294 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7276dc34375535b5f6252f0c48885ae7.pdf 1ef701befc94166d5df04634abd292e7 PDF Text Text Environmentally Sustainable Salmonid Culture Yusuf GÜNER Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department, Izmir-Turkey yusuf.guner@ege.edu.tr Gürel TÜRKMEN Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department, Izmir-Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Until very recently most research relating environmental quality and aquaculture was limited to assessment of environmental conditions necessary for culture. Emphasis was placed on dissolved oxygen requirement of the culture fish or the maximum dissolved nitrogen level that could be tolerated without impairment of growth rates or survival. Most attention was directed towards the effect of the environment upon the aquaculture operation, while the converse perspective, the effect of aquaculture upon environmental quality, was largely ignored. The sustainability of aquaculture development and the environmental impacts of aquaculture operations have become a matter of considerable concern for all stakeholders. The development of the aquaculture industry, especially if it is to sustain its current growth, depends on finding ways to increase its environmental, economic and social acceptability. The technique used to culture salmonids throughout the world varies greatly with respect to the water source and means of confining the fish. With the rapid growth of salmonid cage culture over the past decade has come increased examination of this industry segment as a potential pollution source. Aquaculture pollution mainly originates from the physical and chemical characteristics of feed and the applied feeding management. This article reviews the available information on those environmental impacts of salmonid culture and three reportedly environmentally-friendly alternatives; a marine floating bag system; a land-based saltwater flow-through system; and a land-based freshwater recirculating system. Key words: Salmonid, Aquaculture, Environment 1. Introduction Aquaculture has been the most important food source in the world, as an alternative to land based agriculture. The FAO records indicate this industry as the fastest growing sector in agriculture. The production amount had increased from 16.8 million metric tonnes to 68.35 m metric tonnes between 1990 and 2008. (FAO 2010) Based on these statistics, aquaculture is growing more rapidly than all other animal foodproducing sectors. Aquaculture production in Europe has grown to become a significant industry over the past decade and has partly compensated for the decrease in capture pro duction due to dwindling natural stocks (European Commission 2002). The largest aquaculture producer in Europe in 2008 was Norway (Fig. 1). In terms of volume of production there are four other countries in Western Europe, aside from Norway, which are major producers, namely Spain, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, in terms of volume of production, Turkey is the major producer (Fig. 1; Fishstat 2010). The most important species in terms of volume and value of production for aquaculture is the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (high market value but also high cost of production), while the species with the second highest levels of production are mussels (in terms of volume) and seabream and seabass (in terms of value) . It seems that high production (volume and value) is associated with intensive farming of marine fish species (salmon, while the highest production purely in terms of volume (i.e. mussel farming) is associated with lower market value. Of the total world aquaculture production in 2008, 43% was in the form of finfish and crustacean species, the production of which is dependent upon the supply and use of external off-farm nutrient inputs in the form of compound aquaculture feeds. Feed development may need to place increased emphasis on the efficient use of resources and the reduction of feed waste and nutrient discharge. The technique used to culture salmonids throughout the world vary greatly particulary with respect to the water source(i.e., groundwaters or fresh, salt or brackish surface waters) and the means of confining the fish (i.e., raceways,tanks,ponds,cages). Land-based culture vs. cage culture in open water is a major dichotomy central to the prediction of likely environmental impacts. A wide variety of waste recovery or treatment 630 �900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 B Sw elg itz ium er la Au nd st Ic ria el Po and rtu Sw g a l ed Fi en n D lan en d m G ar e N rm k et he any rla nd Ire s la U n ni te Gre d d e Ki ce ng do m Ita Fr ly an ce Sp ai N n or w ay Production in year 2008 (000 tonnes) techniques are available to the land-based culturist where effluent is confined within some form of conduit.In cage culture the effluent is immediately diluted within the receiving water body with little or no opportunity for waste recovery and treatment. A land-based salmonid farm is generally viewed by regulators as a typical pointsource discharge.It will often be required to have some means of waste retention or treatment (e.g.,settling pond or filtration), and the effluent will be regulated for parameters such as total suspend solids (TSS) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). However, a cage farm is subject to none of these treatment or effluent limitations, even if it contains as great or greater fish biomass as its land-based counterpart. This article reviews the available information on those environmental impacts of salmonid culture and three reportedly environmentally-friendly alternatives; a marine floating bag system; a land-based saltwater flow-through system; and a land-based freshwater recirculating system. Production in year 2008 (000 tonnes) A (Western and Central Region of European Aquaculture) 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 y y s ia ia ia ia a ia ia a ia ia d ic ia tv oni en on alt an an pru gar oat an ak gar ubl lan rke v un M lb hu Cy ul o Tu r p La Est lov ed m o l P e C t A Li B H R S ac Ro S h M ec Cz B (Eastern Region of Europaen Aquaculture) Figure 1. European aquaculture production (FAO, 2010). 2. Types of Wastes Assocıated with Salmonıd Culture 2.1. Particulate Wastes The primary types of particulate waste from salmonid culture are feces and uningested feed 631 �pellets.When fed a dry pelleted diet, salmonid feces typically comprise about one-third of ingested material on a dry weight basis ( Butz and Vens-Cappell 1982). The amount of uningested feed will depend upon many factors, including the feed type and metod of dispersal, so consequently estimates of feed wastage vary greatly. Between 1 and 40 % of the feed provided to the fish will not be ingested. Such methods have shown that food losses are typically 1–15%, although if feeding with trash fish they can be as high as 40% (Wu 1995). Feed pellets may be rejected by the fish rather than swallowed if they are contaminated in any way or the fish does not feel like eating (Smith et al. 1993). There is some evidence that feed waste is lower in land-based systems than in cages, possibly due to more efficient feeding in tank sor pond ( Beveridge 1987). 2.2. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Pelleted salmonid feed typically 1-1.5 % phosphorus. The phosphorus in most feeds is both in exceess of the dietary needs of the cultured fish and partially in an unassimilable form. Consequently, a substantial fraction of the phosphorus provided is lost to the environment via the feces, in addition to lesser amounts excreted in the urine. Ammonia and, to a lesser extent, urea are the principale nitrogenous wastes associated with fish culture, anda re produced as by products of protein metabolism. Ammonia may be present either as the nontoxic ammonium ion (NH+4) or as the toxic un-ionized form (NH3). The relative pproportions of the two form are dependent upon temperature and pH, with formation of the toxic NH3 favoured by high temperature and high pH. No cases of ammonia toxicity to aquatic life downstream from fish farm have been reported. Nitrogen and phosphorus are recognized as limitin nutrients in many aquatic systems. The addition of these nutrients generally results in an increase in plant growth. 2.3. Dissolved Oxygen Depletion Salmonid culture will reduce dissolved oxygen concentration through both fish respiration and mineralization of the organic-rich wastes(i.e., feed, fece, soluble metabolites). Salmonid rspiration rate depends upon fish, age, sex, activity and temperature, but an average respiration rate for routine metabolism is about 300 mg O2/kg wet weight/h (Kils 1979). The BOD of the feces and metabolic wastes may consume about 1.5-3 times as much oxygen as respiration alone (Willoughby et al. 1972). Effluent released from salmonid farm can deplete dissolved oxygen in receiving water, either because the effluent itself is oxygen depleted, because of its high BOD, or a combination of both factors. There is also the possibilty of indirect effects, such as nutrient-induced growth of micro- or macroalgae, and the eventual oxygen depletion accompanying decomposition of this algal biomass. 2.4. Chemotherapeutants Chemotherapeutants are employed to treat viral,fungal,bacterial or parasitic infections of culture salmonids.The most commonly used parasiticide/fungicide in salmonid culture is formalin. A wide variety of antibiotics are administered as feed supplements to treat bacterial diseases in salmonids. On a worldwide basis, oxolinic acid and oxytetracycline have historically comprised the vast majority of total antibiotic use by the salmonid culture industry, although their use has diminished in recent years. Other antibiotic used in one or more salmonid-producing countries include potentiated sulfonamides, flumequin,chloramine T, and erythromycine. Little is known about the environmental fate and effects of salmonid chemotherapeutants despite the fact that a substantial portion of the drugs often leave the culture site via the effluent,or in the case of cage culture, are directly released to the environment. Regulatory agencies have generaly assumed that rapide dilution of the therapeutant would result in little or no environmental impact. 3. Environmental Impacts of Land-Based Facilities Land-based salmonid culture systems in freshwater include hatcheries, systems for the production of fry and smolts, and systems for growth to consumption or restocking size. Following this early stage, salmonids may be grown using a variety of land-based or cage.Land-based sysrems include tanks, earth ponds and raceways. Such systems typcally are of the ‘flow-through’ type, but some ‘recycle’ systems are also in use. Recycling systems are used in fish farming when water availibity is limited, or there is a need for strict control over the culture environment. The high cost of recycling systems has restricted their use in salmonid culture to a few hatcheries that heat water to accelerate egg development and then recycle the water to conserve heat. 632 �3.1. Waste Products and Loading Uneaten feed and excreta give rise to elevated concentrations of suspended solids, BOD, nutrients and minor elements in land-based salmonid farm effluent. Many studies show considerable variation in waste loading, attributable to differences in species, fish size, physiological status,method and intensity of culture, and temperature. Waste loading from hatcheries are likely to be small during egg incubation because there is no feeding. After hatching, use of artificial feed results in increasing waste loading from discharge of uneaten pellets,feces and soluble excreta. Following early growth stage, salmonids will be transferred to different growout systems,the type of which affects total waste loading. During winter, when shorter day length and lower water temperature limits activity and feeding, wastage rates fall dramatically. On a daily basis, waste loading vary depending principally upon feeding schedules and tank, pond or raceway cleaning. Suspended solid, BOD and total phosphorus commonly peak during and immediately after feeding, later followed by peak ammonium concentration. A number of studies reviewed in Alabaster (1982) reveal a net reduction in solids concentration as water passed through the farm. However, accumulation of solids in pond and tanks can lead to very high “shock” loads of solids during harvesting or tank cleaning. 3.2. Environmental Đmpacts 3.2.1. Water Use: Water requirement forland-based salmonid culture depend on stock biomass and feeding patterns.Withdrawal of water for land-based salmonis farm has the potential to reduce water flow from streams and rivers, with potetial impacts including: (1) changes in channel shape, patters of sedimentation, water movement and silation; (2) loss of spawning areas for fish stocks, or loss of nursery areas; (3)barriers to the movement of migratory fish; (4) changes in biological communities, through loss of dilution capacity between inflow and outflow, reduced turbulence and oxygenation,plus possible loss of habitat due to stranding and desiccation in channel areas above the waterline. 3.2.2. Dissolved Oxygen: A survey of effluent from land-based tank and pond farm by Alabaster (1982) found a mean decrease of 1.6 mg/l. from inflow to outflow, with an average flow of 12.6 ls-1.t-1 of annual fish production. Depending on the quality of the effluent, further changes in dissolved oxygen in receiving water may occur. The need to maintain oxygen levels to protect the farm stock shoukd ensure that significant depletion downstream from farm is unlikely in most cases, although the possibility exists of some localized depletion associated with deposition of organic solids. 3.2.3. Chemotherapeutants: Toxicity to downstream biota attributable to discharge of waste chemotherapeutants is possible, although there is little information on such effects. Formalin and Iodophors are the most widely used disinfectants in European aquaculture (Henderson and Davies 2000). Antifoulants are, by their nature, toxic to marine organisms. The amounts involved may be substantial-for example, around 156 tonnes of copper were released into the environment from the use of antifouling treatments in salmon farming in Norway in 1994. Formalin is widely used asan immersion treatment on tank, pond and cage farm for control of ectoparasites,usually as a bath treatment at 150250 mg/l. for 1 h. lethal concentration of formalin vary from 60-600 mg/l. for fish (for exposures of 24-96 h.), 0.3-0.5 mg/l. for alg, to up to 835 mg/l. for certain aquatic insects, suggestion the possiblity of some localized toxic effects on aquatic biota directly below land-based outfalls, particulary for the more sensitive planktonic and microbial organisms. 3.2.4. Microorganisms: Some qualitative changes in the bacterial microflora of trout farm effluents have been observed, altough the bacteria present are generally similar in terms of number and composition to those found in the inflows (Austin 1985). Although some studies have shown increases in the number of fecal coliform during the passage of water through trout farm (Hinshaw 1973), the data are fragmentary and the consensus seems to be that this phenomenon is not a significant problem. Viruses have also been detected in farm effluent. Leon and Turner (1979) measured effluent concentrations of infection hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) as high as 400 plaque-forming units (pfu) ml-1 during a disease outbreak at a salmonid hatchery. 3.2.5. Benthic Impacts: Impacts of fish farm wastes include a loss of sensitive invertebrate species at or just below the point of discharge, with an increase in the density and biomass of organisms tolerant of organic pollution such as olgochaetes, chironomids and certian leeches. Markmann (1982) also reporteda loss of ‘cleanwater species’ such as Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera and an increase in oligochaetes, leeches, 633 �Diptera larvae and gastropods below Danish rainbow trout farm. Organic-rich particulate wastes appear to be the most significant source of impact and there is evidence that benthic communities can return to background condition if suspended solids are removed from effluent (NCC 1990). 3.2.6. Macrophytes: Publised data on the effects on land-based farm on macrophytes are limited, although enhanced macrophyte growth, particularly growth of pollution-tolerant species, is frequently cited as a response to fish farm discharge in English rivers. Studies on the River Hull show greater adventitious root growth and shoot extension in Ranunculus penicillatus var. Calcareus collected below a trout farm discharge,although effects related to weed cutting may also have been important (Carr 1988). 3.2.7. Wild Fish Populations: Water withdrawal for land-based tank or pond farm may result in physical and chemical changes to fish habitats, and some loss of habitat has been reported in England (Allan 1983). However, studies in Denmark (Rasmussen 1988) and the U.S. ( Hinshaw 1973) showed that addition of fish farm effuent may increase the productivity of downstream fish populations. 4. Waste Reduction and Treatment 4.1. Feeding Techniques and Feed Type Uneaten food, faecal losses, food conversion ratios (FCR; the ratio of the weight of feed added to the weight of fish produced) and digestibility can be estimated to derive expressions of various wastes, such as for N or P. The result is a budget showing the flow of nutrients from the food offered, the assimilation of food in the fish as a result of growth (metabolism) and the loss of nutrients into the sediments and water column. Wastage of whole pellets may depend on various factors. If pellets are supplied at a rate that exceeds the ability of the fish to eat them or under conditions such that the pellets are not detected as they settle, there will be wastage of whole pellets. Davies (2000) reported predicted dissolved N release rates in the range of 35–45 kg per tonne of salmon produced, depending on the details of the stocking, feeding and harvesting strategies adopted. GESAMP (1996) reported values for the rate of excretion of dissolved N by farmed fish of around 75–120 kg N/tonnes of production. If the FCR, wastage from uneaten pellets and indigestibility can be reduced further, it is anticipated that release rate of dissolved N would be reduced to 33 kg/tonne of production (Davies 2000). Further reductions need new technology and additional innovative approaches. Careful feeding and the use of correct diet offer good potential to reduce effluent loads at the source. Overfeeding of fish also decreases feed digestibility and increases fecal production. Thus, a reduction in feed losses by monitoring of feed losses and careful hand-feeding, either exclusively or as a supplement to automatic feeders, can significantly reduce effluent loads and reduce impacts on running waters (Bromage et al. 1990). The physical characteristics of the fish food are very important in term of pollution potential of the feed. The use of dry pellets rather than moist pellets or”trash” or “rough” fish considerably reduce the amount of wastage (Alabaster 1982). Unstable pellts may also increase waste loading if rapidly broken down into unacceptably small-size particles. Foof with low settling velocity also help to prevent excess wastage. The amount of phosphorus discharge from fish farm is determined by the amount and digestibility of phosphorus in the feed (Crampton 1987). The total concentration of phosphorus must be kept low and its digestibility high to minimize waste phosphorus release. Most waste phosphorus is bound in the particulate fraction, although a significant part of this particulate fraction is easily dissoveld. In the marine environment, losses of P from fish farms have been estimated as 19.6–22.4 kg/tonne fish (trout) produced, 34–41% of which is released in dissolved form with the remainder lost by sedimentation. Holby and Hall (1991) estimated that 4–8% of the sedimentary P was returned to the water column per year. There would thus seem to be excellent potential for reducing phosphorus levels in salmonid farm effluent by reducing phosphorus in feed.The level of protein and amino acid balance has been determined (decreased N content in the feed, 45% protein in the feeds), and the P content in the feeds has been decreased (from 1.5 to 0.7 in salmon feeds). Nitrogen excretion depends on many factors including its bioavailability and feeding rate, but on average, 60 % of dietary nitrogen is excreted (Beamis and Thomas 1984)The quality of fish meal and other protein sources used in the diet dictates the proportion of feed protein that can be assimilated into muscle tissue.Ammonia excretion rates are higher if protein is used as energy source, because ammonia is a by-product of protein metabolism. Poor quality carbohydrate sources result in increased suspended solids and BOD and can cause growth of sewage fungus in receivingwaters. Alternatively, if the carbohydrate(or lipid)source is insufficient, then 634 �ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes increase. In the production of extrude pellets, the higher temperatures and pressures may result ingelatinization of dietary starch, thus increasing the bioavailability of carbohydrate. Alternative protein sources to replace fishmeal (e.g. soya) and methods of reducing the discharge of feed from farms have been examined (Hardy 1996). Although carbohydrates can be used as an alternative to fishmeal, research has shown that certain fish, such as rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), use dietary carbohydrates rather poorly: they show prolonged postprandial hyperglycaemia. The efficiency of glucose utilization as an energy source by rainbow trout is low (Panserat et al. 2000). Further research is needed to understand dietary carbohydrate utilization in fish in order to enable the development of diets that can replace fishmeal as the major source of dietary protein for farmed fish. Recently, a reduction in N released to the environment was achieved through a general reduction in FCR, which is currently 1:1 for salmon farming in Western Europe ( Pearson and Black 2001). Oil and fats may contribute to visible surface scums and the BOD of fish farm effluent. Problems associated with these constituents can be partly avoided by the use of high quality ingredients and a correct balance between requirement and concentration in the diet. Many freshwater diets are formulated as “high energy” diets that contain high level of fat.Thes diets are designed to minimize protein metabolism and can be used to reduce ammonia excretion. 4.2. Settlement Treatment Settlement treatment work on the principal that solid particles with a densiity greater than water will fall out of suspension when water fow is reduced.the rate at which particles will setle in stil water condition depens largely on particle size and density; larger or more dense particles will settle more rapidly than smaller or less dense ones. The design and effectiveness of a settlement system is therefore dependent on the retention time of effluent in a settling tank or pond as well as the surface area available for settling. It is also desirable to prevent the solid in the effluent becoming fragmented as particle break up will inhibit settling and promote leaching of nutrient from the solid waste. Fish farm and settling tanks sholud be designed to minimize break up due to unnecessary turbulance.The stuidies show that up to 90 % of suspended solids, 60 % of BOD and 50 % of total phosphorus loads can be removed by settlement treatment, although system performance is extremely variable. When level of suspended solids are <10 mg/l., is common in salmonid farm effluent, efficiency is greatly reduced, although it is possible for suspended solids to be increased by pre-concentration treatment.It is also difficult to obtain suspended solids levels of < 6 mg/l in settled effluent ( Henderson and Bromage 1988). Other problems are that the area required for settling ponds or lagoons can be large in comparison with the size of the farm. Others class of settling tank desing are based on a circular water flow (centrifuge) and the swirl concentrator . A major constraint upon the use of settlement devices remains the characterization of particle size of loads; as previously mentiond, both the nature and quantity of wastes produced by a farm varies substantially both during a day, and throughout the growing season. A consequnce of this varying waste output is that in order for settlement devices to be effective waste treatment systems,they must be designed to operate efficiently over a wide range of partile sizes. 4.3. Screening and Filtration Treatment The most popular method of mechanical particle separation is the treatment by static or rotating microscreens. The treatment efficiency of microscreens has been tested in several studies (Lekang et al., 2000; Makinen et al., 1988; Wedekind, 1996) and a wide range of nutrient removal could be found. By using microscreens, reduction of solids achieved 50 — 74%, 49.3 — 63% of total phosphorus (TP) and 10— 42.7% of total nitrogen (TN). Salmonid farm effluent may be treated by passage through a screen to remove particulate matter. It is a self-cleaning or rotating filter. The most common configurations are variation of rotary screens, where the screen operates only partially submerged in the water that is to be filtered. The submerged section of the screen filtes the water passing through it while the remainder of the screen is cleaned, usually by a high pressure water jet, with the residue running to a settling pond. The clean section of screen then rotates to replace the submerged section. One of these systems are the “Triangelfilter”. Its removal efficiencies data clearly demostrate the potential of these and similar screen filters for removing materials from fish farm effluent. The advantage of the “Triangelfilter” or similar systems is that solids are separated from the effluent water relatively quickly, thereby reducing the amount of time for leaching of soluble material from solid particules. After screening, filtration may be used as a secondary systems for fine solids removal. Diatomaceous earth filters are good at removing extremely fine particulate matter (0.1-5 µm), but are not cost effective in treating effluent from salmonid farm. The most common filter medium is sand and gravel ranging in size from 0.25-5mm, usually graded coarse to fine in the direction of water flow. The growing concern over potential impacts of therapeutants on the environment has stimulated interest in techniques for removing such chemicals from fish farm effluent. But 635 �there is little information on methods for treatment of chemical. 4.4. Biofiltration Biofiltration can, in theory, be used to improve effluent water quality from salmonid farm. In aquaculture, biofiltres are commonly used in recycle sytems to prevent accumulation of ammonia and nitrite.The technique is not considered practical or economic for treatment of salmonid farm wffluent in most circumstances due to low temperatures (NCC 1990) and large volum of effluent involved. There has been some interest in using algae and aquatic macrophytes, such as reeds, to reduce levels of nutrients in effluent. Reed beds are being investigated for nutrient removel from small scale sewage works and water hyacinths and duckweed have been grow for this purpose in warmer countries (Zirschky and Reed 1988). As with settlement pond, one of the major constraints to biofilters is that of space required. 4.5. Constructed Wetlands Constructed wetlands represent a natural treatment system based on biological symbiosis between macrophytes (Phragmites sp., Typha sp., etc.) and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae), and their interactions with the soil chemistry. In recent years, created wetlands have been developed to successfully treat agricultural, municipal, or industrial wastewaters. Depending on the choice of construction and function, macrophyte treatment systems can be divided into: 1. ponds with free-floating or submersed plants and no effluent; percolation through the soil 2. root zone systems with emergent plants and completely effluent percolation through the soil; 3. hydrobotanic systems as link between (1) ponds and (2) root zone systems. Moreover, these treatment systems can be subclassified by the flow direction of effluents (vertical or horizontal), the plant species or type of soil (Kehrer, 1997). Biotic and abiotic purification mechanisms of constructed wetlands are based on the following processes (Gumbricht 1993): (a) mechanical screening and sedimentation, (b) microbial degradation, (c) biochemical nutrient removal of plant rhizomes, (d) adsorption through ligand exchange, (e) precipitation and chemical fixation of reactive soil ingredients.Removal efficiency is strongly influenced by the microorganisms inhabiting soil particles and the rhizome of plants. Plants with aerenchym root systems aerate the soil and consequently aerobic microorganism (e. g. Nitrosomonas sp., Nitrobacter sp.) growth is promoted. Bahlo and Wach (1993) found more intensive biological degradation of ammonium to nitrate close to the rhizomes. Microbial elimination of nitrate — nitrogen (denitrification) occurs in the anaerobic parts of the soil, which can be found even in effluents of constructed wetlands with oxygen levels of more than 4 mg/l. Particle bound phosphorus is mineralized by heterotrophic microorganism and at low redox-potential sorpted to iron-, aluminium-, manganese hydroxides/-oxides, calcium or clay minerals (Gumbricht, 1993). Removal processes of constructed wetlands show increased efficiency by using smaller soil particle sizes. 