295 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2de3d610f8cf3b1edad6815d665e204d.pdf 9744b2b1044b4e55e7ee89d1df982317 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo An Inter-Rater Perspective for the Researches on Assessing Writing Turgay HAN Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, Turkey turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Hüseyin EFE Atatürk University, Faculty of Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Erzurum, Turkey hefe@atauni.edu.tr Erdinç Parlak Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Education, Erzurum, Turkey erdincparlak@hotmail.com Abstract:In assessing EFL students’ writings consistently, there are various factors that must be taken into consideration while rating. Especially those who want to make quantitative researches using raters or who aim to give suitable feedback to written productions should be responsible for fulfilling the requirements in marking and scoring process. In this context, this paper looks insight for some issues related to the raters, such as inter-rater reliability, analytic or holistic examinations, rating criteria, and others. This study includes 8 native raters and 8 non-native raters, each of whom rated an ESL essay both holistically and analytically. Every participant rater’s background of scoring ESL writings was similar. The result showed that there was no significant difference between raters, that is, participants’ grading of the essay is irrespective of their being native speakers. At the end of the study, some important implications for essay rating practices and both the researchers and language teacher were emphasized. Key Words: Rater, Reliability, Assessing Writing, EFL Introduction Many researches based on assessing writing and error treatment incline some variables with regard to the scoring each ESL writing accurately. In the process of deciding the effects of any types of feedback given to the EFL students’ writings, there are some sorts of musts that researchers fulfil in the course of doing their statistical analyses related to the data obtained by their scorings methods. Even though several factors influence scoring and the process of raters’ decision makings, researchers in the field of ESL essay rating delve into varying issues such as task requirement, rater characteristics and essay characteristics (Barkaoui, 2010; p.54). Assessing L2 writing accurately is very important for the validity of the inferences. Therefore, essays judged by more than one examiner will be closer to the fair score than judgement made by only one rater (Hamp-Lyons, 1990; p.79). Writing assessment process involves a multi-dimensional evaluation; for this reason, clarity, coherence and grammatical quality are some of the core points to be assessed for a writing paper. In this context, inter-rater reliability, one of the components of writing assessment process, is considerably the critical issue in scoring EFL/ESL writings as there are a few interfaces that raters are prone to experience such as the idiosyncratic, rating methods, and criteria during assessment. Since it is a subjective phenomenon, the decisions made through the scores given have some potentialities that effect overall research. In this research, to assure objectivity in scoring, two types of raters were chosen. As Stemler (2004) emphasizes, “Raters are often used when student products or performances cannot be scored objectively as right or wrong but require a rating degree. The use of raters results in the subjectivity that comes hand in hand with an interpretation of the product or performances (cited in Bresciani, Oakleaf, et al, 2009; p.3)”. 74 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Potentialities of Writing Assessment Hyland (2003) states that there are four basic elements in the design of writing assessment: Rubric (the instructions), prompt (the task), expected response (what the teacher intends students to do with the task), posttask evaluation (assessing the effectiveness of the writing task) (cited in Coombe, Folse, & Hubley, 2007; p.71). Sudweeks et al (2005) explain the factors involved in the rating a particular writing paper as external and internal ones. Sudweeks et al advocate that as students vary in their writing abilities it is difficult to expect them to receive the same rating or they cannot be measured the same, and the external factors can be counted for receiving rating are: (a) the nature of the particular writing prompt or task posed, (b) the raters who judge students’ essays (c) situation-specific factors (d) students’ background and interests related to the topic that will be developed (e) interactions among these varying sources (p.240). Raters are the fundamental variables in the assessing process. According to Weigle (2002) there are two foci points in assessment: a consideration of what attributes of the compositions raters focus on and the effects of background rater characteristics and of the process of reading compositions and ultimately on the scores that raters use (p.70). Researchers in recent years have looked for the effects attributed to the raters on ratings. Sweedler-Brown (1985) realized that rater trainers were more unforgiving in their scorings when compared to the ratings of novice raters (cited in Weigle, 2002; p.71). There are also some methods developed for analyzing writings accurately. For example, Generalizability Theory and Many-Facet Rasch Model are used in some researches to (a) estimate the sources causing rating errors, (b) to achieve reliability estimates, and (c) to make recommendations for improving rating process (Sudweeks, Reeve, & Bradshaw, 2005; p.239). In this context, scoring involves defining the rating scale and ensuring that raters use the scale appropriately and consistently as two central considerations (Weigle, S.C. 2002, p.108). Stemler (2004) explains that inter-rater reliability requires consensus estimates, consistency estimates and measurement estimates approaches to assure the accuracy and consistency in scoring. Consensus estimates come into meaning that the degree to which markers give the same scores. Consistency estimate is a sign of the extent of the similarities of the high and low scores among the markers. Additionally, measurement estimates show the degree to which scores can be attributed to common scoring rather than error components (cited in Brown, Glasswell, & Hardland, 2004; p.106). Moreover, consistency in scoring requires two sub-processes to eliminate the sources causing unreliable scoring. Weigle(2002) indicates two main types of inconsistencies: “[…] (1) Inconsistencies in the ratings of a single scorer across different scripts of similar qualities or the same script on different occasions, and (2) inconsistencies between different scores…” (pp.128-129). The Aspects in Rating Two main aspects of reliability involve raters’ markings which are the indications of consistencies of scorings. Inter-Rater Reliability and Intra-Rater Reliability Subjective marking of writing requires a measurement of reliability within a rater’s marking and among raters. The term ‘inter-rater reliability’ refers to the self consistency and the extent of similarity of ratings of different markers, that is, scoring of a single writing of a rater has not significant difference when compared to the one of other independent raters (Weigle, 2002), whereas intra-rater reliability contrasts with inter-rater reliability. Bachman (1995) advocates that “Ratings given by different raters can also vary as a function of inconsistencies in the criteria used to rate and in the way in which these criteria are applied…” (p.180). Bachman (1995), further, explains that when several essays are given to some independent raters for their ratings, the results probably will not be the same. The variability of the criteria of the raters can be counted as the outstanding source for these inconsistencies as some raters may look for the quality of content and some other may look for the organization (p.180). On the other hand, “[…]intra-rater reliability refers to the tendency of a rater to give the same score to the same script on different occasions, while inter-rater reliability refers to the tendency of different raters to give the same scores to the same script…” (Weigle, 2002; p.135). Rationales for Holistic Scoring and Analytic Scoring Making inferences from the scores given to writings is variable as it depends on the method of scoring. In this context, “[...]Traditionally a student’s writing performance was judged in comparison with the performance 75 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo of others, but this norm-referenced method has largely given way to criterion-referenced practices where the quality of each essay is judged in its own right against some external criteria, such as coherence, grammatical accuracy, contextual appropriacy, and so on...” (Hyland, 2008; p.226). Moreover, scales that will be used for rating should cover objective characteristics as possible. Therefore, two questions can be raised to inquire a system for scoring a script: whether to give a single score to each script, or score each script depending on several different features. Three main approaches consisting of primary trait scales, holistic scales, and analytic scales are available in the composition assessment literature. Holistic scoring, or general impression marking, means that giving single scores to the writing by judging an overall impression. On the other hand, analytic scoring depends on several aspects of writing rather than a single score (Weigle, 2002; pp. 64-115). There are, of course, some probable limitations for both types of scoring. In holistic scoring, using the scale for analytic scoring bears some problems as it includes several sub-categories for rating. Then, again, the practicality of analytic scoring can be judged in terms of time consuming and difficulty of applying the criteria to each script (East, 2009; p.91). Furthermore, holistic scoring can be used to attract the attention of the readers to the strength of the scripts and not to the lack of it and thus, writers can be reinforced and awarded (White, 1984, 1985). Nevertheless, “analytic scoring schemes thus provide more detailed information about a test taker’s performance in different aspect of writing and are for this reason preferred over holistic schemes by many specialist” (Weigle, 2002; pp.114-115). There are some researches on the reliability of different scale types. In this context, Weir (1990) explains that analytic scoring is more reliable than holistic scoring (cited in Weigle, 2002, p.73). Also, Bauer (1981) found that even though holistic scoring is more cost effective, analytic scoring is more reliable than holistic scoring (cited in Weigle, 2002; p.73). Additionally, in the scoring process, validity is another decisive factor referring to the writing course goals and outcomes. In order to ensure that writings are scored objectively and to obtain high inter-rater reliability, there are some internal and external factors in the setting for marking errors in compositions of subjects under questions. Therefore, as defined in the Standards for Education and Psychological Testing, “Validity… is a unitary concept. Although evidence may be accumulated in many ways, validity always refers to the degree to which that evidence supports the interferences that are made from the scores. The interferences regarding specific uses of a test are validated, not the test itself” (American Psychological Association, 1985, p.9). It must be noted that “…any type of assessment should reflect the course goals…” (Coombe, Folse, Hubley, 2007, p.70). Background In this study, scoring reliably the learners’ scripts by the researchers gains the importance. Participants of the present study are 8 experienced and non-native English language teachers and 8 native English language teachers holding at least MA degree in language teaching. A writing paper was randomly selected from the administered writing exams given to the first year students studying English Language and Literature during the academic year 2010, and the paper was assessed by those 16 language teachers through scoring at two levels: holistic and analytic. Scoring processes of the paper were done according to a predetermined rubric. The scores of the participants got from holistic scale and analytic scale were statistically analyzed. Two research questions are addressed: 1. Is there any difference between the holistic ratings and analytic ratings of the participants in terms of inter-rater reliability? 2. To what extent do the mean of the scores of those 8 non-native English language teachers and 8 native English language teachers deviate? Methodology In this study, the raters used a “Direct Measures of Writing Assessment” approach while scoring the papers. In the direct approach, in contrast to indirect approach, students’ success in communicating through the written mode of texts is taken into consideration. This type of assessment process includes the quality of content, appropriate vocabulary, grammar and syntax (Coombe et al, p.71). Scoring Holistic Rubric The intermediate level ESL/EFL script was rated according to a pre-determined rubric for holistic scoring which includes 5 types of categories and in which general writing ability can be judged (see figure 1).Using such 76 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo a rubric, of course, has some advantages besides having disadvantages. Hyland (2003; p.227) compares and contrasts the gain and loss of Holistic scoring: Table 3.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Holistic Scoring Advantages Disadvantages Global impression no a single ability Provides no diagnostic information Emphasis on achievement not deficiencies Difficult to interpret composite score Weight can be assigned to certain criteria Smooths out different abilities in subskills Encourages rater discussion and agreement Raters may overlook subskills Penalizes attempts to use challenging forms Longer essays may get higher scores One source reduces reliability May confuse writing ability with language proficiency The participants of the study, both 8 native raters and the other 8 non-native raters, scored the intermediate level script according to the holistic scale (see figure 1). The requirements of the settings for the raters, rater training, and others were supplied in the process of reading. Scoring Analytic Rubric The paper under question was also rated by the participant raters through using a multiple-trait scoring rubric (see figure 2). This type of rubric is considered to be an ideal compromise on account of requiring raters to provide separate scores for different writing features. Furthermore, it is like a multifaceted scoring and in particular contexts and purposes, such rubrics can address the traits that do not occur in more analytic score (Hyland, 2003, p.230). Hyland (2003, p.230) explains the advantages and disadvantages of analytic scoring in the below table: Table 3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Analytic Scoring Advantages Encourages raters to address the same features Allows more diagnostic reporting Assists reliability as candidates gets several scores Detailed criteria allow easier rater training Prevents conflation of categories into one Allows teachers to prioritize specific aspects Disadvantages May divert attention from overall essay effect Rating one scale may influence others Very time consuming compared with holistic method Writing is more than simply the sum of its parts Favors essays where scalable into easily extracted Descriptors may overlap or ambiguous Obtaining High Inter-rater Reliability In this study, to keep raters reliable in their scoring marks there are some requirements that should be applied in the setting. Therefore, the following practice was taken into consideration while preparing the raters for the large-scale assessment of the single paper given to each of them. • White (1984) puts forward some practice to maintain high reliability in large-scale assessment: • At least two independent raters must score each script, and if there is any discrepancy a third rater’s score may be taken into consideration. • Scoring should be done in a controlled reading, that is to say, a group of readers meets together to grade scripts at the same place and time. There are two advantages of doing so: (a) the circumstances under which scripts are read are controlled. Therefore there will be a low variance as unnecessary sources causing erroneous scoring will be eliminated, and (b) a positive social environment which helps to set the rating standards is formed. • Checks on the reading in progress by reading leaders (also called Table Leaders) help to ensure that every reader participated in the process is maintaining the agreed-upon standards for grading. Evaluation and record keeping are essential for the ongoing assessment program. So unreliable raters may be eliminated (cited in Weigle, 2002; p129). 77 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results The distributions of two groups of raters’ holistic and analytic marks given to a single paper were shown in the below tables. The scores were analyzed by the statistical software SPSS 16.00 v. Native Speakers’ Markings Table 4.1. The Comparison of Native Speakers’ Holistic and Analytic Scores Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Holistic Marks Analytic Marks 13 12 13 13 12 13 13 12 16 13 14 16 13 14 16 14 Table 4.1. shows the marks given by 8 native English teachers. It can be easily realized that the marks given by analytic scoring is regularly a small amount higher than holistic scoring. NonNative Speakers’ Markings Holistic Marks Analytic Marks Table 4.2. The Comparison of Non-Native Speakers’ Holistic and Analytic Scores Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 11 11 16 13 15 11 11 12 13 14 16 12 12 13 14 In table 4.2., the marks given by 8 non-native speaker teachers of English depending on analytic and holistic scales were slightly different from those of native ones. It can be realized easily that the marks given by analytic scoring were to some extent higher than holistic scoring (the mean of holistic marks is 12.8750; the mean of analytic marks is 13.2500). The distribution of the marks given by native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) can be seen on the table 4.3 and table 4.4. B Table 4.3. The Marks Given by the Native Speakers Analytic Marks Holistic Scores Content Organization Cohesion Vocabulary Grammar Punctuation Spelling Total Score Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 12 13 13 12 13 13 12 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 16 13 14 16 13 14 16 14 Table 4.4. The Marks Given by the Non-Native Speakers 78 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo B Analytic Marks Holistic Scores Content Organization Cohesion Vocabulary Grammar Punctuation Spelling Total Score Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 11 11 16 13 15 11 11 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 13 14 16 12 12 13 14 The mean of holistic marks scored by NS raters was a little lower than analytic ones. Yet, it can be said that there was no significant difference between two types of scores (see table 4.5). Table 4.5. Paired Sample Statistics: Native Speakers’ (NS) Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Minimum Maximum Range Mean Std. Std. NSs’ deviation Error Scoring Marks Mean 8 12,00 13,00 1,00 12,6250 ,51755 ,18298 Holistic 8 13,00 16,00 3,00 14,5000 1,30931 ,46291 Analytic Table 4.6. shows that NNS gave more points in their analytic ratings than holistic ratings. And also this situation is similar to the results shown on Table 4.5. Table 4.6. Paired Sample Statistics: Non-Native Speakers’ (NNS) Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks NSs’ N Minimum Maximum Range Mean Std. Std. deviation Error Scoring Mean Marks 8 11,00 16,00 5,00 12,8750 2,16712 ,76619 Holistic 8 12,00 16,00 4,00 13,2500 1,38873 ,49099 Analytic Table 4.7. and table 4.8. show that there are high correlations between both groups raters’ holistic and analytic marks (p>0,05 level). Table 4.7. Paired Sample Correlations: Native Speakers’ Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Correlation Significance Holistic and Analytic 8 ,738 ,037 Pair Marks 1 Table 4.8. Paired Sample Correlations: Non-Native Speakers’ Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Correlation Significance Holistic and Analytic 8 ,059 ,889 Pair Marks 2 79 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Discussion and Conclusion Assessing L2 writing, in fact, is a subjective process where there is no exact correct answer that could be given to any test item when compared to other types of testing language skills such as multiple choice tests. However, to obtain high level of objectivity in assessing writing there are some requirements that scorers must fulfil. Therefore, the term ‘inter-rater reliability’ gains importance in scoring marks to L2 written productions. In this study, the amount of consistency between the ratings of both the groups of native speakers and non-native speakers were statistically analyzed. Scoring marks depending on analytic and holistic scales showed that both groups of raters are consistent in their analytic and holistic ratings. The correlation of native speakers’ scoring holistic and analytic marks is ,738 and significance is ,037 at p> 0,05 level and the correlation of non-native speakers’ scoring holistic and analytic marks is ,059 and significance is ,889 at p> 0,05 level. However, the mean of native speakers’ analytic scoring marks is a little higher than their holistic scoring marks. Similarly, the mean of non-native speakers’ analytic scoring marks is a little higher than holistic ones. Overall, native and nonnative raters rated the same paper consistently (12-15= good). In conclusion, the study is limited to 16 participant-raters and to replicate for confirming the outcomes of the present study, the participants and task may be varied in the further studies. 80 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References American Psychological Association Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1985). Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association. Bachman, L. F. (1995). Fundemental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford university Press. Barkaoui, K. (2010). Variability in ESL essay rating process: The role of the rating scale and rater experience. Language Assessment Quarterly, 7, 54-74. Bresciani, M. J., Oakleaf, M., Kolhorst, F., Nebeker, C., & et al. (2009) Examining design and inter-rater reliability of a rubric measuring research quality across multiple disciplines. Practical Assesment Research & Evaluation, 14, 12, p.3. Brown, G.T.L., Glasswell, K., & Harland, D. (2004). Accuracy in the scoring of writing: studies of reliability and validity using a new zealand writing assesment system. Assessing Writing, 9, 106. Coombe, C., Folse, K., & Hubley, N. (2007). A Practical Guide to Assessing English Language Learners. US: The University of Michigan Press. East, M. (2009). Evaluating the reliability of a detailed analytic scoring rubric for foreign language writing. Assessing Writing, 14, p.91. Hamp-Lyons, L. (1990). Second language writing: assessment isssues. In Coombe, C., Folse, K., Hubley, N. (2007). A Practical Guide to Assessing English Language Learners (p.84). US: The University of Michigan Press. Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stemler, S.E. (2004). A comparison of consensus, consistency, and measurement approaches to estimating, interrater reliability. Practical Assesment Research & Evaluation, 9, 4. Sudweeks, R. R., Reeve, S., & Bradshaw, W. S. (2005). A comparison of generalizability theory and Many-Facet Rasch Measurement in an analysis of college sophomore writing”. Assessing Writing, 9, 239. Sweedler-Brown, C. O. (1985). The influence of training and experience on holistic essay evaluation. English Journal, 74, 5, 49-55. TEEP Test of English for Educational Purposes, Associated Examining Board, UK, 1984.Weir, C. J, (1990). Communicative Language Testing. NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. UCLES International Examinations in English as a Foreign Language General Handbook, 1987. Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. White, E.M. (1984). Holisticism. College Composition and Communication, 35, 4, 400-409. White, E.M. (1985). Teaching and Assessing Writing. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. 81 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Appendix A. Holistic and analytic scales used in the study. Figure 1: Holistic Scale, Source: UCLES International Examinations in English as a Foreign Language General Handbook, 1987 Grade Excellent 18-20 Characteristics Natural English with minimal errors and complete realization of the task set. Very Good 16-17 More than a collection of simple sentences, with good vocabulary and structures. Some non-basic errors. Good 12-15 Simple but accurate realization of the task set with sufficient naturalness of English and not many errors. Pass 8-11 Reasonably Correct but awkward and non-communicating or fair and natural treatment of subject, with some serious errors. Weak 5-7 Original vocabulary and grammar both inadequate to the subject. Very Poor 0-4 Incoherent. Errors show lack of basic knowledge of English. 2. Some inappropriacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps some lexical inappropriacies and/or circumlocution. 3. Almost no inappropriacies in vocabulary for the task. Only rare inappropriacies and/or circumlocution. A. Relevance and Adequacy of content 0. The answer bears almost no relation to the task set. Totally inadequate answer. 1. Answer of limited relevance to the task set. Possibly major gaps in treatment of topic and/or pointless repetition. 2. For the most part answers the task set, though there may be some gaps or redundant information. 3. Relevant and adequate answer to the task set. E. Grammar 0. Almost all grammatical patterns inaccurate. 1. Frequent grammatical inaccuracies. 2. Some grammatical inaccuracies. 3. Almost no grammatical inaccuracies. B. Compositional Organization 0. No apparent organization of content. 1. Very little organization of content. Underlying structures not sufficiently apparent. 2. Some organization skills in evidence but not adequately controlled. 3. Overall shape and internal pattern clear. Organization skills adequately controlled. F. Mechanical Accuracy I (Punctuation) 0. Ignorance of conventions of punctuation. 1. Low standard of accuracy of punctuation. 2. Some inaccuracies of punctuation. 3. Almost no inaccuracies of punctuation. G. Mechanical Accuracy II (Spelling) 0. Almost all spelling inaccurate. 1. Low standard of accuracy in spelling. 2. Some inaccuracies in spelling. 3. Almost no inaccuracies in spelling. C. Cohesion 0. Cohesion almost totally absent. Writing is so fragmentary that comprehension of the intended communication is virtually impossible. 1. Unsatisfactory cohesion may cause difficulty in comprehension of most of the intended communication. 2. For the most part satisfactory cohesion though occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of communication are not always effective, 3. Some use of cohesion resulting in effective communication. D. Adequacy of Vocabulary for Purpose 0. Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the intended communication. 1. Frequent inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps frequent lexical inappropriacies and/or repetitions. 82 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Figure 2. Analytic Scale, Source: Test of English for Educational Purposes, Associated Examining Board, UK, 1984. Appendix B. Sample section from the composition scored by 8 NS and NNS raters. 83 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 395 Title A name given to the resource An Inter-Rater Perspective for the Researches on Assessing Writing Author Author HAN, Turgay EFE, Hüseyin Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. In assessing EFL students’ writings consistently, there are various factors that must be taken into consideration while rating. Especially those who want to make quantitative researches using raters or who aim to give suitable feedback to written productions should be responsible for fulfilling the requirements in marking and scoring process. In this context, this paper looks insight for some issues related to the raters, such as inter-rater reliability, analytic or holistic examinations, rating criteria, and others. This study includes 8 native raters and 8 non-native raters, each of whom rated an ESL essay both holistically and analytically. Every participant rater’s background of scoring ESL writings was similar. The result showed that there was no significant difference between raters, that is, participants’ grading of the essay is irrespective of their being native speakers. At the end of the study, some important implications for essay rating practices and both the researchers and language teacher were emphasized. Key Words: Rater, Reliability, Assessing Writing, EFL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/756fe7ae4dc3fbd452447cbee9795b94.pdf 7f56f2eb99ba4edde92e61029efda636 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo University Intellectual Capital: Measurement Model and Application Meliha HANDZIC International Burch University, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Elif ÖZTÜRK International Burch University, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina elifozturk@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: There is the widespread recognition of the importance of intellectual capital (IC) as a major source of competitive advantage for any organisation operating in today‘s knowledge economy (KE). In particular, universities are recognised as being essential to the new economy as the prime producers and transmitters of knowledge in a society. Therefore, it is not surprising that the management and measurement of IC by universities is becoming an increasingly important issue in the knowledge management (KM) research and practice. It is argued that universities need to use the IC model as a tool to aid them in meeting new management challenges and diffuse their intangible resources and activities to their stakeholders and society at large. This study addresses this need by developing a specific model for measuring intellectual capital of universities and by applying it in the specific context of a new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is hoped that the use of this model can help the university in reaching its scientific and educational goals. Keywords: Importance of Intellectual Capital, Competitive Advantage, Knowledge Economy, Knowledge Management, Intangible Resources. Introduction Intellectual capital has gained the increased prominence as a business and research topic principally due to the rise of the knowledge economy. Knowledge economy is described by OECD as the economic activities and systems which are directly established by creation, circulation and application of knowledge and information (Chen, 2008). Intellectual capital (IC) has been widely recognised as a major resource of organisations in the knowledge economy (KE). The concept of IC combines the idea of the intellect power with the economic concept of capital for the purpose of producing innovative or more efficient and effective goods and services. Typically, the term IC refers to all knowledge resources that determine the competitiveness of an organisation. It includes intellectual property such as patents and licences, as well as the skills and know-how of people, documents and information systems (Kleiner et al, 1996). Intellectual capital is synonymous with knowledge assets, intellectual assets or intangible assets (Guthrie, 2001). In recent economic and social developments, intellectual capital is implicated as the instrumental in the determination of enterprise value and economic performance. From the IC perspective, the aim of an organisation is to create and/or extract value from knowledge assets by maximizing the interrelationship between different types of its intellectual capital (Handzic and Zhou, 2005). It has also been widely recognised that the success of the knowledge economy or society depends on the effective utilisation of its intangible assets such as knowledge, skills and innovative potential (ESRC 2007, Critical 2009). In research, the current emphasis is on important theoretical and empirical contributions relating to the measurement and reporting of intellectual capital. Therefore, in this study, we address the issue of IC measurement by developing and applying a specific IC measurement model for universities. The paper is structured as follows. It starts with this introductory section. In the following