299 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2024aceb8c92cc21f922a9916e7cccbe.pdf e77af33ab52338543ce72a557c7590ac PDF Text Text Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Some Plants Grown on Serpentine Soils of Mersin, Turkey Nurcan Koleli Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey nkoleli@mersin.edu.tr Aydeniz Demir Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey aydenizdemir@mersin.edu.tr Muzeyyen Eke Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey muzeyyeneke@hotmail.com Ozlem Cakmak Cukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 01330 Adana, Turkey ocakmak@cu.edu.tr Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine hyperaccumulator species growing in Findikpinari-Mersin. The soils derived from ultrafamic rocks lead to unusual and sparse associations of flora that are tolerant to extreme environmental conditions such as high heavy metal contents. As the geological structure, Mersin-Findikpinari has rocks containing ultramafic and serpentine, but this site is one of the less studied areas. The 26 specimens of total 755 plants identified systematically from Mersin-Findikpınari in between in 1997-2002 were randomly selected and studied whether hyperaccumulator or not. Twenty six plants collected (members of 26 genera and 8 families) from different sampling locations were analyzed for their total As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn concentrations using an ICP-MS. A certified reference material (SRM 1573A, SRM 1547) was also analyzed to check the accuracy of the used extraction technique. In the present study, Mn content (548 mg kg-1) of Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae) was higher than the critical Mn value (300-500 mg kg-1) and Ni content (115 mg kg-1) Crocus graveolens Boiss&Reute (Iridiceae) was higher than the critical Ni value (10-100 mg kg-1) but unfortunately none of the plants studied was hyperaccumulator. Keywords: hyperaccumulator, Findikpinari-Mersin, serpentine, heavy metal Introduction Heavy metal contamination in soil is a global environmental and health safety issue in the world. Remediation of contaminated soils is essential for sustainable soil use. Conventional remediation technologies for soils contaminated with heavy metal cations are generally termed as ‘pump and treat’ and ‘dig and dump’ techniques (Chin, 2007). They can be divided into either in situ or ex situ remediation. The conventional technologies used for in situ and ex situ remediation are typically expensive and destructive (Prasad and Freitas, 1999). The environmental impact of such technologies can be very high. For example, soil washing methods may render the soil infertile or spread the contaminant, and excavation methods can produce high waste volumes. Additionally, these remediation methods are often limited to small areas and depend on accessibility to the contaminated site (Chin, 2007). The high cost and environmental concerns of conventional remediation technologies has fuelled the need for alternative remediation method. Phytoremediation is one of alternative remediation technologies (Chaney et al., 1997; Chin, 2007). Phytoremediation is defined as the use of green plants to remove pollutants from the environment or render them harmless (Raskin et al., 1997). The five classes of phytoremediation are outlined below. (i) Rhizofiltration, (ii) Phytostabilisation, (iii) Phytodegradation, (iv) Phytovolatilisation, (v) Phytoextraction (Chin, 2007). The phytoextraction and rhizofiltration technologies are the most useful branches for heavy metal removal from soil and water respectively. The goal of phytoextraction is to reduce heavy metal levels in the soil to acceptable levels within three to ten years (Huang and Cunningham et al., 1996). In order to achieve this goal, plants must be screened and selected for certain attributes. The ideal 499 �plant for phytoextraction would have: (i) a rapid growth rate, even under harsh conditions, (ii) a high shoot biomass (20 metric tons dry mass (DM) ha-1 yr-1) (Huang et al., 1997), and (iii) a capacity to accumulate or tolerate high amounts of metals in shoots; in the case of Pb, 10,000 mg kg-1 (1% DM) (Brooks, 1998). There are three types of metal-tolerant plants which are classified according to their tolerance and accumulation response on soils contaminated with heavy metal cations: (i) excluders - restrict metal uptake into roots except at extreme metal concentrations (ii) indicator plants - metal level accumulated in the shoot is relative to metal levels in soil and (iii) hyperaccumulators – concentrate metals in shoots, regardless of soil metal concentrations (Greger, 1999; Ghosh and Singh, 2005). Metal hyperaccumulator plants comprise species that accumulate (in mg kg1 )>10000 (Mn or Zn), >1000 (Cu, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb) or >100 (Cd) in their shoots (Baker and Brooks, 1989; Wenzel and Jokwer, 1999). Initial phytoextraction research began with hyperaccumulator plants, such as Thlapsi caerulesences and Alyssum bertoloni (Keller et al., 2003). Whilst these plants are useful for studying metal tolerance and accumulation mechanisms, their slow growth rate and small biomass may limit their application in phytoremediation (Ebbs and Kochian, 1998). This is because the total amount of metals extracted (a measure of phytoremediation potential) is the product of biomass and tissue concentration (Kayser et al., 2000). Of the over 450 plant species which have been identified as hyperaccumulators, about 75% of their have been Ni hyperaccumulators (Clemens, 2001). These hyperaccumulator plants have attracted the interest of plant and soil scientist because of their role in the development of phytoremediation technologies for the treatment of heavy metal contaminated soils, sediments and water resources (Wenzel et al., 1999; Lombi et al., 2000). For instance, some varieties of Thlaspi and ecotype of Silene vulgaris have been found to be Cd accumulators; Larrea tridendata, a desert inhabitant shrub, accumulates Cu, several wild species of Sutera accumulate Cr, and other cultivated species accumulate Cd, Cr and Cu, maize and ambrosia accumulate Pb (Gardea Torresday et al., 2004). However, researchers all over the world are searching new plant species susceptible to be used in phytoremediation (Gardea Torresday et al., 2004). First, hyperaccumulators are usually specific for one particular metal (Baker and Brooks, 1989), and are adapted to precise climate and soil conditions. Furthermore, they cannot be managed as a conventional crop, have low biomass, and often a short life cycle. Therefore it seems more reasonable to search for non hyperaccumulator plants showing good features for phytoremediation and then transfer biotechnologically traits that make the modified plant even a more powerful tool than natural hyperaccumulators. Over the last few years on heavy metal tolerance and accumulation studies, the genetic modification approach has gained significant momentum. The goal of genetic modification approach is to develop fast growing, high shoot biomass plants with the metal accumulation traits of natural small biomass hyperaccumulators: ‘engineered phytoremediators’ (Ow, 1996). The advantage of this technique is the relatively short space of time and selective targeting of genes for improvement. With genetic engineering, plants can be manipulated to accumulate, translocate and tolerate heavy metals, thus creating the ideal transgenic plant for environmental cleanup in the shortest possible time (Pilon-Smits, 2005; Bennett, 2003; Persans et al., 2001). For instance, genes can be isolated from metal hyperaccumulators and inserted into fast growing high biomass plant species (Persans et al., 2001). It has been suggested that especially phytoextraction would become commercially available if metal removal and tolerance properties of hyperaccumulator plants, such as Thlapsi caerulescens (Brown et al., 1995; Bennett, 2003) or Pteris vittata (Ma et al., 2001), could be transferred into fast growing, high biomass producing crop species. For example, most recently, Cd accumulation was enhanced when a metallothionein gene from Silene vulgaris L. was overexpressed in the high biomass Nicotiana tabacum L. (tobacco) (Gorinova et al., 2006). Ultramafic rocks exposed to heavy tectonic activities usually contain high amounts of serpatine soils in the Earth’s crust. Serpentine areas are generally characterized by high levels of heavy metals such as nickel, cobalt and chromium. The soils derived from ultrafamic rocks lead to unusual and sparse associations of flora that are tolerant of extreme environmental conditions such as high heavy metal contents. Serpentine soils, "hotspots" of metallophyte endemics are a rich source of toxic trace elements. There are serpentine soils derived from ultramafic rocks in various parts of the world. Serpentinized rocks are distributed all over the world viz., western north America; Newfoundland, Mount Albert in eastern Canada; Lizard peninsula, Wales and Scotland; north-east Cuba; Portugal; Italy; Balkan peninsula; Turkey; topical far east; Central Brazil; New Caledonia; south east Asia; Philippines; Japan; Zimbabwe; eastern Transvaal Loweveld of South Africa, New Zealand; greenstone belts of western Australia (Proctor and Woodell, 1975; Sequeira et al., 1991). Significant exposures of ultramafic rocks and soils are found in many parts of Turkey (Figure 1), although they are not such important features of the geology of the eastern and south-eastern provinces. Notable areas include the central part of the North-west (Kutahya and Balikesir provinces), the South-west between Antalya and Marmaris (Antalya and Mugla provinces), the Amanus Mountains (Hatay and Adana provinces), regions of the eastern Taurus (north and north-east of Mersin) and its extension into the Aladag massif (Nigde and Adana provinces), and numerous areas in a band running generally north-eastwards for several hundred kilometers from near Adana to near Erzincan (Figure 1). Other significant outcrops include several smaller areas near Ankara and in Canakkale province. Soils developed on serpentine rocks cover a large area in Fındıkpınarı (Mersin, Turkey) where there 500 �are a large number of mines (e.g., chromium). Little is known about heavy metal contents of the natural plants grown on Mersin-Findikpinari. Findikpinari is one of the plataeus used as a settlement place and has 1250 m altitude (Orcan et al., 2004). Research area is on the Bolkar Mountains which is an interesting place from the point of endemism (Orcan et al., 2004). The geological structure of the area is formed upper Crataceous ultramorphic and serpentine. Common soil formations distinguished in the area as follows: brown forest soils, reddish Mediterranean soils and brown calcareous soils (Orcan et al., 2004). Koleli et al., (2008) reported that the maximum concentrations of metals in 11 soil samples collected from Mersin-Findikpinari (as dry mass) were 909 mg kg-1 Cr, 3615 mg kg-1 Ni, 246 mg kg-1 Cu, 467 mg kg-1 Zn, 8.2 mg kg-1Cd and 111 mg kg-1 Pb. Koleli et al., (2008) to determine hyperaccumulator species growing in serpentine soils in Findikpinari-Mersin, total 123 plant species (members of 23 genera and 15 families) from 5 different sampling locations were collected and analyzed for their total Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn contents using an ICP-MS. The results indicate that four plants species, mainly Thlaspi elegans Boiss. and Alyssum murale Waldst.& Kit. contained Ni concentrations up to 15693 and 13591 mg kg-1 Ni dry matter, respectively. Similarly, Anthemis cretica L. and Sanicula europaea L. also contained Ni concentrations of 7741 and 4247 mg kg-1 DM, respectively. The collected 755 specimens (52 family, 149 genera and 327 species) in Mersin-Findikpinari were identified by Orcan et. al. (2004) in between 1997-2002. Orcan et al., (2004) reported that the largest family according to number of the species is Fabaceae and the largest genus is Trifolium in this area. Figure 1: Map of Turkey showing areas of ultramafic geology (in black) and of Mersin-Findikpinari (in red) (from Reeves and Adiguzel, 2004) The main objective of this study is to evaluate heavy metal accumulation ability of the different plantspecies grown on Mersin-Findikpinari. The 26 specimens from the 755 specimens collected and identified in between 1997-2002 by Orcan et. al. (2004) in Mersin-Findikpinari The plants were randomly selected to evaluate heavy metal accumulation capacity.. Material and Methods The shoots of identified plants were oven-dried at 70 °C for dry matter amount determination. Dried shoot samples were ground and digested in 2 mL 30% H2O2 and 5 mL 65% HNO3 in sealed vessels of a microwave (MarsXpress) apparatus. Each plant was replicated three times. Arsenic, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn concentrations were analyzed using an ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy, 501 �Agillent 7500ce). Certified reference materials (SRM 1573A, SRM 1547) were also analyzed in order to check the accuracy of the extraction technique used in the study. 502 �Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Boraginaceae Caryophyllaceae Iridaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Ranunculaceae Plan t no 689 699 85 2 111 4 141 744 740 758 208 741 739 747 759 72 775 712 720 722 707 728 708 713 5 Collection site Purcu surroundings, under forest, rocky places Purcu surroundings, under forest, rocky places Cayirbogazi surroundings, waste places, open forest, under forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Capurgedigi, surroundings, under forest Purcu surroundings, under forest, rocky places Capurgedigi surroundings, under forest and open forest Devekoyagi surroundings, under forest and open forest Findikpinari-Caglarca village, roadside Cayirbogazi surroundings, under forest, rocky places, waste places Capurgedigi surroundings, under forest and open forest Capurgedigi surroundings, under forest and open forest Cayirbogazi surroundings, waste places, open forest, under forest Findikpinari, under forest Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places North of the Findikpinari, under forest, rocky slopes Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest, stony places Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest 503 Table 1: Family, genus, altitude, name of the collected site, and the collection date (from Orcan et. al., 2004) Ranunculus ficaria L. subsp. calthifolius (Reichb.) Arc Cynosurus echinatus L. Festuca pinifolia (Hackel ex Boiss.) Bornm. var. pinifolia Bramus diandrus Roth Festuca jeanpertii (St.- Yves) F. Markgraf subsp. jeanpertii. Briza humilis Bieb. Poa speluncarum Edmondson Aegilops neglecta Req. ex Bertol. Corydalis solida (L.) Swartz subsp. tauricola Cullen & Davis Marrubium astracanicum Jacq.subsp.astracanicum Purunella orientalis Bornm. Prunella vulgaris L. Lamium crinitum Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham. Nepeta nuda L. subsp. nuda Fumaria kralikii Jordan Lamium garganicum L. subsp. reniforme(Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham) R. Mill Name of the plant Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Crupina curipinastrum (Moris) Vis. Anthemis aciphylla Boiss.var. aciphylla Alkanna aucherana A.DC. Silene dichotoma Ehrh. subsp. dichotoma Crocus graveolens Boiss. &Reuter Scutellaria salviifolia Bentham Micromeria carica P. H. Davis Prunella vulgaris L. Altitude, m 1350 1350 1300-1500 1150 900-1150 900-1150 900-1150 1200-1300 1350 1200-1300 1800 1300-1400 1300-1500 1200-1300 1200-1300 1300-1500 1300-1350 1250 1300-1400 1250 1250 1250 900-1150 1250 900-1150 Collection date 14.06.1998 14.06.1998 20.04.2002 14.03.2002 11.05.2002 14.03.2002 11.05.2002 28.06.1998 14.06.1998 09.05.1998 27.06.2002 15.07.1998 31.05.1998 09.05.1998 09.05.1998 20.04.2002 14.03.1999 01.06.1997 18.05.1997 01.06.1997 01.06.1997 01.06.1997 21.06.1997 01.06.1997 14.03.2002 �Findings Research area is on the Bolkar Mountains which is an interesting place from the point of endemism of Turkey. The collected 26 plants from different sampling locations have 26 genera and 8 families. Different 8 families were Asteraceae (3), Boraginaceae (1), Caryophyllaceae (1), Iridaceae (1), Lamiaceae (9), Papaveraceae (2), Poaceae (7) and Ranunculaceae (1). In the identified 755 plant, the largest family according to number of the species is Fabaceae and the largest genus is Trifolium. In the tested 26 plants, the largest family according to number of the species is Poaceae (7). Table 1 shows family, genus, altitude, name of the collected site, altitude and collection date of the tested plant samples. Table 2 shows heavy metal concentrations in shoots of the investigated plant specimens. The highest As (6), Co (10), Cr (46), Mn (548), Se (4) concentrations were Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae). Manganese concentration in Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae) was higher than the critical concentration (300-500) in plants according to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). Fumaria kralikii (Papaveraceae) has higher metal content, except for Cd and Zn, than other plants and higher than normal concentration in plants according to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). The highest Ni concentration was 115 mg kg-1 DM for Crocus graveolens Boiss&Reute (Iridaceae) and this value was higher than the critical concentration (10-100) in plants according to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). In the future, the identified 755 plants will be studied to evaluate heavy metal accumulation capacity because of the research area is an interesting place from the point of endemism and remediation of contaminated soils is essential for sustainable soil use. New selected metal hyperaccumulator plant may be genetically modify and remediate metal-contaminated soils. But metal hyperaccumulator plants after treatment evaluated as hazardous waste because of the higher concentration of the extracted metals. Therefore, further treatment of this biomass is environmentally necessary. 504 �Scutellaria salviifolia Bentham Micromeria carica P. H. Davis Prunella vulgaris L. Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Ranunculaceae Asteraceae 9. As 3 1 6 1 2 1 <BD Cd 1 1 1 3 1 1 Co 6 <bd 10 1 2 8 Cr 24 1 46 8 11 31 Cu 29 11 29 18 16 21 Mn 335 47 548 88 235 189 Ni 40 3 67 35 13 115 505 <bd 20 67 4 16 79 <bd <bd <bd <bd 2 3 1 1 1 <bd 3 5 21 126 1 1 <bd 4 11 97 6 Lamium garganicum L. subsp. reniforme(Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham) R. Mill 1 1 <bd 7 17 96 24 Marrubium astracanicum Jacq.subsp.astracanicum Purunella orientalis Bornm. 1 <bd 1 3 16 80 9 Prunella vulgaris L. 1 2 1 5 15 101 7 <bd <bd <bd 2 12 76 24 Lamium crinitum Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham. Nepeta nuda L. subsp. nuda 1 1 <bd 3 12 158 6 Fumaria kralikii Jordan 1 6 6 26 31 247 30 <bd 1 <bd 3 17 9 107 Corydalis solida (L.) Swartz subsp. tauricola Cullen & Davis Briza humilis Bieb. 1 <bd <bd 7 11 76 12 Poa speluncarum Edmondson <bd <bd <bd 2 11 67 4 Aegilops neglecta Req. ex Bertol. <bd 1 <bd 4 6 49 6 <bd <bd <bd 4 18 49 35 Festuca jeanpertii(St.- Yves) F. Markgraf subsp. jeanpertii. Bramus diandrus Roth <bd <bd <bd 3 10 83 6 1 1 9 16 2 133 16 Festuca pinifolia (Hackel ex Boiss.) Bornm. var. pinifolia Cynosurus echinatus L. <bd 1 <bd 2 9 48 9 1 <bd 3 19 24 137 60 Ranunculus ficaria L. subsp. calthifolius (Reichb.) Arc Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist <bd 1 <bd 2 18 34 3 The highest value in plants 6 3 10 46 31 548 115 The lowest value in plants 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 Common concentrations in plants* 0.02-7 0.1-2.4 0.02-1 0.03-14 5-20 20-100 0.02-5 The critical concentration in the plants* 5-20 5-30 15-50 5-30 20-100 300-500 10-100 Hyperaccumulation threshold value 1000 100 1000 1000 1000 10000 1000 Table 2: Heavy metal concentrations of the tested plants (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn), mg kg-1 DM *Kabata-Pendias (1992) Name of the plant Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Crupina curipinastrum (Moris) Vis. Anthemis aciphylla Boiss.var. aciphylla Alkanna aucherana A.DC. Silene dichotoma Ehrh. subsp. dichotoma Crocus graveolens Boiss. &Reuter Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Boraginaceae Caryophyllaceae Iridaceae 13 2 7 22 20 3 17 8 20 35 7 6 9 4 14 18 19 3 9 6 35 2 0.2-20 30-300 1000 Pb 15 15 16 28 9 6 1 <bd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 <bd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 0.001-2 5-30 1000 Se 3 2 4 1 2 1 112 6 79 52 79 100 207 58 165 144 175 68 106 46 60 45 68 76 92 80 207 6 1-400 100-400 10000 Zn 137 179 84 79 65 104 �Acknowledgement We thank Dr. Nermin Orcan and Dr. Riza Binzet for plant samples. We also thank Dr. Mehmet Arslan for critical reading of the manuscript and helpful comments. References Baker, A.J.M. & Brooks, R.R., (1989). Terrestrial higher plants which hyperaccumulate metallic elements-a review of their distribution, ecology and phytochemistry. Biorecovery 1, 81-126. Bennett, L. E., Burkhead, J. L., Hale, K. L., Terry, N., Pilon, M., & Pilon-Smits, E. A. H., (2003). 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The soils derived from ultrafamic rocks lead to unusual and sparse associations of flora that are tolerant to extreme environmental conditions such as high heavy metal contents. As the geological structure, Mersin-Findikpinari has rocks containing ultramafic and serpentine, but this site is one of the less studied areas. The 26 specimens of total 755 plants identified systematically from Mersin-Findikpınari in between in 1997-2002 were randomly selected and studied whether hyperaccumulator or not. Twenty six plants collected (members of 26 genera and 8 families) from different sampling locations were analyzed for their total As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn concentrations using an ICP-MS. A certified reference material (SRM 1573A, SRM 1547) was also analyzed to check the accuracy of the used extraction technique. In the present study, Mn content (548 mg kg-1) of Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae) was higher than the critical Mn value (300-500 mg kg-1) and Ni content (115 mg kg-1) Crocus graveolens Boiss&Reute (Iridiceae) was higher than the critical Ni value (10-100 mg kg-1) but unfortunately none of the plants studied was hyperaccumulator. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ca47367fc12c718a04e52eff8a13b8e4.pdf e6a473dee25303b5378c160659f9991a PDF Text Text Economic Importance and Using Purposes of Gypsophila L. and Ankyropetalum Fenzl (Caryophyllaceae) of Türkiye Mustafa Korkmaz Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Biology, Erzincan University, Türkiye korkmazmustafa67@yahoo.com.tr Hasan Özçelik Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Biology, Süleyman Demirel University, Türkiye ozcelik@fef.sdu.edu.tr Fevzi Özgökçe Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Biology, Erzincan University, Türkiye fozgokce@gmail.com Abstract: Gypsophila L. is the third biggest genus of Caryophyllaceae family in Türkiye. 55 species of the genus have been growing naturally in our country. 33 of them are endemic and total number of the taxa is 55. Ankyropetalum Fenzl is a small genus with 3 species and 1 of them is endemic. It is agreeable that gene center of the both genera is Türkiye. In terms of growing habitats there are large areas in Türkiye. According to importance order East, Central and Southeast Anatolia regions have the biggest number of taxa growing there. Ankyropetalum genus distributed only in the Southeast Anatolia and Mediterranean regions and in their intersection areas of Türkiye. Both of the genera have known as “çöven, çöğen”, halvah root and largened root parts or rhizomes are economically very important. Extracts produced from under parts of the plants known as fire extinguisher, gold polishing, silk and cloth cleaner and softener and crispness giving to halvah. These extracts have often used for making liqueur, preparing herbal cheese and making ice cream. Because of giving flavour, crispness and nice odor they generally preferred in food industry. With different ratios all of the taxa are boron (B) hyperacumulators. For this reason they can be used for destroyed agricultural areas. They can be planted to elevated slopes and hills to control erosion and survive biological diversity. General character of the family is their importance for horticulture. G. paniculata is very important for horticulture industry. In the presentation, some information about economic importance of the plants in the light of our observations and literatures were given. Key Words: Gypsophila, Ankyropetalum, Economy, Flora of Türkiye Introductıon Turkey is known as a gene centre of many economic groups of plants. In Turkey there are 32 genus and around 500 species of Caryophyllaceae family [1-6]. It is reported that the centres of some regions in which the species belonging to the Gypsophila genus are pervasive are Turkey, Caucasian, the North Iraq and the North Iran; that 75 out of 126 Gypsophila species in the world are found in this region and that in Turkey there have been found 55 Gypsophila species in 10 sections [7-8]. In the world Ankyropetalum genus has 4 species, and 3 of which grow in Turkey. The gene centre of both genus is Turkey.[9]. In general, soaproot is the woody roots of some perennial species of the genera Gypsophila L., Saponaria L., and Ankryopetalum Fenzl, belonging to the Caryophyllaceae family. However, Saponaria is not used as soaproot in Türkiye [10]. Turkish Çöven are commonly obtained from Gypsophila graminifolia Bark. G. arrostii Guss. var. nebulosa (Boiss. & Heldr.) Bark., G. eriocalyx Boiss., G. bicolor (Freyn & Sint.) Grossh., G. perfoliata L., G. venusta Fenzl subsp. venusta and Ankyropetalum gypsophiloides Fenzl. [7, 10]. But such species as G. 552 �ruscifolia Boiss. and G. bitlisensis Bark. are less preferred. Since 1800s soaproot has been exported from Anatolia (Turkey). The leading ones are G. bicolor, G. arrostii ve A. gypsophiloides (Radix Gyspohilae) [11-14]. For nearly 30 years the extraction of Çöven from natural flora has been increasingly continueing in the Eastern and South-east Anatolia [10]. Ankyropetalum Fenzl is represented by 3 species in Turkey. One of these is endemic and the others are not widespread. The genus is essentially pervasive in South-west Asia including Turkey. Regarding the phytogeography the genus grows in the South east of Turkey; that is in Iran-Turan and Mediterranen regions [14, 15]. The species belonging to the Ankyropetalum genus which is pervasive in Turkey are A. arsusianum Ky, A. reuteri Boiss.& Hausskn. (endemic) and A. gypsophiloides Fenzl. The genus is found in South-east Anatolia and its neighbour countries in borders [1, 14, 15]. The taxa belonging to the Ankyropetalum and Gypsophila genus and known and used by the public are generally known by the name “Çöven Otu” . As the Ankyropetalum genus’ members look like perennial Gypsophila species and as they are distinguished hardly, they are known by the same name and used for the same purposes. In Europe Gypsophila species are widely known as “Baby’s Breath”. For the word Gypsophila “Soaproot” or “Soapworth” words are used. In Turkey these plants are called “çöven otu, çevgen, dişi çöven, tarla çöveni, helva çöveni, şark çöveni” by the local public. It is reported that the saponins are found in the different parts of the plant in different doses; that they were first obtained by boiled alcohol from the risoms of Saponaria officinalis and that they are called “saponin” [11]. It is reported that as the roots of Soaproot are obtained from various Gypsophila species, the saponin amounts in the roots which are used in the trade differs between (4-)10-20(-25) % [22]. Used as Turkish Soaproot, in the Gypsophila bicolor (Van Çöveni) the saponin amounts have been found to be 20-25 %, in the G. arrostii var. nebulosa (Konya, Beyşehir, Isparta Çöveni) 19-22 %, in the G. perfiolata (Niğde Çöveni) 1519 % and in the G. eriocalyx (Çorum- Yozgat Çöveni) 10-14 % [17]. They have found out that in the G. paniculata the saponins synthesizes only in the roots and then moving through the other parts of the plant and that in dry material there is around 4 % saponin [20]. They report that in the Soaproot originated in Anatolia the amount of raw saponin is 10-25 %; and in their searches on the taxa of G. bicolor, G. perfoliata var. anatolica, G. venusta subsp. venusta, G. eriocalyx and G. arrostii var nebulosa which are pervasive in different parts of Turkey the amounts of saponin are respectively 19.58 %, 14.44 %, 12.65 %, 12.39 % and 11.58 % [20]; and the amounts of protein are respectively 8.01 %, 7.80 %, 8.38 %, 8.15 % and 6.92 % [7]. It is stated that in the roots of G. paniculata with the affect of the enzyme of UDPGlucuronosyltransferase the synthesis of saponin has been increased considerably and that in order to define the activity of this enzyme which has a versatile role in the plants the G. paniculata species would be a good model plant [17]. The Production of Soaproot Extract The roots and risoms of Soaproot ↓ Cut in the form of chips ↓ The first boiling (4-5) ↓ The second boiling ↓ The extract of Soaproot The extract of Soaproot whose production stages and chemical formule have been shown above is composed of sugar, resin and saponin. Saponins are highly moleculer glycosides which has the characteristic of solution in water and which are widely seen in some plants especially in Saponaria. It keeps the plant from germs and fungus and some species of it increases the nutritional value of plant as well as simplifying the digestion [18]. 