636 �Figure 2. Design of used root zone constructed wetlands with horizontal flow and emergent plants; larger substrate at inlet and outlet to facilitate influent distribution and effluent drainage (Schulz et al. 2003). Schulz et al. (2003) investigated treatment of aquaculture effluents of flow- through systems in created wetlands. The constructed wetlands types used in this study were subsurface root zone systems with emergent plants and horizontal effluent soil percolation (Fig.2). Three 1.40 x 1.00 x 0.70 m (L x W x H) root zone systems were filled with sands of 1 — 2 mm particle size and planted with 20 rooted shoots of reed per square meter (Phragmites australis). Nutrient removal of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) effluents flowing through the wetland was determined for hydraulic loading rates of 1, 3 and 5 l/min corresponding to very short hydraulic residence times (HRTs) of 7.5, 2.5 and 1.5 h, respectively. Inflowing nutrients were removed within every continuously flooded wetland. Total suspended solids (TSS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were reduced by 95.8 — 97.3% and 64.1 — 73.8%, respectively, and demonstrated no influence of HRT. Total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) removal rates varied from 49.0% to 68.5% and 20.6% to 41.8%, respectively, and were negatively correlated with HRTs. Effluent purification was best at HRT of 7.5 h, but sufficient removal rates were achieved for shorter HRTs. Obtained removal rates demonstrated that created wetlands with high hydraulic loads reduced inflowing nutrients by amounts comparable to, or exceeding that achieved by mechanical treatments such as microscreens or sedimentation tanks. Thus, created wetlands are a viable alternative treatment for aquaculture effluents. 4.6. Integrated Aquaculture The salmon aquaculture industry has adopted a number of strategies to reduce nutrient wastes and its impacts on the local environment, including improved feed formulations and digestibility, improvements in feed/waste monitoring and feeding techniques, site rotation and fallowing, and reduced stocking densities. Integrating the culture of filter-feeding bivalve molluscs (e.g. mussels, oysters, scallops) with salmon farms has long been advocated as another potential strategy to alleviate waste loadings and environmental impacts associated with open-water salmon culture (Folke et al., 1994; Kautsky et al., 1997). In a conceptual open-water integrated culture system as proposed by Kautsky et al. (1997), filter-feeding bivalves are cultured adjacent to meshed fish cages, reducing nutrient loadings by filtering and assimilating particulate wastes (fish feed and faeces) as well as any phytoplankton production stimulated by introduced dissolved nutrient wastes. Waste nutrients, rather than being lost to the local environment, as in traditional monoculture, are removed upon harvest of the cultured bivalves. With an enhanced food supply within a fish farm, there is also potential for enhancing bivalve growth and production beyond that normally expected in local waters. Therefore, integrated culture has the potential to increase the efficiency and productivity of a fish farm while reducing waste loadings and environmental impacts. This model of integrated bivalve – fish culture is certainly simple and, intuitively, appears promising. However, few practical studies have been undertaken, with conflicting conclusions regarding the potential for openwater integrated culture to enhance bivalve production and, by implication, to significantly reduce fish farm wastes. Studies have shown that bivalves are capable of utilising fish farm wastes as an additional food supply (Mazzola and Sarà 2001), likely explaining the increased growth displayed by mussels (Wallace, 1980) and oysters (Jones and Iwama, 1991) grown adjacent to fish cages. However, other studies have reported no, or minimal, growth enhancement of bivalves cultured in an integrated bivalve – fish system (Gryska et al.,1996). 637 �Decreasing Dependence on Local Ecosystem Services Increasing Material and Energy Inputs Land-Based Flow-Through Net-Cage Land-Based Recirculating Bag Figure 3. The flow of material and energy inputs in relation to the dependence on ecosystem services 4.7. Land-Based Recirculating Systems In recent years, particular emphasis has been placed on the development of closed-containment systems, a term widely used to describe a range of production systems that employ an impermeable barrier to isolate the culture environment from surrounding ecosystems. Theoretically, by culturing fish in a closed environment, fish farmers can exert greater control over the rearing conditions, allowing them to improve the quality of the fish while at the same time reducing proximate environmental impacts. Some of the potential advantages of closedcontainment systems are: (1) minimized fish escapes; (2) minimized predator interactions; (3) reduced disease transmission; (4) lower feed inputs; (5) higher stocking densities; and (6) improved waste management capabilities. The system is entirely contained inside a warehouse and consists of a series of circular concrete tanks of various sizes. New water is continuously pumped into the tanks from an on-site freshwater well. Approximately 99% of the water is recirculated back into the system after passing through an extensive mechanical and biofiltration process.Wastewater that is lost from the system at various stages passes through a holding tank where solids are settled out and the remaining wastewater enters the municipal sewer system. The solid fish wastes are collected in the holding tank for future use as a substitute for conventional synthetic fertilizers for plants fertilizer in an adjacent greenhouse. Ayer and Tyedmers (2008), studied on Assessing alternative aquaculture technologies: life cycle assessment of salmaonid culture systems in Canada. In the study, four different system such as; Marine net-pen, Marine floating bag, Land-based flow-through and Land-based recirculating were studied. At the end of study, the recirculating system was the only system at which wastes were managed. The differences of the systems was presented in Fig. 3 (Ayer and Tyedmers 2008). 5. Conclusions Intensive salmonid cultivation can introduce significant quantities of nutrient wastes from uneaten feed, faeces and excretory products into the local environment. Along with the growth of the salmon aquaculture industry, so too have concerns regarding the environmental impacts from aquaculture wastes. One of the major challenges for the sustainable development of salmonid culture, and the aquaculture industry generally, is to minimise environmental degradation concurrent with its projected expansion. The impacts of particulate wastes such as uneaten fish feed and faeces are largely on the benthic environment immediately surrounding fish farms; alterations to sediment biogeochemistry and benthos from sedimented solid wastes are well-documented (Brooks et al., 2003). Remineralised nutrients from these deposits, along with fish metabolic wastes, particularly ammonia, are dispersed within the receiving water body and may contribute to localised hypernutrification. During seasonal cycles of nutrient availability, additional dissolved nutrient wastes have the potential to stimulate benthic algal production, increase phytoplankton production leading to localised eutrophic conditions, and alter dissolved N/P ratios that promote the growth of toxic algal species (Folke et al., 1994). Bubridge and Burbridge (1994) identify three ways in which it would be possible to achieve control of feed impacts from aquaculture: (1) control of the sites where the culture farms are located; (2) control of the released effluents; (3) monitoring of impacts generated by effluents once the farm begins its work. Polyculture, or inte- grated aquaculture associating shellfish 638 �and algae culture with fish culture may be part of the solution (Cheshuk et al. 2003). The development and application of Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) and the design of models for evaluating environmental impacts are other initiatives for controlling and monitoring the environmental impact of fish farms. References Alabaster, J.S. (1982). Survey of fish farm effluent in some EIFAC countries.p. 5-20 In: J.S.Alabaster(ed.) Report of the EIFAC workshop on fish-farm effluents. 26-28 May 1981. Silkeborg, Denmark. EIFAC Tech.Pap.41 Allan, I.R.H. (1983). A study of the impacts of fish farming on the fisheries and fishing in the revers test and ıtchen, Hampshire. Report to the test and ıtchen fishing association, (Unpublished). Austin, B. (1985). Antibiotic pollution from fish farm: effects on aquatic microflora. Microbial.Sci., 2:113-117 Ayer, N.W., Tyedmers, P.H. (2008). Assessing alternative aquaculture technologies: life cycle assessment of salmaonid culture systems in Canada. Journal of Cleaner Production, 89: 1-12. Beveridge, M.C.M. (1987).Cage aquaculture. 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Meeresforschung, 27(4): 236-243 Lekang, O.I., Bergheim, A., Dalen, H. ( 2OOO). An integrated wastewater treatment system for l and-based fish- farming. Aquac. Eng., 22: 199 — 211. Markmann, P.N. (1982). Biological effects of effluent from Danish fish farm.p. 103-112 In: J.S.Alabaster(ed.) Report of the EIFAC workshop on fish-farm effluents.26-28 May 1981. Silkeborg, Denmark. EIFAC Tech.Pap.41 Mazzola, A., Sarà, G. (2001). The effect of fish farming organic waste on food availability for bivalve molluscs (Gaeta Gulf, Central Tyrrhenian, MED): stable carbon isotopic analysis. Aquaculture, 192: 361 – 379. NCC (1990). Fish farming and the Scottish freshwater environment. Nature Conservancy Council Report, 129p. Panserat, S., Medale, F., Breque, J., Plagnes-Juan, E., Kaushik, S. (2000). Lack of significant long-term effect of dietary carbohydrates on hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase expression in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J Nutr Biochem., 11: 22–29. Pearson, T.H., Black, K.D. (2001). The environmental impacts of marine fish cage culture. In: Black KD (ed) Environmental impacts of aquaculture. Academic Press and CRC Press, Sheffield, UK,pp 1–32. Rasmussen, F. (1988). Therapeutics used in fish production: pharmokinetics,residues and withdrawal periods. EIFAC/XV/88/Inf.13:22p. Smith, I.P., Metcalfe, N.B., Huntingford, F.A., Kadri, S. (1993) Daily and seasonal patterns in the feeding behaviour of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in a sea cage. Aquaculture, 117: 165–178. Wallace, J.F. ( 1980). Growth rates of different populations of the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis, in Norway. Aquaculture, 19: 303 – 311. Willoughby, H., H.N., Larsen and Bowen, J.T. (1972). The pollutional effects of fish hatcheries. Am.Fish. U.S.Tout News 17(3): 20-21. Wu, R.S.S. (1995) The environmental impact of marine Bull. , 31: 159–166. fish culture: towards a sustainable future. Mar Pollut. Schulz, C., Gelbrecht, J., Rennert, B. (2003). Treatment of rainbow trout farm effluents in constracted wetland with emergent plants and subsurface horizantal water flow. Aquaculture, 217: 207-221. Zirschky, J. and Reed, S.C. (1988). The use of duckweed for wastewater treatment. J.Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 60: 1253-1258. 640 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 611 Title A name given to the resource Environmentally Sustainable Salmonid Culture Author Author GÜNER, Yusuf TÜRKMEN, Gürel Abstract A summary of the resource. Until very recently most research relating environmental quality and aquaculture was limited to assessment of environmental conditions necessary for culture. Emphasis was placed on dissolved oxygen requirement of the culture fish or the maximum dissolved nitrogen level that could be tolerated without impairment of growth rates or survival. Most attention was directed towards the effect of the environment upon the aquaculture operation, while the converse perspective, the effect of aquaculture upon environmental quality, was largely ignored. The sustainability of aquaculture development and the environmental impacts of aquaculture operations have become a matter of considerable concern for all stakeholders. The development of the aquaculture industry, especially if it is to sustain its current growth, depends on finding ways to increase its environmental, economic and social acceptability. The technique used to culture salmonids throughout the world varies greatly with respect to the water source and means of confining the fish. With the rapid growth of salmonid cage culture over the past decade has come increased examination of this industry segment as a potential pollution source. Aquaculture pollution mainly originates from the physical and chemical characteristics of feed and the applied feeding management. This article reviews the available information on those environmental impacts of salmonid culture and three reportedly environmentally-friendly alternatives; a marine floating bag system; a land-based saltwater flow-through system; and a land-based freshwater recirculating system. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/15415e429f2b417396e43354a6b2a162.pdf 5a0791e5ae4abb68823b538e2a262856 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Determining the Districts That can be a Province in Turkey Using Analytic Hierarchy Process Ġbrahim GÜNGÖR Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University igungor@akdeniz.edu.tr Hakan BAKAN Research Asistant, Mugla University hkn_bkn@mu.edu.tr Muharrem AKSU Lecturer, Akdeniz University muharremaksu@akdeniz.edu.tr Serap KĠREMĠTCĠ Research Asistant Ġstanbul University serapy@istanbul.edu.tr Ali GÖKSU Assist. Prof. Dr., International Burch University Faculty of Economics Department of Business Administration goksu@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: It is very important problem objectively determining districts which will become province. It will be appropriate to use AHP to search an efficient solution to this problem. In this study. In this study, AHP is used to determine priority ranking of districts which is eligible to become a province in Turkey. According to the result of this AHP application, Alanya is the most eligible candidate district with 33% importance degree. The following districts based on the ranking are; Bandırma, Fethiye, Elbistan, Ereğli, Bergama, ÖdemiĢ and ErciĢ. Introduction There are many districts that desire to become a province in Turkey. Districts' desire for becoming a province have been continuing for a long time. This demand is also used for election argument by politicians and political parties before the elections. Some of these districts achieved their wants, and finally became a province. With the rapid development of Turkey, some districts growed much more than some cities. As a result of this growth, these districts have the potential of being a province. However, there are some criterias which districs must have in order to become a province. Factors, such as socio-economic development, population, geographical structures of districts, need to be taken into consideration. The aim of the study is to compare 10 candidate district which desire to become a province according to the criterias that researchers has determined, and to choose the best candidate based on this comparison by using The Analytic Hierarchy Process. According to 126. article of The Constitution of the Republic of Turkey 1982, in terms of central administrative structure, Turkey is divided into provinces on the basis of geographical situation and economic conditions, and public service requirements; provinces are further divided into lower levels of administrative districts. In accordance with the provisions of constitute article, in Province Administration Law 5442 criterias are determined to established provinces while stating that Turkey divided into provinces, provinces divided into districts, and districts divided into sub-districts. But there are not defined criterias about the issue of administrative status change of a place in Turkey. And also status change of provinces, particularly change to provinces, is not mostly 517 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo based on the detailed social, economical and demographical researchs . It was based generally on some properties of the places that were made provinces during the years 1989-1999, such as the economical development or undevelopment, geographical positon, the historical background, the migration, the population density, and the security of the place. But like all these and other factors also are valid for the districts38. As there are not clear and obvious laws concerning with establishing new provinces in Turkey, the reasoning of establishing new provinces mostly based on the mentioned Constitution Article, and related articles of Province Administration Law. Since mentioned articles state only three criteria which are on the initiative of the government, it is the role of the government to fill the content of those unclear concepts. Although the desire of the people, geographical position, transportation and security factors generally play very crucial role on establishing provinces in Turkey, some places which come to the position of being a province according to economical situation, and population have forced governments which have voting concerns. Those governments change administrative position of the places mainly based on their political objectives. It is asserted that the use of the demand of becoming a province in recent years as a political pressure and gain on politicians have much more influence on the increasing number of the provinces than the public service requirements in Turkey 39. It is very important problem objectively determining districts which will become province. The evaluation of this subject without making it as a domestic political argument, will be easier and more convincing for both political parties and governments. It will be possible to show more fairly, scientifically and objectively behavior with the use of AHP at the solution of this problem. In the second part of this study, a brief information was given about AHP. In the third part, how the application was implemented, how the data was prepared, how the criterias were determined, and the results of the study were explained and reported. Analytic Hierarchy Process When decision makers face with a multicriteria problem, they decompose it in hieararchic levels acccording to importance of criterias. The decision making process involves developing priorities for alternatives based on the decision maker's judgements and selecting the best alternative that satisfies the objective. One of the techniques used for this process is Analytic Hierarcy Process (AHP) which allows pairwise comparisons. AHP is widely used as one of the major methods in solving a wide range of problems that involve complex criteria accross different levels where the interaction of criteria is common (Hsu ve Pan, 2009, p. 2311). AHP, developed by Saaty, is a decision aiding method provides a way to rank the alternatives of a problem by deriving priorities (Saaty, Peniwati ve Shang, 2007, s. 1041). It is a very useful tool for multicriteria decision making where the objective is to select the best alternative taken into consideration. AHP performs pairwise comparisons to measure relative importance of the elements in each level of the hierarchy and evalutes alternatives in the lowest level of the hierarcy in order to make the best decision among multiple candidates ( Sipahi and Esen, 2010, p. 300) In AHP, the hierarchic structure must be built by determining important criterias and subcriterias belonging to each criteria according to the decision maker's objective. First of all, the objective is determined and then the criterias for this objective will be pointed out. After this, alternatives for each criteria will be determined. In this way the hierarchic structure for decision making has been constructed. (Scholl et all., 2005, p.763) AHP is a mathematical method which considers group's or individual's characteristics, and evaluates quantitative and qualitative variables together in the decision making process (Dağdeviren et all., 2004, p.132). At the same time, it provides more efficient decision making oppurtunities ( Ecer and Dündar, 2008 , p. 198). This method has been widely used in solving real life complex decision making problems in recent literature, especially in effectiveness analysis and performance measurement problems (Peters and Zelewski, 2008, p.1040). 38 Gökçen KILINÇ, Yeni Ġl Kurulması ve Siyaset, http://www.istanbulburda.com/haber_author.php?id=1967; Gökçen KILINÇ ve Nuran ZEREN GÜLERSOY, ―Türkiye‘deki Ġlçelerin KentleĢme Derecelerine Göre Ġl Olma Potansiyellerinin Değerlendirilmesi‖, ĠTÜ Dergisi, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Mart 2007, s.72. 39 Selçuk YALÇINDAĞ, ―Yönetsel Etkililik, Demokrasi ve Ġl Sayısının Artırılması‖, Amme Ġdaresi Dergisi, Cilt 30, Sayı 1, 1997, s.12; Yasin SEZER, ―Merkezi Yönetimin Ġl ve Bölge Ölçeğinde Örgütlenmesi‖, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, C.I, S.I, Afyon, 1999, s.205.; Yasin SEZER, ―Kamu Yönetimi Temel Kanunu Tasarısı Çerçevesinde Ġl Genel Yönetimi Hakkında Bir Ġnceleme‖, (Ed.), Nagehan Arslan, Türkiye‘de Kamu Yönetimi Sorunları Üzerine Ġncelemeler, Seçkin Yayınları, Ankara, 2005, s.22. 518 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The AHP approach was developed in the early 1970s in response to military contingency planning, scarce resources allocation, and the need for political participation in disarmament agreements (Yang and Shi, 2002, p. 30). AHP is not only a decision making method that decomposes a complex multi-criteria decision problem into a hierarchy but also a measurement theory that prioritizes the hierarchy and consistency of the judgmental data provided by a group of decision makers agreements (Hsu ve Chen, 2008, p. 46) The use of AHP in order to solve a decision making problem involves the following steps (Al-Harbi, 2001, p. 20): 1. Define the decision making problem and determine its goal. 2. Structure the hierarchy from the top (the objectives from a decision-maker's point of view) through the intermediate levels (criteria on which subsequent levels depend) to the lowest level which usually contains the list of alternatives. 3. Construct a set of pair-wise comparison matrices ( n x n square matrix) for each of the lower levels with one matrix for each element in the level immediately above by using the relative scale measurement shown in Table 1 The pair-wise comparisons are done in terms of of which element dominates the other. 4. The number of judgements equals to n(n-1)/2. Judgements required to develop the set of matrices which should be both transitive and reciprocal in step 3. 5. Hierarchical synthesis is now used to weight the eigenvectors by the weights of the criteria and the sum is taken over all weighted eigenvector entries corresponding to those in the next lower level of the hierarchy. 6. Having made all the pair-wise comparisons, the consistency is determined by using the eigenvalue, max , to calculate the consistency index, CI as follows: CI = (max - n)/(n- 1), where n is the matrix size. Judgement consistency can be checked by taking the consistency ratio (CR) of CI with the appropriate value in Table 2. The (CR) is acceptable if it is less than 0.10. Otherwise the the judgement matrix is inconsistent. To obtain a consistent, judgements should be reviewed and improved. 7. Steps 3-6 are performed for all levels in the hierarchy. Intensity of Importance 1 3 5 7 9 2,4,6,8 Definition Explanation Equal Importance Two activities contribute equally to the objective Moderate Experience and judgment slightly favor one activity over another Ġmportance Strong importance Experience and judgment strongly favor one activity over another Very strong or An activity is favored very strongly over another; its dominance demonstrated demonstrated in practice importance Extreme The evidence favoring one activity over another is of the highest importance possible order of affirmation Intermediate values when compromise is needed Table 1: The Fundamental Scale of Absolute Numbers ( Saaty, 2008, p. 125) 519 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo n Average random index 1 0 2 0 3 0.52 4 0.89 5 1.11 6 1.25 7 1.35 8 1.40 9 1.45 10 1.49 Table 2: Random Consistency Index ( Saaty, Vargas and Dellmann, 2003, p. 174) The Study People have troubles while making decisions about any issue in the time of they living. Contradictory results may also appear on the decisions about same issue made by people. The most important reason of for this is the intention of selecting best decisions over the alternatives. Same situation is also valid for the decisions taken by the government. Since the government must make the best decision for its public. Because of demand of individuals that live in the country about changing their districst in which they live to provinces, one of the most important decisions is which districts will become province. At this time, this decision is very important as it burden additional expenses to the budget. In this study, AHP is used to determine priority ranking of districts which is eligible to become a province in Turkey. Candidate districts are determined by preselection with this application. Above mentioned criterias are taken into consideration for preselection: - Population of the center must be greater than 50 000, - Population of district must be greater than 100 000, - Distance from the province must be greater than 100 km. Values of above mentioned criteria for each of the candidate districts determined by preselection, are obtained from municipality‘s and governer‘s official websites and shown in Table 3. CRITERIAS DISTANCE (KM)* CENTER POPULATION** DISTRICT‘S POPULATION** SURFACE AREA(KM2) NUMBER OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF CONNECTED DISTRICTS CON.TOTAL POPULATION.** TEMPORARY POPULATION**** REAL WAGE*** ALANYA FETHĠYE ERCĠġ EREĞLĠ ELBĠSTAN ÖDEMĠġ BANDIRMA BERGAMA 138 100 102 124 103 153 158 113 134056 113851 58570 72003 74858 95056 85642 73310 241451 132077 100802 183184 158795 135008 135386 129260 1827 690 1688 3055 2115 2260 2546 1082 3 0 0 3 3 0 0 2 5 4 7 3 3 3 7 6 152649 208340 332353 95653 238131 63563 238450 312937 1377146 74548 21186 252726 3440 9500 5934 2935 84714 123754 21024 83628 91169 85191 558996 706831 Table 3: Quantitative values of criterias for each of the districts *http://www.kgm.gov.tr/Sayfalar/KGM/SiteTr/Uzakliklar/ililcelerArasiMesafe.aspx ** http://tuikapp.tuik.gov.tr/adnksdagitapp/adnks.zul *** http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/bolgesel/gosterge/2004/ilce.pdf **** http://www.turizm.gov.tr 520 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo DISTRICTS DISTANCE NORMALIZED VALUE OF DISTANCE ALANYA 138,0000 0,1393 BANDIRMA 100,0000 0,1009 BERGAMA 102,0000 0,1029 ELBĠSTAN 158,0000 0,1594* ERCĠġ 103,0000 0,1039 EREĞLĠ 153,0000 0,1544 FETHĠYE 124,0000 0,1251 ÖDEMĠġ 113,0000 0,1140 TOTAL 991,0000 1,0000 Table 4: Distance Criteria According to distance criteria most appropriate district to become a city is Elbistan with approximately %16. Bandırma district is in the last rank with % 10. DISTRICTS ALANYA CENTER‘S CENTER‘S POPULATION NORMALIZED VALUE POPULATION 134056,000 0,1895* BANDIRMA 113851,000 0,1610 BERGAMA 58570,000 0,0828 ELBĠSTAN 85642,000 0,1211 ERCĠġ 74858,000 0,1058 EREĞLĠ 95056,000 0,1344 FETHĠYE 72003,000 0,1018 ÖDEMĠġ 73310,000 0,1036 TOTAL 707346,000 1,0000 Table 5: Center‘s Population Criteria Alanya district is in the first rank with %19 accoding to the center‘s population criteria and Bergama is the last with %8. 