section, we review relevant literature on universities and their IC models of interest to this study. Next, we describe the survey research method applied in the current investigation. Then, we present results of our quantitative and qualitative data 740 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo analyses. A discussion of our findings in the light of past literature follows. Finally, conclusions and contributions to research and practice are offered in the last section. Literature Review This section draws from past research and practice in order to develop a more comprehensive and holistic understanding of IC frameworks as a common ground for developing a specific IC measurement model for universities. First, the section looks into the place of universities in knowledge economy. Then it presents some recent efforts at developing IC models and examines their use in measuring and reporting human, structural and relational capital categories. In the end, it states the objectives of the present study. University and Knowledge Economy In his recent review, Ozlen (2010) states that the central task of universities is to create new knowledge and thereby engender innovations. Innovations are based on information and knowledge processes of various kinds. Such processes cannot take place without accurate, up-to-date knowledge in the focal areas of the universities‘ research interests and efforts. Alliances and social network theory provide one potent perspective for the analysis of relevant relationships. Networking is based on reciprocity and the exchange of the resources, ideas, information, knowledge, and social support that mediate all relationships. The purpose of internally driven networking is to break down internal barriers and boundaries, thereby allowing members to create quick and open person-to-person and group-togroup communications for exchanging information and sharing knowledge for the improvement of organizational performance. According to Ozlen (2010) IC is the most vital and strategic resource for universities. Actually, IC is at the core of the University‘s mission and reason of existence. Attracting and retaining qualified intellectual capital plays a vital role in reinforcing the University‘s educational standards. IC is not only an input resource for a University, but it is also a product in the sense that faculty members‘ IC is used to nurture that of its students. As an institution earns a reputation as a superior quality provider of education, it will be able to attract more local and foreign students which will contribute in turn to the institution‘s prosperous continuity. IC reports recognise that the ―the efficient use of IC is essential for a university‘s performance‖ University Knowledge Assets Portfolio There are many classification schemes which attempt to categorise knowledge assets or IC in organisations. Handzic and Zhou (2010) presented a widely-accepted scheme of three sub-categories: human capital, organisational (internal) capital and customer (external) capital. In addition to this, knowledge assets can be divided into core and supporting assets Core knowledge assets comprise a firm‘s core skills and competencies. They lie in the areas in which the firm has competitive strengths. In contrast, supporting knowledge assets are complementary generic and operational assets that support or enable the delivery, storage and acquisition of core knowledge assets. Every organisation possesses valuable intellectual materials in the form of data, documents, procedures, capabilities, etc. These can be found in people, organisational structures and processes, and customer relationships. To succeed, organisations need to have a clear understanding of which knowledge assets are important to their success and how these assets are distributed over different parts of the company and among different functions and workers. The portfolio of knowledge assets is typically determined by an organisation‘s strategic plan. The following sections present some examples of knowledge assets of universities under human, structural and relational subtitles. Typically, key indicators of human capital of universities include the ability to attract and retain staff of good caliber,, dedicated staff, implementation of effective staff and student equity measures. Indicators of structural capital (customer capital) include projecting a highly visible positive image, ability to attract good students, technological support, quality research, relevant tuition programmes, quality research, internationalization, visionary participative strategic management, adherence to mission, financial health of the institution. Study Objectives There is a growing evidence in support of the application of IC tools in universities and the potential benefit this would bring (Sanchez et al., 2009). Up to now, only a few universities have taken the challenge of trying to measure and report on intangible assets (Ramirez et al., 2007). In this study, we evaluate IC capital of the case university by assessing its human, structural and relational facets. Human capital was evaluated in terms of explicit 741 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and tacit knowledge of the universities‘ personnel acquired through formal and informal educational and actualization processes embodied in their activities; Structural capital captured the explicit knowledge related to the internal process of dissemination, communication and management of scientific and technical knowledge in the organization; and relational capital gathered the wide set of economical, political and institutional relationships developed and maintained by the university (Ramirez at al., 2007). A mix of objective and subjective, financial and nonfinancial measures can be used to assess these IC aspects. For the purpose of this study, we adopted the subjective nonfinancial measurement approach. The approach has been described in more details in the following section. Research Method This section describes the design of the study, the population and sample, the operationalisation of examined variables, and the instrumentation development, procedures, and data analyses employed. Research Design and Instrument Our intention in this study was to produce a broad picture of intellectual capital in the higher education institution. A new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina was chosen as a study case for convenience reasons and a descriptive survey was adopted as a preferred method for this research (Judd et al. 1991). The name of the case university has been concealed for the purpose of privacy protection. The survey design was based on a range of insights from the theoretical IC literature and the review of prior related survey research. The design of the survey took into account time requirements, emotional cost, trust, nature of the relationship between respondents and researchers. Thus the survey form was compact and no personal information was required. The questionnaire was written on a single page with 18 questions written in 10-point font. This layout was selected based on the time cost to the respondents. It was tested to take approximately 15 minutes to complete in the participants‘ own chosen time. The survey was also formatted for clarity. It was divided into 5 major parts, and included short starting instructions. The 5 sections of the survey comprised: (i) Demographic information (role, gender); (ii) Human capital (importance and actual status); (iii) Structural capital (importance and actual status); (iv) Relational capital (importance and actual status); and (v) Comments. Subjects and Procedure Participants in this survey included employees across the case university departments. Respondent demographics sought included employee role (academic or support) and gender (male or female). The names of the respondents were unknown and not required for the purpose of collecting data. The questionnaires were distributed to the recipients by one of the authors. Given that surveys receive the low fraction of responses, we tried to lift the response rate by personally contacting colleagues at the case university, handing out the questionnaires, reminding the recipients that the survey should be completed and collecting them when done. Data collection was carried out over a period of one week. A total of 32 responses were received. The maximum response rate was achieved. In replying to the questions and statements the respondents were required in most questions to tick appropriate responses using attitude questions in the questionnaire. This allowed respondents to rank their agreement to a statement relative to positive and negative end-points of a seven-point Likert scale. Some questions were multiple choice or required textual responses. The questionnaire responses were encoded, entered into a computer and then analysed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet program. The survey responses were combined into one file and the descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable from the responses to each of the items. Relevant descriptive statistics and any uncharacteristic results are described in the following results section of this paper. Results This part presents the results of the analysis of the collected survey data. The first section examines the respondents‘ demographic information. The next three sections present respondents‘ views about the case university‘s human, structural and relational capital. The final section presents the most notable comments on all three IC facets. 742 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Respondent Demographics The profile of the sample is examined in terms of the respondents‘ role at the case university (academic staff, support staff) and gender (male, female). Of the total of 32 survey respondents, 72% were academics and 28% were support staff. Furthermore, 81% of the respondents were male and 19% female. This distribution suggests that the survey responses generated may reflect more closely the views of male academics (Table 1). Role Male Female Academic staff 56% 16% 25% Table 1: Respondent Demographics 3% Support staff Human Capital This section examines the respondents‘ opinions about the importance and actual status of human capital at the case university. When asked about their opinion about the importance of human capital, 92% of the respondents agreed (rates > 4) and only 3% disagreed (rates < 4) with the given statements on a variety of aspects of human capital. The next table (Table 2). shows the distribution of respondents‘ opinions about existent human capital at the case university. Opinions were separated into those that agree (rates > 4) and those that disagree (rates < 4) with given statements. Thus, it was possible to identify more clearly positive and negative feelings about various evaluated aspects. Each statement was rated separately by the respondents. There was a shared view by 65% of the respondents that the case university provides high quality teaching in small groups (statement 5). Furthermore, 50% of the respondents held the view that the case university offered full administrative support for teaching and research (statement 4). In addition, 47% of the respondents recognised that the university had strong and visionary leadership (statement 1) and that academic staff were motivated to do research (statement 6). Finally, 45% respondents felt that the university hired high quality academic staff (statement 2) and 44% believed that academic staff were dedicated researchers and instructors (statement 3). Statements Agree Disagree 1. The university has strong and visionary leadership 47% 28% 2. The university hires high quality academic staff 45% 23% 3. Academic staff are dedicated full time researchers/instructors 44% 19% 4. The university provides full admin support for academics 50% 28% 5. Academic staff work with small groups of students 65% 26% 6. Academic staff are motivated to do research Table 2: Human Capital 47% 34% To eliminate any possibility of academic bias, the responses for human capital were cross-tabulated against the roles of the respondents. No major differences were found in ratings between respondents from academic and support staff. (Table 3). Role Agree Disagree Academic staff 70% 30% Support staff 55% 45% Table 3: Opinions about Human Capital by Role 743 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Structural Capital This section examines the respondents‘ opinions about the importance and actual status of structural capital of the case university. With respect to respondent opinions about the importance of structural capital, 87% agreed (rates > 4) and 3% disagreed (rates < 4) with given statements on a variety of the structural capital aspects. Statements Agree Disagree 1. Wide variety of disciplines are taught at the university 38% 28% 2. The university has several specialty domains 34% 44% 3. The university has contributed to many scholarly outlets 16% 56% 4. Own research outlets have been started by the university 53% 19% 5. The university offers necessary library and info-services 38% 47% 6. IT provides reliable infrastructural support for teach/research Table 4. Structural Capital 25% 38% With respect to the existent structural capital at the case university, the respondents‘ opinions were divided. (Table 4). There was appreciation by 53% of the respondents that the university started own research outlets (statement 4) and agreement by 38% with the observation that a wide variety of disciplines were taught at the university (statement 1). However, 56% respondents disagreed with the assertion that the university contributed to many scholarly outlets (statement 3). Similarly, 44% respondents disagreed with the proposition that the university had specialty domains (statement 2). Furthermore, 47% and 38% of the respondents opposed the claim that the university offered necessary library/information services (statement 5) and IT support for teaching and research (statement 6). Relational Capital This section examines the respondents‘ opinions about the importance and actual status of relational capital at the case university. Regarding the importance of relational capital, 91% of the respondents agreed (rates > 4) and 4% disagreed (rates < 4) with the view that relational capital was important to the case university. The remaining respondents were unsure or provided no answers. Statements Agree Disagree 1. High quality students are being attracted to the university 56% 31% 2. University offers expertise to external stakeholders 16% 41% 3. There is close partnership established with other universities 25% 28% 4. The university is a member of scientific/professional assoc. 19% 44% 5. The university encourages academic networking 56% 28% 6. The university promotes positive public image Table 5: Relational Capital 41% 19% Respondents‘ opinions concerning the existent relational capital at the case university were divided. (Table 5). There was agreement by 56% of the respondents that the university encouraged networking (statement 5) and attracted high quality students (statement 1). There was also agreement by 41% of the respondents with the view that the university promoted positive public image (statement 6). However, 44% and 41% of the respondents opposed the claim that the university was a member of scientific and professional associations (statement 4) or established close 744 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo partnership with other universities (statement 3). Finally, 28% rejected the proposition that it offered expertise to external stakeholders (statement 2). Comments Respondents were asked to give textual comments about the three facets of intellectual capital. From the responses obtained, the most notable comments were: (1) barriers to research created due to teaching overload and lack of time and opportunity to attend conferences; (2) inadequate study space provided in the library; and (3) deeply felt belief that the case university would attain a position among top 100 universities in Europe. Discussion This section analyses and interprets empirical data from the survey of IC importance and actual status at the case university. It seeks to establish whether IC has developed adequately and whether and how it differs from the desired ideal state. Responses to survey questions and comments about human, structural and relational assets expose the following current IC status at the case university. Analysis of Key Findings In summary, the study findings for human capital indicate a positive overall picture. These findings reveal that there is the universal recognition of the importance, as well as the positive collective view of the existent human capital at the case university. This implies that human capital is the major strength of the case university. Such contention is reinforced further by deeply felt belief that the case university has the potential to attain a position among the 100 best universities in Europe. This is an important and encouraging finding. In contrast, the findings for structural capital are divided. Although there is a widespread acknowledgement of its importance, the distribution of current results implies a rather negative overall judgement of the case university‘s structural capital at present. Major shortcomings have been identified in the areas of (i) specialty research domains and scholarly contributions; and (ii) supporting information technology and library infrastructure and services. The first problem is reinforced by comments of teaching overload and the lack of necessary time and opportunity to do and present research. This suggests the need for the case university‘s leadership to find a way to eliminate current barriers to research by rebalancing teaching and research activities at the case university. The second (infrastructural) problem is currently being addressed through major construction work. With a new building construction well underway, it is expected that the sophisticated teaching and research infrastructure will be available to students and employees at the beginning of the next academic year. The findings with respect to relational capital are similarly divided. While they show a common understanding of the importance of relational capital at the case university, its actual status suggests the need for building closer institutional relationships with educational, professional and industrial segments. It appears that the case university‘s promotion of positive public image and networking enables it to attract high quality students. However, its institutional presence and involvement in academic and professional associations, government and industry sectors, as well as the society at large is lacking. the case university‘s leadership should take a closer look at the issue and find a way to contribute to national (BiH and/or Turkey) and regional (Balkan and/or Europe) development. The overall tone of this application case is mixed. The visualisation and analysis of key elements indicate some aspects of IC that are fairly well aligned with educational strategy and successful in the context of the case university. However, there is room for further improvement in a number of IC issues. There is also an opportunity for further development. The greatest challenge for the case university is to move in the direction of its mission of advancing learning and transforming life by consciously and deliberately addressing its strategic IC. Implications and Limitations The results of this IC model development and application have a number of important implications for university in continuing its education and research journey. The high number of unsure and no responses indicate the need for raising awareness of IC throughout the university. The proposed IC model may be helpful in this regard by creating a common understanding of the IC phenomena including basic components and indicators. It should also help to avoid any danger of misconception and misunderstanding by promoting the use of a common terminology. 745 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo It is obvious that the results of this research are limited by a specific higher education context and a group of academic and support staff participants in which the evaluation of intellectual capital was investigated. In order to generalise the findings, further research is required involving other contexts and subject groups. Future research is also required to study the impact of various tasks, environment and people related contingencies on IC, and how they relate to performance outcomes. Only by systematically investigating fundamental aspects of IC, by cultivating better measures and by critically examining alternative theoretical models, can the IC field continue to progress. Conclusions This analysis provides some insights into Intellectual Capital (IC) at a specific case within the higher education sector: a new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study applied a subjective IC measurement approach to explore the importance and actual state of IC at the case university. From the conceptual point of view, the applied measurement model and terminology were adapted from a general IC framework. The assessment was performed subjectively, taking into account the employees‘ perspectives on importance and actual state of human, structural and relational capital at the case university. The findings reveal some interesting IC dynamics and identify current shortcomings. Most importantly, they point to human capital as the case university‘s major strength. They also identify several weaknesses in structural and relational capital. These points may define the agenda for future research in the field for the benefit of both theory and practice of IC reporting and management in universities. References Bullen, Elizabeth,Fahey,Johannah & Kenway, Jane, (2006)`The Knowledge Economy and Innovation: Certain Uncertanity and The Risk Economy,Vol.27,No.1.,53-68 Castrillo,Rocio,Elena Susana& Sanchez,Paloma M.‖Intellectual Capital Dynamics in Universities: A Reporting Model (2009), Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.10, No.2, 307-324 Chen, Chih-Kai, (2008) `Causal Modeling of Knowledge- Based Economy‘, Management Decision, Vol.46, No.3, 501-514 Dumay,John C.,(2009),‖Intellectual Capital Measurement: A Critical Approach‖ ,Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.10, No.2, 190-210 Farrell, Lesley, (2001) `Negotiating Knowledge in the Knowledge Economy: Workplace Educators and the Politics of Codification, Studies in Continuing Education, Vol.23, and No.2 Garg, Shalini, (2009) `Higher education-CMMI: Beyond the Software Frointier`, Pwaset Vol.41, 2070-3740 Johanson, Ulf, Koga, Chitoshi,Skoog,Matti & Almqvist, Roland,(2009) `Breaking Taboos` `Implementing Intellectual AssetsBased Management Guidelines Judd C.M., Smith E.R. and Kidder L.H. (1991), Research Methods in Social Relations, 6th ed., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Guthrie, J. (2001). The Management, Measurement and the Reporting of Intellectual Capital. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 2(1), 27-41. Handzic, M. and Zhou, A. (2005), Knowledge Management: An Integrative Approach, Chandos Publishing, Oxford, UK. Hellström, Tomas & Husted, Kenneth (2004),‖Mapping Knowledge and Intellectual Capital in Academic Environments‖, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.5, No 1,165-180 Kleiner H, Barian, Robinson, George, (1996) ‗How to Measure an Organization `s Intellectual Capital ` Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol.11, No.8, 36-39 Mckenna, Bernard & Rooney, David, (2005), (Should the Knowledge - Based Economy be a Savant or a Sage? Wisdom and Socially Intelligent Innovation, Prometheus, Vol.23, No.3 746 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Ozlen, K. (2010), Intellectual Capital: A Research Essay, Working paper, International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ramirez,Yolanda,Lorduy,Carmen & Rojas,Antonio Jose, Universities,Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.8,No.4,732-748 (2007) ‖Intellectual Capital Management in Spanish Roberts, Joanne,(2001) ` the Drive to Codify: Implications for the Knowledge- Based Economy‘, Prometheus, Vol.19, No.2 Roberts, Joanne, (2009),`The Global Knowledge Economy in Question`,(Critical Perspectives on International Business, Vol.5,No.4,285-303 Rodgers,Waymond & Housel,J.Thomas, (2009),Measures For Organizations Engaged in a Knowledge Economy, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.10,No.3,341-353 Sanchez, Paloma M & Elena, Susana, (2006)‖Intellectual Capital in Universities‖, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.7, No.4, 529-548 Warhurst, Chris, (2008), `The Knowledge Economy, Skills and Government Labour Market, Intervention Policy Studies, Vol. 29, No.1, 71-86 Williams, Peter John, (2007) ‗Valid Knowledge: The Economy and the Academy`, Springer Science + Business Media B.V. Zeghal, Daniel & Maaloul Anis,(2009) `Analysing Value Added As an Indicator of Intellectual Capital and ITS Consequences on Company Performance (2010) `Journal of Intellectual Capital`Vol.11,No.1,39-60 747 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 225 Title A name given to the resource University Intellectual Capital: Measurement Model and Application Author Author HANDZIC, Meliha ÖZTÜRK, Elif Abstract A summary of the resource. There is the widespread recognition of the importance of intellectual capital (IC) as a major source of competitive advantage for any organisation operating in today‘s knowledge economy (KE). In particular, universities are recognised as being essential to the new economy as the prime producers and transmitters of knowledge in a society. Therefore, it is not surprising that the management and measurement of IC by universities is becoming an increasingly important issue in the knowledge management (KM) research and practice. It is argued that universities need to use the IC model as a tool to aid them in meeting new management challenges and diffuse their intangible resources and activities to their stakeholders and society at large. This study addresses this need by developing a specific model for measuring intellectual capital of universities and by applying it in the specific context of a new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is hoped that the use of this model can help the university in reaching its scientific and educational goals. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cebb5257720f2ca18089eed046ec1dd2.pdf 415cbec2229e9b52ae365a60432330e6 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Effects of Implementing to Total Quality Management on the Busıness Performance and a Research Mustafa HOTAMIġLI Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey hotamisli@aku.edu.tr Feyyaz YILDIZ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey feyyaz.yildiz@gmail.com Ali ELEREN Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey eleren@aku.edu.tr Abstract: Total quality management (TQM) has been mentioned to have positive effect on business performance considerable attention in the literature and researches. The aim of this study is to analyse the performance changes in a shopping center. A research model was composed of four performances dimensions. Qualification and quantitive data of the model were groupped and evaluated by using statistical methods. In the end of the study, after implementing of TQM the performance increase was observed in the all sized of the business by years . Introduction With the increasing competitive, business survival pressure and the dynamic, changing customeroriented environment, total quality management (TQM) has been recognized as one of the important issues and generated a substantial amount of interest among managers and researchers (Samson and Terziovski, 1999, p. 393-409;Adam at all.,2001,p. 39-43; Samson and Daft, 2005, p.250-265). Some authors conclude that TQM positively influences business performance through the development of a series of competencies (Powell, 1995, p 15-37; Douglas and Judge, 2001, p. 158-169; Brah et all, 2002, p.356-379, Garcı et all.2010, 363-382). Furthermore TQM has an impact on the way organization members apply their knowledge in the organization, and therefore it affects organizational performance. Firms that focus on continuous improvement, involve and motivate employees to achieve quality output and focus on satisfying customers' needs are more likely to outperform firms that do not have this focus (Seth, and Tripathi, 2006, p.811-826; Joiner, 2007, p. 617-627; Jitpaiboon and Rao, 2007, p. 78-102). Business performance management (BPM) is a key business initiative that enables companies to align strategic and operational objectives with business activities in order to fully manage performance through better informed decision making and action. In other words, BPM is a process that enables to meet business performance measurements and objectives. It enables to proactively monitor and manage business processes, and take the appropriate actions that result in meeting objectives (Ballard et all. 2005. p.27-29; Alfaro et all.,2007, p. 643; Kanjı, 2002, p.1116). Business performance basicly composed of three approaches. Those are; financial; financial and operational; and organisational effectiveness (Venkatraman and Ramanujam, 1986,p .801-14). From other side business performance reviews put in action and bring the firm's performance measurement models to life, such as balanced scorecards, performance prisms, budgeting systems, assessment frameworks and accounting systems. (Martinez and Kennerley, 2009, p.12-21; Sardana, 2008, p. 32). 193 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Study In this section, information on purpose, scope, method of the application and model is provided. The purpose of this study is that comparative evaluation of performance results before and after TQM applications in an organization and investigating to what extend TQM applications contribute to the organization. The scope of is limited to 2005-2009 data from an shopping center in Afyonkarahisar, is a province of Turkey is a gas station belonging to the shopping center out of the building. As of 2007, the shopping center started using TQM applications. Performance model; this model was first used in Eleren and Soba (2009:1309). Originally, there are six dimensions and scales of the model. The model included marketing, finance, internal and external customer dimensions. To determine the dimensions of the model, the organization‘s database was used and the most appropriate ones were selected. Availability of database including questionnaire data administered to the internal and external customer of the organization in pervious years and finance and sale data affected determining these four dimensions. Data collection: In evaluating first two dimensions, a scale composed of likert-type questions was used. In the other two dimensions, quantitative data was used. Data was gathered from a large database including years between 2005 and 2009. BASIC DIMENSIONS 1. External Customers 2. Internal (Employees) Customers INDICATORS Customer Satisfaction Fidelity, Productivite 3. Marketing Function Market Performance 4. Financial Function Financial Performance SUB INDICATORS Re-De Cost/Quality Diversity Flexibility ………… …………… Job Satisfaction Working Conditions Fee and Responsibility Quality of Work life Job Healty and security ………… …………… Sales Market Shares Sales Refund ………… …………… liquidity Loans Profitability Action/Effectiveness Table-1: Proposed New Performance Model and Its Dimensions Findings In this section, four dimensions of the model are separately reported. Those are; Customer Satifaction Dimention, Employee Satisfaction Dimention, Market Performance Dimention, Fınancial Performance Dimention. Customer Satifaction Dimension; a questionnaire including five-point likert-type items were administered to customers between 144 and 172 to measure customer satisfaction. The results are provided the table below. 194 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Performance Criteria We have been getting sufficient and quick answers to our problems and complaints Product game is wide The staff is friendly and well dressed The products ratio of price / quality are appropriate Quality performance of business is high at all products and services of it Service areas are, clear,regular and sanitary Business provides convenience on chancing of the faulty products Business takes into account of our choices and tastes on it products Product price, quantity, manufacturer, manufacturing and expiry dates availables on labels The design of our products are suitable fashion and our tastes. Brands offered by the business is reliable and I always prefer Introductions of product are reasonable and attractive It has been providing convenience at the shoppings Products packages are adequate and attractive. AVR. N=2500 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 AVR. 2,58 2,61 3,22 3,45 4,68 3,31 2,78 2,89 2,74 2,94 3,43 3,2 3,53 3,39 3,61 3,46 3,22 3,18 2,91 2,87 3,34 3,36 3,28 3,15 2,65 2,68 3,15 3,11 3,44 3,01 2,41 2,36 2,84 2,98 3,24 2,77 2,31 2,65 2,57 2,96 3,13 2,72 2,21 1,91 2,52 2,59 3,22 2,49 2,17 2,15 2,51 2,61 2,95 2,48 2,27 2,22 2,59 2,56 2,63 2,45 2,21 2,24 2,32 2,52 2,49 2,36 1,86 1,91 2,12 2,34 3,33 2,31 1,29 1,73 1,66 1,93 2,26 1,77 1,13 1,47 1,69 1,48 2,69 1,69 2,26 n=60 2,32 n=60 2,65 n=60 2,77 n=60 3,17 n=60 2,64 Table-2:Performance to Based on Customer Satisfaction As of 2007 when TQM was started to use, the averages were above the hypothetical average of 2.5 and has continuously improved. This shows that customer satisfaction improved. When propositions customers positively rated were evaluated it was seen that the following TQM applications were effective in the organization: qualities and varieties of products, quick response customer needs and compliance and friendly sales personnel. To measure employee satisfaction, a questionnaire including five-point likert scale was administered to 60 employees out of 67 excluding 7 mid-level managers. The results were reported in the table below. As given above, before and after TQM evaluation results were not be able to given here because there were not data available on employee satisfaction in previous years. The evaluation was provided only for a term for 2008. Responses of average as of 2007 are above hypothetical average of 2.5. This shows the positive views of participants after TQM applications. The propositions on the following issues show that TQM applications reach their goals: consultations before decisions, participation in management, fair work and fair pay. Market Performance Dimensions; international and domestic sale performances were considered. Two separate indices for two separate years were prepared. The sales of the organization were grouped in four categories. Based on 2005 sales, an increment index was created using data simplified by inflation rate. It showed that sale started to increase in and after 2007. 195 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo SALES (TL) (*) Textile& Home Application&Electronic Incrase (2005 base) Market Incrase (2005 base) Cafe&Restourant&Enter . Incrase (2005 base) Fuel Incrase (2005 base TOTAL Incrase (2005 base) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 1.256.172 1.268.949 1.688.320 1.844.997 1.746.584 1,00 1.010.127 1,00 1,01 1.008.965 1,00 1,34 1.101.918 1,09 1,47 1.372.173 1,36 1,39 1.201.328 1,19 323.878 338.842 372.751 528.519 540.120 1,00 139.462 1,00 2.729.640 1,00 1,05 161.919 1,16 2.778.674 1,02 1,15 127.703 0,92 3.290.693 1,21 1,63 183.674 1,32 3.929.363 1,44 1,67 241.205 1,73 3.729.237 1,37 Table-3: Marketing Performance Scores (*)The total value amounts belonging to years and rates have been corrected by inflation. TQM applications affected the sales positively. That increase in sales in 2009 was less than the increase in 2007 and 2008 shows the effects of the global crises. Financial Performance Dimension; the organization‘s 2005-2009 fiscal years financial tables were used for financial performance. Data firstly converted to financial ratios by ratio analysis was converted to financial accomplishment performance scores using Altmna‘s Zeta model. The basic evaluation of this model is based on Z-value calculations developed by Altman (Altman vd.., 1977:26-51). Although the Zeta model was designed to determine level of bankruptcy and accomplishment levels it helps compare organizations‘ financial performances by years. Z= + 1.2 * (Net business asset/total assets) + 1.4 * (distrubuted profits/Total assets) + 3.3 * (profit before Interest and tax//total assets) + 0,6 * (capital/debts) + 0.999 (sales/total assets) Altman Zeta Increases(2005 base) 2005 2,81 1,00 2006 2,89 1,03 2007 3,06 1,09 2008 3,45 1,23 2009 3,36 1,20 Table-4: Financial Performance Scores According to table, based on 2005, in 2007 and after, there was a significant increase in the financial performance. Although there was a little decrease in recent year it is projected the performance will increase after the global crisis. Results Total Quality Management affects organization competitive positions positively. Increase in internal and external customer satisfaction, marketing, production and financial performance as a result of successful application, is expected goal theoretically. While these developments are experienced that will affect competition positively the results of these developments will reach to other shareholders, such as associates, customers, society, government etc. In this study, the theoretic level of performance of an organization owning a shopping center was tested using a performance measurement model. The model is composed of internal and external customers, marketing and finance dimensions. Based on this relationship, the model was used to determine the expected performance increase of the organization. That a positive increase was observed in all dimensions when TQM was started to be used means that TQM positively contributed to organizations‘ performance. In a successful TQM application, a similar performance increase should be seen in other organizations. However, the position of the organization, professionalism in management, size, quality of technology and workforce etc. factors will affect performance reached. These differences have to be investigated in other studies. 196 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo References Adam, E.E., Flores, B.E. & Macias, A. (2001) Quality improvement practices and the effect on manufacturing firm performance: evidence from Mexico and the USA, International Journal of Production Research, Vol: 39, pp. 43-63. Ahmed S., Masjuki Hj. Hassan and Yap Hui Fen,(2005), Performance Measurement and Evaluation in an Innovative Modern Manufacturing System, Journal of Applied Sciences pp. 385-401. http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/ansinet/jas/2005/385401.pdf, acc.date:5/5/2010. Alfaro J., A. Ortiz ; Poler R (2007) Performance measurement system for business processes, Production Planning & Control, Vol.:18:, no:8, pp.641-654, http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713737146, acc.date:5/5/2010 Altman, E., (1977) ―Zeta Analysis‖, Journal of Banking of Finance,pp.26-51. Ballard, , Colin White, S. McDonald ,Myllymaki J., McDowell S., Goerlich O., Neroda (2005),A., IBM Redbooks. Business Performance Management. Meets Business Intelligence, Durham, NC, USA: IBM,. p .27-29, http://site.ebrary.com/lib/afyon/Doc?id=10112499&ppg=1,acc.date:5/5/2010 Brah, S.A., Lee, S.L., Rao, B.M. (2002), Relationship between TQM and performance of Singapore companies, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 19 No.4, pp.356-79. Douglas, T.J., & Judge, W.Q., Jr. (2001). Total quality management implementation and competitiveadvantage: The role of structural control and exploration. Academy of Management Journal,44, 158–169. Eleren A.and Soba, (2009),Multı-Dımensıonal Performance Measurement In Organısatıons And An Ap Mplıcatıon In Usak Leather Industry, International Davraz Congress, 24 -27 September 2009,Isparta, Turkey,.pp.1309. Garcı J.´ Bernal_A- and Rez-Aleso´N Marisa Ramı,(2010),Increasing The Organisational Performance Benefits Of TQM:An Approach Based On Organisational Design, Total Quality Management,Vol. 21, No. 4,pp.363–382 Joiner, Therese A. (2007).The role of organization support and co-worker support, Journal: International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management,Volume: 24,Number: 6,School of Business, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia,pp. 617-627 Kanjı G.,(2002), Business Excellence: Make It Happen, Total Qualıty Management, Vol.. 13, No. 8, 1115-1124. Martinez, V.; Kennerley, M. (2009) Performance measurement systems: Benefits. EURAM Annual Conference, Munich, pp.11-21. Powell, T.C. (1995), "Total quality management as competitive advantage: a review and empirical study", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16 pp.15-37. Samson, D., Terziovski, M. (1999), The relationship between total quality management practices and operational performance, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 17 pp.393-409. Samson, D., & Daft, R.L. (2005). Management, Second Pacific Rim Edition. South Melbourne: Thomson.pp.250-265. Sardana G. D.,(2008),Measuring Business Performance:A Conceptual Framework With Focus On Improvement, Performance Improvement, Vol. 47, no. 7, August 2008, International (www.interscience.wiley.com) Seth, D & Deepak T, (2006), A Critical Study Of TQM and TPM Approaches On Business Performance Of Indian Manufacturing Industry, Total Quality Management Vol. 17, No. 7,pp. 811–824. Venkatraman, N., Ramanujam, V. (1986), Measurement of business performance in strategy research: a comparison of approaches, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 11 No.4, pp.801-14. 197 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 153 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Implementing to Total Quality Management on the Busıness Performance and a Research Author Author HOTAMIŞLI, Mustafa YILDIZ, Feyyaz ELEREN, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Total quality management (TQM) has been mentioned to have positive effect on business performance considerable attention in the literature and researches. The aim of this study is to analyse the performance changes in a shopping center. A research model was composed of four performances dimensions. Qualification and quantitive data of the model were groupped and evaluated by using statistical methods. In the end of the study, after implementing of TQM the performance increase was observed in the all sized of the business by years . Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7467df0ea083016ffc4640aa08ed0529.pdf 536d1511df78ea3bdba7bacd7801d9ec PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Economics of Boron Mining in Turkey Bayram KAHRAMAN Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Müh. Fak., Maden Müh. Bölümü, Izmir, Turkey bayram.kahraman@deu.edu.tr Abstract: Boron minerals are one of the most important richness of Turkey. Turkey has a great potential in boron minerals regards to the reserves and the quality of these minerals. Boron minerals have an intensive and increasing usage ranging from glass to detergent industry and in metallurgical, agricultural and nuclear applications. Despite the important potential, Turkey gains only an average of 300 million US Dollars per year. Therefore, this income should be increased proportionally to the potential. In this study, production and export of ETĠBOR A.ġ. since 1978, future targets are reviewed. Introduction Boron, which has the world's most common application, is one of the most important elements. This is why the industry is one of the most important foundation stones. Boron minerals are structures in different proportions of boron oxide (B2O3) which are naturally formed. There are over 200 naturally occurring boron containing minerals which have major commercial importance; tincal, colemanite, kernite, ulexite, pandermite, boracite, szaibelyite and hydroboracite (Table 1). Boron minerals in Turkey, which are widely available, are tincal, colemanite and ulexite. These minerals are sodium, calcium and sodium+calcium boron-based compounds. First of these minerals can be physically processed enriched (concentrated boron) can be refined later converted to a variety of boron chemicals (Köse et al., 2002). Mineral Tincal (natural borax) Kernite (rasortie) Ulexite (boronatrocalcite) Probertite (kramerite) Colemanite Priceite (pandermite) Boracite (stassfurite) Szaibelyite (ascharite) Hydroboracite Table 1: Chemical composition Na2B4O7 .10H2O Na2B4O7 .4H2O NaCaB5 O9 .8H2O NaCaB3O9.5H2O Ca2B6O11.5H2O CaB10O19.7H2O Mg3B7O13Cl MgBO2OH CaMgB6O11.6H2O % B2O3 36.5 51.0 43.0 49.6 50.8 49.8 62.2 41.4 50.5 Production Place Kırka, Emet, Bigadiç, A.B.D Kırka, A.B.D., Argentina Bigadiç, Kırka, Emet, Argentina Kestelek, Emet, A.B.D Emet, Bigadiç, Küçükler, A.B.D Sultançayır, Bigadiç Germany B.D.T. (Old S.S.C.B.) Emet Boron mineral which are commercially important [2] Boron is consumed mostly in the form of boron chemicals. Moreover, the concentration of boron can be consumed directly. Boron products are used in many areas including aerospace and aircraft, nuclear applications, military vehicles, fuel, electronics and communications industry, agriculture, glass industry, chemical and detergent industries, ceramic and polymeric materials, nanotechnology, automotive and energy sector, metallurgy and construction. Nearly 75% of boron products are consumed in glass, ceramic, agriculture and detergent industry (Figure 1). 502 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 1. World Boron Consumption in Sectors The important boron deposits are located in Turkey, USA and Russia. Turkey has 72 percent of world reserves of boron (Table 2). Total Reserve Turkey1 USA2 Russia2 China2 Chile3 Bolivia3 Peru2 Argentina2 Serbia5 Iran2 Kazakhistan4 TOTAL Table 2: 866,000 80,000 100,000 47,000 41,000 19,000 22,000 9,000 16,200 1,000 1,201,200 Percent in Total (%) 72 7 8 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 100 World Boron Reserve (x103 Ton - B2O3) [Boron Sector Report 2009] 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Eti Mine reserves information was used in 2006. USGS Mineral Commodity Summariers, January 2009, was taken. USGS Mineral Commodity Summariers, January 2002, was taken. Satimola region of Kazakhstan on the basis of reserves of 102 million tonnes B 2O3 at www.borates.co.uk is given as the other sources are given very different and contradictory figures, these figures reflected in the table. Given this value is 67 percent of ETI shares. 5. http://www.riotinto.com/whatweproduce/17056_inferred_resource_at_jadar_lithium_project.asp The borate deposits known in Turkey are especially located in EskiĢehir-Kırka, Balıkesir-Bigadiç, Bursa-Kestelek, and Kütahya-Emet (Figure 2). From two main ores, tincal and colemanite, boron and boron compounds are obtained. The important tincal deposits are in Kırka while the colemanite deposits are around Emet and Bigadiç. Ulexite is located in Bigadiç. Since the boron minerals in Turkey are only run by Eti Mine Works General Management. Eti Mine‘s operating base consists of five competitive mining operations: Kırka, Emet, Bigadiç and Kestelek (Table 3). 503 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Production Place Natural Borates Kırka, EskiĢehir Bigadiç, Balıkesir Emet, Kütahya Kestelek, Bursa TOTAL Tincal Colemanite, Ulexite Colemanite Colemanite Total Reserve (Million Ton) 750,620 623,459 1,682,562 6,995 3,063,636 Grade %B2O3 26 29-31 28-30 29 Table 3: Turkey Boron Reserves and Types [BOREN web pages, 2010] Figure 2: Sources of boron distribution in Turkey Trade of Turkey’s Boron Products Turkey owns the biggest and highest quality boron reserves in the world. Turkey is the largest boron producer and seller of the world. The entire boron demand in the domestic market is met. The most important countries in the world production of boron are Turkey, USA, Argentina, Russia, China, Chile, Bolivia and Peru. In 2008, global boron production was about 1.91 million tons of B2O3. The production of these countries is given in Table 4 (BOREN web pages, 2010). Countries Market ratio (%) Turkey 42 USA 35 Chile, Argentina, Bolivia and Peru 11 Russia and China 12 Table 4: Position of Turkey in World Boron Market 504 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Boron ore in the country is converted to concentrated boron (colemanite, ulexite, Tincal) and refined boron (boric acid, borax pentahydrate and borax decahydrate) products are sold to domestic and foreign markets. Boron concentrate production is done in Emet Kestelek and Bigadiç. Refined boron products are made in Kırka Bandırma and Emet (EMW, 2009). In Turkey, selling high value-added product (boron chemicals and equivalent) was identified as the main policy. As a result, while reducing the share of exports concentrated boron, increasing constantly share of boron chemicals and equivalent products. In 1998, 53 percent of total sales consisted of the sales of concentrated boron and 47 percent of total sales consisted of from the sales of boron chemicals and equivalent boron (Figure 3). In 2009, 96 percent of Turkey's total borax products sales revenue consisted of foreign sales. Borax pentahydrate has the highest share in boron chemicals exports. Boric acid is the second coming one. Covering the period 2002-2009 in Turkey concentrated boron and boron chemicals and equivalent products export sales are given in Figure 4 (EMW, 2008). Figure 3. Concentrated boron and boron chemicals and equivalent products sales of percentage in total sales Figure 4. Turkey Concentrate Boron, Boron Chemicals and Equivalent Products Exports (as the value US$) 505 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusions Boron ore is easily and economically obtained in Turkey. Even the B2O3 grade of boron stored in waste dams is higher than the B2O3 grade in lake waters of world‘s locomotive countries. For this reason, high grade and easily mineable boron ores make Turkey an advantageous country. While the boron market share of Turkey in the world during 1980‘s was 25% in terms of production, it has been achieved as 37 % in the year 2009. As Turkey and USA meet the boron demand of the world at a rate of 65-70 %, in the forthcoming years countries like Russia, China, Chile and Argentina have begun to take share in the international boron market. In the year 2009, Turkey has met the need at a rate of 37 % whereas USA met the need at a rate of 28 %. On the other hand, Turkey has sustained its leadership in the past year which it gained back in 2005. The total sale income of Turkey from boron products in 2009 was achieved as 451 million US$, 435 million US$ of which were in the form of export. The sale income of exported boron chemicals and equivalence has increased by 232 % when compared to 2002 and happened as 402 million US$. The revenue of world boron market is 1.5 billion US $ annually. Turkey, which owns 72% of the world boron reserves, get revenue of an average of 300 million US $. Turkey aims to increase its capacity and profit with the help of new investments. References EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management), web pages, http://www.etimaden.gov.tr EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management) (2009), Boron Sector Report 2009 EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management) (2008), Activity Reports 2008. BOREN (National Boron Research Institute) web pages, http://www.boren.gov.tr/ KÖSE, H., BATAR, T., KAHRAMAN, B. (2002), Dünya Bor Statejisi ve Bor‘un Türkiye için Önemi, EGĠAD GiriĢimcilikYönetim-Ekonomi AraĢtırmalar Dizisi. 506 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 266 Title A name given to the resource Economics of Boron Mining in Turkey Author Author KAHRAMAN, Bayram Abstract A summary of the resource. Boron minerals are one of the most important richness of Turkey. Turkey has a great potential in boron minerals regards to the reserves and the quality of these minerals. Boron minerals have an intensive and increasing usage ranging from glass to detergent industry and in metallurgical, agricultural and nuclear applications. Despite the important potential, Turkey gains only an average of 300 million US Dollars per year. Therefore, this income should be increased proportionally to the potential. In this study, production and export of ETĠBOR A.ġ. since 1978, future targets are reviewed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/648193b6539277a06ff045e02c37e034.pdf ce3eac240d0e99f81810a4c1216bcb4d PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Analyzing the Sustainability of Current Account in ASEAN Countries: Test of Intertemporal Borrowing Constraints Hüseyin KALYONCU Department of International Trade and Business Meliksah University Turkey hkalyoncu@meliksah.edu.tr Muhittin KAPLAN Department of Economics Meliksah University Turkey mkaplan@meliksah.edu.tr Abstract: The objective of this paper is to investigate the sustainability of current account imbalances by using the data of five ASEAN countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand over the 1981-2008 periods. Sustainability of current account for ASEAN countries is analyzed under intertemporal borrowing constraint (IBC) approach by performing an empirical analysis of Pedroni (1999) panel cointegration between exports and imports plus net transfer payments plus net interest payments. The empirical results of panel cointegration test show that these variables are cointegrated for whole period and two sub-periods. To find regression coefficient we use panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators. It is found that the coefficient is not significantly equal to one but very close to one. The overall results provide evidence in favour of the sustainability of the current account for five ASEAN countries as a group. Keywords: panel data unit-root test, current account, solvency Introduction The sustainability of current account has been receiving increasing attention from economist. Since current account represents an indicator of a country‘s economic performance, it is an important barometer to both policymakers and investors. As Fountas and Wu (1999) stated that short-run current account deficits may not be considered bad, as they may reflect reallocation of capital to the country where capital is more productive. However persistent payment imbalances can have serious effect. One of them is that they might increase interest rates to attract foreign capital to sustain an increasing current account deficit. Other effect is that these measures impose an excessive burden on future generations as the accumulation of larger debt will imply increasing interest payments and thus lower future standards of living. The importance of the current account is witnessed by its widespread use in early warning indicators of currency crises (Aziz et al., 2000 and Edwards, 2001)). Large and persistent external imbalances are often assumed to lead to financial /currency crises. For example, the currency crises in Chile and Mexico (early 1980s), the UK and Nordic countries (late 1980s), Mexico and Argentina (mid 1990s), East Asian countries (late 1990s) and more recently in Turkey (2001) are often associated with large and persistent current account deficits. In the empirical literature on current account sustainability there have been basically two main approaches. Both approaches suggest possible techniques to test the sustainability of a current account under intertemporal borrowing constraint (IBC) approach. The first approach is based on the univariate time series properties of the current account; the second approach is based on the long-run relationship between exports and imports (bivariate approach). In this paper we followed second approach. The question of sustainability of current account has been studied in recent years by a large literature. Unit root and cointegration tests have provided useful tools in gaining insight into the long-run implications of current account. Husted (1992), Wickens and Uctum (1993), Ahmed and Rogers (1995), Milesi-Ferretti and Razin (1996), Wu et al. (1996), Cashin and McDermott (1998), Fountas and Wu (1999), Ho-Don Yan (1999), Apergis et al. (2000), Wu 135 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (2000), Wu et al. (2001), Baharumshah et al. (2003), Onel and Utkulu (2006), Kalyoncu (2005,2006) are examples of these large literature. In this study we investigate sustainability of current account imbalances by using the data of five ASEAN countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 defines the analytical framework. Section 3 explains econometric methodology. Section 4 describes data and presents empirical results. Section 5 concludes. Analytical Framework for Testing Husted (1992) present a theoretical framework to test for sustainability based on Hakkio and Rush‘s (1991) procedure. Husted‘s approach began by noting that an open economy faces the following budget constraint for each period t: (1) C  Y  B f  I  (1  r ) B f t t t t t t where Ct is current consumption (public and private) in period t, Yt is the output in period t, It is investment in f period t , rt is the one period world interest rate, Bt is the size of international borrowing which could be positive or negative. Since this budget constraint must hold for every time period, the period by period budget constraint can be added up to form the intertemporal budget constraint is given by  (2) Bt f    i Yt i  Ct i  I t i   lim  i Bt f i  i 1 where TBt  X t  M t  Yt  Ct  I t . Here TB denotes trade balance. Therefore the economy‘s budget constraint can be expressed as  (3) Bt f   i TBt  i   lim i Bi f t  i 1 Equation (3) says that when the last term (limit term) equals zero, the amount that a country borrows (lends) in international market equals the present value of the future trade surpluses (deficits). If, for example, the current stock of foreign debt is bigger than the present value of future trade balances, then the country‘s debt is in a ―bubble‖ and thus the current account is not sustainable. In order to derive a testable model, Husted (1992) makes several assumptions following Hakkio and Rush (1991). Assuming that the world interest rate is stationary with unconditional mean r and making further manipulation equation (3) may be expressed as X t i  Z t i Bt fi  Xt    lim i  (1  r ) i 1 (1  r ) i 1 i 0  M t  rB f t 1 (4) where Zt  M t  (rt  r ) Bt 1 . Now, subtracting Xt and then multiplying both sides of the later equation by minus f 1, we get  CAt  X t  M t  rBt f1   i 0 Z t i  X t i Bt fi  lim i  (1  r ) i 1 (1  r ) i 1 (5) Assumed that X and Z are both I(1) processes, equation (5) becomes B f t i  t i   (1  r )i 1 X t    MM t  lim where MM t  M t  rt Bt 1 . f Assuming that the second term in (6) equals zero, then (6) can be written as a simple regression equation (7) X    bMM   t t t 136 (6) �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Under the null hypothesis that the economy is satisfying its intertemporal budget constraint, b should be equal to 1 (b=1) and  t sould be stationary. In other words, as shown by Hakkio and Rush, if X and MM are I(1), then under the null, they are cointegrated. In this study we follow Husted (1992) model. In the empirical analysis we estimated X t    bMM t   t co-integration regression. In this equation, X is exports of goods and services and MM is imports of goods and services plus net transfer payments and net interest payments. The empirical results may allow establishing several conclusions related to the sustainability of the current account: - if there is no co-integration the current account is not sustainable; - if there is co-integration with b = 1, the current account is sustainable, - if there is co-integration, with b < 1, economies exports growing lower than economy‘s imports, and the current account may not be sustainable. As Hakkio and Rush (1991) demonstrate in the context of government finance also if MM and X are non stationary variables in level, the condition 0 < b < 1 is a sufficient condition for the budget constraint to be obeyed. However, when X and MM are expressed as a percentage of GDP or in per capita terms, it is necessary to have b = 1. Methodology Panel Unit Root and Panel Cointegration In this paper, current account sustainability in the five countries is studied by testing the existence of cointegration between exports and imports plus net transfer payments and net interest payments. Co-integration analysis developed in the mid-80s introduced the idea that even if underlying time series are non-stationary, linear combinations of these series might be stationary. Therefore, before employing panel co-integration techniques, it is essential to verify that all variables are integrated of order one in levels. In recent years some tests for unit root within panels are developed in the literature. Levin and Lin (1992, 1993), Im, Pesaran and Shin (1997), Maddala and Wu (1999), Kao (1999) and Quah (1994) have developed panel unit root tests. In this study Im, Pesaran and Shin (hereafter IPS) tests are used. The IPS test is more important because it is appropriate for a heterogeneous regressive root under an alternative hypothesis. We briefly describe the IPS model: Suppose that there is a group of N series, Xit, which have the following time-series representation: wij X it   i   i X it 1    ij X it  j   it , i 1,...., N and t  1,....., T . (8) j 1 The IPS test examines the null hypothesis: H 0 : 1   2  ......   N  0, against H a :  i  0, for some i. The IPS statistic is defined as: z  N t  E (t )/ Var (t ) , (9) N where t  (1 / N ) t i . ti is the t statistics of ˆi  0 , E( t ) and Var( t ) are the mean and variance of t , i 1 respectively. In recent years some tests for unit root within panels are developed in the literature. Pedroni (1995, 1999, 2000), Phillips and Moon (1999), Kao (1999) and Kao and Chiang (2000) have developed panel cointegration test. This paper uses the panel cointegration test of Pedroni (1999) to research the relationship between X and MM. The equation for the panel cointegration tests for Pedroni (1999) is as follows: (10) X       MM   , i 1,...., N and t  1,....., T . it i t i it it This formulation allows the investigation of heterogeneous panels, in which heterogeneous slope coefficients (  i ), fixed effects (  i ) and individual specific deterministic trends (  i ) are permitted. This framework provides cointegration tests for both heterogeneous and homogenous panels with seven regressors based on seven residual- 137 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo based statistics. Pedroni proposes these residual based tests for the null of no cointegration. Rejection of the null hypothesis means that the variables under consideration are cointegrated. The between-group panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators To estimate the cointegration vector we will examine two panel cointegration estimators: the between group fully modified OLS (FMOLS) and dynamic OLS (DOLS). Pedroni (2000, 2001) suggested two methods to apply fully modified method to panel cointegration for FMOLS. One of them is the within-group (or pooled) panel FMOLS estimator and the between-group (group mean) FMOLS estimator. In this study between-group FMOLS estimator will be used. Between group FMOLS estimators for equation (10) can be written as: 1 T T  * 2   N ( MM  MM ) (11) i 1  GMF it   ( MM it  MM i ) X it  Tˆi  t 1   t 1  ˆ ˆ  * 21i ˆ 0   21i (ˆ  ˆ 0 ) . Between dimension MM it and ˆi ˆ 21i  where X it  ( X it  X i )  21i 22i 22i ˆ ˆ   ˆ * 1 N 22i * 1 estimator is ˆGMF  N 22i N  i 1 * CFM ,i where *  CFM ,i is conventional FMOLS estimator applied to ith country of the N panel. t-statistics are calculated as tˆ * N 0.5 t * GMF i 1 where CFM ,i 0.5 t ˆ * CFM , i  ( * CFM ,i  1 T 2   o ) 11 . i  ( MM it  MM it )  t 1   Next, we construct the group mean panel dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) estimator as: N  1  t 1 1   T T ~~  * ̂ DOLS  N 1   Z it Z it'   Z it X it  where Z it is a   t 1 (12)  2( K 1)1 vector of regressors Z it  MM it  MM it , MM it  K ,.., MM it  K and ~~ N * * X it  X it  X it . Between dimension DOLS estimator can be constructed as: ˆ DOLS  N 1   CD ,i where i 1  * CD,i is conventional DOLS estimator applied to i th country of the panel. The associated t-statistics can be T     o ) ˆ i2  ( MM it  MM it ) 2  constructed as: t ˆ *  N  t  * where t ˆ *  (  CD , i DOLS CD , i t 1 i 1   T  1 2 2 long-run variance of the residuals from the DOLS regression  i lim T  E T (it )  . t 1   Data and Empirical Results  0.5 N * CD,i 0.5 and the Data We use annual time series data, and the sample period is begin in 1981 and ends in 2008. The sample consists of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. All data are taken from the IMF‘s International Financial Statistics. Exports (X) include exports of goods and services, while our measure of imports (MM) includes imports of goods and services plus net transfer payments and net interest payments (see Husted, 1992). The consumer price index (CPI) is used as a proxy for the national price level. 138 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Empirical Results In the first step, IPS panel unit root tests are applied. The results of panel unit root tests are presented in Table 1 and reported intercept and intercept with a trend both in levels and in first differences. It can be inferred from the Table 1 that the unit root hypothesis cannot be rejected when the variables are taken in levels. However, when the first differences are used, the hypothesis of unit root non-stationary is rejected. These results enable to test the cointegration among variables in I(1) level. Level Variables X MM * z INT Individual intercept Individual trend and intercept Individual intercept Individual trend and intercept First Difference P** * z INT * P** z INT 2.30413 0.33663 0.9894 0.6318 -6.82184 0.0000 2.68661 -0.41857 0.9964 0.3378 -7.25144 0.0000 is the test statistic of Im et al. (1997) ** Probabilities are computed assuming asymptotic normality Table 1. Panel unit root test for X and MM, 1981-2008. Having established that all variables are integrated of the same order, we proceed with the panel cointegration tests, which allow us to test for long-run relationship. Of the seven tests, the panel v-statistic is a one-sided test where large positive values reject the null hypothesis of no cointegration whereas large negative values for the remaining test statistics reject the null hypothesis of no cointegration. Table 2 shows both the within and between dimension panel cointegration test statistics. With the exception of the group p-statistics, the other six test statistics reject the null hypothesis of no cointegration. Null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected at the 10% significance level for panel v-statistics, 5% significance level for panel p-statistics, panel PP-statistics, panel ADF-statistics, group PPstatistics and 1% significance level for group ADF statistics. Therefore X and MM series appear to be cointegrated at a reasonable significance level. Within dimension Test statistics Panel v-statistic 2.0133 ( 0.0526) Panel p-statistic -2.6650 (0.0114) Panel PP-statistic -2.6266 (0.0127) Panel ADF statistic -2.5619 (0.0150) Between dimension Test statistics Group p-statistic -1.5757 (0.1153) Group PP-statistic -2.5097 (0.0171) Group ADF statistic -2.8055 (0.0078) Note: the value in parentheses indicates probability values. Table 2: Panel cointegration tests, 1981-2008 Finally, we estimate the cointegrating vector using two methods: the group-mean FMOLS and DOLS estimators. We consider two cases: with and without common time dummies. Also respective t-statistics for Ho: βi=1 are provided. Table 3 shows the estimate of cointegrating vector by period, using the between-group panel cointegration technique. First, we look at the case of a without time dummy for each period. The group-mean FMOLS estimate of regression coefficient is 1.11 and the DOLS estimate is 1.08 for the whole period. The coefficient is not significantly equal to one for either method. When we consider two sub-periods (1981-1998 and 1999-2008), Table 3 also shows that the coefficient is not significantly equal to one. The group-mean FMOLS estimate of regression coefficient is 1.07 and the DOLS estimate is 1.02 for 1981-1998 and FMOLS estimate of regression coefficient is 0.97 and the DOLS estimate is 1.06 for 1999-2008. Period 1981-2008 1981-1998 1999-2008 FMOLS 1.11 (8.12)* 1.07 (6.47)* 0.97 (2.20)* Without Time Dummies Between DOLS 1.08 (23.10)* 1.02 (6.72)* 1.06 (58.18)* FMOLS 0.93 (-1.83)* 0.87 (-3.45)* 0.93 (-3.54)* With Time Dummies Between DOLS 0.74 (-2.41)* 0.83 (-4.20)* 0.91 (-8.37)* Note: the value in parentheses indicates t-statistics for Ho:βi=1. * indicate rejection of null hypothesis. Between reports Pedroni (1996) group-mean panel FMOLS and the group-mean panel DOLS introduced in this paper. Table 3: Panel FMOLS and DOLS test results 139 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo We also look at the case of a time dummy for each period. The group-mean FMOLS estimate of regression coefficient is 0.93 and the DOLS estimate is 0.74 for the whole period. When we consider two sub-periods we can see that the coefficient using FMOLS is 0.87 for the period 1981-1998, whereas it is 0.93 for 1999-2008. The DOLS estimate is 0.83 in the first sub-period and 1.06 in the second sub-period. The coefficient is not significantly equal to one for all period and either method. The presence of cointegration means that there are long run relationship between exports of goods and services and imports of goods and services plus net transfer payments plus net interest payments. The coefficient is not significantly equal to one but very close to one. These results show that the current account of these countries as a panel is sustainable in the long run. Conclusion There is a growing literature that examines the sustainability of current account. Unit root and cointegration tests have provided useful tools for the sustainability of current account. In the literature various type of unit root and cointegration test are used for individual country or panel country group. In this study, we use the panel data of export and import for five ASEAN countries using annual data from 1981 to 2008 and also two sub-groups (1981-1998 and 1998-2008). A relationship between export and import is investigated by employing Pedroni (1999) panel cointegration method. The empirical results of panel cointegration test show that export and import are co-integrated for whole period and two sub-periods. In addition we apply panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators. Panel FMOLS and DOLS test results show that the estimated cointegration factor, , is close to 1 but not significantly equal to 1. As a general conclusion the finding show that ASEAN countries are likely to be sustainable countries in terms of current account. References Ahmed, S., Rogers, J. H., (1995), Government Budget Deficits and Trade Deficits. Are Present Value Constraints Satisfied in Long term Data. Journal of Monetary Economics, 36(2), 351-374. 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Ho-Don Yan, (1999), Intertemporal Current Account Balance and the East Asian Currency Crises, International Advances in Economic Research, Vol. 5, No. 3, 277-288. Husted S. (1992), The Emerging U.S. Current Account Deficit in the 1980s: A Cointegration Analysis, The Review Of Economics&Statics, February, 159-166. Im, K. S., Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. (1997), Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogenous Panels. University of Cambridge, Department of Applied Economics. Kalyoncu, H. (2005), Sustainability of Current Account for Turkey: Intertemporal Solvency Approach, Prague Economic Papers, 14(1), 82-88. 140 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Kalyoncu, H. (2006), International Intertemporal Solvency In OECD Countries: Evidence from Panel Unit Root, Prague Economic Papers, 15(1), 44-49. Kao, C. (1999), Spurious Regression and Residual Based Tests for Cointegration in Panel Data. Working Paper, Center of Policy Research, Syracuse University, New York. 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(2006), Modelling the Long Run Sustainability of Turkish External Debt with Structural Changes, Economic Modelling, 23, 669-682. Pedroni, P., (1999). Critical values for cointegration tests in heterogeneous panels with multiple regressors. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 61, 653- 678. Pedroni, P., (2000). Fully Modified OLS for Heterogeneous Cointegrated Panels. Advances in Econometrics, 15, 93-130. Pedroni, P., (2001). Purchasing power parity tests in cointegrated panels. The Review of Economics and Statistics 83, 727- 731 Phillips, P.C.B., Moon, H., (1999). Linear regression limit theory for nonstationary panel data. Econometrica 67, 1057-1111. Quah, D. (1994), Exploiting Cross-Section Variation for Unit Root Inference in Dynamic Data. Economic Letters, 44, 9-19. Wickens M.R. and M. Uctum. (1993), The Sustainability of Current Account Deficits: A Test of the U.S. Intertemporal Budget Constraint, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 17, 423-441 Wu, J-L., Stilianos, F., Chen, S-L. (1996), Testing for the Sustainability of the Current Account Deficit in Two Industrial Countries. Economics Letters, 52(2), 193-198. Wu, J.-L., (2000), Mean reversion of the current account: evidence from the panel data unit-root test, Economics Letters, 66, 215– 222. Wu, J.-L., Chen, S. L., and Lee, H. Y. (2001), Are Current Account Deficits Sustainable? Evidence from Panel Cointegration, Economics Letters, 72, 219–224. 141 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 199 Title A name given to the resource Analyzing the Sustainability of Current Account in ASEAN Countries: Test of Intertemporal Borrowing Constraints Author Author KALYONCU, Hüseyin KAPLAN, Muhittin Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this paper is to investigate the sustainability of current account imbalances by using the data of five ASEAN countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand over the 1981-2008 periods. Sustainability of current account for ASEAN countries is analyzed under intertemporal borrowing constraint (IBC) approach by performing an empirical analysis of Pedroni (1999) panel cointegration between exports and imports plus net transfer payments plus net interest payments. The empirical results of panel cointegration test show that these variables are cointegrated for whole period and two sub-periods. To find regression coefficient we use panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators. It is found that the coefficient is not significantly equal to one but very close to one. The overall results provide evidence in favour of the sustainability of the current account for five ASEAN countries as a group. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/252225c345f542fb52d0e4b3a4bb26e9.pdf f23230e852f43d53687621b7b6622e7e PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Outside the Homeland of the Turks Economic Potential of The Diaspora Adem KALÇA Associate Professor, Karadeniz Technical University,Trabzon,TURKEY akalca@ktu.edu.tr Atakan DURMAZ Research Assistant, Bayburt University,Bayburt,TURKEY adurmaz@bayburt.edu.tr Abstract: Ethno-national diasporas occur from the homeland to one or a few countrıes that accept guests mandatory or voluntary migration. These type of groups stay in the country permanently. Diaspora is an ethnic unity that was created by people migrated by force or voluntarily from the same ethnic origin of individuals in one or more countries to protect their personal rights ts and to avoid losing their own identity. Diasporas, which were created for this purpose at first, have become effective even in the administration of the country where they exist, especially by gaining economic power. In the beginning of the purposes of the diasporas, it comes not to lose their own identity and to secure them to get a regular relationships with their home countries no matter where they live and no matter which country they belong to. The possibility of foreign investment presented with this bond is so important that it functions a lot in the development of the country. The possibility of foreign capital which is offered by diaspoara is an important action in the development of home countries. Countries have used the economic power of the diasporas with different instruments,and the most common instrument is the diaspora debenture. Dispoara bond is a debenture which is giyen to a country by a sub-dominant party or a private company to increase funding from the diaspora abroad. It is an important source for the developing countries that various diasporas of countries whose citizenship they accepted and their financial situations increases quickly. If the flow of forein currency claims to set diaspora income in a way of regular basis, the interests of the bond issues that from the hard money(currency) is a way to raise capital abroad. Up to this day, Israel and India have reached 35-40 billion dollars by bringing these bonds out. In this context, when the situation in Turkey is examined, especially Europe and European Union countries must be taken into consideration primarily. Today, in European Union countries, approximately 4.2 million Turkish citizens are living; it is nearly 5.7 million with the new countries participating in the European Union. Annual per capita GDP of this population is approximately 19.700 Euros. In addition, 80.7 billion Euros in 2006, Turkish people contributed EU GDP 80.7 billion euros. In European Union countries in 2006, there were 101,000 Turkish entrepreneurs with Turkish origins who had invested 10.9 billion euros; they had 43.9 billion euros giro and provided employment for 474,000 people. Taking this data and the coming footsteps of successful examples of Turkish Diaspora in Turkey into account, we can create a growing economy and political power to be able to make signifıcant contributions. The aim of the article which was prepared from the movement of the thesis is to show that one of the instruments which can be used in supplying the foreign capital is the power of diaspora. When the diasporas of Israel and India are taken into consideration, emphasizing especially on that economical diasporas have an important place is the demonstration of the power of Turks who act like a diaspora and live in Europe. Keywords: Diaspora, diaspora bond, foreign capital, nationalism Introduction At the present time when the wa11s collapsed, when boundaries gradually disappeared, when the protection with custom walls are replaced in free trade, and when the world became a global village step by step, the next one is mobilization of capital in the entegration process starting with the mobilization of goods and services and with the ongoing mobilization of labor. The governments and private sector members which are not satisfied with the markets in their own borders have turned their eyes to the world market. While exporting goods and services are the main goal of foreign trade, importing foreign capital was also added to this goal. However, nowadays when even human is having difficulties in trusting his closest ones, it is not that easy to import this foreign capital . In such a situation, one of the biggest alternative of the countries is the investors who live abroad and who are from the same race. The nationalist movements which was born in 1789 with the French Revolution is used for different purposes by various countries. The purpose of using this in 21st century, on the 292 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo other hand, is the same: to provide foreign capital in the development of the country. So how? Now, with this question, the concept of diaspora has appeared. Diaspora; Ancient Grek: διαζπορά – that means ―scattering, broadcasting, scattering particles (Bergsten, Choin, 2003). In the political literature: it is the name which is given to the spread of a folk or a nation from their homelands to other countries. In the present time when countries are running after foreign capital to finance their development and growth, countries with a high economic power of diaspora have kept one step ahead of other countries. The purpose of this article is to present the economic power of the Turkish diaspora in Europe and the contribution to Turkish economy by considreing the contribution of Israel and the Indian diaspora to these countries. The Concept of Diaspora Ethno-national diasporas occur as a result of mandatory or voluntary migration from homeland to one or a few countries which welcome guests. This type of groups stay in the country permanently. Over the years, scientists have tried to reduce that broad concept to a more special definition. Social scientists who study on diaspora today use the concept of diaspora as synonymous of ―Overseas‖, ―ethnic‖, ―exile,‖ ―Minority,‖ ―refugee,‘ ―immigrant,‖ expatriate ― etc (Ketkar, Ratha, 2007). In 21st century, like many other concepts, the concept of diaspora has been so closely linked with economy that it cannot be considered as just politically. In a strong position in America, the Jewish Diaspora has a major impact on the U.S. government undoubtedly because of its largest share in the American economy. The countries in homeland are now trying to enter into a closer relationship with diaspora. Especially in the 21st Century Economies when foreign investment has come to a very important position, investments provided from diaspora have come into prominence. As the forerunners, Israel and Indian did, many countries are now trying to provide the inflow of capital from diasporas by using different methods. Especially India and Israel have increased their growing trend with this capital they provided. In the following section, the methods Israel and India have used to support the inflow of capital and their success will be reviewed. Diaspora Bonds, Israel and India Case Diaspora bond is a debenture which is given to a country by a sub-dominant party or a private company to increase funding from the diaspora abroad (Ketkar and Ratha, 2007). Various diasporas who accepted the citizenship of the countries where they live and the rapid rise of their economic situation are both important financial resources and a kind of honor for developing countries. If foreign exchange/currency demand claims on a regular basis diaspora income, diaspora is a way of securing foreign capital in your country and to export the interests of the bond thanks to hard currency. Diaspora bonds are not still widely used as an instrument of financial development. As mentioned above, Israel, as of 1951, and India, as of 1991, have noted to increase strong currency finance from its own diaspora. Bonds which were issued by Development Corporation for Israel (DCI) formalized and Israel has secured foreign currency resources in a total of more than 25 billion dollars till today. The amount of bonds which issued by Government-Owned State Bank of India (SBI) is today over 11 billion dollars. Diaspora bonds are different from foreign currency deposits (FCDs) which many developing countries uses to ensure the flow of currencies. Diasaora bonds are long-term bond guarantees (valuable paper) that are typically paid back only over due date. However, FCDs, vice versa, can be withdrawn back at any time. Certainly, this is valid for demand and saving deposits. Moreover, deposits can be withdrawn at any time by giving up a portion of accrued interest. FCD is also tend to be more volatile (short term), so banks are required to keep reserve in exchange for FCD commitments (debts). Thus, their likelihood of a fund investment (into investment) is reduced. In contrast, diaspora bonds are long-term foreign financing sources. Therefore, income of these bonds can be used to finance the investment (Ketkar and Ratha, 2007). Buying the bonds issued by Development Corporation for Israel (DCI), the Jewish diaspora in United States contributed to the economic development of Israel. DCI was established in 1951 with a public aim to increase foreign currency sources of Israel through exportation of the bonds which cannot be endorsed. Israel sees these financial intermediaries as an important instrument to continue the ties with the Jewish diaspora as well as a constant foreign source in the cross sea countries. Diaspora can be also evaluated as a source of credit especially when a country experiences debt distress from other extemal sources. We see time and amount flexibility in bonds issued by DCI. DCI bonds are repaid at date of maturity and any kind of demand is not seen before the date of maturity. Moreover, 200 million dollar of the expired bonds has not been demanded. 293 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In 1951, the Israeli Knesset passed a law authorizing the floatation of the country‘s first diaspora bond issue which is also known as the Israel's Independent Export Issue. Since the beginning of the program, the export volume of these bonds has reached to 25 billion dollars. In May 1951, David Ben-Gurion, the first president of Israel, officially launched the the sales of diaspora bonds of Israel in with a rally New York, USA and then to support the sales of the diaspora bonds, he traveled to many countries especially where Jewish Diaspora exists. This effort was so successful that Israel raised $52.6 million in its bond sales. In September 2005, DCI bonds, composed roughly 32% of the Israel's external debt of $ 31.4 billion (Romano 1998). 1800 $ million 1.569 1400 962 1.000 1.145 924 872 785 1998 1999 2000 1000 1.310 600 0 1996 1997 2001 2002 2003 (Development Finance via Diaspora Bond) Table 1: Israel‘s Total Diaspora Bond In the early 1970s, all DCI bonds were the 10-15 year term fixed rate bonds. In the mid-1970s, DCI aimed to introduce the exports of diaspora bonds to small banks and financial companies in the United States by issuing 10, 7 and 5 year notes in denominations of $150,000, $250,000 and $1,000,000 at prime-based rates. In the following years, DCI changed its policy and chose to target Jewish Communities again rather than banks or companies. DCI sold its floating interest rates of bonds between 1980 and 1999. The minimum amount on floating rate bonds was set at $25,000 in l980 and reduced to $5,000 in December 1986. The maturity terms on these bonds were set at 10 to 12 years and the interest rate was calculated on the basis of the prime rate. Of the total DCI bond sales of $1.6 billion in 2003, fixed rate bonds comprised 89.5 percent, floating rate bonds 2.9 percent and notes 7.6 percent (Ketkar and Ratha, 2006). Instead of commercial/investment banks or brokers in the marketing of Israeli diaspora bonds, these bonds directly were sold by DCI to New York Bank which serves a fiscal agent role. Today, there are about 200 DCI employees who are in a close relationship with Jewish communities in different regions of the United State and thus trying to understand the vision and expectation of the investors. Their main aim is to contact with the Jewish communities by regulating their investment activities and to sell the bonds. (Ei Qorchi 2005). To get a long-term debt assurance, India run debt from its non-residence of diaspora of India as a result of Development Bonds (IDBs)($1.6 billion dollar) following the 1991 balance of payments crisis,Resurgent India Bonds (4.2 billion dollar) with the burden of the sanctions in 1998 Nuclear explosion and India Millennium Deposits (IMDs) in 2000 ($5.5 billion).State Bank of India_(SBI) played a role as a mediator. During the years when the country experienced a balance of payment crisis, IDBs chose to use NRS, non-resident of India, as a means of fund rather than the currency of foreign investors. IDB, RIBs and IMDs supplied investors a higher return than they would have received from similar financial instruments in their country of residence. Furthermore, India benefited as well, because the diaspora investors don't not seek a return as high as they normally would have demanded from markets. When this may have reflected different assessments of default probabilities, a more plausib1e explanation resides in investors of Indian origin viewing the risk of default with much less trepidation(Murray 2006). 294 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Bond Type Amount Year Maturity Minimum India Development Bond USD GBP $1.6 bn 1991 5 years Not available Resurgent India Bond USD GBP DM $4.2 bn India Millennium Deposits USD GBP EUR $5.5 bn Coupon 9.50% 13.25% 1998 2000 5 years 2,000* 1,000** 3,000* 7.75% 8.00% 8.25% 2,000* 2,000* 2,000* 8.50% 7.85% 6.85% 5 years (Development Finance via Diaspora Bond) Table 2. Diaspora bonds issued by India The IDBs, RIBs and IMDs alI had fıve-year bullet maturity. The issues were done in multiple currencies such as US dollar, British pound, Deutsche Mark/Euro. In contrast to Jewish diaspora, Indian diaspora did not provided any patriotic discount on RIBs, except a small discount on IMDs. When‘RIBs were sold in August 1998 to yield 7.75 percent on U.S. dollar-denominated bonds, the yield on BB-rated U.S. corporate bonds was 7.2 percent. There was thus no discount on the RIBs. As for the IMDs, the coupon was 8.5 percent while the yield on the comparably rated U.S. corporate bonds was 8.9 percent for a 40 basis points discount. in any case, Indian diaspora bonds provided much smaller discounts in comparison to Ġsrael‘s DCI bonds (Zakaria, 2006). India Israel Annual issuance since 1951 Opportunistic issuance in 1991, 1998 and 2000 Development oriented borrowings Balance of payments support Large though declining patriotic discount Small patriotic discount, if any Fixed, floating rate bonds and notes Fixed rate bonds Maturities from 1 to 20 years with bullet SBI distribution in conjunction with int'l repayment banks Targeted towards but not limited to Limited to diaspora diaspora SEC registered No SEC registration Non-negotiable Non-negotiable (Development Finance via Diaspora Bond) Table 3. Comparison of diaspora bonds issued by Israel and India 295 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Structure of the Turkish Diaspora In fact, it is not possible to say that Turkey has the official definition of diaspora. However, by taking this definition from a broad angle, it is possible put Turkish people living outside of Turkey into this diaspora. Most of the Turks living abroad accepted the citizenship of the country they live, gathered under the umbrella of various associations and institutions; however, they could not transform their associations into to a economic diaspora which will be in cooperation with homeland. The capital flow which started the international workers‘ has emerged as a result of the labor migration flow which was from Turkey to Western Europe in 1961 and it has importantly contributed to economy of Turkey for many years. The economic, demographic and socio-economic conditions of Western Europe Countries during the previous years has a great affect on the decision of Turks who went to Europe from Turkey to find a job (Artukoğlu,2005). As a capital flow, the currency which had been sent by the workers abroad, of course,cannot be ignored; however, There are lots of people, whose number is quite enormous, live abroad especially in European Union Countries and many of them have the citizenship of the country where they live and occupy themselves with commerce. When the savings of those Turkish entrepreneurs is thought, the first question must be about ―how to take this savings into the homeland.‖ The method which first comes to mind should be about power of a diaspora which will create a closely related economy with Turkey that is the homeland. With the aim of indicating the importance of this topic, the structure of Turkish population, or the economic and social conditions of them living in Europe , will be tried to unfurl in the digital data. Turkish Population in EU Countries According to the research made by Turkey Research Center, by the end of 2006, numbers of the Turkish immigrants living in European Union countries has reached 4.2 million. This number reach 5.7 million when the number of 150.000 Western Thrace Turkish of Greece citizenship, minorities living in Romania and Bulgaria which are included EU from the date of January, 1 2007 is added. This number is more than 8 members of EU which has totally 27 members. Turkish origin immigrants are the largest national immigrant group in EU. Even if it is almost impossible to determine the total immigrant population living in the EU, the various studies show that there are about 25 million foreigners living in the EU. When the number of people who are immigrant origins are added into this number, it reaches over 40 million. Another feature of the Turkish immigrants in contrast to other immigrant populations is that they are being intensified in almost all EU countries. Furthermore, 42.1% of that 4.2 million Turks living within the borders of the EU has the citizenship of the countries where they live. Datas Turkish Origin Population(1000) Total Population Turkish Citizen Turkey-based European Turks 130 Belgium 56 Denmark 2.710 Germany 380 France 365 Netherlands 233 Austria 63 Sweden 150 United Kingdom 130 Other 19 EU Countris Total(1) 4.217 Minority Turks 150 Greek 750 Bulgaria 70 Romania Total(2) 970 EU-27 Total(1+2) 5.187 (Turkey Research Center ) Citizenship host country's citizens Naturalization Rate 40 29 1.760 200 99 110 12 70 120 2.440 90 27 950 180 266 123 51 80 10 1.777 69,2 48,2 35,1 47,4 72,8 52,8 80,9 62,5 7,7 42,1 2.440 150 750 70 970 2.747 53,0 Table 4: The Turkish population in EU countries(2006) 296 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Economic Dimensions of Turkish households in EU countries According to the research carried by Turkey Research Center, by the end of 2006, average size Turkish households was calculated as 4 people, and the income of household was also calculated as 2.130 EURO. A big part of this income (Euro 1800) is spent for the consumption and livelihood of a family and the savings are approximately 330 euros for each person. The annual net income of all Turkish households in EU countries is 26.9 billion euros. 4.2 billion euros of this annual is being saved. The labor migration, which was in the 1960s, became an important way of saving and this saving was assessed in the homeland. European Turks can adopt themselves into the society they are living with their both consumption and saving attitudes. Data Population The total number of Turkish citizens Citizens of EU Countries EU'sTotalPopulati on of Turkish Origin Household Total households Turkish origin Average monthly net household income(Euro) The average net annual household income(Euro) The total annual net household income ( Billion Euro) Average annual net consumption expenditure (Billion Euro) Average annual net savings 2000 2002 2004 2006 2.670.00 0 790.000 3.460.00 0 2.500.00 0 1.270.00 0 3.770.00 0 2.455.00 0 1.448.00 0 3.903.00 0 2.440.00 0 1.777.00 0 4.217.00 0 865.000 944.000 976.000 2.170 2.080 2.100 1.054.00 0 2.130 26.040 24.960 25.200 25.560 22,5 23,6 24,6 26,9 18,5 19,0 19,9 22,7 4,0 4,6 4,7 4,2 (Turkey Research Center) Table 5:Turkish citizens and Turkish origin of households Economic power in the EU Economic Contribution of Turks working in Europe Countries A population of approximately 1.372 million out of 42 million living in Europe constitutes working population. The unemployment rate among Turks is over unemployment rate in the country they are 1eaving. The reason of this is that the average age of Turkish population is smaller and the rate of working women is lower than the total population in EU countries. In European Union countries, the 1372 million working Turks who makes up the 0.69 of the total working population have contributed approximately 80.7 billion Euros to the EU‘s current prices Gross Domestic Product(GDP)in the year 2006 (TAM,2006). 297 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Category Total Datas The data for Turks/contribution Total Population EU-25(1000) 463.523,4 4.217,0 Total Population EU-15(1000) 389.432,9 4.100,0 Working population EU25(1000) Freelance Staff EU-25(1000) 197.476,8 1.372,0 25.500,0 101 Rate of Freelance Staff EU25(%) GDP EU-15(Billion Euro) GDP EU-25( Billion Euro) 12,9 7,4 10.769,8 11.373,6 80,7 80,7 (Turkey Research Center) Table 6: The total population of working in the EU and the Turkish population‘s income data In 2006, the 80.7 million Euros contribution of 4.1 million Turks living in former UE countries with 15 members to AB GSYĠH exceeds the contribution of 8 counties out of 25 EU members to GSYĠH. Country Belgium Denmark Total Euro) 313,0 221,4 GDP (Billion Contribution of the Turks (Billion Euro) 2,2 1,6 Distribution( %) Germany 2.307,9 53,4 66,2 France 1.781,1 7,5 9,3 Netherlands 528,0 8,1 10,0 Austria 256,4 4,6 5,7 Sweden 305,2 1,0 1,2 United Kingdom 1.892,7 1,8 2,2 Other EU Countries 3.767,9 0,5 0,6 GDP EU-15 10.769,8 80,7 100 EU-25 11.373,6 80,7 100 2,7 2,0 (Turkey Research Center) Table 7: Turks working in the EU Contribution to Gross Domestic Product( 2006/current prices) Turkish population working in former 1 5-member European Union countries had 0.75 percent share from EGDP in the year 2006. European Turks rate in the population ratio remains at the level of 1 percent. The main reason why their unemployment is twice bigger than the unemployment of the country they are living in is that the economic contribution of the Turks is lower in population portion. When compared with 25 EU Countries, European Turks leave 12 EU member countries behind in the GDP. Country EU-15(Million Euro) EU-25(Million Euro) EU-15( Million Population) EU-25( Million Population) EU-15 per capital GDP(Euro) EU-25 per capital GDP(Euro) Total 19.769,8 11.373,6 389,4 463,5 27.600 24.500 Turks 80,7 80,7 4.1 4.1 19.700 19.700 (Turkey Research Center) Table 8:Turks living in EU and EU countries in per capita Gross Domestic Product 298 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When compared with per capita GDP figures, the annual 19,700 Euro and the Turkish workers reach 71 percent of overall 15 EU members (27 600 Euros). Economic Power of the Turkish Eııtrepreneurs in the EU Countries Among 1.372 million Turks working in EU countries, the proportion of entrepreneurs remains at 7.4 percent in 2006. The proportion of entrepreneurs in the European Union (excluding agriculture) is 13.1 percent (Turkey Research Center) Chart 1: Development of Turkish entrepreneurs in the EU countries (1996-2006) Despite the big difference, the increase of the number of entrepreneurs among Turks is stand-out for our future appraisal. These figures show a change from unemployment to self-entrepreneurship. Data Population The total number of Turkish citizens Citizens of EU Countries 2000 2002 2004 2006 2.670.000 2.500.000 2.455.000 2.440.000 790.000 1.270.000 1.448.000 1.777.000 EU'sTotalPopulation of Turkish Origin Household Total households Turkish origin Average monthly net household income(Euro) The average net annual household income(Euro) The total annual net household income ( Billion Euro) Average annual net consumption expenditure (Billion Euro) Average annual net savings 3.460.000 3.770.000 3.903.000 4.217.000 865.000 944.000 976.000 1.054.000 2.170 2.080 2.100 2.130 26.040 24.960 25.200 25.560 22,5 23,6 24,6 26,9 18,5 19,0 19,9 22,7 4,0 4,6 4,7 4,2 (Turkey Research Center) Table 9: Turkish entrepreneurs in the European Union's Economic Power(1996-2006) According to the survey, results made by Turkey Research Center: While Turkish entrepreneurs in the EU in 1996 are 56.500, in 2006 it has reached 101.000. Periods between 1996 and 2006, the total annual of free Turkish entrepreneurs came to 43.9 billion Euros from 21.8 billion Euros. The same growth can be seen in the volume of investment and employment figure. Growth rates in investment increased from 5.6 billion Euros to 10.9 billion Euros during the same period. 299 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The growth rate of the volume of the investment is 94.6 percent. In the same period, total employment number increased to 474.000 from 232.000 Datas Sum Average investment per business(Euro) Total Investment(Billion Euro) Average turnover per business(Euro) Total annual turnover(Billion Euro) The average number of employees per business the total number of employees 1996 56.500 99.500 1998 67.400 104.800 2000 80.600 110.400 2002 82.300 112.000 2004 91.200 110.200 2006 101.000 108.000 5,6 7,0 8,9 9,2 10,1 10,9 386.500 425.400 432.000 425.000 417.600 435.000 21,8 28,7 34,8 35,0 38,1 43,9 4,1 4,8 5,2 5,0 4,9 4,7 232.000 323.000 419.000 411.000 446.900 474.000 (Turkey Research Center) Table 9: Turkish entrepreneurs in the European Union's Economic Power(1996-2006) According to estimates of the same center by taking into consideration of the historical data, in 2015, the population of Turkish origin living in the EU-15 countries is expected to reach 5 million. Turks living in Romania, Bulgaria and Greece are not included in this study. The estimations done with the help of existing data claims that the number of Turkish entrepneurs will double in 2015. ıf it is thought that there are 91,200 Turkish entrepreneurs in Europe, it is estimated that the number of Turkish entrepreneurs will be totally 160,000 in Europe in 2015. The estimations show that today 447.000 people are employed in the workplace of 91.200 Turkish entrepreneurs in EU-15 countries and that this number will be probably 960,000 in 2015. Datas Germany EU Sum 120.000 160.000 Total Investment(billion Euro) 15.3 20.5 Total annual turnover(billion Euro) 66.5 87.0 Total number of employees 720.000 960.000 (Turkey Research Center) Table 10: In 2015 the Turkish entrepreneurs in Germany and EU Economic Power The Result In the development of the country, it is understood that resting only the internal resources and making the foreign trade only with export of goods are not suflicient. Countries depends on foreign capital more than ever while improving their development. Even the world‘s most powerful economies cannot help being caught up with the magic of foreign capital. Turkey needs foreign capital in order to increase a position to cornpete with the strong economies. However, the countries with very delicate balance like Turkey and with high rates of risk have to be much more careful to obtain these investments which are extremely scary. In such a situation, having a world wide population which cannot be underestimated, Turkey‘s heading towards this source seems very reasonable. The interest payments which takes almost 60% of the budget of Turkey are the result of the debt to payments with high interest rate is known by everyone. A diaspora which will be created by Turks living abroad will be able both to help in economical development of Turkey by moderating this heavy burden and to support from inside during the EU process. It is tried to be explained how this unity can be established and how to take economical support from the examples of Israel and India in this article. When the economic data in Europe is examined, it can be seen the investment potential of Turkish diaspora is aproximately 40 billion TL. When it is thought that Turkey‘s budget 300 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo deficit is 52 billion TL and if this investment potantial is transferred into Turkey, it is obvious how much it will contribute to the national economy. But the thing that should not be forgotten is that such a process must be established not by the private sector, but by the government‘s plan and its the active role. Even this process is left to private companies, every stage of government formation should be monitored closely and be interfered when necessary. This will both increase the confidence of citizens and prevent the repetition of frauds carried out in account of personal interests in the past. References Chander, Anupam. 2005. ―Diaspora Bonds and US Securities Regulation: An Jnterview‖, Business Law Review, University of California, Davis, School of Law, May 1, 2005. Chander, Anupam. 2001. ―Diaspora Bonds,‖ 76 New York University Law Review 1005, October. C. Fred Bergsten and Inbom Choi,‖The Korean Diaspora in The World Economy‖,Washington,D.C,January 2003 El Qorchi, Mohammed. 1005. ―lslamic Finance gears Up,‖ Finance c Development, Volume 42, Number 4, international Monetary Fund, December. Fred W. Riggs,‖Diasporas and Ethnic Nations causes and consequences of Giobalization‖, www2.hawaii.edulftedr/diaglo.htm, 15 Nisan 2001 Gallya Lahav and Asher Arian,‖Jsraelias in ajewish Diaspora: The Multiple Dilemmas of a Giobalized Group‖, www2.hawaii.edulfredr/lahav.htm, 19 Nisan 2001 Oğuzhan Sokmen Artukoğlu, YurtdıĢı ĠĢçi Tasarruflarının Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası, Banka Sistemi Ve Türkiye Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri, Uzmanlık Yeterlilik Tezi, Ankara, 2005 Kasım Rehavi, Yehiel and Asher Weingarten. 2004. ―Fifty Years of External Finance via State of lsrael Non-negotiable Bonds,‖ Foreign Exchange Activity Department, Assets and Liabilities Unit, Bank of Israel, September 6. Romano Roberta. 1998. ―Empowering investors: A Market Approach to Securities regulation,‖ 107 Yale Law Journal 2359, 2424. Suhas L. Ketkar And Dilip Ratha, Development Finance Via Diaspora Bonds Track Record And Potential, Paper Presented At The Migration And Development Conference At The World Bank, Washington DC. May 23, 2007. Gabi SHEFFER, ―Middle Eastern Diasporas: Introduction and Readings‖,wwwc.cc.columbia.edulsec/dlc/ciao/olj/merialmeria797sheffer.htm, 17 Nisan 2001 Türkiye AraĢtırmaları Merkezi Vakfı, Hollanda ve Avrupa Birliği‘ndeki Türk Nüfusu, Hane verilen ve giriĢimcilerin ekonomik gücü, Nisan 2007, Essen World Bank. 2005. Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic Impiications of Remittances and Migration, Washington, D.C. http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaspora www2.hawaii.edulgredr/diacon.htm Zakaria, Fareed. 2006. ―How Long Wiil America Lead the World,‖ Newsweek, June 12. 301 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 183 Title A name given to the resource Outside the Homeland of the Turks Economic Potential of The Diaspora Author Author KALÇA, Adem DURMAZ, Atakan Abstract A summary of the resource. Ethno-national diasporas occur from the homeland to one or a few countrıes that accept guests mandatory or voluntary migration. These type of groups stay in the country permanently. Diaspora is an ethnic unity that was created by people migrated by force or voluntarily from the same ethnic origin of individuals in one or more countries to protect their personal rights ts and to avoid losing their own identity. Diasporas, which were created for this purpose at first, have become effective even in the administration of the country where they exist, especially by gaining economic power. In the beginning of the purposes of the diasporas, it comes not to lose their own identity and to secure them to get a regular relationships with their home countries no matter where they live and no matter which country they belong to. The possibility of foreign investment presented with this bond is so important that it functions a lot in the development of the country. The possibility of foreign capital which is offered by diaspoara is an important action in the development of home countries. Countries have used the economic power of the diasporas with different instruments,and the most common instrument is the diaspora debenture. Dispoara bond is a debenture which is giyen to a country by a sub-dominant party or a private company to increase funding from the diaspora abroad. It is an important source for the developing countries that various diasporas of countries whose citizenship they accepted and their financial situations increases quickly. If the flow of forein currency claims to set diaspora income in a way of regular basis, the interests of the bond issues that from the hard money(currency) is a way to raise capital abroad. Up to this day, Israel and India have reached 35-40 billion dollars by bringing these bonds out. In this context, when the situation in Turkey is examined, especially Europe and European Union countries must be taken into consideration primarily. Today, in European Union countries, approximately 4.2 million Turkish citizens are living; it is nearly 5.7 million with the new countries participating in the European Union. Annual per capita GDP of this population is approximately 19.700 Euros. In addition, 80.7 billion Euros in 2006, Turkish people contributed EU GDP 80.7 billion euros. In European Union countries in 2006, there were 101,000 Turkish entrepreneurs with Turkish origins who had invested 10.9 billion euros; they had 43.9 billion euros giro and provided employment for 474,000 people. Taking this data and the coming footsteps of successful examples of Turkish Diaspora in Turkey into account, we can create a growing economy and political power to be able to make signifıcant contributions. The aim of the article which was prepared from the movement of the thesis is to show that one of the instruments which can be used in supplying the foreign capital is the power of diaspora. When the diasporas of Israel and India are taken into consideration, emphasizing especially on that economical diasporas have an important place is the demonstration of the power of Turks who act like a diaspora and live in Europe. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e21fc09b718fa05b0d6463c492372a94.pdf 280a7953b7e1d66d8b87a96d0d7bd095 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Role of Energy Economics in Sustainable Development Tuğrul KANDEMĠR Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey kandemir@aku.edu.tr Mehmet Emre GÖRGÜLÜ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey egorgulu@aku.edu.tr Abstract: For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. Sustainable development on the other hand - most broadly - implies the effective use of resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Therefore, this paper promotes the effective use of energy resources for a growing country from both perspectives of energy economics and sustainable development. Keywords: Energy Economics, Sustainable Development, Effective use of Energy Resources. Energy Economics For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. In this direction, most broadly, energy economics is the field that deals with efficient usage of the energy resources. As Sweeney states (2001, pp. 3-4), according to the energy economics standpoint, energy is neither created nor destroyed (except through nuclear reactions) but energy can be transformed among its various forms. Moreover, energy comes from the nature and ultimately is released back into the nature. Therefore, in Sweeney‘s own words (Sweeney, 2001, pp. 4-5) ―energy economics is the field of human activities using energy resources from naturally available forms, through often complex conversion processes, to forms providing energy services‖. Fossil fuels occupy a remarkable place in the energy economics field. Prior to the 1970s, particularly the oil market worked unilaterally to the benefit of some major Northern oil companies. Seven large oil companies known as the ―Seven Sisters‖ dominated the world oil market. The oil-producing countries, especially those in the Middle East, should have been the rightful owners of their oil resources, but instead they found themselves almost entirely dependent upon the ―Seven Sisters‖ for the revenues from their oil resources. This dependency stemmed from the fact that none of those oil-producing countries had the necessary skills, technology or marketing abilities to turn their resources into cash (Lairson and Skidmore, 1993; Van Suntum, 2005). In the 1970s, however, the ownership rights of oil began to relay. Political situation in oil-producing areas of the world gave rise to a boost of economic power of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). In 1973, as a response to US and other Western support to Israel in Yom Kippur War against Egypt, the Arab members of OPEC cut oil production in remarkable portions and announced an embargo on oil deliveries to those countries. As a result of those actions, in a market with tight supply conditions namely tight worldwide oil production capacity, it was inevitable to face with sharp increases in the world price of oil. This was a major 285 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo indication of relaying ownership rights of oil in favor of oil-producing countries (Lairson and Skidmore, 1993; Van Suntum, 2005). It was 1973 Oil Crisis that marked a milestone in the pages of the history. It was that date the economic system as we know today has been founded. The 1973 crisis was a major cause of the end of the previous economic system of Bretton Woods. It changed the level of world price of oil and the prices remained in high levels well after the crisis. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources and therefore, energy economics has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. After this first crisis, particularly US had realized how dependent she was to the imported oil. Then US decided to carry out policies to lessen the effects of this dependency (Sweeney, 2001). Accordingly US approached to Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as a new strategic partner. The importance of this act solely lies in the fact that Saudi Arabia is one of the co-founders of OPEC and is the largest oil exporter. This partnership with Saudi Arabia led US to secure its oil importing future free from any other embargos - at least not from Saudi Arabia, given that Saudi oil reserves would have met US oil demands at that time. These developments after the first oil crisis are very crucial to understand the role the energy economics played in shaping the new world order. Today, energy economics is somehow underlies nearly every international political issue. Even though those issues would seem to be political at the first glance, the energy needs are the motivating factor for almost all of them. The First Iraq War (The Gulf War) and the ensuing Iraq invasion by US and the dangerous political game that US plays with Iran nowadays are all point out the fact that depicted above. Even though the fight for energy resources left its mark on the last century, it has been sharply intensified in the latest decades. As shown in Figure 1 below world total energy consumption has continued to rise in the last three decades. Moreover fossil fuels‘ share in world total energy consumption remains at top for the same period and gives us the strong indication that they will remain as the primary energy resource for the next century. If world‘s energy demand will continue to rise as it did in the last century - last three decades in particular - then this is going to be a clear indication of increasing importance of energy economics field. Thus, Figure 1 particularly suggests that energy economics gains importance within last three decades. Figure 1 - World Energy Consumption Between 1980-2006 500 Petroleum Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu) 450 400 Natural Gas 350 Coal 300 250 Hydro 200 Nuclear 150 100 Geothermal, Solar, Wind, Wood and Waste 50 20 06 20 04 20 02 20 00 19 98 19 96 19 94 19 92 19 90 19 88 19 86 19 84 Total Energy 19 82 19 80 0 Source: EIA 2008, International Energy Annual 2006 In addition, energy economics is also related with the levels of development of the countries. As the level of development of a country increases, her energy need will also increase accordingly. Figure 2 below shows world energy consumption by regions. We can observe from the figure that in relatively more developed regions such as North America, Europe, Asia and Oceania the energy demand is far more beyond than the need of relatively less developed - or developing – regions such as Africa or the Middle East. 286 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 2 - World Energy Consumption by Regions Between 1980-2006 180 North America Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu) 160 Central and South America 140 120 Europe 100 80 Eurasia (Eastern Europe & Former Soviet Union) 60 Middle East 40 Africa 20 Asia & Oceania 20 06 20 04 20 02 20 00 19 98 19 96 19 94 19 92 19 90 19 88 19 86 19 84 19 82 19 80 0 Source: EIA 2008, International Energy Annual 2006 Therefore, the effective use of energy economics whets developed countries‘ appetite on one hand, and on the other hand, is of vital importance for developing countries in the long road of development. The new technologies that developed for seeking new fossil fuel reserves, efforts to make existing resources more efficient and investments in alternative energy resources are all indicators that shows us how dynamic the energy economics field is. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Sustainable Development Perspective United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development in their famous Brundtland Report (1987, p. 43) defines sustainable development as follows: ―Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖. In line with this definition sustainable development implies the effective use of finite resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. Contrary to general conception, major part of the energy economics field particularly concerned with fossil fuels or nuclear energy, when proposes procedures to improve the efficiency of their usage in a cleaner and safer way, can make a remarkable contribution to sustainable development field. As the countries continue to develop, their energy needs tend to increase directly proportional to their level of development and to their population. World‘s total energy need is depicted below in Figure 3. According to International Energy Outlook 2009 projections (EIA, 2009), world‘s energy demand will increase substantially in the near future. However, as our primary energy resources are limited, how we will meet these energy needs is a question of effective usage of energy economics in a sustainable development perspective. 287 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 3 - World Total Energy Consumption Realized (1980-2006) & Projections (2007-2030) Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu) 800 700 678 637 600 596 552 508 500 472 400 398 348 300 283 366 308 200 100 0 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2006 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 World Total Source: EIA 2009, International Energy Outlook 2009 At this point, with the help of Table 1 and Table 2 below, we can have an idea about the remaining lifetime of our primary fossil fuels, oil and natural gas respectively. If we keep our present levels of oil production also in the future, then we can observe from Table 1 that on average remaining oil reserve lifetime will be around 58 years. Table 1: World's Top 15 Oil Reserves Countries Oil - Proved reserves Oil Production Oil Production Reserve Life in bbl (2009 est.) bbl/day (2008 est.) bbl annual Years* Saudi Arabia Canada Iran Iraq Kuwait Venezuela United Arab Emirates Russia Libya Nigeria Kazakhstan United States China Qatar Brazil Total 266,700,000,000 178,100,000,000 137,600,000,000 115,000,000,000 101,500,000,000 99,380,000,000 97,800,000,000 79,000,000,000 43,660,000,000 36,220,000,000 30,000,000,000 21,320,000,000 15,550,000,000 15,210,000,000 12,620,000,000 1,249,660,000,000 10,780,000 3,350,000 3,707,000 2,420,000 2,274,000 2,643,000 3,046,000 9,810,000 1,875,000 2,169,000 1,528,000 8,514,000 3,795,000 797,000 2,422,000 59,130,000 3,934,700,000 1,222,750,000 1,353,055,000 883,300,000 830,010,000 964,695,000 1,111,790,000 3,580,650,000 684,375,000 791,685,000 557,720,000 3,107,610,000 1,385,175,000 290,905,000 884,030,000 21,582,450,000 68 146 102 130 122 103 88 22 64 46 54 7 11 52 14 58 * Proved Reserves / Annual Production ratio gives the estimated remaining reserve lifetime, given that production remains constant. Source: All values have been taken from CIA, the World Factbook (2010). With same conditions in effect 62 years will be the approximate reserve lifetime for natural gas as shown in Table 2. Thus, keeping present levels of energy production from limited resources becomes more difficult each day. Consequently, more efficient, alternative solutions are urgently needed in the field of energy economics. 288 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 2: World's Top 20 Natural Gas Reserves Countries Natural Gas - Proved Reserves Natural Gas Production Reserve cubic meters (2009 est.) cubic meters (2008 est.) Years* Russia Iran Qatar Turkmenistan Saudi Arabia United States United Arab Emirates Nigeria Venezuela Algeria EU Iraq Indonesia China Kazakhstan Malaysia Norway Egypt Uzbekistan Canada Total 43,300,000,000,000 29,610,000,000,000 25,260,000,000,000 7,940,000,000,000 7,319,000,000,000 6,731,000,000,000 6,071,000,000,000 5,215,000,000,000 4,840,000,000,000 4,502,000,000,000 3,605,000,000,000 3,170,000,000,000 3,001,000,000,000 2,460,000,000,000 2,407,000,000,000 2,350,000,000,000 2,313,000,000,000 2,190,000,000,000 1,841,000,000,000 1,640,000,000,000 165,765,000,000,000 662,200,000,000 116,300,000,000 76,980,000,000 34,000,000,000 80,440,000,000 582,200,000,000 50,240,000,000 32,820,000,000 24,010,000,000 86,500,000,000 286,590,000,000 1,880,000,000 70,000,000,000 76,100,000,000 35,610,000,000 57,300,000,000 99,200,000,000 62,700,000,000 67,600,000,000 170,900,000,000 2,673,570,000,000 Life in 65 255 328 234 91 12 121 159 202 52 13 1686 43 32 68 41 23 35 27 10 62 * Proved Reserves / Annual Production ratio gives the estimated remaining reserve lifetime, given that production remains constant. Source: All values have been taken from CIA, the World Factbook (2010). In this context the problem of fair allocation of energy resources among nations, within nations and most importantly among generations arises. If we leave the first two to international and domestic politics, then sustainable development is the field to deal with the problem of fair allocation of energy resources among generations. As Van Suntum (2005, p.133) indicates from a sustainable development standpoint, it should be expected that all future generations should have the opportunity to access the energy resources that we use today. But fair allocation of a depletable energy resource among generations is not easy as it sounds. Since depletable energy resources - let say oil - are limited, even if the present generation consumes a little oil, it will nevertheless consume some share of the future generation. Thus, Van Suntum (2005, p. 133) argues that only optimal consumption of oil for the present generation to achieve sustainable development would be zero. However, he also adds, zero-consumption would not generate any benefit for any generation. Therefore, as a theoretical answer to the sustainable development question we can rule out the solutions based on absolute re-allocation of energy resources among generations. Instead the solution lies in either promoting the usage of alternative nondepletable energy resources or making the usage of existing fossil fuels more efficient. Making “It” More Efficient The problem with alternative clean energy resources is that they are either too expensive or inefficient. However, making widely used fossil fuel based energy resources much cleaner and improving safety regulations on nuclear energy usage would definitely yield far more efficient results in energy economics. Moreover, most processes of production and consumption of energy cost environmental damages. Among those damages, most widely known and most notable one is the combustion of fossil fuels which causes the release of greenhouse gases - in particular carbon dioxide - into the air. However, those environmental costs 289 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo are generally not reflected to the prices of energy consumption which in return generates unconscious consumption of energy (Sweeney, 2001). As Sweeney suggests (2001, pp. 20-21), one solution could be assigning monetary values of those costs and therefore, limit the unconscious consumption of energy. From a sustainable development standpoint, as Bertel and Morrison (2001) state nuclear energy - as it embodies long term commitments from decision makers - could also offer an attractive alternative way to approach efficiently to energy economics field. Although investments on nuclear energy is expensive, once ready to use they have low input and operating costs, which will enable them to amortize their initial investment - generally more than two decades (Bertel and Morrison, 2001, p. 14). According to Bertel and Morrison (2001, p. 14), the technical lifetimes of nuclear plants can reach more than 60 years which is in fact in line with sustainable development perspective of decision makers. Moreover, production of nuclear energy process needs limited amounts of resources due to effective energy output of nuclear energy. Natural resources that are inputs for the production of nuclear energy process - mainly uranium and thorium - are relatively cost efficient, easily accessible and are generally only able to be used in the process of nuclear energy production. Easy access to those resources and the opportunity to store nuclear energy for years enable us to overcome any potential supply shortages in the near future. In addition, retrieval of energy from those resources - otherwise would be useless would entail decline in the demand for other energy resources that could inherent environmental damages and thus, contribute more to sustainable development (Bertel and Morrison, 2001, p. 15). Cogeneration process, on the other hand, can offer an effective way in energy use. In this process, energy production is focused on simultaneously generate both thermal and electrical energy. The major advantage of this process is that less input energy is needed to produce the same energy levels than in separate processes (Rosen, 1996, p. 24). Additionally, by using less energy this process releases less waste to the nature, which makes it more economical and safe (Rosen, 1996, p. 24). In his case study for Ontario, Canada, Rosen (1996, pp. 24-26) finds evidence to support the energy efficiency of cogeneration process. He concluded that by using cogeneration in Ontario, Canada, energy-utilization efficiency levels have increased more than they do in independent processes. Due to cogeneration process, energy requirements to satisfy energy demands in the province in question have significantly reduced and thus environmental emissions have reduced accordingly (Rosen, 2001, p. 25). Another viable option to use energy resources can be found in producing energy from coal waste. Prior to this process, coal waste had no value and was stored in the coal mines as piles. High levels of sulfur are inherent in these piles, thus when these piles come into contact with water, they generate acid rains. Today technological advancements allow us to burn this coal waste without creating acid rains or any other environmental damages and generate electrical energy. To sum up, in the long road of attaining sustainable development, using alternative and cleaner ways to produce and consume fossil fuels and applying nuclear energy with improved safety regulations and skilled labor force would be valuable assets. Additionally, sound governmental institutions that will back up the efficient energy economics policies in the long-run and altruistic politicians that will not decide policies based on whether or not they will be re-elected in the next term, would be remarkably important to achieve sustainable development. References Bertel, E., and R. Morrison, (2001), Nuclear Energy Economics in a Sustainable Development Perspective, NEA News, No. 19:1, pp.14-17. CIA, the World Factbook, the online Factbook, (2010), https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/rankorderguide.html (accessed: May 09, 2010). Lairson, T. D., and D. Skidmore, (1993), International Political Economy - The Struggle for Power and Wealth, Harcourt Brace Collage Publishers. Rosen, M., (1996), Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Development, IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, Winter 1996/1997, pp.21-28. Sweeney, J. L., (2001), Economics of Energy, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 4.9, Article: 48. United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, (1987), Our Common Future (The Brundtlund Report) Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2008, International Energy Annual 2006, http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/wecbtu.html (accessed: May 09, 2010). 290 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2009, International Energy Outlook 2009, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html (accessed: May 09, 2010). Van Suntum, U., (2005), The Invisible Hand Economic Thought Yesterday and Today, Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 291 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 182 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Energy Economics in Sustainable Development Author Author KANDEMİR, Tuğrul GÖRGÜLÜ, Mehmet Emre Abstract A summary of the resource. For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. Sustainable development on the other hand - most broadly - implies the effective use of resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Therefore, this paper promotes the effective use of energy resources for a growing country from both perspectives of energy economics and sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/54e04fead1f4d78a41b8a4fa85424a42.pdf d11e89f174d94ac8d50d897811667ed3 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Local Evaluation and Efficiancy: an Evaluation for VAN Municipality BarıĢ KANDEĞER Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Publica Administration Ġstanbul University, Ġstanbul, Turkey kandeger@istanbul.edu.tr M. Akif ARVAS Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Economics, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey aarvas@hacettepe.edu.tr Burak UYAR Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Statistics, Ege University, Ġzmir, Turkey burak.uyar@ege.edu.tr Mehmet TEKĠNTAġ Assistant Professor , Departmant of Business Administration Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey tekinkus@gantep.edu.tr Abstract: This paper aims to define the concept of local autonomy in terms of the duty and the responsibilities between the central governments and the local governments, to present its importance and disadvantages and to determine what kind of a situation its practical application at a micro level for Turkey would create through an analysis of Van municipality. In this context, the study investigates the concept of the local autonomy in comparison with the European local governments‘ condition of autonomy, then evaluates it in terms of proponents and opponents and seeks an answer for what kind of an autonomy approach should be adopted. As a result, a synthesis of Van Municipality in terms of the local autonomy is determined. Keywords: Local Government, Local Autonomy, Efficiency, Municipality Introduction The local governments have been important in maintaining the progress and change in the historical process. As a result of the projection of the central government‘s administrative graded ranks, they are able to define their areas of existence. They have different functions and structures in Unitary and/or Federal State systems. From this point of view, the local governments are shaped according to the state systems and form their administrative structures according to the systems. In federal systems, there is a possibility of political and administrative autonomy of for the local governments, whereas in unitary states the autonomy is in an administrative rather than a political form. In this respect, the local governments are faced with the problem of autonomy in a unitary and centralist state mentality. The answer for how and how much autonomy comes into prominence. In this respect, the efficiency and the close supervision of the central government against the local governments‘ decisions and policies for local services presents the level of autonomy. Today, the local governments become significant actors for democracy, the public involvement in administration and the local improvement. It is a space for the fulfillment of various functions such as the realization of local services, the shaping of local politics, the organization for civil social movements and the formation of socio-cultural politics. In this respect, maintaining the share of duty and responsibilities among the local and the central governments and the use of local initiative would overcome the problem of autonomy. 386 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study, the concept of autonomy will be discussed with different viewpoints. The close relation between the conceptual definitions of autonomy and the local government will be considered. According to these explanations, the answers for the questions why the local autonomy is significant and why it is defended by international organizations will be sought. Presenting the ideas against the dangers of the local governments, the study will seek to identify the kind of a perception of autonomy that enables the local governments to have a more functional, efficient and healthy form. Finally, in order to analyze the state of autonomy in municipalities which are units of the local governments, the state of autonomy in Van Municipality and its functional practice will be evaluated. The Concept of Local Autonomy Almost in every country, in the administrative ranks there is a separation as the central government and the local government. Its purpose is to define the administrative realms of duty and responsibility and to provide services in an efficient and productive way. Instead of the idea that favors the withholding of all duties and responsibilities in the central government and the necessary active role of the state in each service, the idea advocating that the central government is powerful with the local governments has gained importance. According to Nadaroğlu, ―The central government fulfills the common needs of the community that lives within the national boundaries; watch for, secure and represent their general interests. The local governments, on the other side, are defined as the organizations that fulfills the local needs of the local public, whose overall decision-making bodies are elected by the public and who are public corporate entities‖(1998:p.15-17). Here the significant points are the necessity of the state to execute its principal duties through the central government and to define its national and international policies which are compatible with these duties efficiently and productively while it is vital for the local governments to act in accordance with the duties and responsibilities that are given to them by law and to fill the public‘s local needs. According to Tekeli, local governments are defined as ―the institutions that fill the common needs of the individuals in a local community, provides public goods and services, are administered by the bodies elected by the local public‖ (1983:s.6). In this context, the local governments also define the spheres of the local politics. For these institutions to fulfill the local services, they should be given the authorization in parallel with their duties and responsibilities and should be provided with the usable initiative. Its ability to elect its own bodies through local elections, to take local decisions on its own, to provide financial resources to fulfill its local services and to make its own budget are among the requirements of its administrative and financial authorities. Along with these concepts that are handled with the local governments, the concept of autonomy also comes forward. The concept of autonomy that defines the authority realms of the local governments plays significant roles in the execution of services and efficient maintenance of the decisions. What is this autonomy? Is this the power and authority of the local government to self-administer itself and do whatever it yearns to do or the authorities and responsibilities that are given to it in order to provide local services within the constitutional boundaries. The question whether it is an overthrow of the sovereignty of the central government or the share of the sovereignty comes to mind at once. Local autonomy signifies neither the political independence and local sovereignty nor a unit of the center that is tied to a close supervision and observation. It is a conception of administration that provides the efficiency and productivity in the local services fulfilled by the local governments. Goldsmith comments on the local autonomy as ― the situation defined by the local government as having the authority to collect taxes in order to determine and fulfill the services is also a situation that self-defines the elected autonomies in the administrative system (1995:p.228-229). The autonomy that can be perceived as the share of service among the central and the local is the key for the local to produce and present the services. According to KeleĢ, ―Autonomy is the ability of a local community to handle the local works on its own with its own units and to have the resources that would enable it. At this point, there are two conceptions of local autonomy. The first one is corporate autonomy of the local government. As a result of that kind of autonomy, the centre and the local have separate functions and the centre‘s supervision on the local units is reduced to limited levels. The second group of autonomy is civic autonomy. Among its principal traits are the determination of the activity realms of the local units by the local organs and the supervision of the local governments not by the central government but by the people that forms this local community, that is to say by the public‖(2000: p.49-50). The corporate autonomy can be perceived as the execution of the local services by the administrative and financial decisions taken by this local government in accordance with a decentralized administrative conception and within the constitutional boundaries. The authority for decision making and exercising the decisions taken does not mean being sole independence for the local governments. The significant point here is the execution of the activities and operations subject to the local services by means of duty, authority and responsibilities defined within the constitutional boundaries. The activities and operations peculiar to the local are subject to the supervision of the 387 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo central government within certain bounds and this supervision is only the constitutional supervision and the supervision of sunbsidiarity. The civic autonomy can be perceived rather as the local elections, the supervision of the elected and the contribution to the administrative decisions. According to Weber, the idea that ―the necessity of the local community‘s or the public‘s right to be administered by authorities whose self-administration or elections are realized with the city dwellers‘ participations‖ supports this condition (2003: p.105). To maintain the participation of the public in administration and to advance local democracy can be regarded as significant in terms of national democratic achievements. When we have a look at the progress process of the nations, it is obvious that the existence of the urban dynamics and the urban identities causes these processes to be healthy. The participation of the public in the administration and the realization of its own autonomous organization in the medieval cities illustrate the significance of the concept and identity of the city. For instance, Henry Piren in his study Medieval Cities emphasizes this role of the city (2006: p.49). Why Autonomy is Defended? Civic autonomy emerges as the projection of the activity of providing services with the local governments that are advanced and maturated in the historical process. In this historical process, providing the local governments with constitutional status defines its frame of duty and responsibilities and its central-local boundary. In Europe which is the birthplace of the concept, the local autonomy progresses and interacts along with the democratic state. The concept of local government which blossoms with the French Revolution, makes progresses with the revolution movements in 1830, 1848 and 1860 and demonstrates that the local autonomy can find an area of existence in the axis of the democratic state (Koyuncu,2000:p.98). In this respect, in the countries where democracy blossoms and is established, the subject of the local governments and autonomy turns into a legal quality and a vital sphere. The autonomy which qualifies a significant argument in the vital practice of urban area and the attempts for a practice of efficient subsidiarity can emerge as a dynamic process and can produce politics in this way. The factors such as the blossoming and establishment of democracy, the local community‘s election of its own organs on its own, the maintenance of their participation in the decision-making, the subsidiarity of the services and the regulation of the financial affairs render the autonomy significant. The autonomy is important since it brings up a form that determines the vital spheres of the local governments. Today the understanding of providing subsidiarity, the redefinition of the authorities, duties and responsibilities among the central and the local and the idea that the administrative autonomy of the local governments should be increased have become important. The central government‘s conception of itself as the authority in the local subjects leads to difficulties in the fulfillment of services. Over-centralization both leads to resource dissipation and impedes the efficient and productive execution of services. As a result of the delay in the bureaucratic procedures, the decision-making in long-terms and the invalid determination of the field of application, the cost of services increases. The most significant arguments of the proponents of the local governments and consequently of the autonomy are the release of the local jobs to the locals on the efficient and productive use of resources and the maintenance of subsidiarity. Another argument of the proponents of the local autonomy is that the most significant reasons for the overgrowth of bureaucracy are the existence of an over-centralized structure, the bureaucracy‘s role in the formation of a significant structure for the state‘s execution of power and its effect on the quality of the services. Actually, in the over-centralized countries, bureaucracy can have a negative function on the execution of services and their qualities. As a result of the release of certain authorities and duties to the local governments, not only the efficiency and productivity of the services can be increased and but also over bureaucratic structure can be avoided and limited. The local governments that are defined as the schools democracy are the realms where the public participation in the administration is intense. The local government organs since they are elected by the participation of the public and are the administrative units closest to the local communities turn into the institutions in which the democratic values blossom and are established. The public participation, the pluralism principle, the leaders‘ focus on the solidarity and their responsibilities towards the electorates are the values that emerge with the autonomy. (Çukurçayır, 2000: p.110). In this respect, participation and democracy while can be an agent in increasing the quality of the services done by the local governments, also provide the efficiency and productivity of national and local politics and services. The maintenance of the public participation in the decisions and policies of the local governments is a situation that can be realized through the maintenance of the autonomy. The local community that elects its organs on their own also has the opportunity to supervise these organs more efficiently. The maintenance of the public participation in the administration brings forth certain advantages. Primarily, the decisions and projects in terms of the local governments have the qualities to provide the needs of the local. Moreover, not only the constitutional 388 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo supervision but also public supervision on the local governments is obtained. The local autonomy is an administrative model that emerges by a more efficient and productive execution of the local services. The monopolization of the authorities and the decision-making by high-level central organs lead to delays in the execution and hold back the services. At least, the services slowdown and the reflection of the real experts‘ ideas into the administration and taking right decisions become hard. However, the involvement of the autonomous institutions‘ representatives in the administration enables the chance for finding useful solutions in terms of national interests. The local governments that find areas of existence with the purpose of increasing the welfare level and the quality of services are important actors of local development and progress. As a result of projects and investments that are formed in accordance with the local potential, the local development is obtained and they can be transformed into socio-economic power centers. Since the local development can also help national development, it is significant in displaying the importance of the common projects and politics among the central and the local, as well. Thus, the local governments while realizing the local development help the central government for national development and for the avoidance of the regional instabilities. The national organizations are endeavoring to bring forth universal principals related with autonomy in order to enable the local governments to produce more efficient services. With these principals, the Congress of the Council of Europe, under the title of European Charter of Local Self-Government sets standards for the conception of local government. The European Charter of Local Self-Government which was approved in Turkey in 1991 with Law 3723 (21 May 1991, Nr.21877) outlines the standards of autonomy of the local governments. This document primarily gives legal autonomy to the local governments. The third article of the charter on autonomy defines the right and opportunity of the local authorities to regulate and administer a substantial share of the public affairs within the frames determined by the laws, under their own responsibilities and in accordance with the benefits of the local population. According to The European Charter of Local Self-Government ―the principle of the closeness to the public in services is significant in efficient and productive rendition of the services and making the administrations more close to the citizens. The rights and authorizations set out on the local governments are principles for becoming localized and for the maintenance of the active public participation. The rights and authorizations can be directly used by the councils or the committee meetings that rests on equal and general ballot, that is formed with the members elected independently by the system of secret ballot and that can have administrative organs that are responsible to them. This clause, within the limits of the law, does not impede to consult to citizen councils, referendum and direct participation in the administration. It is possible to analyze the local autonomy in two dimensions such as the administrative and financial autonomy. The administrative autonomy refers to the independent decision-making of the autonomous institutions with their own organs. On the other side, the financial autonomy envisages the autonomous institutions to have and to spend separate assets and income resources (Ulusoy,2007:p.32). The financial autonomy refers to the local governments holding sufficient income resources for an efficient and healthy execution of services. The insufficiency of financial resources can play an obstructive role in the maintenance of autonomy since it can bring forth the problem of nonproducing services along with the reality of financing itself through financial aids given the center. Because the aids given by the center makes the local dependent on the center at the same time and consequently limit its own scope. In this respect, it is significant for the local governments to have financial autonomy besides its administrative autonomy. This principle is necessary for having its own incomes, regulating its own budget and providing services peculiar to its own locality. In this context, when we have a look at the situation in Turkey, in the centre-local relations, the supervision of trusteeship and financial dependency are prominent situations. While the supervision in Europe is done within the frames of the compliance with laws, in Turkey the supervision is handled both according to compliance with the laws and subsidiarity. This situation makes it difficult for the local to take and carry out efficient decisions. The definition of the supervision boundaries can expand the scope of the local governments. The supervision of the centre on the local in administrative and financial affairs should be within the constitutional boundaries and the supervision should be carried out afterwards. Furthermore, the maintenance of the items that provides local supervision (public, non-governmental organizations and local council) can also localize the supervision (Tortop,1996: p.13). As a result of the local governments‘ generation of their own financial resources their financial dependence on the central administration will be lessened and they maintain a more autonomous structure. According to Kelly and Freeland, ―the fact that the local governments do not have enough initiative in the field of local financial autonomy, in having resource, income, lobby, political power and responsibility and the insufficient income resources explain the reasons for financial centralization‖(2004:p.5-6). The financial autonomy can also be a result of a conception of efficient and sustainable administration and institutionalized local organization. In the absence of such a structure, a part of the authorities and resources of the local can pass into the hands of central government. When the local governments offer services directed to the local within the boundaries set forth for itself, they have to act according to certain criteria. According to Nadaroğlu ―[T]here are three factors 389 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo significant in considerable and efficient production of public goods and services. These factors are defined as the quality of the services, the realm of services and the size of population. These factors demonstrate the fact that the production of of public goods in local levels can be efficiently presented by the local production units (local administrations). This is because if the population and the technology are regarded as data, it is natural that the local administration produces a more qualified service in comparison with the central administration with the assumption of the use of equal factors‖ (1998:p.39-40). In the maintenance of local efficiency, area restriction, the briefness of decision-making process and the smallness of population scale are the items that increase efficiency. Moreover, the local governments‘ production and presentation of services in parallel with local needs and appropriate to the locale scale is significant in the maintenance of efficiency. According to Ulusoy ―public services should be left to the administration that fulfills the needs of the individuals in the most efficient way. In the presentation of public services, the economic efficiency is obtained when there is no decline in the costs in the situations of the increase or decrease of the populations or the regional areas. According to economic efficiency criterion, if the cost per unit decreases when the goods or services are presented by the administrations that serves to larger populations or regional areas, the services should be presented by higher levels of administration; and if the administration and coordination costs increases disproportional to the population and regional area, the services should be presented by a smaller unit of administration‖ (2007:p.70-71). In this respect, the explicit definition of the central government‘s service area and the local government‘s service area in the production of goods and services and the share of services lead to a formation of the concept of efficiency in a positive way. The share of the services among the central and the local also brings forth a function that decreases the cost of services and increases the quality and efficiency of the service. For instance while the national security or justice services or general health and education services fall within service areas peculiar to central government inclusive of national space; the city road construction, the formation of joint-use in urban areas or the areas of water and sanitary services fall within service areas concerning the local governments. When the historical process is analyzed, it is possible to argue that the concept of democracy emerges from the dynamics of the city. The local democracy that provides subsidiarity can be an agent of the formation of urban participation culture. The local governments can be regarded as the basic item of democracy. In this respect, the local governments have the most significant function in the political participation of the people in the cities and the formation of democracy culture. The people‘s election of their own local administrators through elections and their ability to supervise the elected administrators are closely related with the idea of democracy. The local democracy is a necessary fact for the development of the public participation in administrative decisions and of the relations with the civil society. According to Tortop, ―Local governments are the institutions whose contributions in the development of the nation, in the establishment of a democratic understanding and in the realization of the ideal of a clean society are et most. In order to provide this contribution, the central administration should leave the authorities and duties related with the local services to the local governments‖(1996:p.13). The local institutions which can be autonomous in their own affairs can take and carry out decisions in a better way. The maintenance of the public participation in these decisions is seen as a reflection of the democratic culture and urban participation. The relation between the local governments and democracy reveal not only the fact that the urban problems and solution agents are ascribed to the people living in the local area but also the development of the habit of self-administration (Kalabalık,2005:p.112-113). Since the people living in the local area have a voice in the urban politics, the democratic culture should be developed. The democratic culture can only be possible if the individuals can efficiently participate in the urban political processes, along with the administrators elected independently by them. The close ties between the political regimes of the states and democracy also reveal the existence of the local democracy. Furthermore the transparency of the administrations and the maintenance of the subsidiarity are closely related with the democratic structure. It is necessary to take into consideration not only the thesis that the society members who do not have an idea about the organizational structures and functions of the local governments cannot be expected to have an efficient participation and supervision of the administration but also the reality that the public awareness of the local governments and that the local governments are the vital spheres of the urban politics and the democratic culture. (Gilbert,1975:p.108). The access of the individuals living in the local area to information and the attainability of the communication tools may increase the participation in decision-making processes. The individuals‘ interest in and close track of the local politics can make them the actors for the solutions of problems and are significant factors in the existence of the power for influence and the formation of local participation and the democratic culture (Çukurçayır,2000:108-109). Consequently, it is possible to state that the local administrative areas are the spaces where the urban dynamics are realized, the democratic culture and urban participation emerge and the nongovernmental organizations become shareholders in the policies and projects. 390 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Ideas against the Dangers of Autonomy Today, as a result of the political and economic developments in the world, the polities of the states and their efficiency areas are changed and transformed. The globalization which penetrates the world and the consequent increase of the capital‘s efficiency areas are also evident in the local structure. The positions of various international institutions and current ideas against this situation lead to the examination of the state‘s giving more initiatives to the local, the localizations and consequently the local improvement. In several reports of the World Bank, the significance of localization is emphasized. The neo liberalism and the new right wing movements that emerge after 1980, stress the significance of localization by referring to local autonomy. They point out that with localization comes along regional development, democratic participation and liberation. Here at this point, the problematic of the unitary structure of the state and of its sphere of sovereignty become the projection of the criticism of autonomy concept. The criticisms of the autonomy concept are generally related with the scope of boundaries. They are based on the idea that the empowerment of the local governments and the increase of localization bring forth the change of some of the concepts that belong to the center. This structure has the potential to define itself as decentralization. The basic argument of the opponents of the autonomy is that the globalization starts a process that threatens the central administration and gives sovereignty to the local and that the international organizations support this circumstance. They argue that as a result of these organizations‘ transfer of the authorities of the center to the local with the expressions of the regional development, the democratization and the local political participation, the national resources may become an agent of exploitation by the international capital and the organizations that are tied to them. The 1999-2000 World Bank report displays that both the globalization and the localization are inevitable and the future of the states are shaped by to what extent they can manage these two powers (Güler,2000,p.25-26). As can be perceived in the report, it is necessary for the nation state to transfer some of its authorities to the local and global capital. The criticism directed towards the principle of subsidiarity that is introduced by the Council of Europe is based on the localization of the authorities and the narrowing of the power area of the central administration. The reason why this principle is criticized is that it would lead to decentralization and provide a wide space of autonomy. The opponents of autonomy outline that the international capital and organizations, with the purpose of eliminating the administrative trusteeship of the central on the local and maintaining the power space and liberty of the local, have produced certain concepts (subsidiarity, decentralization) and consequently in this way strive to gain the control and sovereignty of the local resources and market. The idea that favors the restriction on the autonomy aims to limit the local governments‘ liberty to do whatever they want on their own. In this respect, the center has the power to use some of its agents of supervision efficiently. It is supported that the center‘s supervision of the local government according to the administrative trusteeship principle is necessary for a unitary state. Thereby, absolute liberty is prevented and the integrity of the administration is ensured. Here the crucial point is the necessity of the central administration‘s use of the administrative trusteeship authority according to a constitutional framework. The use of administrative trusteeship on the local government and its policies produced in its own boundaries and proper local services and its administrative decisions can result in an unauthorized assumption of the central on the local. This situation has an impact that harms the existence of the autonomy. For this reason, the criticisms on the concept of autonomy should be debated from various viewpoints. How Autonomy Should Be Used? The share of authorities and responsibilities among the central administration and the local administrations in the execution of the public services is an important condition for the contemporary administrations. Within the constitutional boundaries, the efficient production and presentation of the national public services and the local services are significant. Over-centralization may lead to disabilities in the presentation of services in the local area and reduce the efficiency. The liberty of the local to do whatever it wants with an independency on the central can result in troubles in the integrity of the administration and in the performance of supervision mechanism. From this point of view, it would be wise to put the authorities and responsibilities among the central and the local into action in a constitutional background and to give the local government a series of authorities and responsibilities that are restricted to its own area. The local governments are required to be provided with some resources and authorities in their production of services in order to fulfill the local needs. The efficient presentation of the services also reveals itself in parallel with the formation of the resources and the policies on the local. The insufficiency of the share that is reserved by the central government from the general budget for the execution of the local services necessitates the local governments 391 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to form their own resources. The local administrators should have the liberty and the structure to take and execute their own decisions related with the local. However, this liberty should be limited both by the judicial supervision in light of the constitutional principles and by the social supervision. The local autonomy becomes important in the circumstance when the local dynamics find vital support. The autonomy can be a significant agent as a result of the use of some local values such as the achievement of the public participation in administration, the formation of a democratic culture, the people‘s election of its own organs, and the local government‘s possession of a budget of its own. This situation signifies a contribution to the unity and integrity of the vital spaces among the central and the local. The autonomy given to the local governments should not have a function or structure that limits the state‘s sovereignty space. The autonomy should be within the constitutional boundaries, proper to the space of local service and functional. The activities and conditions that would result in the liberty of the local government to do whatever it wants with an utter independence from the central government should be restricted by the judicial supervision according to the constitution. The central government‘s regulations which restrict the space of local governments such as the supervision of trusteeship and subsidiarity should be eliminated and only the judicial supervision and local public supervision should be provided. The financial initiative should be given to the local governments to strengthen their financial opportunities and form their own income resources. Under this circumstance, both the dependency of the local governments to the central administration in terms of financial resources may be reduced and the trouble to find resources for the production of the local services may be avoided. Therefore, the local governments should be autonomous enough to provide the local public with efficient services which are related with their own service areas and there should be a compatible and unified structure among the center and the local. The Analzsıs of Van Munıcıpalıtz as a Sample The municipalities are autonomous administrative units that are required to fulfill the duties given to them within the judicial boundaries and to execute the local services. This autonomy of the municipalities should be within administrative and financial autonomy frameworks. The administrative autonomy refers to the independent decisionmaking of the municipality in fulfilling the local needs. In this context, it would be wise to analyze Van Municipality as a sample within a concrete analysis framework of the autonomous structure of the municipality which is the most authoritative and significant unit of the local governments. This part aims to illuminate the administrative and financial autonomy of the municipality in the presentation of local goods and services. Taking into consideration the reality that the production of services are realized in proportion to the municipality‘s financial resources, it is necessary to question whether the municipality‘s financial resources are sufficient for the production of services or not. Therefore, an emphasis on the question whether Van Municipality has trouble in finding financial resource for fulfilling the public local needs would be a good approach in this study. It is significant to elaborate the question whether Van Municipality‘s own resources or the shares given from the central administration are sufficient for the presentation of the services and the realization of the local investments is vital. The roles of incorporation and privatization in the execution of urban services will be investigated. Moreover, the analysis of to what extent the public participates in the administration would provide us with the information on urban participation. Van Municipality serves within its 10.500 hectare borders. Within the municipality‘s areas of service, there are 27 districts. Van Municipality has 7000 hectares of the adjacent area and 10.500 hectares of plan for zoning. According to the results of 2008 population census, the population of Van is 332.000, and there are 65.000 buildings and 20.200 dwellings. Van Municipality, proper to Permanent Staff principles and essentials, with the Municipal Council‘s decision numbered 347, dated 09.08.2006, with reorganization in the structure , fulfills its services with 28 administrative staff consisting of 4 Vice-Chairman and 24 Unit Manager. The Municipality staff consists of 326 officers, 657 workers and 32 contracted staff with a sum of 1015 personnel. Van Municipality executes the local services under the sovereignty of the central government, with its own incomes and shares given by the central government. It can use a part of the services and authorities proposed by the municipality law and cannot use much initiative in overcoming the financial resource problems. Other than the share given by the Bank of Provinces‘ General Budget Income, the most significant income resources for Van Municipality are, the payments for public utilities, rents, estate tax, the tax on the environmental cleanup (ÇTV), transportation, zoning fees and other different incomes (pecuniary penalties, tax penalties, several installment sales, the taxes on the entertainment and advertisement, occupancy charge and several other taxes. The municipality should fulfill necessary activities in order to find financial resources. For instance, utilities such as water, sanitation, road construction are fulfilled by the municipality‘s own resources (Van Municipality 5 Year Strategic Planning 20062011). Today, in our country, the local governments (municipalities) in their execution of municipal services can pay for the costs of services through several agents. They can fulfill these services especially by establishing its own 392 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo firms, privatizing the services, and borrowing money from several national or international organizations. The services should be provided by the municipality‘s own resources, the share from the central budget, the privatization of limited services, grant from German Development Bank which is an international organization and a firm of its own. An analysis of Van Municipality illustrates that the perception of the execution of services rest on the traditional municipal income which are the share from the central budget and the income items given according to municipal laws. Van Municipality‘s income items of the year 2007 are illustrated below. When we have a look at the table, it is possible to state that the municipality‘s income items are comprised of the traditional municipal incomes. The Municipality could not perform activities which would strengthen its own financial structure, form its own resource in the execution of services. In recent years, the formations such as municipal economic enterprise (sale of foodstuffs directly by a municipality or indirectly through a firm awarded a contract by a municipality, bread factories) has turned into methods that are frequently used by municipalities for the presentation of cheap and qualified services to the public. Van Municipality has not introduced such a structure up to now. BETWEEN THE DATES 01/01/2007- 31/12/2007 TABLE OF BUDGET INCOMES Account Code Economic Code 800 1 800 2 800 3 800 4 800 5 800 6 The Percentage of Realization (%) Explanation Given from The Budget Collection /Payments Received TAX INCOME THE INCOMES OTHER THAN TAXES 9.350.000,00 7.578.284,59 81% 0 0 0% CAPITAL REVENUE ENDOWMENTS DONATIONS OTHER INCOMES COLLECTIONS CREDITORS TOTAL 25.546.000,00 18.018.349,48 73% 7.058.000,00 1.900.000,00 27% 53.044.000,00 40.268.018,44 76% 2.000,00 0 95.000.000,00 67.764.652,51 AND FROM 71% Table 1: 2007 Table of Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). The Municipality unable to find a way for the formation of income falls to 71 % in the realization percentage of the 2007 income budget. The reasons for the desired income realization are the socio-economic situation of the region and the low level of public wealth. For this reason, the attempt raising incomes would be essential. Therefore, the efficient and productive execution of the services is closely related with the sufficiency of the financial resources. The low percentage of collections in the municipal tax income, and the limited income items are among the negative influences. In this context, the formation of new income items would provide betterment in both for the quality and proportion of the services and for the financial resources. 393 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Graphic 1: The 2007 Realization Percentage of the estimated Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). Graphic 2: 2007 Distribution of Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). Graphic 3: 2007 Distribution of Spent Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). 394 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo BETWEEN THE DATES 01/01/2007-31/12/2007 TABLE OF BUDGET COST The Percentage of Realization (%) Eco. Co. Explanation Given from The Budget Collection /Payments Received 1 2 PERSONNEL EXPENSES STATE PREMIUM COSTS TO SOCIAL SECURITY INSTITUTIONS GOODS AND SERVICES SALE COSTS INTEREST EXPENSES CURRENT TRANSFERS FINANCIAL EXPENSES CAPITAL TRANSFERS BACKUP ALLOCATION TOTAL 28.010.000,00 5.317.000,00 27.245.604,0 4.639.610,68 97,27% 87,26% 25.728.321,46 23.669.663,0 92,00% 5.779.599,66 4.287.500,00 14.273.434,00 8.841.250,00 5.831.403,00 98.068.508,1 5.601.000,00 1.761.022,03 1.965.569,37 8.010.000,00 5.831.403,00 78.723.872,1 96,91% 41,07% 13,77% 90,60% 100,00% 80,27% 3 4 5 6 7 8 Table 2 : 2007 Table of Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). Graphic 4: The 2007 Realization Percentage of the estimated Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). 395 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Graphic 5: 2007 Distribution of Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report) Graphic 6: 2007 Distribution of Spent Budget Expenditure (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report). When we look at the budget expenditures the estimation fort he expenditures for 2007 has been eventualized in a ratio of 80,27. When we look at the costs, the personnell expenditures and the purchase costs are the major ones. Although the equality between the expenditures and the income is important the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the services are important as well. As a wide perspective, in order to reduce the cleaning expenditures and provide an efficient public service the municipality has privatised the cleaning services. Another privatised service is the urban transportation. By tender bidding the urban transportation to the private enterprise the municipality has set up a foundation for rising the public service standards and decreasing the expenditures. In a competitive market the urban transportation has been privatised, and an effective and cheap service is planned to be provided via the private enterprise (Activity report of Van Municipality, 2007).The municipality is supplying the environment monitoring with the help of Mavi Kent C.O. which was built under the authority of the municipality itself. This company is working out to provide some of the services with the help of the concrete-works staff and fullfilling the needs of the municipality such as materials.For example, by producing and procuring the stone materials, the company is corresponding the needs of the municipality.Especially in the districts where the basic facilities were set up, and the sewage and potable water services are completed; with the help of this company, approximately 56 km of road planning, stabilization and grading service was fullfilled and opened to public service. Moreover; constructing the pavement, median-strip bridges and blacktopping the roads are fullfilled with a co-operation of the municipality and the Mavi Kent C.O., as well. Nowadays, the municipalities can carry out and supply the services with the help of the companies which are set up under the authority of the municipalities. Mavi Kent C.O. is such a company which was formed under the constitution of Van Municipality with the regulations mentioned above. With the influence of the new right-wing and neo-liberal movements the municipalities can hold collaborations with international institutionsand vast investments can be made by using the financial and technical aids which are given by these international institutions. The agreement made between the German development bank 396 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (KFW) and the municipality covers the financing of some of the massive main facilities of the city. This donated money is used in the investments to the basic facilities.(Türkçesi çok bozuk tümce) Since there is a serious financial resource challenge arising from the increasing local service areas and service components; in order to present a better, effective and efficient service it is best for municipalities to use the loaning, privatization, creating new income instruments and applying to concerns - and this will reduce the financial dependence to the central authority. Thereby, the municipality will serve effectively as an autonomous constitution. Conclusion Within the developing and changing principles of administration and under the principle of "localization in services and subsidiarity" the local authorities should independently and freely take their decisions on the subjects under their jurisdiction and can produce local policies. The local authorities should be in an autonomous construction in order to fulfil these functions. The autonomy has a function as forming a safe habitat and private province, and increasing the movibility in the radius of action for the local authorities. The local authorities which form the democratic cultural areas that the municipal dynamics and the attendance of the public to the administration arise, must have the needed resources and materials. Under the strict monitoring of the central authorities, the local authorities can confront the problem of under-servicing or not using the local initiative. In the cases where this monitoring is hold under the constitutional law and public itself, the movibility and effectiveness of the local authority will increase and the presentation of the services will be more efficient. It would be better to evaluate the affirmative and negative opinions on local autonomy in the reasonable limits, and constructing a local autonomy form with the help of constitutional laws. On the other hand, under the view of localization in services, local services should be taken in the frame of spatial proximity. This administration form which lets the public to attend to the administration, which leads the diversification of democratic culture and civil movements will surely serve as a significant function in the usage and application of policies in a more efficivent and effective way. As it is seen in the Van Municipality, the municipalities which are totally dependent to the central authority in the areas of creating finance and resources, the problems arise. In order to cope with the problems, some techniques such as creating new income components, constructing new economic enterprises or privatization of some services are used. References Avrupa Konseyi Yerel Yönetimler Özerklik ġartı, R.G., 21.05.1991, S:20877 Güler, A. Birgül, ―Yerel Yönetimleri Güçlendirmek mi? Adem-i Merkeziyetçilik mi?‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, Cilt:9, Sayı:2, TODAĠE Yayınları, 2000,Ankara. Çukurçayır, M.Akif, Siyasal Katılma ve Yerel Demokrasi, Yargı Yayınevi, 2000, Ankara. Doğan, M.Emin, ―Belediyelerin Denetimi‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, TODAĠE Yayınları, 1996, Ankara. Gilbert, William H., Public Relations in Local Government, Ġnstitute for Training in Municipal Administration by the Ġnternational City Management Ad., Washington.1975 Goldsmith M., London,1995. ―Autonomy and City Limits‖, Theories of Urban Politics, (edit)D. Judge-G.stoker-H. Wolman, sage, Kalabalık, Halil, Yerel Yönetim Hukuku, Seçkin Yayınları,2005, Ankara. KeleĢ, RuĢen, Yerinden Yönetim ve Siyaset, Cem Yayınevi, 2000, Ġstanbul. Kelly, Janet M., PatriciaFreeland K., ―LocalGovernment Fiscal Autonomy: The Threat of Fiscal Centralization‖, www.fsu.edu.//statepol/conference/2004/papers/kelly-singer.doc Nadaroğlu, Halil, Mahalli Ġdareler, Beta yayınları, 1998, Ġstanbul Pirenne, Henry, Orta Çağ Kentleri (Çev.: ġadan Karadeniz), ĠletiĢim yayınları, 2006, Ġstanbul. Reyhan, Cenk, ―Türkiye‘de Yüzyıllık Gündem: Federalizm‖, Memleket Siyaset Yönetim Dergisi, Cilt:2, Sayı:5, Memleket yayınları,2007,Ankara. 397 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Tekeli, Ġlhan, ―Yerel Yönetimlerde Demokrasi ve Türkiye‘de Belediyelerin GeliĢimi‖, Amme Ġdaresi Dergisi, Cilt:6, Sayı:2, TODAĠE Yayınları, 1983, Ankara. Tortop, Nuri, ―Yerel Yönetimler ve Mali özerklik‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, TODAĠE Yayını, Cilt:5, Sayı:5, Ankara, Ulusoy, Ahmet, Mahalli Ġdareler, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2007,Ankara. Weber, Max, ġehir, (Çev.: Musa Ceylan), BakıĢ Yayınları, 2003, Ġstanbul Van Municipality; 2007 Annual Activity Report. Van Municipality; 5 Year Strategic Planning 2006-2011 398 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 211 Title A name given to the resource Local Evaluation and Efficiancy: an Evaluation for VAN Municipality Author Author KANDEĞER, Barış ARVAS, M. Akif UYAR, Burak TEKİNTAŞ, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper aims to define the concept of local autonomy in terms of the duty and the responsibilities between the central governments and the local governments, to present its importance and disadvantages and to determine what kind of a situation its practical application at a micro level for Turkey would create through an analysis of Van municipality. In this context, the study investigates the concept of the local autonomy in comparison with the European local governments‘ condition of autonomy, then evaluates it in terms of proponents and opponents and seeks an answer for what kind of an autonomy approach should be adopted. As a result, a synthesis of Van Municipality in terms of the local autonomy is determined. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/13d4d82234cc0b1be62d6d960d098968.pdf 8f945b595ac829063cc03e2d384f3c10 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Effects of Global Warming on the Tourism Sector in Turkey Hasan KARA Faculty of Science and Letters Geography Department UĢak University Turkey hasan.kara@usak.edu.tr Nurettin BILGEN Faculty of Education Primary Education Department Pamukkale University Turkey nurettinbilgen@gmail.com Derya ACAR Faculty of Science and Letters Geography Department UĢak University Turkey derya.acar@usak.edu.tr Abstract: One of the most crucial problems in the world is global warming. In recent years mean temperature values are rising and downfall values are indicating substantial deviations as to years and months. Even small changes in climates affect many sectors. The leading sector affected by global warming is tourism sector. Tourism is one of the sectors in Turkey developing in the fastest way. Numbers of tourists visiting Turkey have been increased beginning from 2000 and exceeded 27 millions in 2009. Tourism revenue of Turkey has passed over 16 billions dollar. A large number of different sectors such as transportation, food and construction are connected with tourism. Tourism sector is very interested in temperature rise and prolonging of summer season. In sea tourism it is expected an expansion to west and north regions of Turkey as well as south shores. Extreme summer hot will set off immigration from seaboard to uplands and hinterland as well as increase water and electricity consumptions. Less cold in winter season, delay and decrease of snowfall will affect winter sports centers negatively. In this study positive and negative effects of climate changes caused by global warming on the tourism sector which one of leading sectors in Turkey are discussed. Introduction Tourism, which is frequently referred to as ―flueless industry‖ is a substantial source of revenues and a strategic sector for some countries. When we take the fact of across the globe over a billion people is in tourism activity into consideration, we understand well how the tourism cake is so large and important. The number of countries that are getting a large share of the cake is rather limited. The compenents such as climate, latitude, coastal assets, cultural and historical values, transportation, safety, infrastructure etc. define the finiteness of tourism activity and determine the number of tourists and revenues. Some determinants that might affect tourism in next years are misinvestments in tourism field, pollution, coasts turning into concrete jungles, dissolution of cultural values, destruction of vegetation cover, safety problems might occur in tourism centers and verious global changes occured depending on climate change. Determinants except for climate change are the problems caused by local causes in the countries and regions where tourism is practised and their solutions are relatively easy. By means of correct planning and right management these problems can be easily avoided. On the contrary some points that appeared as problems can be changed into attraction for tourism as well. For example, cultural values under dissolution threat can be protected by restoring them and historical ruins buried in ground may come into light by archaelogical studies. They all may gain advantageous positions by improvement made by the resources of countries or regions. 571 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo On the other hand, changes occured in climate caused by global warming are not problems resulting from countries or tourism regions. They are global problems that are of particular concern to all over the world. Thereby, global problem caused by wrong applications that was experienced in the past and is existing in present time, will be a cause to more serious negatives as well as be a concern in our day. Turkey is one of countries that might be affected by global warming at the most. Temperature rises and deviations occured in downfalls affect a great number of sectors in Turkey directly or indirectly. Effects have been seen for years in the sectors of agriculture, animal husbandry and water. Although tourism is not affected much at present it is one of the sectors that will seriously experience results of global warming in the immediate future. Global Warming and Turkey Greenhouse gases hold infrared radiation reflected from globe and prevent them from escaping to space. Accordingly, they affect energy balance of the earth and cause increasing of surface temperature (ArıbaĢ and Kara, 2009, p.130). Temperature on the surface of the earth rises distinctively. Accordingly, changes occur in climates and the components of climate affect each other in a complicated way. Ultimately all living creatures take their shares from changes. While expansion in deserts is seen depending on drought living spaces become narrow, forests and vegetation cover are reduced, and living creatures migrate in order to keep pace with the new order. As a result of global warming climate changes occur in the various regions of the world. Climate changes can be briefly described as changes in climate parameters (downfall, moisture, air movements, drought etc.) depending on global warming. As changes occured in any region of the world induce other regions, effects of global warming are inclusive of not only certain countries or continents but all the globe. Turkey is one of the countries affected by global warming. Effects do not make themselves evident in short time. They appear in a long time period. Their boundaries are so wide that they affect all the fields from agriculture to animal husbandary, from desiccation to immigration and from sea level rising to tourism. For example, according to different scenarios it is estimated that average sea level rising in 2100 will be 15-100 cm in current climate modelling (Öztürk, 2002, Spence 2007 and Evans, 2009). Even only rising of 15-100 cm in sea level can make changes in the map of the earth and make away with some small island states. The countries that are much damaged by climate changes are the ones having resources at the very least despite they have no negative contribution to climate changes. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that ―climate change will affect most developping countries in terms of loss of lives, investments and economy‖ (Dunn and Flavin, 2002, p.89). Even the factors causing global climate change would completely be eliminated the effects of the past will reveal themselves for 30-40 years. Developping Tourism in Turkey Turkey is a country industrializing rapidly in Western norms. Particularly in the last 20 years the aspects of development and change have been felt in every sectors. As of 2009 Turkey which is the 16. country with large economy in the world maintains development and targets to be in the first ten countries having strongest economies. One of the leading sectors in Turkey is tourism in terms of growing economy. Turkey is one of the countries in the world having highest tourism potentiality with its historical and cultural assets, unique nature, seas surrounding its three sides, safety and the people who lean towards tourism. Unfortunately, tourism in Turkey, which is frequently referred to as ―flueless industry‖, was scarcely any before 25 years. In last 25 years, particularly in last 10 years, tourism in Turkey has gained substantial speed (Table 1). Number of tourists, which was 2 millions per year in 1985, has reached 10 millions in 2000 and 27 millions as of end of 2009 (http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler). Revenues of tourism have increased in paralel with the number of tourists and climbed over 16 billions dolar. 572 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 334 359 307 364 534 699 667 714 783 752 354 405 426 481 608 693 627 787 896 899 435 547 676 500 784 1.107 922 1.100 1.305 1.208 721 885 853 669 1.104 1.349 1.373 1.521 1.648 1.750 986 1.232 1.326 1.146 1.799 2.303 1.919 2.288 2.749 2.719 1.079 1.388 1.458 1.511 1.898 2.403 2.369 2.774 3.306 3.263 1.526 1.777 1.897 2.131 2.591 3.164 3.110 3.624 4.085 4.343 1.419 1.601 1.900 2.275 2.493 2.859 2.906 3.384 3.762 3.760 1.369 1.440 1.771 1.874 2.125 2.502 2.267 2.799 2.981 3.136 1.178 1.066 1.420 1.658 1.842 2.107 1.714 2.153 2.462 2.617 602 521 663 776 950 1.052 1.020 1.177 1.268 1.404 424 398 560 644 789 862 927 1.019 1.091 1.226 10.427 11.619 13.257 14.030 17.517 21.123 19.819 23.341 26.337 27.077 Table 1. Distribution of Tourists Visiting Turkey in Last 10 Years (a thousand persons). In the ordering of countries attracting most tourists in the world Turkey was barely in the first 20 countries in 1990‘s and was 11. in 2005. In last 5 years she has deserved to be in the first 10 countries. While the countries such as France, Spain and the United States of America are by far in advance there is a little difference between the countries such as Britain, Germany, Mexico, Austria and Turkey in turms of tourist number. In short, if Turkey would keep the increasement pace and would not go wrong she will be of 5-6 countries attracting most tourists in the world in next 10 years. Figure 1: Turkey‘s Important Tourism Regions. The sub sectors of tourism such as sea tourism (summer tourism), winter tourism, thermal tourism, upland tourism and religious tourism have been developped in Turkey. While the weight in sea tourism is on South AegeanWest Mediterranean shore corridor, the locations such as Alanya, Antalya, KaĢ, Fethiye, Marmaris, Bodrum, KuĢadası and ÇeĢme are the most important vacation centers (Figure 1). While Bolu, Uludağ, SarıkamıĢ, Erciyes and Palandöken catch the attention in winter tourism, leading locations in religious tourism are Ġstanbul, Konya, ġanlıurfa and Selçuk. The leading natural beauties that have been visited much are Ürgüp surroundings and Pamukkale. In the Black sea region upland tourism has come into prominence in recent times and the provinces such as Trabzon, Rize, Giresun, Bolu and Ordu developped much in upland tourism. 573 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Negative Effects of Global Warming on Tourism Sector In recent times numbers of the studies on global warming have been increased as the effects manifest themselves. We have general studies in regard with tourism sector and global warming. However, they are not adequate in terms of Turkish tourism (Öztürk, 2002, Gülbahar, 2008 and Yıldız 2009). Mean temperature rises have made evident themselves depending on global warming. According to the local and general studies it is certain that mean temperature rises gradually. Mean temperature rises have been increased as to the previous period. It has been revealed by various researches that mean temperature rises in Turkey in the last period of 30-40 reach 0,5 oC (Kadıoğlu, 2008). It is predicted that in the following years glaciers will melt away and sea level will rise about 1 meter. Undoubtedly, all glaciers will not melt away. However, it is certain that glacier dissolving will be experienced and seal level will rise about 1 cm in every year. In many climate modellings it is predicted that as a result of global warming downpours will increased. In general terms, Turkey is located in Mediterranean climate zone in which–except for several areas- winters are rainy and snowy and summers are dry. Dry summers are an advantage for the areas having dense summer tourism. Summer precipitations affects tourism negatively. Deviations in precipitation despite dry summers, experiences summer downfalls and floods caused by cloudbursts will affect tourism regions. Instant floods will damage not only coastal areas but upland tourism, hunting tourism, golf tourism, mounting climbing and stream sports. Number of tourists visiting Turkey has exceeded 27 millions. A large part of the tourists come from the countries which are located in North of Turkey and have relatively colder climates. Tourists prefer Turkey for hot summers, sea, sand and sun. Sea tourism focuses on Southern and Western coasts of Turkey such as Antalya, Muğla, Aydın and Ġzmir. As beaches are small and narrow a part of them will be left under the sea level when a rise occurs at sea level. Some small beaches might be disappeared completely and a part of large beaches might become smaller by overflowing (Photo 1). Undoubtedly all beaches would not be disappeared by the effects of global warming. There might be new bech extensions and formation while sea water is rising in a part of beaches. Beaches are considered to be equivalent with tourism all over the world. Unfortunately beaces in Turkey under the threats of erosion, climate change and sea level change. Rising in water level will affect not only beaches but settlements at coastal regions and touristic facilities as well. Touristic facilities, roads, ports, summer residences and other buildings at seaside and seafront will be at hazard by sea rising. Photo 1: Small Beach in Southern Coast of Turkey Köyceğiz. July and August in Turkey are the months in which sea tourism is very dense. About 30% of tourists who visit Turkey ( 8 millions tourist) prefer July and August. At the same time both are the the hottest months all over 574 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Turkey. When June is added to them the rate of summer season exceed 40% (Figure 2). The more mean temperatures the more electricity and water consumptions. In a large part of touristic facilities in South and West regions air conditioners opererate much due to hot. This means greater costs for the managements. The more hot the more electricity consumption and greater costs depending on airconditioning. 12000 (1000 Persons) 10000 8000 6000 Seasons 4000 2000 0 Winter Spring Summer Autumn Figure 2: According to the Seasonal Distribution of Tourists Coming to Turkey (2009). The most serious problem experienced in coastal regions in summer season is water supply. Providing fresh water in coastal regions is rather difficult. Water consumption contingent on temperature rise is highly increased in summer season. Increasing consumptions of both fresh water and potable water give rise to a rise in the costs of touristic managements. On the other hand, large green spaces and large gulf courses owned by many facilities will give rise to more water consumption. Therefore, finding new water sources and bringing water from long distances as well as new investments will be needed. One of the tourism branches being in the ascendant in recent times in Turkey is winter tourism. Winter tourism centers such as Uludağ, Kartalkaya, Erciyes, Palandöken and SarıkamıĢ have been rapidly developped. Increasing in mean temperatures reduces snowfalls. As in some years snowfalls are so late maximum snow thickness can not reach 50 cm (Gülbahar, 2008, p.180). For this reason, winter tourism is much damaged and reservations are cancelled. Reduction of snow thickness and shortening time of snow staying on the ground deals death blow to winter tourism (Spence, 2007, p.90). Danger is more serious at the winter tourism centers having lesser elevation. The most important winter tourism centers in Turkey are in West regions. These centers take a risk as they have lesser elevations (Photo 2). Although Turkey has great winter tourism potantiality she takes small share from winter tourism as investments are not made in there due to the reasons such as important elevations are in East regions, safety, transportation and underdevelopment. Shortening periods of snow covering due to temperature rise in Turkey might give rise to instant snow melting and avalanches (Yıldız, 2009, p.83). Instant meltings are a great danger to both tourism centers and regional settlements. 575 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Photo 2: Places Will be Affected More Than Most Global Warming (Uludağ Ski Center). Together with summer hot rise some streams will be dried wholly that have already lower water levels or their flow rates will be decreased. This will prevent some water sports such as rafting from practicing. Particularly, in the shores of Mediterranian rafting over some streams is an activity that have been in demand in recent years (Ertin, 1998, p.204). While some new tourism centers will appear due to rise in temperature some old tourism centers will be diminished in importance. In this way, in the old tourism centers unemployment rate will be increased and this will induce immigration towards other areas. Nature will be under the threat of damage from the pressure of people due to the interest in new tourism spaces. Thermal water might be affected as global warming will decrease water sources. Turkey is the most advantageous country in the region in terms of thermal sources. Turkey has more potantiality than that of countries which are more advanced in tourism than Turkey. Thermal sources of Turkey is a unique potantiality for the aging population of Europe. As thermal sources will become more important in the future it must give consequence this matter and the sources must be exploited productively. Positive Effects of Global Warming on the Tourism in Turkey Sea bathing duration in Turkey extends when we go towards Aegean and Black sea in North from the Mediterranean shores in South. While the sea bathing duration in Mediterranean is over 100 days it reduces a little in Aegean shores due to latitude and this figure is much shortened in Marmara and Black sea shores. While temperature rise affect the Mediterranean shores negatively the case in the North of Aegean, Marmara and Black sea shores is reversed (Yıldız, 2009, p.85). Rises in mean temperatures and sea water temperature particularly in Marmara and Black sea shores will makr these shores an attraction center (Akıncı Kesim and etc., 2007, 465). In this way, new tourism centers will appear and the weight on the provinces located in the Southern Turkey will slide towards the shores of provinces located in the Northern Turkey. The rise in sea water is an advantage for the shores in Turkey. In our days, due to the lower values in sea water and air temperature having a sea bathing in Black sea shores is impossible for a long time. Global warming will revers the case in the long run. While Black sea shores will be changed into the current form of Mediterranean shores, sea bathing period in the Mediterranean shores will be further extended and spring and fall seasons will be appraised. Tourism season in all regions of Turkey will be extended. Sea, sand and sun tourisms will go out of the frame and extend towards spring and fall seasons. In this way, a large part of Turkey will enjoy benefaction of tourism all the year round. Extension in tourism season will give an opportunity to the small tourism centers to grow and to obtain more revenues. 576 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo There are a lot of choices for tourism in Turkey in which average elevation is 1132 m. and land forms are changed in short distances. While some coastal regions in Turkey are effected negatively by the temperature rise, some regions in hinterland and some larger sections are effected positively. In this case Turkey will be a more advantegous country by the effects of global warming. As rise in temperature in Egypt which is located in South of Turkey and in other Southern Mediterranean countries will create a sultry atmosphere the effects of global warming will be felt more seriously Ġn these countries. The tourists who gave up to go to these countries probably would prefer to have their vacations in Turkey. As global warming will not only affect Turkey‘s shores, the countries such as Spain, France, Italy and Greece which attract more tourists and located almost in same latitudes as Turkey would be affected by temperature rise negatively. As there are no seas in the Northern parts of these countries just like Black sea in Northern part of Turkey, the most advantegeous country in the most developped countries in terms of tourism would be Turkey. Turkey will be in with a chance to catch up with her important rivals in tourism field such as France and Spain. Different tourism types will appear in Turkey which has a rich tourism potantiality by the effects of global warming. As long as Turkey could appraise correctly tourism planning and investments the negative effects of the global warming will be changed into positive effects in terms of tourism and will be in with a chance to obtain larger share from tourism sector that that of present time. Conclusion and Suggestions Turkey is one of the countries in the world having great economy which is rapidly developped. Tourism is in the leading role in her revenues. Tourism revenues of Turkey which is almost 20 billiards dollars are of importance in terms of economy. Global warming and climate changes affecting all the world is also important for Turkey and tourism sector takes its share from the effect. Number of people who participate in tourism activities is increased in every year. While the number of people who participate in tourism activities is increased thanks to economical improvements, transportation possibilities and organizations all over the world the tourism cake is also enlarged accordingly. Countries all over the world compete for attracting more tourists. When planning regarding the future is made global warming must be taken into consideration. Turkey is bound to interest any more in the global warming which might affect particularly coastal areas and winter tourism centers and exert more efforts to make researches regarding the matter by finding the possible effects and taking necessary measures. It is possible to reduce the negative effects of climate changes and global warming and to turn disadvantages into advantages in Turkey which has rich tourism possibilities. We can make following suggestions regarding the matter:  Units have to be set up to research the effects of global warming, changes brought about at sea level, and the matter of which regions to be under the risks.  Coordination has to be supplied among the Turkish Republic the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, local administrations and the organizations related to tourism.  Development plans at the coastal areas have to be arranged again and revised according to the effects of global warming.  Road, tourism facilities and port constructions in the coastal settlements must be performed by taking consideration of the maximum sea level.  Planning in regard with tourism investments has to be made by taking consideration of global warming in the future years and its possible effects.  By keeping in sight that Tourism might show a tendency to slide towards the Northern and internal parts of Turkey the infrastructure of transportation network in these regions must be completed.  By appraising the facts of distorted housing and allowing immigrants in the regions where tourism might be developped the previous defects and faults should not be repeated and necessary measures should be taken.  Water sources and thermal sources should be used with more attention and wastes in sources should be prevented by showing regard to the source drought.  Changes in snowfall must be taken into consideration in the investments regarding winter tourism. References Akın, G. (2006). Küresel ısınma, nedenleri ve sonuçları, Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi, 46(2), (p.29-43). 577 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Akıncı Kesim, G., Çimen, H., Alatanlar, A. (2007). Ġklim değiĢikliklerinin turizm ve çevre ile etkileĢimi, I. Türkiye Ġklim DeğiĢikliği Kongresi Bildiriler pdf, (p.462-469). ArıbaĢ, K., Kara, H. (2009). 21. Yüzyıl ve çevre, Elik Publications, UĢak. Doğanay, H. (2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası, Çizgi Bookstore, Konya. Dunn, S., Flaven, C. (2002). Ġklim değiĢikliğini gündemin ön sıralarına taĢımak, dünyanın durumu–2002, Worlwach Enstitüsü TEMA Publications, Ġstanbul. Epstein, P.R., Mills, E. (2005). Climate change futures, Harvard Medical School. Ertin, G. (1998). Türkiye‘de turizm, www.aof.anadolu.edu.tr/kitap/IOLTP/2291/unite12.pdf(01.04.2010) Evans, J.P. (2009). 21st Century climate change in the middle east, Climatic Change, 92, (p.417-432). Godjer, D. (2003). Küresel iklim değiĢimi (Translated:O.Kılıçdağı), Metis Publications, Ġstanbul. Gülbahar, O. (2008). Küresel ısınma, turizme olası etkileri ve Türkiye, KMU ĠĠBF Dergisi, Year:10, Vol:15, (p.160-198). Güngördü, E. (1997). Türkiye‘nin turizm coğrafyası, Ankara. Kadıoğlu, M. (2008). Günümüzden 2100 yılına küresel iklim değiĢimi, TMMOB Ġklim DeğiĢimi Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı, (p.25-45). Özgüç, N. (2003). Turizm coğrafyası özellikler ve bölgeler, Çantay Bookstore, Ġstanbul. Öztürk, K. (2002). Küresel iklim değiĢikliği ve Türkiye‘ye olası etkileri, G.Ü. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol:22(1), (p.4765). Salazar, N.B. (2005). Tourism and globalization ―local‖ tour guiding, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol:32, No:3, (p.628-646). Soykan, F. (2003). Kırsal turizm ve Türkiye için önemi, Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, Vol:12, (p.1-11). Spence, C. (2007). Küresel ısınma, (Translated:S.Gönen-S.Ağar), Pegasus Publications No:83, Ġstanbul. Yıldız, Z. (2009). Küresel ısınma ve alternatif turizme yönelim üzerine etkileri, Vizyoner e-dergi, Vol:1(1), (p.77-91). http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler(01.04.2010) 578 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 277 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Global Warming on the Tourism Sector in Turkey Author Author KARA, Hasan BILGEN, Nurettin ACAR, Derya Abstract A summary of the resource. One of the most crucial problems in the world is global warming. In recent years mean temperature values are rising and downfall values are indicating substantial deviations as to years and months. Even small changes in climates affect many sectors. The leading sector affected by global warming is tourism sector. Tourism is one of the sectors in Turkey developing in the fastest way. Numbers of tourists visiting Turkey have been increased beginning from 2000 and exceeded 27 millions in 2009. Tourism revenue of Turkey has passed over 16 billions dollar. A large number of different sectors such as transportation, food and construction are connected with tourism. Tourism sector is very interested in temperature rise and prolonging of summer season. In sea tourism it is expected an expansion to west and north regions of Turkey as well as south shores. Extreme summer hot will set off immigration from seaboard to uplands and hinterland as well as increase water and electricity consumptions. Less cold in winter season, delay and decrease of snowfall will affect winter sports centers negatively. In this study positive and negative effects of climate changes caused by global warming on the tourism sector which one of leading sectors in Turkey are discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/079a4f8985feb57beef9e4a14ac53086.pdf 9e2b53066583849f4c36ae1f8aeb2995 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Attitudes and Motivation of Learners of French as a Second Language towards Computer Assisted Language Learning Assoc. Prof. .Dr. Şeref KARA Uludag University serefk@uludag.edu.tr Abstract: This study focuses on computer assisted language learning and the attitude of the learners who are enrolled in French department at Uludag University. A total of 42 learners in French programme at Uludag University participated in the study as subjects. They were given questionnaire in pre-test and post-test at the beginning of the academic period and tree months later to observe whether there were any changes in their attitude towards computer assisted learning. The data were collected in the 2009-2010 education-instruction year. The data obtained in the study was analysed using the SPSS statistics computer programme. It was also found out that the CALL method supported with the language learning programme was more effective in positive development of achievement levels of learners. The results exposed that there occurred positive changes in the attitudes of the subjects towards computer assisted language learning during three months. Although most learners accept changes in teaching delivery and welcome the enrichment provided by new educational tools, some refuse them. Differences in learning styles exist, and will continue to exist, and cannot be dismissed. Key words: Computer Assisted Language Learning, French foreign language teaching, attitude, computer, learner, test, assessment. Introduction Recently, computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so dramatically that the majority of language teachers must now begin to think about the implications of computers for language learning. With technological developments human life is getting easier day by day. Computers are among the greatest devices presented us by technology. With the introduction of computers in education, there seemed important changes in teaching and learning method. In recent years, the rapid evolution of information and communication technology (ICT) has made great changes in societies and education. The Internet, particularly, has become a useful tool for communication, a venue for experiencing different cultures and a mediator in diverse political, social and economical situations.The teacher got the role of being a facilitator rather than being authority. When the modern education conception is examined carefully, it can be seen that implementation of computers in foreign language education and learner centred approach are practically at the same time. This research aims to find out the changes in the attitudes of the learners in French programme at Uludag University towards computer assisted language learning. Are there any differences between the attitudes of the learners who have participated in French Programme in their previous life and after tree month exposure process to computer assisted language learning? A student's attitude and motivation has frequently been reported to be the most critical factor for success within computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environments (Brandl, 2002). Motivation, according to Winne and Marx (1989), is both a condition for, and a result of, effective instruction. Based on these claims, it is plausible to speculate that students' motivation plays an important role in successful CALL implementation and that, if used effectively, the CALL environment can enhance students' motivation to learn a foreign language. This study investigated the role of motivation and attitudes on student French foreign learning in an online course context. It also examined how this new foreign learning environment affected students' attitudes and motivation, and how this, in turn, affected students' foreign learning. There are similar definitions of computer assisted language learning. CALL is defined as a method to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned including a substantial interactive element. Most FLT specialists agree that 84 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo CALL is a tool which helps teachers to facilitate language learning process. They think that CALL can be used to reinforce what has been learned in the classrooms. It might also be used as an alternative help for the learners. Although most research (Meskill, 1996), suggests that comprehension is aided by the conjunction of aural/visual processing if there is congruence between the verbal and visual elements, some students may experience (especially in a non-native language) perceptual/cognitive overload and feel that information in ready-made multimedia lectures escapes them (Burston & Monville-Burston, 1996; (Monville)-Burston, 1997) ) There is no doubt that CALL has developed a lot since the day it was introduced to education field. Recently teachers have started to consider the use of computers as an indispensable part of foreign language teaching and learning process. Due to technological advancement, computer has the potential part of foreign language teaching and learning. Communicative CALL gained praise among educationalists and communicative CALL is largely based on communicative method in language learning. In this approach it is argued that computer based exercises should focus more on using forms. There are many explications suggesting the importance of studentstudent interaction in communicative CALL among French foreign language specialists. In communicative CALL the focus shouldn’t be on what students do with the computer but rather what they do with each other while working at the computer. Gardner's Socio-educational Model of Foreign Language Learning (FLL) The role of foreign learning motivation has been intensively studied by social psychologists in Canada, where French and English are the two official languages. Gardner (1985) hypothesized that foreign language learners with positive attitudes toward the target culture and people will learn the target language more effectively than those who do not have such positive attitudes. In their earlier studies, Gardner and Lambert (1959) found that aptitude and motivation were the two factors most strongly associated with learners' second language achievement. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) drew together the findings from many studies over several decades and developed Gardner's “socio-educational model of FLL” (see Figure 1). Figure 1: Representation of Socio-educational Model of SLA (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993) Proponents of this model of SLA (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1992, 1993) claim that individual-difference variables interact with both formal and informal language acquisition contexts and influence both linguistic and nonlinguistic outcomes. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993, p. 9) argue that this model shows the importance of what takes place in the learning contexts: “Teachers, instructional aids, curricula, and the like clearly have an effect on what is learned and how students react to the experience.” The model also predicts that student' linguistic 85 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo outcomes and affects their non-linguistic outcomes and that both types of outcomes will have an influence on individual-difference variables including language attitudes and motivation. The role of the computer in French Foreign Language (FFL) There are diverse opinions among language specialists about the role of computer and the teacher in CALL programmes. The difference between computer as a tutor and computer as instrument is the most ordinary discussion in the field. When the character of CALL is examined carefully, it can be easily recognised that the view of computer as instrument became more prevalent with the arrival of the multimedia computer and internet. From the teacher’ position, the computer is totally dependant on the teacher in many ways. It is unable to create educational materials without a human to direct it. The progressive view is that teacher should take a less intrusive role in managing language learning with the arrival of multimedia. Teacher should take the role of facilitator rather than being the unique authority. We can refer to the teacher as a mediator between the computer and learners throughout the learning process, serving the role of keeping things running smoothly. The computers have some specific advantage as organising of materials, including volume of material and random presentation, scoring and record-keeping, graphics and animation, including allowing student control, recording and storage of learner responses. Certain design issues affect just how interesting the particular tool creates motivation. It must be surely accepted that CALL is a method in which four skills of the target language can be practised effectively. By choosing the correct software programme, both productive and receptive skills can be concentrated. Another advantage of CALL is that target culture could be transmitted to the learners through authentic software programmes. Computers have a useful contribution to the development of oral skills when they are used wisely. Computer simulations are really motivating for the learners. For example dialogues studies can be done with the help of the movie parts in computers and intonation exercises might be added to these activities. For listening skills in CALL many techniques can be used to develop listening skills of the learners. By listening to the speakers in software programme without any subtitles, learners will be exposed to natural sounds of the target language. Learners will pay attention to pronunciation of particular words and compare their own pronunciation with native ones. There are a lot of books and research papers that discuss whether classic class lessons or CALL programmes are more effective in foreign language learning. Several articles have been found which are trying to reflect learners’ feedback about CALL. For example the study of Ayres examines learner attitudes towards the use of CALL and their perceived view of its relevancy to their course of study. This study reports whether there was any relation between the perceived usefulness of CALL, and the students’ level of computer literacy, language level and the age. Methodology and Subjects of the study There are two main purpose of this study. French language programme in French programme at Uludag University is discussed with its main frames and its integration with CALL is focused on. The number of the participants in the study was limited to the number of 4th grade class students. The attitude of the learners towards computer assisted language learning and possible changes in their attitudes towards CALL in a tree month process are examined. For this research, qualitative approach is considered to be the most convenient one because it is based on the idea of making sense of the data. The data collected from the questionnaire were evaluated with qualitative approach; but quantitative approach was also used to count and measure the data in order to analyse the results. The subjects of this study are the students of French programme at Uludag University during 2009-2010 academic year. It is a well-known reality that questionnaire are used data collection instruments in descriptive studies. To learn the attitudes of the students who are enrolled in French programme at Uludag University towards CALL, a questionnaire was applied to them twice in the format of pre-test and post-test. Questions in both pre-test and post-test were the same so as to observe probable difference in their attitude towards CALL in tree month process. The questionnaire was applied to the subjects in their mother language and a description 86 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo about the questionnaire was given to the learners. The questionnaire includes totally 7 questions. In the evaluation phase of the questionnaire, all data were processed in SPSS and analysed using different analysis programmes. The purpose of the present questionnaire was to learn whether there occurred any changes in the attitudes of Uludag University French Programme learner towards CALL in tree-month process. For this motive, the questionnaire was applied to the learners twice to see the possible changes in their attitudes towards CALL. The Results and Analysis of learner’s responses When we examine the answers of the learners to item 1 “I believe that using computers in French foreign language learning is a motivation”, they seem really positive in pre-test. The aim of this item is to learn the ideas of the subjects about the motivational aspect of using computers in French foreign language learning. We can say that the learners think that CALL is really a useful method in French foreign language learning. When we look the answers of the learners in both pre-test and post-test, we can say that they believe that using computers in French foreign language learning is a motivation way in many aspects. As well known, learners use computers in many fields of their life; but it is not frequent to use computers in foreign language learning among the learners. In item 2 “I think that CALL is really an effective method in French foreign language learning”, the learners are relatively optimistic to CALL. The learners had a positive attitude towards computers assisted language learning with arithmetical average more than 85% in both pre-test and post-test. In general, they believe that CALL is an effective approach in French foreign language learning. It can be said that the learners have the assumption that CALL can be an effective method. In item 3 “I believe that computers will give me indispensable feedback when I make mistake”, the learners had the idea that the computers would not give necessary feedback if they make mistakes and be a good guide for them to reach the right point during their activities in tests. In pre-test, it can be seen that the learners had a negative attitudes towards computers’ giving indispensable feedback when they make mistakes during CALL activities. In item 4 “I think that using computers in French foreign language is more useful than coursebooks in terms of verbal and non-verbal forms”, the aim of this item is to learn the idea of learners on transmission the target culture through computers and comparing the use of computers and coursebooks from this perspective. We can conclude that the learners have positive attitudes towards learning the target culture through computers after tree-month CALL exposure. They consider that the computers realize superior work than coursebooks in transmission the target culture while teaching the French foreign language. In item 5 “The studies in computer assisted French language learning are mainly individual and there is no interaction among the learners”, when the arithmetical average of this item is examined, it can be say that the learners don’t consider the studies in CALL boring. They don’t agree with the statement in this item. The situation has not changed in post-test. We can say that the learners do not think the studies in CALL boring after tree-month. In item 6 “CALL which is not maintained by classic classroom lessons can cause learners’ teamwork skills to disappear”, from the results obtained in pre-test, it can be put forward that the learners disagree with the idea that CALL is not supported by classical classroom lessons can cause students’ teamwork skills to disappear. In item 7 “Can you suggest improvements that could be made to the physical presentation of lectures?” The aim of the question was to elicit students' comments on various aspects of the physical presentation of lectures which concerned the researchers. Overall it appears that students were more tolerant than would have been expected. Two complained about the occasional flickering of the screen, two about the necessity of having dimmed lights; except for one exception they considered that the larger than necessary capacity of the lecture theatre was not problematic. Learner performance varied widely and showed a not unexpected relation with the responses given for item 7. The most adventurous learner the explorers were the ones who had the most thorough knowledge of the structure and working of the computer. Two felt that sometimes the “technology got in the way” (i.e. created a distance) and did not make the interaction between the teacher and the class as easy as it would have been if the lecture had been delivered in a more conventional fashion. Informal remarks as well as the end of semester questionnaire seem to indicate that the use of computer by students became more frequent and varied after questionnaire. We believe too that the interview had the effect of convincing the students that they were given special attention. The learners of the corpus do not agree with the description in this item. They may have thought that activities in computer are not the activities which will cause their teamwork skills to disappear. We can say that majority of the subjects participating in this research are afraid of failure in CALL process. 87 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Conclusion The aim of our research was to collect experiential data on CALL, its application areas, its advantages and disadvantages. What was investigated was the initial attitudes and reactions of learners after a tree-months of use. The present research was contextualized at Uludag University French section. It was aimed to examine the learners’ ideas and attitudes towards CALL. The data for the answers of the research questions were obtained from the learners of French section. The instrument to accumulate data was a questionnaire which was applied to the learners in the format of pre-test and post test. The possible needs of the learners for CALL applications were also taken into consideration. It was recognised that tree months CALL experience process had a positive consequence in the attitudes of the learners. .According to the answers of the learners to the questions in the questionnaire, we can recognize that the learners had favourable attitudes towards computer assisted French language learning. What was obtained was some preliminary indications on the usefulness and efficiency as perceived by learners of a completely new way of delivering a content course in our language departments and an innovating tool aimed at facilitating self-study. Learners with aversions to technology also deserve our attention and support, and need to be provided with learning tools that they prefer. Student attitude to towards educational technology in the classroom was overwhelmingly favourable. In some cases this positive attitude was accompanied by enthusiasm, but an instrumentalist reaction was much more the norm. In general, students felt that, like it or not, they had to adapt to the fact that teaching and learning were bound to become increasingly computer-based. It may be useful through a self-assessment questionnaire, for example to be aware from the beginning of the course of the cognitive and learning differences 88 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Reference (Monville)-Burston, M. (1997). Varieties of French: Teaching sociolinguistics with multimedia. In J. Mason et al. (Eds), Doing IT at Melbourne! 42-47. The University of Melbourne. Barbot, M-J. et Pugibet, V. (2002). Apprentissages des langues et technologies : usages en émergence, Le Français dans le Monde-Recherches et Applications, numéro spécial janvier 2002, Clé International. Brandl, K. (2002, March). Students' attitudes and perceptions of learning: A comparative study of a classroom based and web-based language course. Taking language instruction online: Progress or demise? 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De la vidéo à Internet : 80 activités thématiques, Hachette Education, Pratiques de la classe. Mangenot F. (2000) « Quelles tâches dans ou avec les produits multimédias », in actes du colloque Triangle XVII, "Multimédia et apprentissage des langues étrangères". Paris: ENS-Editions. Meskill, C. (1996). “Listening skills development through multimedia.” Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5(2), 175-201. Moll, L.C. (1990). Vygotsky and education. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. Pius, T. H. (2003). “Computer-Assisted Language Learning and the Revolution in Computational Linguistics”. Linguistik Online. May, 17. Winne, P. H., & Marx, R. W. (1989). A cognitive-processing analysis of motivation within classroom tasks. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education: Vol. 3. Goals and cognitions (pp. 223-257). San Diego: Academic Press, Inc. 89 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 400 Title A name given to the resource Attitudes and Motivation of Learners of French as a Second Language towards Computer Assisted Language Learning Author Author KARA, Seref Abstract A summary of the resource. This study focuses on computer assisted language learning and the attitude of the learners who are enrolled in French department at Uludag University. A total of 42 learners in French programme at Uludag University participated in the study as subjects. They were given questionnaire in pre-test and post-test at the beginning of the academic period and tree months later to observe whether there were any changes in their attitude towards computer assisted learning. The data were collected in the 2009-2010 education-instruction year. The data obtained in the study was analysed using the SPSS statistics computer programme. It was also found out that the CALL method supported with the language learning programme was more effective in positive development of achievement levels of learners. The results exposed that there occurred positive changes in the attitudes of the subjects towards computer assisted language learning during three months. Although most learners accept changes in teaching delivery and welcome the enrichment provided by new educational tools, some refuse them. Differences in learning styles exist, and will continue to exist, and cannot be dismissed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)