553 �Where ıs soaproot used? Its usage in the food industry It is known that A. gypsophiloides was formerly exported from Siirt and Batman by caravans and that it is known by such names as “ Helva kökü, Çöven otu, Sabun otu, Helva otu” and that it is especially used in preparing a local food called “Siirt sweet”. A. reuteri is called “çöven” by the local public around Gölbaşı (Adıyaman); it is used for animal feding by mixing with straw and it is said that it was formerly used for the purpose of animal feding [9, 11,12]. In the Eastern Anatolia, the roots of some soaproots are used in preparing a local and origional food kind “herby cheese”. [8, 13-14]. The use of extract of Soaproot is firstly an obligation in making “tahin helvası (halvah)”. Otherwise it is impossible to make the halvah crisp. Apart from halvah, it is utilized for the production of “delight” and “icecream” and also in Thracian region because of its charasteristic of whitening wax and its power to make crisp soaproot is utilized in the “köpük halvah” which has a white and spumy form. Furthermore, in some parts of Turkey while making “hellim cheese” after soaproot is cooked it is added to the brine so that the cheese doesn’t spoil [8, 18, 19]. It is stated that the delight obtained by mixing syrup whitened by soaproot extract with pure delight is called “sultan delight” and that the maximum saponin amount should be 0.1 % [7]. The main reasons of why soaproot is most preferred for the halvah production are those; the saponin in the soaproot whitens the sugar wax, saponin softens the sugar and makes like sponge, and it has a function like emulgator by enabling the sesame oil to mix with sugar. In halvah production the amounts used are respectively 52-65 % tahini, 35-48 % sugar, 0.5 % soaproot [17]. In the production of “köpük halvah” soaproot and sugar are boiled in water and added after it takes the wax form. Soaproot water is used in production of “köpük halvah” which is half-liquid and has a little hard stiffness. When adding soaproot water there are two elements to be taken into consideration; firstly, its amount shouldn’t exceed the avarage level and second, when adding soaproot the pot should be covered. Otherwise the air absorbed leads to overbubbling. When making “köpük halvah” it can be used about 60- 65 % glycose syrup, 30- 35 % water and 0.01 % soaproot water [18]. Some kinds of Gypsophila arrostii var. nebulosa are economically valuable and in Konya and Beyşehir it is called “dişi çöven (female soaproot)” because of its multiplying fast. Roots of the other soaproots known as “erkek çöven (male soaproot)” are not widely used in trade. In their rhizomes there are saponin, resin and sugar. Because they are widely used in production of “tahini halvah” in Turkey and Near East they are called “helvacı çöveni (halvah soaproot)”. In some of our cities and in Cybrus in order that the “hellim cheese” which is boiled and made salted does not spoil, soaproot root is added to its water. In Thracia region a white spumy halvah known as “köpük halvah” is produced by soaproot [20]. Its Usage in The Chemistry and hygiene Industry Soaproots are also used in the manufacturing of Saponin which is a valuable chemical substance [8, 21]. Saponins are components which have pervaded in wide districts, which are in the form of heavy molecular steroidal or triterpenoid glycsides and which have a great biological activity on plants, insects, fungus and microorganisms. Their lower doses helps the plants have roots; however higher doses decreases root growing [7]. As quoted from Çevrimli (1990); it is expressed that because of the negative impacts of alkil and aril sulfanat types of detergants on environmental pollution and human health, the usage of saponin present in G. arrostii as an active surface substance of detergant will be more benefical, the saponin present in the plant will be easily used as an active surface substance in both extinguishers and soap industry, and that in the plant rhizomes there has been found around 18 % saponin [7]. Because it has a good characteristic of bubbling, soaproot is being utilized for soap, shampoo materials or fabric softener in hygiene industry. In the cool water obtained from the soaproot roots boiled, the silky and delicate fabrics and the other fabrics which are otherwise deteriorated are cleaned. Fabrics or clothes are cleaned by being dipped into the cool water obtained and are kept waiting for a few hours without spoiling their colors and brightness. Moreover, in some regions they are used in order to clean the wool obtained from the animals. [8, 18, 19]. The undersoil parts of G. arrostii have been used as a cleaner and a removal of stain since ancient times. [21]. Its Usage In Medicine It is reported that in the antraks vaccine which is against Antraks disease seen among animals and which is produced in Turkey, the saponin amount has been found to be % 0.1- 0.5. It has been found out that saponins 554 �are in the seeds, limbs, leaves, flowers and roots of plants; and that when the plants containing saponin are eaten by animals, the bitter-flavoured saponins have irritated mucosa cells in throat. Such types as G. paniculata and G. arrostii are used as a cough and respiration system diseases deterrent besides being used as a myx remover [7]. Soaproot has some features such as urine remover, exudative and myx remover [18]. As for drug, it has a function in some drugs compound when they are brewed because of its characteristics such as myx and urine remover [19]. Its Antimicrobial Effect It is known that saponin has an antimicrobial effect and it keeps the plants against some insects in soil. Besides this, it is estimated that it has a role of increasing the plant resistance in some parts of plants. It is reported that in the soil in which the plant containing saponin grows there has been found to be saponin in certain amounts and this saponin in the soil has some impacts on some bacteria. It has been found that Aquaspirillum dispar and Aquaspirillum spp. soil bacteria have been in great numbers in the roots of G. paniculata [7]. In the search of Gypsophila species’ antiviral impacts it has been expressed that G. arrostii var. nebulasa, G. bicolor, G. perfoliata and G. eriocalyx species have impacts on V. stomatitis virus, that they have no impact on Parafainfluenza type-1 virus and that the G. bicolor species has effectiveness against the other viruses (Poliovirüs tip-1, Herpes simplex tip-1 ve tip-2, Vesicular stomatitis ve Influenza A ) except 2 Parafainfluenza type-1 virus [7, 22]. Its Usage in Horticulture Gypsophila species are regarded as one of the most important alternatives of product diversification in the sector of flower cutting. G. paniculata species used as fresh and dry cut flower attract attention as being one of the most indispensable elements of arrangement and bouquet in domestic market [7, 8]. It has been reported that in Eurasia continent there have been found to be 125 species of Gypsophila, that the most significant of those to be used as ornamental is G. paniculata; that although the plant is perennial it has been grown annual and that because it cannot enable blossoming in short time and because it has no genetic evolution it is more advantagous to multiply it by cutting. It has been expressed that G. paniculata species has a great importance in the trade of cut flower; that although with the reparation studies the desired plants have been obtained, from these plants whose seeds are cultivated the desired plants will not be able to obtained and that they may have genetic evolution so the plants should be grown with vegetative organs. They have found that in the G. paniculata species which is used in horticulture their harvest should be done when their petals have exceeded 50 % blossoming, the vase lifespan in plants has reached about 55 days with the blossoms of buds in vase and that during 82 days the flower harvest can be done on plants. In Gypsophila paniculata species which is used in horticulture in the flower buds, the flowers should be harvested when they blossomed 30 % and so the vase lifespan increases. They have informed that because in coastal regions of Mediterranen the floral deportation obtained in unit area for the production of G. paniculata will be more it can be advised to cultivate around coastal parts of The Mediterranen Region [7]. Its Usage in Mining As a result of the studies on natural-growing 4 Gypsophila species in the district of boron (B) mine in Eskişehir Kırka; it has been observed that G. sphaerocephala Fenzl ex Tchihat. var. sphaerocephala and G. perfoliata have been the first ones which have a characteristics of a potential boron hyperaccumulator. These species grow successfully in concentrations as high total soil boron (8900 mg/kg-1) and suitable soil boron (277 mg/kg-1). As a result of the analysis conducted, it has been found out that in the upper soil parts of the G. Sphaerocephala it has contained B in extremely high concentrations (in seeds; 2093 ± 199 SD mg / kg-1; in leaves; 3345 ± 341 SD mg / kg-1), but in roots it has contained far less concentrations of B (51 ± 11 SD mg kg1). In the respect of Boron amount this has been followed by G. perfoliata. It has been stated that by growing G. sphaerocephala in the soils which have some signs of high B toxid, vegetative mining can be conducted by hyperaccumulation and the soils containing boron in toxic amounts can be refined by vegetative ways [23]. In this way the agricultural fields in which fertilizers have long been used can be prevented to become barren and during reparation process it will be possible to evaluate the agricultural fields which have become dormant. Its Other Usages Apart from these, the cool water obtained from the boiling of soaproot roots is used in the process of whitening gold and treasuers. Furthermore this solution is used as spray in the structure of film emilsion and 555 �extinguishers. It is known that the rhizomes of perennial soaproot sold to Israel from Isparta are used in the production of extinguishers [7, 8, 21]. Pıckıng, dryıng and storıng the plants Because the subsoil parts of the plants are generally utilized, from just after the precipitation season to the time of plant’s fruit; that is between May- July the plants are picked. The local public utilizes its root when its leaves are on land area or when they are in the time of blossoming; they can distinguish Gypsophila species between others and they can extract its rhizomes by means of such tools as anchor. Because the subsoil parts of the plant are also picked, with an unconscious picking they are endangered. The roots which are picked are cleaned and after washing them, they are dried under sun. In order to dry well and in order to enable some fresh air during this process the rhizomes shouln’t be laid down thick. The subsoil organs are brought in bundles and are stored in suitable, dry and moisture free places [19]. It is reported by Anonim (2006) that in the roots of soaproot plant which can be grown in barren and hillside areas there have been foud to be some dryings because of extreme damp; that it is not suitable to harvest them before four years old; that their trade situation should be considered before harvesting and if necessary the product should be waited in the field; that the roots extracted by fork or tractor plough have dried in 2-3 months and from 2.5 kg raw root about 1 kg dry root has been obtained; and that in one decare of field totally 4000-5000 kg dry roots are extracted [7]. The trade of soaproot and ıts standart There is not a general accepted standart for the roots of soaproot but they can be classified in three different qualities in terms of commercial purposes according to where they grow: those growing in Van-Isparta are of the 1. quality, those obtained from Niğde are of 2. quality and those obtained from Yozgat-Çorum are of 3. quality [19]. In the usage of soaproot in industry, the hemolysis and bubble indexes of them; as for in food industry the bubble indexes are of importance. So, in the quality evaluation these rates should be taken into consideration. Both the bubble and hemolysis indexes of Van (G. bicolor) and Isparta-Beyşehir (G. arrostii) are high. Also their raw saponozite rates are more than the others. Species Hemolysis index Bubble index % Raw saponozit G. bicolor G. arrostii var. nebulosa G. perfoliata var. anatolica G. eriocalyx 6.667- 6.925 5.295- 6.667 9.778-10.000 3.385- 3.659 9.000-10.000 9.600-10.034 4.650 - 5.000 1.800- 2.000 20-25 19-22 15-19 10-14 Table 1. The Analysis of Turkish soaproot [22] Isparta-Beyşehir Gypsophila (G. arrostii) has decreased extremely on the market. There is still Van Soaproot (G. bicolar) on market and is sold as being the first quality. The oldest commercial soaproot is this species, so its population has damaged greatly. But this species has been produced in fields (Atabey Plain) by some farmers. Furthermore, Isparta General Directorate of Forestry cultivated about 15-20 kg seeds 3 years ago in order to be a financial support in the future and to enable the continuation of the species generation for Sütçüler and Aksu villagers. The hemolysis index of Niğde soaproot (G. perfoliata var. anatolica) is high but its bubble index and raw saponozit percentage is low. Despite its features similar to 1. quality, it should be regarded as second quality. Çorum-Yozgat G soaproot (G. eriocalyx) is one type of soaproot having the lowest rates. In these respects it should be regarded as the third quality [22]. They are exported to many countries includin Germany, Egypt, Greece at the outset [19]. Between 1989-1996 the avarege annual export of soaproot root was 140 tonnes. In 1997 it decreased to 93.3 tonnes. Today, every year the avarege export of soaproot root from Turkey is about 90 tonnes. In 2004 80000 dollars have been earned from the soaproot exportation for 85 ton. According to the statistics of 2005 92 tonnes of 556 �soaproot roots were exported from Turkey by taking 66 000 dollars in return. In 2006 despite 153 tonnes exportation the income was 61 000 dollars in an unparallel way [7, 24]. Discussion and advices Six of species growing in Turkey has a high economic value. Besides picking plants in an uncontrollable way from nature, industrialisation and urbanisation, extension of agricultural fields and extreme grazing, tourism, the reparation of barren fields, agricultural struggle and pollution, unconscious forestation and fires are leading factors that threaten the plants in our country [7]. Because many natural plants used in medicine, exported and and used traditionally are constantly being picked from nature, are exported and used in domestic market, they are increasingly disappearing [7]. Soaproot plants have been utilized in medicine, food, hygiene, as ornamentals in parks and gardens, in chemistry industry in order to produce saponin. It has the ability to extinguish the fires, whiten gold, clean silky and delicate fabrics. It also enables cleaning the contaminated soil by removing the boron which is in great amount in our country. They are clened by cultivating G. sphaerocephala and Gypsophila species. Also it is possible to make vegetative mining by boron hypercumulation to the upper surface of the plant on soil. Because they are utilized in many different areas, agriculturalists, food engineers, chemists, pharmacists, landscapists, textile workers and jewellers are all interested in them [7]. In Turkey the general name of Gypsophila, Ankyropetalum ve Saponaria species are “ çöven ”. But some researchers name those whose subsoil parts are economically valuable as “çöven”. Regarding this soaproot is the name of a raw material and is an extract obtained from a plant [9]. Turkish soaproot is widely obtained from 6 Gypsophila (G. graminifolia, G. bicolor, G. arrostii var. nebulosa, G. eriocalyx, G. perfoliata var. anatolica ve G. venusta ) and 1 Ankyropetalum (A. gypsophiloides species. The gene centre of both species is Turkey [9]. Gypsophila species yielding soaproot, their locations and some properties are as below [25]. G. bicolor (Turkish names: Van çöveni, Tarla çöveni): This species is distributed around Van, Bitlis and Artvin provinces. The rhizomes are hard and difficult to break. Saponin content is 20 %-25 %. This value is higher than that in other soaproot yielding plants. This is the most preferred soaproot, also known as the soaproot of the highest quality. G. arrostii var. nebulosa (Turkish name: Beyşehir çöveni, Konya çöveni): Saponin content is 19%-22%. This is also considered to be of good quality.; This species also has a narrow distribution. Halvah makers in Konya especially use this soaproot. G. eriocalyx (Turkish name: Çorum-Yozgat çöveni): Grows around Ankara, Çankırı, Çorum, Eskişehir, Kayseri, Sivas and Yozgat provinces in steppe habitats with gypsum. This is an endemic species. G. perfoliata (Turkish name: Niğde çöveni): Grows around Ankara, Kayseri, Sivas, Erzincan, Konya, Niğde, and Denizli provinces. It is considered to be of 3rd quality. G. venusta subsp. venusta (Turkish name: Konya çöveni): Grows around Ankara, Çankırı, Konya, Gaziantep, Urfa, Sivas, Malatya, and Erzurum provinces in stepe habitats or arable fields, and yield soaproot. G. graminifolia (Turkish name: Başkale çöveni, Dağ çöveni): This local endemic species also grows in Van province, around Başkale. Three species of Ankyropetalum genus grow naturally in Turkey; all of them are endemic. However, only A. gypsophiloides rhizomes are known, with the name “helva (halvah) root” around Siirt province and used as soaproot. A. gypsophilloides (Turkish name: Siirt çöveni, Helvacı çöveni, Helva kökü): This species grows around Şanlıurfa, Mardin, Gaziantep, Batman, and Siirt provinces. Its roots are collected in Siirt and used by local halvah producers. [12]. Because the roots of these plants are generally used, the harvest time is in March-June months and thus because the plants don’t produce seeds they don’t enable seeds for the latter year. These plants which are constantly taken from nature both exported and used in domestic consumption and whose economic value is extremely high, are increasingly disappearing and are on the verge of extinction. This problem becomes more important especially when the plants are endemic. Except for the G. paniculata which is used for cut flower and cultivated, Gypsophila species which are used for exportation and domestic consumption and some of which are endemic are taken directly from natue. This brings the danger of extinction with itself. Although economically important, these plants are a source of biological richness in Turkiye. Most of them are endemic species having narrow distributions. Since they are not cultivated but collected directly from nature, populations of these plants in nature deteriorate, their generations diminish or become extinct, and the balance of nature is disturbed. Since only roots and not the aerial parts are collected destruction is an even more important problem. According to some trading companies cheaper soaproot having better quality is being imported from Afghanistan, and re-exported after the extraction of their juices. This soaproot juice (extract) is 557 �sold to halvah producers in Türkiye. So there is no need to collect soaproot in Turkey anymore. Soaproot has been collected for years due to the high unemployment rate in the region, and the demand. In order to preserve these species and also have regular exports, feasibility studies should be conducted and a determined quantity of a given quality should be cultivated. Soaproot should not only be collected from nature and its cultivation should be scheduled. Decrease in collection due to decreasing demand and soaproot imports from Afghanistan are good news. Soaproot imports may stop some day, but soaproot usage will continue and so we should take necessary precautions. Soaproot collection in Turkey should be stopped or at least alternation should be applied to collection areas. Cultivation of soaproot yielding plants, should be studied and encouraged. Standardised extract of soaproot should be prepared. Soaproot yielding other perennial species and their saponin contents should be determined and new soaproot resources should be identified, and their cultivation and marketing possibilities should be studied. Informtions must be given to our puplic to preserve our biological richness [ 25]. Acknowledgement This study is a part of the project numbered TÜBĐTAK-TBAG 107 T 147, which is supported by TÜBĐTAK, and themed “Revision of Gypsophila L. and Ankyropetalum Fenzl (Caryophyllaceae) Genera and Determination of Saponin Level”. We are much obliged to the support provided by this institution. References [1] Davis, P.H., (ed). 1965-1988. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vol.:1-10, Edinburgh Univ. Press. [2] Williams, F. N., 1989. Revision of The Forms of The Genus Gypsophila L., Jown Bot. London, 27: 321-329. [3] Chopra, G.L., 1966. Angiosperms (Systematic & Life-Cycle), s: 85. [4] Lawrence, H.M.G.,1951. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. Cornell University, Newyork, s: 486–488. [5] Huber-Morath, A., 1967. Gypsophila L., Ankyropetalum Fenzl in Davis, P.H.(ed.). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vol: pp. 147-171. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. [6] Güner, A., Özhatay, N., Ekim, T., Başer, K.H.C., 2000. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vol.:11, Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. [7] Đnan, M., 2006. Çukurova Koşullarında Farklı Kökenli Gypsophila L. Türlerinde Kök Verimleri ve Saponin Đçeriklerinin Araştırılması. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Tarla Bitkileri A. B. Dalı (Doktora Tezi). [8] Korkmaz, M., 2007. Türkiye’ de Yetişen Tek Yıllık Gypsophila L. (Caryophyllaceae) Taksonları Üzerinde Biyosistematik Çalışmalar, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Isparta, 248 s. (Doktora Tezi). [9] Özçelik, H., Muca, B., 2010. Ankyropetalum fenzl (caryophyllaceae) cinsine ait türlerin türkiye’deki yayılışı ve habitat özellikleri, nobel dergisi( bibad) [10] Kılıç, C.S., Koyuncu, M., Güvenç, A., 2008. Soaproot Yielding Plants of East Anatolia and Their Potential in Nature, Turk. J. Bot. 32(2008) 489- 494. [11] Baytop, T., 1984. Türkiye’de Bitkiler Đle Tedavi, Đstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları, s: 213-214, Đstanbul. [12] Öztürk, M., Özçelik, H., 1991. Doğu Anadolu’nun Faydalı Bitkileri (Useful Plants of East Anatolia) SĐSKAV Yayınları, Semih Ofset ve Matbaacılık, Ankara. [13] Özçelik, H., Özgökçe, F., 1999. Gypsophila bitlisensis Bark. ve Gypsophila elegans M.Bieb. Üzerinde Morfolojik, Taksonomik ve Ekolojik Araştırmalar, 1st International Symposium on Protection of Natural Environment and Ehrami Karaçam, 23-25th September 1999, Kütahya / Türkiye, 295- 313. [14] Özçelik, H., Özgökçe, F., 1995. Taxonomic Contributions to Genus Gypsophila L.(Caryophyllaceae) from East Anatolia (Turkey), IV th Plant Life in Soutwest and Central Asia (Ed. M.Öztürk, Ö. Seçmen and G.Görk), Ege Univ. Pres, Đzmir, Türkiye, 195- 209. [15] Afifi, F.U., Abu-Irmaileh, B., 2000. Herbal Medicine In Jordan With Special Emphasis on Less Commonly Used Medicinal Herbs, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 72, 101–110. 558 �[16] Boissier, E., 1867. Flora Orientalis, Vol: 1, s: 532-534, Genevae. [17] H´erold, M-C., & Henry M., 2001. UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase activity is correlated to saponin roduction in Gypsophila paniculata root in vitro cultures, Biotechnology Letters, 23: 335–337, Netherlands. [18] Anonim, 2010. www.hammaddeler.com.tr [19] Orman Genel Müdürlüğü, 1991. Ülkemizde Bazı Önemli Orman Tali Ürünlerinin Teşhis ve Tanıtım Kılavuzu, Orman Bakanlığı, Ankara. [20] Battal, H., 2002. A Research on the production of a soapwort extract, Ankara University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences. Department of Food Engineering. Master Thesis. Ankara, Turkey, pp: 44 . [21] Anonymus, 2010. www.bibilgi.com/ÇÖVEN-(ÇÖĞEN)-OTU-(Gypsophila arrostii) [22] Sezik, E., 1982. The Origin and the Quality of the Turkish Soaproots. J. Fac Pharm Ankara 12: 41-54. [23] Babaoğlu, M., Gezgin, S., Topal, A., Sade, B., Dural, H., 2004. Gypsophila sphaerocephala Fenzl ex Tchihat.: A Boron Hyperaccumulator Plant Species That May Phytoremediate Soils with Toxic B Levels, Turk J Bot, 28 (3): 273-278. [24] Anonymus, 2009, Dış Ticaret Đstatistikleri, 2009. [25] Koyuncu, M., Kılıç, C.S., Güvenç, A., 2008. Soaproot Yielding Plants of East Anatolia and Their Potential in 559 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 600 Title A name given to the resource Economic Importance and Using Purposes of Gypsophila L. and Ankyropetalum Fenzl (Caryophyllaceae) of Türkiye Author Author Korkmaz, Mustafa Özçelik, Hasan Özgökçe, Fevzi Abstract A summary of the resource. Gypsophila L. is the third biggest genus of Caryophyllaceae family in Türkiye. 55 species of the genus have been growing naturally in our country. 33 of them are endemic and total number of the taxa is 55. Ankyropetalum Fenzl is a small genus with 3 species and 1 of them is endemic. It is agreeable that gene center of the both genera is Türkiye. In terms of growing habitats there are large areas in Türkiye. According to importance order East, Central and Southeast Anatolia regions have the biggest number of taxa growing there. Ankyropetalum genus distributed only in the Southeast Anatolia and Mediterranean regions and in their intersection areas of Türkiye. Both of the genera have known as “çöven, çöğen”, halvah root and largened root parts or rhizomes are economically very important. Extracts produced from under parts of the plants known as fire extinguisher, gold polishing, silk and cloth cleaner and softener and crispness giving to halvah. These extracts have often used for making liqueur, preparing herbal cheese and making ice cream. Because of giving flavour, crispness and nice odor they generally preferred in food industry. With different ratios all of the taxa are boron (B) hyperacumulators. For this reason they can be used for destroyed agricultural areas. They can be planted to elevated slopes and hills to control erosion and survive biological diversity. General character of the family is their importance for horticulture. G. paniculata is very important for horticulture industry. In the presentation, some information about economic importance of the plants in the light of our observations and literatures were given. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/311c400fc6c3ac9d50c4967d753050d9.pdf c95c742a4febef6f01e4b1c232480c3e PDF Text Text Recent Developments On The Aplication Of Artemia In The Ornamental Fish Culture Edis Koru Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Aquaculture, Bornova-Izmir/Turkey edis.koru@ege.edu.tr Gurel Turkmen Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Aquaculture, Bornova-Izmir/Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Production of animals for the aquarium hobbyist trade is a rapidly growing sector of the aquacultural industry, and it will continue to become more important as restrictions are placed on collecting animals for the wild. Improved techniques for marine food-fish larviculture since the early 1980’s have greatly enhanced the growth and survival of freshwater ornamental fish larvae largely through improved technology regarding live food culture and larval rearing practices. Research developments in larviculture and early rearing technology have allowed 90% of currently marketed freshwater ornamental fish to be cultured. However, for marine ornamentals, the reverse is true as only a handful of species is produced via aquaculture technology. A major task in devising a protocol for the artificial propagation of a fish species is the development of a feeding regimen for the larvae. Live feeds are a convenient and often essential food source for the larvae of some cultured species, especially those without a fully developed digestive system. In such cases, live food organisms provide digestive enzymes that breakdown the food ingested by larvae and can be described as naturally encapsulated bags of nutrients. Two major concerns among aquaculturists are providing organisms appropriate to the size of the larvae at the first feeding stage and then supplying the large numbers of feed organisms necessary to maintain the larvae. Since no artificial feed formulation is yet available to completely substitute for Artemia, feeding live prey to young fish larvae still remains essential in commercial hatchery operations. This paper reports the recent developments in the applications of Artemia nauplii, decapsulated Artemia cysts and on-grown Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. Key words: Artemia, Ornamental Fish, Larvae, Feeding 1. Introduction The ornamental fish sector is a widespread and global component of international trade, fisheries, aquaculture and socio-economic development. Since 1985, the international trade in exports of ornamentals, which usually takes place in the majority of developing countries, followed an increasing trend with an average growth rate of approximately 14% per year. The entire industry has been estimated to be worth around US$15 billion. This vast industry has the potential to contribute to the economic growth of developing countries which may face future challenges regarding environmental safety (Olivotto et al., 2006). Production of animals for the aquarium hobbyist trade is a rapidly growing sector of the aquacultural industry, and it will continue to become more important as restrictions are placed on collecting animals for the wild. Currently, approximately 90% of freshwater fish traded in the hobbyist industry are captively cultured. While a majority of aquacultural production worldwide is devoted to food production, ornamental fish production is an important component of the aquaculture industry in several nations. In Singapore, ornamental fish accounts for 40% of their total exports. In the United States, ornamental fish production is the fourth largest sector behind catfish, trout, and salmon. Farms in Florida produce 800 varieties of freshwater fish (Tlusty, 2002). Successful rearing of larval stages of aquatic organisms is a challenge for aquarium hobbyists, an aim and a necessity for the success of the aquaculturist. All these specialists will agree that the primary problem in any type of larval rearing is that of food. Ideally, one would prefer to feed larvae their natural diet, which is characterized by a wide diversity of nutritious live organisms. Live feed is an essential food source for the fry of cultured species, especially those without a fully developed digestive system. In the freshwater ornamental fish culture, Artemia nauplii are used as the live feed. Two major concerns of aquaculturists are: (i) providing organisms appropriate to the size of the feed to the first feeding stage and (ii) supplying adequate number of feed organisms to ensure higher survival and faster growth (Arulvasu and Munuswamy, 2009). In nature, zooplankton 646 �is one of the primary foods of larval fish. The brine shrimp Artemia is in the phylum Arthropoda, (Crustacea, Anostraca). Artemia spp., are zooplankton, like copepods and Daphnia, which are used as live food in the aquarium trade, and for freswater and marine fish larval culture and crustacean larval culture (Lim et.al., 2001). While the adult form of Artemia is primarily used as a live, frozen, or freeze-dried food in the aquarium trade, the nauplius stage is used exclusively in fish hatchery operations. It was recognized long ago that freshly hatched Artemia nauplii are a high value feed for fish larvae and fry. Because of the size of the nauplius stage, Artemia also represent the only practical food source for the early stages of many fish and crustacean larvae. (Tamaru et al., 2001). In Singapore, the top-exporting country of freshwater ornamental fish in the world, Moina used to be the most common live food organism used in the industry. As Moina is cultured in ponds using pig waste, they are often contaminated with fish pathogens, as well as bacteria of public health concern, such as Salmonella and Vibrio cholera. To minimize the risk of fish being contaminated with the pathogens, more and more freshwater ornamental fish farmers in Singapore have shifted from Moina to the cleaner Artemia nauplii for feeding their fish. (Lim et al,. 2002, 2003). Since no artificial feed formulation is yet available to completely substitute for Artemia, feeding live prey to young fish larvae still remains essential in commercial hatchery operations. There are more than 50 geographical strains of Artemia. Many commercial harvesters and distributors sell brands of various qualities. This paper reports the recent developments in the applications of Artemia nauplii, decapsulated Artemia cysts and on-grown Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. 1.1. Why is Live Feed Necessary? Fish biologists categories larvae of two types: precocial and altricial. Precocial larvae are those that, when the yolk sac is exhausted, appear as mini-adults, exhibiting fully developed fins and a mature digestive system including a functional stomach. Such fish can ingest and digest formulated diets as a first food and are best exemplified by the salmon and trout raised extensively in hatcheries around the world without the benefit of live food. Altricial larvae are those that, when the yolk sac is exhausted, remain in a relatively undeveloped state. The digestive system is still rudimentary, lacking a stomach, and much of the protein digestion takes place in hindgut epithelial cells (Govoni et al., 1986). Such a digestive system seems (at this point) to be incapable of processing formulated diets in a manner that allows survival and growth of the larvae comparable to those fed on live feed. Altricial larvae therefore appear to require live feed, but there may be other reasons besides the digestibility question. Live feeds are able to swim in the water column and are thus constantly available to the larvae. Formulated diets tend to aggregate on the water surface or, more commonly, sink quickly to the bottom, and are thus normally less available to the larvae than are the live feeds. In addition, the movement of live feed in the water is likely to stimulate larval feeding responses, since evolutionary history has probably adapted them to attack moving prey in nature. Formulated diets are generally capable of moving only in a downward direction, towards the bottom. Finally, live prey, with a thin exoskeleton and high water content, may be more palatable to the larvae once taken into the mouth, compared with the hard, dry formulated diets. This last point is rather critical, especially when considered in light of the fish larva’s absence of feeding appendages; any foods must enter the mouth whole (i.e. the larva’s mouth gape must be of sufficient size for particle ingestion to occur) and they are quickly either accepted or rejected on the basis of palatability (Stottrup and McEvoy, 2003). 