521 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo DISTRICTS ALANYA DISTRICT‘S NORMALIZED VALUE OF DISTRICT‘S POPULATION POPULATION 241451,000 0,1986* BANDIRMA 132077,000 0,1086 BERGAMA 100802,000 0,0829 ELBĠSTAN 135386,000 0,1113 ERCĠġ 158795,000 0,1306 EREĞLĠ 135008,000 0,1110 FETHĠYE 183184,000 0,1506 ÖDEMĠġ 129260,000 0,1063 TOTAL 1215963,000 1,0000 Table 6: District‘s Population Criteria For district‘s population criteria the most important district is Alanya and the least is Bergama. DISTRICTS SURFACE AREA NORMALIZED VALUE OF SURFACE AREA ALANYA 1827,000 0,1197 BANDIRMA 690,000 0,0452 BERGAMA 1688,000 0,1106 ELBĠSTAN 2546,000 0,1668 ERCĠġ 2115,000 0,1386 EREĞLĠ 2260,000 0,1481 FETHĠYE 3055,000 0,2002* ÖDEMĠġ 1082,000 0,0709 TOTAL 15263,000 1,0000 Table 7: Surface Area Criteria According to surface area criteria most appropriate district to become a city is Fethiye with approximately %20. Bandırma district is in the last rank with % 4. DISTRICTS NUMBER OF NORMALIZED VALUE OF VILLAGE NUMBERS VILLAGES ALANYA 3,000 0,2727* BANDIRMA 0,000 0,0000 BERGAMA 0,000 0,0000 ELBĠSTAN 0,000 0,0000 ERCĠġ 3,000 0,2727* EREĞLĠ 0,000 0,0000 FETHĠYE 3,000 0,2727* ÖDEMĠġ 2,000 0,1818 TOTAL 11,000 Table 8: Number of Villages Criteria 522 1,0000 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Alanya , Fethiye and ErciĢ districts together are in the first rank with %27 accoding to the number of villages criteria. DISTRICTS ALANYA NUMBER OF NORMALĠZED VALUE OF NUMBER OF DISTRICTS TO DISTRICTS TO BE BE CONNECTED CONNECTED 5,000 0,1316 BANDIRMA 4,000 0,1053 BERGAMA 7,000 0,1842* ELBĠSTAN 7,000 0,1842* ERCĠġ 3,000 0,0789 EREĞLĠ 3,000 0,0789 FETHĠYE 3,000 0,0789 ÖDEMĠġ 6,000 0,1579 TOTAL 38,000 1,0000 Table 9: Number of Districts to be Connected Criteria According to this criteria, Bergama and Elbistan have the highest importance percentage with approximately %18. DISTRICTS CONNECTED TOTAL POPULATION NORMALIZED VALUE OF CONNECTED TOTAL POLULATION ALANYA 152649,000 0,0930 BANDIRMA 208340,000 0,1269 BERGAMA 332353,000 0,2024* ELBĠSTAN 238450,000 0,1452 ERCĠġ 238131,000 0,1450 EREĞLĠ 63563,000 0,0387 FETHĠYE 95653,000 0,0583 ÖDEMĠġ 312937,000 0,1906 TOTAL 1642076,000 1,0000 Table 10: Connected Total Population Criteria According to connected total population criteria, Bergama has the highest importance percentage with approximately %20 and the last is Ereğli. 523 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo DISTRICTS ALANYA TEMPORARY NORMALIZED VALUE OF TEMPORARY POPULATION POPULATION 1377146,000 0,7926* BANDIRMA 64548,000 0,0372 BERGAMA 21186,000 0,0122 ELBĠSTAN 5934,000 0,0034 ERCĠġ 3440,000 0,0020 EREĞLĠ 9500,000 0,0055 252726,000 0,1455 2935,000 0,0017 1737415,000 1,0000 FETHĠYE ÖDEMĠġ TOTAL Table 11: Temporary Population Criteria According to the temporary population criteria, the most eligible candidate is Alanya with % 79 and the last is ÖdemiĢ. DISTRICTS REAL WAGE NORMALIZED VALUE OF REAL WAGE ALANYA 558,9960 0,3185 BANDIRMA 706,8310 0,4027* BERGAMA 84,7140 0,0483 ELBĠSTAN 91,1690 0,0519 ERCĠġ 21,0240 0,0120 EREĞLĠ 83,6280 0,0476 FETHĠYE 123,7540 0,0705 ÖDEMĠġ 85,1910 0,0485 1755,3070 1,0000 TOTAL Table 12:Real Wage Criteria According to real wage criteria, Bandırma has the highest importance percentage with approximately %40, Alanya is in the second rank with %32 and the last is ErciĢ. 524 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo GENERAL DISTANCE CENTER‘S DISTRICT‘S SURFACE POPULATION POPULATION AREA NUMBER OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF DISTRICT‘S TO BE CON TOTAL POPULATION TO BE CON. TEMPORARY POPULATION REAL WAGE DISTANCE 1,0000 0,3333 0,5000 1,0000 0,5000 0,5000 0,3333 0,2500 0,1429 CENTER‘S POPULATION 3,0000 1,0000 2,0000 4,0000 3,0000 3,0000 2,0000 0,3333 0,2000 DISTRICT‘S POPULATION 2,0000 0,5000 1,0000 3,0000 2,0000 2,0000 1,0000 0,3333 0,2000 SURFACE AREA 1,0000 0,2500 0,3333 1,0000 0,3333 0,3333 0,2500 0,2500 0,1429 NUMBER OF VILLAGES 2,0000 0,3333 0,5000 3,0000 1,0000 1,0000 0,3333 0,3333 0,1667 NUMBER OF DISTRICT‘S TO BE CONN. 2,0000 0,3333 0,5000 3,0000 1,0000 1,0000 0,3333 0,2500 0,2000 TOTAL POPULATION TO BE CON. 3,0000 0,5000 1,0000 4,0000 3,0000 3,0000 1,0000 0,5000 0,2500 TEMPORARY POPULATION 4,0000 3,0000 3,0000 4,0000 3,0000 4,0000 2,0000 1,0000 0,2500 REAL WAGE 7,0000 5,0000 5,0000 7,0000 6,0000 5,0000 4,0000 4,0000 1,0000 19,8333 19,8333 Total 25,0000 11,2500 13,8333 30,0000 11,2500 7,2500 2,5524 Table 13: Pair-wise Comparison Matrix of Criterias These values are obtained from expert view of a vice governer. Consistency Ratio (CR) is acceptable if CR is less than 0,10 . Otherwise the judgements of the decision maker are inconsistent. T1 Distance Center‘s Population District‘s Population Surface Area Number of Villages Number of Districts to be connected Connected Total Population Temporary Population Real Wage Weights 0,0344 0,1213 0,0791 0,0295 0,0542 0,0543 0,1032 0,1715 0,3525 Table 14: Weights of criterias After calculating weights for criterias, it is come to stage of solving decision problem, in other words last stage of the AHP. At this stage, a matrix consists of calculated relative priority values (table 14) was created and then by multiplying with Matrix of Weighted Criteria (Table 16), Decision Matrix (Table 17)was created. 525 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Distance Center‘s Population District‘s Population 0,1895 0,161 0,0828 0,1211 0,1058 0,1344 0,1018 0,1036 0,1986 0,1086 0,0829 0,1113 0,1306 0,111 0,1506 0,1063 0,1393 0,1009 0,1029 0,1594 0,1039 0,1544 0,1251 0,114 Table 15:Final Table Number Number of of villages Districs to be conn. 0,1197 0,2727 0,1316 0,0452 0 0,1053 0,1106 0 0,1842 0,1668 0 0,1842 0,1386 0,2727 0,0789 0,1481 0 0,0789 0,2002 0,2727 0,0789 0,0709 0,1818 0,1579 Surface area Total Population to be conn. Temporary Population 0,093 0,1269 0,2024 0,1452 0,145 0,0387 0,0583 0,1906 0,7926 0,0372 0,0122 0,0034 0,002 0,0055 0,1455 0,0017 Real Wages 0,3185 0,4027 0,0483 0,0519 0,012 0,0476 0,0705 0,0485 Weight Points 0,0344 0,1213 0,0791 0,0295 0,0542 0,0543 0,1032 0,1715 0,3525 . Sij Eligibility ranking for becoming a province 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x T Districts Coefficients Alanya Bandırma Fethiye ÖdemiĢ Elbistan Bergama ErciĢ Ereğli % 33 % 18 % 11 %8 %8 %7 %7 % 6 Table 16: Order of Preference Results AHP is a mathematical method, which evaluates quantitative and qualitative variables together in the solution of decision problems and enables efficient decision making . This method has been widely used in solving real life complex decision making problems in recent literature, especially in effectiveness analysis and performance measurement problems. It is an important problem to determine the districts which are eligible to become province. To handle this issue without makig it a domestic politics material will be more easy and persuasive for both of the political parties and goverments. More fair, scientific and objective attitude can be possible by using AHP in the solution of this problem. Therefore in this study, AHP is used to determine priority ranking of districts which are eligible to become a province in Turkey. According to the result of this AHP application, Alanya is the most eligible district with %33 importance degree and Bandırma is in the second place with a 15 point difference. Fethiye has the third rank and ÖdemiĢ has the forth rank. Suggestions It is shown with this study that AHP method can be applicable to determine the priority ranking of districts to become province. When new provinces are in agenda, more current data and criterias must be used in a Project with Ministry of Interriors and other relevant govermental institutions in order to help political authorithy on decision making about this subject. 526 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo References DAĞDEVĠREN, M. vd. (2004), ―ĠĢ Değerlendirme Sürecinde Analitik HiyerarĢi Prosesi ve Uygulaması‖, Gazi Üniversitesi Müh. Mim. Fak. Dergisi, C.19. DÜNDAR, S. ve ECER, F. (2008), ―Öğrencilerin GSM Operatörü Tercihinin Analitik HiyerarĢi Süreci Yöntemiyle Belirlenmesi‖, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Ġ.Ġ.B.F Yönetim Ekonomi Dergisi, C.15. HSU, P. and CHEN, B. (2008), ―Integrated Analytic Hierarchy Process and Entropy to Develop a Durable Goods Chain Store Franchisee Selection Model‖, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, V.20, N.1. KURUÜZÜM, A. ve ATSAN, N. (2001),―Analitik HiyerarĢi Yöntemi ve iĢletmecilik Alanındaki Uygulamaları‖ Akdeniz Ġ.Ġ.B.F. 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SAATY, THOMAS L., VARGAS LUIS G. and DELLMAN K., (2003), "The allocation of intangible resources: the analytic hieararchy process and linear programming", Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Vol. 37, pp. 169-184. AL-HARBI, K.M AL-SUBHI., (2001), "Application of the AHP in project management", International Journal of Project Management, Vol.19, pp. 19-27. SAATY, THOMAS L., PENIWATI, K. and SHANG, JEN, S., (2007), "The analytic hieararchy process and human resource allocation: Half the story", Mathematical and Computer Modelling, Vol.46, pp. 1041-1053. HSU, TSUEN, H. and PAN, FRANK, F.C., (2009), "Application of Monte Carlo AHP in ranking dental quality attributes", Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 26, pp. 2310-2316. SIPAHI, S. and ESEN, O., (2010), "A multi-criteria model for bidding evaluation: An alternative selection of the best firms for the presentation of Istanbul 2010", Management Decision, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 296-313. YANG, J. and SHI, P., (2002), " Applying Analytic Hierarchy Process in Firm's Overall Performance Evaluation: A Case Study in China", International Journal of Business, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 29-46. SCHOLL A., vd. (2005); ―Solving Multiattribute Design Problems With Analytic Hierarchy Process and Conjoint Analysis: An Empirical Comparison‖, European Journal of Operational Research, 164. SAATY THOMAS L., (1980), The Analytic Hierarchy Process, McGraw-Hill International Book Company, New York ADIGÜZEL, O., ÇETĠNTÜRK, Ġ. and ER, O., (2009) , ‗ Konaklama iĢletmelerine olan MüĢteri Tercihinin Analitik HiyerarĢi Prosesi Yöntemiyle Belirlenmesi‘ , Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Dergisi, C1. 527 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 268 Title A name given to the resource Determining the Districts That can be a Province in Turkey Using Analytic Hierarchy Process Author Author GÜNGÖR, İbrahim BAKAN, Hakan AKSU, Muharrem KİREMİTCİ, Serap GÖKSU, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. It is very important problem objectively determining districts which will become province. It will be appropriate to use AHP to search an efficient solution to this problem. In this study. In this study, AHP is used to determine priority ranking of districts which is eligible to become a province in Turkey. According to the result of this AHP application, Alanya is the most eligible candidate district with 33% importance degree. The following districts based on the ranking are; Bandırma, Fethiye, Elbistan, Ereğli, Bergama, ÖdemiĢ and ErciĢ. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c9ed2af9bde90ef5953779d7df47ba12.pdf f682a8e2d9e977397938eff29b09ebc1 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Leadership and Identity Reconstruction in African Diaspora Tuba Gönel International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina tgonel@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The African’s New World experience was very traumatic in many ways. The forced immigration and the process of dehumanization and humiliation of African people contributed to their sense of unbelongling and inferiority besides the economic wealth and progress of Europe. The process of dehumanization and the imposition of a destructive identity caused two different attitudes in African slaves toward the issues of identity and self-appreciation. While one group of Africans, such as some intellectual and political leaders advocating the necessity of African recognition, resisted the social and racial discrimination, surprisingly enough, another group of Africans submitted to their statue as slaves and inferiors due to the influence of white society imposing the feeling of inferiority on them for centuries. Key Words: Diaspora, African experience, identity, leadership. “A person whose desires and impulses are his own- are the expression of his own nature, as it has been developed and modified by his own culture- is said to have a character.” “If a person possesses any tolerable amount of common sense and experience, his own mode of laying out his existence is the best, not because it is the best in itself, but because it is his own mode.” John Stuart Mill Introduction “A simple word…’diaspora’” (Dufoix 1). This simple word refers to a deeper meaning and importance not only for Diaspora communities but also for world history. The word has been assigned many different meanings referring to a phenomenon as old as human history. Diaspora, for a long time referred “only to physically scattered religious groups living as minorities among other people and other faiths” (Dufoix 1), was later, used in a wider sense to explain “any phenomenon of dispersion from a place; the organization of an ethnic, national, or religious community in one or more countries; a population spread over more than one territory; the places of dispersion; any nonterritorial space where exchanges take place” (Dufoix 2). Finally, today the term is used to refer to the “voluntary or involuntary migration of peoples; the maintenance or the recreation of identification with the country or land of origin; and the existence of communities that claim their attachment to a place or, on the contrary, “to their spatially free-floating existence” (Dufoix 2). Different from being a religious issue, as in the case of the voluntary dispersion of Christian and Muslim missionaries to Asia, Africa and Europe, Diaspora, in time, transformed into a socio-economic and political issue. In analyzing the Diaspora communities, it is evident that there is a huge variety of experiences the people of Diaspora had to endure. The most typical examples of Diaspora communities being spread over the world for centuries are black people, in the very center of dispersion, and Jews, perhaps representing “the classic Diaspora phenomenon (Dufoix 8). In our time, the technological developments minimizing the distance between time and places, have given rise to attempts to redefine the term Diaspora and the growing need of the dispersed to define themselves. These attempts and growing awareness make Diaspora a more complicated term related not only to socioeconomic or political issues, but also to the concepts of identity, multiculturalism, mis/recognition, ethnicity, and even hybridity. 275 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo For the sake of a better appreciation of Diaspora societies and the factors which contributed to the dispersion of these communities, in this paper, African societies and the various social structures within these societies will be analyzed in terms of their influence on African Diaspora. In an attempt to answer the question “What is African in the ‘African Diaspora?’” (Dufoix 15), the historian Joseph Harris describes African Diaspora as a concept that “subsumes the following: the global dispersion (voluntary and involuntary) of Africans throughout history; the emergence of a cultural identity abroad based on origin and social condition; and the psychological or physical return to the homeland, Africa” (Dufoix 13). Thanks to the nature of Diaspora causing dispersion, voluntary or forced migration and “ethno-cultural segregation” (Dufoix 26), diasporas, as the anthropologist Martine Hovanessian states, are often considered as “transmission belts between the minority culture and the national host culture” (Dufoix 29). That is because diasporas, who suffer from “social death”, as Orlando Patterson explains, and who “were uprooted from the African soil and separated from their families and communities for centuries, deprived of institutions, and yet condemned to existence” (Dufoix 14), were to create a new community to continue their existence to “give it visibility in the host community” (Dufoix 26). As it is taken in French studies, Diaspora, different from the commonly accepted perception of the term, refers to “the persistence of awareness and the community link in spite of dispersion” (Dufoix 27). The dispersed, away from their homeland and native culture, inevitably contribute to the formation of a new form of social structure resulting from close contact with the host community. As Benedict Anderson explains, “it is from confronting the other, the ‘non-self,’ that nationalism is born as an assertion of national purity in context where the prospect of mixing threatens one’s uniqueness” (qtd. in Dufoix 93). As historian William McNeill categorizes, there are four kinds of migrations: “the forced movement of one population by another; the conquest of one people by another, followed by a merger of the two; the welcomed arrival of strangers; and the importation of individuals or an entire people uprooted from their land” (qtd. in Dufoix 36). He continues stating that “the first kind corresponds to nomadism; the second, to enterprises of conquest; the third, to the establishment of commercial activities; and the fourth, to slavery” (Dufoix 36). The socio-economic and political developments of the twenty-first century are the most important motives driving people to question a possibility of developing the sense of identity for the groups who form “new and viable communities with those who do not share their backgrounds or beliefs” (Gomez 1). African Diaspora, which is “unique in its formation”, as Gomez states, and which is “a history of their [the people of African descent] experiences, contributions, victories, and struggles … and the massive movements and extensive relocations, resulting over long periods of time” (Gomez 1), is still of great importance for historians, anthropologists, sociologists and other scholars due to the valuable contributions of African people to world history and civilization. African Experience Not surprisingly, the most important reason that created the institution of slavery was the search for economic betterment. The trading process of Muslim Arabs, starting from the Northern Coastal regions of Africa and expanding to the coasts of Ghana and Saharan, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean, not only determined the slave routes, but also contributed to the enslavement of African people. Muslims, however, were not the only ones to drive Africans from their homeland. As Gomez states “European engagement with the Muslim world contributed to a cultural awakening and commercial expansion resulting in profound political transformations” (59). The growing demand for economic wealth, which would bring political power, motivated Europe to search for alternatives to achieve the expansion. The Christian-Muslim conflict and the economic and political strife between European nationals, “international commerce, sugar and New World incursion” (Gomez 59) gave rise to labor exploitation, finally leading to the capture and enslavement of African peoples. As Gomez points out, while the significance of African participation to the Muslim world is important, the transatlantic trade of Africans as slaves had a more acute impact on the people of African descent due to its “high volume and compact duration” (59). The Africans’ New World experience, however, was much more traumatic than their interaction with the Muslim world. The forced migration and the process of dehumanization and humiliation of African people not only contributed to their sense of unbelonging and inferiority, but, at the same time, facilitated Europe’s economic wealth and progress, which depended mainly on the physical, emotional and mental exploitation of African people. Being enslaved and performing both domestic and agricultural tasks under inhuman conditions raised one question: What was the motive that drove European people to choose Africans as their labor force? In analyzing the African Diaspora and the motives behind this phenomenon, it can be claimed that there are both external and internal factors. In addition to some factors such as their endurance to the inhuman conditions and the contagious diseases spread during the shipping process and on plantations, their dedication to hard work, 276 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo their docility and the feeling of inferiority also had an important role in the enslavement process of African people. As it is also stated in Douglass’s narrative of his life, the presence of black slaveholders and their inhuman practices on black slaves reveal another issue in African Diaspora; the destruction of African unity, in other words, the individualization of African people. As it is stated in Thompson’s book, the categorization of slaves according to their performance and ability, with disregard to their homeland, the separation from family members broke their understanding and chance for African unity. This individualization process and imposition of the feeling of inferiority led African people to submission and docility. As Charles Taylor states, their own self-depreciation, initiated by white society and carried on by African people themselves, “becomes one of the most potent instruments of their own oppression” (26). He also adds that “their first task ought to be to purge themselves of this imposed and destructive identity” (26). In addition to their feeling of inferiority and problematic sense of identity, an “interesting anomaly of North American slavery”, as Gomez states, “was the black slaveholder” (104). The History of Awakening Starting from the middle of the fifteenth century until the mid-sixteenth, Africans were driven from their homeland to another continent to contribute to the development of its economy by working the land to “sustain a plantation system of agriculture and to work the mines of South America in a new and unfamiliar environment” (Thompson 1). This slave trade, which forced millions of them to leave their homeland, took place until the end of the nineteenth century. Even though slavery was officially terminated earlier, the smuggling of slaves, as Thompson states, was “carried on by interlopers, by ships flying ‘flags of convenience’, and by nations which refused to accede to an international covenant on the ending of the trade in slaves” (Thompson 1). Even after the formal abolition of slave trade, recognized by first Britain in 1807 and then by the United States in1808, the smuggling of slaves did not end until some nations who did not recognize the abolition were compelled to withdraw from diplomatic activity (Thompson 1). However, as Thompson continues, despite the abolition, the acts of slavery were still supported by some countries such as France, Portugal, Spain, Brazil, Cuba and even the United States. The movement of the Europeans across the Atlantic, and their leading motivations, such as “greed, the quest for richness, political and religious persecution and economic failure at home” (Thompson 10), resulted in the “destruction and genocide upon the Amerindian civilizations of Central and South America” (Thompson 12). On the one hand, the newcomer nationals founded new settlements; on the other hand, they searched for the ways of wealth. Following their “foremost aim of exploration and colonization of the New World, essentially what was involved was an all embracing preoccupation with material enrichment and personal aggrandizement” (Thompson 13). This search for acquisition of wealth encouraged the advent of many European nationals, the establishment of new settlements and plantations, and the development of mining for material enrichment (Thompson 10). Preoccupied with the search for wealth and power, the growth of trading companies and the competition to “achieve commercial supremacy” (Thompson 29) and “the persistence of labour scarcity” (Thompson 25) in the Americas caused the forced migration of the Africans from their homeland to the plantation of the foreign continent. The European’s quest for commercial and political supremacy, and the African’s forced participation in this process, however, was full of pain, violence and suffering from the very beginning. Starting from the shipping period, hundreds of slaves committed suicide, and some could not survive due to the unbearable conditions they had to endure during the acclimatization process and their time on the plantations. The African people had to endure not only physical torture, but also mental and psychological oppression and humiliation that led to self-depreciation and lack of dignity in individuals. These traumatic experiences not only brought the issues of identity and recognition into discussion, but also helped to develop a sense of collective consciousness among black people. Due to this consciousness and the demand to be heard, they created their own struggle and their own leaders to guide them in their quest for both physical and spiritual freedom. In his article, Charles Taylor points to the destructive influences of the white attitude towards black people. As he states, “white society has for generations projected a demeaning image of them, which some of them have been unable to resist adopting” (26). He also claims that the ceaseless imposition of self-depreciation on black people contributed to their faulty perception of themselves. As a recommendation to correct this perception as the first step to building a peaceful notion of identity and to remove the oppression which had continued for generations, Charles states that it was their first task “to purge themselves to this imposed and destructive identity” (26). The growing popularity of some concepts such as identity, mis/recognition, mis/interpretation, and selfrealization, encouraged the demand for self representation among some minority groups including black people. 277 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The need for recognition and proper presentation is one of the inspiring motives that gave rise to the birth of black leadership and literature. The demand for recognition in these later cases is given urgency by the supposed links between recognition and identity, where this later term designates something like a person’s understanding of who they are, of their fundamental defining characteristics as a human being. The thesis is that our identity is partly shaped by recognition or its absence, often by the misrecognition of others, and so a person or group of people can suffer real damage, real distortion, if the people or society around them mirror back to them a confining or demeaning or contemptible picture of themselves. Nonrecognition or misrecognition can inflict harm, can be a form of oppression, imprisoning someone in a false, distorted and reduced mode of being. (Multiculturalism 25) Motivated by the demand for recognition and the right to be heard, some writers and intellectuals of African origin supported the necessity of producing their own work describing themselves. The quest for selfrealization and self-description, however, would be painful and require a long process of self-questioning. As Baldwin states in the “Notes of a Native Son”, the most difficult phase of self-recognition was when he had to face the question: who he was for himself and for the West. I know, in any case, that the most crucial time in my own development came when I was forced to recognize that I was a kind of bastard of the West; when I followed the line of my past I did not find myself in Europe but in Africa…. What was the most difficult was the fact that I was forced to admit something I had always hidden from myself, which the American Negro has had to hide from himself as the price of his public progress; that I hated and feared white people; on the contrary, I despised them,… (Baldwin 7-8) As an alternative to the documents produced by the whites or slaveholders, black people gained the voice to narrate their own story. During the quest for freedom, black society created many leaders its own people. Motivated by the inspiration of independence, these leaders shared the common experience of humiliation, sufferings and in-betweenness. As John Iliffe states in his book Honour in African History, “resentment of racial contempt was a primary source of nationalist thought and action” (306). Even many years after abolition, the experiences of black people and leaders show similarities in terms of humiliation and oppression. Nationalists believed that “It is only when people are politically free, that other races can give them respect that is due to them” (Iliffe 307). To achieve this, some leading figures such as Chimpembere and Nkrumah advocated that “Africa’s traditions of heroic leadership” and racial pride should be appreciated and resurrected for racial uplifting. Other leaders, such as Mandela, also followed the heroic tradition. Leadership and the speeches of leaders are of vital importance to wake people to the consciousness of freedom. Selfexpression and “the experiences of addressing a crowd”, as Mandela states, “gave strength and inspiration” (Iliffe 307) to the leaders. Nkrumah who believed that the function of a leader was “to convince his audience that [freedom] was possible”, stated that “the sight of a crowd before me was all I needed to encourage the words to flow” (Iliffe 309). To provoke the desire for freedom and independence in his people, the task of a leader “is simply to rouse the people to a confidence in their own power of protest” (Iliffe 309). As Thompson states, the commonly accepted impression of slaves is that they “accepted their status and that even after emancipation many of them preferred their previous condition of bondage to liberty” (255). This situation, however, was the result of the economic, social and political oppression that the people of African descent had to survive for four centuries. The common image of black people in the 1800s is described in the quotation from Harriet Martineau: There is no reason to apprehend serious insurrection; for the Negroes are too degraded to act in concert, or to stand firm before the terrible face of the white man. Like all deeply-injured classes of persons, they are desperate and cruel, on occasions, kindly as their nature is; but as a class, they have no courage. The voice of a white, even of a lady, if it were authoritative, would make a whole regiment of rebellious slaves throw down their arms and flee…. They will never take the field, unless led on by free blacks. (qtd. in Thompson 255) Having suffered the unbearable brutality and the ongoing harshness of society, the slaves, believing that they had experienced enough pain and humiliation, were motivated by the possibility of revolt and a chance of victory that would provide them with a space “to overturn the system and establish a more tolerable society” (Thompson 259). The slaves, driven by the dream of a “more tolerable society”, had a list of reasons for revolt. The reasons not only encouraged many slaves to revolt against the unlawful practices of slavery, but also contributed to the birth of a variety of scholars and ideas. As an example, Dr. Orlando Patterson categorizes the two types of resistance under the titles of passive resistance and violent resistance. The subdivisions of passive resistance are as follows: “(i) refusal to work, general inefficiency deliberate laziness; (ii) satire; (iii) running away; (iv) suicide” (Thompson 261). He subdivides violent resistance into two; individual violence and collective violence. The principles of resistance and its subtitles including individual participation emphasize the importance of the requirement of individual consciousness and contributions of individuals to the resistance acts. The oppression and acts of brutality that were common to the slave experience started to be heard by slaves from different parts of the country, and led to the emergence of a kind of collective “consciousness of 278 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo oneness in oppression” (Thompson 264). As a natural result of this growing consciousness, and the contribution of the causes of revolt listed above, “the society itself was conditioning its collective outlook and was to produce in time what DuBois described as Africans from various parts united in experience and beginning to ‘think of Africa as one idea and one land’” (Thompson 265). Following the principles of the French Enlightenment, many intellectual, political and economic movements were initiated by some free black people, and the mulattos. The intellectual, political and economic context of the time prepared the background for the Haitian Revolution, which merits attention due to the fact that it “was a revolt of an uneducated and menial class of slaves, against their tyrannical oppressors, who not only imposed an absolute tax on their unrequited labour, but also usurped their very bodies” (Thompson 306). In the analysis of Haitian Revolution and the reasons behind its success, the concept of leadership takes the first place. Toussaint L’Ouverture, the prominent leader of the revolution, as Thompson states, “in a space of ten years, converted slaves into one of the most effective of fighting forces, second to none in valour, discipline and consciousness of the cause for which they fought” (351). Besides military leaders who encouraged and disciplined the African people to fight for their freedom, there are some others who contributed to the social betterment of the black society. (To mention some prominent names of African origin during the British anti-slavery period, we can talk about some leaders such as Ottobah Cugoano, Olaudah Equiano, Edward Jordan and Robert Osborne.) The aim of these leaders was, through their writings and publications, to wake people to the consciousness of “the moral arguments against the trade and system of the enslavement of man” (Thompson 361). As a part of society, black people deserve to be heard and recognized. They needed to be given the opportunity to contribute to the betterment of society. However, the brutality and the harshness of white society did not give them the opportunity for self-expression and social participation. This movement of moral awakening (through petitions), however, was not the only contribution of black people to their own revival. The numerous newspaper letters, autobiographies, newspapers and books published by black people contributed to the argument against slavery. As David Walker states in his book An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the United States, “slaves should rise up and break of their shackles, and unless white Christian Americans changed their ways disaster would eventually overtake them” (Thompson 371). The publication by Frederick Douglass is of significance both to introduce his ideology of universal emancipation advocating the necessity of “the entire anti-slavery struggle with a wider international framework” (Thompson 372), and to“[demonstrate] its ability to act independently” (Thompson 375). Provoking the international spirit Douglass inspired a more radical, but gradual anti-slavery activity pioneered by Canadian blacks such as Henry Bibb, A. Bickford Jones, Wilson Abbot, George Brown, John Roat and Samuel Ring-gold Ward. (Thompson 379) In order to comprehend the important acts of these figures, a proper appreciation of the concept of leadership is necessary. The huge diversity of African social and historical background and the experiences of slavery created a huge diversity of principles and inspirations of leadership. As Thompson states, leadership determined by some factors such as environmental and psychological factors encouraged different responses. While some leaders advocated the inevitability of “outright confrontation”, others followed “moral guiding principles often derived from an understanding of religion” (Thompson 396). Thompson mentions the three categories of leadership; “first, those, who for want of a better term, constituted a kind of ‘physical force’ leadership; second, there were moral suasionists; and, finally, those who often employed organization and platforms to agitate a burning issue with a view to reaching a wider audience and, thus, inducing change” (396). Regardless of the fact that the changing circumstances, the political, social and economic context influenced these acts of leadership, all leaders focused on the question “After freedom what?” (Thompson 399). There are three rhetorical questions: “first, to be integrated and assimilated in the wider society in which they lived, second, to emigrate either within the confines of the nation to an area not yet densely settled on beyond the frontiers of the nation including emigration to Africa; and third, by expressing their separate identity within the wider framework of the same society” (Thompson 399). In discussing the leadership in African diaspora, it is important to remember that besides “the characteristics and beliefs in which these leaders had in common” (Thompson 401), they had divergence in “their approach to the alternatives posed by the societies in which they lived” (Thompson 401). The divergence of experiences of slavery and the social and political needs of the societies they lived in determined the roles of the leaders and the principles of leadership. Dubois’s belief in his people and the history of black people justified his struggle to establish a strong concept of leadership. For DuBois, “the Negro people, as a race, have a contribution to make to civilization and humanity, which no other race can make” (qtd. in Rabaka 405). As Rabaka states in his article: Each human group has its philosophy, which is to say that each group of human beings harbors a certain ‘habit of reflection’ that helps them interpret and understand the world in which they live…. In DuBois’s thinking, it is the African ‘world outlook,’ African conceptions of history, religion, politics, social organization, and art, among other things, that has provided and promises to provide Africa’s contribution to human culture and civilization. Indeed for DuBois, African peoples have a ‘great message… for humanity,’ and it is only 279 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo through careful, critical, and concerted study of their history and culture that they will be able to discover and recover and extend and expand not only what it means to be African but also what it means to be human in the modern movement. (405) In order to understand the leading motive that drove DuBois to develop his own understanding of leadership that would serve to the betterment of African society, it is necessary to focus on his interpretation of the issues that bring African and European societies into close contact. As Reed states, “DuBois’s pride in race coexisted with his enthusiasm at participation at the forefront of modern (European) culture and values, and statements lauding that latter and depreciating spontaneous Afro-American behaviour coexisted with statements that exalt black behaviour and values, and decry the bankruptcy of the European heritage” (433). For Reed, DuBois’s reflections of black folk life in his writings during the Harlem Renaissance, “emphasized what he considered its primitive aspects” (433). As he continues, “[DuBois] ‘lauds blacks’ ‘sensuous, tropical love of life, in vivid contrast to the cool and cautious New England reason’. ‘The Negro, [DuBois proclaimed], ‘is primarily an artist’” (434). Believing in the necessity to voice the natural need of African people, such as recognition and self-expression, DuBois supported the establishment of a coalition of the best “men of black and white races to attempt rationally to reorganize life in the South” (Reed 434). The idea of the coalition of the bests brought a new discussion into question: “the role of the elite”. For DuBois, the rise of the race’s natural leaders should be supported since even “if the group is to speak for itself, still not everyone can speak at once especially not if a single, collective agenda is to be fashioned” (Reed 434). However, the organization of this novel system of spokesmen brought new problems to the surface. The contribution of the elite required the necessity of “interracial organization”. Realizing that the postwar socioeconomic context created problems related to economic issues rather than political ones, DuBois decided to shift focus to developing an economic strategy. This perspective gave him the opportunity to analyze the white world. The social and political context of the late nineteenth century deprived black people of the political and social progress due to white rule. The political disenfranchisement of the black leaders led them to develop different alternatives to fight against the problems of their time such as “segregation, economic exploitation, legal discrimination, and racial violence” (Mia E. Bay 921+). The “creative conflict”, as Wilson Jeremiah Moses describes it, between black leaders, developed divergent characteristics and principles. “Moses characterizes Douglass’s thinking as ‘thoroughly inconsistent, usually opportunistic, and always self-serving,’ and he describes Garvey as a ‘defiant megalomaniac’” (Mia E. Bay 921+). Two of the most prominent figures among black leaders Booker T. Washington and W.E.B Dubois, had an intellectual disagreement about the advancement of black people. The most important difference between Washington and DuBois was their different opinions about the educational needs of black people, especially after the Reconstruction period. In exploring new alternatives to the progress of black Negro race, both DuBois and Washington focused on the importance of education but with different characteristics. As Bauerlein states, “Washington was of the opinion that through vocational or so-called industrial training blacks would win white respect by demonstrating a commitment to hard work.” He continues explaining that DuBois, on the other hand, “wanted blacks to be more confrontational with white segregationists. He contended that black progress could be achieved through an educational grounding in the arts and sciences which would result in the development of a black intellectual elite” (106). The contact of these two leaders started when DuBois sent a letter to Washington for a position as Tuskegee. At that time, Washington, known as the “‘Wizard of Tuskegee’, was the most distinguished black educator in the country”, while “DuBois was still an unknown figure, not yet what he was to become: a prominent public intellectual and forceful advocate of civil, political, and economic parity of blacks and whites in America” (Bauerlein 106). During the following years, the two intellectuals developed opposite ideas concerning “race policies in post Reconstruction America” (Bauerlein 106). As Bauerlein states, the growing disagreement between DuBois and Washington arose from the alternative ways to respond to segregation and determine their basic principles in their struggle for a place in society. Following the segregation years, during which they were neither free, nor slaves anymore, black people had to go through a traumatic period. The most difficult issue for blacks was to develop certain equalities in a context totally deprived of the notion of equality. Blacks started to take control of their life moderately but still they had a long way ahead before they could enjoy their social, economic and political freedom. While Washington, the gradualist and evolutionist, supported the idea of gradual progress and industrial education that would equip black people with the manual skills to afford their lives, DuBois, supporting race pride and higher education, opposed this vision of black people as manual workers and claimed that it was intellectual education that would uplift black society. In his Atlanta speech (1895), Washington, who believed in the priority of economic power over political power, clearly states his social principles. “The wisest among my race understand that the agitation of questions of social equality is the extremist folly”(qtd. Bauerlein 113). 280 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Conclusion In conclusion, regardless of different demands of the leaders for black society, such as DuBois’s demand for racial pride, Washington’s for vocational education, Garvey’s for capitalism, and C.R.L. James’s belief in the “need to coordinate anti-colonial and antiracist struggles throughout Africa, the African Diaspora and Asia” (Gomez 181), as Stanley Crouch states, all leaders “were well aware of that education was the best weapon against racism and that being open to education an all that it made possible was the highest form of rebellion against the perception and the limited social access of an ethnic group considered ‘naturally’ stupid and incompetent” (Bauerlein 109). Moreover, the variety of experiences and methods offered by the leaders, all committed to the betterment of the socio-economic plight of black people, contributed to the creation of a new social and cultural order formed by the participation of contributors from different segments of the society. Despite the internal factors contributing to African Diaspora, it was again African people who woke to the consciousness of self-realization and self-identity. In time, thanks to the social awakening initiated by the leaders of African descent, they questioned their place in the society that they worked for. Believing that positive changes in society could only be managed if a new social order developed vis-à-vis socio-economic betterment aimed at every member of society, including black population, they aimed to minimize the destructive influence of colonialism and the diasporic experience. References Baldwin, James. (1998). Collected Essays: The Notes Of A Native Son. New York: Literary Classics of the United States,. 5-117. Bauerlein, Mark. (Winter, 2004-2005). Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois: The Origions of a Bitter Intellectual Battle. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 46, 106-114. Bay, Mia E. (2005). Creative Conflict in African American Thought: Frederick Alexander Crummell, Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. DuBois, Marcus Garvey. Journal of Southern History (0022-4642), 71, 921-923. Dufoix, Stephane. (2003). Diasporas. Los Angeles, University Of California P. Gomez, Michael A. (2005). Reversing Sail A History of the African Diaspora. Cambridge, Cambridge UP. liffe, John. (2005). Honour In African History. Cambridge, Cambridge UP. Rabaka, Reiland. (2003). W.E.B. DuBois's Evolving Africana Philosophy Of Education. Journal Of Black Studies, 33, 399-449. Reed,Jr., Adolph L. (1985). W.E.B. DuBois A Perspective on the Bases of His Political Thought. Political Theory, 13, 431-56. Taylor, Charles. (1994). The Politics of Recognition, Multiculturalism. New Jersey, Princeton UP, 25-73. Thompson, Vincent B. (1987). The Making Of the African Diaspora in the Americas 1441-1900. New York, Longman. 281 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 707 Title A name given to the resource Leadership and Identity Reconstruction in African Diaspora Author Author Gönel, Tuba Abstract A summary of the resource. The African’s New World experience was very traumatic in many ways. The forced immigration and the process of dehumanization and humiliation of African people contributed to their sense of unbelongling and inferiority besides the economic wealth and progress of Europe. The process of dehumanization and the imposition of a destructive identity caused two different attitudes in African slaves toward the issues of identity and self-appreciation. While one group of Africans, such as some intellectual and political leaders advocating the necessity of African recognition, resisted the social and racial discrimination, surprisingly enough, another group of Africans submitted to their statue as slaves and inferiors due to the influence of white society imposing the feeling of inferiority on them for centuries. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6999d93aecdf6e464871b61ed26f291f.pdf 8b5b54eccc65bcbb245d80b5de57d167 PDF Text Text Banana - A Very Profitable Crop for Subtropical Conditions Hamide Gübbük Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture 07059 Antalya/TURKEY gubbuk@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: Bananas have been cultivated economically for a long time in subtropical regions of Turkey where production and productivity per hectare have significantly increased due to the adoption of protected cultivation. Protected cultivation of banana began in the 1980’s in Anamur and Bozyazi, Mersin. In the 1990s this system became more popular. Today, a similar trend is underway in Mediterranean costal strip. Approximately 4300 ha of banana are grown in Turkey, of which over 2500 ha is grown under protected cultivation. The average yield per ha is about 20-30 tonnes under open-field and 60-70 tones under protected cultivation. In 2008, the total banana production of Turkey was 210.115 tones but domestic consumption of bananas in Turkey exceeds supply and hence bananas are imported. Local importers pay very high custom duties (over 100%) for imported bananas and because of that, banana retail prices remain high which makes local banana production a very profitable enterprise. Introduction Banana growing areas of the world are mainly situated between the Equator and latitudes 20 oN and 20 S. Climatic conditions in these areas are mainly tropical, with relatively small temperature fluctuations from day to night and from summer to winter (Robinson, 1996). On the other hand, banana can also be grown in subtropical areas. We may show that Western Australia, South Queensland, South Africa, Israel, Taiwan, Spain (The Canary Islands), Egypt, Morocco and parts of Brazil and Turkey for subtropical condition (Galan Sauco et al., 2004). Banana plantations are situated between the latitudes 20o and 30o many of subtropical area. But in Turkey, banana plantations are situated at 36o latitude. Nevertheless banana has been grown economically in Turkey for over a century. At present, the total banana growing area of Turkey has reached up 4300 ha (Anonymous, 2009) of which more than 2500 ha are under protected cultivation. In 2008, the total banana production of Turkey was 210.115 tons (Anonymous, 2009). As local demand (domestic consumption) for bananas are nearly 400.000 tons. Therefore, Turkey has to import nearly 200.000 tonnes bananas from overseas. Local importers pay very high custom duties (over 100%) for imported bananas, as such banana retail prices remain high, which makes local banana production a very profitable enterprise. The main climatic constrain in Turkey like other subtropical regions are wide temperature fluctuations between day and night, low and high temperature extremes in winter and summer respectively and also rainfall is not sufficient in some months. Due to the low temperature, protected (greenhouse) cultivation has gained popularity in recent years in Turkey. In Turkey, protected cultivation of banana began in the 1980’s in Anamur and Bozyazi, Mersin and in the 1990s this cultivation type gained popularity. Presently a similar trend is underway in Erdemli, Mersin; Alanya, Gazipasa (flat region), Finike, Kumluca, Antalya and Iskenderun, Hatay. The objective of this study was to evaluate the cultivation and constrain constrains of banana in Turkey. o Banana Growing under Open-Field and Protected Conditions Banana growing areas in Turkey are located in the Mediterranean costal strip. Planting occurs in the North part of the mountain to protect from wind damage. Bananas have been grown in Turkey in both open-field and protected cultivation (plastic greenhouse). Anamur and Bozyazi in Mersin are the main protected cultivation areas. On the other hand, banana has grown in Alanya and Gazipasa, Antalya both open-field and protected cultivation. Average mean yearly minimum/maximum temperatures in the open-field cultivation and under the protected cultivation are 10/30 °C and 11/35 °C, respectively. Yearly average relative humidity for both conditions is over 60%. Shading powder was applied during the summer season to protect plants and fruits from sunburn damage under protected cultivation. 474 �Growing Conditions and Cultural Practices In Turkey, the greenhouse structure is made of round iron poles and 6.5 – 7 meters high at the top and 5-6 meters below the gutter and covered with plastic. Generally, the greenhouse is not heated in all locations. The greenhouse cost approximately 10-15 Euros/m2 (without a plastic cover). However, banana plants bear fruits the same year after planting and the production costs outlays are recovered within a few years. ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ is the most common cultivar for open-field. But ‘Grande Nain’ and ‘Azman’ (local cultivar) are the most widely planted cultivars for greenhouse conditions. Plants are planted in March for openfiled condition. However, there are two planting time for protected cultivation (February and September). When the plants are planted under open-field, the first ratoon crop is not so productive. But the plants produce very good bunch in the first ratoon crop under protected cultivation. While suckers are used for open-field cultivation, tissue culture plants are used for protected cultivation. Plant spacing is 2.5 x 2m (2000 plant per ha) in open-field conditions, and 3 x 1.8 m (1850 plant per ha) in protected cultivation (Gubbuk and Pekmezci, 2004). Single line is preferred than double line. But after the second ratoon crop, the plants are increased 2100 or 2200 plant per ha both cultivation systems. The soil pH was slightly alkaline, lime content was medium, texture was loam, and organic matter content was between low and medium (Köseoğlu et al., 1985). Organic manure is applied at about 50 to 60 kg per plant. Fertilizers are applied either by hand around the plant or via irrigation. The main fertilizers are NPK, which are applied at rate of 300, 400, and 1000 g/plant per cycle. Drip irrigation system are used in both cultivation system. Nematodes are the most important pests of banana. There is no Sigatoka and common virus disease in Turkey. Postharvest Technologies including handling and ripening are improve day by day. Differences between Cultivation Systems The main differences between both cultivation systems is days from shooting to harvest and yield. Only one crop is produced per year in field conditions, but sometimes two crops are obtained per year under protected cultivation. Days from shooting to harvest were shorter (between 90-120 days) in protected cultivation. Bunch was harvested earlier in protected cultivation than in open-field cultivation. The shorter interval is a great advantage in the subtropical region, especially in the case of frost damage. After mid November, the temperature begins to drop in the cool subtropical climate. Frost damage occurs not only in plants, but also in the fruit. Frost damage can rarely be seen in sucker and fruit in protected cultivation, but not in open-field cultivation. Average yield per ha is between 25-30 tons in open-field and 50-70 tons under protected cultivation. The harvest time for protected cultivation is between October and January and between December and March for open-field condition. The farmer and retail prices are different in Turkey. The farmer price is between 0.7 and 0.8 Euro per kg. However, the retail price is about 1.5 Euro per kg. Therefore, the income is higher in protected cultivation. Advantages of Protected Cultivation There are many advantages in protected cultivation compared to open-field cultivation in subtropical conditions e.g. (a) Reduction of life cycle from planting to harvest (b) Reduction in water consumption (c) Extended duration of temperatures above 20oC (d) Higher rate of photosynthesis (e) Protection against wind and other weather conditions (e.g. sunburn and hail) (f) Increased bunch and finger weight (Galan Sauco et al., 1998). Furthermore, in protected cultivation, chilling injury and low temperature differences do not negatively affect the plants and fruits, as compared to open-field cultivation. Disadvantages of Open-Field Cultivation The main constrain of banana growing in Turkey like the cooler subtropics are the greater diurnal temperature fluctuations, and lower night temperatures, insufficient rainfall and wind damage. Furthermore, winter leaf sunburn, underpeel discolouration and growth cessations are typical physiological problems associated with banana production in the subtropics (Robinson, 1996). 475 �Conclusion The advantage of growing banana under protected cultivation under cool subtropical conditions is that the yield and the quality are higher, compared with open-field cultivation. Therefore, higher yields increase the economic prospects of banana cultivation in the subtropical regions. References Anonymous, (2009). https://www.fao.org Galan Sauco, V., Ait Oubahou, A. and Abdelhaq, H. 2004. Greenhouse cultivation of bananas. Chronica Horticulturae, 44:2, 35–37. Galan Sauco, V., Cabrera Cabrera, J., Hernandez Delgado, P.M. and Rodriguez Pastor, M.C. (1998). Comparison of Protected and Open-Air Cultivation of Grande Naine and Dwarf Cavendish Bananas. Acta Horticulturae, 490: 247–259. Gubbuk, H. and M. Pekmezci (2004). Comparison of Open-field and Protected Cultivation of Banana (Musa spp. AAA) in the Coastal Area of Turkey. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 32, 375-378. Köseoğlu, A.T., Onur, C., Arı, N. and Göncüoğlu, G. (1985). Muzlarda organik ve ticari gübrelerin gelişmeye ve yaprakların bitki besin maddeleri miktarlarına etkileri. Derim, 2(4): 3-6. Robinson, J.C. (1996). Bananas and Plantains. CAB International, 238 pp. 476 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 550 Title A name given to the resource Banana - A Very Profitable Crop for Subtropical Conditions Author Author Gübbük, Hamide Abstract A summary of the resource. Bananas have been cultivated economically for a long time in subtropical regions of Turkey where production and productivity per hectare have significantly increased due to the adoption of protected cultivation. Protected cultivation of banana began in the 1980’s in Anamur and Bozyazi, Mersin. In the 1990s this system became more popular. Today, a similar trend is underway in Mediterranean costal strip. Approximately 4300 ha of banana are grown in Turkey, of which over 2500 ha is grown under protected cultivation. The average yield per ha is about 20-30 tonnes under open-field and 60-70 tones under protected cultivation. In 2008, the total banana production of Turkey was 210.115 tones but domestic consumption of bananas in Turkey exceeds supply and hence bananas are imported. Local importers pay very high custom duties (over 100%) for imported bananas and because of that, banana retail prices remain high which makes local banana production a very profitable enterprise. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6d5a57ba71de67502eff848692666f9.pdf f1cd51287a41ba495bb84415fc08a399 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Project Sample Which Provides Personal Development’s Sustainability in Lifelong Learning Assoc.Prof.Dr. Gülten Gümüştekin Dumlupınar University Kütahya Vocational School Abstract: People have to sacrifice from their budget in order to provide their personal sustainable development. This causes to decrease their life standards. However the institutions of the people used to cover this shortcoming with in-service training. Those in-service trainings are not for personal sustainable development thus they are made for covering institutional shortcoming. Whereas the people can provide their personal sustainable development without expending from their own budget by applying their projects to EU Education and Youth Programs so they provide donation. Barely many people have no information about such a program. The Lifelong learning program (LLP) which is included in EU Education and Youth Program donates these kinds of projects. Especially General Education and VET experts and managers study visit program has the quality to provide personal sustainable development. Therefore the project named “The VET in the Dimension of Europe” performed in October 2008 was approached as applied project sample. Keywords: Lifelong Learning, EU, Project, Application, Vocational Education, Study Visit Introduction It was participated to the studying visits called “European Dimensions in Vocational Education” realized in Kielce, Poland in the dates between 13th and 17th October 2008 in the extent of “Studying Visits of the Transversal Programmes in the field of Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) of the European Union Education & Youth Center Administration, in the name of the Chairman of the Vocational School of Kütahya, Dumlupınar University, Turkey. There were 6 participants of various countries of the studying visits in the topics of “European Dimensions of Vocational Education and Training; Attractiveness of Vocational Education and Training; Accommodation and food service activities”. The manager countries of the visits were; Holland, Turkey, Portuguese, England, Scotland and Bulgaria. Participating a studying visit is both an important tool of learning in the Life Long Education and an exciting experience for the participants. The main objective of a studying visit is sharing the best applications and experiences of both the visitors and the landlord. At the end of the visits the participants are invited to prepare a group report useful for summarizing the participants’ experiments and useful for Cedefop’s convincing what was taught to the non-participants. (Cedefop is the European Agency that promotes the development of vocational education and training (VET) in the European Union). According to the demand of the European Comission, these centres, which are known as National Recourses Centres for Vocational Guidance or shortly European Guidance Centre, are composed of 27 European Union member countries, 4 EFTA (European Free Trade Association) countries, and Turkey as a candidate country for EU membership. Euroguidance aims to contribute to improve the European dimension of General Education and Vocational Guidance and Consulting, to support the European dimension in the field of education, to provide cooperation among the consulting services in different countries, and to contribute to travel around countries in the field of education. It also significantly contributes the exchanges of information among the different countries in the field of Vocational Education and Guidance systems. The main purpose of European Guidance Centre is to contribute to support the European dimension and to prepare the ground for the dissemination of the circulation around Europe by disseminating the information concerning education, career, profession, and guidance.These activities have been carried out by the Centre for European Union Education and Youth Programmes; namely, Turkish National Agency since 2005. That is to say, Euroguidance is carried out by Turkish National Agency Lifelong Learning Programme. The study visits programme for education and vocational training specialists, part of the lifelong learning programme 2007-13 (Lifelong Learning Programme), is an initiative of the European Commission’s 156 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Directorate-General for Education and Culture. Its objective is to support policy development and cooperation at European level in lifelong learning. In terms of the study visits programme for education and vocational training specialists, short-term visit of 5 days, from 13th to 17th October, 2008, is conducted. This study visit is entitled as “ The Vet in the Dimension of Europe”, which is hosted by Kuratorium Oswiaty Association in Kielce, Poland. A particular aspect of lifelong learning, that is the Vet in the Dimension of Europe, is examined. These small group of specialists and decision-makers representing various groups of education and vocational training are from Holland, Turkey, England, Scotland, Portugal, and Bulgaria. They are stakeholders who want to examine a particular aspect of lifelong learning in another Member State. The profile of a participant corresponds mainly to directors of education and vocational training institutions, centres or providers, educational and vocational training inspectors. Study visits are organised locally or regionally and coordinated by the National Agency. They provide a forum for discussion, exchange and learning on themes of common interest and on European and national priorities. By exchanging innovative ideas and practices, participants promote the quality and transparency of their education and training systems. General Education and Study Visits For Education and Vocational Training Specialists The aim of the study visits is to facilitate the exchanges of knowledge and experience among the vocational training specialists around Europe. By exchanging innovative ideas and practices, participants promote the quality and transparency of their education and training systems. Study visits for education and vocational training specialists and decision makers support European cooperation to develop policies for lifelong learning anda re part of the EU’s Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-13 (LLP). Cedefop coordinates the programme at European level for the European Commission since the 1 January 2008. At national level study visits are coordinated by the National Agencies located in the participating countries. Participants are selected by National Agencies of participating countires based on their eligibility, relevance and expected impact. After national agencies have selected participants and communicated the results, Cedefop draws up groups trying to assign participants to groups of their choice, ensuring that the groups consist of representatives of various geographical regions, professional backgrounds and genders. Participants receive a grant from the LLP that contributes to their travel and subsistence expenses. Each group consists of 10 to 15 participants from different countries who represent different education and training systems. They also have different mother tongues and their level of skill in the group’s working language often differs significantly. To become a knowledge society, Europe needs more economic growth, more and better employment and a society that is socially cohesive. To achieve these aims, Europe needs to improve its performance in education and training. This means that all Europeans need to have the opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills and competences throughout their lives. This has made education and training an important policy lever. Therefore, in 2001, education ministers agreed for the first time on a common strategy for education and training. Making learning accessible for all Europeans at all ages and improving the quality and efficiency of education and training were considered top priority. It was also decided to open education and training systems to the wider world. For this purpose, a work programme until 2010 was developed in 2002 known as the Education and training 2010 work programme. Education and training in Europe was to become a quality reference for the whole world. The Education and training 2010 work programme embraced a process which started in 1999 known as the Bologna process. It aimed at restructuring European higher education systems to make them more comparable and compatible. Lifelong learning was made one of the key objectives of the Bologna process in 2001. Recognising its value and important role in achieving the Lisbon objectives, the responsible ministers, the European social partners and the European Commission decided to cooperate closely in vocational education and training (VET). In the Copenhagen declaration (2002), they agreed to make VET more transparent and open and improve its quality. The Copenhagen process aims to make lifelong learning more easily accessible and promote educational, occupational and geographical mobility. VET plays a key role in ensuring lifelong learning and supplying a skilled workforce necessary for a competitive and dynamic economy. With the goal to improve the quality and attractiveness of VET and raise its profile among other fields of education, the following priorities were defined: • give VET a European dimension (improve cooperation between institutions and promote mobility); • make VET more transparent and improve information and gui -dance (develop a credit system to make learning outcomes of VET portable, strengthen policies, systems and practices for lifelong guidance); • promote recognition of qualifications and competences (develop a single framework to help translate qualifications and competences and make them more transparent, support deve - 157 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo lopment of qualifications and competences in economic sectors; develop common principles for validation of non-formal and informal learning); • develop quality assurance in VET (including attention to learning needs of teachers and trainers). In conclusion, a coherent framework for cooperation in education and vocational training has been put in place. As progress reports show, this framework has helped to support national reforms and develop several EU reference tools. Reaching out to all involved is crucial to progress in the areas where a lot remains to be done and to ensure that policy initiatives and tools are implemented across education and training systems. The study visits programme brings together a wide spectrum of education and training specialists and policy-makers to discuss, learn from one another and share experiences in implementing lifelong learning policies in their countries. European Dimension in Vocational Education: The Attractiveness of Vocational Education The study visit , entitled as “European Dimension in Vocational Education: The Attractiveness of Vocational Education”, was held in October 13 to 17 2008 in Kielce, Poland. During the visit, host institution states clearly the objectives of the visit, explains the logic and structure of the programme to the six participating countires; tells the group about the group report and invites the group to select a reporter; accompanies the group during the entire visit; provides opportunities for all partners to participate and share in discussions, make sure all participants are given room to contribute; issues attendance certificates to participants; exercises flexibility and tries to acommodate participants’ interests and needs into the content of the study visit, adapt the programme throughout the visit to ensure quality. In this manner, as a Turkish participant, education system in Turkey is explained; Dumlupinar University and Dumlupinar University Vocational High School are extensively introduced. This study visit in Poland summarizes the practices of host institution. With the contribution of this study visit, it is possible to learn about current vocational education policy in Poland in general and especially in hotel and catering; to learn about examples of good practice; to exchange experiences on vocational education policy; to learn from experiences of organisation and management in hotel and catering. European cooperation is a priority of the Polish educational system. Hotel and catering are dynamic sectors in Poland due to easy access to all European Union countries. Polish workforce is well qualified and is gaining more and more respect on the European market. Swietokrzyski Region with the capital city Kielce is situated in the heart of Poland and is a good example of problems and expectations of vocational education and training in Poland. Lifelong learning program and especially Leonardo da Vinci is a means to integrate the labour market in European Union. Quality and efficiency of vocational education and training, which have been in the focus of our study visit, are also in the focus of the EU policy agenda for education and training. The findings and outcomes of study visit on the quality and efficiency of vocational education and training as presented in the group reports and further discussed during the study visit show that there is a wide participation in vocational training- 16-20 years. Poland appears very open-minded towards European Union and exchanging educational policy and practice. However there is a lack of awareness, knowledge and information among many practitioners of European funding opportunities. Polish education is also undergoing huge change, currently developing improvement. However, education policy is stil traditional, planned, and centralised. Outcomes To sum up, Cedefop invites the participants tos hare the new ideas they acquired during the study visit with heads of their institutions, their colleagues and professional associations. It will be most beneficial if the outcomes of the seminar are communicated to decision-makers at higher levels, for example, to those setting policies at local/ regional or even national levels. Teachers, trainers and school leaders and decision makers should benefit more from the multiple opportunities for sharing good practice and cooperation that the Lifelong Learning Programme presents. The study visits programme as well as Comenius, Leonardo da Vinci and Gruntvig programmes should be more used for information exchange and continuous professional development. In this manner, the outcomes of the study visit will be presented as an academic article in several scientific and academic congress. In order to better disseminate the expected outcomes and results and create a larger network among policy makers and representative organizations, the web portal will be released as a cooperation tool between the partners and dissemination tool. Regarding the impressions and acquisition I got 158 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo during the study visit, lecturers at Dumlupinar University Vocational High School are encouraged to prepare projects particularly in the field of Lifelong Learning Programme. Project working groups have started preparing several projects in terms of Lifelong Learning Programme. References Avrupa Toplulukları Komisyonu, istihdam, sosyal işler ve Eğitim Genel Müdürlüğü, Brüksel, 15/3/85, Ortak Mesleki eğitim Stratejisinin uygulanması, mesleki eğitim uzmanları için eğitim ziyaretleri programı. CEDEFOP: European, Centre fort he Development of Vocational Training, 2008, Study Visit, Group No:378, 13-17 Ekim, Kielce, Poland. http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/, CEDEFOP; European, Centre fort he Development of Vocational Training. http://www.ua.gov.tr, T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, Avrupa Birliği Eğitim ve Gençlik Programları Merkezi Başkanlığı, Türk Ulusal Ajansı, Hayatboyu Öğrenme Programı, Ortak Konulu (Transversal) Programları, Çalışma Ziyareti. 159 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 419 Title A name given to the resource The Project Sample Which Provides Personal Development’s Sustainability in Lifelong Learning Author Author Gümüstekin, Gülten Abstract A summary of the resource. People have to sacrifice from their budget in order to provide their personal sustainable development. This causes to decrease their life standards. However the institutions of the people used to cover this shortcoming with in-service training. Those in-service trainings are not for personal sustainable development thus they are made for covering institutional shortcoming. Whereas the people can provide their personal sustainable development without expending from their own budget by applying their projects to EU Education and Youth Programs so they provide donation. Barely many people have no information about such a program. The Lifelong learning program (LLP) which is included in EU Education and Youth Program donates these kinds of projects. Especially General Education and VET experts and managers study visit program has the quality to provide personal sustainable development. Therefore the project named “The VET in the Dimension of Europe” performed in October 2008 was approached as applied project sample. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f8b5737c4ea55c5920ba92bf14690154.pdf 795bd4272630597e6eeec480856741a9 PDF Text Text Pistillate Flower Abscission in Turkish Walnut Cultivars and Its Reduction by AVG Ayşe Gün Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey aysegun2000@hotmail.com Veli Erdoğan Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture Ankara, Turkey verdogan@agri.ankara.edu.tr M. Emin Akçay Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey akcay11@mynet.com Ayşe Fidanci Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey aysefidanci66@hotmail.com Đsmail Tosun Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey ismailtosun77@mynet.com Abstract: Level of pistillate flower abscission (PFA) in Turkish walnut cultivars was investigated in this study. Emasculated and bagged female flowers were pollinated with 5%, 50% and 100% pollen concentrations at receptivity. Control flowers left for open pollination. In addition, a whole tree was sprayed with 125 ppm ethylene inhibitor AVG (amino ethoxy vinyl glycine) when anthesis reached to 5-30% and a control tree was not treated for each cultivar. Number of aborted flowers at diameter of 3-4cm was counted and percent PFA was calculated. The results showed that Turkish walnut cultivars had medium (65.4%) to high (100%) levels of PFA including the leading cultivars ‘Şebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ (94.8% and 93.4% PFA, respectively). Application of AVG reduced PFA from 82.4% to 43.6% in average and increased fruit set significantly in all cultivars except ‘Şen-1’. Keywords: Walnut, PFA, fruit set, amino ethoxy vinyl glycine, AVG Introduction Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is a monoecious and wind pollinated species. Pistillate flowers are produced terminally on shoots while staminate flowers (catkins) are borne laterally on one-year-old branches. Many fruit species exhibit flower and fruit drops which usually associated with competition phenomenon or lack of pollination. Walnuts present female flower drops called Pistillate Flower Abscission (PFA) (Catlin et al. 1987). Female flowers become receptive very shortly after emergence from the shoot apex when two stigma lobes begin to separate. However, ovary stops growing at 3-4mm in diameter, become necrotic, get brown and mumificated. These flowers drop with the peduncle attached from the shoot 2-3 weeks later (Catlin & 29 �Polito, 1989, Polito et al, 2005, Rovira & Aleta, 2006). In early studies, no association could be made with any known physiological, cultural, pathological or entomological influence (Catlin et al. 1987). Later, reports of Por & Por (1990) and McGranahan et al. (1994) showed that excess pollen was involved in PFA. Recently, the physiological mechanism leading to PFA was uncovered. When a pistillate flower receives high pollen load, pollen tubes growing down the style induce high rate of ethylene biosynthesis activating pre-formed abscission zones and resulting in flower abscission (Beede & Polito, 2003, Polito et al. 2005, Johnson et al. 2006, Lemus et al. 2007). Mechanically shaking catkins from pollenizer cultivars and main cultivar or removal of pollenizer rows altogether have been suggested to minimize PFA in existing orchards (Sibbett et al. 1995). An ethylene inhibitor amino ethoxy vinyl glycine (AVG) has been tested on walnuts to reduce PFA. The results showed increased yields especially on ‘Serr’ cultivar (Beede & Polito, 2003, Lemus et al. 2007). Severity of PFA varied among cultivars and ‘Serr’ was more seriously affected than others were. The yield could be reduced as much as 90% (Catlin & Olson, 1990). Many observations made in some countries such as Chile, France, Hungary, Spain, USA and Iran demonstrated that PFA exist in nearly all commercial cultivars (Rovira & Aleta, 1997, 2006, Hassani et al. 2006, Lemus et al. 2007). However, tendency of Turkish cultivars to PFA is not known. The objective of this study was to determine the level of PFA in Turkish walnut cultivars and to prevent PFA by applying ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor AVG. Materials and Methods Sixteen years old walnut trees of 11 Turkish cultivars and ‘Serr’ cultivar located at Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute, Yalova, Turkey were used in the study [Table 1]. Determination of the level of PFA in cultivars: Newly coming shoots with emerging female flowers were bagged with Tyvek bags before receptivity after emasculation. Female flowers were pollinated with 5%, 50% and 100% of walnut pollen when stigmas separated and reached to receptivity. Pollen mixtures were prepared with talc powder before application. Pollen numbers in each of concentration was determined under microscope. Control flowers left for open pollination. Dropping flowers due to PFA were distinguished by visual appearance (Rovira & Aleta, 2006); female flowers stopped growing at 3-4mm in diameter, became necrotic, got brown, and mumificated. The most distinct feature was the dropping of flowers with the peduncle attached to it from the shoot. Drops due to competition within flowers of the same inflorescence were different that flowers’ detachment occurred at the basis of ovary and the flowers dropped without peduncle. Number of healthy flowers and abscised flowers showing PFA symptoms were counted and the percent PFA was calculated after 3 weeks of pollinations. For each treatment, 25 bags were used on each of three trees. Number of female flowers in bags varied since multiple flowers could be produced at top of shoot apex. Determination of effect of ethylene inhibitor on reduction of PFA: AVG (amino ethoxy vinyl glycine) was used as an ethylene inhibitor. A whole tree was applied with 125 ppm of commercial product Retain® (Valent BioSciences, USA) when female flowers reached to 5-30% receptivity (Venburg et al. 2008). Second tree was not treated and used as control. Three branches were marked and approximately 100 flowers were counted on trees. Number of healthy and abscised female flowers due to PFA was counted and percent PFA was calculated after 3 weeks of AVG application. Cultivar ‘Kaplan-86’ gave inconsistent results that it was excluded from this experiment. In both of the experiments, the second set of counts was made nine weeks after pollination/AVG application to assess fruit set which gave the yield. Drops occurred at that period due to both PFA and other causes of drop such as nutritional deficiencies and competition phenomenon. 30 �Results and Discussion Determination of the level of PFA in cultivars: Percent PFA and percent fruit set values of cultivars, which were determined 3 weeks, and 9 weeks after pollination with different pollen concentrations, respectively are shown in Table 1. When female flowers pollinated with the lowest concentration of pollen (5%) PFA was the lowest (48.6%). As pollen concentration increased to 50% and 100% PFA incidence increased to 54.1% and 72.7%, respectively. Pollinations with 100% pollen concentration gave similar to open pollination. We counted the pollen number in the same amount of pollen sample, which was applied to the flowers under microscope. The average number of pollen grains was 17.6, 47.7 and 343.8 in pollen samples of 5%, 50 and 100% of concentrations, respectively. These findings indicated a positive relationship between pollen load and level of abortion of pistillate flowers as suggested by Por & Por, (1990) and McGranahan et al. (1994). Kaveckaja & Tokar (1963) reported that 10-18 pollen grains were necessary for regular fruit set on stigmas. McGranahan et al. (1994) counted 179 pollen grains on normally developing stigmas while there was more pollen grain (322) on flowers, which affected by PFA (ovary diameter was 3-4mm) in cultivar ‘Serr’. The researchers concluded that there was significant negative correlation between pistil size and number of pollen grains. Dose response curves of Polito et al. (1996) indicated that pollen doses in the range of 70100 grains per pistillate flower would induce 50% abortion in pistillate flowers; higher levels of pollen resulted in greater losses. The counts made after 9 weeks from pollinations showed that average fruit set was similar in all treatments being 17.6 to 20.2% that was unexpected. Although the reason for this is not known we thought that drops occurred at that period was due to both PFA and other causes of drop such as nutritional deficiencies and competition phenomenon. Polito et al. (2005) considered the drops at late stage primarily due to a lack of effective pollination. Rovira & Aleta (2006) reported that unfertilized flowers could reach advanced development stage without fecundation; they reach an appearance of small fruits, up to 8-10mm of diameter. They may remain attached for three weeks or longer. On the other hand, recently fertilized nut drops are usually attributed to nutrients competition and at this stage, fruit size is about 12-18mm in diameter. %5 pollen Cultivar Y-1 Y-3 Y-4 Şebin Bilecik Tokat-1 KR-1 KR-2 Şen-1 Şen-2 Kaplan-86 Serr Average %50 pollen %100 pollen Open pollination PFA (%) Fruit set (%) PFA % Fruit set (%) PFA (%) Fruit set (%) PFA (%) Fruit set (%) 21.9 24.1 54.9 59.4 51.9 63.1 55.5 16.8 47.6 77.1 83.3 26.3 25.1 27.8 0.0 17.4 34.6 29.5 16.7 48.1 17.0 0.0 12.5 14.1 28.5 49.2 76.6 54.1 55.1 68.6 33.3 16.0 54.6 73.6 93.3 46.8 35.7 10.3 0.0 26.9 34.9 13.8 37.5 36.0 36.5 2.1 0.0 13.7 65.7 72.2 83.6 62.8 71.8 54.5 77.1 85.0 77.8 82.8 78.8 60.9 22.6 10.7 12.8 30.6 19.5 27.3 19.4 10.5 18.6 0.0 21.2 33.6 87.9 67.9 68.8 88.4 88.9 63.0 81.7 85.2 53.8 59.8 100.0 53.5 10.6 25 9.3 11.6 7.6 37.0 10.1 13.7 30.8 18.9 0.0 36.5 48.6 20.2 54.1 20.6 72.7 18.9 74.9 17.6 Table 1. PFA (%) and fruit set (%) values of Turkish walnut cultivars and ‘Serr’ which were determined 3 weeks and 9 weeks after pollination with different pollen concentrations, respectively. 31 �Level of PFA in the cultivars to varied that it was the highest in ‘Kaplan-86’ followed by ‘Bilecik’, ‘Şebin’, ‘Y-1’ and ‘KR-1’ when the female flowers left for open pollination [Table 1]. The least affected cultivars were ‘Serr’ and ‘Şen-1’. These two cultivars also had about average values for PFA after pollinations with different pollen concentrations. In addition, these cultivars had very high fruit set values after open pollination. ‘Şen-1’ might have lower levels of PFA, while the results were unexpected for ‘Serr’ since it is highly affected by PFA. We observed that ‘Serr’ blooms later than most of Turkish genotypes. Thus, airborne pollen was drastically lower at the experimental site, which could result in lower PFA and higher fruit set compared to other cultivars. Researchers found that response of the cultivars to PFA varies with cultivars. ‘Chico’ showed the lowest levels of PFA, and ‘Chandler’ and ‘Vina’ were intermediate (Polito et al.1996). Similarly, Spanish selections were the most affected by PFA showing 73.4% of flower loss while Chilean selections had only 6.8% flower drop due to PFA. Californian and French cultivars showed medium values but closer to Chilean selections (Rovira & Aleta, 2006). PFA was found between 11 to 92% among Iranian genotypes (Hassani et al. 2006). Determination of effect of ethylene inhibitor on reduction of PFA: Percent PFA and percent fruit set values of the cultivars that were determined 3 weeks and 9 weeks after application of AVG, respectively are shown in Table 2. In general, PFA was very high (82.4%) in open pollination conditions (control). AVG is an ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor and it has been applied predominantly to control abscission and ripening in apples. Use of AVG in walnuts to reduce PFA is a novel application. 125 ppm of AVG has been suggested as an adequate concentration to improve fruit set. In our study AVG treatment was effective on reducing PFA and increasing fruit set compared to the control. PFA was reduced from 82.4% to 43.6% and the reduction was about 50 percent. Fruit set was increased from 16.3% to 46.8% and the increase was almost three fold. Some cultivars such as ‘KR-1’, ‘KR-2’ and ‘Tokat1’, benefitted more from AVG application than others that they had the lowest PFA (12 to 18%) and the highest fruit set (84 to 87%) values. Although AVG application reduced PFA in ‘Serr’, fruit set was higher than the control. ‘Serr’ blooms later than most of Turkish genotypes, which are fruitful on terminal shoots. Our observations showed that terminal buds responded quickly to warm temperatures and development of pistillate flowers progressed fast in Turkish genotypes. When female flowers of ‘Serr’ reached to receptivity airborne pollen was drastically lower at the experimental site, which could result in higher fruit set in open pollination conditions. Polito et al. (2005) reported 57 to 70% yield increase in California and Lemus et al. (2007) obtained 35 to 83% yield increase in Chile in ‘Serr’. There was no improvement neither for reduction in PFA nor for increase in fruit set in ‘Şen-1’. The results indicated that this cultivar had lower levels of PFA than the others did. Buchner et al. (2006) reported similar results that AVG application did not improve yield in ‘Chandler’ cultivar. Cultivars ‘Y1’, ‘Y3’ and ‘Y4’ (Yalova series) have been widely planted in early plantings in 1980s and 1990s in Turkey. However, there have been AVG Application Cultivar Y-1 Y-3 Y-4 Şebin Bilecik Tokat-1 KR-1 KR-2 Şen-1 Şen-2 Serr PFA (%) 45.7 31.5 47.6 71.1 74.5 12.0 17.0 18.0 65.0 46.0 51.4 Fruit set (%) 54.3 52.3 43.8 27.9 16.7 87.0 71.7 64.0 27.8 28.7 40.5 32 Control PFA (%) 87.0 68.6 98.1 94.8 93.4 66.7 82.9 100.0 65.4 80.4 68.7 Fruit set (%) 12.0 25.4 0.0 5.2 3.2 33.3 11.4 0.0 28.9 10.7 49.0 �Average 43.6 46.8 82.4 16.3 Table2. PFA (%) and fruit set (%) values of Turkish walnut cultivars and ‘Serr’ which were determined 3 weeks and 9 weeks after 125pp AVG application, respectively. complaints about low yields in these cultivars. Our results showed that they had high levels of PFA and AVG significantly reduced PFA and increased fruit set. One of the important findings of this study was to show PFA levels of ‘Şebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ cultivars, which have a special place in Turkish walnut cultivation. Recently, there have been hundreds of orchards established with these two cultivars in the country; the former is main cultivar and the latter is pollenizer. The results highlighted that both cultivars are highly affected by excess pollen load and PFA occurs in large extend. On the other hand, AVG application was very effective in reducing PFA that fruit set increased 3 to 5 folds. Conclusions PFA is associated with excess pollen load on stigmas in walnuts. Excessive pollen tubes growing down the style of the female flower produce excessive amounts of ethylene, which is associated with organ senescence. Elevated ethylene levels are cause of flower abortion (Beede & Polito, 2003). PFA can be minimized in existing orchards by either mechanically shaking catkins from pollenizers, from both pollenizers and main cultivar, or removal of pollenizer rows altogether (Sibbett et al. 1995). However, in many cases these applications are not practical. Although the results are preliminary, we could be able to show that Turkish walnut cultivars had medium to high levels of PFA. Application of 125ppm AVG could effectively reduced PFA in all cultivars including the leading ones ‘Şebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ except ‘Şen-1’. Acknowledgement Authors thank Valent BioSciences, USA, for providing AVG (Retain®) chemical. References Beede, R.H., & Polito, V.S. (2003). Effect of ReTain® on reducing pistillate flower abortion in ‘Serr’ walnut. University of California Fruit and Nut Research Info Center. walnut research reports, p.197. Buchner, R.P., Fulton, A., Gilles, C.K., & Resch, K. (2006). Retain applications on Thema county ‘Chandler’ walnuts. University of California, Fruit and Nut Research Info Center, walnut research reports. p.113. Catlin, P.B, Ramos D.E., Sibbett G.S, Olson, W.H., & Olsson E.A. (1987). Pistillate flower abscission of the Persian walnut. HortScience, 22 (2), 201-205. Catlin, P.B., & Polito, V.S. (1989). Cell and tissue damage associated with pistillate flower abscission of Persian walnut. HortScience, 24(6): 1003-1005. Catlin, P.B., & Olsson, E.A. (1990). Pistillate flower abscission of walnut- ‘Serr’, ‘Sunland’, ‘Howard’ and ‘Chandler’. HortScience, 25 (11), 1391-1990. Hassani, D., Eskandari, S., & Jarrahi, K. (2006). Pistillate flower abscission of walnut genotypes. Acta Horticulturae, 705, 257-260. Johnson, H., Grant, J., & Polito, V. (2006). Pistillate flower abortion and ethylene production in walnut. University of California Fruit and Nut Research Info Center. walnut research reports, p.101. Kaveckaja, A.A., & Tokar, K.O. (1963). The unfavorable effect of large amount of pollen in the pollination of walnuts. Botanichnyi Zhurnal 48, 580-585. 33 �Lemus, G., González, C., & Retamales, J. (2007). Developing control of pistillate flower abortion in walnut trees as a novel usage of AVG, an ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor. IPGSA, 19th Annual Meeting. July 21-25, 2007, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. McGranahan, G.H., Voyatzis, D.G., Catlin, P.B., & Polito, V.S. (1994). High pollen loads can cause pistillate flower abscission in walnut. The Journal of American Society for Horticultural Science. 119 (3), 505-509. Por, A., & Por, J. (1990). The effect of the excess pollen on the fruit set of walnuts in Balatonboglar. Acta Horticulturae, 284, 253-256. Polito, V., Coates, B., Grant, J., Hasey, J., Micke, W., Olson, B., & Pinney, K. (1996). Pollen, Pistillate flower abortion/ abscission. University of California, Fruit and Nut Research Info Center, walnut research reports. p.77. Polito, V., Grant. J., & Johnson, H. (2005). Walnut pollination and pistillate flower abortion. University of California Fruit and Nut Research Info Center. p.133. Rovira, M., & Aleta, N. (1997). Pistillate flower abscission on four walnut cultivars. Acta Horticulturae, 442, 231-234. Rovira, M., & Aleta, N. (2006). Flower drop by precocious abortion in walnuts. Nucis Newsletter, 13, 27-30. Sibbett, G.S., Polito, V., McGranahan, G., Kelley, K. Olson, W., Hendricks, L., Catlin, P., & Grant, J. (1995). Minimizing PFA in walnuts. Sun Diamond Grower. 14 (1), 16-18. Venburg, G.D., Hopkins, R., Retamales, J., Lopez, J., Hansen, J., Clarke, G.G., Schroder, M., & Rath, A.C. (2008). Recent developments in AVG research. Acta Horticulturae, 796, 43-49. 34 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 326 Title A name given to the resource Pistillate Flower Abscission in Turkish Walnut Cultivars and Its Reduction by AVG Author Author Gün, Ayse Erdoğan, Veli Akçay, M. Emin Fidanci, Ayse Tosun, İsmail Abstract A summary of the resource. Level of pistillate flower abscission (PFA) in Turkish walnut cultivars was investigated in this study. Emasculated and bagged female flowers were pollinated with 5%, 50% and 100% pollen concentrations at receptivity. Control flowers left for open pollination. In addition, a whole tree was sprayed with 125 ppm ethylene inhibitor AVG (amino ethoxy vinyl glycine) when anthesis reached to 5-30% and a control tree was not treated for each cultivar. Number of aborted flowers at diameter of 3-4cm was counted and percent PFA was calculated. The results showed that Turkish walnut cultivars had medium (65.4%) to high (100%) levels of PFA including the leading cultivars ‘Sebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ (94.8% and 93.4% PFA, respectively). Application of AVG reduced PFA from 82.4% to 43.6% in average and increased fruit set significantly in all cultivars except ‘Sen-1’. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8c66c18b9cdf58d1bd21d93fde3d7314.pdf 98e3d4b056c6503165965cf89825cd0a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Servant Leadership as a New Leadership Concept In Organizations And Distinguishing Between Transformational and Servant Leadership Ceren GĠDERLER ATALAY Dumlupinar University, Department of Administration, Turkey giderler_ceren@hotmail.com Abtract: Servant leadership is an increasingly popular concept in the repertoire of leadership styles. The concepts of servant leadership appear to underlie most of current literature on leadership theory and management practice. When viewed in a historical and scientific context, servant leadership proves to be the viable and sustainable option for organizational longevity. Servant leadership has been described as ―a transformational approach to life and work‖ that takes ―the transformation wrought in its followers to a new height‖. The servant leader‘s first priority is to serve others including customers, employees and the community involving shared decision-making, a holistic attitude toward work and comminity building.The servant leader belives in awareness, empathy and integrity and is most likely to engage in responsible reflection. He/She has been referred an active, empowering process in which the leader enables the followers to do their work and take responsibility for self-management. The result is as a synergy of shared vision, trust and responsibility that engenders a flexible organization and a deeply satisfying work life.The aim of this study is to describe the servant leadership that is an increasingly popular concept for organizations. On the other hand, this study indicates that the functional attributes of servant leadership such as communication, credibility, competence, stewardship, visibility, influence, persuasion, listening, encourgement, teaching and delegation. In the other words this article examines transformational leadership and servant leadership to determine what similitaries and differences exist between the two leadership concepts. Key Words: Leadership, Servant Leadership, The Characteristics of Servant Leadership, Transformational Leadership. Introduction The topic of leadership in the wider organizational context has been attracting attention for some time; indeed, its history is almost as long as the history of management. The leadership domain has recently focused on the so-called "new leadership paradigm" such as transformational leadership and servant leadership. According to Greenleaf, the servant-leader first has the desire to serve others, and then learns to lead as a servant. Laub (1999) defined a servant leader as one who emphasizes the good of followers over the self-interest of the leader. Bass (1990) specified that transformational leadership; ―occours when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employeess, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir their employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group‖. The aim of this study is to describe the servant leadership that is an increasingly popular concept for organizations. In the other words this article examines transformational leadership and servant leadership to determine what similitaries and differences exist between the two leadership concepts. Servant Leadership The paradoxical term, ―servant-leadership‖, which appears to touch an innate need in many of us, and which therefore harks back to the beginning of time, became popularized twenty-five years ago by Robert Greenleaf his books Servant Leadership (1977) and Teacher as Servant (1979). Greenleaf, who wished to stimulate thought and to develop a better, more caring society, compiled his observations on individuals in organisations who serve. According to Greenleaf, the servant-leader first has the desire to serve others, and then learns to lead as a servant. In Hamilton‘s (2008) view, however, Greenleaf never formally defined servantleadership; instead Greenleaf (1970) merely asked (Anderson, 2008, pp.4-5; Cunningham, 2004, p.2); 205 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  Do those served grow as persons, do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?  If one is a servant, one is always searching, listening, expecting that a better wheel for these times is in the making. In his view, servant-leadership ―begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then a conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead‖ (Anderson, 2008, pp.4-5). The notion of servant leadership has received growing attention and recognition in recent years. Various researchers have espoused servant leadership as a valid theory of organizational leadership with great promise for theoretical and practical development (Washington, Sutton, Feild, 2005, p.701). Laub (1999) defined a servant leader as one who emphasizes the good of followers over the self-interest of the leader. That is, according to Laub, servant leadership promotes development of people through (Washington, Sutton, Feild, 2005, pp.700-701);  the sharing of power;  community building;  the practice of authenticity in leadership; and  the provision of leadership for the good of followers, the total organization, and clients or customers of the organization. The Characteristics of Servant Leadership Spears (1995, 1998) listed, ten characteristics of a servant leader drawn from Greenleaf‘s writings, and Contee-Borders‘s (2003) case study confirmed these characteristics as being critical to servant leadership (Joseph, Winston, 2005, p.10; Speras, 2004, pp.2-3);  Listening: Servant leaders clarify the will of a group by listening receptively to what is being said,  Empathy: Servant leaders strive to understand and empathize with others,  Healing: Servant leaders have the potantial for healing self and others,  Awareness: Servant leadership is strengthened by general awareness and especially self-awareness,  Persuasion: Servant leaders rely upon persuasion, rather than positional authority, in making decisions within an organization,  Conceptualization: Servant leaders seek to nurture their abilities to deram great dreams,  Foresight: Servant leaders have the ability to foresee the likely outcome of a situation in the future,  Stewardship: Servant leaders‘ first and foremost cimmitment is to servet he needs of others,  Commitment to the growth of people: Servant leaders are deeply committed to the personal, professional and spiritual growth of each and every individual within the institution and  Building Community: Servant leaders seek to identify means of building community among those who work within a given institution. According to Gersh, characteristics of servant leadership are empathy, stewardship/trust, building community, empowerment of those served, servant as leader (Gersh, 2006, p.14). Whereas more emprical work is clearly needed to elucidate the model fully, leadership scholars do generally accept there are fundamental principles of servant leadership. Based on the reading of Greenleaf, Daft (1999) provided a summary of four underlying precepts associated with authentic servant leadership (Humphreys, 2005, pp.1414-1415);  Service before self: Consistent with the definition, servant leaders place serving others before their own self-interests. The desire to facilitate the needs of others takes precedent over the desire for a formal leadership position. The servant leader insists on doing what is good and right, even in the absence of actual or potantial gain in material possessions, status or prestige.  Listening as a means of affirmation: A second hallmark of servant leadership is listening first as a way of affirming others. Instead of providing answers, the servant leader asks questions of anyone having important knowledge or insight into a problem or oppurtunity. By promoting participative decision making, the leader enhances the confidence and self-efficacy of others as ―the primary mission of the servant leadership is to figure out the will of the group, to express that will, and then to further it…‖  Creating trust: Servant leaders create trust and inspire it in followers by demonstrating personal trustworthiness. They honestly share all information, positive and negative, to assure decisions will ultimately enhance the wellbeing of he group. Trust in the servant leader is augmented through freely trusting others and disseminating, not hoarding, power and incentives.  Nourishing followers to become whole: Servant leaders desire for others to develop their full potential and become servant leaders as well. ―Greenleaf believed the final goal of servanthood was to help others became servants themselves…‖. Through openness and personal discussion of their trials and tribulations 206 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and those of others, they share their humanity with followers. Unafraid of showing vulnerability, they use frank and open disclosure as a way to awaken the human spirit of those around them. According the Patterson (2003), the servant leader leads and serves with (Dennis, Bocarnea, 2005, pp.602-604);  Agapao Love: The corner of the servant leadership/follower relationship that Patterson decsribes is agapao love. Winston (2002) states that agapao menas to love in a social or moral sense. According to Winston (2002), this love causes leaders to consider each person not simply as a means to an end but as a complete person: one with needs, wants, and desires. According to Winston, this love is alive and well today in organizations in which those who demonstrate it follow what Winston calls, not the Golden Rule, but the Platinum Rule (do unto others as they would want you to do unto them).  Humility: Humility, according to Sandage and Wiens (2001), is the ability to keep one‘s accomplishments and talents in perspective. This means practicing self-acceptance, but it further includes the practices of true humility, which means not being self-focused on others. Swindoll (1981) argues that the humility of the servant is not to be equated with poor self-esteem, but rather that humility is in line with a healthy ego. In other words, humility does not mean having a low view of one‘s self or one‘s self worth; rather, it means viewing oneself as no beter or worse than others do.  Alturism: Kaplan (2000) states that alturism is helping others selflessly just fort he sake of helping, which involves personal sacrifice, although there is no personal gain. Likewise, Einsenberg (1986), defines altruistic behavior as ―voluntary behavior that is intented to benefit another and is not motivated by the expectation of external reward‖.  Vision: Vision, according to Webster‘s Dictionary, is ―the act or power of imagination; mode of seeing or conceiving; or, unusual discernment or foresight‖. Blanchard (200) defines vision as ―a Picture of the future that produces passion‖. Vision is necessary to good leadership. Hauser and House (2000) posit that the ―development and communication of a vision is one explanation fort he success of charismatic/transformational leaders and their effect on the performance‖.  Trust: According to Hauser and House (200), trust is defines as ―confidence in or reliance on another team member‖ in terms of their morality (e.g.honesty) and competence. According to Story (2002), trust is an essential characteristic of the servant leader. Servant leaders model truth in the way they coach, empower and persuade. This trust exists as a basic element for true leadership.  Service: The act of serving includes a mission of responsibility yo others. Leaders understand that service is the center of servant leadership. Leaders model their service to others in their behavior, attitudes, and values. According to Block (1993), service is everything. People are accountable to those they serve whether customers or subordinates. Greenlaf (1996) posits that for leaders to be of service to others, they must have a sense of responsibility.  Empowerment: Empowerment is entrusting power to others, and for the servant leader it involves effective listening, making people feel significant, putting an empasis on teamwork, and valuing of love and equality. Covey (2002) believes that the leader serves as a role model for empowering others and for valuing their differences. Mcgee-Cooper and Trammell (2002) argue that understanding basic assumptions and background information on important issues empowers people to discover deeper meaning in their jobs and to participate more fully in effective decision making. Bass (1990), posits that empowerment is power sharing with followers in planning and decision making. Transformational and Servant Leadership Bass (1990) specified that transformational leadership; ―occours when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employeess, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir their employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group‖ (Stone, Russell, Patterson, 2004, p.350). This section compares transformational and servant leadership theories. The facilitate this analysis, a matrix of leadership components was created. Transformational leadership is defined as having four conceptually distinct elements: charasmatic leadership/idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Servant leadership has six distinct components: valving people, developing people, building community, displaying authenticity providing leadership, sharing leadership (Smith, Montagno, Kuzmenko, 2004, p.82). Smith et al. (2004) have proposed that transformational leadership would lead to an ―empowerment dynamic culture‖, whereas, servant leader behavior would create a more ―spiritual generative culture‖. Moreover, they suggest the context could determine which of these cultures, created by the leadership behaviors presented, might lead to greater organizational success. In other words, the context could determine the effectiveness of the leadership style offered (see Figure 1) (Smith, Montagno, Kuzmenko, 2004, p.86; Humphreys, 2005, p.1417). 207 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Parolini (2007) empirically investigated the assumptions in the literature about the distinctions between transformational and servant leaders including the moral, focus, motive and mission, development, and influence distinctions. Parolini found that transformational leaders were differentiated by their focus on the needs of the organization, inclination to lead first, allegiance toward the organization, and influence through conventional charismatic approaches as well as control. The study also identified servant leaders as differentiated by their focus on the needs of the individual, inclination to serve first, allegiance toward the individual, and influence through unconventional service as well as through offering freedom or autonomy. Through the data collection and analysis process, a high presence of transformational and servant leadership was found in organizational life (Parolini, Patterson, Winston, 2008, pp.288, 289). Figure 1: Transformational and Servant Leadership Conclusion The notion of servant leadership has received growing attention and recognition in recent years. Various researchers have espoused servant leadership as a valid theory of organizational leadership with great promise for theoretical and practical development. According to Laub, servant leadership promotes development of people through the sharing of power, community building, the practice of authenticity in leadership, and the provision of leadership for the good of followers, the total organization, and clients or customers of the organization. Spears (1995, 1998) listed, ten characteristics of a servant leader drawn from Greenleaf‘s writings, 208 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and Contee-Borders‘s (2003) case study confirmed these characteristics as being critical to servant leadership; listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, building community. Finally, it have been compared that differences which exist between transformational and servant leadership in this study. Transformational leadership is defined as having four conceptually distinct elements; charasmatic leadership/idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration whereas servant leadership has six distinct components; valving people, developing people, building community, displaying authenticity providing leadership, sharing leadership. As a result, while transformational leadership has been well researched and has become popular in practice, servant leadership theory needs further support. Nonetheless, servant leadership offers great opportunities for leaders. References Anderson, J.A. (2008). When A Servant Leader Comes Knocking, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 30 (1), pp.415. Cunningham, R. (2004). Servant Leadership- An Introduction, Global Virtue Ethics Review, 5(3), pp.2-6. Dennis, R.S.&Bocarnea, M. (2005). Development Of The Servant Leadership Assessment Instrument, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 26 (7/8), pp.600-615. Gershi, M.R. (2006). Servant-Leadership: A Philosophical Foundation For Professionalism In Physical Therapy, Journal Of Physical Therapy Education, 20 (2), pp.12-16. Humphreys, J.H. (2005). Contextual Implications For Transformational And Servant Leadership: A Historical Inverstigation, Management Decisions, 43 (10), pp.1410-1431. Joseph, E.E.&Winston, B.E. (2005). A Correlation Of Servant Leadership, Leader Trust And Organizational Trust, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 26 (1/2), pp.6-22. Parolini, J.&Patterson, K.&Winston, B. (2009). Distinguishing Between Transformational And Servant Leadership, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 30 (3), pp.274-291. Smith, B.N.&Montagno, R.V.&Kuzmenko, T.N. (2004). Transformational And Servant Leadership: Content And Contextual Comparisons, Journal Of Leadership&Organizational Studies, 10 (4), pp.80-91. Spears, L.C. (2004). Practicing Servant Leadership, Leader To Leader, 34, pp.7-11. Stone, G.A.&Russell, R.F.&Patterson, K. (2004). Transformational Versus Servant Leadership: A Difference In Leader Focus, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 25 (3/4), pp.349-361. Washington, R.R.&Sutton, C.D.&Feild, H.S. (2006). Individual Differences In Servant Leadership: The Roles of Values And Personality, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 27 (8), pp.700-716. 209 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 156 Title A name given to the resource Servant Leadership as a New Leadership Concept In Organizations And Distinguishing Between Transformational and Servant Leadership Author Author GİDERLER ATALAY, Ceren Abstract A summary of the resource. Servant leadership is an increasingly popular concept in the repertoire of leadership styles. The concepts of servant leadership appear to underlie most of current literature on leadership theory and management practice. When viewed in a historical and scientific context, servant leadership proves to be the viable and sustainable option for organizational longevity. Servant leadership has been described as ―a transformational approach to life and work‖ that takes ―the transformation wrought in its followers to a new height‖. The servant leader‘s first priority is to serve others including customers, employees and the community involving shared decision-making, a holistic attitude toward work and comminity building.The servant leader belives in awareness, empathy and integrity and is most likely to engage in responsible reflection. He/She has been referred an active, empowering process in which the leader enables the followers to do their work and take responsibility for self-management. The result is as a synergy of shared vision, trust and responsibility that engenders a flexible organization and a deeply satisfying work life.The aim of this study is to describe the servant leadership that is an increasingly popular concept for organizations. On the other hand, this study indicates that the functional attributes of servant leadership such as communication, credibility, competence, stewardship, visibility, influence, persuasion, listening, encourgement, teaching and delegation. In the other words this article examines transformational leadership and servant leadership to determine what similitaries and differences exist between the two leadership concepts. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4eb4adf52c851970938bc0f113bc2fe0.pdf cd497140adfb75ba7cde6941df1e2dd7 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Data Warehousing (DW) - Models and Business Application Aida HABUL Prof. Dr., Sarajevo University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina aida.habul@efsa.unsa.ba Merdžana OBRALIģ Res. Assist., International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mobralic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Fighting with competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantages in the market. Creating long-term policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information about the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In the DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in a format that suits the user and is available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. Introduction In the market there is growing competition that day by day globalizes. At the same time, buyers are more and more selective. All this is forcing manufacturers to constantly check their competitiveness in the market and to find a successful business strategy. Strategic advantage over competitors is sought by achieving the proper planning of market, product innovation, and proper relationships with customers and clients. It is necessity to have timely and relevant information on all aspects of the business and market situations. Data Warehousing is an important concept of effective decision support systems that are intensively developing in recent years. With this concept and the methods is wanted to achieve ''intelligent'' business of company in complex market conditions. For this already there is the name ''business intelligence''. The company, which analyzes the behavior of their customers, behaves ''intelligently''. For example, it has all the necessary customer data and captures every activity which is connected to that customer in the database. With the analysis of this data, for example; by analyzing what and when the customer purchased, how many complaints and for which products he had, all these analysis make the customer profile, or can be put into some category. With the analyses of their own business data and external factors, we get the information used in making optimal business decisions, and at the end make profit and ensure the further existence. Data Warehousing Data Warehousing is a set of data organization on which a decision support system is based. A small data warehouse that contains the data of only one area is called a regional data warehouse (eng. Data March). Data Warehouse is defined as a set of information organized so can be analyzed, extracted, merged and otherwise be used to understand their essence. 465 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Data Warehousing is also a database, provided that the information in it is organized in a special way. A Data Warehouse has a large amount of data that is organized into small logical units called March Data. Data Warehouse systems use abnormal (relaxed) data. Executing a query over the data organized this way is much faster. This kind of work is called OLAP (On Line Analytical Processing). Data that is embedded in the data warehouse is usually accessed through the March data. March Data usually represent a subset of logically related data from the data warehouse, which refers to a specific area. Business Intelligence is taken from data generated during the everyday business of firms. Because of the perimeter, this data is archived each year, deleted and only the data of the next year remains in the database. In addition, the data in the database must be updated so that old data is replaced with new data (e.g., old price, the old quantity in warehouses or in stores they are being replaced by new ones), and then the trail of the old data is erased in the database. For operational management of the old values businesses, for example, quantity in warehouse are not important, but they are important for the business intelligence that tracks the time sequence of events of individual business events. As a conclusion we can say that transactional bases are no longer enough, there is a need for data warehouse. Table 1. view of database and data warehouse Features of Database The data in related databases is organized into twodimensional tables that are mutually connected. The database contains information for each business period. After this period the data is archived and deleted from the current database. The data is constantly being updated and the old values cannot be seen. What is differet beteen a warehouse and a database? A warehouse does not accumulate all the data from the database in recent years. Only the data from the database that is thought to be important for the analysis is archived in the warehouse. The data in the warehouse is organized in a multidimensional cube, it is permanent and is related to the time of emergence. The aim of the data warehouse is not operational business, it is to create a richer sourse of information for various short and long term analysis and for forecasting. P W r a o r p e e h r o t i u e s s o f D a t a e The properities of the Data Warehouse are integration of Data Warehouse systems, the orientation of the Data Warehouse system threads, the time dependence of the Data Warehouse system and the permanence of the Data Warehouse system. Orientation of DW System on Topics The data is categorized and organized according to topics of business and not as a functional unit. Examples of possible themes are Sales-information about products, customers, spatial and organizational structure; Marketing-data about markets, products, customers, technologies, plans; Production-data about products, customers, technologies, plans; Financial operations; and Transportation. Time Dependence of DW System The data is organized by a series ''cross of state‘‘ of operational data; each cross refers to a time interval. How appear Data Warehouse ? 466 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 2. Data Warehouse Basic Models of Data Warehouse When creating a data warehouse today in practice we face three basic models or basic architecture of data warehouse: (1) two-layer architecture with a common data warehouse (original data + data warehouse); this model is characterizing a single common centralized data warehouse. Data are received from various sources inside of the organization and external data sources available via the Internet or other means. Characteristic of twolayer architecture is that it serves a large number of organizational units of company as individual users. Such warehouses are large scale and very complex, and they are usually stored vast amounts of data. And the scheme of data that are used for storing data should support a wide range application request. From the above it is evident that the costs of maintaining such architecture are high and assume a substantial commitment and time of a certain number and profiles of experts. (2) two-layer architecture with multiple independent local data warehouse (original data + data march); Characteristics of this data warehouse architecture is the existence of large number of independent local data warehouse intended for support individual applications in the organizational units of companies. The result of this architecture is the large number of systems which each of them submitted their data from various transactional databases. The advantage of the above model of data warehouse is simpler construction and easier to use. But this model also has disadvantages such as: (1) Difficulties in communication among organizational units of companies. This model is not suitable for companies whose business requires the support of applications and projects that assume mutual communication and cooperation of a larger number of organizational units of companies. (2) Increasing the number of mutually independent data warehouse, slow growth and load themselves transactional systems. (3) Data Marches are designed to support only one application and subsequent addition of new applications in a specific warehouse represent difficulties. (4) Limited scalability of platform. And, (5) Uvid into actual state of information at the company level became difficult. (3) three-layer architecture with a common data warehouse and several affiliated local warehouses (original data + data warehouse + data march); This model consists of large number of local data warehouse and a common data warehouse that is located between the data warehouse and various data sources within and outside the company. Data warehouses rely on central data warehouse that delivers information in a form that provides uniform access to all segments of company business. Compared to the previous two models the advantages of three-layer architecture are higher accuracy of the information freely from which sources are affected, communication among organizational units is easier, the burden on IT specialists is reduced, stability and scalability of data warehousing platform is increased, and at the end, this architecture is offering possibility of using foreign applications allowing connection of all entities in the chain of value. This three-layer warehouse architecture, that is known as the most used one has it owns advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are: (1) The work load of IT specialists is reduced (because the data is already coordinated in the warehouse, so they are just taken in the warehouse); (2) More opportunities to add new application; (3) Improves the accuracy and precision of information (because everything is derived from one warehouse); (4) Less difficulty in communication and cooperation between organizational units and parts that has to 467 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo be performed together; and (5) The possibility of the use of applications that goes beyond the framework of operations (connecting with buyers and suppliers in the value chain). The disadvantages are: Relatively high cost of establishing a common warehouse at corporate level (to eliminate this disadvantage we have to make a gradual incremental construction of warehouses: first we have to create the first warehouse, then the mini-warehouse, than gradually add new warehouses and activate new applications, and finally comes the independence of the ''real'' warehouse). Implementation of Data Warehouse There are many ways to implement the Data Warehouse in a company. The implementation can be seen from several aspects: (1) An area that covers the data warehouse; DW can contain all the information of one company and for a period of several years. Also, DW can carry a personal character for a specific manager and can contain information from a short period of time (one year). (2) Volume of data redundancy; there are three levels of data redundancy that companies should consider when designing their own DW. (1) Virtual or ''Point to Point'' DW; (2) Central DW; and (3) Distributed DW. (3) Types of final users; when we look at the DW from the final user point, we can establish three categories of users: (1) CEOs and managers; (2) ''Powerful'' users (business and financial analysts, engineers, etc.); and (3) Users for support (operational and administrative staff) Levels of Analysis of Data in Warehouse 1. Generate static reports - If we only need a report in tabular or graphical format on the existing data from the data warehouse, report generators are sufficient tools (e.g. Microsoft Crystal Reports or Oracle Reports), which simply display data that is filtered, sorted or summarized by some criteria from the database. 2. OLAP (on-line processing analytical) - More complex, analytical processing of data by different dimensions is done at the relational base on OLAP technology (e.g.: if you want to get information about Mazda 323 cars for sale in Osijek Friday afternoon). To view OLAP we have to use the most frequent three-dimensional cubes. 3. Data Mining - The most complex part of data processing, means sophisticated Métis for searching hidden laws in data. Selection of DW Strategies Before the DW system is developed, it is necessary to choose a strategy that is as far as possible a guarantee that the ultimate solution will meet the specific demands at the time. Who are the final users? Which areas should be covered? What kind of information should the DW provide? These are just some of the issues raised in the selection of implementation strategies of a DW in a company. We should not ignore the fact that man is the main factor in the decision making process. Business Application of Data Warehouse Databases can be seen as the area where the company partners (customers, clients, service users) leave clues about their business relationship with the company. Every transaction, purchase, invitation addressed over the call center, seeking bids for certain set of items is being recorded in database. Company that are using Data Warehouses 1) Volkswagen AG - uses Business Object tools for monitoring all data - from finance, manufacturing, development, research, sales, marketing and purchasing. Users at all levels can access the statements in BI tools. 2) MasterCard International – uses the BI tools for monitoring data in the area of advertising and authorization and fraud detection. 3) Magma uses OLAP and BI tools to improve the reporting system on the sale of goods. 468 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Example of Applying DW in Textile Trades A typical retail shop sells textiles to a large number of customers whose needs are significantly different. Without adequate resources for the analysis of numerous data about clients, the shop would be doomed to failure. The biggest benefits for a business are functions, the contact point through which insight into the characteristics and behavior of clients is created. The development of information technology has enabled us to be informed about clients and also to fill our database with useful information. The value of a customer is very important data. During their entire life cycle, the value of the customers is always changing. All clients are not equally profitable, so the profitability of customers also changes over time. These are the reasons why it is important to identify the clients whose value during their entire life cycle is great and to establish close relationships with them. Our database should also contain answers to important questions about customers, such as customer loyalty, cross selling, determining target prices, but also about suppliers, the efficiency of suppliers, stock control, product flow, forecasting demand. The emphasis on the importance of logistics leads to specialization in providing logistics services exclusively. Textile makers are faced with the traditional approach of material offers which a user can feel and with the new generation of customers that manage in the virtual world almost as much as in the real. A well-made database enables the rapid development and progress in every sense. Also, the path from the manufacturer to the final consumers is reduced to the minimum. However, the possibilities of keeping the customer in this market are far greater than in others. Today we are witnessing estimates that the market of direct selling as it was known in years past will completely disappear, work on the DW and the content that is offered to customers with quality procurement and distribution channels can ensure the stability of textile makers in new times. Therefore we should not neglect the potential of the Internet, but we should consider target regional environment. Decisions taken should be closely connected with the database. The database should be well designed, created and filled with good information. That is the only way to guarantee life and successful business. Conclusion Fighting competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantage in the market. Creating a longterm policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information on the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In a DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in format that suits the user and available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. The DW is an information technology that simply imposes cooperative team work of professional information experts and economists, and links the technical and business worlds. Perhaps this will lead to better cooperation between designers and users of information systems and thus to greater success in the project of building company information systems. References Bojan C., Poslovna inteligencija, Beograd, 2006. Hanic H., Sistem informacija za upravljanje marketingom, Beogradska banarska akademija, Beograd, 2008. http://www.infotrend.hr/clanak/2009/7/temelj-procesa-odlucivanja,41,810.html John P., Model-Driven Data Warehouse, Integrate Burlingame, CA, 2003 469 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Kellet A., Integrated Business Intelligence, Butler Group, April 2003 Mladen V., Skladiste podataka. Mrsic L., Poslovna inteligencija kroz poslovne slucajeve, Zagreb, 2003 Mrsic L., Primjena metoda rudarenja podataka u trgovini tekstilnim i srodnim proizvodima, Magistarski rad, Zagreb, 2004. www.skladistenje.com www.znanje.org 470 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 246 Title A name given to the resource Data Warehousing (DW) - Models and Business Application Author Author HABUL, Aida OBRALIĆ, Merdžana Abstract A summary of the resource. Fighting with competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantages in the market. Creating long-term policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information about the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In the DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in a format that suits the user and is available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6fe6d25e9d14b4b9c8a38bdbe102feb.pdf dddb0f30a834463078bca51acf52c835 PDF Text Text Water Management and Sustainable Development H. Đbrahim HALĐLOĞLU Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; hhaliloglu@hotmail.com Abdulkadir BAYIR Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; abayir@atauni.edu.tr A. Necdet SĐRKECĐOĞLU Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; nsirkecioglu@hotmail.com Mehtap BAYIR Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; mehtapcengiz@hotmail.com N. Mevlüt ARAS Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; mevlutaras@hotmail.com Abstract: Water is the basis of life on earth; it is the main component of the environment and an essential element for human life. Water is also fundamental for sustaining a high quality of life and for economic and social development. Human health greatly has been affected by water. But water resources has been threaten by pollution, miss using, and industrialization. In this paper loads on water resources and water availability depending on factors are analyzed; regions of water scarcity and water resources deficit are discussed. Possible ways of water supply improvement and elimination of water resources deficit in different conditions were argued. Keywords: Water management; Freshwater; Sustainable development Introduction Water is very important resources for sustainable development in human life. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The demand of water amount increased six times in 20th century when comparing with 19th century, but during this time the population of word increased only three fold. To know reliable assessment of water storage on the earth is essential but there is complicated problem because water is very dynamic. It is in permanent motion, converting among liquid, solid, and gaseous phases. In addition to the quantitative estimation of water storage, it is necessary to determine the form salt or freshwater and the other formation on our planet. It is estimated that the earths hydrosphere contains of water, 1,386 million cubic kilometers (km3). However 97.5 percent of this amount is salt water and only 2.5 percent is fresh water. Most of the fresh water 588 �(68.7 percent) is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctic, the Arctic, and mountainous regions. Fresh groundwater comprises 29.9 percent of fresh water resources. Only 0.26 percent of the total amount of fresh water on the earth is concentrated in lakes, reservoirs, and river systems (Korzoun 1978). Water storage in the hydrosphere permanently exchange among the ocean, land, and the atmosphere. This exchange is usually called the turnover of water on the earth, or the global hydrological cycle. This cycle is fully replenished according to hydrospheric water, for example 2500 year for oceanic water, 10000 years permafrost and polar ice, 1500 years deep groundwater and mountainous glaciers. On the other hand, water storage in lakes is fully replenished 17 years and in rivers only 17 days. So, river water is of great importance in the global hydrological cycle and in supplying humankind with freshwater. In hydrology and water management, two concepts are very important that are used freshwater storage and renewable water resources. Renewable water resources include the water yearly replenished in the process of water turnover on the earth. In the process of turnover, both the quantity of river runoff is replenished and its quality is restored. If we could stop the contamination of rivers, then, with time, water could return to its natural purity. It is the river runoff that is most widely distributed over the land and provides a major part of water use in the world. A discovery of the anthropogenic factors that effect change of the quantitative and qualitative parameters of river water, are very important aspects of the water resources appraisal and assessment. Reliable assessment and appraisal of water resources is very important for each country or region and serves as an important prerequisite for all other aspects of the utilization and operation of water resources, and development of measures to protect against depletion and pollution. So each country is responsible water use and assessment their water sources. There are many research and document about renewable freshwater resources published since the turn of the past century in the different countries of the world. During the last years, the results of global estimations have been published with varying degrees of comprehensiveness (Baumgartner & Reichel 1975; Berner & Berner 1987, World Resources Institute 1996; Gleick 1993 and 1998). For assess renewable water resources at the global scale it must be; 5. The availability of the long-term observation series; 6. Location of sites on large and medium rivers, uniformly spread across the region, 7. Observations should reflect the river runoff regime, natural, or close to natural. Also using water was primarily estimated for the countries of the world. Then the values obtained were generalized for large natural-economic regions and continents. Household Water The amount of public water use in their home depends on climatic conditions. In many well-equipped cities of the world, water withdrawals equal 300-600 liters per day per person (lcd). By the end of the 20th century, in industrially developed countries of Europe and North America, the per capita urban water withdrawal was expected to increase up to 500-800 l/day. On the other hand, in developing agricultural countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, public water withdrawal is 50 to 100 lcd; in individual regions with insufficient water resources, it is not more than 10 to 40 lcd of freshwater per person (Shiklomanov & Markova 1987; Gleick 1993 and 1998). When calculated the specific water withdrawal is 400 to 600 lcd, and consumption does not usually exceed 5 to 10 percent of total water intake. Water use by populations in cities and rural areas was estimated using population dynamics data (urban and rural) and per capita water withdrawal. Industrial Water Uses Generally water in industry is used for cooling, transportation, as a solvent, and as an ingredient of finished products. Mostly water user is thermal and nuclear power generation. They use water mostly for cooling system. Used water in industry withdrawal is quite different not only for individual branches of industry, but also within each kind of production, depending on the technology of manufacturing process. As a rule, in the northern regions, industrial water withdrawals seem to be considerably less than in southern regions with higher air temperatures. Some water is use in recirculation system after used. But new freshwater add to system. The amount of new freshwater intake water supply is insignificant. Extra water intake in most industries it is 5 to 20 589 �percent, reaching 30 to 40 percent in some industries (Shiklomanov & Markova 1987; Margat 1994; Shiklomanov 1997 In the future, most countries will need to continuously increase the transition to circulating water supply systems. Many industries will convert to water-free, or dry, technologies. In some countries and regions of the world, there is a tendency to increase the use of marine waters for industrial purposes. Agricultural Water Uses For all the countries and regions in the world, irrigation is the principal water user. At the beginning of the 20 th almost all developed and developing countries initiated intensive irrigation development. This intensive irrigation could provide for the growth of irrigated areas and increased crop production. But this increase in irrigated areas slowed considerably (Postel 1992; Shiklomanov 1997). The reason of this situation was the very high cost of irrigation system construction, soil salinization, the depletion of irrigation water-supplying sources, and the problems of environmental protection. Also some developed countries, the amount of irrigated lands has stabilized or even decreased. At the present time, about 15 percent of all cultivated lands are being irrigated. However, the food produced in irrigated areas amounts to almost half the total crop production. Irrigated areas would expand mainly in countries with an extremely rapid population growth and sufficient water and land resources. Water required for irrigation is determined water intake in cubic meters per hectare per year (m3/ha/year), and returnable waters in percentage of water intake. They depend on general physiographic conditions, serviceable condition of irrigation systems, watering techniques and crop composition. In the irrigation area the returnable water amount is change according to the area and climatic condition. This amount changes between 20-60% percent of total water intake. Therefore, the values of annual water withdrawal vary greatly, from 5,000-6,000 m3/ha to 1500017000 m3/ha, and in individual regions of Africa to 20000 or 25000 m3/ha. (Shiklomanov & Markova 1987; Shiklomanov 1997; FAO 1995 and 1999). A considerable water economy can be attained through use of the most efficient modern engineering methods and means of watering (sprinkling, drip irrigation, etc.) that increase crop productivity and decrease irrigation water volume. The largest water use in agriculture is irrigation. However, quantitatively, the total water contribution to other agricultural uses is insignificant when compared to those for irrigation (approximately, 5 to 8 percent). In estimating future water withdrawals for irrigation, the trend of irrigation to decrease due to improving technological procedures and engineering efficiency was considered. Solutions to the Water Crisis * Develop more water sources, while ensuring that environmental and community concerns are addressed; * Improve water infrastructure, including the installation of low-flow toilets and efficient drip-irrigation systems; * Improve water-use efficiency * Update the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act to include new contaminants, and actively enforce the standards already in place * Price water more accurately, with the understanding that water is a human right and should be subsidized for basic human needs * Improve and expand public participation in environmental decision-making; and Strengthen water institutions and improve communication between them. 590 �References Baumgartner A. & Reichel E. (1975). The world water balance. Vienna and Munich: R. Oldenboury Verlag. Berner E.K. & Berner R.A. (1987). The global water cycle: Biochemistry and environment. Reprint. Adapted by permission of Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. FAO (1995). Irrigation in Africa in Figures. Extract from Water Report 7, FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO (1999). Irrigation in Asia in Figures. Extract from Water Report 18, FAO, Rome, Italy. Gleick P.H. (1993). Water in crisis. Oxford University Press. Gleick P.H. (1998). The world’s water. Island Pres, Washington, DC, USA. Korzoun, V.I. (1978). World water balance and water resources of the earth. UNESCO. Margat J. (1994). Water use in the world: Present and Future. Paris, UNESCO. Postel S. (1992). Last oasis. The worldwatch environment alert series. New York & London: W.W. Norton and Company. Shiklomanov I.A. & Markova O.L. (1987). Problems of water availability and water transfers in the world. Leningrad: Hydrometeoizdat. (In Russian). Shiklomanov I.A. (1997). Assessment of water resources and water availability in the world. Geneva, Switzerland: SEI and WMO. World Resources Institute (1996). A guide to the global environment. Oxford University Press. 591 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 605 Title A name given to the resource Water Management and Sustainable Development Author Author HALİLOĞLU, H. İbrahim BAYIR, Abdulkadir SİRKECİOĞLU, A. Necdet BAYIR, Mehtap ARAS, N. Mevlüt Abstract A summary of the resource. Water is the basis of life on earth; it is the main component of the environment and an essential element for human life. Water is also fundamental for sustaining a high quality of life and for economic and social development. Human health greatly has been affected by water. But water resources has been threaten by pollution, miss using, and industrialization. In this paper loads on water resources and water availability depending on factors are analyzed; regions of water scarcity and water resources deficit are discussed. Possible ways of water supply improvement and elimination of water resources deficit in different conditions were argued. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/69adf13fc5d96985705920fcf67b1224.pdf d0b62a86889edae3ff8d4da9b3de07b5 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Competitive Analysis Of Ski Resorts In Bosnia And Herzegovina Using Differential Advantage Proforma Mohammad HAMAD International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Edin SMAJIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina esmaijc@ibu.edu.ba Adisa MUJKIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Armin BECIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Armin SABOTIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Çetin YURT International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Teoman DUMAN International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina tduman@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to conduct a competitive analysis of ski resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina using differential advantage proforma. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strong brand image due to Winter Olympics conducted in Sarajevo in 1984. This image has been weakening due to lack of marketing efforts, especially following the war between former Yugoslav republics. Competitive analysis is an important part of marketing strategy for companies to identify strengths and weaknesses among various competitors. In this study, differential advantage proforma is used as a technique of competitive analysis to identify comparable positions and key customer values of ski-resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To identify competitive positions, a series of qualitative techniques (focus groups, personal interviews, site visits – observation) are used. Research results indicate that five competing ski-resorts have unique differential advantages that can be used in marketing of these resorts. Keywords: Competitive Strategies, Differential Proforma Analysis, Ski Industry, Bosnia and Herzegovina 422 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Introduction Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) is located in the central part of the Balkan and holds strategic seat in the eastern part of Europe. BH is a country in south-east Europe with an estimated population of four million people. BH is a country that measures just over 50,000 km2. Its diverse climate, contrast geographic landscape and multicultural and multi religious society may serve as magnet for tourist from around the Globe. The country is located in a beautiful mountainous location with many scenic vistas. Wilderness and untouched nature make it an ideal destination for adventurers and nature lovers. The central part of the country is covered with range of mountains and is a hikers and walkers paradise. Enchanted by both Mediterranean and Alpine climates, the range of diverse landscapes stun and amaze the county‘s visitors. Every mountain in BH can be utilized for winter tourism and they all are equally appealing and carry their peculiar charm. Mountains that are currently used for winter tourism are Bjelasnica & Igman, Jahorina, Vlasic, Blidinje and Kupres (Enjoybosnia, 2010). Bjelasnica and Jahorina Mountains once hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics. They are a popular tourist attraction for skiing, boarding, paragliding, mountaineering and hiking. These mountains are only 20 minutes outside of Sarajevo. During the 1984 Winter Olympics, Bjelasnica was used for a number of Olympic events, and has several structures dating from that time, including hotels and skiing areas. Hotel Igman served as a seat to International Olympic Committee presided by late Juan Antonio Samaranch. Bosnian mountains used to attract world famous sports figures, athletes and sport managers but also many famous political figures. They were arenas for famous battles during World War II but also during recent war in Bosnia. Winter Tourism In Bosnia and Herzegovina BH is endowed with beautiful mountains that are underutilized since there are only five winter resorts in the whole country. Those are: Bjelasnica and Igman, Jahorina, Vlasic, Blidinje and Kupres. Although, Bjelasnica and Igman, Jahorina and Vlasic stand out as better organized and better offer yet there is a huge prospect and immense potential to offer great many new products in winter tourism (FIPA, 2010). Table 1 summarizes winter tourism facilities for the five ski resorts in BH. 423 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Existing/Plan ned Facilities Igman & Bjelasnica Jahorina Vlasic Blidinje Kupres Accommodation 2250 beds (2 hotels with 342 beds, and the rest are private) 4000 beds ( 6 hotels with 1022 beds, the rest private) 6000 beds (6 hotels with 680 beds, and the rest are private) 2000 beds (1 hotel and private) 700 beds Ski lifts capacity 5000 person/h 22.200 person/h planned 1000 person/h 12.200 m 5 machines with capacity of 14.000m3 Exists 5400 person/h 15.000 person/h planned 14.000 m - 2500 person/h Alpine ski slope Snowmaking machines Night lighting system Ski jump 7500 person/h 13.800 person/h planned 25.000 m - 4.500 m - 14.000 m - Exists Exists - - 2 with; 70m – 90m - - - Cross country tracks Destination from Sarajevo Local population Future plans 35 km 5 km 3 with; 90m35m-15m 15 km - - 25 km from airport 30 km 100 km 80 km 140 km 425.000 10.000 total bed capacity, man-made lake, 80% of skiing infrastructure for children and beginners, 20% for advanced skiers, multimedia business facilities, health centers, more indoor and outdoor entertainment facilities 30.000 8 more hotels, 9580 total bed capacity, more facilities for families 70.000 10.000 total bed capacity, golf course (50 h) 17.000 2700 total bed capacity 4.000 One more private ski center is planned. Table 1: A comparison of winter tourism facilities of five ski-resorts in BH. BH was the symbol of winter tourism in former Yugoslavia. 1984 Winter Olympics secured many mountains international acclaim. XIV Winter Olympics (1984) were considered as one of the most successful of its time. Today, Olympic resorts host a new generation of skiers and snow-lovers, hitting the slopes with Olympic quality skiing without the outlandish prices and long waiting. However, these resorts are one of the last undiscovered regions with vast tracks and untouched nature of the Southern Alps. As such they represent an ideal tourism destination for hikers and walkers, as well as for adventurers and nature lovers (Bhtourism, 2010). The beauty of the Bjelasnica Mountain is augmented by the temper of its climate. Bjelasnica‘s highest part, 300 meters in length, towards the Adriatic Sea, represents a border of impact of two climates - Mediterranean and Continental that results in rain and snow precipitation in autumn and great amounts of snow in the winter which retains until late in the spring. The highest temperature is 24°C and the lowest is -41°C. Thick green grass covers the mountain in the summer while winters attract 4 meters. The greater area of Bjelasnica and Igman, including neighboring Visocica and Treskavica mountains (around 100,000 ha), has a long list of attractions such as mountain scenery with expansive vistas, river-cut limestone canyons, caves, rich forest, diverse flora, endemic and medicinal herbs and endangered fauna. However, the greatest, and most sustainable growth opportunities lie in attracting new visitors, who will seek out Bosnia‘s inherent appeals. These are primarily niche market segments, such as: ―soft outdoor adventurists‖, hikers, fishermen, river rafters, birders (migratory season only) and history/culture enthusiasts. Most of this growth will come from the more traditional tourism-producing markets in Europe, as well as neighboring regional markets. 424 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Bjelasnica is an ideal place for winter holidays especially in the period from November to May, with snow drifts of a couple of meters in height which are a particular challenge for winter sports lovers. Winter season is particularly interesting because of the landscape of the mountain under snow, which is somewhat like a white desert covered with rays of sunshine, above which there is nothing but the areal landscape. During the Olympics at Bjelasnica and Igman, the competitions in Alpine Skiing (Downhill, Giant Slalom and Slalom), Nordic skiing (Cross-country skiing, Nordic combined), Biathlon and Ski Jumps took place. Beside traditional disciplines, Bjelasnica is also trying to put up with the latest trends with night skiing. Ski run on 8345 meters is perfect for skiers and snowboarders of various skill levels, those looking for adventure or those with young children. Due to an increased market demand and interest in Bjelasnica and Igman resorts, the local authorities and a number of private companies have made considerable investments in the infrastructure and particularly in accommodation capacities in the last five years. This resulted in a huge increase in a number of beds (hotel with 240 beds) available at the mountain, and particularly in an increased number of condominiums (2,000 beds). Bosnia and Herzegovina developed an authentic gastronomy familiar to many, with which it enriches its tourism and represents its culture, tradition and mode of life Bosnian cuisine is influenced by Eastern and Western. Bosnian dish is tightly connected to Greek, Turkish, and other Mediterranean cuisines. Gastronomy on Bjelasnica is one of the main reasons that can assure an increase in the service quality. The richness of natural tastes, that became a brand for B&H (such are burek and čevapčiĤi) can make a pleasant stay and serve as a nice added value to those who came to visit mounting in BH. The other feature of the local cuisine is that local food producers can make supply from neighboring villages. The latest trends of organic food can be linked to the local economy, which should be able to ensure a 100% bio diet. This segment could be one of the future characteristics of future mountain tourism in BH. As initial trigger to be used for young and curious skiers and snowboarders, who are less attach to traditional ski centers could be attracted to Bjelasnica with the lower prices. BH and Bjelašnica can provide the expected level of service and tourism quality compared to the price. BH is relatively still not too expensive, and as such can attract tourists on budget, young people and backpackers. Bjelasnica has enormous potential for further developments, however, there is a need for overarching cooperation across different sectors that will trigger investment in infrastructure and superstructure. Having in mind that Bjelasnica ski resort has not developed long term strategy yet, nor has it fulfilled preconditions for mass tourism, they can focus on domestic clients, regional clients and for the beginning youth clients from Europe. At later stages, increased capacities in hotel accommodation and introduced preconditions for a more mass tourism, Bjelasnica has the potential to attract more tourists from Europe and the rest of the world, as well. Research Purpose The purpose of this research is to conduct a competitive analysis of ski resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina using differential advantage proforma. Identifying and analyzing competitors are two main steps to develop successful marketing plans (Kotler and Keller, 2006). Competitive analysis guides managers to differentiate their offering and devise focused product, price, promotion and distribution strategies. Although the ski resorts in BH have unique characteristics that can be used in their marketing, competition-based plans to attract target groups of visitors are still lacking. Detailed analyses of the competitive advantages of these resorts are necessary for future marketing planning. Current research aims to conduct a competitive analysis of these resorts and identify their relative strengths and weaknesses with differential advantage proforma technique. Methodology A series of qualitative techniques (focus groups, personal interviews, site visits - observation) are used are used to identify the competitive positions and strengths of five ski resorts in BH. Initially, officials from ZOI‘84, legal successor of the Organization Committee of the XIV Winter Olympic Games with all its sport and leisure facilities, were conducted and personal interviews were conducted about ski-resorts in BH (ZOI84, 2010). Researchers from a marketing management class asked questions about past and current situation of winter tourism in BH in these personal interviews. Furthermore, researchers went on a site visit to Bjelasnica and Igman ski resort where they conducted a focus group with the site managers and technical personnel of the ski center. In this focus group, researchers asked structured questions about comparative positions of different ski-resorts in BH in terms of differential advantages and disadvantages of these resorts. Finally, researchers conducted personal interviews with the officials of one travel agency in Sarajevo. 425 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Findings received from personal interviews and the focus group study were analyzed with competitive positions proforma technique. This technique allows researchers to record competitive positions and strengths on a competitive positions proforma where relative market shares, key customer values, weaknesses and differential advantages of the competitors are recorded (Dibb and Simkin, 2008). Key customer values and differential advantages are two main attributes that are used in the analysis of competing brands (Dibb and Simkin, 2008). Dibb and Simkin state that ―A differential advantage is something a company or its marketing mix has which is desired by the target market, and is not currently readily matched by rival companies or products‖ (p. 52). Research Findings Table 2 shows competitive positions and differential advantage proforma for ski-resorts in BH. As shown in the Table, Jahorina is considered the market leader in skiing in BH, followed by Bjelasnica and Igman, Vlasic, Blidinje and Kupres. Winter tourism at Jahorina resort occupies the position of market leader, due to its highest lift skiing capacity and best quality in accommodation, health service center, and many other infrastructure and facilities that are not affected by the past war. The only disadvantage perceived to be challenging this resort is the limitation in the available space to meet the needs for any future potential expansion. Igman and Bjelasnica resort is occupying the challenger position with huge space that might be needed for any possible expansion in the future. This resort has the potential to occupy the position of market leader in the future as it has a great ski jumping venue ever since 1984 Olympics, a thick forest that allowing 200 skiing days, the steepest slopes in the region, the longest cross country tracks, and one of the highest peaks in the region. The very poor infrastructure and administrative difficulties of the resort being under the authority of the Sarajevo Canton and three municipalities (Hadzici, Trnovo and Ilidza) are the main disadvantages and challenges that facing this resort to become a market leader. While Vlasic resort is recently occupying the third position in the market, as a market follower, it has a huge capacity and lots of features that could bring it to market challenger. This resort is the hottest venue for celebration of New year and is popular since 1991 international ski jumping competition. The resort preserves the very old tradition of sheep breeding (Vlasic or Travnik cheese) and it houses hotels that maintain European standards. The resort is very close to the major markets of Croatia and Slovenia. The main disadvantage of this resort is its distance to the regional international airports, particularly from the Capital ―Sarajevo‖ (100 km.). Vlasic doesn‘t have the unique image that was created for both Jahorina and Bjelasnica & Igman resorts due to hosting the Olympic Games, which prevent it to compete on the position of market leader in the future unless similar opportunities offered to it too. Research results show that Blidinje resort occupies the position of the market fast mover because it has certain features that could improve its position in the future. The resort has a natural lake that helps a year-round tourism, rich variety of plant and animal life from Mediterranean climate and has one of the highest peaks in BH (2.227 M). Finally, Kupres resort occupies the position of market nicher with its shortest skiing days, as it has 300 days sun shine that makes it the all yearround tourism resort more than a winter tourism resort. It is attracting people from Croatia than anywhere else in the region. 426 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Competitive Positions Differential Advantages Market leader (Jahorina) Market share 4.000 beds & the highest ski lift capacity up to 10.000 per/h. Entertainment, wellness, convenient location, leisure Key Customer Values (KCV) Weaknesses Differential Advantage (DA) Market challenger (Bjelasnica and Igman) Market share Limitation in the available resort space to meet the needs for any future potential expansion Several hotels which are ideal for conferences and meetings, the highest lifts, skiing capacity up to 10.000 per/h, infrastructure is in good condition since not affected by the war, one of the most popular winter resorts in the region. 2.250 beds & 5.000 per/h ski lift capacity Challenging skiing experience, convenient location, entertainment, wellness, variety of skiing experience. Key Customer Values (KCV) Weaknesses Administrative problems due to multiple authorities responsible for the resort, poor infrastructure due to war, lack of multimedia business facilities and health centers. Differential Advantage (DA) A great ski jumping venue ever since 1984 Olympic, thick forest that allows the longest skiing season in the region (200 days), the steepest slopes in the region, horse-drawn carriage rides through the snow. Market Follower (Vlasic) Market share 6.000 beds & 5.400 per/h ski lift capacity Entertainment, wellness, leisure Key Customer Values (KCV) Distance to Sarajevo and international airport (100 km), limited indoor and outdoor activities. Weaknesses Differential Advantage (DA) Market fast mover (Blidinje) Market share European standard hotels, close distance to other markets - Croatia and Slovenia, the hottest venue for celebration of new year, preservation of the very old tradition of sheep breeding (Vlasic or Travnik cheese). 2.000 beds & 2.500 per/h ski lift capacity Entertainment, wellness, leisure Key Customer Values (KCV) Distance to Sarajevo and international airport (80 km), limited indoor and outdoor activities, the shortest alpine ski-slopes (4.500 m) compared to other resorts in the region. Weaknesses Differential Advantage (DA) Nature lake that helps a year-round tourism, one of the highest peaks in the country (2.227 m), rich variety of Mediterranean plant and animal species. Market Nicher (Kupres) Market share 700 beds & 1.000 per/h ski lift capacity Entertainment, wellness, leisure. Key Customer Value (KCV) Weaknesses Distance to Sarajevo and international airport (140 km), limited indoor and outdoor activities, limited accommodation and ski-lifts capacity. Differential Advantage (DA) 300 days sun shine that makes it the all year-round tourism resort, close distance to other markets – Croatia. Table 2: Competitive positions and differential advantage proforma for ski-resorts in BH. 427 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusion BH Mountains, particularly the ski resorts of Bjelasnica & Igman and Jahorina which hosted Winter Olympic Games in 1984, have long known for their winter tourism opportunities. BH has a great potential for winter tourism due to a number of reasons including the natural beauty of its mountain range, proximity of major mountains to city centers and major airports, proximity to western European markets. Each ski resort in BH possesses unique characteristics that can be used to differentiate its offerings in marketing. Research results indicate that Jahorina can be promoted as a family vacation winter destination with its high accommodation potential and suitable skiing infrastructure for youngsters non-professionals. The main positioning theme for this resort can be entertainment and fun for families. On the other hand, Bjelasnica and Igman can be positioned as the resort for skiing professionals and learners considering its technical infrastructure that was used in winter Olympics. Also, close proximity of this resort makes the reach easy for ski-enthusiasts living in Sarajevo and nearby destinations. Vlasic resort has similar benefits with Jahorina as it has great accommodation potential and entertainment opportunities. Vlasic can also be presented as a family vacation and entertainment destination but it can target different markets compared to Jahorina such as Croatia, Slovenia and other European markets. Finally, Blidinje and Kupres can act as nich products in skiing and go after focused target markets. These resorts may consider developing a vacation theme that combines skiing and mountain sports which may attract specific target markets from various age groups. The common disadvantage between the five winter resorts is that only a fraction of their huge potential and opportunities for winter sports is being used due to insufficient infrastructure and facilities at the mountains including lack of vertical transportation, un-groomed ski slopes and too few overnight accommodations. These mountains and resorts have great opportunities for further development that require strong and experienced strategic partners that are able to provide the investment capital and introduce new managerial skills and marketing plans. If managed properly, winter tourism can impact BH‘s gross national income to a great extend by enjoying the benefits of invisible exports such as tourism receipts and revenues. In the due course, winter tourism can provide employment, generate income, liven up and preserve hundreds of beautiful villages with old traditional life-styles in the heart of Europe that are at the risk of extinction. To develop winter tourism in BH further in the future, a comprehensive strategy should be developed covering all necessary aspects with participation from all the stake holders. The implementation should be thorough and without exceptions. For more effective marketing and management strategies, collaboration and cooperation of all parties at stake is necessary. This is especially true for Bjelasnica and Igman resort which has suffered most from recent Bosnian war. Future strategies should give priority to the restoration of basic infrastructure and superstructure needed for tourism. Providing high quality services for European tourists should also be a priority to attract tourists from nearby European markets. Tourism is a beautiful mosaic and requires full cooperation and contribution from all to be successful. References Bhtourism (2010). Retrieved on 15 May 2010 from <www.bhtourism.ba/eng/yournextadventure.wbsp>. Dibb, S, and Simkin, L (2009). Marketing Essentials. London, UK: Cengage. Enjoybosnia (2010). Retrieved on 15 May 2010 from <www.enjoybosnia.com/page-al-Planine.html>. FIPA (2010). Winter Tourism Investment Opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Retrieved on 10 March 2010 from <http://www.br-agency.org/UserFiles/File/SKI_CENTERS.pdf>. Kotler, P. and Keller, K. L. (2008). Marketing Management. Int. Ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson. ZOI84 (2010). Retrieved on 15 May 2010 from <http://www.zoi84.ba/index.php?lang=en&sel=1>. 428 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 226 Title A name given to the resource A Competitive Analysis Of Ski Resorts In Bosnia And Herzegovina Using Differential Advantage Proforma Author Author HAMAD, Mohammad SMAJIC, Edin MUJKIC, Adisa BECIC, Armin SABOTIC, Armin YURT, Çetin DUMAN, Teoman Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is to conduct a competitive analysis of ski resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina using differential advantage proforma. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strong brand image due to Winter Olympics conducted in Sarajevo in 1984. This image has been weakening due to lack of marketing efforts, especially following the war between former Yugoslav republics. Competitive analysis is an important part of marketing strategy for companies to identify strengths and weaknesses among various competitors. In this study, differential advantage proforma is used as a technique of competitive analysis to identify comparable positions and key customer values of ski-resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To identify competitive positions, a series of qualitative techniques (focus groups, personal interviews, site visits – observation) are used. Research results indicate that five competing ski-resorts have unique differential advantages that can be used in marketing of these resorts. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory