something else came up". Setting better emotional boundaries (e.g., saying "No" to yourself) in order to stay on task usually helps to limit attention to the multitude of off-task behaviours that we know as distractions. 4.1.3. Forgetfulness. Unfortunately, no amount of prioritizing or boundary drawing can prevail over disorganized forgetfulness. Characteristically, procrastinators assume that they have an exceptional memory and they often claim that they remember even though they appear to have forgotten ("Of course, I remember. I was just about to do it"). They fill up their pockets and purses with many slips of "reminder" paper, and they usually seem to be using more than one appointment book or none at all (both practices have the same effect). A step in the right direction is to acknowledge a problem with forgetfulness, although it must never be used as an excuse for inaction. 4.1.4. Lumping. Finally, a major part of procrastination- oriented disorganization comes in the form of "lumping" or "chunking", that is, the errant perception that most tasks come as an inseparable whole (a "lump") that cannot be subdivided and dealt with systematically. The harried teenager who thinks of "cleaning my room" as a massive single-lump task would likely procrastinate over cleaning his room. 130 �4.2. Fear Many researchers believe that one of the major causes of procrastination is fear. Fear-induced procrastination generally expresses itself as avoidance and the intense desire to either delay performing a task or wait for its expiration so that it no longer has to be dealt with. Most of the time, one task is related to another, and the cluster of avoided tasks grows over time. As outstanding tasks mount, the procrastinator becomes resigned, depressed and inactive. The internal struggles of fear-motivated procrastination are usually of two types: the rational versus the irrational ("I know that I should, so why can't I just do it") and discipline vs. discomfort ("I planned to do it, but when the time came, I just didn't feel like it."). Attempts at resolving these conflicts must start at the level of dealing with the fear rather than with logic or greater discipline. 4.3. Perfectionism Almost all researchers accept perfectionism as the first and greatest of all reasons for procrastination among the academicians. Most procrastinators do not think of themselves as perfectionists. "If I'm a perfectionist, I would get things done," they say. Not necessarily. In fact, perfectionism can lead to "starts and spurts" performance, meaning that an individual goes on a cleaning spree, or attacks a task with great energy and then falls back in exhaustion after having exasperated, irritated, or alienated everyone around. Perfectionism has also been found to be strongly related to depression and an extremely critical spirit (either self or other critical).What is perfectionism, then? Perfectionism is a form of rigidity or inflexibility that is marked by three major characteristics: (i) The intense desire to jump in and do things yourself because others just can't do it right; (ii) the insistent attitude that you wouldn't even start on something if you can't do it well; and (iii) the profound need for closure, indicated by agitation or discomfort should something be left "hanging". Procrastination may also be an indicator of a more serious physical or psychological problem that would respond positively to treatment. Often, such procrastination is not observed by the one procrastinating, but by others close to that person. Extreme anxiety, severe clinical depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity, and illnesses that are related to memory loss are examples of such dysfunctions that may lead to procrastination. Each of these characteristics "forces or drives" the perfectionist to procrastinate. For perfectionist procrastinators, the first step in dealing with procrastination is acknowledging and disliking the three basic tendencies mentioned under perfectionism. Then practical solutions can be applied systematically. Types of Procrastination Considering what currently available data obtained through research conducted so far have proved, procrastination may be classified as chronic procrastination and non-chronic procrastination or temporary procrastination. Various forms of chronic procrastination have been proposed by some researchers. In general, researchers usually grouped procrastination under three titles each of which has its own set of characteristics (Ferrari et al., 1995). They are commonly known as: a) arousal procrastination, also known as thrill-seeking, where individuals wait until close to the deadline in order to promote a thrill seeking experience, and b) avoidant procrastination, also known as fear of failure, where individuals wait to complete a task in order to reduce potential disclosure of personal inabilities. c) decisional procrastination, also known as indecision, where individuals are indecisive as to whether to do the work or when to do it (Díaz-Morales & Ferrari, 2007). One specific form of procrastination occurs when a student experiences psychological distress from the postponement of school-related tasks (e.g. writing a paper, studying for an exam; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984, 1988). According to Rothblum and her colleagues, academic procrastination has been reported in a significant proportion of students tested, with up to 40% experiencing excessive levels. In addition, academic procrastination appears to be related to test anxiety, to various other symptomatology related to anxiety, and to external attributions of academic success (Rothblum, Solomon & Murakami, 1986). Depression, lack of assertion (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984), indecision, and low self-esteem (Beswick, Rothblum & Mann, 1988) have also been associated with academic procrastination. 131 �Effects of Procrastination Procrastination has a way of ruling our lives if we do not bring it under control. It may lead to extreme laziness if it is not dealt with at early stages. To be more precise, procrastination ends in laziness if it is not controlled. There are many different tests used today to measure academic procrastination. Among them are the questionnaire developed by Van Eerde (2003) which has nine questions for each of the five categories for a total of 45 questions and the test, developed by Solomon and Rothblum (1984) as cited by Onwuegbuzie (2004) called the PASS (the procrastination Assessment Scale-Students) which has six different categories, but with academic questions instead of personal ones. "Stemming from an intricate interplay of psychological variables, in its chronic form, procrastination may become maladaptive and eventually result in psychological dysfunction (Ferrari et al., 1995). Solving the Problem of Procrastination Based on her view that irrational fears form the basis of academic procrastination, Rothblum (1990) has suggested that behavioral treatment techniques be applied to treat academic procrastination such as those used in the treatment of phobias. Various ways of overcoming the problem of procrastination are recommended by many researchers (Díaz-Morales, J.F., & Ferrari, J. R., 2007; Johnson, J. L. & Bloom, A. M., 1995; Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J., 2001). For instance, choosing to do one task while temporarily putting another on hold is simply setting priorities, which allow people to cross things off their to-do lists one at a time. It is also suggested that the steps below be followed and attempts be made to overcome or at least to minimize the problem of procrastination (Timothy Quek, 2009) (a) Determine what you are afraid of In fear-motivated procrastination, it is necessary to identify the fear to begin with. For example, a person trying to find a job over an extended period of time may have developed a fear of being rejected...yet again. A high school student drags her feet in completing her class project because of a fear of obtaining another failing grade. Another example may be that an accounts analyst finds it an unpleasant task to complete even one assignment towards his certification exam because of his fear of the material itself. This last example may in fact have to do with his lack of ability in his chosen field! Briefly, both the fear and the sources of that fear must be confronted before the behaviours expressed by procrastination can be addressed. Often, a trained counsellor would be able to help in identifying the sources of fear and their effects on self-esteem, then provide some direction in dealing with these problems. (b) Get yourself an appointment book. And please...don't go overboard with this idea. Procrastinators often start ambitiously. (Remember the problem of "lumping"?) They run out and buy the most expensive bells-and-whistles appointment book, invest in an elaborate electronic daytimer, or photocopy reams of get-your-life-together organizers readily available on the market. You hear the reasoning, "Hey, if it's gotta be done, it's gotta be done right!" (Do you hear the perfectionist?) Eventually, the massive effort comes to an anticlimactic halt when they "run out of steam", and discouragement sets them three steps back after having dashed two steps forward. It is far wiser to purchase a simple appointment book, preferably one that is about the size of a small paperback that has a one week spread when the book is opened. Appointment books help to address the problems of disorganization and even poor memory. (i) First, learn to use it every day: Write down things you are going to do or that you have already done. Look ahead into the next week, if you like, but don't plan your life for the next year. To help you use the book more, write in important telephone numbers and addresses as you acquire them. Carry it around with you all day. Make its presence with you a habit. (ii) Second, learn how to plan ahead realistically: Break down tasks into tangible stage goals, and provide these goals with appropriate deadlines. Then write these deadlines into your appointment book. (iii) Third, provide yourself with daily "to do" lists that you write into your book: Even small, easy-to-do or habitual items could be added to the list. Check the items off as you go along. The point is to register accomplishment tangibly as you move through the day. (c) Dechunk Breaking a task down into manageable chunks ("dechunking") usually removes the threat of having to do a large task all at once. Sometimes, a task may be underestimated as costing very little energy and time when it really takes up a good chunk of your energies. Learn to break tasks down to 15 minute chunks to begin with. As you get more practised at it, increase the size of your chunks. It would be very helpful to use your appointment book to plan your dechunking. 132 �(d) Break Free Procrastination has a way of ruling our lives if we do not bring it under control. Many resigned procrastinators simply confess, "I'm just lazy" and hope that the explanation suffices. Not for a long time..Laziness is procrastination out of control. It takes a great deal of wisdom and effort to break the clutches of procrastination, but the results are often worth the while. Conclusion The rate of procrastination in society, especially among the university students and academicians, is high Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). This could obstruct the promotion of intellectual excellence in the academic environment. It therefore becomes necessary for the academicians to evolve effective management of their time through proper time scheduling, avoidance of procrastination and reduction of time wasters.Future research should re-examine existing evidence on correlates of procrastination in light of Council's (1993; Council et al., 1996) work on context effects. The present study reported a significant relationship between procrastination and irrational thinking when context was controlled; it is important to determine if other relationships will hold with similar controls for context. Considering the study conducted by Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M. (1997), subscale problem avoidance is seen as a key factor related to academic procrastination. Counselors’ efforts at reducing procrastination have focused on improving students’ study habits and teaching them time management skills (Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D., 1984). However, research has proved procrastination not to be merely a deficit of time organization and study skills, but it involves a complex interaction of psychological variables. Rothblum (1990) has suggested applying behavioral treatment methods in like in the treatment of phobias. The approach that psycological treatment technique be applied should be made use of not only by the therapists and counselors but also by teachers of such disciplines as language teaching as well mathematics and sience where procrastination greatly affects academic performance (Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M., 1997). This point has significant value considering the fact that procrastinatin is becoming more frequent among graduate students and academicians. References : Beswick, G., & Mann, L. (1994). State orientation and procrastination. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 391-396). Gottingen, Germany: Hogrefe & Huber. Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M. (1997). Academic procrastination and irrational thinking: A context controlled. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 941-944. re-examination with Díaz-Morales, J.F., & Ferrari, J. R. (2007). Procrastination: Different time orientations reflect different motives. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 707–714. Ferrari, J. R., Johnson, J. L., & McCown, W. G. (1995). Procrastination and task avoidance: Theory, research, and treatment. New York: Plenum Press. Flexner, S.B.(Ed).(1987). Random House Dictionary. New York: Random House Inc. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125—132. Yonge, C. D., Clark, A. (2009) M. Tullius Cicero, Orations: Three orations on the Agrarian law, the four against Catiline, the orations for Rabirius, Murena, Sylla, Archias, Flaccus, Scaurus, etc.; Editions and translations: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Texts.html Johnson, J. L. & Bloom, A. M. (1995). An analysis of the contribution of the five factors of personality to variance in academic procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 127-133. Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). Academic procrastination prevention/intervention: Strategies and recommendations. Journal of Developmental Education, 25, 14-24. McClure, J. B., (2007). Pearls from Many Seas; London; Read Books 133 �Milgram, N. A., Gehrman, T., & Keinan, G. (1992). Procrastination and emotional upset: A typological model. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1307-1313. Rothblum, E. D. (1990). Fear of failure: The psychodynamic, need achievement, fear of success, and procrastination models. Silver, M., & Sabini, J. (1981). Procrastinating. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 11, 207-221. Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal ofCounseling Psychology, 31, 503-509. Stanhope, P. D. (1968). Bartlett's familiar quotations (14th ed.). Boston: Little, Brown. (Original work published 1749) Steel, P., (2007). The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review of Quintessential Self-Regulatory Failure Psychological Bulletin 133, 65-94. Timothy Quek (2009) The Problem of http://webhome.idirect.com/~readon/procrast.html Procrastination. Retrieved Feb. 01, 2009 from 134 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 663 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation into the Nature of Academic Procrastination Author Author KONCA, M. Yavuz Semiz, Öznur Abstract A summary of the resource. Academic procrastination is the voluntary delay of the completion of an academic task within the expected or desired time frame despite expecting to be worse off for the delay (Senécal et al. 1995; Steel 2007) . It is a dispositional trait that can have particularly serious consequences for students who are required to meet frequent deadlines. Research claims that 80%–95% of college students engage in procrastination (Ellis and Knaus 1977) and about 50% procrastinate in a consistent and problematic fashion (Day et al. 2000), delaying essential school-related activities. Some of the major causes of academic procrastination include fear of failure, inability to complete the task, a lack of time management or study skills, stress, or feeling overwhelmed with their work. This paper discusses the reasons why academic procrastination is a problem, why students procrastinate, and techniques for managing it. Implications for teachers will also be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/26852fe54245380689f9aee232d5513b.pdf 8e56d887f2a26e2db88c5811359a2d1e PDF Text Text Effective Classroom Management in Relation to Classroom Routines and Rules M. Yavuz KONCA Ataturk University Kâzim Karabekir Education Faculty English Teaching Department Erzurum, Turkey ykonca@hotmail.com Rabiye OTUGEN Ataturk University Kâzim Karabekir Education Faculty English Teaching Department Erzurum, Turkey r.kitap@hotmail.com Abstract: Much research has looked at the effect of classroom management on the quality of teaching and learning activity, and set up principles of effective classroom management. However, how to put these principles into practice in a typical classroom is still a question to be answered in the minds of new teachers in profession and most of those already in the field of education. This paper which reinforces the findings and suggestions from many previous works, not only presents findings from these studies, but also includes some recommendations about how to put them into practice. Using a simple table, it organizes the mostly-known principles into usable, concise formats. Four topics are considered: (1) the need for forming rules and establishing routines in a classroom; (2) the relationship between routines and classroom management; (3) the basic principles of establishing routines in relation to classroom participation and discipline; (4) the practical ways of putting wellknown rules into practice. Introduction Classroom Management which is said to be a primary concern of teachers ever since there have been teachers in classrooms, and known to be of great importance to both new teachers in profession and those already in the field of education, is described as “the orchestration of classroom life” including planning, organizing, arranging the environment for optimum efficiency, monitoring student problems, and anticipating potential problems (Heimlich, 1988); or, as the actions teachers take to create an environment that supports and facilitates both academic and social emotional learning ( Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). However, few problems associated with teaching receive more attention than classroom management and discipline (Doyle). Classroom Management is a topic of enduring concern for teachers, administrators and the public. It consistently ranks as the first or second most serious educational problem in the eyes of general public, and beginning teachers consistently rank it as their most pressing concern during their early teaching years (Handbook of Classroom Management). The first reason why classroom management receives so much attention and ranks as a problem is considered to be the preservice programs which do not adequately stress the requisite concepts and skills needed for helping prospective teachers prevent and deal with the discipline problems. Some trainers still feel that their training leaves them underprepared for the daily realities of managing and maintaining a good standard of pupil behavior in the classroom (Jones, 2006). Secondly, classroom management is needed for the efficiency that teachers must have. If the teacher is ineffective, students under that teacher’s tutelage will achieve inadequate progress academically, regardless of how similar or different they are regarding their academic achievement (Wright, S. Paul et al., 1997). However, Good and Brophy (1984), in their investigation of teachers basic skills and efficiency, found that many teachers felt their worth as a teacher was directly related to their success of implementation of management skills. Thirdly, and, most importantly, effective classroom management should be a priority simply because effective 6 �teaching and learning can take place in a well- managed classroom. Brophy and Evertson (1976) concluded that almost all surveys of teacher effectiveness report that classroom management skills are of primary importance in determining teaching success. Because, if teachers cannot control their own classroom situation, they cannot effectively teach (Watson, Scott, et al., 2007). How to Accomplish Effective Classroom Management Despite the generally recognized importance of classroom management, it has remained a murky area of conflicting ideas and vague rules. Teachers regularly complain that they receive little practical help in facing the realities of teaching (Doyle). The reason lies in the fact that each class and each teacher is unique. Teachers have different personalities and philosophies; different objectives and strategies of teaching, as well as their students who also have different goals and personalities. Therefore, it is possible to talk about different methods for achieving effective classroom management. However, the answer to the question “Which method is the most effective one?” is, also, not clear. Teachers who are unique need to realize that they are the ones who are responsible for, choosing and applying, or, even, creating the best method for their unique class in order to achieve classroom management. Though there is not a certain way that leads teachers to effective classroom management, studies suggest the following principle to get it: create a positive working atmosphere, which is far from misbehaviors partly because students actively engage in learning activity, which make them feel special and give them a sense of achievement; and partly because a set of classroom rules, the consequences of which are also compiled by students themselves. Thus, there are two priorities to achieve classroom management: (1) minimized discipline problems and misbehaviors; (2) maximized students’ participation. Teachers can handle most misbehavior with the use of eye-contact, voice, facial expressions, and other body language, but it is recognized that the key to success is not how you deal with misbehavior but rather how you prevent misbehavior occurring to start with. A crucial aspect of pre-empting misbehavior is establishing clear rules and expectations in regard to classroom behavior. The work of forming rules may sound inappropriate and authoritarian, especially to those who always prefer to put “tolerance” at the top of their principles, but setting some rules clearly and consistently is almost “a must” to be able to function effectively in the classroom. Because, if there are no apparent rules and procedures that guide behavior, chaos becomes the norm. In these situations, both teachers and students suffer (Maranon, Robert J., et al., 2003). In order to ensure that classroom activities do not lead chaos and conflict, a number of rules and procedures need to be adopted. However, effective teaching is greatly facilitated if classroom rules are laid down and enforced. As Woolfolk-Hoy and Weinstein (2006) summarized in the Handbook of Classroom Management, the majority of teachers who tends to a “traditional” or “custodial” orientation to classroom management believe in strict adherence to rules, and the ones who tend to a “liberal progressive” or “humanistic” orientation to classroom management believe in democratic principles and the importance of self-discipline. What one can conclude from this study is that whatever the teachers with different kinds of orientations believe in, there is something mostly accepted: the need for using some principles to achieve discipline in classrooms. Generally, teachers seem to prefer neutral or positive/supportive interventions over negative / punitive actions, but control oriented strategies, such as reminders of rules of behavior, threats to punish, and actual punishment, are seen as appropriate for hostile, aggressive, disruptive, and defiant students( Brophy& McCaslin, 1992 ). However, almost all discussions of misbehavior make reference to the qualities of effective teaching which sustain pupils’ engagement in the learning activities in hand and it is the teacher’s ability to keep pupils engaged in the learning experience which is of fundamental importance for maintaining discipline (Chris Kyriacou). To a large extent, ‘participation’ which is, also, considered by both female and male students to be one of the factors related to effective learning and to result in more positive views of learning experience (Sadker&Sadker, 1994), can be maximized by the effective use of participation and evaluation sheets which can be as simple or as complex as teachers desire. Doyle noted that if students have the impression that work will not be graded or that any answer is acceptable, then involvement is low unless the activity is exceptionally interesting. Essentials of Establishing Classroom Rules Establishing the rules as early as possible is crucial. Studies have shown that experienced teachers are very clear about the classroom rules they expect to be followed when they first meet their new classes at the start of the academic year (Wragg, 1993; Wragg&Wood, 1984). Also, in an interview-based research (Jan van Tartwijk, et al., 2008) involving authoritative, tolerant-authoritative and directive teachers, it was concluded that almost all teachers 7 �emphasized the importance setting rules, especially at the start of the lesson; sticking to their own rules; being clear about rules and procedures in the classroom; making students follow these rules, as a condition for creating an orderly working climate. This research not only shows how teachers of different styles are agreed on the importance of classroom rules, but also, partly, answers the question asked above, because it emphasizes some essentials such as clarity, continuity, and consistency. The following highlights the basic characteristics of best classroom rules and how to put them into practice. A Model Putting Principles Into Practice In attempting to answer the question above, this study presents a model based on the principles confirmed by researches and suggested by experienced teachers. At the top of the model which was developed with support from an English teacher with 25-year experience, H.Ozkan, there is a classroom contract which is rearranged at the every beginning of every school year, which is called to be a critical time for achieving order in classrooms. As it was concluded in the studies of Evertson & Emmer (1982), and Sanford & Evertson (1981), early attention to classroom management at the beginning of the school year is a critical ingredient of a well-run classroom. “It is time when basic rules and procedures are established. Moreover, the teacher’s ability to manage activities is on display for the first time. Successes or failures at this stage have consequences for the rest of the year.” says Doyle . Such a contract works, especially, for building a mutual respect between teacher and pupils, the importance of which cannot be overestimated. Because, generally speaking, the most effective classroom appear to be there in which atmosphere is task oriented, but at the same time the social and emotional needs of the pupils are met by establishing mutual respect and rapport. (The Book of Essentials of Teaching) CLASSROOM CONTRACT Date:………………….. Class:…………………. This contract has been arranged by the teachers and students of …………School in order to provide an effective learning and teaching environment with mutual respect. The contract is rearranged at the every beginning of every school year, and it is signed by the teachers and students after reading the rules one by one. Then, it becomes valid throught the school year. …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… The students, teachers and parents signed the contract accept, also, to pay the consequences agreed in case the rules are disobeyed. Student ……………… Teacher ……………….... Table 1. Sample Classroom Contract A classroom contract is, also, expected by students who know that it is arranged to maximize their success and minimize confusion in which they cannot learn well. In Marsh et al.’s study (1978), pupils put the teachers whose discipline is weak among the factors that ‘provoke’ them misbehave. Doyle noted that students expect their teachers to be able to keep order and admire those who manage classrooms well. According to Chris Kyriacou, pupils are very sensitive to the teacher’s ability to establish such rules, and will often test out how a teacher will cope with an infringement in order to clarify the rules and how they will be operated. In the model mentioned above, the set of rules which forms the contract is compiled following the general principles suggested by the studies of effective classroom management. First of all, considering his/her educational philosophy and how can it be expressed through the rules, or, gathering sample rules that have worked for other teachers, the teacher compiles a list of classroom rules which should be routinized in time. “To establish an atmosphere of mutual respect, it is a good idea to provide your students with a description of the kind of the 8 �classroom environment you’d like to have”, suggests Dr.Cynthia Anderson. This description (or set of guidelines) should use a positive tone to inform your students about not only what you expect from them, but what you promise to do yourself. In addition, to increase the effectiveness, it should be firm, build mutual respect, emphasize the positive, be consistent, and avoid idle threats. On the first day of the school year, students are informed about the necessity of a classroom contract to make the classroom safe and to create a positive atmosphere that facilitates their learning. Then, as a beginning-of–year activity, the copied rules the teacher listed are discussed and rearranged. Students are involved in making up the rules with the teacher’s guidance. As a mostly-known fact, the more the class are involved in making up the rules, the more these rules and their consequences are obeyed, because of the feeling of responsibility for the actions. Throughout the process, using negatives and dictating rules without explanations are avoided, the rationales behind the rules are certainly explained. After making up the rules, the contract is signed by both the class and the teacher. Two copies of it are handed to each student. The first must be kept in their files and the other must be signed by parents and returned to the teacher to be kept. If the parents are informed of the rules their child must obey, then the teacher won’t experience much difficulty when he/she is confronted with the misbehavior of the student. The signed contract, also, puts the teacher in a good place in the eyes of parents, because a teacher with effective management skills is always desired and admired by parents. However, forming a classroom contract is just the beginning to accomplish effective classroom management. The efficiency and functionality of a classroom contract depend mostly on the teacher’s ability to apply it and two essentials to be kept in mind: ‘consistency’ and ‘continuity’. The first one, ‘consistency’, requires the teacher to deal with a misbehaving student in a very similar manner as he/she did another student. Its effect can be explained as follows: if teachers are consistent with the way they handle uncivil or inappropriate behavior in their classrooms, and if they set good examples themselves, they will find that their students will begin to follow the guidelines they have set, and may even help them to enforce the rules. The second, ‘continuity’ helps the classroom activities and rules become routines. Teachers who establish routines in their classes feel at ease, and have extra time for constructive teaching. Since events happen fast in classrooms, and, during a limited class period immediate and unpredictable events or interruptions can frequently take place, teachers are always in need of establishing routines to be able to act fast and avoid wasting time. Renee Rosenblum, calls children as ‘creatures of habit’ and stresses the need for routines, “School children work beautifully when they know what is expected of them… Homework, classroom chores, and certain structured lessons can easily be routinized. You will find that routines will provide you extra time for constructive teaching instead of spending time giving unnecessary explanations.” In addition to their positive effect on reducing confusion in classrooms, routines have also such an effect on students’ participation that the more the routines are established in a classroom, the higher the involvement is, because students are aware of procedures and their sequence, in other words, they are familiar with the classroom activities. In the system mentioned above, many activities are routinized through the rules provided in classroom contract, and their consequences are recorded on a table. Table 2, is a sample including main classroom activities to be routinized in a typical classroom. However, it should be kept in mind that the use of the table is very practical, but will need to be adopted for the age groups that teachers are teaching and/or the classroom environment in which teaching takes place. In other words, the success of the table depends on the teacher’s ability to use it effectively. MONTHLY GRADING FORM MONTH………………. No Name& Surname 1 2 3 4 5 A: Activity A3: File A1 A2 LEVEL………………………… A3 A4 A5 1 2 3 A1: Quizes and Projects A4: Participation Average General Exams 1 2 3 FINAL GRADE A2: Notebook A5: Discipline 9 �Table 2. Monthly Grading Form According to table 2, there are five main activities that can be routinized in a classroom: quizzes and projects, notebook, file, participation, discipline. Of course, teachers can change its content as they desire. However, general exams are out of “routinized” activities although they are included in the table. The reason is that they are added directly to the general average, not to the average of other activities. To function, the table also requires some sub-tables for each activity on it - different sheets for participation, homework, quizzes, etc. During each 4-week period, each student’s activities are graded by the teacher as it is agreed in the classroom contract, and they are recorded on those sub-tables or sheets. At the end of the period, the average of each activity is calculated one by one for each student and is recorded on the monthly grading form above. Though the content of the sub-tables can differ from teacher to teacher, they mainly work for achieving the same goal: keeping good records of pupils’ progress in order to provide a useful basis for (1) feedback to pupils about their progress, which is of immense importance in contributing to motivation and further progress, and (2) report on pupils’ progress on a regular basis to parents, both in the form of written reports and during meetings with them. File Grading Sheet No Name& Surname Date C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Final Grade 1 2 3 4 C: criterion C3: Quiz Sheets C1: Cover and Design C4: Correction Pages C2: Handouts C5: Signatures Table 3. Sample Sub-table: File Grading Sheet The following are some of the rules for each routinized activity, which are required by the mentioned management system. However, what is crucial here is that the rules should be modified by teachers who know the best for their students. Exams & Quizzes Students whose parents call the teacher and tell the excuse, has a right to take the exam or quiz which wasn’t taken on scheduled time. Students failed in a quiz have the same right that the students mentioned above have. But the mark they got for the first quiz is also recorded and valid. Quiz sheets are signed by parents and kept by students in their files, just after the handouts to which they are related. All students who couldn’t get full point in a given quiz prepare a “Correction Page” on which they write the right answers of the wrongly answered or not answered questions on their sheets. Correction pages are also kept in the files. At the end of the month, while grading the files, the teacher records -2 points for each correction page which is not prepared and kept in the file, or not prepared according to the rules of the agreement. ………………. Homework 10 �Homework is mostly given daily and involves about 30 minutes of work at home. The teacher checks the homework everyday regularly and records if it is done or not. The parents whose child hasn’t done his/ her homework 3 times are informed by the teacher. Homework must be free of errors as much as possible and should be written clearly to be accepted as a full one. Each homework that isn’t done, makes the student lose 2 points out of his/her monthly grade of homework. The student who didn’t do the homework given the day before is responsible for the same homework for the next day. The student who gets -2 points for not doing the homework on scheduled time, gets another -2 points if it is not done the next day. However, if it is done, the -2 points recorded the day before remains. …………………. Files Handouts are kept in files clearly and orderly. Students write their names and surnames on each handout to make the teacher sure that no student uses the other one’s handouts at the time of grading. Students are free to make some extra covers for the topics in their files. While grading files, the following are taken into consideration: Does it have a sticker on it? Is the student’s name written on each handout? Are there any missing handouts, quiz sheets, or correction pages? What about the design of the sheets inside? (Their orders etc.) Does each quiz sheet have the signature of the parent? …………….. Discipline and Participation At the beginning of every lesson, “Classroom Discipline” is written on the right side of the board. During the class period, the student whose name is written under the title of “ Classroom Discipline” gets -2 points because of misbehaving ( misbehaviors are provided in the classroom contract), missing materials such as notebook and files, not being able to answer the question that has been answered 3 times before , and so on. During each 4-week period, each student has a right to get ten “pluses”, each of which is 10 points, and the total of which is 100 points, to be recorded as the grade of participation on the monthly grading form. Each answer to each question is graded out of 10 points by the teacher according to the degree of correctness (The more the students participate and give correct answers, the higher marks of participation they get) ………………….. At the end of each month, the teacher prepares the monthly grading form according to the sub-tables. One or two class period is spent by evaluating the grades on this form. However, how the process of evaluation is also crucial. If the teacher wants to use it as an effective tool for achieving effective classroom management, it must be done in such an atmosphere that all members of the class must consider it as a breathtaking moment. The process is as follows: The student whose name is announced comes to the board and the teacher reads his/her monthly grades for each activity- except that of discipline. The student writes his/her grades one by one on the board. At the same time, another student sitting at his/her table calculates the average with the help of a calculator. It is better if the teacher calculates them before coming to the classroom to be sure the correctness of it and not to waste time. Then, the result is written on the board and after that the critical time comes. Because, it is time to announce the mark under the title of “Classroom Discipline” that shows to what extent the student obeyed the classroom discipline rules 11 �throughout the month. It is important because it makes the student lose or gain some points out of his/her monthly average. It is possible that a student with high marks of homework, participation, and even quizzes can have a low mark as monthly average because of his/her misbehaviors called as “discipline”, and vice versa. By this way, the teacher emphasizes the importance of obeying classroom discipline rules and gets stronger on the way of achieving effective classroom management for the next month. Next day, a list prepared by the teacher according to the final grades calculated the day before is put on the noticeboard. This list also shows the student who will become the chief of the classroom for the next month- as a rule, the student with the highest final grade is listed at the top and becomes the new chief. 12 �Monthly Report ENGLISH Date:…………….. Name and Surname:………………………. Quizzes and Projects Common Exams Homework Discipline Notebook and File Participation Average Frequency Dear …………, Above are all the grades the student received in the last 4-week period. For better grades and further progress in the next period, your contributions, supports and comments are always requested. Yours faithfully Teacher of English ……………………………… Head of English Department ……………………………………. Your Comments: ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …… Table 4. Monthly Report to Inform Parents 13 �The next step: to form a monthly report on student’s progress to be sent to the parents (Table-3). The report including all the marks the student got during the month and the teacher’s comments has also a part separated for parents’ comments and recommendations. Although many teachers complain that producing such reports is very time-consuming, in order to contribute to motivation, further progress and even the effectiveness of classroom management, writing reports that are fair, valid and meaningful to the reader works well. The key point here is that teachers need to make helpful and constructive comments. Where they need to be critical, their comments should usefully point to what needs to be done in future to improve matters (Kyriacou, 1998). Thus, teachers may have a chance to keep the parents informed of the progress or lack of progress of their child, and to arrange parent conferences to discuss what is better to do in the next month. Conclusion This study which has described a foundation for effective classroom management, has supported the following notion: “At all public school grade levels, effective classroom management has been recognized as a crucial element in effective teaching. In addition, poor management wastes class time, reduces student’s time on task and detracts from the quality of the learning environment.”(Emmer, Edmund, et al. 1982) Throughout the study, an attempt has been made to explain the relationship between classroom rules and effective classroom management. It has been emphasized that establishing ‘routinized’ classroom rules is an essential aspect of the effective classroom management. In addition, essentials of setting classroom rules and putting them into practice are highlighted. In the light of principles confirmed by researches and suggested by experienced teachers, a practical way of achieving classroom management is described with a model-based approach. The model which was presented wanted to answer the question: How can classroom rules be established and routinized in order to achieve effective classroom management? It has been concluded that a well-prepared classroom contract with the rules which are firm, consistent, emphasizing positive and established at the start of the academic year with the involvement of students, can be used as a tool to create a positive working atmosphere in classrooms, and build a mutual respect between the teachers and students, both of which are considered to be priorities to accomplish a well management in classrooms. However, the importance of creating routines- standard procedures for putting names on papers, seeking teacher assistance, and handling in papers, for example-was explained, and it was noted that such a kind of work provides more involvement of students, and reduces confusion in classrooms, because of the familiarity of the activities. As the basic tools for establishing routines, evaluation sheets were considered and how to use them effectively were exemplified with tables of rules, which can freely be modified by teachers according to the environment of their classes. The comprehensiveness and orderly presentation of this work which can be considered as a guide to effective classroom management achieved by establishing routines in relation to participation, discipline and even homework will be helpful to educators, and its easy-to-practice principles will help, especially, new teachers to develop their own classroom management skills. References Evertson, Carolyn M., &Emmer, Edmund T.(1982).Effective Management at the Beginning of the School Year in Junior High Classes. Journal of Education Psychology 74 (4): 485-498 Jones, Vernon.(1996).Classroom Management.Handbook of Reseach on Teacher Education. 2nd edition, ed.John Sikula. York: Simon and Shuster. New Marzano, Robert J., Marzano, Jana S.&Pickering, Debra J. (2003). Classroom Management that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Every Teacher.Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tucker,L., Plax, T.G., &Kearney, P.(1985).Prospective Teachers’ Use of Behaviour Alternative Techniques. Paper presented at the communication theory and research interest group of the Western Speech Communication Association Conference, Fresno, CA. Doyle, Walter.(1985).Recent Research on Classroom Management.Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 36, No. 3, 31-35 14 �Watson, Scott, Goodwin Michelle,&Ackerman Beth.(2007).Improving Instruction for Teacher Candidates in Classroom Management and Discipline Issues.Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA 24504. AACTE February 2007 Jones, Vernan F., &Jones, Louise S.Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Positive Learning Environments. Crombie, Gail, Pyke, Sandra W.,Silverthorn, Nadia, Jones, Alison,& Piccinin Sergio.(2003).Students Perceptions of Their Classroom Participation and Instructor as a Function of Gender and Context.Journal of Higher Education, Vol.74, No.1 (Jan.Feb., 2003). Published by: Ohio State University Press Van Tartwijk, J., den Brok, P., Veldman, L., and Wubbbels.T.(2009).Teachers’ Practical Knowledge about Classroom Management in Multicultural Classrooms. Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education , 25 (2009) 453-460 Rosenblum, Renee.You have to go to school …You are the teacher: Corwin Press, Inc. A Sage Hayden, Kellie (2008).Top Five Classroom Management Strategies: Article published on Oct 3, 2008 Doyle, Walter.Classroom Management. Institution Kappa Delta.West Lafayette, Ind. Pub date 80 Jones, (2006).Teacher Development Agency.(2007) Kyriacou, Chris, (1997) .Effective Teaching in Schools- Theory and Practice, second edition. Kyriacou, Chris, (1998) .Effective Teaching Skills, second edition. Scott, Wendy A. & Ytreberg, Lisbeth H. Teaching English to Children.Longman Keys to Language Teaching .(1990). 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 312 Title A name given to the resource Effective Classroom Management in Relation to Classroom Routines and Rules Author Author KONCA, M. Yavuz OTUGEN, Rabiye Abstract A summary of the resource. Much research has looked at the effect of classroom management on the quality of teaching and learning activity, and set up principles of effective classroom management. However, how to put these principles into practice in a typical classroom is still a question to be answered in the minds of new teachers in profession and most of those already in the field of education. This paper which reinforces the findings and suggestions from many previous works, not only presents findings from these studies, but also includes some recommendations about how to put them into practice. Using a simple table, it organizes the mostly-known principles into usable, concise formats. Four topics are considered: (1) the need for forming rules and establishing routines in a classroom; (2) the relationship between routines and classroom management; (3) the basic principles of establishing routines in relation to classroom participation and discipline; (4) the practical ways of putting wellknown rules into practice. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)