2. Artemia Artemia has several characteristics which make it ideal for aquaculture use. It is easy to handle, adaptable to a wide-range of environmental conditions, non-selective as a filter-feeder which can ingest algae, protozoa and bacteria of the correct size (10–50 µm) and is capable of growing at very high densities (Landau et al. 1985; Lèger et al. 1989). Artemia also has a high nutritive value (40–60 percent protein, rich amino acid composition), an unchanging food requirement, high conversion efficiency, short generation time, high fecundity rate and long lifespan. The whole animal (even adult stage) may be consumed without previous processing by many aquaculture organisms. In the food chain the nutritional value of Artemia depends on both the macronutrients (proteins, fats and carbohydrates) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) it can accumulate from the filtered food. The brine shrimp is considered a continuous, non-selective, obligate phagotrophic filter feeder zooplankton (Fig.1). 647 �Figure 1. Adults Artemia sp. Artemia are extremely euryhaline, withstanding salinities from 3 ppt to 300 ppt. They can even survive short periods of time in freshwater, but cannot reproduce in it. Artemia survive temperatures ranging from 15 to 55 oC. They have two modes of reproduction. Sometimes nauplii (first Artemia swimming stage) hatch in the ovisac of the mother and are born live. However, when the body of water where adult Artemia are living begins to dry up and salinities rise, embryos are encased in a hard capsule, or cyst, so that they are protected and can hatch later when conditions are better. The cyst is 200 to 300 micrometers in diameter, depending upon the strain. Its external layer is a hard, dark brown shell (Fig 2). Dry conditions cause the encysted embryo to enter a dormant state, which allows it to withstand complete drying, temperatures over 100 oC or near absolute zero, high energy radiation, and a variety of organic solvents. The dehydrated cyst can be stored for months or years without loss of hatchability. Figure 2. Artemia Cysts. Only water and oxygen are required to initiate the normal development of the Artemia embryo, but it does help the hatch rate to maintain the temperature above 25 oC and place a light near the eggs. The durable, easily hatched cyst makes Artemia a convenient, constantly accessible source of live feed for the finfish hatchery operator. Artemia cysts are best stored in a tightly sealed container in a cool, dry environment and, if possible, vacuum packed. Within 15 to 20 hours after being placed in seawater at 28 o the shell breaks and the prenauplius in E-1 stage appears (Fig. 3). For the first few hours, the embryo hangs beneath the cyst shell in what is called the umbrella stage. The newly hatched Artemia relies on its yolk sac for nutrients because its mouth and anus are not fully developed. The pre-nauplius E-2 stage is then released as a free-swimming nauplius called an Instar 1 nauplius. In this stage it is brownish orange because of its yolk reserves. It uses specially modified antennae for locomotion and later for food filtering. Approximately 12 hours after hatch it molts into the second larval stage (Instar II) and starts filter feeding on microalgae, bacteria and detritus. The Artemia nauplius can live on yolk and stored re-serves for up to 5 days or through the Instar V stage (Fig. 3), but its caloric and protein content diminish during this time (Briksi et.al., 2008). 648 �Figure 3. Steps in Life Cycle of Artemia 1: Cysts, 2: Breaking stage, 3: Umbrella stage: emerging embryo, 4: Instar I(E-1) newly hatched nauplii (with yolk), 5: Instar II(E-2), 6: Differeatiation (molting) stage, Instar III-IV, 7: Instar VI-VIII, 8: Instar IX-X, Sub-adult stage, 9: Adult stage. As a food source for the larvae, it is imperative that Artemia is of high quality, as nutritionally complete as possible, and maintained in this state until consumed by the larvae. There are four distinct stages involved in Artemia culture. These stages are: (1) decapsulation, (2) hatching, (3) storage, (4) enrichment, (5) harvestin and usage. Artemia also represent a potential vector for disease introduction into the larviculture production system. As such, all Artemia production and storage procedures must be conducted utilizing hygienic production protocols and proper hatchery sanitation procedures. This document provides the background, rationale, and detailed production protocols for all stages of high-quality Artemia culture to developments on the aplication of Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. 2.1. Decapsulation of Artemia Cysts Artemia represent one of the few live feeds that can be cultured in sufficient numbers and are of appropriate size for larva to transition to between daphnia, blood worms and weaning diets. During a portion of their life cycle, Artemia hibernate as a desiccated cyst that is capable of withstanding extreme environmental conditions for long periods of time. Cysts are easily shipped and are thus the form purchased by aquarists. However, Artemia cysts can cause problems during larviculture because: 1. The shell of the cyst is indigestible and may cause intestinal blockage when ingested by larva, 2. Cysts are a potential vector for pathogen introduction to the culture system, 3. Artemia consume high levels of endogenous energy reserves when hatching through the cyst shell, 4. Cysts must be physically separated from the live Artemia after hatching. Decapsulation of Artemia cyst is a process whereby the external shell or chorion is chemically removed from the cyst. This process addresses the concerns noted above and has become standard practice by fish hatcheries looking to produce high quality Artemia. The fry of all the five common ornamental fish species tested (guppy Poecilia reticulata, molly Poecilia sphenops, platy Xiphophorus maculatus, swordtail Xiphophorus helleri and neon tetra Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi) could readily feed on the decapsulated cysts, and their performances in terms of stress resistance, growth and survival are comparable to or better than those fed on Artemia nauplii or Moina. A culture system for production of on-grown Artemia has also been developed specifically for the use in freshwater ornamental fish farms (Lim et al. 2003). 2.1.1. Artemia Decapsulation Procedure and Decapsulation Requirements Artemia cysts: 1 kilogram (kg) Decapsulation vessel: 20 liters (L) Chlorine bleach (NaOCl; 5.5%): 8 L at 2-10 degrees Celsius (°C) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH; 40%): 4 L at 2-10°C Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3 ): 100 g 649 �Harvest bag: 100 micrometer (µm) 2.1.2. Hydration The first step in the decapsulation procedure is Artemia cyst hydration. Hydration of cysts allows for separation of the nauplii from the chorion, facilitating the decapsulation process. For this step, Artemia cysts are placed in either fresh or saltwater at room temperature for approximately one hour, using a concentration of 1 g of cysts per 15 milliliters (ml) of water. It is important during this step to maintain sufficient mixing via aeration to keep cysts well suspended. After one hour of hydration, the water and hydrated cysts should be drained through a 100 µm harvest bag; the concentrated cysts are then placed back into the empty decapsulation vessel. 2.1.3. Decapsulation For decapsulation, pour the chilled sodium hydroxide solution into the decapsulation vessel with hydrated cysts, again making sure there is adequate aeration within the vessel to keep cysts suspended. The chilled bleach should then be added to the cysts to initiate the decapsulation process. Because the chemical reaction during decapsulation is exothermic, it is helpful to begin with chemical solutions chilled to a temperature of 2°C to 10°C. These starting temperatures will prevent the temperature of the chemical solution from exceeding 35°C, which may damage the cysts. As decapsulation progresses, the chorion is chemically removed, resulting in the cysts gradually changing color from brown to grey, then to orange, and finally to bright orange. This bright orange color indicates that the process is complete. (Cyst buoyancy can also be used as an endpoint indicator: when approximately 90 % of cysts sink, the process is complete). The process should take from one to three minutes, but time may differ due to temperature variations. Cysts can easily be damaged by overexposure to the decapsulation solution, adversely affecting the resulting hatch rate. It is imperative to closely monitor the process and standardize it for your particular conditions (Fig. 4). 2.1.4. Decapsulated Cysts Harvest When it is determined that the cysts are adequately decapsulated, add 75 g of sodium thiosulfate to the decapsulation vessel to neutralize the chlorine, then immediately begin to drain cysts into the 100 µm harvest bag. During the harvest process (Fig. 4), rinse with ample amounts of water (fresh or salt) while providing ample aeration via an air stone to keep decapsulated cysts in suspension. When all decapsulated cysts have been collected, the remaining sodium thiosulfate should be added to the harvest bag. Continue rinsing the bag until water runs clear and no presence of chlorine can be detected. 2.1.5 Decapsulated Cysts Storage Decapsulated cysts can be drained of excess water and stored in an airtight container in a refrigerator (+ 4 ºC) for up to 5-6 days. For longer-term storage (two weeks or more), cysts must be dehydrated by placing them in aerated brine (330 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) per liter of water) at the concentration of 1 g of cysts per 20 ml of brine for 24 hours. They can then be drained and placed into a suitable container, topped with fresh brine, and placed in a refrigerator (Fig. 5). 650 �Figure 4. Harvesting Decapsulated Artemia Figure 5. Decapsulated Artemia Cysts Hatching Storage 2.2. Hatching of Artemia Cysts and Hatching Requirements Temperature: 26-30°C pH: 8.0-9.0 Dissolved oxygen: > 4 mg/L Light level: ~2000 lux Salinity: 25-35 parts per thousand (ppt) Hatching density: ≤ 2 g dry cysts/L (up to 5 g/L with supplemental O2) Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3): 0.5 g/L Antifoam (silicone based): 1 ml/100 L Fill a clean, cone-bottomed hatching tank with warm, filtered seawater or fresh water addet 30-35 g salt. If warm seawater is not available, allow enough lead time for water to be warmed to 26°C to 30°C in the hatching tank via submersible heaters. Add 0.5 g of sodium bicarbonate per liter of water in order to maintain the pH between 8.0 and 9.0 throughout the entire hatching process. The use of antimicrobial products such as INVE’s Hatch Controller can be used to help minimize growth of pathogenic bacteria in the hatching tank. The proper stocking density for nondecapsulated cysts is approximately 2-3 g (max. 5 g) per liter. When using decapsulated cysts, approximately 5 g per liter can be stocked. These numbers can be doubled through the use of pure oxygen supplementation, which is needed to maintain dissolved oxygen levels greater than 4-5 milligrams per liter. Attempting to hatch at higher stocking densities can result in physical damage to the nauplii and reduced quality It is important to maintain sufficient aeration at the bottom of the cone to keep cysts suspended. When hatching large volumes of cysts, it is advantageous to use a food-grade antifoam product to minimize excessive foaming in the culture. Hatching times will vary based on strain and age of cysts, temperature and salinity of water, etc. Thus, it is important to minimize variation between hatches for consistency. Generally, Artemia require 18 to 24 hours of incubation to hatch. Decapsulated cysts, however, may be ready to harvest after only 16 hours of incubation. When feeding nauplii directly to fish, timing of the hatch is very important. If nauplii remain in the hatching tank for too long, they will grow too large and their nutritional quality will decrease. Determining the endpoint of the hatch should be made through microscopic observation of the relative numbers of hatched nauplii, prehatched nauplii, and unhatched cysts (Fig 6). Figure 6. Artemia Hatching Cone (pure oxygen injection regulators on wall and wire from submersible heater on front edge of tank) The harvesting procedure varies depending upon whether decapsulated or nondecapsulated cysts were hatched. Harvesting of Artemia nauplii is done after 5 to 10 minutes interruption of the aeration and remove the airstone. Wait approximately 5 minutes for the empty casings to float to the surface of the water. Empty cyst shells float to the surface, while the nauplii concentrate in the lower part of the tank and the unhatched cysts accumulate underneath the nauplii. Since most nauplii are positively phototactic, their concentration can be hastened and increased by shading the upper part of the hatching container with a black plastic sheet so that light reaches the lower part of the container only. Remove the unhatched cysts for the second hatching, after which the nauplii can be collected. A second collection of nauplii may be done 5 to 10 minutes after the first. Newly hatched nauplii should then be collected in the harvest bag and rinsed for at least five minutes. If nauplii have 651 �settled properly, only 75 percent of the water column will need to be drained. While harvesting, check on the relative ratio of nauplii to cysts by transferring a sample to a glass beaker. This will help determine when the harvesting process is finished or if more time is needed to allow Artemia to settle. Remove the unhatched cysts for the second hatching, after which the nauplii can be collected. A second collection of nauplii may be done 5 to 10 minutes after the first. The nauplii are now ready to be fed to your fish, transferred to subsequent enrichment, or placed into cold storage. 2.3. Enrichment of Artemia and Enrichment Requirements Temperature: 25°C pH: 8.0-8.5 Dissolved oxygen: > 4 mg/L Salinity: 20-30 ppt Density: ≤ 300 nauplii/ml DC DHA dosage: 0.6 g/L Enrichment duration: 20-24 hours Before being fed to larvae, Artemia nauplii are usually fed a specialized diet in order to increase their size and nutritional profile. While freshly hatched Artemia nauplii are rich in protein and can serve as a bridge between daphnia, rotifer and enriched Artemia for many species, they are largely void of the beneficial fatty acids required for proper growth and development of most larvae. For the purpose of the following Artemia enrichment procedure, the protocol developed for the use of the INVE product, DC DHA SELCO, will be utilized. Olivotto et al. (2006) studied on growth and metamorhosis larvae of Sunrise Dottyback, Pseudochromis flavivertex. Larvae were divided into different experimental groups and fed on different feeding combinations in order to test the importance of food enrichment on larval survival, growth and metamorphosis timing. A first group (Group A) was fed on enriched Brachionus plicatilis and enriched Artemia nauplii; a second one (Group B) on enriched B. plicatilis and not enriched Artemia nauplii and a third one fed on not enriched live preys (Group C) used as control group. Live prey enrichment was essential for rearing this species. In fact, larvae fed on not enriched live preys did not past day 7. Highest survival rates (39% juveniles) were observed in Group A with respect to Group B (11% juveniles). Moreover, evidences of the importance of enrichment on growth and metamorphosis timing were observed since larvae reared using enriched live preys grew faster and completed metamorphosis earlier than those fed on not enriched Artemia nauplii. The results presented here provide additional evidence of the importance of live prey enrichment in ornamental larval fish rearing. 2.3.1. Artemia Enrichment Procedure There are a number of commercially available Artemia enrichment products. Because these products have different ingredients, nutritional profiles, and enrichment protocols, it is up to hatchery managers to decide which product is most suitable for their conditions and species. Once an enrichment product is chosen, it is important that standardized protocols be developed and strictly followed. Slight changes in temperature or enrichment time, for example, can have significant effects upon the size and nutritional quality of the final product. Preparation of enriched Artemia requires a two-day lead time: one day is required for hatching of Artemia (see Artemia hatching protocol) and a second day for the enrichment process. Having a second, dedicated enrichment tank is necessary to facilitate this process. As with hatching, a cone-bottomed tank is ideal for enrichment and helps to ensure adequate mixing and complete draining during harvest. Prior to stocking, the enrichment tank should be filled with a suitable amount of water, and water-quality parameters (salinity, temperature, and pH) must be adjusted to match the requirements listed above. It is important to begin the enrichment process with healthy, high-quality nauplii. Nauplii that are damaged or sluggish prior to enrichment will result in suboptimal nutrient uptake. Care should be taken to remove hatched cysts (nondecapsulated cysts) or hatching membranes (from decapsulated cysts) as described in the Artemia hatching section. Artemia nauplii should also be rinsed well prior to stocking into the enrichment tank. This is especially important when using an additive such as INVE’s Hatch Controller or antifoam during the hatching process, as ingredients in these products can interfere with enrichment uptake. During enrichment, vigorous aeration should be applied through the bottom of the enrichment vessel, and dissolved oxygen levels should be closely monitored throughout the process (Fig. 7). The use of supplemental oxygen during this stage will likely be necessary to maintain oxygen levels above 4 milligrams per liter. Temperature must also be maintained at 25°C through the use of submersible heaters or ice packs, as dictated by ambient conditions (Delbos, 2009). 652 �Figure 7. Multiple Artemia Enrichment Cones (heavy aeration) 2.4. Harvest and Cold Storage At the end of the enrichment process, the entire volume of water should be drained into a 100-125 µm harvest bag with sufficient aeration to keep enriched Artemia in suspension. Oxygen levels should be closely monitored in the harvest bag. The bag containing the Artemia should be rinsed well for five minutes or until the water runs clear. Thereafter, Artemia should be transferred into a container containing clean water of a known volume, aerated vigorously, and enumerated as discussed above. If Artemia will not be fed to larvae immediately, it should be placed directly into cold storage, as described below. Artemia not fed to larvae or enriched immediately needs to be stored under cold conditions. Cold storage of Artemia dramatically decreases its metabolism, which directly reduces further growth and metabolism of their protein and lipid stores. Artemia should be transferred to a cooler or suitable container and stored at 2°C to 10°C, with adequate aeration to prevent settling (Fig. 8). Under these conditions, Artemia can be concentrated as high as 5,000 per milliliter and stored for up to 24 hours (Delbos, 2009). Figure 8. Cold-Banked Artemia (ice jugs for temperature control and air line for aeration to keep Artemia suspended) 3. Conclusions The ornamental fish producer would have no problem to assign such a small area for setting up the culture system in their aquarium or farms. While the use of a batch culture system instead of a flow-through system would cut down the volume of seawater required for Artemia culture, the use of artificial seawater would enable farms that have no access to seawater to operate the system. To cut down the cost of salts required for 653 �preparation of artificial seawater, the present system, for the first time in commercial Artemia production, used diluted artificial seawater (salinity 30-40 ppt) instead of full strength seawater for the culture. Change of water was not necessary during the 14-16 day culture period. These characteristics made the system suitable for operation in freshwater ornamental fish farms, and would allow existing ornamental fish farmers to integrate the Artemia production system in their farm operation. The present system did not use expensive mechanical and biological water treatment equipment such as bio-filter, mechanical filter, plate separator, sensors etc. and hence the cost of setting up the system was € 90,000-100,000 only. Bioencapsulation to enhance the nutritional quality of on-grown Artemia was conducted only when the Artemia failed to meet the fish requirement. The same applied to all other live food organisms such as rotifers and Artemia nauplii which might also require bioencapsulation due to their nutritional deficiency (Leger and Sorgeloos 1992; Sorgeloos and Leger 1992; Sorgeloos et al. 1995, Sorgeloos et. al., 2001). It was performed by fish farmers just before feeding the Artemia to fish, and not by producer of the organism. Hence the cost of bioencapsulation was not included in the production cost of the Artemia. Nevertheless, the cost of the enrichment media (€ 80-90/kg) used in bioencapsulation was estimated to be € 3-5/kg of on-grown Artemia (in 50 liter of water at 0.6 g/L.). The present Artemia culture system is a cheap alternative to the more sophisticated intensive system used in sectoral aplications. Compared to the complex automated system, the present system is cost effective, simple and easy to set up and operate. As the system occupies only a small land area and uses diluted artificial seawater for culture, the freshwater ornamental farmers will have no problem to integrate Artemia production using the culture system into their farm operation to increase farm profitability. By varying the time of harvesting, farmers may harvest any specific size of on-grown Artemia of up to 5 mm from the culture system to suit the age and size of their fish. The use of the right size of on-grown Artemia for feeding would ensure a better energy balance in food uptake and assimilation, thereby improving the performance of the fish. These characteristics, coupled with the use of bioencapsulation technique to enhance the quality of the on-grown Artemia, would make the organism an ideal nursery diet for freshwater ornamental fish. The availability of on-grown Artemia and the application of bioencapsulation techniques using the organism are likely to have a positive impact to the ornamental fish industry. The food value of a live food organism for a particular fish species was primarily determined by its size and form. While a small food organism was desirable for fish larvae in term of ingestibility, the use of larger organisms was more beneficial as long as the size of the food organism did not interfere with the ingestion mechanism of the predator (Merchie 1996). Fish would take a long time to attain satiation if fed with smaller live food organism, and this would result in poor growth due to inefficient feeding and waste of energy. The ongrown Artemia in the culture system grew from 0.45 mm at inoculation to an average length of about 5 mm in 12 days. This size range was considered suitable for all sizes of freshwater ornamental fish species of up to 10 cm total length. By varying the harvesting time during the 12-day cycle, it was possible to obtain Artemia of any specific size within the size range for feeding, which would ensure a better energy balance in food uptake and assimilation. The nutritional quality of on-grown Artemia was comparable or superior to the common food organisms being used by the freshwater ornamental fish industry, such as Artemia nauplii, Moina and bloodworms. The on-grown Artemia was rich in protein (67 %) and low in crude fat (4 %). It was reported to have superior nutritional digestibility and a thin exoskeleton rich in essential amino acids (Leger et al. 1989). The latter was consistent with our amino acids analyses, which showed that the essential amino acids in the ongrown Artemia were comparable to Moina and richer than Artemia nauplii and bloodworms. An important dietary characteristic of live food organism was its composition of essential fatty acids. Watanabe (1987) reviewed the essential fatty acid requirement of freshwater and marine fish and concluded that freshwater species required mainly LLA (linolenic) or LNA (linolenic acid) or both. Although the on-grown Artemia obtained from the present study was deficient in LNA, its LLA was the highest among all the four diets tested. The DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), which were widely considered as essential for marine organisms (Dhont and Lavens, 1996), were also highest in on-grown Artemia. Due to lack of published data, it was not known whether the levels of LLA, LNA, EPA and DHA in food organisms would be important to freshwater ornamental fish. Recent study on the fatty acid profiles of common feed items used by the industry for maturation such as beef heart and tubifex worms found unusually high ADA (arachidonic acid) levels (Ako et al. 1999). Availability of the on-grown Artemia would offer our farmers and exporters the possibility to apply the bioencapsulation technique to improve their fish performance and quality. In addition, the effective bioencapsulation characteristics of on-grown Artemia also make the organism a useful tool for larval nutrition study on freshwater ornamental fish. The present Artemia culture system is a cheap alternative to the more sophisticated superintensive system. By varying the time of harvesting, aquarists may harvest any specific size of on-grown Artemia of up to 5 mm from the culture system to suit the age and size of their fish. The use of the right size of on-grown Artemia for feeding would ensure a better energy balance in food uptake and assimilation, thereby improving the performance of the fish. These characteristics, coupled with the use of bioencapsulation technique to enhance the quality of the on-grown Artemia, would make the organism an ideal nursery diet for freshwater ornamental fish. The availability of on-grown Artemia and the application of bioencapsulation 654 �techniques using the organism are likely to have a positive impact to the ornamental fish industry. Finally, demonstrated that the commercial production of on-grown Artemia using the present culture system was highly viable for freshwater ornamental fish applications. References Ako, H., Tamaru, C., Asano, L. (1999). Colour, maturation, and palatability feeds. In: Conference Abstracts, AQUARAMA 99 World Conference on Ornamental Fish Aquaculture, 3-6 June 1999, pp. 43. Miller Freeman, Singapore. Arulvasu, C., Munuswamy, N. (2009). Survival, growth and composition of Poecilia latipinna fry fed enriched Artemia nauplii. Current Science, 96(1): 114-119. Briksi, E., Stappen VG., Bossier, P., Sorgeloos, S. (2008). Laboratory production of early hatching Artemia sp. cysts by selection, Aquaculture 282: 19–25. Dhont, J., Lavens, P. (1996). Tank production and use of on-grown Artemia. In: Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture (Eds.) P. Lavens & P. Sorgeloos), pp. (164-195). FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 361, FAO, Rome. Delbos, B.C. (2009). Artemia Culture for Intensive Finfish and Crustacean Larviculture, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Publication 600-106, (VSG-09-05), USA. Govoni, J.J., Boehlert, G.W., Watanabe, Y. (1986) The physiology of digestion in fish larvae. Environ. Biol. Fish., 16: 59–77. Landau M., Miyamoto G., Bolis C. (1985). Growth and amino acid composition of Artemia salina (L.1758) fed algae grown in different media (Anostraca). Crustaceana 49: 318–320. Leger P., Bengston D.A., Sorgeloos P. (1989). Analytical variation in the determination of the fatty acid composition of Standard preparations of the brine shrimp Artemia. Aquat. Toxicol. Hazard Assess 12: 413–423. Leger, P., Sorgeloos, P. (1992). Optimized feeding regimes in shrimp hatcheries. In: Marine Shrimp Culture: Principles and Practices (Eds.) Fast A. W. & J. Lester, (pp. 225-244). Elsevier Science Publishers. Lim, L.C., Soh, A., Dhert, P., Sorgeloos, P. (2001). Production and application of on-grown Artemia in freshwater ornamental fish farm, Aquaculture Economics & Management, 5: 3, 211-228. Lim, L.C., Cho, Y.L., Dhert, P., Wong, C.C., Neils, H., Sorgeloos, P. (2002). Use of decapsulated Artemia cysts in Ornamental fish Culture. Aquaculture Research, 33: 575-589. Lim, L.C., Dhert, P., Sorgeloos, P. (2003). Recent developments in the application of live feeds in the freshwater ornamental fish culture. Aquaculture, 227: 319-331. Merchie, G. (1996). Use of nauplii and meta-nauplii. In: Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture (Eds.) P. Lavens & P. Sorgeloos, (pp. 137-163). FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 361, FAO, Rome. Olivotto, I., Rollo, A., Sulpizio, R., Avella, M., Tosti, L., Carnevali, O. (2006). Breeding and rearing the Sunrise Dottyback Pseudochromis flavivertex: the importance of live prey enrichment during larval development. Aquaculture, 255: 480-487. Sorgeloos, P., Leger, P. (1992). Improved larviculture outputs of marine fish, shrimp and prawn. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 23(4), 251-164. Sorgeloos, P., Dehasque, M., Dhert, P., Lavens, P. (1995). Review of some aspects of marine fish larviculture. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Marine Scientific Symposium, 201, 138-142. Sorgeloos, P., Dhert, P., Candreva, P. (2001). Use of the brine shrimp, Artemia spp. in marine fish larviculture. Aquaculture, 200: 147–159. Stottrup, G.J., McEvoy, L.A. 2003. Live Feeds in Marine Aquaculture. Blackwell Science Ltd., USA. 318p. Tamaru, C.S., Ako, H. Paguirigan, R., Pang, L. (2001). Enrichment of Artemia for use in Freshwater Ornamental Fish Production. Center for Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture, USA, Publication Number 133, 21p. Tlusty, M. (2002). The benefits and risks of aquacultural production for the aquarium trade. Aquaculture, 205: 203-219. 655 �Watanabe, T. (1987). The use of Artemia in fish and crustacean farming in Japan. In: Artemia Research and its Applications. Vol. 3, Ecology, Culturing, Use in Aquaculture (Eds.) P. Sorgeloos, A. Bengtson, W. Decleir & E. Jaspers, (pp. 372-393). Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium. 656 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 613 Title A name given to the resource Recent Developments On The Aplication Of Artemia In The Ornamental Fish Culture Author Author Koru, Edis Turkmen, Gurel Abstract A summary of the resource. Production of animals for the aquarium hobbyist trade is a rapidly growing sector of the aquacultural industry, and it will continue to become more important as restrictions are placed on collecting animals for the wild. Improved techniques for marine food-fish larviculture since the early 1980’s have greatly enhanced the growth and survival of freshwater ornamental fish larvae largely through improved technology regarding live food culture and larval rearing practices. Research developments in larviculture and early rearing technology have allowed 90% of currently marketed freshwater ornamental fish to be cultured. However, for marine ornamentals, the reverse is true as only a handful of species is produced via aquaculture technology. A major task in devising a protocol for the artificial propagation of a fish species is the development of a feeding regimen for the larvae. Live feeds are a convenient and often essential food source for the larvae of some cultured species, especially those without a fully developed digestive system. In such cases, live food organisms provide digestive enzymes that breakdown the food ingested by larvae and can be described as naturally encapsulated bags of nutrients. Two major concerns among aquaculturists are providing organisms appropriate to the size of the larvae at the first feeding stage and then supplying the large numbers of feed organisms necessary to maintain the larvae. Since no artificial feed formulation is yet available to completely substitute for Artemia, feeding live prey to young fish larvae still remains essential in commercial hatchery operations. This paper reports the recent developments in the applications of Artemia nauplii, decapsulated Artemia cysts and on-grown Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c6b4d9aaacc4d85ab201b4ab3163041c.pdf 70389c574df4b516f41066453783617e PDF Text Text Ectoparasitic Diseases in Freshwater Ornamental Fish and Their Treatments C.Erkin Koyuncu Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries Mersin University TURKEY ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr Erol Tokşen Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries Ege University TURKEY erol.tokşen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Fish parasites and their effects have become increasingly visible during the latest decades inconnection with the development of fresh water ornamental Fish industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. Ectoparasites are the most common and widely distributed of freshwater ornamental Fish. Such as, protozoan ectoparasites of aquarium fish (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Ichthyobodo necatrix, Chilodonella cyprini, Oodinium limneticum, Trichodinids); external worms of fish (Dactylogyrus extensus, Gyrodactylus bullutarudis); external crustaceans (parasitic copepods, Argulus japonicus, Argulus foliaceus, Lernaea cyprinacea).The fish louse Argulus spp. is now the main problem in cage-cultured freshwater ornamental Fish in the fresh water environment in Europa countries. Gyrodactylus bullatarudis had caused the mortality in guppy ornamental fish. White Spot Disease (Ichthyophthiriosis) occurs in ornamental fish fry interprise caused the considerable economic loss. Ornamental fish were affected heavily by ectoparasites due to the very fine structure of the skin. Ectoparasites causing in ornamental fish only kills the fish but also reduces the market value of fish. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater ornamental fish, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on ornamental fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Introduction Fish parasites and their effects have become increasingly visible during the latest decades inconnection with the development of freshwater ornamental Fish industries troughout the world. Diseases caused by parasites are widespread and cause loses of fish in intensively stocked pond and aguarium. Ectoparasites of freshwater ornamental fish come in all sizes and shapes and inculude single-celled protozoan, and mullticellular trematodes (flatworms), crustaceans and artropods (Roberts 2010). Parasites can infest the outer surface or penetrate the paranchyma of almost any tissue of the host. Fish can serve as an intermediate, paratenic (transport) or definetive host for various stages of parasites. Ectoparasitic infections in freshwater ornamentals fishes are diagnosed by wet mount cytology preparations of skin scrapes, gills biopsies, and by direct observation (macroscopic parasites) (Woo 2006, Roberts 2010). Ectoparasites are the most common and widely distributed of freshwater ornamental Fish (Tab.1). These parasites, in crowded pools and aquariums, together with increasing water temperature when appropriate conditions are found to cause large losses. Ornamental fish were affected heavily by ectoparasites due to the very fine structure of the skin. Ectoparasites causing in ornamental fish only kills the fish but also reduces the market value of fish (Mousavi 2003,Tokşen 2006, Koyuncu 2009). In this review, treatment and control of ectoparasites of freshwater ornamental fish in the recent developments were reviewed. The Study Research Significance In this study, ectoparasite of freshwater ornamental diseases and drug therapy are discussed. Ectoparasite freshwater ornamental that can be used in treatment of diseases and drugs are defined and explained the general features. 683 �Important Fish Ectoparasite Groups Caused Loses in Ornamental Fish In this section, the systematic groups that represent the most important examples are chosen. Protozoa: Protozoans are the most common ectoparasites encountered in ornamental fish. Although some authors consider them harmless, many serious fish losses are caused by protozoan ectoparasites (Krier and Baker 1987 Durborow et al.1998, Scholz 1999, Wildgoose 2001). Protozoans vary in shape and size and live mainly on the gills, fins, and skin of fish. There are a number of protozoan ectoparasites long recognized as causative agents of severe diseases such as flagellates of the genus Oodinium sp, or Ichthyobodo sp. and the cilli protozoan ectoparasites, Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Chilodonella sp. Trichodina sp. are some of the most significant pathogens in ornamental fish (Tab. 1). (Durborow 2003). Oodinium sp. is a problem in freshwater ornamental fishes. Most reports of the parasite have been on aquarium fishes.( Lom et.al. 1983). Ichthyobodo sp. - formerly (and still commonly) called Costia. A flagellated protozoal ectoparasite. A normal inhabitant of fish skin. Poor water quality and other stresses (especially crowding) may allow this normally mutualistic parasite to reproduce rapidly and overwhelm the host. Microscopically the protozoa are very small (5-10 microns), move rapidly, and are shaped like small sickles. They may be attached to host tissue or swimming free. Most common in freshwater species of fishes (Joyon et al., 1969). Ichthyophthirius multifiliis - known commonly simply as "Ich." The largest protozoal parasite of fish and one of the most commonly encountered. Trophozoites may reach 1.0 mm in diameter. This interference will be placed into the skin. Protection against other pathogens in patients with low-grade infection destroys the system. Whereas in cases of severe infections can cause death quickly. Excessive growth of cysts on the pool floor and as such is a suitable environment for this group is very high virulence of the parasite infection In particular, in the ornamental fish Ichthyophthiriosis loss caused millions of measured by dollars (Durborow et.al., 1998). Chilodonella sp. - A ciliated protozoan which can cause high morbidity and mortality among freshwater tropical fishes at the wholesale and fish farming levels of the industry. Attacks skin and gills. Easily identified microscopically by its heart-shaped structure and slow circular motion when not crawling on the surface of the fish ( Koyuncu, 2003). Trichodina sp.- A disc-shaped ciliate protozoan found on the skin and gills of many freshwater fish. Circular rows of denticles and a ciliary girdle give this parasite a unique radial symmetry. Probably not harmful when present in small numbers (Ozer et al., 1998). Monogenean Platyhelminthes: Monogeneans are parasitic flatworms or flukes with direct live cycle that infest the external surfaces of almost any species of ornamental fish. The mongeneans have an anterior oral sucker used for feding on mucus and sloughed epithelial cells, while the posterior end has a organ for attaching to host. These parasites cause focal irritation, increased mucus production, and hyperplasia of the epithelial tissues, and open a portal for secondary bacterial and fungal infections. Severe infections can cause erratic swimming behavior, ’flashing’ respiratory activity, scattered hemorrhages with epithelial ulceration and frayed fin. Monogenea species the economic importance of fish in the severe loss causes: Common genera found in ornemantal fish inculude: Dactylogyrus sp. and Gyrodactylus sp. Fancy gold fish are commonly infected with ‘gill’ flukes, Dactylogyrus extensus, while Gyrodactylus katherineri skin flukes infestastion are more often observed in koi. Gyrodactylus bullatarusdis and Gyrodactylus Turnbull are guppy fish flukes (Tab. 1). (Woo 2006, Roberts2010). Arthropoda (Crustacea): Crustasea s play an important role in fish parasites is a group. There are a number of crustacean parasites that infect the skin and gills of tropical and ornamental fish (Tab. 1), Lernaea sp. or ‘ anchor form’ is a copepod crustacean of pond-reared fish, especially gold fish, carp, koi and guupy. The infections larval stage of this particular parasite penetrates the skin of the fish and continues to develop. There is usually an intense focal inflammatory reaction at the site of penetration, which often results in hiperplasia of tissue around the site of parasites development( Roberts , 2010) Ergasilus sp. is a species of another type of copepod parasite. The parasites are most commonly found attached to the gill filaments of many species of pond and ornamental fish. (Robert, 2010) 684 �The ‘fish louse’, Argulus sp. is a common branchiurid crustacean parasite of many species of pond and ornamental fish. This parasite carwls over the surface of the fish and uses its stylet to pierce the outer epithelial cells of the fish and ingest the cell’s contents. There is a severe inflammatory reaction at the site of stylet penetration, sugesstion that a substance is released by the parasite to facilitate feeding. Because of the this feding activity this parasite has also been imlicated in the mechanical transmission of several bacterial, viral and hemoprotozoal diseases (Toksen, 2006, Robert, 2010) The fish louse Argulus sp. is now the main problem in cage-cultured freshwater ornamental Fish in the fresh water environment in Europa countries (Woo, 2006). Way of Parasites Size Host Position Location transsimition Protozoa: Flagella Oodinium sp. 12-90 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin Of floating phase skin invasion Icthyobodo sp. 5-18 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin Of floating phase skin invasion Ichthyophthirius multifiliis 50-1000µm (trophozoites) Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin, Epithelial tissues Trichodina sp. 35-60 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin and gills Chilodonella sp. 30-80 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin and gills Of floating theront invasion Of floating phase skin and gills invasion Of floating phase skin and gills invasion Ciliate Monogenea: Gyrodactylus sp 350-460 µm Dactylogyrus sp. 990-1584 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin and fin Body contact Gills and skin Body contact Arthropoda Lernaea sp. Ergasilus sp. Argulus sp. Freshwater 5-20 mm ornamentals Skin and fin Body contact fish Freshwater 1-2 mm ornamentals Gills Body contact fish Freshwater 8-13 mm ornamentals Skin and fin Body contact fish Table 1. Common Ornamental Fish Ectoparasites 685 �Medicaments Used in Treatment of Freshwater Ornamental Parasites: The applied treatments for diseases are prevention and good health management. However, Chloramines-T Formaldehyde, Potassium permanganate, Acetic acid, Copper sulfate, Malachite green and salt are commonly used to control protozoan fish ectoparasites (Tab. 2). Salt, formaldehyde, and vinegar appeared to be the most effective chemicals to treat protozoan infestation (Stoskopf, 1993, Noga, 2001, Timur et. al ,2003 Kayis et. al,. 2005, Balta et al., 2008, Dörücü et.al., 2008, Kayis et al., 2009). Levamisol, Mebendazole Triclorphon and formalin are commonly used to control treat metazoan parasites (Lasee, 1995, Toksen, 2006). Among the chemicals that are used to treat or prevent parasitic fish diseases in Turkey, Acetic acid, Betadine, Chloramin-T, Copper sulfate, Formalin, Hydrogen peroxide, Malachite green, Levamisol, Mebendazole, Potassium permanganate and salt are authorized by the European Union by the council regulation (EEC) no. 2377/90 of the European Council. In most countries, very few drugs and chemicals have been registered for treatment of food fish. Indeed, many biocides (e.g., malachite green) are banned from use in most countries and severe measures are taken against exporters of fish and shellfish that contain residues. Due to the carcinogenic and genotoxic potentials of malachite green, it has been prohibited for use in the production of consumer fish in the European Union by regulation no. 2377/90 of the European Council. Drugs and chemicals used to treat fish must be safe to the fish and the environment, as well as to human. Used for the control of freshwater ornamental ectoparasites in the market are several chemical substances. These chemicals in general are also used in other hosts. Metabolism of fish is different, the effects of these substances in freshwater ornamenta ectoparasites is weak. Therefore, the fish farms to prevent excessive loss of fish to specific research and development antiparazit compounds are needed. Toltrazuril similar drugs are promising for broad spectra (Tab. 2). (Dörücü et.al , 2008). Antiparasitic agent Chloramin-T* Chemical Dosage;time 7-15 mg/l; 1 h Formaldehyde* 0.167-0.25 mg/l; 1 h 0.25 mg/l; indefinite 250-500 mg/l; 30-60 min 0.5 mg/l 1-2 mg/l; 1-10 min 50 mg/l; 30 min 0.1-0.15 ppm/12-24 h 50 ml/l; 2 h 1 mg/l; 24 h 4ml(1000 ml water) 13.5 ppm for several days 10 ppm for sevaral days 2-5 mg/lt 1h Hydrogen peroxide* Copper sulfate* Acetic acid* Betadine* Malachite green* Levamisol* Mebendazole Toltrazuril Qunine hydrochloride Atebrine Potassium permanganate* Dimilin Triclorphon Ectoparasite Protozoan, monogenetic trematodes External parasites Treatment Bath treatment External parasites External parasites External parasites External parasites External parasites Monogenetic trematodes Monogenetic trematodes Monogenetic trematodes Artropoda ectoparasites Artropoda ectoparasites Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Dip treatment Bath treatment 0.01 mg/lt Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment 0.25-5 ppm for several Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment hours DTHP 2.5 ppm 1hour Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment Salt* 3% solution; 15-30 min External parasites Bath treatment 0.5% solution; indefinite * Chemicals authorized by council regulation (EEC) no. 2377/90 of the European Council Table 2. Control and Treatment of Ectoparasitic Diseases in Freshwater Ornamental Fish 686 �Conclusions Hundreds of fish parasites in their natural environment type has been found infected, although rarely leads to death of fish. In tropical fish culture reduces the number of common parasites, but they do influence is great. Parasites of fish death, loss of appetite, the slowdown in growth, deterioration of reproductive ability, reduce resistance to other pathogens, and cause marketing with unpleasant views. Despite these negative effects on the market for the treatment of fish parasites in a small number of drugs are used. Of this review, the treatment of diseases in tropical fish culture, fish ectoparasites shed light manufacturers believe. References : Balta, F., Kayis S., Altinok I. (2008). External protozoan parasites in three trout species in the eastern Black Sea region of the Turkey: intensity, seasonality, and their treatments: A case study. Bull. Eur.Assoc. Fish Pathol., 28:157-162. Dörücü, M. & Mutlu, N. (2008). Paraziter Balık Hastalıkları ve Đlaçla Tedavileri: A case study. Journal of New World Sciences Academy, Natural and Applied Sciences, 3,(2), 372-380. Durborow, R.M. (2003). Protozoan Parasites. no. 4701., NY: SRAC Publ. Durborow, R. M., Mitchell, A.J., Crosby, M.D 1998. Ich (White Spot Disease). no. 476., NY: SRAC Publ. Joyon, L. & Lom, J. (1969). Etude cytogique, systematique et pathologique Ichthyobodonecator (Henneguy, 1883), Pinto, 1928 (Zooflagelle): A case study. J. Protozool., 16:703-719. Kayis, S., Ozcelep, T., Capkin, E., Altinok, I. (2009). Protozoan and Metazoan Parasites of Cultured Fish in Turkey and their Applied Treatments: A case study The Israeli Journal of Aquaculture – Bamidgeh 61(2), 93-102. Kayis ,S. Balta, F., Yandi, I. Akhan, S. (2005). Costia necatrix ve Ambiphyra spp. ile enfeste olmus lebistes baliklarinda formaldehit uygulamasi: A case study. Turk. J. Aquat. Life, 4:527-529 . Krier, J.P. & Baker, J.R. (1987). Parasitic Protozoa. Allen and Unwin, 241 Australia.(pp.1-153), NY:Academic Pres. Koyuncu, E. & Cengizler, I. (2002). Mersin Bolgesinde yetistiriciligi yapilan Bazi akvaryum baliklari (Poecilidae)’ inda rastlanan protozoan ektoparazitler: A case study. E.U. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 19:293-300. Koyuncu, E. (2009). Parasites of ornamental fish in Turkey: A case study. Bull. Eur. Ass. Fish Pathol. 29 (1), 25-27. Lasee, B.A. (1995). Introduction to Fish Health Management. 2. Edition, La Crosse Fish Health Center, 555 Lester Ave. Onalaska, Wisconsin, (pp.139) NY: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lom, J. & Schubert, G.(1983). Ultrastructural Study of Piscioodinium pillulares (Schaperclaus, 1954) Lom, 1981. with Special Emphasis on its Attachment to the Fish Host: A case study. Journal of Fish Diseases, 6, 411-428. Lom J. & L. Dykova. (1992). Protozoan Parasites of Fishes. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science, 26. B.V., Amsterdam. (pp.315), NJ: Elsevier Sci. Publ. Mousavi H.A.E. (2003). Parasites of Ornamental fish in Iran: A case study. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists 23(6), 297-300. Noga, E.J. (2001). Fish Disease, Diagnosis andTreatment. Mosby. 75-138., Ames, IA, (pp.367), NY: Iowa State University Press. Oge, S. (2002). Chemotherapy for Parasites of Freshwater Fish: A case study. J. Turkish Parazitol., 26: 113-118. OIE, (2007). Electronic discoures:The World Organization for Animal Health Service NY: OIE Ozer A. & Erdem, O. (1998). Ectoparasitic Protozoa Fauna of the Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L., 1758) caught in the Sinop region of Turkey: A case study. J. Nat. Hist., 32:441-454. Roberts, H.E. (2010). Fundamentals of Ornamental Fish Health, 1. Edition ed. 28-108pp), USA, NY: Blackwell Publ. Scholz, T. (1999). Parasites in cultured and feral fish: A case study. Vet. Parasitol., 84:317-335. 687 �Stoskopf, M.K. (1993). Fish medicine. NY:W.B.Saunders. Timur, G. & Timur, M. ( 2003). Balik Hastaliklari. I.U. Su Urunleri Yayin no. 5, Istanbul. (pp.538 ). NY: I.U.Su Urunleri Press Toksen, E. (2006). Argulus foliacesus (Crustacea: Branchiura) infestation on oscar, Astronotus ocellatus (Cuvier, 1829) and its treatment :A case study. E.U. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 23:177-179. Wildgoose, HW. (2001). British Small Animal Veterinary Association Manual of Ornamental Fish. 2nd Edition, Gloucester, UK, ( pp.304), NY: BSAVA Woo, P.T.K. (2006). Fish Diseases and Disorders, vol. 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections, 2nd ed., Cambridge, NY: CABI Publ. 688 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 617 Title A name given to the resource Ectoparasitic Diseases in Freshwater Ornamental Fish and Their Treatments Author Author Koyuncu, C.Erkin Toksen, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. Fish parasites and their effects have become increasingly visible during the latest decades inconnection with the development of fresh water ornamental Fish industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. Ectoparasites are the most common and widely distributed of freshwater ornamental Fish. Such as, protozoan ectoparasites of aquarium fish (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Ichthyobodo necatrix, Chilodonella cyprini, Oodinium limneticum, Trichodinids); external worms of fish (Dactylogyrus extensus, Gyrodactylus bullutarudis); external crustaceans (parasitic copepods, Argulus japonicus, Argulus foliaceus, Lernaea cyprinacea).The fish louse Argulus spp. is now the main problem in cage-cultured freshwater ornamental Fish in the fresh water environment in Europa countries. Gyrodactylus bullatarudis had caused the mortality in guppy ornamental fish. White Spot Disease (Ichthyophthiriosis) occurs in ornamental fish fry interprise caused the considerable economic loss. Ornamental fish were affected heavily by ectoparasites due to the very fine structure of the skin. Ectoparasites causing in ornamental fish only kills the fish but also reduces the market value of fish. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater ornamental fish, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on ornamental fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c819880e9edda7d14fb7a4c22bf0e35c.pdf dfb18a5c83026c9b4e7435ebd26fd164 PDF Text Text Transportation Practices and Strategies for Sustainable Development Mirsad Kulović, Tennessee Department of Transportation Nashville, TN 37243, USA m.kulovic@hotmail.com Abstract: The transportation as a system is an important component of social and economy sustainable development. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. In order to effectively reduce the adverse impact of existing transportation systems new development patterns must be adopted. Overall, the concept of transportation sustainability should be defined through three major factors: social equity, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility. Strategies for transportation sustainability include demand management, operation management, improvements of vehicle technology, pricing policy and integrated land use and transportation planning. This paper deals with importance of transportation for sustainable development and presents some sustainable transportation practices and strategies in the United States and Europe. Key words: Transportation, Sustainable Development, Practices, Strategies Introduction Sustainability, in general, is creating a balance between the economy, social needs and environment. Transportation, as a core component supporting the interactions between economy, social activities and environment should be balanced. Virtually all human activities have an impact on our environment, and transportation is no exception. While transportation is crucial to our economy and our personal lives, as a sector it is also a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Today’s transportation is facing the most significant issue – climate change. The reality of climate change is broadly accepted by international recognized scientific organization and governments. Racing global temperatures pose two major challenges for the transportation community: (1) preservation of transportation systems by minimizing affect of climate change and (2) reduction of greenhouse gases emissions produced by transportation systems. The transportation sector accounts for more than two thirds oil consumption and transportation vehicles emit 28% of the total greenhouse gas emissions. Since 1990 transportation sector emissions have grown more in absolute terms than any other sector. Forecasts of emissions, or estimates of future emissions, assist with the development of policies and actions that can be taken to establish reduction goals and reduce GHG emissions over the long term. While technological change is essential to reducing GHG emissions there is also a role for strategies that help to limit the growth in travel demand. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society; while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. Transportation Sustainability The concept of sustainability can be defined through three major points: social equity, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility (Figure 1). Social equity relates to conditions favoring a distribution of resources among the people upon comparative levels of their productivity. This should not be 832 �confused with welfare programs because welfare is not equity, but redistribution. Economic efficiency relates to higher levels of economic efficiency in terms of resource and labor usage. Economic efficiency focuses on competitiveness, flexibility in production and providing goods and services that supply a market demand. Environmental responsibility assumes using natural capital (the sum of nature’s resources) at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. This includes the supply of resources (food, water, energy, etc.) and numerous forms of wastes. The existing problems in the respects of social equity, economic efficiency and resources consuming (the land, energy, etc.) are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. The transportation infrastructure, mode of transportation and logistics systems are the major areas of transportation sustainability concentration which would contribute to the sustainability in general. Table 1 summarizes the key issues that should be balanced and integrated. The next an important question is: how to evaluate presented transportation sustainability issues? Sustainable transportation indicators are an important tool for better transportation planning. There is currently no standard set of transportation sustainability indicators. It would be very desirable to develop standardized baseline indicators of transportation sustainability. The quantity of oil consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission are directly related and they have influence on all three categories of transportation sustainability issues. The basic information on oil consumption and GHG emission are presented in the following paragraphs. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL EQUITY ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION MODE INFRASTRUCTURE LOGISTICS Figure 1: Sustainable Development and Sustainable Transportation Relationship Social Equity Economic Efficiency Inequity of Impact Mobility of Disadvantaged Human Health Impact Community Cohesion Traffic Congestion Mobility Barriers Crash Damages Transportation Facility Costs User Transportation Costs Depletion of Non-renewable Resources Community Livability Aesthetics Environmental Responsibility Air Pollution Climate Change Habitat Loss Water Pollution Hydrologic Impacts Noise Pollution Table 1: Transportation Sustainability Issues (Source: Victoria Transport Policy Institute) Oil Consumption The industrialized countries are the largest consumers of oil, but until 1998 had not been the most important growth markets for some years. The countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), for instance, account for almost 2/3 of worldwide daily oil consumption. In contrast, however, oil demand in the OECD grew by some 11 percent over the 1991-97 periods, while demand outside the OECD (excluding the Former Soviet Union) grew by 35 percent. The Former Soviet Union presents a special case. The collapse of the Russian economy that accompanied the collapse of Communism led to a decline in oil consumption of more than 50 percent over the 1991-98 periods. The developed economies use oil much more intensively than the developing economies. The United States and Canada stand almost alone in their consumption of oil per capita. For instance, oil consumption in the United States equals 10.8 liters per day per 833 �capita. The difference is this country transportation sector, with its dependence on private vehicles to travel relatively long distances. Oil consumption in the rest of the OECD equals 5.3 liters per day per capita. Outside of the OECD, oil consumption equals 0.76 liters per day per capita. Table 2 shows consumption of oil per day per capita in the USA, European Union and some European Countries with the rank of those countries in total oil consumption per day among 213 world’s countries. Country Oil Consumption per Day per Capita [Liters/Day/Capita] Total Oil Consumption per Day [Liters/Day In Millions] Rank in Total Oil Consumption per Day USA 10.8 3288 1 European Union 4.6 2288 2 Germany 4.7 390 7 Croatia 3.6 16 76 Serbia and Montenegro 1.3 13.5 82 Slovenia 4.3 8.6 94 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1.1 4.4 111 Macedonia 1.7 3.4 119 Table 2: Oil Consumption (Source: Energy Statistics, Oil Consumption, Nation Master.com) Regionally, the largest consuming area remains North America (dominated by the United States), followed by Asia (with Japan the largest consumer), Europe (where consumption is more evenly spread among the nations), and then the other regions. Asia was the region with the fastest demand growth until the 1998 economic crisis in East Asia. The region's economic upheaval is a central reason for the oil price collapse of 1998. The United States and Canada use oil more for transportation than for heat and power, but the opposite pattern holds for most of the rest of the world: most regions use more oil for heat and power than for transportation. As a result, global demand for oil is highest in the Northern Hemisphere's cold months. There is a swing of 3-4 million barrels per day (some 5 percent) between the 4th quarter of the year, when demand is highest, to the 3rd quarter, when it is lowest. Demand for crude oil is derived from the demand for the finished and intermediate products that can be made from it. In the short-term, however, demand for crude oil may be mismatched with the underlying demand for petroleum products. This misalignment occurs routinely as a result of stock changes: the need to build stocks to meet seasonal demand, for instance, or the desire to reduce stocks of crude oil for economic reasons. In the longer term, blending non-petroleum additives into petroleum products (such as ethanol or other oxygenating agents into gasoline) can also reduce crude oil demand relative to demand for finished products. 834 �Greenhouse Gas Emission Based on current GHG emission reporting guidelines, the transportation sector directly accounted for about 28 percent of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2006, making it the second largest source of GHG emissions, behind only electricity generation (33 percent). Nearly 97 percent of transportation GHG emissions came through direct combustion of fossil fuels, with the remainder due to carbon dioxide (CO2) from electricity (for rail) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) emitted from vehicle air conditioners and refrigerated transport. Transportation is the largest end-use sector emitting CO2, the most prevalent greenhouse gas. Estimates of GHG emissions do not include additional "lifecycle" emissions related to transportation, such as the extraction and refining of fuel and the manufacture of vehicles, which are also a significant source of domestic and international GHG emissions. Figure 1 shows Greenhouse Gas emission in the USA. Residential 5% Electricity Generation 33% Transportation Commercial 6% Agriculture 8% Industry 20% 28% Figure 1: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in USA Sustainable Transportation Practices and Strategies A number of practices and strategies are being carried out in many countries in Europe and United States. Some of those practices which found to be effective are listed and described in the following paragraphs. Land Use Strategies The decisions related to land use have significant impact on transportation and vice versa. The number and purpose of trips generated by certain type of land use would influence size and spatial distribution of transportation infrastructure and different mode of transportation. The most beneficial land use strategy is people living close to work, shopping centers and basic services. Providing public transportation and space for walking and biking are the next best actions. Defining urban growth boundaries, minimum density development and comprehensive planning are effective land use strategies that reinforce sustainable transportation. The policy of the state, region or municipality should be development of transportation plan that implement the goals previously adopted by the state, region or municipality. The objective of this policy is to provide the needed level of mobility while minimize number of trips taken by automobile. It is anticipated that adequate transportation demand management would reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the USA by 6% by 2020 and 15 % by 2040. The land use strategies could be summarized in the following four practical development actions: compact development, mixed use development, higher development densities and transit, pedestrian, bike friendly development. Current transportation planning practices tend to favor road automobile-oriented investments and designs over alternatives. Transportation planning practices often evaluate transportation primarily in terms of vehicle movement, which skews decisions toward automobile improvements at the expense of other forms of access. Transportation professionals should shift their focus from only on level of service for motor vehicles or road users to the users of other travel modes.Technology 835 �The new technologies offer many opportunities to improve efficiency of goods and passenger transportation and ability to access information. Application of Intelligent transportation systems in many areas of transportation field already broth significant benefits. The gas-electric hybrid vehicles are widely available on the market. Hybrid vehicles, which combine an internal combustion engine with a battery-powered motor, are significantly more fuel efficient than regular gasoline powered vehicles. For example the 2008 Toyota Prius hybrid has a combined city/highway fuel economy of 5.1 liter per 100 kilometers, while non-hybrid Toyota Corolla, which is comparable in size, is rated at 8.8 liters per 100 kilometers in city and 6.8 liters per 100 kilometers on highway. The ‘plug-in –hybrids” are designed to operate mainly as limited range electric vehicles, with a small gasoline engine to extend range and recharge batteries if needed. They are expected to reach the fuel economy of 2.4 liters per 100 kilometers. The electricity consumed from the grid is not included in this measure. This technology is still several years from widespread deployment as the battery systems that operate the vehicles are extremely expensive and not yet sufficiently reliable for commercial use. An alternative fuel, most generally defined, is any fuel other than the traditional selections, gasoline and diesel, used to produce energy or power. The emissions impact and energy output provided by alternative fuels varies, depending on the fuel source. Examples of alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, electricity, propane, compressed natural gas, and hydrogen. Transportation Planning Strategy While technological change is essential to reducing GHG emissions there is also a role for strategies that help to limit the growth in travel demand. Transportation planning strategies can be implemented through the transportation planning process and are usually initiated by transportation agencies. These include Travel Demand Management (TDM), transit investment, changes in land-use patterns and bicycle/pedestrian projects. The vehicle-kilometer traveled (VKT) has grown much faster than population growth for the past several decades, but appears to have slowed considerably in the past two years, perhaps in response to sharply rising fuel prices and global economic crisis. There are many factors that can affect the future growth rate of VKT. Among most important factors are economic trends and demographic forces, which are largely beyond the influence of government policies. Expanding transit services and other alternatives to single-occupant vehicle travel and encouraging land use that minimize the number and length of auto trips can significantly help to reduce GHG emission. An average private vehicle emission rate is about 0.3 kg of CO2 per kilometer. An automobile driven by single person 20 kilometers round trip to work will emit 6 kg of CO2. Thus, savings by using existing public transportation services would be about 6kg of CO2 per day. Over the course of a year an individual could potentially reduce their CO2 emissions by more than 1440 kg (assuming 240 days of transit travel per year). The possible opportunity to reduce growth in VKT is providing incentives and logistical support for telecommuting. Telecommuting, which has been doubled in the 1980-2000 period, is likely to be highly cost-effective strategy for reducing GHG emissions. A high level of motor vehicle travel is not sustainable. Therefore sustainable transportation requires mobility management (strategies that change travel behavior) to increase transportation system efficiency rather than just vehicle efficiency. Transportation Systems Operations Strategies Transportation systems operations strategies are designed to reduce vehicle delay, improve traffic flow, and avoid unnecessary emissions. These include incident management, traveler information, and freeway management. Traffic congestion contributes to GHG emissions because vehicle engines operate les efficiently and therefore produce higher emissions per kilometer when they are driven at low speeds in stop-and-go traffic. The optimal speed for motor vehicles with internal combustion engines is about 70 km/h. At lower speeds, CO2 emissions per kilometer are several times higher than at 70 km/h. At higher speeds, CO2 emissions per kilometer increase as well, but somewhat less sharply. Pricing Strategies The significant component of GHG emissions, as much as 22 percent, results from inefficient operation of motor vehicles. These inefficiencies could result from factors beyond the driver’s control, such as traffic congestion, and also could reflect a driver’s own behavior, such as high speed driving, vehicle maintenance, and tire pressures. The concept of road pricing has received increased attention primarily as a means of managing congestion and generating additional funding for transportation. If implemented on a broad scale road pricing system could change driver behavior. Driver education and other policies could help to promote more efficient vehicle operations, which would help reduce GHG emissions. Pricing strategies are recognized as efficient for congestion reduction. The methods vary from toll roads to peak period congestion pricing. Congestion pricing 836 �charges the owner or operator of a motor vehicle a fee for using certain roadways during periods of high congestion. The way in which congestion pricing is implemented depends upon type of technology selected and the type of pricing preferred by policymakers. Increase fuel cost can help promote alternative modes of transportation and investments. Transportation Research Board (TRB) estimates that increasing fuel prices by a rate of 3 percent per year would result in a 20 percent in global warming by 2020 and 35 percent reduction by 2040. Also TRB estimates that a 1.5 percent annual increase in average new vehicle fuel efficiency would result [1] in a 15 to 20 percent reduction in global warming by 2020 and 35 percent by 2040. Distance-based car insurance and distance-based car registration fees convert insurance and registration fees to a variable cost related to annual kilometers driven. This would reduce driving by about 9 percent and would reduce travel during peak hours motivated by consumer savings resulting from the lower, off-peak charges. Education, Community and Consumers Involvement The sustainability considerations are affecting people’s travel patterns and involve changes in citizen behavior and community design. In order for sustainability to be effectively achieved, citizens need to be informed and educated. Transportation demand management involves educating individuals and communities about changing travel behavior, including shifts in travel time, route, mode and destination. An efficient market must provide consumers with a variety of options from which they can choose the combination of quantity, quality and price that best suits their needs. Consumers must also have accurate information about their options. Only with viable options can consumer decisions reflect their true preferences. The value of some types of consumer transportation options is widely recognized. For example, many people argue that competition in vehicle manufacturing, fuel production and distribution, and airline services tends to increase efficiency and service quality in these markets. However, there is less recognition of the importance of competition between modes. For example, transit service improvements can benefit both motorists and non-motorists if it allows some motorists to shift and therefore reduces congestion and dependency on petroleum producing monopolies. Improving other modes, such as walking, cycling and ridesharing, can have similar benefits, both to people who change modes, and so benefit directly from having diverse options to choose from, and those who benefit indirectly trough reduced congestion and increased market competition. Conclusions Transportation is a core component of sustainable socioeconomic systems development. Planning for sustainability requires changing the way we think about transportation and solve its problems. Transportation is one of largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions and a major contributor to global warming. A balance between economic, social and ecological objectives is necessary. Improving vehicle gas consumption efficiency and reducing number of trips by private automobile are two most beneficial actions. However, these actions require manufacturer innovations/supplier offerings and development of new, more efficient modes of transportation. Improved travel choices supported by pricing incentives, technological innovations, intelligent transportation system implementation and better integration of land use and transportation planning provide basic framework for sustainable transportation policy and actions. A high level of motor vehicle travel is not sustainable. Therefore, sustainable transportation requires mobility management (strategies that change travel behavior) to increase transportation system efficiency rather than just vehicle efficiency. Sustainable transportation indicators are an important tool for better transportation planning. It would be very desirable to develop standardized baseline indicators of transportation sustainability. References E. Deakin, (2001-2003), Sustainable Development and Sustainable Transportation: Strategies for Economic Prosperity, Environmental Quality and Equity, Working Paper. Primer on Transportation and Climate Change (2008), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington D.C. Sustainable Development, Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in 21st Century (2006) Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting. Transport and Sustainability, www.people.hofstra.edu 837 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 635 Title A name given to the resource Transportation Practices and Strategies for Sustainable Development Author Author Kulović, Mirsad Abstract A summary of the resource. The transportation as a system is an important component of social and economy sustainable development. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. In order to effectively reduce the adverse impact of existing transportation systems new development patterns must be adopted. Overall, the concept of transportation sustainability should be defined through three major factors: social equity, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility. Strategies for transportation sustainability include demand management, operation management, improvements of vehicle technology, pricing policy and integrated land use and transportation planning. This paper deals with importance of transportation for sustainable development and presents some sustainable transportation practices and strategies in the United States and Europe. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/70b0541d5c450b1edeb8d57e57943a31.pdf 3eae881f3b17506b4dd2ddbf4230b904 PDF Text Text Effects Of Different Packaging Applications On Fruit Quality Of Apricots Fatih Cem Kuzucu Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture Fatihcem2005@hotmail.com Arzu Önder Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture arzuonder@hotmail.com Abstract : In this research it is aimed to determine the avaliblity of different packaging materials for Roxana, Hungarian Best and Bebeco apricot cultivars stored in modified atmosphere conditions. For this aim, after harvesting, apricots were packed with LDPE and PVC packaging materials and some apricots stored with none application called as control. Packed apricots was put in cold storage in 0°C and 95% relative humidity for 30 days. After storage, weight loss, fruit firmness, fruit skin colour, soluble solid content, titretable acidity, total sugars and taste were determined. According to the data after 30 day of storage, LDPE and PVC apllications were found to improve not only all the quality parameters but also storage qualifications of the apricot fruits. Keywords : Apricot, postharvest, fruit quality Introduction Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) is a Chinese originated stone fruit with climacteric characteristic. Although it is a hot mild climate fruit, it has a large production area over the world (Anonymous, 2008a). Apricot has a significant role with regard to human health; contain nine different sugars, eighteen free amino acid, high amounts of vitamin A, beta-carotene and high levels of potassium and iron elements (Anonymous, 2008b). Fresh fruits are available in Turkish markets from mid-May to end of August (Özçağıran at. al., 2005). Since stone fruits are prone to spoilage, apricot has a short post-harvest life under normal temperatures (Chambroy, 1993). Crisosto et al. (1996) investigated fruit base color, amount of total soluble solids (TSS) and fruit firmness (FF) and found TSS rates of >10%, amount of titratable acids (TA) as (0,7-1,0 g/100g) FF values as (0,9-1,4 kg) for fresh fruits ready to be harvested. Researchers also stated proper storage temperatures as (-0,5)–(0)°C and relative humidity as %90-95. Most of the world apricot production is consumed as fresh fruit. However, drying and processing are also available alternatives for apricot since it has a short period of harvest and fresh fruits are prone to spoilage in short time. About 20-25% of world production is dried. The remaining parts left from fresh or dried fruits are processed (Sobutay, 2003). 2006 Turkey Pakistan Iran Uzbekstan 2007 2008 557.572 240.192 280.000 230.000 460.182 177.266 280.000 235.637 133 716.415 325.779 280.000 265.000 �Italy Algeria Japan Morocca Syria 221.994 167.017 119.700 129.440 98.538 214.573 116.438 120.600 105.234 112.738 205.493 145.000 120.600 113.216 112.738 Table 1. Apricot Production Values (ton) Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) production is very common in Çanakkale Kepez region and production areas are increasing both in the region and the province. However, various problems exist in marketing and reaching to desired production potentials due to very short storage durations and easy spoilage of the fruits. Turkey is the leading country in apricot production with 250-300 thousand tons of production. Province of Malatya meets almost 50% of Turkish apricot production. Neighboring province Elazığ is also another center for apricot production. Significant amount of apricots known as Malatya apricot actually come from Baskil town of Elazığ. About 90% of apricot produced in Malatya is dried and almost 90-95% of dried fruits is exported ( Anonymous, 2007a and Sobutay, 2003). Areas of utilization and levels of consumption should be increased both inside and outside of the country since it has several significant health functions. Therefore, apricot products should be diversified. Currently available products are fruit juices, jam and marmalades, jelly, ice-cream, delight, cookies, chewing gums, dried pulp and etc (Sobutay, 2003). Although geographically distributed all around the world, apricot has larger areas of production around Mediterranean, Europe, Middle Asia, America and Africa continents. There are 7 apricot regions in Turkey with almost 20-25% of world production. These regions are: Malatya: Produces almost half of the country production and about all production is dried. Hacıhaliloğlu, Çöloğlu, Đsmailağa, Hasanbey, Şekerpare, Alyanak, Kabaaşı, Yeğen, Tokaloğlu, Çataloğlu, Hacıkız, Soğancı, Paşa mişmişi, Mahmudun eriği, Kurukabuk and Turfanda are the important varieties of the region. Elazığ-Erzincan: Produces for export. Tokaloğlu, Mahmud’un Eriği are important varieties of the region. Kars-Iğdır: Produces for domestic markets, varieties are juicy and pulpy. Aprikoz (Şalak ) and early Ağerik are the important varieties of the region. Mut-Đskenderun( Mediterranean): Produces mostly for domestic markets and partially for export. Tokaloğlu, Sahıt, Septik, Lutgani, Hırmanlıdırağı and Tekeler are important varieties of the region. Sakarya-Bilecik ( Marmara ): Produces for domestic markets, fresh consumption and partially industry. Karacabey, Mektep, Ethembey, Đmrahor, Tokaloğlu (Yalova ) and Çekirge are important varieties of the region. Aegean: Produces for fresh consumption. Yerli Đzmir, Proyma, Çiğli, Tokaloğlu (Đzmir), Malatya and Şam are important varieties of the region. Central Anatolia: Produces for fresh consumption and industry. Slight sulphurization is performed in Ürgüp, Konya and Gürün. Wild apricot production is also carried out in the region to be used in fruit juice industry. Boğaz, Đri bitirgen, Şekerpare altız and Tokaloğlu are important varieties of the region (Sobutay, 2003). Modification of ambient atmosphere is carried out in two ways as ‘passive’ and ‘active’ in modified atmosphere packing (MAP). Passive modification is applied for fruit and vegetable like respirating products and active modification is applied for every kind of products (Üçüncü, 2000). Providence of balanced gas composition in passive modification is a slow process. It is not always possible to succeed in control of O2 ve CO2 concentrations. However, providence of balanced gas composition can be supplied in short time with interventions in active modification (Floros, 1990). Atmosphere composition and variation of this composition in passive modification method depend on respiration rates and characteristics of packaging materials. The material to be used for packaging should be able to provide a balance between O2 consumed by the product and oxygen passed through the material. Similar balance should also be supplied between CO2 produced by the products and 134 �CO2 passed through the material. The critical issue here is to provide the desired atmosphere composition for the product without any damage caused by O2 or CO2 (Geeson, 1984). When the modified atmosphere is combined with proper temperatures, it will provide following benefits to reduce the loses during post-harvest processing and preservation of horticultural crops and fruits (Debney et al. 1980, Kader 1985): • Provide supports for biochemical and physiological changes by slowing respiration, ethylene production, changes in product compounds and softening and slows down the repining. • O2 levels of around 8% and CO2 levels of more than 1% reduce the ethylene sensitivity of the fruits. • Reduces the physiological damages like chilling damages, punctuations and some other storage spoilages. • Modified atmosphere has direct or indirect impacts over post-harvest pathogens and consequent spoilages. Some applications may reduce spoilages. For instance, increased CO2 levels (1015%) may significantly prevent Botrytis spoilage over strawberry, cherry and some other fruits. • It is a useful method to control pests over some products. Pala at. al. (1993), investigated effects of modified atmosphere (MA) on post-harvest life and quality of apricots. Fruits were brought to laboratory 12 hours after the harvest, cooled to 3,2°C with water, packed and stored. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) with 50µ thickness was used as packaging material. Packed products were divided into two groups; one group was exposed to passive and the other to active modification (%3 O2, %3 CO2). Quality parameters like form of fruits, pH, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, color, weight loss and sensual evaluations were measured. Measurements were made once in a week for six weeks. They found lower shelf lives for control fruits than MA applied fruits. Passive modification with 50µ thick LDPE at 0°C for 6 weeks was selected as the best post-harvest preservation practice. Berger et al. (1990) investigated the impacts of MA over cherries. Researchers harvested Bing and Lambert varieties as light red (75-100% colored) and dark red (100% colored). Closed packs provided 22 days preservation of cherries at 0 °C. They found that MA didn’t have any negative impacts on taste and provided 2 days extra shelf life in addition to preservation period. Herregods (1992) preserved cherries under MA conditions for 20 days and observed that increasing CO2 levels in packages prevented mold development. While mold development was 7% in control fruits, it was 3,7% with 30µ LDPE, 1,2% with 50µ LDPE and 0% with 70µ LDPE. Similarly, Ağaoğlu at. Al. (1992) investigated the effects of different packaging materials on cold storage of some plum varieties. Perforated and non-perforated polyethylene, perforated and nonperforated polypropylene were used as packaging material for “Stanley” and “d’Agen” plum varieties. Fruits were stored at -1 °C’ with 80-90% relative humidity and quality parameters were measured once in every two weeks. They observed decreased fruit firmness and increased weight loss. Package material had an effect on weight loss. Effect of package material varied based on the variety of plums but provided better results than control treatments. Researchers recommended non-perforated polyethylene package as the best material. Özkurt (1993) studied MA preservation of J.H.Hale peach, Stanley plum, Early Burlat cherry varieties with limited post-harvest duration. MA was created with PE (35µ), PP(12µ) and PVC (80µ) package materials. It was observed that preservation duration extended from 2-6 to 6 weeks for peaches, from 2-6 weeks to 6-7 weeks for plums and from 2 weeks to 4-5 weeks for cherries. Also, all three fruit varieties preserved their harvest freshness throughout the storage duration. Similar studies were carried out during the years 2003 and 2004 for Hayward variety of kiwifruit by using 3 different package type (consumer package, classical package, and modified package) to preserve the quality of the products and to extend the duration of preservation. Packed fruits were stored at 0 oC temperature and 90–95% relative humidity. A decrease was observed in weight loss with modified package. However, weight loss increased with classical package. Fruit peel thickness, fruit firmness, vitamin C and titratable acid levels generally decreased during cold storage. Soluble solids increased during the preservation period. Effects of package types on fruit peel thickness were not found to be significant. Fungal spoilage elements were higher in fruits with modified package than the others. Fungal spoilage decreased in consumer package. Color brightening in green color of fruit pulp and red color of fruit peel were observed at the end of storage duration. Taste characteristics of fruits decreased during the storage. It was concluded that Hayward variety kiwifruits could be preserved for 6 months in modified package and 5 months in consumer and classical package (Namdar, 2005). 135 �In another study, 6 month cold storage and 15 days shelf life of Hicaznar pomegranate variety were investigated. Fruits were covered with stretch film (12µ) and MAP (8µ). Packaging provided better preservation than control treatments. Considering visual quality and fungal spoilages, it was concluded that fruits with MAP application could be stored for 1 year 3 months and fruits with stretch film application could be stored for 1 year 4 months (Bayram, 2007). A similar study was carried out to determine the effects of modified atmosphere packages (MAP) in extending the storage life of Hicaznar variety. Fruits were harvested at the best proper time and divided into three groups. The first group fruits were put into classical plastic. Second group fruits were wrapped with easily supplied Xtend®. The third group fruits were stored as control treatment without any wrapping. All fruits were stored at 6oC temperature and 90-92% relative humidity. Weight lose, amounts of fruit juice, titratable acid, TSS, peel thickness and peel color parameters were measured at every 45 days. Beside them, fungal spoilages, physiological spoilages, changes in CO2 and O2 densities of packages were also recorded. It was concluded that MAP packages extended the storage duration of Hicaznar variety, decreased the weight loss and slowed down the peel thickening (Gözlekci et al., 2005). A research was carried out for Hayward variety kiwifruits stored at 0°C temperature and 90–95% relative humidity. Fruits were put into small and medium polyethylene (PE) bags with different thicknesses and bags were closed up. Polyethylene bags used under modified atmosphere conditions reduced weight loss, spoilage and fruit firmness and preserved taste and quality of fruits for 6 months ( Manopoloulou et al. 1997). Zutkhi ve Ben-Arie (1990) stored Fuyu variety of persimmon fruits under modified atmosphere conditions. Fruits packed with 0,06 and 0,08 mm polyethylene and stored at 0°C. The fruits with maximum storage duration of 6 weeks were able to preserve their quality for 18 weeks under MA. In this study, different packaging materials were used and different Passive MAP applications were carried out to extend the storage duration of “Hungarian Best”, “Bebeco” and “Roxana” apricot varieties and the best practice was tried to be determined. These varieties are produced at ‘Apricot Adaptation Parcels’ of Dardanos campus of ÇOMÜ Agricultural Faculty. They are highly adaptive to region and high market value both in Turkish and world markets. Results of this research will also be significant for fruits similar to apricot (peach, nectarine, plum) and results will also be directly used by local producers in practice and will provide economical gains for local economy. Material and method Material Apricot fruits of this research were supplied from 7 year old fruit trees at ‘Apricot Adaptation Parcels’ of Dardanos campus of ÇOMÜ Agricultural Faculty. Tree spacing at these parcels is 5x5 m. Varieties of “Roxana”, “Bebeco” and “Hungarian Best” were used as plant material in this study. Harvest dates were 1st of July for “Hungarian Best”, 26th of June for “Bebeco” and 28th of June for “Roxana”. Method Randomized block design with three factors were used for experiments and 20 fruits were used in each replication. Data were statistically analyzed by using two-ways variance analysis and LSD test with 5% significance level. Minitab 15 statistical software was used for statistical analysis. Post-Harvest Modified Atmosphere Package (MAP) applications were implemented for fruits of 3 different varieties. Following modified atmosphere applications were implemented over MAP applied groups respectively; 1. Modified atmosphere packaging application with low density polyethylene (LDPE) based Xtend supplied by Stepac Co. 2. Modified atmosphere packaging application with stretch film based Polyvinylchloride (PVC) supplied by Rotopak Co. Changes in fruit base color were determined by Minolta CR400 color measurement device; changes in fruit flesh firmness were determined by “Effe- gi” type hand penetrometer; changes in total soluble solids were determined by ”Atago Pal 1” digital refractometer; changes in titratable acid amounts were determined by “Đnolab pH 720” pH meter. Total sugar was determined in accordance with Ross (1959) dinitrophenol method. Sensory parameter of taste was evaluated out by 5 people testing team taking the appearance, aroma, sourness, and taste into consideration. Weight loss values were determined by 136 �weighing “Sartorius” 0,01 g sensitive balance. MAP gas composition measurements were carried out daily by “PBI Gas Dansensor”. Results and Discussion Fruit Skin Color ( °h) Fruit skin colors were found to be significant with regard to cultivars. The lowest value was obtained from Roxana, it was followed by Hungarian best and Bebeco, and they all placed statistically in the same group. Effects of storage duration and package applications provided non-significant differences over fruit skin color. Cultivar Hungarian Best Bebeco Roxana Treatment Control PVC LDPE Control PVC LDPE Control PVC LDPE Storage Time Mean. LSD (0,05) Significiant degree Storage Time (Day) 0 30 1,3973 1,3275 1,3973 1,3425 1,3973 1,3799 1,5159 1,4736 1,5159 1,4984 1,5159 1,4979 0,1214 0,0950 0,1214 0,3278 0,1214 0,1104 1,0115 1,0059 NS Cultivar Mean Treatment Mean Control 1,3736 b 0,9884 PVC 1,5029 a 1,0339 LDPE 0,1495 c 1,0038 0,06533 * NS Table 2. Changes in fruit skin color of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana stored within different package materials. LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: NS Fruit Firmness (FF-Kg) Fruit firmness of control fruits and fruits with PVC package were lower than the others and they were placed in the same group. The best results were obtained from fruits with LDPE package. Cultivar Treatment Storege Time (Day) 0 30 Control 1,0197 d 0,4930 f Hungarian Best PVC 1,0197 d 0,6003 e LDPE 1,0197 d 0,6564 e Control 1,8969 a 1,4298 c Bebeco PVC 1,8969 a 1,3131 c LDPE 1,8969 a 1,5055 bc Control 1,9683 a 0,5295 e Roxana PVC 1,9683 a 0,4862 e LDPE 1,9683 a 1,6518 b Storage Time Mean. 1,6283 a 0,9628 b LSD (0,05) 0,06767 Significiant degree * LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: 0,2030 Cultivar Mean. Treatment Mean Control 0,8015 c 1,2229 b PVC 1,6565 a 1,2141 b LDPE 1,4288 b 1,4498 a 0,08288 * 0,08288 * Table 3. Changes in FF values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot varieties stored within different package materials (kg) 137 �The highest softening was obtained from Hungarian best variety and PVC and LDPE packaging materials were able to preserve fruit firmness the best. This may be considered as a reaction against packaging material under the effects of variety characteristics. A general decrease was observed in fruit firmness of all treatments at the end of 30 days storage. It was seen that LDPE application yielded best results with regard to fruit firmness preservation. Total Soluble Solids (TSS, %) The highest TSS values were obtained from control treatment, TSS values of fruits with PVC and LDPE packaging material were lower than control fruits and they were placed statistically in the same group. Lower TSS values of PVC and LDPE indicate that these materials were good for preservation of these fruits. Cultivar Treatment Storage Time (Day) 0 30 Control 11,987 de 14,242 a Hungarian Best PVC 11,987 de 12,383 cd LDPE 11,987 de 13,040 b Control 10,710 hi 12,865 bc Bebeco PVC 10,710 hi 11,260 fg LDPE 10,710 hi 11,220 fgh Control 10,413 i 11,601 ef Roxana PVC 10,413 i 11,065 gh LDPE 10,413 i 11,297 fg Storage Time Mean 11,037 b 12,108 a LSD (0,05) 0,1704 Significiant Degree * LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: 0,2030 Cultivar Mean Treatment Mean. Control 12,604 a 11,970 a PVC 11,246 b 11,303 b LDPE 10,867 c 11,445 b 0,2087 * 0,2087 * Table 4. Changes in TSS values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot varieties stored within different package materials (%) The highest value was obtained from Hungarian Best variety and it was followed by Bebeco and Roxana and they all were placed statistically in the same group. An increase was observed in TSS values after 30 days of storage with regard to initial values. The highest increase was observed in Hungarian Best variety. Varieties of Bebeco and Roxana had slight increases in TSS rates and they were better than Hungarian Best variety with regard to TSS. Increases were observed in TSS values after 30 days storage duration. LDPE and PVC had lower values than control treatment. However, fruits of control treatment with the best averages of TSS were not found to be biochemically in good state and it was thought that collapse in fruit increased the TSS values. 8. TITRATABLE ACIDITY (TA %G) Based on fruit analysis and statistical analysis, the lowest TA values were obtained from PVC packaging material and it was followed by control treatment and LDPE material. Control treatment and PVC were placed in the same statistical group. Cultivar Hungarian Best Bebeco Roxana Treatment Control PVC LDPE Control PVC LDPE Control PVC LDPE Storage Time (Day) 0 30 1,5144 a 1,1377 c 1,5144 a 1,1993 c 1,5144 a 1,3918 b 1,1095 cd 0,9802 e 1,1095 cd 0,9760 e 1,1095 cd 1,0242 de 1,5161 a 0,9824 e 1,5161 a 1,1424 c 1,5161 a 1,4387 ab 138 Cultivar Mean. Treatment Mean Control 1,3787 a 1,2334 b PVC 1,0515 b 1,2163 b LDPE 1,3520 a 1,3325 a �Storage Time Mean 1,3800 a LSD (0,05) 0,03119 Significiant Degree * LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: 0,09357 1,1414 b 0,03820 * 0,03820 * Table 5. Changes in TA values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot cultivars stored within different package materials (% g) With regard to varieties, the lowest value was obtained from Bebeco and it was followed by Roxana and Hungarian Best varieties. A decrease was observed in TA value after 30 days storage. Taking tasting values into consideration, it was concluded that LDPE and PVC provided positive results with regard to fruit aroma and biochemical activity. Again, higher averages in control treatment reflect the metabolism of collapsing fruit. Total Sugars (g/100g) With regard to total sugar, variety, application, time-application and time-variety interactions were found to be significant. Hungarian Best had the lowest total sugar value with 1,46 g/100g. Total sugar value of Roxana was 2,53 g/100g and Bebeco had the highest total sugar value with 3,15 g/100g LS D(0,05)Uygulama* S üre:1,870 40 35 Top.Şeker 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 S üre(gün) Uygulama 0 30 0 Kontrol 30 0 PVC 30 LDPE LSD(0,05)Çeşit*Süre: 1,870 45 40 Top.Şeker 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Süre(gün) Çeşit 0 30 Hung.Best 0 30 Bebeco 0 30 Roxana Figure 1. Changes in total sugar contents of of Hungarian Best, Bebeco ve Roxana apricot varieties stored within different package materials with regard to time-application and time-variety interactions (%g). With regard to applications, fruits of control treatment had the lowest total sugar value with 2,16 g/100g. Fruits of PVC and LDPE package material had higher total sugar values than fruits of control treatment. The highest value was observed in LDPE material with 2,59 g/100g. Total sugar value of fruits packed with PVC material was 2,39 g/100g. With regard to time-application, initial value of all treatments before storage was 3,84 g/100g. This value decreased to 0,49 g/100g in fruits of control treatment after 30 days of storage and this was a significant difference. The value of fruits packed with PVC material decreased to 0,94 g/100g. The 139 �difference was lower in fruits packed with LDPE material than the other treatments and it was 1,.34 g/100g after 30 days of storage. Tasting Test (scale of 1-5) Ratings of a jury composed of 5 people and statistical evaluations indicated significance of application, variety, and time-application interaction. Cultivar Hungarian Best Bebeco Roxana Treatment Control PVC LDPE Control PVC LDPE Control PVC LDPE Storage Time Mean LSD (0,05) Significiant Degree LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: NS Storage Time(Day) 0 30 2,9333 3,4667 2,9333 3,7333 2,9333 4,0000 3,1333 2,7333 3,1333 3,2667 3,1333 3,7333 3,1333 2,6667 3,1333 3,3333 3,1333 3,7333 3,0667b 3,4074a 0,06859 * Cultivar Mean Treatment Mean. Control 3,3333a 3,0111c PVC 3,1889b 3,2556b LDPE 3,1889b 3,4444a 0,08401 * 0,08401 * Table 6. Changes in tasting test ratings of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot cultivars stored within different package materials (scale of 1-5) With regard to varieties, Hungarian Best had the highest value and varieties of Bebeco and Roxana had the same values. Bebeco and Roxana were placed in the same group and Hungarian Best was placed in a different group. With regard to applications, fruits of LDPE material had the highest value and it was followed by PVC and control treatment. They all placed in different groups. The best results were obtained from LDPE packaging material. An increase was observed in taste values after 30 days of storage. Weight Loss (g) With regard to varieties, Bebeco had the highest weight loss. Hungarian Best and Roxana had lower weight loss values than Bebeco and they were placed in the same statistical group. With regard to applications, fruits of control treatment had the highest weight loss values than fruits of PVC and LDPE packaging materials. Weight loss of PVC and LDPE packed fruits were very close to each other and they were placed in the same group. Hungarian Best Bebeco Control 7,070 b 14,565 a PVC 0.608 b 0,728 c LDPE 0,704 c 0,662 c Mean 2,7939 b 5,3183 a LSD 0,5135 Roxana 7,325 b 0,614 c 0,469 c 2,8029 b Mean 9,6532 a 0,6503b 0,6116b LSD 0,5135 Significiant Degree * * (LSD 0,05)Cultivar * Trearment : 0,8894 Table 7. Changes in weight loss values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot cultivars stored within different package materials (g) MAP Gas Composition (%) Daily MAP gas composition measurements were carried out by “PBI Gas Dansensor” and they were presented graphically as O2 % and CO2 % in Figure 2. 140 �Figure 2. Changes in MAP gas compostion of Hungarian Best, Bebeco, Roxana apricot cultivars. 141 �Conclusion and Recommendations Packaging materials applied for apricots in this study yielded positive results with regard to investigated quality parameters. The differences especially in fruit skin color, fruit taste and fruit firmness provided by packaging materials compared to control treatment were remarkable. Consumers directly look for these quality parameters. On the other hand, weight loss can be prevented by packing fruits with LDPE and PVC materials. This is an important parameter for profitability of the producer. With regard to TSS, TA and total sugar values, packaging applications yielded positive results. These packaging applications can be considered as a preferable application to provide longer durations of storage and consequently supplying to markets at higher prices and increasing the profitability. References Ağaoğlu, Y.S., Tuncel, N., Söylemezoğlu, G. 1992. Effect of Different Packaging Materials on Cold Storage of Some Plum Cultivars. Tubitak , Doğa , (16): 15- 21 p. Anonymous, 2007a, (n.d.) Kayısı raporu (Malatya), 12 Ocak 2010, DPT Raporu. http://malatyaanadolulisesi.blogcu.com/kayisi-raporu-malatya_4692480.html Anonymous, 1968. International Fedaration of Fruit Juice Producers No:3 Anonim,2008a. (n.d.). Alata online. 12 Ocak 2010, http://www.alata.gov.tr/yayinlar/brosurler/ Anonim, 2008b. (n.d.). Kaum online. 12 Ocak 2010, http://www.kaum.inonu.edu.tr/ Bayram, E. 2007. Değişik Ambalaj Tiplerinin Hicaznar Çeşidinin Soğukta Muhafazası Üzerine Etkileri (Yüksek Lisans Tezi) Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana, Türkiye. Berger, H., Soto, E., Galetti, L. 1990. Effect of Maturity and Package Type on Cherry Quality. XXIII. International Horticultural Congres Abatracts of Contrıbuted. Papers 1. Oral. Firenze(Italy). Agust 27- September 1., 669 p. Chambroy, Y., Souty, M., Jacquemin, G., Gomez, R.M., Audergon, J.M., 1993. Research on the Suitability of Modified Atmosphere Packaging for Shelf – Life and Quality Improvement of Apricot Fruit. Acta Horticulturae 384 p. Crisosto, C.H., Mitcham, E.J., Kader, A.A., 1996. Reccomendations for Maintaining Postharvest Quality (Apricot), Department of Plant Sciences, University of California. http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu. Debney, H.G., Blacker , K.J., Watkins, J.B. 1980. Handling and Storage Practices for Fresh Fruit and Vegetables. Australian United Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Association, July, 43-58 p Floros, D.J., 1990. Controlled and Modified Atmospheres in Food Packaging and Storage, Chem. Eng. Prog. June, 2332 p. Geeson, J. D., 1984. The Use of Contrelled and Modified Atmospheres For the Storage and Distribution of Fruits And Vegetabless. Proc. of the Inst. of Food Science and Tecnology. (17):101-106 p. Gözlekçi, S., Erkan, M., Karaşahin, I. and Şahin, G., 2005. Effect of Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) on The Storage of Pomegranate Fruits (cv. Hicaznar). 9TH International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Thursday, July 7. Abstracts. 14 s. Herregods, M. 1992. Determination of The Experiment Circumstances: A Necessity in The Research of Modified Atmosphere Storage (M.A.P). Modified Atmosphere Packaging. TUBĐTAK Marmara Araştırma Merkezi, Gıda ve Soğutma Teknolojisi Bölümü, Đstanbul. 1-9 s. Kader, A.A. 1985. Modified Atmospheres and Low-Pressure Systems During Transportand Storage Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops. ( Kasmire, R.F., Mıtchel , F.C., Reid, M.S., Sommer, N.F., Thompson, J.F. ) USA Library of Congres Catalog (85)-707 29 International Standart Book Number 0-93186-72-9. 5864s. 142 �Manolopoulou, H., Lambrinos, G., Assimaki, H., Sfakiotakis, E., Porlingis, J., 1997. Modified Atmosphere Storage of Hayward Kiwifruit. Acta Horticulturae 444:619–624 p. Namdar, S. 2005 Samsun Ekolojik Koşullarında Yetiştirilen Hayward Kivi Çeşidinin Soğukta Muhafazasında Farklı Ambalaj Tiplerinin Etkileri.(Yüksek Lisans Tezi) Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Samsun, Türkiye. Özçağıran, R., Ünal A., Özeker E., Đsfendiyaroğlu M., 2005. Ilıman Đklim Meyve Türleri, Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Yay. 98-99 s. Özkurt, A.S. 1993. Bazı Sert Çekirdekli Meyvelerde Değiştirilmiş Atmosferde Paketlemenin Muhafaza Süresi Üzerine Etkileri. .(Yüksek Lisans Tezi) Uludağ.Üniversitesi, Bursa, Türkiye. Pala, M., Damarlı, E., Gün, H. 1993. The Effect of Modified Atmosphere Packaging od Quality and Storage Life Apricot. Postharvest 93 (30 th August-3rd September 1993). Abstracts, Kesckemet, Hungary. Ross A.F. 1959 Dinitrophenol Methot for Roducip Sugar, Ln Potato Processing Ed. W.F Tulburt andl O. Smith.: The AVI Puslishing com Westport, Connecticut. 469-470 p. Sobutay, T., 2003, Kayısı Sektör Araştırma Raporu. Đstanbul Ticaret Odası Dış Ticaret Şubesi Araştırma Servisi, Subat 2003. http://www.scribd.com/doc/6867049/Kays-Sektor-Aratrma-Raporu-2003 Üçüncü, M., 2000. Gıdaların Ambalajlanması . Gıdaların Modifiye Atmosferde Ambalajlanması ..Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi , Bornova-ĐZMĐR, 612-650 s. 143 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 343 Title A name given to the resource Effects Of Different Packaging Applications On Fruit Quality Of Apricots Author Author Kuzucu, Fatih Cem Önder, Arzu Abstract A summary of the resource. In this research it is aimed to determine the avaliblity of different packaging materials for Roxana, Hungarian Best and Bebeco apricot cultivars stored in modified atmosphere conditions. For this aim, after harvesting, apricots were packed with LDPE and PVC packaging materials and some apricots stored with none application called as control. Packed apricots was put in cold storage in 0°C and 95% relative humidity for 30 days. After storage, weight loss, fruit firmness, fruit skin colour, soluble solid content, titretable acidity, total sugars and taste were determined. According to the data after 30 day of storage, LDPE and PVC apllications were found to improve not only all the quality parameters but also storage qualifications of the apricot fruits. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6d5787d8e760deea3b763187bde865a5.pdf 1555a714af1c49b8b757e939a29ed6f5 PDF Text Text Investigation of Temperature Parameter on the Sinterability of Magnesia Bengü Köknal Dokuz Eylul University, Mining Eng., Mineral Processing Dep., Buca, Izmir, Turkey bengukoknal@hotmail.com Turan Batar Dokuz Eylul University, Mining Eng., Mineral Processing Dep., Buca, Izmir, Turkey turan.batar@deu.edu.tr Akın Altun Dokuz Eylul University, Metallurgical & Materials Eng. Dept., Buca, Izmir, Turkey akin.altun@deu.edu.tr Abstract: A sintering procedure in constant heraus muffle furnace was carried out at an interval of 1600-1900 oC for 50 min dwelling time and 5 oC min-1 cooling rate to improve the grain growth of magnesia. The effects of temperature on the grain growth and microstructural examination of samples were investigated by using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The average grain size was also determined separately by an intercept measurement method. According to the findings, crystal size and bulk density were enhanced significantly as a linear relationship with the increasing temperature. For the samples sintered at 1900 oC, a maximum average grain growth (~100 µm ) has been obtained. In this paper, the effects of temperature on the crystal size and bulk density of the treated magnesia and its marketability were evaluated. Key words: Sintering, grain size, bulk density, purchasability Introduction Grain size, impurities, porosity, sintering temperature and practice shape play an important role in controlling many physical, mechanical and chemical properties of magnesia-based bricks (Kingery, 1984, Itatani, Nomura, Kishioka, Kinoshita, 1986, Rice, 1972). It is known that porosity can alter or eliminate the appearance of grain-size control of strength (Itatani, Nomura, Kishioka, Kinoshita, 1986). As grains grow, grain boundaries sweep past many pores, which are then within the grains not at grain boundaries. This commonly results in an additional regular pore shape, which may well decrease stress concentrations. The size of the MgO crystals within the magnesia grains is critically an important factor in controlling the resistance to corrosive attack of basic bricks (Aksel, Rand, Riley, Warren, 2002). When the size of the crystals increases, a corresponding decline occurs in crystal surface area and open porosity (Aksel, Rand, Riley, Warren, 2002). Furthermore, as the mean MgO grain size increases, the wear rate as a result of corrosive slag attack decreases (Lee, Rainforth, 1994). Magnesia-based refractories with a large grain size (>100 mm) are used comprehensively where the corrosion resistance is required. On the contrary, a high thermal shock resistance in fused magnesia grain requires a fine crystal size and a compromise may be required in applications where thermal shock resistance is important (Williams, Taylor, Soady, 1990) Critical microstructural factors affecting properties and performance of a brick are basically density, grain size, impurities and CaO/SiO2 ratios (Aksel, Rand, Riley, Warren, 2002). Currently, researchers focused on the improvement in the resistance of corrosive attack of sintered magnesite with the greatest grain growth. As the grain size increases, the penetration of slag through the grain boundaries can be minimised. The enlargement in grain size leads to a high resistance to fracture and corrosion. To reach the optimum grain size increases the quality and performance of the refractory material, leading to an economical benefit and longer service life for industrial applications in terms of corrosion and thermal shock resistance. In this study, under optimum test conditions in the literature (Marechal, 1991) such as constant dwelling time (19 min) and the cooling rate (5 oC min-1), crystal size and bulk density is separately determined according to rising temperature. The role of temperature on the enlargement of grain size and bulk density were also 508 �evaluated by SEM analysis. Furthermore, Crystal size and bulk density, which have a pronounced effect on quality and purchasability, are investigated It is considered that this paper will provide a platform to improve understanding of relationships between microstructure and those parameters, affecting grain size of the sintered magnesite significantly. Experimental procedures The magnesite concentrate was provided from Kümas Magnesite Mine Inc, Kütahya. The representative sample was crushed and classified into -5 +3 mm particle size. Mineralogical characterization by X-ray diffraction spectrometry evidenced MgO while main additional minerals were Fe2O3, SiO2, CaO and Al2O3. Quantitative chemical analysis of the elements by emission spectroscopy technique revealed that MgO content is 48, 53 % [Table 1]. MgO, % SiO2, % CaO, % Fe2O3, % Al2O3, % LOI*, % 49.56 0.30 1.10 0.30 0,04 48,70 *LOI: loss on ignition Table 1. Chemical analysis of magnesite concentrate A sintering procedure close to industrial situation was performed in the constant heraus muffle furnace at interval 1600-1900oC for 50 min dwelling time and 5oC min-1 cooling rate 7. Sintered samples were placed in polyethylene moulds by a mixture of epoxy resin and hardener. Surfaces of samples were ground using progressively finer SiC papers. The polishing of specimens for SEM was carried out using a “Metcom Forcipol 1V” grinder polisher. Chemical etching was then carried out in a HNO3 and CH3OH (3:2) diluted solution at room temperature for ~25 min (Aksel, Kasap, Sesver, 2005). Microstructural examination of the regarding samples was carried out using JEOL JSM-6060 SEM. Grain sizes of polished and chemically etched surfaces were then measured from photographs taken in SEM, using an intersecting grain numbers method (Clinton, Freer, 1987). Similar results were achieved by standard lines mean method (Köknal, Eyüboğlu, Özmen, 2008). Average grain size was determined from intercept measurements on the observed plane, by using the following formula: − D = (n * l ) ( Z * M ) (1) − where D is the average grain size, n number of lines, l intersecting grain numbers and M is the magnification unit, taken over 2000 grains and measured on the plane of polish. Supposing for the grain size variables, in order to identify an average grain size, were that the structure consisted of nontextured, equiaxed grains of ordinary polyhedral shape. All the values calculated for each sample were the average value of ~300 measurements of seven SEM micrographs. According to those values, the improvement in grain growth was investigated for each sample based on the effect of temperature. After sintering, bulk density values were measured using the standard water immersion method (Mendelson, 1969). The rise in sintering temperature to 1900oC for 19 min, using cooling rate of 5 oC min-1, resulted in maximum grain growth (~100 µm ). Microstructure of sinter magnesia Sintering process was carried out in the range temperatures of 1900 and 1600 oC. At 1900 oC, crystal grains formation ranging from large and coarse to fine have been observed [Fig 1a]. Maximum and minimum crystal sizes have ranged from 20 to 200 µm and average size has also been calculated as approximately 100 µm utilizing intersection method. At the duration of sintering process, many particles up to 200 µm were , formed by the combination of 2 or 3 grains. Though crystal size is differential at 1850 oC, relatively steady and homogenous distribution is observed. Locked particles, more than one grain, in range of 120 µm have also been seen [Fig 1b]. Crystal forming at 1800 oC sintering temperature show a more homogenous distribution compared to ones formed at 1850 oC. 509 �a b c d e f Fig 1. SEM micrographs of sintered magnesia at various temperatures (a: 1900 oC, b: 1850 oC, c: 1800 oC, d: 1700 oC, e: 1650 oC, f: 1600 oC) Associated particles of 120 µm size are also observed at this temperature. Despite the homogenous distribution, µm . The average crystal size was calculated as 53 µm [Fig 1c]. At µm . The average size was calculated as 31 µm . Fewer blocked between 42-25 there are many finer particles around 17 1700 oC, crystal size varies particles have been observed in this group of tests [Fig 1d]. Maximum and minimum crystal size varies between 35-12 µm at temperature of 1650 oC. The average size was calculated as 23 µm [Fig 1e]. At 1600 oC, sintering temperature maximum, minimum and average crystal sizes were determined as 32, 10 and 17 [Fig 1f]. µm respectively Result and Discussion It is known that density and crystal contact surface area increase with the increase in the crystal size of sintered magnesia. Refractory materials produced from high quality magnesia have high resistance to acid, moisture and loads at high temperatures (BS 7134, 1989). Product quality is directly affected by crystal size and 510 �bulk density, therefore a small increase in those values can be considered as a big step as far as purchasability is concerned. Therefore, crystal size of magnesia, density, MgO and silica content are important parameters. Magnesia-based refractories with a large grain size (>100 mm) are used extensively where the corrosion resistance is required. In contrast, a high thermal shock resistance in fused magnesia grain requires a fine crystal size and a compromise may be required in applications where thermal shock resistance is important. In this study, the changes in the crystal size and cast density of magnesia as a function of temperature and the effect of these changes on the purchasability of magnesia were investigated. According to the findings of the study, which are in agreement with the literature (Marechal, 1991, Köknal, Eyüboğlu, Özmen, 2008, Mendelson, 1969, Erdoğan, Yıldız, 1995, Hara, Kusunose, Kenmochi, 1986), crystal size and cast density of magnesia increase with temperature [Fig 2]. Under identical cooling conditions (5 oC min-1), the temperature dependent increase in the crystal size is clearly linear. 110 3,7 Crystal Size Specific Gravity 100 3,6 90 )3 3,5 80 70 3,4 60 3,3 50 40 3,2 Specific Gravity (g/cm Crystal Size (microns) 30 3,1 20 10 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 Temperature ( 1800 O 1850 1900 3,0 1950 C) Fig 2. The change in crystal size and density with temperature The literature shows that density and crystal contact surface area show a parallel increase with crystal size (Köknal, Eyüboğlu, Özmen, 2008). As the particles grow in size, the resulting porosity increase causes an improvement in the resistance of the refractory material to acid and moisture (Kingery, 1984, Itatani, Nomura, Kishioka, Kinoshita, 1986, Rice, 1972). These additional beneficial properties, in turn, raise the saleability of the product. Saleability shows a small improvement with particle size and density; increases with every increase in density, but remains constant after a particle size of 150 microns [Fig 3]. 70 60 50 40 30 Purchase Probability (%) 20 Crystal Size (microns) 10 78 100 125 150 Density (g/cm 3,39 3,41 3,43 3 200 ) 3,45 3,47 Fig 3. The effect of parameters affecting quality of refractories on purchasability 15 511 �The quality perception of magnesia has changed with the advances in the refractory materials technology. For example, a magnesia product with a density of 3.36 g/cm3 was considered high quality; today’s specifications expect a density of 3.47 g/cm3. Considering these facts, it is expected that magnesia products manufactured at temperatures above 1850 oC should have a strong place in the market. Conclusion A high quality sinter magnesia should have a number of specifications such as low B and SiO2, coarse crystal size, ideal CaO/SiO2 ratio (~1.86) and high bulk density (>3.40 gcm-3). Magnesia product like this can be easily sold in the market. Under optimum test conditions in the literature such as constant dwelling time (19 min) and the cooling rate (5 oC min-1), crystal size and bulk density is separately determined according to rising temperature. Saleability of each product is separately evaluated. The results obtained are summarized; 1. The rise in the sintering temperature up to ~1600 oC improved the densification and gave rise to maximum enhancement in grain size. The values of 17 µm and 3.03 gcm-3 at 1600 oC have risen to 100 µm and 3.57 gcm-3 respectively at 1900 oC. 2. 3. 4. As values of 80 µm , ≥ 3.40 gcm-3, specified for good quality magnesia in the literature, are taken into account 1850 oC temperature is just about sufficient. At this temperature the bulk density is within the acceptable limits however the crystal size remains below the saleability limit. At lower temperatures (such as 1800 oC), quality magnesia of required bulk density is obtained. On the other hand needed crystal size can not acquired. At 1900 oC temperature, saleable quality magnesia (100 µm > 78 µm , 3.57 gcm-3> 3.40 gcm-3) could be obtained According to experiment results, the temperature was subsequently found to be major parameter improving grain growth and specific gravity of magnesite substantially. References Aksel C, Kasap F & Sesver A, Investigation of parameters affecting grain growth of sintered magnesite refractories Ceramics International, 31 (2005) 121–127. Aksel C, Rand B, Riley, F L & Warren P D, Mechanical properties of magnesia–spinel composites, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 22 (5) (2002) 745–754. Batar T, Kemal M, Erdoğan N & Yavuz A S, Refrakter Üretiminde Kullanılacak Yüksek Kalitedeki Magnezyanın Seçimi ve Pazarlama Koşullarını Belirleyen Özellikler, Geosound, No 40, 2002. BS 7134, Methods for determination of density and porosity, British Standard Testing of Engineering Ceramics, Part 1, Section 1. 2, 1989. Clinton D J & Freer R (Ed.), A Guide to Polishing and Etching of Technical and Engineering Ceramics, The Institute of Ceramics, Middlesex, UK, 1987. Erdoğan N & Yıldız R, Magnezit ve Bazik Refrakter Malzeme Teknolojisi, Book, Kütahya, Turkey, 1995. Hara K, Kusunose H & Kenmochi I, Tokunaga, Study for improvement of spinel bricks, Taikabutsu Overseas 8 (1) (1986) 31–32. Itatani K, Nomura M, Kishioka A & Kinoshita M, Sinterability of various high-purity magnesium oxide powders, J. Mater. Sci. 21(1986) 1429–1435. Kingery W D, Structure and Properties of MgO and Al2O3 Ceramics, Advances in Ceramics, vol. 10, The American Ceramic Society, Inc., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA, 1984. Köknal B, Eyüboğlu A K & Özmen T, Sinter magnezyanın mikroyapı incelemeleri, DEU Eng., Fac., Graduate Thesis, Izmir, Turkey, 2008. 512 �Lee W E & Rainforth W M., Ceramic Microstructures Property Control by Processing, Chapman & Hall, UK, 1994. Marechal P, Thermal shock resistance of electrofused magnesia grains, Bull. Am. Ceram. Soc. 70 (11) (1991) 1780–1782. Mendelson M I, Average grain size in polycrystalline ceramics, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 52 (1969) 443–446. Rice R W, Strength/grain-size effects in ceramics, Proc. Br. Ceram. Soc. 20 (1972) 205–257. Van der Ven, A & Kimman, J H M., Billiton Refracteries B.V., A.E. Veendam, Netherlands. Williams P, Taylor D & Soady, J S, Proceedings of Conference on Refractories for the Steel Industry, Commission of European Community, Elsevier, 1990. 513 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 579 Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Temperature Parameter on the Sinterability of Magnesia Author Author Köknal, Bengü Batar, Turan Altun, Akın Abstract A summary of the resource. A sintering procedure in constant heraus muffle furnace was carried out at an interval of 1600-1900 oC for 50 min dwelling time and 5 oC min-1 cooling rate to improve the grain growth of magnesia. The effects of temperature on the grain growth and microstructural examination of samples were investigated by using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The average grain size was also determined separately by an intercept measurement method. According to the findings, crystal size and bulk density were enhanced significantly as a linear relationship with the increasing temperature. For the samples sintered at 1900 oC, a maximum average grain growth (~100μm) has been obtained. In this paper, the effects of temperature on the crystal size and bulk density of the treated magnesia and its marketability were evaluated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08925bae4b0764596f03439a30fc2159.pdf 28a06dc441a96fcaff3cf4bc4ad147a3 PDF Text Text Superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 Nanoparticles to Remove Arsenic From Drinking Water Yüksel Köseoğlu Fatih University, Department of Physics, Buyukcekmece 34500 Istanbul-TURKEY Abstract: Superparamagnetic nanoparticles of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) were produced by PEG assisted hydrothermal method. XRD, FT-IR, TEM and VSM were used for the structural, morphological, and magnetic investigation of the product, respectively. Average particle size of the nanoparticles was estimated by the Scherrer equation using the full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the most intense XRD peak and found as 14 nm. While the nanoparticles indicate a superparamagnetic behavior above the blocking temperature of 72 K, they have ferromagnetic behavior at temperatures lower than the blocking temperature. These nanoparticles were dispersed into drinking water contaminated with arsenic (As), and once they bind to arsenic, they have been removed from the water solution using a strong magnet. The results were measured by Atomic Mass Spectrometry and found that these nanoparticles had removed 90 % of the arsenic. The measurements were repeated several times with the same sample and get almost the same results. Keywords: Superparamagnetism, Ferrite, XRD, VSM, Atomic mass spectroscopy, Arsenic Introduction Nanophase materials with an average grain size in the range of 1 to 50 nm have attracted research interest for more than a decade since their physical properties are quite different from that of their bulk micronsized counterparts because of the large volume fraction of atoms that occupies the grain boundary area [1-3]. This new class of materials is used in important applications like high frequency transformers, ferrofluids, pigments in paints and ceramics, biomedical applications like drug delivery system, hyperthermia, NMR, high density magnetic recording, varistors and dye-sensitized solar cells [4-11]. The surface area of the nanostructured materials is large as the grain sizes are small. The increase in the interfacial energy due to defects, dislocations and lattice imperfections leads to changes in various physical properties and hence one can tailor make the materials with specific properties. Almost 50 % of the atoms reside in the grain boundary area when the grain size is reduced to less than 10 nm whereas it is only 1-3 % when the grain size is 100 nm [1, 12]. Since a large fraction of atoms is present at the grain boundaries, the nanocrystalline materials exhibit enhanced diffusivity. Arsenic (As) contamination in drinking water is a major health and environmental issue around the world, especially in the developing countries [13,14]. Removal of arsenic from drinking water is an important problem for environmental engineering and while there are ways to remove arsenic, thay are expensive and require extensive hardware and high-pressure pumps that run on electricity. Iron oxide is an interesting sorbent for the removal of arsenic and other heavy metal contaminants[15,16]. When magnetic iron oxide is made as nanoparticles, the smaller particle size and high surface area enhances its capacity for As removal [17]. An external magnetic field can be used to separate the magnetic nanoparticles after sorption. Here we report the PEG assisted hydrothermal synthesis of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) nanoparticles and show the potential use of the nanocomposite of superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 for the waste water treatment, especially for arsenic removal, by magnetic separation, using a small magnetic field. The experiments involved suspending pure samples of uniform-sized nickel ferrite nanoparticles in water. Once they bind to arsenic, a magnetic field was used to pull the particles to out of solution, leaving only the purified water. We measured the tiny particles after they were removed from the water and ruled out the most obvious explanation: the particles were not clumping together after being tractored by the magnetic field due to surface modification by polyethylene glycol (PEG). It is also found that the composite can be easily dispersed in water and the magnetic carbon fluid thus obtained is very stable for few days. 439 �Results and Discussion FTIR analysis Two mainbroad metal-oxygen bands are seen in the IR spectra of all spinels, and ferrites in particular. The highest one, v1, (Fig. 1) generally observed in the range 600-550cm-1, corresponds to intrinsic stretching vibrations of the metal at the tetrahedral site, Mtetra↔O, whereas the v2-lowest band, usually observed in the range 450-385cm-1, is assigned to octahedral-metal stretching, Mocta↔O [7,18]. It is known that Ni2+ ions have octahedral-site preference Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions can occupy both octahedral and tetrahedral sites [19]. Transmittance (a.u.) NiFe2O4 PEG 4000 3000 2000 1000 -1 Wavenumber (cm ) Fig. 1. FTIR spectra of NiFe2O4, synthesized by PEG-assisted hydrothermal method. Red line shows the FTIR spectra of PEG. However, no clear peak due to octahedrally coordinated metal ions has been observed which is expected to be below 400 cm-1. This may be due to the broadening of this peak attributed to very small particles of spinel ferrites. The bands observed around 3430 and 1521 cm−1 frequencies are ascribed due to the stretching modes and H-O-H bending vibration of the free or absorbed water molecules. XRD analysis The powder X-ray diffractograms recorded for sample of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is shown in Fig.2. Samples are considered to be single-phase spinel structure as no extra peaks and no unreacted constituents were observed. This allows the estimation of average crystallite size and its standart deviation from XRD. The experimental line profiles, shown in Fig.2, were fitted for 9 peaks (111), (220), (311), (400), (422), (511), (440) (622) and (533) the calculated average crystallite size, D and standart deviations σ, are presented in Table 3. 440 �40 50 60 533 622 422 400 111 30 440 511 311 220 intensity (a.u.) 20 70 2θ (Degree) Figure 2: Experimental and theoretically fitted XRD patterns of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles. The cation distribution in NiFe2O4 can be infered from the X-ray diffraction relative integrated intensity calculations by using the following formula suggested by Buerger [20]: 2 I hkl = F hkl PL p where (1) F is the structure factor, P the multicipty factor and L p is the Lorenz-polarization factor which depends only on the Bragg’s diffraction angle Lp = θ 1 + cos 2 2θ sin 2 θ cos 2θ (2) Some peaks’ intensity ratios in the XRD pattern of spinel structures were reported as cation distribution sensitive peaks, such as I 220 / I 400 , I 220 / I 422 and I 422 / I 400 [21,22]. In the calculations (i) all possible cation arrangments are considered with 0.01 stoichiometric sensitivity that Ni+2 and Fe+3 can site both tetrahedral and octahedral sites, (ii) the oxygen positional parameter was chosen between 0.3700 and 0.3900, ideal spinel structures that are 0.3852, 0.3822 and 0.375 respectively [23] and (iii) for the agreement of calculated and experimental intensity ratios, the difference of calculated and experimental relative intensities for all distribution cases are considered and the sum of these differences are minimized. Finally the closest calculated data are taken to be the correct distributions. Note that there should be no need for the thermal correction because of the spinel’s high melting temperature and hence very small thermo-vibrational effect of spinel on XRD patterns [24]. As a result the experimental lattice constants, chosen oxygen positional parameters, the relative insenties of experimental and calculated XRD peaks, and their corresponding cation distribution results are listed in Table 1. The occupancy of Fe+3 ions on A site is greater than 0.78 and in all substance the Fe+3 ions dominate in Td sub lattice. Lattice Parameter a (A) Oxygen Positional Parameter u 8.36 0.3750 I220/I400 I422/I400 Cation Distribution (Ni0.22Fe0.78) [Ni0.78Fe1.22] Obs. Cal. Obs. Cal. 1.25 1.23 0.41 0.45 Table 1: The values of XRD cation distribution in NiFe2O4 nanoparticles. 441 �In the spinel structure the cations on different sub lattites ( A and B sites) have oppositely aligned magnetic moments according to the Neel’s ferrimagnetic theory [55]. So the magnetic moment per formula unit in µ B (Bohr magneton) is n B ( x) = M B ( x) − M A ( x) where (4.4) M B and M A are B and A site magnetic moment in µ B . The magnetic moment per formula unit is calculated by cation distribution results of XRD and Neel’s theory with ionic magnetic moment of 5 µ B and 2 µ B for Fe+3 and Ni+2 , respectively [23]. The results are summarized in Table 2. The calculated agreed well with experimentally obtained values, confirming a collinear magnetic structure. n B values . Cation Distribution (XRD) (Ni0.22Fe0.78) [Ni0.78Fe1.22] Saturation Magnetization Ms (emu/g) (VSM) 40.93 Magneton number nB(μB) Obs. Cal. (VSM) (XRD) 2.16 2.20 Table 2: The magnetic moment per unit formula from XRD and VSM for NiFe2O4 nanoparticles TEM ( XRD- Profile Fit) VSM (LN Langevien Fit) DTEM ( σ ) Av. Size (Geo.StD) 15 (0.23) DXRD ( σ) Av. Size (StD.) 14.1 (5.0) Dm(σ σ m) Av. Size (Geo .StD.) 13.9 (0.58) Table 3: The obtained particle sizes or size distributions of Ni Fe2O4 nanoparticles. TEM analysis The TEM micrograph and particle size distribution of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 are given in Fig. 3. During synthesis, temperature was increased to 150 0C and samples were kept for 21h in the owen. A good crystallinity can be attributed to the heat during synthesis process. 150 particles are counted in NiFe2O4 nanoparticles and particle size has been determined as 15 nm from the size distribution from Fig.3 (b) which agrees with the result of XRD measurement (14.1 nm). 442 �25 % counts 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Pa r t i c l e s i z e ( n m ) (a) (b) Figure 3 (a) The TEM micrograph of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by using PEG 400, (b) particle size distribution. VSM analysis By using Quantum Design Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (QD-VSM), the magnetic characterizations of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were performed. In detail, the magnetization of Ni-ferrites were studied as a function of external field between ±5 kOe and as a function of temperature (between T=10 K and the room temperature). Magnetic hysteresis curves were then analyzed for temperature dependency of the samples’ magnetization under zero field cooling-ZFC and field cooling-FC. The magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 is analized at room and 10 K temperature in Fig. 4 and 5. Magnetization (emu/g) 40 T=305 K 20 0 -20 -40 -10000 -5000 0 5000 10000 Magnetic Field (Oe) Figure 4 Magnetic field vs magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 at room temperature. 443 �It is observed that the room temperature M-H curve of NiFe2O4 powders does not show a hysteresis in Fig. 4. The value of magnetization sharply increases with the external magnetic field strength. M-H curve has an s shape at low field region and the high field side of the curve is almost linear with the external field. However, a saturation state of magnetization has not been reeached yet in the presence of a relatively strong magnetic field of even 10 kOe, which is consistent with the previous studies [25,26]. A saturation magnetization of 40.93 emu/g is obtained for the room temperature measurement. It is known that fine particles are easy to activate thermally and overcome magnetic anisotropy. Particles lost their hysteresis property above blocking temperature and magnetic moments follow the same direction with applied magnetic field. So that the magnetic moments do not have any remanent magnetization and a hysteresis loop to observe coercive field. 80 60 T=10 K Magnetization (emu/g) 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -10000 -5000 0 5000 10000 Magnetic Field (Oe) Figure 5 Magnetic field vs magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 as fuel at 10K temperature. The M-H curve of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles denoted that coercive field and saturation magnetization increased at 10 K temperature in Fig. 5. Coercive field is measured as 132 Oe which is higher than 305K value. And saturation magnetization reached 65.35 emu/g because of the magnetic exchange energy. The width of hysteresis terminates around 50 emu/g values, after that a line follows a continuous shape by increasing applied field. An increasing trend in saturation magnetization is also observed in the high magnetic field regime. 444 �Magnetizatization (emu/g) 18 12 190 K 6 100 Oe ZFC-FC 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Temperature (K) Figure 6 Magnetization vs temperature curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 as fuel. The magnetization vs temperature curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 as fuel has been obtained in Fig. 6. The magnetization of the NiFe2O4 sample increases by decreasing temperature in FC (field cooling) measurement. The magnetization of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles at 10 K temperature is measured as 15 emu/g in FC process which means the magnetization direction of each particle is frozen in the field direction. The ZFC magnetization exhibits a maximum around a critical temperature which is blocking temperature TB. Both curves, only joins at around 220 K temperature only and then diverges. Here, the blocking temperature (TB) of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is determined as 190 K as seen in Fig. 6. After ZFC process, magnetization of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is measured as 4 emu/g which denotes that the magnetic moments did not align at 10 K temperature. Arsenic Removal The NiFe2O4 nanoparticles covered with PEG can be easily dispersed in water and the dispersion is found to be stable for a long time. Similarly, the nanocomposite can be easily separated using a laboratory permanent magnet and again redispersed. This shows that the PEG is strongly attached to the surface of the Ni-ferrite nanoparticles. To demonstrate the application of the Ni-ferrite nanocomposite for arsenic removal by magnetic separation, the nanocomposite is used for the removal of arsenic in drinking water. The photographs in Figure 7 (a) show this behavior very clearly. This shows the efficiency of the nanocomposite for arsenic removal after adsorption on nickel ferrite by magnetic separation. 100 B Removal efficiency (%) 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 Cycles 445 5 6 7 �Figure 7 The separation of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles from solution by a magnet (A) and removal efficiencies of arsenic during adsorption-desorption cycles for NiFe2O4 nanoparticles (B) The graph of removal efficiency of arsenic as a function of time for various amounts of the nanocomposite used are shown in Figure 8. 94% removal is observed within few minutes when 0.5 g/L of the nanocomposite is used for 25 mg/L arsenic solution. The amount adsorbed is calculated using the relation, qe = (Ci−Cf)V /m, where Ci and Cf are the initial and final concentrations of arsenic, respectively, in mg/L, and m is mass of the nanoparticles in mg/L. The value of qe is calculated as 18 mg/g. Similar high adsorption capacity for drimaren red dye and other contaminants is reported for iron oxide/commercial AC composite [27]. qe of 11.9 mg/g of Fe3O4/carbon nanotube nanocomposite is reported very recently for methylene blue (MB) removal [28]. 100 90 Removal efficiency (%) 80 70 60 50 0.20g 0.3g 0.5g 40 30 20 10 0 -10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time (min) Figure 8 Removal efficiency of arcenic from water as a function of time using different amounts of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles. Conclusion Thus, the present study shows that superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were successfully synthesized by using PEG assisted hydrothermal method and arsenic strongly attached to these nanoparticles. The magnetic fluid obtained by dispersion of the nanoparticles in water is relatively stable and this dispersion is very efficient for the removal of arsenic from contaminated water by adsorption on magnetic nanoparticles and a subsequent simple magnetic separation process. Also, these nanoparticles can be used repeatedly to remove arsenic from drinking water. References [1] H. Gleiter, Prog. Mater. Sci., 33 (1989) 223. [2] C. Suryanarayana, Int. Mater. Rev., 40 (1995) R 41. [3] Y. Köseoğlu, H. Kavas, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 8 (2008) 584. [4] Chin-Yih. Hong, I. J. Jang, H. E. Horng, C. J. Hsu, Y. D. Yao, and H. C. Yang, J. Appl. Phys. 81 (1997) 4275. [5] R. N. Viswanath, S. Ramasamy, R. Ramamoorthy, P. Jeyavel, and T. Nagarajan, Nanostructured Mater., 6 (1995) 993. [6] M. E. McHenry, M. A. Willard, and D. E. Laughlin, Prog. Mater. Sci., 44 (1999) 291. [7] M. Sertkol, Y. Köseoğlu, A. Baykal, H. Kavas, A.C. Başaran, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 321 (2009) 157. 446 �[8] H. Kavas, A. Baykal, M. S. Toprak, Y. Köseoğlu, M. Sertkol, B. Aktas, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 479 (2009) 49–55. [9] D. C. Jiles, Acta Mater., 51 (2003) 5907. [10] [11] Q. A. Pankhurst, J. Connolly, S. K. Jones, and J. Dobson, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 36 (2003) R167. M. 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Buerger, Crystal Structure Analysis, Wiley interscience, New York, 1960. [21] H. Ohnishi, T. Teranishi, J.Phys. Soc Jpn, 6 (1969) 36. [22] S.Singhal, K.Chandra, Jour. Sol. Stat. Chem. , 180 (2007) 296-300. [23] Wohlfarth, Ferromagnetic materials Vol 3 North holland Publishing Company 1982 p196. [24] Qiang-min Wei, Jian-bao Li, Yong-jun Chen, Yong-shen Han, Material Chemistry and Physics, 74 (2002), 340-343. [25] F. Li, H.Wang, L.Wang, J.Wang, J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 309 (2007), 295. [26] R.N. Bhowmik, R. Ranganathan, J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 248 (2002), 101. [27] L. C. A. Oliveira, R. V. R. A. Rios, J. D. Fabris, V. Garg, K. Sapag, and R. M. Lago, Carbon 40 (2002) 2177 [28] J.-L. Gong, B. Wang, G.-M. Zenga, C.-P. Yang, C.-G. Niu, Q.-Y. Niu, W.-J. Zhou, and Y. Liang, J. Hazardous Mater. 164 (2009) 1517 447 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 543 Title A name given to the resource Superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 Nanoparticles to Remove Arsenic From Drinking Water Author Author Köseoğlu, Yüksel Abstract A summary of the resource. Superparamagnetic nanoparticles of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) were produced by PEG assisted hydrothermal method. XRD, FT-IR, TEM and VSM were used for the structural, morphological, and magnetic investigation of the product, respectively. Average particle size of the nanoparticles was estimated by the Scherrer equation using the full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the most intense XRD peak and found as 14 nm. While the nanoparticles indicate a superparamagnetic behavior above the blocking temperature of 72 K, they have ferromagnetic behavior at temperatures lower than the blocking temperature. These nanoparticles were dispersed into drinking water contaminated with arsenic (As), and once they bind to arsenic, they have been removed from the water solution using a strong magnet. The results were measured by Atomic Mass Spectrometry and found that these nanoparticles had removed 90 % of the arsenic. The measurements were repeated several times with the same sample and get almost the same results. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/35612543369cc8b164ef117171c3cbfa.pdf 77132c5573e74b611a7f56cd798e0049 PDF Text Text Determination of Effects of Different IBA Doses on Rooting of the Hardwood Cutings of Some Fig Cultivars Sadettin Küçük Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey kucuksadettin07@hotmail.com Meliha Temirkaynak Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey temirkaynak@hotmail.com Recep Çoşkun Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey recep0768@mynet.com Hüseyin Namal Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey hus_namal@hotmail.com Abstract: The aim of study was to determine the effects of different doses of IBA (Indole 3butyric acid) on the rooting performances of the hardwood cuttings of some fig cultivars. Cuttings 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter were taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The cuttings were dipped in to the solution containing 0, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA doses and planted into rooting media. At the end of the study the best IBA doses were determined for rooting rate and quality. Keywords: Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp, IBA, rooting. Introduction Nowadays, the fig cultivation for earliness has expanded significantly in Turkey-Mediterrenean Region particularly in Antalya province. Therefore, interest in own-rooted fig plants has increase, especially in fig growing areas. The demand fort his plants has led nurseymen to look for effective means of propagation large number of plants rapidly and easily. The production of fig more quicly and cheaply would be considerable commercial value, and growing cuttings on their own roots could achieve this purpose by eliminating the need for producing rootstock as well as for budding and grafting. Previous research shown that fig cuttings are characterised by a variable rooting ability (Pinherio, 1984; Dolgun et al., 2004). Bench heating, mist, temperature control, growth substance and hormone treatments are always required to obtain satisfactory rooting (Chalfun et al.,2003). Material and Methods In this study, the hardwood cuttings of figs taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The research was carried out in the “Mist Propagation Unit” at Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute. Hardwood cuttings were taken to be 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter and planted into the rooting media. In the research, 0 ppm (control), 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA (Indole 3-butyric acid) doses were tested. In practice, in the form of sheaves of hardwood cutting, 1-2 cm of the bottom parts were dipped in IBA solution for a period of 5 seconds and we waited for short time fort he alcohole to release. Then cuttings were 824 �planted in a rooting media (including perlite) by 10x10 cm row and plant spacing (Kalyoncu, 1996; Ersoy et al. 2010). This experiment was carried out in a randomise block design with 4 replicates. Each replicate consisted of 20 hardwood cuttings. Analysis of variance and LSD multiple range test (p<0.05) were used to determine differences in rooting rate (%), root number, maximum root lenght (cm), average root lenght (cm), shoot lenght (cm) and shoot diameter (mm). Results and Discussion All hardwood cuttings were decayed 80 days after planting. Following treatment with IBA, IBA increased rooting rate. But there were not significant differences between IBA doses on rooting rate. The 1000 ppm IBA dose gave the highest mean value for rooting rate in all cultivars (Table 1). Cultivars Doses Rooting rate 0 85.00 250 500 1000 82.50 86.25 92.50 Nazareth LSD%5 Banana 0 100.00 250 500 1000 95.00 97.50 100.00 n.s LSD%5 Noire de Cromp 0 92.50 250 97.50 500 97.50 1000 100.00 LSD%5 n.s Morgüz 0 97.50 250 500 1000 97.50 95.00 97.50 LSD%5 Table 1. Effects of IBA doses on rooting rate of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The effect of IBA treatments on root number, maxiumum root lenght, average root lenght, shoot lenght and shoot diameter are shown in Table 2. The average root lenght for the treatments of 0, 250 ppm, 500 ppm on Nazareth varieties were observed as 9.56 cm, 8.68 cm, 5.80 cm and 5.98 cm, respectively. Accordingly, the highest rate was obtained for control and low concentration of IBA. In Nazareth fig cultivars, sapling quality characters were not positively affected by IBA treatments (Table 2). In Banana cultivars, root number, average root lenght and shoot diameter positively affected by IBA treatments. The highest root number was determined for 1000 ppm IBA treatment (with 36.43). This rate was found to be 28.05 for control (Table 2). 825 �Cultivars Doses Root number Max. root lenght Average root lenght Shoot lenght Shoot diameter 0 15. 65 16.78 9.56 A 11.58 7.08 A 250 500 1000 LSD%5 13.98 14.18 12.73 n.s 16.48 12.93 14.40 n.s 8.68 AB 5.80 B 5.98 B 2.93 13.35 9.58 8.60 n.s 4.83 B 4.38 B 5.00 B 1.01 0 28.05 B 17.40 A 8.05 A 17.35 AB 5.73 A 21.85 C 25.70 BC 36.43 A 5.95 17.08 A 13.82 B 16.33 AB 2.78 6.80 AB 5.95 B 7.20 AB 1.91 16.25 B 15.35 B 19.43 A 2.85 5.03 B 4.55 B 5.20 AB 0.67 24.60 B 24.63 B 21.15 B 35.55 A 6.79 14.28 15.30 14.00 13.25 n.s. 5.55 B 8.95 A 5.58 B 6.23 B 2.28 17.18 19.30 16.90 18.20 n.s. 4.75 AB 5.90 A 4.50 B 4.08 B 1.38 13.78 B 13.78 8.26 16.58 6.38 Nazareth Banana 250 500 1000 LSD%5 Noire de Cromp 0 250 500 1000 LSD%5 Morgüz 0 250 19.86 B 18.60 10.53 14.98 6.50 500 19.65 B 17.98 8.50 16.68 5.05 1000 28.95 A 16.13 8.18 16.48 5.18 LSD%5 8.14 n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. Table 2. Effects of IBA doses on root number, maximum root lenght, average root lenght, shoot lenght and shoot diameter of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. While Banana cultivar was showed high rooting rate (98.13 %), root number (28.00 roots/sapling), maximum root lenght (16.62 cm) and shoot lenght (17.89 cm), Nazareth cultivar was showed low rooting rate (81.56 %), root number (14.13 roots/sapling), maximum root lenght (15.14 cm) and shoot lenght (10.78 cm) (Table 3). Cultivars Nazareth Banana Noire de Cromp Morgüz LSD%5 Rooting rate 81.56 B 98.13 A 96.88 B 96.88 B 8.74 Root number 14.13 C 28.00 A 26.48 A 20.56 B 3.78 Max. root lenght 15.14 AB 16.62 A 14.21 B 16.16 A 1.86 Average root leght 7.50 B 7.00 B 6.58 B 8.86 A 1.28 Shoot lenght 10.78 B 17.89 A 17.09 A 16.17 A 1.99 Shoot diameter 5.32 AB 5.13 B 4.81 B 5.78 A 0.59 Table 3. Root and shoot quality characteristics of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. In conclusion, root quality were improved in the rooting medium added with IBA compared with control medium. The best cultivar was found to be Banana in terms of rooting behavior. 826 �References Chaldun N.N.J, M. Pasqual, P. M. Norberta, L.F. Dutra, J.M. Caval Cante & Alves, 2003. Rooting of fig (Ficus carica L.) cultivars; cutting time and IBA. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 605, II. International Symposium on fig (Abstract). Caceres, Spain. Dolgun O, F.E.Tekintaşi, G. Seferoğlu & N. Şahin, 2204. Sarılop incir çeşidide farlı üretim uygulamalarının fidan kalitesi üzerine etkileri. ADÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 1(1):19-22. Ersoy N., I.H. Kalyoncu, M. Aydın & M.Yılmaz, 2010. Effects of some humidity and IBA hormone dose appliations on rooting of M9 apple clonal rootstock softwood top cuttings. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 9 (17), p:2510-2514. Kalyoncu Đ.H., 1996. Konya yöresindeki kızılcık (Cornus mas L.) tiplerinin bazı özellikleri ve farklı nem ortamlarındaki köklenme durumu üzerine bir araştırma. Selçuk Üniversitesi Tarımsal Yapılar ve Sulama Bölümü. Doktora tezi (yayınlanmamış), Konya. Pinherio R.V.R and L.M.De Oliveria, 1974. The influence of fig cutting lenght on striking, rooting and branch and leaf development, Horticultural Abstract, 44 (3). 827 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 633 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Effects of Different IBA Doses on Rooting of the Hardwood Cutings of Some Fig Cultivars Author Author Küçük, Sadettin Temirkaynak, Meliha Çoskun, Recep Namal, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of study was to determine the effects of different doses of IBA (Indole 3- butyric acid) on the rooting performances of the hardwood cuttings of some fig cultivars. Cuttings 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter were taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The cuttings were dipped in to the solution containing 0, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA doses and planted into rooting media. At the end of the study the best IBA doses were determined for rooting rate and quality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ce30ab040cbb81176ccb3ec5829d4802.pdf aa699fba506f4ac37169b34099edcf79 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Comparative Analysis of Bosnia Herzegovina to the Other Former Yugoslav Federation Countries in the Context of Political and Economic Perspectives Hakan M. KĠRĠġ Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey hakkan@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Canan ġENTÜRK Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey canansenturk@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Hidayet KESKĠN Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey hunlu@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Onur SUNGUR Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey onurs@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: A major period of transformation has begun all over the world since 1980s. The important developments occurring in the political field with neoliberal policies have also affected economic field equally. Economic stability and transformation cannot be considered separately from political stability and transformation. In this context, disintegration of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia has led to important developments not only political but also economic fields. Today, there are countries of Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro in the territory of the former Yugoslav federation. With dissolution of the federation, political and economic transformation process started in these countries. This study aims to make a comparative analysis in the context of macroeconomic indicators on Bosnia – Herzegovina‘s economy with other FYRs‘ economies that emerged as a result of political transformation. Introduction Former Yugoslav Federation countries are one of the most interesting lands in the world. Ethnic, religious and regional conflicts have shaped the history of these seven countries (Bosnia Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro). This study makes an effort to put forward political and economic scene of these countries. Especially Bosnia Herzegovina is a prominent example for this paper. Within this context study has two main sections. First political landscape of Bosnia Herzegovina and the other former Yugoslav Federation Countries are explained their political history and demographic indicators in brief. Moreover first section contains the subtitle of Bosnia Herzegovina‘s current political and administrative structures. The second section is interested in the economic indicators of these countries. In this section, firstly, recent macroeconomic indicators of these countries are given. Then, the economic transformation of these countries between 2003 and 2009 are analyzed and the effects of global crisis are discussed. The purpose is to provide updated comparative information on different aspects of the economies in Former Yugoslav Federation countries. This overview aims to present recent trends and/or actual forecasts of different indicators of economic development for Former Yugoslav Federation countries. Political Landscape of Bosnia & Herzegovina and the Other Former Yugoslav Federation Countries Political History in Brief In the history of Western Balkan Countries within the borders of Former Yugoslav Federation, a variety of common grounds can be seen. The word ―Yugoslavia‖ means ―Southern Slavs‖. Yugoslavia had appeared with the idea of gathering various national and religious communities with equal rights. The Kingdom of 302 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Yugoslavia lived between the two World Wars. The Second World War became a turning point for this country. After the War, the federative structure took the place of the kingdom. Even though it had a socialist character, it had a different tendency from the Soviet Union. In this period, Yugoslavia took part in Non-Aligned Movement. Disintegration of Yugoslavia can be viewed depending on deep economic and political crisis. Demand of independency of Croatia and Slovenia and then Serbia‘s domination desire accelerated this process of separation. When Croatia and Slovenia declared independence, Yugoslav crisis internationalized. Bosnia Herzegovina is an unfortunate land because of bloody and unequal battles in 1990s (Kut, 1998: 321 – 324). Today two new independent countries rise in former Yugoslav lands: Montenegro as an independent country which is split up Serbia in 2006 and Kosovo which is declare of independence in 2008. Kosovo and Montenegro are the latest independent countries of the World today. Thus there are seven countries in former Yugoslav federation territories: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo. After the pax Romana Kingdom of Bosnia fought against Hungarians and Serbs. Bosnia was added to Ottoman Empire at 1463. Ottomans ruled Bosnia till treaty of Berlin in 1878. Austro – Hungarian Empire gained Bosnian territory owing to Berlin Treaty without any war with Ottoman Empire. Between the years of 1918 – 1941 Bosnia was ruled by Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After the invasion of Nazi at World War II Bosnia get involved in Yugoslav Federation. After the Bosnia War 36, Dayton Agreement at 1995 is the constructive treaty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Before this agreement, world public opinion witnessed ethnic based Bosnia war between the years of 1991 to 1995 (Maric, 2006a: 90). Continuing 5 years Bosnia war ended in 1995 with Dayton Peace Agreement signed among the leader of Bosnia Herzegovina Alija Ġzzetbegovic, the leader of Serbia Slobodan Milosevic and the leader of Crotia Franjo Tudman. Arriving West Balkans in 7th Century, Croatians established their kingdom in X. Century. However, Croatian territory was conquered first by Hungarians in 11 th Century and later in 16th Century by Otoman Empire with the Mohacs War. Upon the failure of second siege of Vienna, Croatians was conquered this time by AustroHungarian Empire. With the separation of Austro – Hungarian in World War I, Croatians joined to Yugoslavian Kingdom. After the Nazi occupation in World War II, Croatians, just like their neighbors, joined Yugoslavian Socialist Federation. In 1991, Croatians declared their independence (Oliver, 2006: 140 – 144). Figure 1. New Independent Countries in Former Yugoslav Federation Lands Today Macedonia is the name of both a state and geographical territory. As a geographical territory, Macedonia, today covers north-west of Greece, south-west of Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia. Therefore, upon the objection of Greece, Macedonia Republic was portrayed as Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia when it was established. Although history of Macedonia dates back to antiquity as a geographical territory, the history of Macedonian Republic is quite new. Macedonian, Roma, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires prevailed over the Macedonian territories. Following the World War II, Macedonia, a state depended on Yugoslav Socialist Federation, declared of independence in 1991 (Plunkett, 2006: 232 - 234). The word Slovenia stands for ―the country of Slavs‖. Slovenes, just like other Slav communities, arrived this area around VII. Century. After the Dukedom they founded, the area they settled down became, in a little while, a part of Holy Roma-Germen Empire. Slovenes, included in the Yugoslav Kingdom with the separation of Austro-Hungarian Empire after World Was I, joined Yugoslav Federation after Nazi occupation in World War II and remained dependent on this federation until they declared independence in the beginning of 1991. Slovenia is the only country among the countries separated from the former Yugoslav Federation (Oliver, 2006: 331 – 334). 36 Bosnia Herzegovina is a special foreign policy issue for Turkish politicians and statesmen. Turkey as term president of the Council of Europe and term president of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, played and important role on Bosnia War. Turkey prepared an action plan for Bosnia Herzegovina which included diplomatic and military protections. In fact, direct intervention of Turks alone became a current issue in international diplomacy. Today, a Turkish troop in SFOR serves in Zenica. 303 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Until the Ottoman reign, Serbians organized as a medieval kingdom. This kingdom dominated from 7 th Century till 14th Century. Remaining under the reign of Ottomans for five years, Serbians consisted of communities within the empire and early impressed by nationalist movement. Declaring independency with Agreement of Berlin in 1878, Serbians was the leading community which founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia after the World War I. Serbia, placed within Yugoslavia Federation following World War II, struggled to maintain Yugoslav Federal Republic with Karadağ in 1992. However, in 2001 the name Yugoslavia vanished, and after a little while, the corporation of Serbia and Karadağ came to an end (Maric, 2006b:268 - 270). While dependent upon Venice Republic, Montenegro came under the reign of Ottomans in 15 th Century. For Ottoman Empire, Karadağ was quite problematic area. This country, hosting many rebellions, separated from Ottoman Empire and gained its independence with Berlin Agreement in 1878. One of the countries constituting Yugoslavia, Karadağ, perpetuated the name of Yugoslavia with Serbia in 1990s, however, separating from Serbians, Karadağ regained its independence in 2006 (Maric, 2006b: 269 – 270). Just like Macedonia, bearing the traces of Hun and Slav migrations, Kosovo placed in the confluence of empires throughout the history. Homaging the Ottomans in such an early year 1389, remained under the domain of Ottomans till 1912. Serbians, put in a claim for Kosovo in historical period, invaded Kosovo in 1995. However, this invasion came to an end with the NATO intervention in 1999. The Republic of Kosovo, is the last independent country of the world. The independency of Kosovo, is a significance improvement in international politics (Maric, 2006b: 270). Demographic Indicators Serbia is the most populated country among Former Yugoslav Federation Countries today. Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia are other over- populated countries following Serbia compared to the others in the region. In contrast, Montenegro is the least populated country. Bosnia Herzegovina and Montenegro are the most heterogeneous countries ethnically. In Bosnia Herzegovina, no ethnic group has the supreme size in comparison with the others. In Montenegro Montenegrins and Serbs constitute two big ethnic groups. When having a look at the other countries, a different situation is perceived. For example, in Croatia, the 89.6 % of the total population is Croatian, in Slovenia the 83.1 % of the population is Slovene, in Serbia 82.9 % of the population is Serbs, in Macedonia 64.2 % of the population is Macedonians. In Kosovo, 88 % of the population is Albanians. In Bosnia Herzegovina, no religious group dominates the other one. Bosnia Herzegovina which has the most balanced distribution has the highest Muslim population among the other countries in this study. In contrast, the majority of the population in Croatia and Slovenia is Catholics. Correspondingly, Orthodox Christians are mostly in Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. A similar scene is viewed in the extensity of the current languages in the society. Within the framework of the demographic features, Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia have a more homogeneous structure. However, Bosnia Herzegovina is considered as the most heterogeneous country. 304 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Country Population Bosnia Herzegovina 4.613.414 est) (2009 Croatia 4,489,409 est) (2009 Macedonia 2,066,718 est) (2009 Slovenia 2,005,692 est.) (2009 Serbia 7,379,339 est.) (2009 Montenegro 672,180 (2009 est.) Kosovo 1,804,838 est.) (2009 Ethnic Groups Religion Languages Bosniak 48%, Serb 37.1%, Croat 14.3%, other 0.6% (2000) Croat 89.6%, Serb 4.5%, other 5.9% (including Bosniak, Hungarian, Slovene, Czech, and Roma) (2001 census) Macedonian 64.2%, Albanian 25.2%, Turkish 3.9%, Roma (Gypsy) 2.7%, Serb 1.8%, other 2.2% (2002 census) Slovene 83.1%, Serb 2%, Croat 1.8%, Bosniak 1.1%, other or unspecified 12% (2002 census) Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 14% Roman Catholic 87.8%, Orthodox 4.4%, other Christian 0.4%, Muslim 1.3%, other and unspecified 0.9%, none 5.2% (2001 census) Macedonian Orthodox 64.7%, Muslim 33.3%, other Christian 0.37%, other and unspecified 1.63% (2002 census) Catholic 57.8%, Muslim 2.4%, Orthodox 2.3%, other Christian 0.9%, unaffiliated 3.5%, other or unspecified 23%, none 10.1% (2002 census) Serbian Orthodox 85%, Catholic 5.5%, Protestant 1.1%, Muslim 3.2%, unspecified 2.6%, other, unknown, or atheist 2.6% (2002 census) Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian Serb 82.9%, Hungarian 3.9%, Romany (Gypsy) 1.4%, Yugoslavs 1.1%, Bosniaks 1.8%, Montenegrin 0.9%, other 8% (2002 census) Montenegrin 43%, Serbian 32%, Bosniak 8%, Albanian 5%, other (Muslims, Croats, Roma (Gypsy)) 12% (2003 census) Albanians 88%, Serbs 7%, other 5% (Bosniak, Gorani, Roma, Turk, Ashkali, Egyptian) Orthodox 74.2%, Muslim 17.7%, Catholic 3.5%, other 0.6%, unspecified 3%, atheist 1% (2003 census) Muslim, Serbian Orthodox, Roman Catholic Croatian 96.1%, Serbian 1%, other and undesignated 2.9% (including Italian, Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, and German) (2001 census) Macedonian 66.5%, Albanian 25.1%, Turkish 3.5%, Roma 1.9%, Serbian 1.2%, other 1.8% (2002 census) Slovenian 91.1%, SerboCroatian 4.5%, other or unspecified 4.4% (2002 census) Serbian 88.3% (official), Hungarian 3.8%, Bosniak 1.8%, Romany (Gypsy) 1.1%, other 4.1%, unknown 0.9% (2002 census) note: Romanian, Hungarian, Slovak, Ukrainian, and Croatian all official in Vojvodina Serbian 63.6%, Montenegrin (official) 22%, Bosnian 5.5%, Albanian 5.3%, unspecified 3.7% (2003 census) Albanian (official), Roma (official), Serbian Bosnian, Turkish, Table 1: Demographic Structure of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries Source: CIA, World Factbook, 2009. Political and Administrative Structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina Today, Bosnia and Herzegovina is composed of two entities. An entity is similar to a state in the US, or a province in Canada. The northern, primarily Serb, entity within the country is called the Republic of Srpska, with its capital in Banja Luka. The Federation is the second entity of the country. This entity has all three ethnic groups present, and it is formally referred to as the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Both the Republic of Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina are entities within the country, which is itself called Bosnia and Herzegovina (Phillips, 2004: 13). International commentators wonder how Bosnia can survive as a multinational structure. Theoretical discussions on multi-ethnicity have led to a discuss about which institutional arrangement can best accommodate the various needs of the three main Bosnian communities. The role of international intervention is protecting multi-ethnicity, building viable and legitimate state institutions. More broadly, furthering and sustaining the peace process (Belloni, 2007: 3). With the signing of the Dayton Peace Agrement, rebuilding Bosnia in the aftermath of a long and bloody war over ethnicity and territory would involve not only reconstituting a deeply divided political community and building up public institutions almost from scratch, but also simultaneously putting the country on the path to free-market capitalism and liberal democracy. The central dynamic of Bosnia‘s short post-Dayton existence, therefore, has been the tension between the country‘s ongoing ethnic struggle and the efforts of the international community to implement the main pillars of the Dayton agreement. These pillars include the return of refugees and displaced persons to their pre-war homes, the consolidation of democratic values, institutions, and practices, the recreation of a climate of relatively tolerant multi-ethnicity, and the creation of a viable market economy (Donais, 2005: 1-2). 305 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 2. Bosnia and Herzegovina Political Map The post-Dayton state-building process has also been deeply affected by the broader ideological overtones of contemporary global capitalism, with its deep distrust of activist and interventionist government. Somewhat paradoxically, therefore, the post-war Bosnian state is often simultaneously defined as both underdeveloped and over-intrusive: lacking basic capacities and competencies to exercise effective governance while continuing to wield inordinate influence over the remains of the Bosnian economy (Donais, 2005: 47). Bosnia and Herzegovina has three primary religious groups: Orthodox, Catholic, and Islam. Orthodox Christians have ties to the Serb ethnic group, Catholics to the Croats, and the Muslims are often referred to as Bosniaks (not to be confused with Bosnians). Surprisingly, each of these ethnic groups has the same ancestral heritage, just as the now diverse population shares the same Slav ethnic roots. Religious differences and extreme nationalism offer the most apparent answers to this question. This complex question will be examined in greater detail in the following chapters, and it is an essential one to explore if one is to understand Bosnia and Herzegovina and its neighbours in the region (Phillips, 2004: 9). Macro Economic View of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries In this section, various macro economic indicators for Former Yugoslav Federation countries are presented. The purpose is to provide updated comparative information on different aspects of the economies in Former Yugoslav Federation countries. This overview aims to present recent trends and/or actual forecasts of different indicators of economic development for Former Yugoslav Federation countries. Main demographical indicators of the countries Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro are presented in Table 2 as follows: Area(km2) Population Density GDP* (billion $) Per capita GDP* HDI Rank (2007) BiH 51,129 4,613,414 90,2/km2 Croatia 56,594 4,489,409 81/km2 Kosovo 10,908 1,804,838 220/km2 Macedonia 25,713 2,114,550 82,2/km2 Montenegro 13,812 672,180 50/km2 Serbia 88,361 7,334,935 107,46/km2 Slovenia 20,273 2,054,199 99.6/km2 $29.477 $78.539 $5.352 $18.831 $6.506 $78.506 $55.741 $7,361 $17,703 $2,965 $9,163 $10,393 $10,635 $27,654 76th 45th - 72th 65th 65th 29th Table 2. Recent Demographic And Macro-Economic Indicators Of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries * according to Purchasing Power Standard (PPS) Source: (CIA, 2009) According to 2009 figures, total GDP's of these countries (according to PPS) is around $ 273 billion. In terms of GDP, the richest countries of these seven countries are Croatia and Macedonia. However, when these two countries, per capita GDP values are examined, it has been seen that Croatia is second and Macedonia is fifth. Slovenia has $ 27.655 per capita GDP and it is the highest country according to per capita GDP. Kosovo is located at the end according to GDP and per capita GDP in these seven countries. In addition to this, all countries, except Slovenia, are entered "high" category in terms of Human Development Index. Slovenia is entered in the "very high" category in terms of Human Development Index. Kosovo does not have a rank which is calculated by the UNDP. 306 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina had a developed industrial infrastructure before the war and nearly half the country's income and employment were being provided by 10 companies. In this year's heavy industry, in particular metallurgy and chemical industries, constituted an important part of industrial production and the vast majority of production was oriented to the domestic market. (T.C. Saraybosna Büyükelçiliği, 2008: 9). BosniaHerzegovina was trying to cross a free market economy after gaining independence. However, before realizing that war has begun in the country. The war which was started in 1992, has done great harm to the country. The interethnic warfare in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused production to plummet by 80% from 1992 to 1995 and unemployment to soar. . After end of the war and the provision of political stability, the national economy has begun to revive with international investments.(DEĠK, 2005: 2). With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-99 at high percentage rates from a low base In terms of real GDP, 29.9% growth in 1997, 28,9% in 1998 and 9,5% in 1999 was achieved.(IMF, 2010). In 1999, The EU proposes the new Stabilisation and Association Process for five countries of South-Eastern Europe, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2000, Zagreb Summit; the Stabilisation and Association Process is officially endorsed by the EU and the Western Balkan countries including Bosnia and Herzegovina. In November 2003, the Commission produces a Feasibility Study assessing Bosnia and Herzegovina‘s capacity to implement a future Stabilisation and Association Agreement. The study concludes that negotiations should start once Bosnia and Herzegovina has addressed 16 key priorities (OECD, 2006: 13). These negotiations related to Stabilisation and Association Agreement play an important role in the country‘s economic policies (DEĠK, 2005: 2). As a result of these efforts, GDP growth exceeded 5% per year between 2003-2008. Improvement in economic performance between the 2003-2008 years is reflected to growth and national income figures. However the current account deficit, unemployment and low incomes continue to be major economic problems. Besides, due in large part to the global economic crisis, GDP fell by about 3% in 2009, exports fell 24%, and unemployment rose above 40% (CIA, 2009). Bosnia and Herzegovina has suffered a major structural change in economy. On the one hand institutions which are necessary for the functioning of healthy free-market economy, are established with technical and financial support and assistance of particularly the European Union and the United States. On the other hand, country is trying to repair the damage which is caused by war. Bosnia and Herzegovina took many important steps about correction of the country‘s image against foreign investors and it has been efforts to increase foreign investment. In May 1999 a new Foreign Investment Law was enacted at the state level. Some new investments have been made through the progress of privatization (WIIW, 2002: 4). In addition, Foreign Investment Promotion Agency (FIPA) was established in 1999 for the the development and identifying of trade and investment relations. FIPA provides data, information, analysis and advice on the business and investment environment, including the legal framework for foreign direct investment, investment incentives, economic and business trends (FIPA, 2010). In addition to the establishment of FIPA, various improvements were made in Bosnia-Herzegovina to improve the investment environments such as 5-year programme for SME development adopted in Republic of Srpska in 2001, harmonisation of customs tariffs in 2002, adoption of law on Indirect Tax in 2003, Law on Business Registration in 2004 etc. (OECD, 2006: 18-19). Basic problem in Bosnia-Herzegovina is that Bosnian state and society couldn‘t enough integrated after the war which took place between 1992-1995. Normalization of the relationships between ethnic identities takes time and that causes problems from time to time in the state administration and bureaucracy. Dayton Peace Agreement has allowed for the legal ethnic division of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The state-wide organizations does not functioning adequately because of the some articles in the Constitution of Bosnia-Herzegovina. For example, according to the fourth Article of the Constitution, to take a decision in Bosnia-Herzegovina Parliament, a certain percentage of MPs from both entities must be approve this decision. For that reason, there are bottlenecks in Bosnia-Herzegovina's state-level councils. Representatives of different ethnic groups can agree on very few issues because of this more fundamental reform can not be taken. (TEPAV-EPRI, 2010: 2). Croatia, according to CIA World Factbook 2009, has a $ 29.477 billion GDP and $7,361 per capita GDP by 2009. Today, main sectors of Croatia‘s economy are industry, agriculture, forestry, fishing industry and food, drink, and tobacco production, construction, transport and communication, and trade. Croatia affected badly from the 1991-1995 war and economy collapsed between this period. The other result of this war was that Croatia missed the investment potential in Central and Eastern Europe followed the fall of Berlin Wall. Together with ensuring political stability, positive developments began in the economy of Croatia. Between 2000 and 2007, Croatia's economic fortunes began to improve slowly, with moderate but steady GDP growth between 4% and 6%. The economic growth mainly led by rapid increase in tourism and credit-driven consumer spending. Besides, Croatia signed Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the EU in 2001 and submitted formal application for EU membership in February 2003 (OECD, 2006b: 5). On October 4, 2005, EU accession negotiations started and Crotia has entered new era. According to the Government of the Republic of Croatia, EU accession negotiations will have a positive effect on a larger inflow of foreign capital, especially into greenfield investment projects, which should eventually increase the economic growth and global competitiveness of the Croatian economy. In Croatia, as in Bosnia-Herzegovina, in terms of primary goals of economic policy, a special position is given to foreign investments which are very important for the future 307 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo development of the country and further restructuring and modernization of the economy. The particular emphasis is on creating a favourable business environment harmonized with the business environment prevalent in the European Union, further development of market economy, stimulation of private investments, promotion of international competitiveness, and entrepreneurial and market freedom. Since 2002 Trade and Investment Promotion Agency (TIPA) has been active and its basic activities are directed towards proactive searching, informing, attracting and realization of qualified investment projects which include production of goods and services with high added value intended for export, as well as projects which will generate new jobs (Government of the Republic of Croatia, 2010). Nevertheless, difficult problems still remain, including a high unemployment rate, a growing trade deficit and uneven regional development. The state retains a large role in the economy, as privatization efforts often meet stiff public and political resistance. While macroeconomic stabilization has largely been achieved, structural reforms lag because of deep resistance on the part of the public and lack of strong support from politicians. Croatia's high foreign debt, anemic export sector, strained state budget, and over-reliance on tourism revenue will result in higher risk to economic stability over the medium term (CIA, 2009). Kosovo, one of the latest independent countries of the World, declared Its independence in 2008. Today, Kosovo‘s population is 1,804,838 and has $ 5.352 billion GDP. Kosovo has the second largest coal reserves in Europe (Reuters, 01.10.2009). Besides, Kosovo had the largest exporting company in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. However, today, Kosovo is one of the poorest countries in Europe with $ 2.965 per capita GDP. During the 1990s, economy suffered badly from poor economic policies, international sanctions, weak access to external trade and finance, and ethnic conflict. After a jump in 2000 and 2001, growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was negative in 2002. Between 2003 and 2009, Kosovo‘s real GDP growth was approximately %4 per year. In addition, Kosovo is the only country which has positive GDP growth in 2009 among Former Yugoslav Federation countries (see Table 3 below). Today, the main target of the economic policy of Kosovo is transition to the free trade system. Kosovo's economy has shown significant progress in transitioning to a market-based system in recent years. In this context, Kosovo has drafted a legal framework that ensures the fulfilment of European standards of competitiveness. However, Kosovo is still highly dependent on the international community and the diaspora for financial and technical assistance. Unemployment, around 40% of the population, is a significant problem that encourages outward migration and black market activity (CIA, 2009). At independence in September 1991, Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav countries, producing a mere 5% of the total federal output of goods and services. An absence of infrastructure, UN sanctions on the downsized Yugoslavia, and a Greek economic embargo over a dispute about the country's constitutional name and flag hindered economic growth until 1996. GDP subsequently rose each year through 2000. In the first half of 2001, violent conflict brought the country on the verge of civil war. The conflict has cost the economy rather dearly. During a civil conflict, the economy shrank 4.5% because of decreased trade, intermittent border closures, increased deficit spending on security needs, and investor uncertainty. Investments and especially foreign direct investments slowed down as the risks increased dramatically (WIIW, 2002: 6). Growth averaged 4% per year during 2003-06 and more than 5% per year during 2007-08. Macedonia has maintained macroeconomic stability with low inflation, but it has so far lagged the region in attracting foreign investment and creating jobs, despite making extensive fiscal and business sector reforms (CIA, 2009). Montenegro severed its economy from federal control and from Serbia during the Milosevic era and maintained its own central bank, adopted the Deutchmark, then the euro - rather than the Yugoslav dinar - as official currency, collected customs tariffs, and managed its own budget. The dissolution of the loose political union between Serbia and Montenegro in 2006 led to separate membership in several international financial institutions, such as EBRD. On 18 January 2007, Montenegro joined the World Bank and IMF. Montenegro is pursuing its own membership in the WTO and signed a Stabilization and Association agreement with the European Union in October 2007. On December 15, 2008, Montenegro submitted an EU membership application. Unemployment and regional disparities in development are key political and economic problems. Montenegro has begun to attract foreign direct investment in the tourism sector. The global financial crisis is likely to have a significant negative impact on the economy, due to the ongoing credit crunch, a decline in the real estate sector, and a fall in aluminium exports (CIA, 2009). Slovenia, which, on 1 January 2007, became the first 2004 European Union entrant to adopt the euro, is a model of economic success and stability for the region. With the highest per capita GDP in Central Europe, Slovenia has excellent infrastructure, a well-educated work force, and a strategic location between the Balkans and Western Europe. Structural reforms to improve the business environment have allowed for somewhat greater foreign participation in Slovenia's economy and have helped to lower unemployment. In March 2004, Slovenia became the first transition country to graduate from borrower status to donor partner at the World Bank. In December 2007, Slovenia was invited to begin the accession process for joining the OECD. Despite its economic success, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Slovenia has lagged behind the region average, and taxes remain 308 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo relatively high. In 2009 the world recession caused the economy to contract - through falling exports and industrial production - more than 6% and unemployment to rise above 9% (CIA, 2009). The Serbian economy has grown relatively quickly since a sharp contraction in 1999 brought on by the war. Serbia has made progress in trade liberalization and enterprise restructuring and privatization, including telecommunications and small- and medium-size firms. It has made some progress towards EU membership, signing a Stabilization and Association Agreement with Brussels in May 2008, and with full implementation of the Interim Trade Agreement with the EU in February 2010. Serbia is also pursuing membership in the World Trade Organization. Reforms needed to ensure the country's long-term viability have largely stalled since the onset of the global financial crisis. Serbia is grappling with fallout from crisis, which has led to a sharp drop in exports to Western Europe and a decline in manufacturing output. Unemployment and limited export earnings remain ongoing political and economic problems. Serbia signed an augmented $4 billion Stand By Arrangement with the IMF in May 2009. IMF conditions on Serbia constrain the use of stimulus efforts to revive the economy, while Serbia's concerns about inflation and exchange rate stability preclude the use of expansionary monetary policy. Nevertheless, the IMF projects that Serbia's economy will grow by 1.5% in 2010 after a 3% contraction in 2009 as a recovery in Western Europe takes hold (CIA, 2009). When growth performance is examined between 2003-2008 years, Montenegro is the first country according to 6.2% average annual real GDP growth performance. Montenegro has exhibited a growth performance especially in excess of 10% in 2007. Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia showed 5.5% average annual growth during this period. Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia and Kosovo showed nearly 4-5% annual growth performance during the same period. In general evaluation, all the countries achieved 5% annual growth rates during this period. In the same period, EU-27 has demonstrated 2.1% annual growth rate (Eurostat, 2010). Bosnia-Herz. Croatia Kosovo Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Slovenia 2003 3,5 5,0 5,4 2,8 2,5 2,4 2,8 2004 6,3 4,2 2,6 4,1 4,4 8,3 4,3 2005 4,3 4,2 3,8 4,1 4,2 5,6 4,5 2006 6,2 4,7 3,8 3,9 8,6 5,2 5,8 2007 6,5 5,5 4,0 5,9 10,7 6,9 6,8 2008 5,4 2,4 5,4 4,8 6,9 5,5 3,5 2009 -3,4 -5,8 4,0 -0,7 -7,0 -2,9 -7,3 Table 3. Real GDP Growth Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010, p. 159. After several years of solid economic growth, the Former Yugoslav Federation countries region has entered a deep recession and negative growth rates are expected for most countries during 2009. With the effects of global crisis, the economic downturn experienced throughout the world, is also showed the effects in this countries. All countries, except Kosovo, showed negative growth performance in 2009. When real GDP growth figures were examined in 2009, it has been seen that Slovenia is the worst affected country by the crisis. Slovenia's economy has been shrinking 7.3% in 2009. Then Montenegro is followed Slovenia by 7% economic growth reduction. Average growth performance of these seven countries was -3.3% in 2009. Excluding Kosovo's 4% growth from this figure, the growth performance of the other six countries is -4.5%. This figure is close to the EU-27‘s -4.2% reduction rate in 2009 (Eurostat, 2010). In 2010, in line with worldwide expectations, all the countries should start recovering and some of them should resume a positive growth, albeit much lower than the figures for 2007 (RCC, 2009). Real GDP growth rates of these countries between 2007-2010 are given in Figure1 as follows: 309 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 3. Real GDP Growth of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010 Industrial production has fallen across the region during the first half of 2009, due to a decline in key export markets and lower lending by local banks (RCC, 2009). As a result of decline in GDP and industrial production, inflation rates decreased in 2009. However, during 2007 and 2008, inflation rates were high in these countries due to rising oil, energy and agricultural products‘ prices. Between 2003-2009, the country with the highest inflation rates is Serbia with approximately 11.25% in average. As the world economy starts expected recovery in 2010 and beyond, inflationary concerns can however again become an issue in the region (RCC, 2009). Bosnia-Herz. Croatia Kosovo Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Slovenia 2003 0,5 1,8 0,3 1,2 7,5 11,7 5,6 2004 0,3 2,0 -1,1 -0,4 3,1 10,1 3,6 2005 3,6 3,3 -1,4 0,5 3,4 17,3 2,5 2006 6,1 3,2 0,6 3,2 2,1 12,7 2,5 2007 1,5 2,9 4,4 2,3 3,5 6,5 3,6 2008 7,4 6,1 9,4 8,3 9,0 12,4 5,7 2009 -0,4 2,4 -2,4 -0,8 3,6 8,1 0,8 Table 4: Inflation Rates in of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010, p. 165. Bosnia-Herz. Croatia Kosovo Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Slovenia 2003 -19,4 -5,4 -8,1 -4,1 -6,7 -7,2 -0,8 2004 -16,4 -4,6 -8,3 -8,4 -7,2 -12,1 -2,7 2005 -18,0 -5,7 -7,4 -2,6 -8,5 -8,7 -1,7 2006 -8,4 -6,7 -6,7 -0,9 -24,1 -10,1 -2,5 2007 -12,6 -7,6 -8,8 -7,2 -39,5 -15,6 -4,8 2008 -14,9 -9,2 -16,0 -13,1 -52,4 -17,5 -6,2 2009 -7,5 -5,6 -18,7 -7,3 -27,2 -5,7 -0,3 Table 5:Current Account Balance (% of GDP) Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010, p. 174. In terms of Current Account (CA) balance, it is seen that all the countries have been running CA deficits since last seven years (See Table 5 below). Montenegro has the highest CA deficit with -23.6% in average in this period. Between 2003 and 2005, Montenegro had CA deficit below 10%. However, since 2006, Montenegro‘s CA deficit has exceeded 10% and has increased rapidly. Bosnia-Herzegovina follows Montenegro with %13,9 CA deficit in average between 2003 and 2009.Slovina has almost reached CA balance with -0.3% CA deficit in 310 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 2009. Due to the economic crisis, the CA deficit is expected to decline for most countries also due to the reduced import levels and commodity prices (RCC, 2009). Conclusion Countries in this study have many problems about political stability because many ethnic and religious groups live in this region. Especially the era of 1990s was the time of diversity conflict. Undoubtedly the instability affects the economic structure. This situation is supported by statistical indicators. A major period of transformation has begun all over the world in 1980s. The important developments occurring in the political field with neoliberal policies have also affected economic field equally. Economic stability and transformation cannot be considered separately from political stability and transformation. In this context, disintegration of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia has led to important developments not only in political but also in economic fields. Today, there are countries of Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro in the territory of the former Yugoslav federation. With dissolution of the federation, political and economic transformation process started in these countries. In conclusion, it can be said that the current global economic crisis is taking the toll on Former Yugoslav Federation countries as well. It is therefore necessary for the governments of the region to attempt to mitigate to the highest extent possible the impact on the real economy, keep inflation under control, and ensure macroeconomic and financial system stability. However, the short term measures should not interfere with the pursuit of long-term reforms that are needed in order to achieve sustained growth (RCC, 2009). References BELLONI, R. (2007), State Building and International Intervention in Bosnia‖, Routledge. Central Intelligence Agency, (2009), The World Factbook Report, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/index.html DONAIS, T. (2005), The Political Economy of Peacebuilding in Post-Dayton Treaty, Routledge. Government of the Republic of Croatia, http://www.vlada.hr/en/about_croatia/information/croatian_economy IMF, (2010), World Economic Outlook-Rebalancing Growth, International Monetary Fund Publication Services, USA. MARIC, V. (2006a), ―Bosnia Hercegovina‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books. MARIC, V. (2006B) ―Serbia & Montenegro‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books. OLIVER, J. (2006), ―Croatia‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books. OLIVER, J. (2006B), ―Slovenia‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books. PHILLIPS, D. (2004), Bosnia & Herzegovina, Chelsea House Publishers, US. PLUNKETT, R. (2006), ―Macedonia‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books. Regional Cooperation Council, (2009), South East Europe Economic Indicators, http://www.rcc.int/download.php?tip=docs&doc=Selected+economic+indicators_first+half+of+2009_180909.pdf&doc_url= b8fe37299bb01712fe7e16bf4209c0e4 OECD, (2006), Bosnia and Herzegovina Country Fact Sheet. TC Saraybosna Büyükelçiliği Ticaret MüĢavirliği (2008), 2007 Yılında Bosna Hersek'in Genel Ekonomik Durumu Ve Türkiye Ġle Ekonomik-Ticari ĠliĢkileri, Saraybosna. TEPAV, (2010), Bosna Hersek Açılımının Geleceği. HUNYA, G. (2002), ―FDI in South-Eastern Europe in the early 2000s‖, The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies (WIIW). 311 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 184 Title A name given to the resource Comparative Analysis of Bosnia Herzegovina to the Other Former Yugoslav Federation Countries in the Context of Political and Economic Perspectives Author Author KİRİŞ, Hakan M. ŞENTÜRK, Canan KESKİN, Hidayet SUNGUR, Onur Abstract A summary of the resource. A major period of transformation has begun all over the world since 1980s. The important developments occurring in the political field with neoliberal policies have also affected economic field equally. Economic stability and transformation cannot be considered separately from political stability and transformation. In this context, disintegration of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia has led to important developments not only political but also economic fields. Today, there are countries of Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro in the territory of the former Yugoslav federation. With dissolution of the federation, political and economic transformation process started in these countries. This study aims to make a comparative analysis in the context of macroeconomic indicators on Bosnia – Herzegovina‘s economy with other FYRs‘ economies that emerged as a result of political transformation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory