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Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts
Roma Kriaučiūnienė
Vilnius University, Lithvania
Submitted: 22.04.2014.
Accepted: 22.11.2014.
Abstract
The contemporary world is complicated and we face many difficult problems that sometimes can turn
into conflicts that have to be resolved. As S. L. Dolan (2011) claims, these problems are:
environmental pollution, human alienation, unemployment, crimes, drug addiction, disintegration of
the family, mistreatment of the elderly, unequal distribution of wealth, food, educational opportunities,
and many more. These challenges cause chaos and disturb the established sense of values across
cultures. Some Lithuanian researchers (Aramavičiūtė, 2005) also maintain a view that such chaos has a
major influence on people’s psychological condition as they lose the sense and meaning of life, which
has a negative impact on their intra- and inter-relations.Documents from the EU also highlight the need
for educational institutions to promote social cohesion, intercultural dialogue, diversity and equality.
The development of personal and social skills and respect for human dignity and shared values are
considered to be essential forthe resolution of intercultural problems.
The article is based on the research into the cognitive-notional component of value attitudes among
students of management and foreign languages. The criteria were the acknowledgement of the
importance of values and the depth of understanding of the meaning of values. The conclusion is that
students have to be prepared to understand the world, its cultural variety and values, think critically,
andmake a stand against injustice.Only then can there be hope for life without prejudice, violence and
contempt. Educational institutions have a huge and indispensible responsibility in this respect
(Popovici, 2006).
Key words: value attitudes, acknowledgment of the importance, depth of understanding, moral
values, intercultural competence
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�The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts
Introduction
Intercultural communication in our contemporary globalised world takes place in all walks of life:
political, economic, social and educational. Sometimes this communication might become
complicated.Difficult intercultural problems may occur that can develop into disputes and conflicts.
Understanding the behaviour of the representatives of other cultures,anticipating the points at which
communication may break down and knowing how to deal with emerging problemsrepresent vital
skills that we all need in order to communicate successfully in different intercultural contexts. J. W.
Neuliep (2006) suggests thatin order to make intercultural communication more effective, one has to
have intercultural competence, which enables a person to predict beliefs, attitudes, values and
behaviour
of
others
and
interact
with
people
from
other
cultures
more
successfully.Therefore,institutions of education, as the EU documents highlight, have to take up the
responsibility to develop intercultural competence among learners andto promote social cohesion,
intercultural dialogue, diversity and equality.
Obviously, when we communicate between different cultures, values become especially significant.
Values, as B. Tomalin and M. Nicks (2007) suggest, constitute the so-called “psyche of a country”:
They determine expectations people might have about one another as well as their behaviour. In other
words, recognizing and responding to values is vital to building the cultural chemistry of relations.
However, the reality is that sometimes values might be in conflict and intercultural communicatorsmust
decide whether or not to adapt to other culture’s values. This can be a difficult process that will very
much depend on the context and the situation. As some philosophers (Wick, Freeman, Werhane,
Martin, 2010) state, both relativistic and ethnocentric stances eliminate the need for moral reflection
and discussion about one’s values and may create problems in further relationships. The same authors
suggest that the way out might be universal values or universal moral principles that cut across
different cultures and upon which most people can at least agree, such as fairness, justice, helping
others in distress, etc.
While solving problems that emerge in intercultural relationships, we have to evaluate a situation and
make a judgment with respect to thesocial and personal consequences of potential behaviour, as well as
acknowledge or reject the arguments for or against a problem with an orientation on values, as the
criteria of evaluation. Therefore, the need to understand the meaning of values, focusing not only on
one’s personal but other people’s needs and interests and the possible consequences of the actions are
of paramount importance. Thus, the object of the research is understanding of importance and meaning
of values.
The aim of this articleis to present the results of research into the cognitive-notional and behavioural
components of value attitudes among students of management and foreign languages. In order to
achieve the aim the following objectives were set:
1) to reveal the acknowledgement of the importance of values among students of management and
foreign languages;
2) to determine the depth of understanding of the meaning of values amongstudents of
management and foreign languages.
Methodological background of the research
The research was based on an analysis of the phenomenon of value attitudes. Psychological literature
presents theoretical and empirical research into attitudes, which prove that attitudes can predict,
determine and modify a person’s behaviour, and control his/her cognitive and emotional processes.
Theone-component attitude model consists of an affect towards, or evaluation of, the object, which
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
does not necessarily have an effect on a person‘s behaviour (Stahlberg, Frey, 1988).The twocomponent attitude model is an integral unity of cognitive and affective components, inseparable from
one‘s behaviour and having a consistent influence upon it, thus providing the greatest possibility to
infer and understand people‘s behaviour (Lind (1996, 2004). Thethree-component attitude model
comprises interconnected cognitive, affective and behavioural components; an analysis of the content
of these components allows for better prediction of an attitude influence upon one’s behaviour (Hogg
&Vaughan, 2005). Thus, the attitude is defined as the unity of relatively enduring, persisting, positive
or negative evaluations, emotional experiences, predispositions and behavioural tendencies towards
socially significant objects.
Lithuanian scientists of education (Aramavičiūtė, 2005; Bitinas, 2000; Jovaiša, 2007) investigate
attitudes mainly following the attitude theory developed by D. Uznadzė (1966) and his school’s
representatives, according to which an attitude object is an interrelation between a particular need and
the situation that can satisfy that need. The majority of authors support D. Uznadzė’s view that value
orientations expressing the motivational content of a personality are considered to be one’s main
attitude. Within the system of value orientations, moral values are regarded to be especially significant,
laying the foundation for value attitudes.
The choice and acknowledgement of moral values, as V. Aramavičiūtė (2005) suggests, depends on
traditions, attitudes and context that prevailwhere any individual resides. On the one hand, values
influence attitudes, but on the other, attitudes determine the choice of values and certain behavioural
tendencies. S. L. Dolan considers values to be:
Strategic lessons learned and maintained. These lessons teach us that one way of acting is better than
its opposite if we are to achieve our desired outcome(s)—that is, our values and value systems guide
our behaviour toward that which we think will turn out well for us. Thus, to the extent that they
constitute deliberate or preferentially strategic choices, in the medium to long term, for certain ways of
behaving and against others, toward the survival or good life of a particular system, values form the
nucleus, the DNA, of human liberty.” (Dolan, 2011, p. 87)
Obviously, there are many classifications of values; philosophers still cannot agree upon the hierarchy
of values and controversial discussions among scientists (philosophers, psychologists, scientists of
education) are ongoing. T. H. McLaughlin (1997), for example, claims that most of the discussions in
contemporary democratic societies evolve around the choice of moral values. Being a representative of
a liberal educational trend, he suggests that there should be societal values, which, due to their
inevitably fundamental nature, should be obligatory to all the members of the society and personal
values that could be chosen by everyone freely.
Whatever numerous and complicated classifications of values might be, there has been a trend to give
priority to moral values: solidarity, peacefulness, respect andlove, which usually manifest themselves
in relationships with oneself, others and the world at large. Therefore, the research aims to identify
which moral values the respondents acknowledge to be the most important and how they understand
their meaning. The choice of these moral values was based on philosophers’ (Halder, 2005;
Hildebrand, 1950; Williams, 2002; Žemaitis, 1977) and scientists’ of education (Aramavičiūtė, 2005;
Bitinas, 2000; Elliott, 2004; Jovaiša, 2003; Huitt, 2004; Martišauskienė, 2004) viewpoints.
To investigate the cognitive-notional level of value attitudes the inventory of moral values was
used;this inventory helped researchers in their attempt to elucidate the respondents’ level of
acknowledgment of the importance of moral values. The inventory contained eight moral values:
responsibility, respect, tolerance, sensitivity, fairness, altruism, openness, and self-respect. The
respondents’ understanding of the significance of three moral values (responsibility, openness and
altruism) was assessed as well.
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�The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts
Research methods
Theoretical:Analysis, comparison, evaluation of psychological, philosophical, pedagogical literature,
on the basis of which a theoretical-empirical model of moral attitudes and the research instrument were
created.
Empirical:A studentsurvey was carried outthat aimed at finding outabout the respondents’
acknowledgment of the importance of moral values and to determine the depth of their understanding
of the meaning of values. The research instrument was an original questionnairethat was developed on
the basis of the theoretical-empirical model of moral attitudes and the inventory of eight moral values
(responsibility, respect, tolerance, sensitivity, fairness, altruism, openness and self-respect), the latter
being defined according to V. Aramavičiūtė’s (2004) research methodology. Evaluation criteria:
theacknowledgment of the importance of moral values, the depth of understanding of the significance
of moral values. The respondents were asked to prioritize values according to their importance on a
five-point scale, as well as to substantiatethe personal and social meaning of moral values by answering
open questions.
Statistical:Statistical research methods: descriptive statistics (absolute and percentage frequency,
mean, Chi square criterion. The research data was processed using 12th version of the SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Sciences).
The research samplewas 134 students (42male, 92female) of management and foreign languages at
Vilnius University. The research was carried out in 2013.
Research results
Cognitive-notional level of value attitudes: the acknowledgment of the importance of moral
values. In the process of the analysis of the cognitive-notional level of value attitudes, an attempt was
made to determine the level of the acknowledgment of the importance of moral values by the students
of management and foreign languages (English, Spanish, French and Russian). The acknowledgment of
the importance of moral values was considered to be the evaluation criteria. The respondents were
asked to evaluate moral values on a five-point scale. If they thought that a moral valuewas very
important, that was considered to be a very high acknowledgment of a moral value; if a moral value
was considered to be important, that signified a high acknowledgment; if the respondents thought that a
moral value was only partly important, then the acknowledgment of the importance of it was
considered to be average; if the respondents found it difficult to determine what the value meant to
them, then its importance was low; and if the respondents thought that the value wasinsignificant, then
its importance was considered to be very low. This helped to determine which moral values were
considered to be of the highest priority to the respondents, which were of average importance and
which they considered to be least significant. The following research results were obtained on moral
values that the respondents rated as very highorhigh(Fig. 1):
Figure 1. The acknowledgment of the importance of moral values by the students of management and
foreign languages.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Series1, Openness, 43
Series1, Altruism, 62
Series1, Sensitivity, 68
Series1, Tolerance, 74
Series1, Fairness , 77
Series1, Self -respect,
78
Series1, Respect, 86
Series1,
Responsibility, 94
The majority of respondents (94%) considered responsibility to be thehighest priority. The second
most-important moral value appeared to be respect (86%). Third place was shared by the values of selfrespect and fairness (78% and 77% respectively). The value of tolerance was also valued quite highly
by the research participants (74%). Although sensitivity and altruism were considered to be important
by far more than half of the respondents, they still appeared at the low end of the scale of the
importance of moral values (68% and 62% respectively), while openness seemed to be least valued, as
less than a half of the research participants (43%) acknowledged it to be important. Thus it could be
claimed that the acknowledgement of moral values by the students of management and foreign
languages is very high and high. This is undoubtedly a very positive phenomenon as values such as
responsibility, respect and faithfulness are core moral values; and, as the philosopher D. Hildebrand
(1950) claims, they lay a solid foundation for any person’s life. Similarly,American researcher T.
Lickona (1991) suggests that respect and self-respect are the main moral values.
Cognitive-notional level of value attitudes: the depth of understanding of the importance of
moral values. During the research, an attempt was made to reveal how the respondents could interpret
the meaning of moral values that they considered to be more or less important. As the Lithuanian
scientist V. Aramavičiūtė (2005) suggests, deep understanding of the notion of moral values can
alleviate their realisation in real-life situations; in other words, values can turn into the domineering
driving force, motivating and directing a certain behaviour in a person. In the process of analysing the
cognitive level of value attitudes from this perspective, the depth of understanding of the meaning of
values was considered to be the evaluation criteria. If the respondent, while defining the meaning of
one or the other value, focused not only on his/her own needs and moral well-being that were
dependent on a particular value, but on the other person’s as well,the understanding of that value was
considered to be very deep; if a person’s interpretation of the value’s meaning concentrated only on
his/her needs and his/her well-being that were dependent on the realisation of a particular value, and
this helped him/her turn into a more mature person, then the understanding of its meaning was
considered to be deep; if a person concentrated only on his/her hedonistic and egoistic needs, then the
meaning was considered to be not very deep; if a person only stated the importance of the value, but
failed to explain its social and personal meaning, then it was considered to be lacking depthor ashallow
or superficial understanding of a moral value; if the interpretation was erroneous or a person could not
describe what the value meant for him/her, the respondent’sunderstanding was considered very shallow
or even erroneous.
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�The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts
The research aimed to determine the students’ understanding of the meaning of values of
responsibility, openness and altruism. Therefore, they were asked to provide arguments as to why they
prioritised these values in one wayor another. Having analysed their answers to these open questions
according to the abovementioned criteria, the following results were obtained,as presented in Figure 2
below (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. The depth of understanding of the significance of moral values by the students of
management and foreign languages.
Series1,
Altruism, 33
Series1,
Openness, 34
Series1,
Responsibilit
y, 62
Evidently the students demonstrated the best understanding of the value of responsibility, which the
majority of them considered to be the most important value. More than half of the respondents revealed
deep or very deep understandings of responsibility, whereas deep or very deep understandings of the
meaning of altruism and openness were presented by only one third of respondents.
Among the answers provided by the students, very mature and very positive interpretations and deep
understandings of the importance of moral values could be found: <when you act responsibly, you can
be trusted, and the feeling of trust grows in the society and that improves our relations>, <having lost
one’s belief in the goodness of others, it could be impossible to live in our society>, <giving is one of
the most honourable values that nurtures one’s sensitivity and honesty, which in turn helpus live in our
society>, <it is very important to do good things wholeheartedly and sincerely, it should be done
without seeking any profit or benefit for oneself, otherwise it is meaningless>, <if we do not seek any
material benefit by helping others, then we become more morally mature people>, <it is very important
to take care of others, otherwise we lose our humanity>, <by giving more to others, business gains a
more “human face”>.
However, the following extracts from the students’ answers reveal a greater focus on their own wellbeingrather than on thatof others: <people are mostly selfish, you should be able to differentiate that>,
<we are all selfish and we first of all take care of the well-being of our families and only then we can
take care of others>, <taking care of others is complete nonsense>, <some people only pretend to be
good – you cannot trust them completely>, <you cannot take care of others if you want to gain benefit
for yourself>,<one’s well-being is in the first place, you can only give advice to others, but not take
care of them>, <believing in others can be harmful to oneself>.
Conclusion
The results of the research show that the students of management and foreign languages demonstrated
to have a mature cognitive-meaningful level of value attitudes. The most important values for them
were responsibility and respect, while the values of self-respect, fairness and tolerance were
considered to be important. Therefore, the conclusion can be made that the students will acknowledge
242
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
these values later on in their professional careers. However, valuessuch as altruism and openness,
which are of great relevance for socially responsible business and sustainable development, avoidance
of conflicts, peaceful co-existence of different people within one culture and in contacts with
representatives of other cultures, were considered to be the least significant. It should also be
mentioned that these results are similar to other research carried out in Lithuania with senior
schoolchildren, where responsibility was considered to be the most important value by more than half,
but less than half took the same view ofaltruism (Aramavičiūtė, 2005). Another studyby D. Verbylaitė
(2005) with future religion teachers also showed a similar priority of values: respect - most important
(more than half), followed by sensitivity and responsibility (more than a third).
Although the respondents showed a very high acknowledgment of the importance of moral values, the
understanding of the meaningfulness of these moral values was not very deep. Just over half of the
respondents demonstrated a depth of understanding of thepersonal and social meaning of
responsibility, whereas altruism and openness were perceived deeply by only one third of the
respondents. Given these research results, we may conclude that the cognitive-meaningful level of
value attitudes among the students of management and foreign languages is not very mature. Therefore,
educational institutions have a huge and indispensible responsibility to nurture students’ value attitudes
and strengthen their capacity to interact with different people and develop their readiness to care more
about others – all of which are critical to their personal, social and professional lives, as well as to
maintaining much more effective intercultural relationships in an increasingly diverse educational
environment.
Reference
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“Gimtasis žodis“
Bitinas B. (2000).Ugdymo filosofija. Vilnius: Enciklopedija.
Dolan S. L. (2011). Coaching by values. iUniverse Publishing
Elliott D.C. (2004). Moral Values for Public Education. Academic Exchange
8, 1.
Halder A.(2005). Filosofijos žodynas. Vilnius: Alma Littera.
Hildebrand D. (1950). Fundamental Moral Attitudes. Retrieved February 18,
Quarterly,
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Hogg A., Vaughan G. M. (2005). Social Psychology. Pearson Education Limited.
Huitt W. (2004). Moral and Character Development. Educational Psychology
Interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
Jovaiša L. (2007) Enciklopedinis edukologijos žodynas. Vilnius:
Gimtasis žodis
Jovaiša L. (2003). Hodegetika. Vilnius: Agora.
Lind G. (1996). Testing Moral Judgement Competence. A Response to Rest, Thoma
and Edwards.
Retrieved August 23, 2011 from: http://www.unikonstanz.de/ag-moral/b-publik.htm
Lind G..(2004). The Meaning and Measurement of Moral Judgement Competence: A
Dual
–
Aspect Model. Measurement of Moral Competence. Retrieved August
23,
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from:
http://www.uni-konstanz.de/ag-moral/b-publik.htm
Martišauskienė E.(2004). Paauglių dvasingumas kaip pedagoginis reiškinys. Vilnius:
VPUl-kla.
McLaughlin T.H. (1997). Šiuolaikinė ugdymo filosofija: demokratiškumas,
įvairovė. Kaunas: Technologija.
Neuliep J. (2006). Intercultural communication. A contextual approach. 3rd
California: Sage Publications, Inc.
vertybės,
ed.
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Popovici R. (2006). Integration of Citizenship, human rights and Language
Education.
In: Coherence of Principles, Cohesion of Competences.
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materials for teacher education (pp. 59 -69). European Centre for Modern Languages:
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Stahlberg D., Frey D. (1988). Attitude I: Structure, Measurement and
Functions.
In
Hewstone M., Stroebe W., Codol J.P., Stephenson G.M.(Eds.). Introduction to Social
Psychology. Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Tomalin B., Nicks M. (2007). The World‘s Business Cultures and How to Unlock
Them.
London: Thorogood Publishing.
Verbylaitė D. (2005). Būsimųjų religijos švietėjų dvasingumas ir jo tobulinimo galimybės
universitete. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo
universiteto leidykla.
Wick A. C., Freeman R. E. , Werhane P. H., Martin K. E. (2010). Business
Managerial Approach. Pearson: Prentice Hall.
Williams T. (2002). Is There a Hierarchy of Values? Retrieved March 11, 2009
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Žemaitis V.(1997). Pedagoginis etiketas. Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, Lietuvos etinės
kultūros draugija “Ethos“. Vilnius: Lietuvos etinės kultūros
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Узнадзе Д. Н. (1966). Псичологическое иследования. Москва: Наука.
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The importance of value attitudes in solving intercultural conflicts
Author
Author
Kriaučiūnienė, Roma
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The contemporary world is complicated and we face many difficult problems that sometimes can turn into conflicts that have to be resolved. As S. L. Dolan (2011) claims, these problems are: environmental pollution, human alienation, unemployment, crimes, drug addiction, disintegration of the family, mistreatment of the elderly, unequal distribution of wealth, food, educational opportunities, and many more. These challenges cause chaos and disturb the established sense of values across cultures. Some Lithuanian researchers (Aramavičiūtė, 2005) also maintain a view that such chaos has a major influence on people’s psychological condition as they lose the sense and meaning of life, which has a negative impact on their intra- and inter-relations.Documents from the EU also highlight the need for educational institutions to promote social cohesion, intercultural dialogue, diversity and equality. The development of personal and social skills and respect for human dignity and shared values are considered to be essential forthe resolution of intercultural problems. The article is based on the research into the cognitive-notional component of value attitudes among students of management and foreign languages. The criteria were the acknowledgement of the importance of values and the depth of understanding of the meaning of values. The conclusion is that students have to be prepared to understand the world, its cultural variety and values, think critically, andmake a stand against injustice.Only then can there be hope for life without prejudice, violence and contempt. Educational institutions have a huge and indispensible responsibility in this respect (Popovici, 2006). Key words: value attitudes, acknowledgment of the importance, depth of understanding, moral values, intercultural competence
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2015
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
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49a8d073757220a7994ff3c85023f41a
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d42faff033d95680de52df3351e97d6c
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The Importance of Vocational Education in Employment: A Study on the
Students of Food and Beverage Management
Emel Memis Kocaman
Gaziosmanpaşa University
Turkey
ememis4@hotmail.com
Mehmet Kocaman
Gaziosmanpaşa University
Turkey
mehmet.kocaman@gop.edu.tr
Abstract: The service sector is made up of industries that requite vigorous efforts. Therefore a
labor force that is equipped with theoretical knowledge and application skills makes great
contributions to the quality of businesses, since individuals’ attaining professional competence is
greatly contributed to by the education which they received in school and are strengthened by
the practices at work. Food and beverage management departments have given undergraduate
education since 2005 in Turkey in order to meet the demands for qualified managers in food and
beverage businesses in the service sector. This study aims to determine the working conditions of
the students of food and beverage management in the sector throughout their education. The
study included 145 undergraduate students. The number of students working in bars increases
with grade and the students who had education in the kitchen department of vocational high
schools had the highest number of students working in the kitchen in the sector. The working
period of men were determined to be higher and the students who did not receive vocational
education in high school were determined to have shorter working periods. The study concluded
that the students had working experiences in different departments of sector throughout their
education and businesses are inclined to employ individuals with educational backgrounds in
this field.
Keywords: Service sector, tourism, employment, vocational education.
152
�152
�
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Title
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The Importance of Vocational Education in Employment: A Study on the Students of Food and Beverage Management
Author
Author
KOCAMAN, Emil Memis
KOCAMAN, Mehmet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The service sector is made up of industries that requite vigorous efforts. Therefore a labor force that is equipped with theoretical knowledge and application skills makes great contributions to the quality of businesses, since individuals’ attaining professional competence is greatly contributed to by the education which they received in school and are strengthened by the practices at work. Food and beverage management departments have given undergraduate education since 2005 in Turkey in order to meet the demands for qualified managers in food and beverage businesses in the service sector. This study aims to determine the working conditions of the students of food and beverage management in the sector throughout their education. The study included 145 undergraduate students. The number of students working in bars increases with grade and the students who had education in the kitchen department of vocational high schools had the highest number of students working in the kitchen in the sector. The working period of men were determined to be higher and the students who did not receive vocational education in high school were determined to have shorter working periods. The study concluded that the students had working experiences in different departments of sector throughout their education and businesses are inclined to employ individuals with educational backgrounds in this field. Keywords: Service sector, tourism, employment, vocational education.
Publisher
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International Burch University
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2014-04
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ISSN 2303-4564
H Social Sciences (General)
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45276464403d6f65f1f7846e64bca567
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Text
The improvement of educational-training values is of paramount importance within
most institutions
Utkir Tolipov & Azamat Akbarov
Tashkent State Pedagogical University Named After Nizami, Uzbekistan & International
Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract:
This article examines the essence of such concepts as "educational values","national values";
"common to all mankind values"; their interrelation and harmonious parity are shown.
Special attention is given to the characteristic of values "ustoz-shogird" (teacher-pupil), from
the historical and cultural heritage of outstanding thinkers of the East.
Keywords: spiritual heritage, national and common to all humankind values, personal and
professional qualities, creative abilities, relations "ustoz-shogird"(teacher-pupil), mentor,
socialization of the person.
1. Introduction
With republican independence changes of national consciousness are realized
at the level of government program of problem of deep studying created by our ancestors
throughout centuries of an invaluable spiritual heritage, revival of the lost values, revival of
national traditions and values has led to basic changes in the activity of teachers – mentors,
and the training of future pedagogical staff.
First of all the task in respect to providing future experts with knowledge, skills on
bases of sciences with the account of their interests, abilities and propensities, along with
their attraction to creative scientific research activity, formation of high spirituality, the
organizations of a substantial free time of addressees of formation.
National education of indissoluble is connected with the history and philosophy of
people. In this aspect, an important means of educating young people is cultural-pedagogical
past heritages. One of the traditions, having huge educational "value, tradition is "Ustozshogird"(the master, or mentor, teacher-pupil).
One of the responsibilities delegated to educational system are those for establishing
curricula at the course and degree levels and to evaluate the effectiveness of proposed
curricula in achieving the aims of the students. (Berkley, 2013) The development is to be
shown as an assessment matrix that deepens the pupil-teacher relationship and the overall
achievement of students.
Colleges and schools have to be entrepreneurial in establishing revenue, generating
programs that will enhance the quality of education, as well as providing experts in their field
in order to educate new generations of experts. For instance, at Berkley University, they have
developed a Center for Teaching and Learning, which offers support and further education of
�teaching staff, in order to enhance their effectiveness in the areas of pedagogy, curriculum,
and assessment.
In an era of massively delivered asynchronous learning, the residential character of
the teaching system should become the core of the academic mission (Berkley, 2013), even
when implementing possibilities proposed by new technologies into curricula.
2. "Ustoz-shogird" Tradition
Tradition "Ustoz-shogird" makes huge impact on the transfer of professional skills to
young people, an increase of their spiritual-educational potential, development of creative
abilities, in a word – the formation of a comprehensively developed person. Features of this
tradition consist of, that under supervision of the teacher of the trained gets confidence of the
possibilities, to estimate situations strong-willed qualities, abilities are correctly formed, and
social activity is shown.
To prepare good pupils, the teacher first should take care of the development of a
global outlook and healthy thinking and certain professional qualities. Relations "Ustozshogird" are expedient for installing based on the concrete program of the plan. From these
positions, the teacher should organize the activity in the following directions:
positive impact on the student (trained) by providing knowledge
according to requirements of time and laws of society;
to influence spirituality, mentality of the pupil and at the same time to
be exacting to oneself;
to develop a habit of respect to oneself and others;
to use in the course of education various advanced methods and
innovative technologies;
teachers should be examples from the point of view of spirituality,
morals, professionalism;
to form at trainees of call of duty, responsibility, compulsion of
performance of the task and others;
Use of tradition "Ustoz-shogird" leans against the following pedagogical principles;
consciousness and activity, that is full comprehension of the essence of
activity within the limits of relations "ustoz-shogird", their development and prospect;
mastering by "secrets" of scientific knowledge.
indissoluble communication of training and education with a life;
orientation on independence and creative searches with the account of
interrelation of theoretical knowledge and practice;
account age and specific features trained.
The using of tradition "Ustoz-shogird" will give positive results in a system of
continuous education, as pupils form practical skills based on the pedagogical theory. Pupils,
students, young teachers, direct tradition „Ustoz-shogird“to the display of creative
possibilities. Special value thus gets acceptance in attention to specific features in training,
development of their talents and hobbies, the creation, necessary conditions for this purpose.
�Intensive development of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the time of independence has
caused the necessary formation of various personal qualities of future citizens of the country,
including the professional qualities corresponding to conditions of market economy, subject
to constant changes. In the course of fast adaptation to market conditions especially increases
the role of teacher, mentor, and the master.
Not without thought, the society pays much attention to "Устоз"(teacher), as
education of perfect person as the main motive power of the progress of society, directly
depends on educational values, authority of the mentor, relations between teacher and pupil.
The concept of "value" is treated as a complex of subjects and the phenomena
representing an understanding of the concept, especially essential meaning. (6.618р)
The concept of "value" is treated differently at household level and in scientific
literature, accordingly and is used differently. Since ancient times it was widely applied in
scientific and vital terminology and was grounded based on scientific thinking. In each
society, the values were established. Therefore, the basic value is national mentality.
Values had great value during not only the past, but also today and in the future they
will make a positive impact and influence on the development of society, raising the
consciousness of people, they get social value. The modern concept of values includes a
complex of material, spiritual, natural, religious, moral, philosophical and other wealth
(4,285р).
During different epochs, the concept of value has influenced society, the ideals, hopes
of society; it means that, values were perceived as a special problem and the purposes, which
the society puts before them.
According to their content, values are divided into national, universal, scientific,
spiritual and material. Every nation seeks to achieve harmonization of national spiritual
values and universal values. The spiritual heritage of the past is of high importance and the
task of modern generations is to fully master and develop them. Not knowing the cultural
heritage of his people, or ignoring them, means being a cultureless person. Not enriching the
value and not raising them to a high level, means harming people and its prospects.
In some nations and nationalities, national values represent the aggregate of all
material and spiritual wealth. Universal human values inherently have a wide range, as they
absorbed the values of many civilizations, ethnicities both of the past and the present. At the
same time, there are certain differences in values and each of the world's civilizations.
Scientific values should be used for the development of science and education,
improving their live conditions, achieving harmony in the family, the enrichment of the
public good, improving the socio-economic development, strengthening the spiritual and
educational potential.
Knowledge and science are recognized to be the highest values. The hadiths state that
a person needs knowledge, shrewdness, and power of observation and memory to master the
skills in any craft. Hadiths recommend ‘Be a scientist, study skills, or be a listener, and if you
do not know, then try reaching the educated people. If you just do not do it, then you die’.
There is a saying: ‘Do not climb onto the roof of the house, where your father sits’.
This aphorism has a deep meaning: the father is the creator and teacher. He always thinks
about the peace and the happiness of his children, working tirelessly for their benefit.
Sometimes there are no words to express opinions about a father. The teacher (ustoz) is not
�equated to the father by a chance. Father works for his child, not knowing fatigue, as well as
every teacher gets satisfaction from the results of his work in teaching students.
The education of fully developed, harmonious generations was considered one of the
major tasks of society at all times, as far as the younger generation provides the future of the
country. In its dreams and hopes, society wants to see its children physically and mentally
healthy, successfully building their own future, not conceding in anything to other people and
countries, to see them as people with a strong will and high spirituality. That is why so much
attention is given to secondary school, which is tasked with identifying and global supporting
of talented, creative, enthusiastic students who are the future leading scientists, worthy
purveyors of the great heritage of our ancestors.
‘Everyone knows that the way to a man's heart lies primarily through education’.
Therefore, along with the worship of the priceless heritage of our ancestors, we give due
respect to the noble work of teachers and mentors that are on a par with parents educate our
children’, - stressed the head of our state in his book ‘High spirituality - an invincible power’.
Actually, today the role of teachers and trainers are invaluable in the upbringing of an
intellectual and comprehensively developed generation. It does not matter, what kind of
success would be achieved in human’s life.
First, he should be grateful to his teacher, whose lessons would be remembered for a
long time longtime.The tradition of "teacher-pupil" – is one common to all humankind’s
values. The content of human values isdeep and full, that is why they acquire global
importance. Human values correspond to the goals and aspirations of all the peoples, nations
and ethnic groups. National and universal values are closely related, as historically they were
formed based on the principles of life. The development of values opens up wide possibilities
for common progress and moral improvement."Our ancestors created a set of requirements
for a relatively perfect man, speaking in modern language, developed the eastern version of
the moral code. Every person must ruthlessly suppress the unfairness and injustice, to prevent
unlawful acts", - emphasized by our President [1; 53 p.] The Uzbek people can be proud of
their past. He made an enormous contribution to the worlds of science and culture. The great
thinkers of our people Imam Bukhari, Imam Tirmidhi, Bahauddin Naqshband, Khoja Ahmed
Yasawi, Al-Khorazmiy, Beruniy, Ibn Sina, Amir Temur (Tamerlane), Mirzo Ulugbek (Ulugh
Beg), Alisher Navoi, Zahiriddin Muhammad Bobur (Babur), and many others who
contributed to the development of national culture, is the pride of the people.
"Plutarch claimed, there are two main advantages in human nature – the mind and the
thinking" [3; 144p.] It means, that the main measure of human essence is his mind,
consciousness and thinking, which make up the value of the individual, on which is also
based on personal qualities such as honesty, conscientiousness, respect to others, which are
particularly highly prized among the Eastern nations.
Objects and phenomenon, which serve the formation and development of the inner
world of people mastering their spiritual riches, are called spiritual values. They are the
product of human activity, his labor and creativity. Every nation has the spiritual riches that
are particularly revered. These values are passed from generation to generation, and today
they have not lost their value. They are a source of pride and inspiration of people. For
values, we can include proverbs, teachings, and the edification of the Uzbek people. In each
of them signed the spiritual wealth.In the educational process, which is aimed at the study of
�values, there is an interconnection between the value of the object and the value of the
subject, because the subject holds a peculiar path to its perfection. For example, the pupil or
the student's place, where they receive education, can be in a classroom, gym, study of
spirituality and education, information and resource center. In turn, these objects are being
served as a means of training and education. The same can be said about the students, the
educational equipment. Teacher and student are being involved in the educational process,
are also the values of the transmission and acquisition of knowledge.
While teaching about the values, the teacher uses a variety of means - texts, handouts,
slides, based on national traditions, festivals, historical heritage. A visit to the holy places of
our compatriots, house-museums, history museums, art and culture are greatly enrich the
national consciousness of students, forms of their spiritual world.In the process of the
assimilation of values,students master the abilities and skills of analysis, synthesis, separation
of the main meaning, independent thinking, perception, formulate and express their opinion
and assessment. Students are able to reconsider their views based on acquired values.
3. Conclusion
As a result of the implementation of previously shown program, the teachers will be
able to achieve a more holistic and integrated approach that benefits the common good, and
develop a much better understanding of the overall teaching position. Through implementing
these views and values, the quality of administrative operations will also reach its peak.
Based on the foregoing, we consider that it is necessary to pay special attention to
certain aspects of improving efficiency in the establishment of relations "Ustoz-shogird."
(Teacher-pupil).
Stirring up the internal creative communication in a relationship
"Ustoz-shogird";
Disposition of logical sequence of the content and stages of training of
students on the basis of the principle of continuity;
Formation of students' skills of self-control of their behavior and
actions, spiritual aspect, abilities continuous self and self;
Implementation in the minds of young people of a complete
philosophy of life, aimed to achieve the status of a decent citizen of his country;
Development of pupils and students of high personal qualities, the
desire to promote the prosperity of the motherland and serve for the good of the
people;
Development of youth national identity and national pride in the basis
of harmonization of national and universal values;
The people, the homeland for the performance of their duties and
obligations;
Introduction into the educational improvements and additions basing
on the standards of fairness, honesty and openness.
The effective use of restored values in continuing education, of course, will give a
positive result.
�References:
1. Hawkins, D. 1990. “Ways of Knowing.” In M. A. Shea ed., On Teaching Vol. II: 3542. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado at Boulder.
2. Weimer, M. 2002. Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
3. Karimov I.A. “Basic tendencies of political-social and economic future of
Uzbekistan”.-T.: Uzbekistan, 1995-74p.
4. UC Berkley Institutional Self- Study for Accreditation, August 2013.
5. Karimov I.A. “High spirituality – is undefeated power” –1.–Т.:“Manaviyt”, 2008. –
130 p.
6. Thought – blooming. Composition of V.Vorontsov-T.: Publishing house of literature
and art named after G.Gulom, 1989-484p.
7. Tulenov J., Gofurov Z. Philosophy. Textbook for students of higher education. –
T.:”O’qituvchi”, 1997.-384p.
8. MusurmonovaO.Spiritual traditions and upbringing of youths.-T.: ”O’qituvchi”,1996192p.
9. Khasanbayev Y., Turaqulov H., Khaydarov M., Khasanbayeva O., Usmonov N.
Dictionary for pedagogy. – T: Subject and technology (Fanvatexnologiya), 2009.672p.
10. Inoyatova M. Determination of educational values and using them in pedagogic
practice.-T.:”Sharq” (East),2010.-180p.
11. U.Q.Tolipov. Basic ways and means of using educational values.-T.: ”Continual
education” journal.-2014.-№1
�
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The improvement of educational-training values is of paramount importance within most institutions
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Tolipov, Utkir
Akbarov, Azamat
Abstract
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This article examines the essence of such concepts as "educational values","national values"; "common to all mankind values"; their interrelation and harmonious parity are shown. Special attention is given to the characteristic of values "ustoz-shogird" (teacher-pupil), from the historical and cultural heritage of outstanding thinkers of the East. Keywords: spiritual heritage, national and common to all humankind values, personal and professional qualities, creative abilities, relations "ustoz-shogird"(teacher-pupil), mentor, socialization of the person.
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International Burch University
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2016-05-30
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1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
The Increasing Importance of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
Süleyman ÖZDEMĐR
Associate Professor
Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics
Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Turkey
sozdemir@istanbul.edu.tr
Zeki PARLAK
Associate Professor, Marmara University
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences
Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Turkey
zekiparlak@hotmail.com
Abstract: “Civil Society Organizations” (CSOs), especially by developed societies, are "started
to be re–explored" since 1970s in consequences of social welfare states' crisis, domination of
neo–liberal philosophy and policies in the world, spreading of democracy, end of the cold war,
improvements on information and communication systems etc… The most prominent difference
between the last decades of the previous century and the first decade of the current century lies in
the role that CSOs undertake in the society. As CSOs have suitable properties which are brought
about the economic and political philosophy of globalization, they have got considerable
attention of the states and have had a proper environment to develop in the countries where neo–
liberal philosophy is being implemented.
However, CSOs are not an alternative to the state, instead, they are supplementary institutions.
Since CSOs are very appropriate to the rationale of economical and political philosophy of the
last quarter of the twentieth century, which requires minimalization of the state, they are being
supported by the state which was directed by liberal philosophy. Hence, they are increasingly
developing in terms of quantity and quality.
Keywords: Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Non–Governmental Organizations (NGOs),
Non–Profit Organizations (NPOs), Third Sector, Social Policy, State–CSOs Relationship,
Turkey.
Introduction
The post–1980 era has witnessed the widespread transformations in the economic and political realms
of the social life at the global level. The expansion of globalization, neo–liberalism and participative democracy
has resulted in the increasing importance of the civil society organizations (CSOs) in the last three decades. The
state has withdrawn from the economic and social areas. While the economy has been left to the market forces,
new actors entered the scene to provide social welfare services. Consequently, the CSOs were re–discovered as
the abiding provider of the social aids. Thus, it may not be incorrect to name this century as the century of the
civil society.
The CSOs are now considered as extremely significant institutions of the modern society as the new
provider of social services. A new division of labour has been advanced among the state, municipals, market and
the CSOs. The state has formed partnership with the CSOs and prefers purchasing services from the CSOs rather
than producing them. The process has been expanding since the late 1970s and has come to constitute a
significant part of welfare mixes in many countries. In many developed nations, particularly the USA and UK,
the legal system and the administrative reforms enabled the state to maintain responsible for financing and
auditing the social welfare services while transferring the responsibility for the provisions of these services to the
CSOs and private sectors.
In contrast to the developed nations, the CSOs are extremely weak in Turkey. Despite the promotion
and expansion of their role in the social policy area at the global level, the Turkish CSOs do not seem to have
gained any impetus. Neither the state nor the CSOs have any intention to alter their entrenched attitudes. The
state has distrusted them and had hostile attitudes towards that civil society organization which are not under its
control. The CSOs, on the other hand, have no desire to change and undertake any major responsibilities for
social services. However, Turkey’s accession to the EU will eventually transform the hostile attitude of the state
towards the civil society and give rise to the growth of the civil society in Turkey.
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�1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
1. The Concept and Description of Civil Society Organizations
A. The Confusion over the Concept of Civil Society Organizations
Civil society organizations (CSOs) are composed of a wide range of different organizations such as
small local associations, large professional organizations and foundations. A number of different terms are
currently used to indicate the civil society in the literature. Some widely used terms including civil society
organizations, non–profit organizations, non–profit sector, non–governmental organizations, non–governmental
sectors, philanthropic organizations, charitable organizations, third sector, voluntary organizations, private
voluntary organizations, not–for–profit organizations, independent sector, tax–exempt organizations and social
movements (Uslu 1999). It should be pointed out that there is no widely accepted discretion for none of these
terms.
In the Turkish literature on this sort of civil organizations, although there is a disagreement whether
some of these organizations could be considered as civil society or not, the term civil society organizations is
used to point out followings: foundations, associations, chambers, cooperatives, clubs, and platforms, and non–
governmental organizations and third sector. On the other hand, some different terms such as community,
society, order, guild and foundations were employed in the past to express the CSOs (ACOC, 2004).
The term “non–profit organizations” is preferred in the developed world. This term is extensively used
in English literature. Nevertheless, the term civil society organizations will be used in this article. This is because
this term has wider in scope, and is also well known and commonly used in the academic circles, the political
discussions and in the daily life in Turkey.
B. The Concept of Civil Society Organizations
The concept of CSOs has a wider framework and usually tends to include most of the other terms given
above. The CSOs is based on the voluntariness principles and is wrought by philanthropy and social aims. It is
independent of the state and constitutes a third sector along with the public and private ones. Although located in
the private sector, in terms of its structure it is quite distinct from it.
Lester Salamon (1999), who has written widely on the CSOs, describes the CSOs as non–profit organizations
and non–profit sector in his book and indicated that they have six basic features in common.
• First all these organizations have managed to become institutionalized one way or another. Informal and
temporary gathering of people cannot be regarded within the scope of non–profit establishments.
• Second, these organizations must operate in the “private sector”. Thus, they must be independent of the
state. Nevertheless, this point does not mean that these organizations may not receive support from the state.
• Third, they must distribute profits in accordance with the social objectives. That is, these organizations, do
not share dividends with their shareholders.
• Fourth, they must have an independent management structure. They plan and implement their own
activities. No person or an establishment should interfere in the running of these organizations.
• Fifth, the development of non–profit organizations should be voluntary. In general, the members of the
board of trustees are volunteers, yet those who work for the organization do not have to be volunteers.
• Sixth, the non–profit organizations have to operate with purposes declared in their charter.
According to a categorisation, developed by National Centre for Charitable Statistics, massive number
activities of non–profit organizations can be discerned.
The centre, divides this activities 26 main areas and functions. Then, it is divided into sub–categories.
For example, in the field of education there are 41, on the other hand in the field of arts and culture and
humanities 56 activities exist (Salamon 2003 & Fremont–Smith 2004).
According to another study, the CSOs are described as “organizations, which are independent from the
state, based on voluntary gathering and working for the interests of the society rather than their members, non–
profit and operating within the legal system” (Şahin 2007).
2. New Categorisation: Civil Society Regimes
In line with Esping–Andersen’s widely known classification, “welfare regimes” (Esping–Andersen 1999
& Özdemir 2007), Salamon and Anheier classify the CSOs as “civil society regimes”. For them, the CSOs are
developed in different ways under different regimes, and they prose four different types of civil society regimes
(Anheier and List 2005).
The first is the “liberal model. This model, represented by the USA, is characterized by the low level of
public spendings on social welfare and the existence of a large civic sector.
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�1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
The second regime is “social democratic model”. The model is implemented in the small Scandinavian
states, mainly in Sweden. This model is geared to a strong welfare state and relatively weaker in voluntary
sector. The higher social spending, by the state, leaves no necessity for the civil society.
The third model is called “corporatist model”. The model is mainly represented by Germany and is
based on the partnership between the state and civil society. The central feature of this model is the high public
and civil society spendings. That is both the state and civil society are generous.
The final model is the “statist regime”. This model is represented by the countries such as Turkey and
Japan. The level of social spendings on social welfare is extremely low and the civil society is not well–
developed. While the statist regime restrains from the public welfare spendings, they pressurize the CSOs to trim
down their welfare spendings (Moore 2001 & Anheier and List 2005). Nonetheless, this does not mean that the
balance between the state and the CSOs will never change. The CSOs are occasionally promoted as in the case
of France and Japan (Moore 2001).
3. The Historical Development of the Civil Society Organizations
A. Pre- Industrial Revolution Era: The Increasing Social Responsibility of the Civil Society Organizations
Voluntary organizations that are providing social aids with philanthropic sentiments to those who are in
need have always existed throughout the history. In fact, practices which are similar to those social welfare
services provided by the welfare state as old as human history, the societies always looked for ways to provide
aids and services (accommodation, food, cloths etc...) to those who are disables, ills, poors. It should be indicated
that before the establishment of the modern welfare state, society, religious and voluntary organizations provided
these services in one way or another (Ersöz 2000).
In the period before the centralized state authority took over the responsibility for social services, CSOs
had provided welfare for individuals and families in the face of economic and natural disasters. Social aids were
provided by personal relations such as families, relatives, communities,and by economic organizations such as
guilds and also by religious organizations such as order, small dervish. In addition to these, it was also observed
that the administrative classes of south aimed to develop a protective system for the poor with various concerns.
In short, before the Industrial Revolution, it can be argued that the practice of social policy was provided by
philanthropic organizations operating on the basis of voluntariness and mutual aid principles. Following the
transformation of the economic and social structures by Industrial Revolution, the social welfare providing
organizations started to be transformed also (Ersöz 2000).
B. The Period of Industrialisation: The Decreasing Importance of Civil Society Organizations
In consequence of rapid industrialization, the social policy organizations of the previous era such as
family, philanthropic organizations and others quickly became insufficient and the new organizations to meet the
growing demand were established. This is because, the traditional social aid organizations failed to provide help
for rapidly growing working classes in terms of work accident and social care (Koray 2003).
The process of urbanization, caused by the Industrial Revolution, resulted in the elimination of the some of the
social protection organizations or reduced their effectiveness; along with the declining of the size of families, the
family ties and protection of the family weakened, thus the state in the industrial societies had to take over those
responsibilities (Güloğlu 1998).
After the great depression of the 1929, to overcome the crisis, the Keynesian economic model was
adopted. This model was called for the extensive involvement of the state in economic and social realms in order
to sustain a high level of domestic demand. The state intervention in the economic and social services, virtually
eradicated the need for the CSOs. As a result, a new period, in which the state took over the main responsibility
for the provision of the social welfare, was launched. The period between the World War II and 1980, state
intervention in social policy reached its apex and welfare states were born and matured.
C. Post–1975 Era: Globalization and Neo–Liberalism and the Re–Discovery of Civil Society Organization
In this century, there is no doubt that the increasing importance of the CSOs is very much associated
with the rise of globalization and neo–liberalism and participative democracy. In the post–1980 period, the
transformations, taking place in the economic, politic, social and legal areas, resulted in the gradual withdrawal
of the state from the social welfare services. As a result, the CSOs started to take over the responsibility from the
state for the provision of the social welfare services, and a third sector, in which the CSOs operate, developed
after a long period of stagnation (Şahin ve Öztürk 2008). These organizations, providing social welfares for
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�1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
humanity since the early ages, have performed a very significant role. It seems that they will continue to erg this
role in the near future (Kuhnle ve Alestalo 2000).
The CSOs, particularly in the western world, have been increasingly seen as an actor of social policy.
The central government, local government, and the CSOs have set up partnership for the provision of social
services and the state increased its collaboration with the CSOs. The state, rather than producing the same
services prefers buying from these organizations. Particularly after 1970s, the process revived and come to
constitute a significant part of the welfare mixes (Uslu 1999).
The ascendancy of globalization and neo–liberal policies seems to be the main factor behind the current
expansion of the CSOs both in qualitative and quantitative terms in the developed countries. While calling for
the state to wane and return to the main functions, the CSOs are expected to undertake the responsibilities and
duties for the provision of the social welfare along with the private sector (Pierson 2001). Hence, the legal and
administrative restructuring in the developed countries particularly in the USA and England has intended to
enable the state to maintain the responsibility for fining and auditing while transferring the responsibility for the
provision and distribution of the social welfare to the CSOs. Along with the process and policies a discourse and
need for supporting the CSOs have come to dominate the political agenda (Özbek 2002).
The role of the state in the social area should be that the state should provide services to civil society or
the private sector which are reluctant to produce, should provide aid for those priors who cannot afford to buy
the services produced by the private sector (Çalışkan 2001) or should support, subside the private sector social
services that are useful for its citizens, and should promote them (Çevik 1998).
The state seeking to cut down the social spendings with the aim of restructuring themselves, particularly
stared felling that is insufficient in the area of social aid and social services. The realisation of the shortage by
the state, in these issues, resulted in the re–establishment of the ties between the state and civil society.
4. The State–Civil Society Organizations–Market Relations
A. The Relations between State and Civil Society Organizations
Some researches demonstrate that in the development and the qualitative expansion of the CSOs, the
attitude of the state towards these organizations is of central importance. If the legal, institutional and financial
supports (purchasing social service, aids and tax exemptions, etc.) are provided by the state to these
organizations, not on their quantity and scale but also their share in the provision of the social services, will
certainly augment (Luksetich 2008).
The CSOs have become one of the basic social actors in the local, national and international levels. The
CSOs are parts of the private sector, while they are operating on a voluntary basis, and provide services for the
public. Thus, CSOs can be regarded as the organizations where the private and public cut across.
More than a quarter century, many researchers, mainly economist, have argued that the CSOs provide social
services much more effective and cheaper than the state and suggested that the state should set up partnership
with the CSOs. In some developed countries such as the USA, France, England and Germany, these suggestions
have been implied for a long time. In countries where the State–CSOs relations are developed and strengthened,
the number of the CSOs and the coverage of their activities (such as in the USA, Holland and Austria) are much
more extensive than in countries (particularly developing countries) where these relations are underdeveloped
(Anheier ve List 2005).
It is possible to argue that the State–CSOs relations are formed on three bases such as supplementary,
complementary and adversarial.
The first form of relation is the supplementary relations where the CSOs produce services that are not
produced by the state. The failure of these states to meet the demand for services, result in the entrance of the
CSOs into the service production. In this case it can be argued that there is reverse relations between the public
spendings and CSOs’ spendings. That is, if the state produces more services, its spendings will increase, the
CSOs’ spendings will decrease.
The second form of the State and CSOs relations is the complementary. This means that the state and
CSOs are partners in the provision of the social services and the role or the CSOs are to carry out the distribution
of the services that are financed by the state. At this stage, there is a direct link between the CSOs’ spendings and
the state spendings. That is, with an increase in the state spendings, its support to the activities of the CSOs will
augment.
In the third form of the relationship, CSOs, instead of producing services or helping governments to
produce it, are constantly encouraging the government in order to produce services and in this sense to perform
the public responsibility. Yet the relation and interaction is very low if compared two others.
It must be pointed out that in hybrid organizations, where the State–CSOs relations merge one with
another, the border have become more vague as in the USA, Japan and Israel (Young 2000).
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The CSOs can be seen in all civilized societies. Yet each society has specific structure and scale of
voluntary sector distincts very much from the others. Currently the high growth in the voluntary sector has
occurred in the USA. In the last 30 years, the voluntary sector has become a third sector along with the public
and private sectors (Payton ve Moody 2008).
B. The Relations between Market and Civil Society Organizations
The CSOs do not always obtain financial resources from the charity, donation and state aids. Some of
the CSOs may participate in the economic activities by means of economic enterprises with an intention to make
profit. Thus, they can produce and sell goods and services like any other private sector companies. Nevertheless,
the profits coming from these economic activities are not shared by the shareholders, but are used in accordance
with the social purpose of the organization (Easterly ve Miesing 2008).
In the last two decades, it is extensively observed that not only the CSOs have expended rapidly, but
also their incomes have risen sharply, particularly in the USA. The central reason for the expansion of the CSOs
is the markets. During this period, an ample demand developed for their services and for their increased incomes
from charging for these services; they set up trading companies or partnerships with private sector firms and they
commenced to use the techniques that are used by the firms, learned to obtain more financial resource from the
state and sophisticated marketing strategies and monetary management techniques. They also re–designed their
own structures and implemented all these techniques for collecting charities and providing social services. All
these denote that the CSOs of the century are very much different than those at time of our fathers due to still
continuing process of a massive restructuring (Salamon 2003).
5. Civil Society Organizations in the USA and Turkey
A. Civil Society Organizations in the USA
The USA has gone in the way of philanthropy and CSOs more than any other nation did in the history.
That is no nation has been based on voluntary activities more than the USA has been. Along with the state and
market, as a third sector the CSOs has become very important. The voluntary sector has gone beyond the
imagination of people in this country. That is, there exist more that 2 million voluntary organizations, millions of
donors and volunteers, millions of employment, billions of dollar income, billions of dollar spending and
trillions of dollar assets (Payton ve Moody 2008).
One of the important characters of the American society is that, in sharp contrast to many welfare states,
the constantly growing state has developed the CSOs rather than emasculating and restricting them in the last
fifty years. Because in the USA, societal hostility towards centralized bureaucracy and the presence of large
number of voluntary organization in various fields, have increased the supports for the CSOs in the fields such as
health, education, social services, art and culture. In the American social welfare system, in many of the basic
social welfare areas financing is proved by the state while private organizations and establishment provided most
of the services (Salamon 1999).
The CSOs and philanthropy has become very important element of the social life in that the number of
the registered CSOs reached to 1.4 million according to the Internal Revenue Service in 2004. The figure does
not include small religious groups, local communities, and clubs, civil partnerships, and the other voluntary
organizations. If these unregistered organizations are included the number of the CSOs, total number reaches to
2 million in the USA. Of these 500,000 are very large and have immense revenues and investments. According
to the IRS, the group had 1,36 trillions revenues and 2,97 trillions worth assets in 2004. It means that the
economical size of the CSOs in the USA is larger from the whole countries' economies. Incomes and possessions
belonging to the CSO’s in this country are mostly consumed for education and health services (Payton ve Moody
2008).
B. Civil Society Organizatons in Turkey
Looking at the development of the CSOs in Turkey, it is possible to say that the CSOs, which are the
important elements of the democratic system, have played a profound role in the development of the society
since the early days of the history. Most of these CSOs are organised as foundations (vakıf) and associations
(dernek). They have done pioneering and useful works for the society. It is determined that most of them were
established with philanthropic and social aims (DPT 2001).
CSOs, organized the form of foundations, have performed countless duties and have undertaken large
number of responsibilities within the economic and social lives since the Seljukis time. They thrived greatly
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during the Ottoman era. The Ottoman epoch can be considered as the golden age of these organizations in terms
of quantity and functions (Zaim 1997).
However, it is well–known that the foundations were in decline in the last years of the Ottomans and
this process continued well into the republican era. It was not untill the amendment made in the Common Law as
to foundations in 1967 that the fate of CSOs changed in Turkey (See Ertem 1998). Following these amendment,
the number of foundation have amplified.
These foundations have carried out extremely important responsibilities in the economic and social lives
throughout the centuries in Turkey. This type of organizations contributed to the education, culture, and
economy, social and politic lives. It can be said that the Foundation allocated most of their services to social
services. Some of the foundations established as educational (for example Dar’üş–Şafaka, which is a secondary
school in Istanbul for poor or poor and fatherless children) and health (for example a lot of dar’üş–şifa, which is
health care centres) establishments in order to enhance national culture and protection of public and individual
health. Some them prefer caring the poor, provide pension for those who work in heavy and weary industries,
elderly who cannot work, parentless kids, orphans and widows etc. (Özdemir 1997).
Another organising form of the CSOs during the last period of the Ottomans and Republican eras was
the associations. Nevertheless neither the foundations nor the associations have managed to serve as CSOs
because of the legal restriction on their activities. Thus, the legal amendments have been taken place in Turkey
to eliminate these restrictions and give more freedom to the CSOs.
For today, looking at the number of the association and foundations and other CSOs, and their
members, are very low when compared to those in the developed countries. As of February 2009, there are 4.966
foundations. The number of total associations operating in Turkey is about 80,706. The figure is very low
compared to the number of civil associations in the USA, Germany and France, which are approximately 7
millions, 2.1 and 1.4 millions respectively. According to the calculations; Turkey has to have at least 300
thousand associations in proportion to their size.
In line with Solomon’s description of CSOs, one of the elements of the concept is that considering the
private and public division, the CSOs are private sector establishments. Looking at the Turkish CSOs, apart from
the foundations, associations and trade unions, some chambers and occupational association (chambers of
commerce, engineers association, artichoke association, laws etc.), for which membership is compulsory, are
considered as CSOs. These aspects of the civil organizations are not compatible Salmon’s CSOs description.
And they have hybrid characters.
At the same time, in these and other EU countries, the sector employs a sizeable part of their population.
In the USA, approximately 9 million, in Germany 1 million, in France 0.8 million, and in Japan 1.4 million
people are working for CSOs. However, albeit there is no research conducted in the respects in Turkey, it is
estimated that the employment in this sector is negligible.
On the other hand, as noted earlier, the importance of the CSOs are expanding in the world. In many
countries, the share of these organizations in the GDP is very large and continues to grow (for example, in the
USA is about 6.3 percent, in England and France 4.8 percent, and in Japan 3.5 percent). Unfortunately there is no
research which has been carried out in this respect in Turkey (ACOC 2004).
In Turkey, the inexistence of sufficiently developed welfare state constitutes the basis of the insufficient
development of State–CSOs relations. Thus, this insufficiency dominates the CSOs and there is no sign that
there will be significant development in this area. Turkey has not undergone the process of transformation of the
western welfare state since the 1970s.
The formation of the relation between the state and CSOs depends of the existence of some conditions.
First of all, it is necessary that the state should promote the CSOs, by providing the legal framework enabling the
effective operations of the organizations.
In order to develop the CSOs–State relations, those CSOs which have better organizations, performed
effective and useful services should be selected and supported and promoted. The Social Services and Child
Protection Agency (SHÇEK) leading role and advises will help these organizations to improve the quality of
their services (DPT 2001).
In Turkey, the profound presence of state dominates the educational, health and social services. The
social services provided by the public organizations are controlled by central authority in Ankara. Extreme
centralizations tendency prevents planning, producing and distributing the services to those in need. In addition,
shortage of financial resources results in the shortage of these services. Therefore, looking from these angles,
regarding the fulfilment of social welfare services, both public management and the CSOs are far from the
expected levels (Çevik 1998).
The results of a survey (See Özdemir & Başel & Şenocak 2009), performed by us in Üsküdar District of
Istanbul, after exposing the conditions and reasons of CSOs, point out that unfortunately there is not any
evidence that this structure will change or transform, like in developed countries, in near future.
In the developed countries, the process of the transformations which give rise to transferring, to a large
extent the state responsibility concerning social policy to the CSOs. Not only have not been experienced in
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Turkey yet, but also the CSOs are neither aware nor enthusiastic towards such a change that will alter their
destiny. Unfortunately some questions in the research demonstrate that the CSOs have accepted their destiny, are
extremely reactant to do something to alter their future. This is very much noticeable from the questionnaire. As
can be seen from the (Tab. n. 35) that 33.3 percent of the participant CSOs are against the transfer of social
responsibility from the state to any other organizations including the CSOs. Only the 11 percent of the CSOs
support such initiatives and express willingness to take some responsibility. The rest, (55,6 percent) avoid to
reply these questions and do not believe that such transfer can be possible. In some developed countries such as
the USA, the majority of the CSOs supports the transfer of the social aids and social services to voluntary
organizations. In the countries, where this transfer has taken place, the growth of the CSOs has been observed.
It is, therefore, a must for the Turkish CSOs to welcome this development and undertake increasingly
responsibility for the provision of the social policy. If the CSOs have still state–centered views and are unaware
what is going on in the World, nothing can be done to change their destiny. It is probably that the CSOs are in
the opinion that they may not be able to overcome the provision of social policy and thus lack self confidence
(Özdemir & Başel & Şenocak 2009).
The view that the state provides social aids and social services better than anyone, dominate not only the
CSOs but also the entire society in Turkey. The survey carried out by Çarkoğlu (2006) also confirms this view.
According to his results, 38.2 percent of participants believe that social aid is primarily the responsibility of the
state in Turkey. 30.9 percent believe that it is also the individual responsibility of wealthy people. Only 5,4
percent indicate that the CSOs should have some responsibility in this respect. Hence, it is possible to argue that
in the mind of individuals, there is very small role for the CSOs for providing social services. This means that
when people give charity, only few of them take the CSOs into consideration (Özdemir & Başel & Şenocak
2009).
Conclusion
The 1980s have witnessed major transformations in the economic, political and social realms. With the
collapse of the Post–War order, the Western capitalism moved to a new stage. With the ascendency of the new–
liberal economic policies, while the state involvement in the economy was undermined, the expansion of the
welfare state came to the end. For the neo–liberals, the state involvement in the economy created market
inefficiencies and prevented optimum allocation of resources. Hence, it is more rational for the state to withdraw
from the economy and stop providing social welfare services. The social welfare services must be provided by
civil society organizations (CSOs) or the private sector (1) (Pierson 2001). This is resulted in the re–discovery of
the role of the CSOs as the actors in providing social services in the developed economies. A spectacular
expansion of their role and activities of the CSOs in the provision of social services have been observed. The
number of the CSOs has also mushroomed.
The post 1929 crisis witnessed a period in which the role of the state in the economy and in the
provision of social services was rapidly expanded. Nevertheless, with the crisis of the 1970s the state
involvement in those areas came to be questioned. A new area was launched by the adaption of neo–liberal
economic policies, demanding minimum state interference in the economic and social realms in the late 1970s
(Özdemir 2007). Consequently, the discourse that the CSOs and waning the state have dominated the economic,
political and social agendas in the world (Özbek 2002).
The concept and issue of the CSOs, philanthropy, non–profit organizations, and social capital have been
disregarded by social scientist and the public officials for a long–time. As social policy and welfare state
developed, discussion on markets, state and social policy dominated the agenda in the post war epoch. The CSOs
was considered as an insignificant issue. Nevertheless, following the ascendancy of the neo–liberal economic
policies, this approach changed in the late 1970s. As the state has withdrawn from the economic and social
realms, the CSOs were re–discovered as alternative to the public provision of social services in many developed
countries. Thus, the CSOs have, recently, become one of the most important economic and social actors in the
developed countries. They are seen as a “middle way” between the state and market and are called as “third
sector”. In these countries, the state seeks to generate an environment conductive for the growth of the CSOs.
The high quality relations between states and the CSOs constitute the basis for the phenomenal revival of the
CSOs
Unfortunately this is not the case in Turkey for the time being. The CSOs have neither mentally nor
economically developed to undertake the responsibility for the provision of the social welfare state. There are
number of reasons for this insufficient development of the CSOs. One of them is the existence of poor relations
between the state and CSOs. In contrast to the developed countries, the state is reluctant to promote the civil
society. This may be related to the authoritarian character of the state. The state has always distrusted the civil
society and sought to keep any civil organizing attempt, which would challenge the state authority, under stick
control. Thus, the growth and expansion of the civil society may be deliberately prevented. The state is reluctant
to hand over some of its authority and responsibility to the civil society. This means that CSOs have not obtained
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sufficient support from the state to flourish. This also means that the state have no intention to purchase services
from the CSOs and does not involve or consult the CSOs in the formulation of social policies.
Thus, it can be legitimately concluded that the state may partially hold responsiblity for this apparent
insufficient development of the CSOs in Turkey. Our findings provide ample support to this argument.
Nevertheless, the process of Turley’s integration to the EU and economic and social development, it may argued
that the CSOs will discover their potential as well as get better recognition from the state and society.
One another reason for the dismay of the Turkish CSOs may be themselves. Reviewing the literature
and the fieldwork results demonstrate that most of the CSOs are even unable to perform their own duties
determined by their charters. Nevertheless, those, with sufficient financial resources, have not changed their
mentality at all. They are still disinclined to have any major role in the society. In many developed countries, the
responsibility of the state for the provision of social and welfare services is shifting to the CSOs. Most of the
Turkish CSOs tend to believe that providing social services have the responsibility of the state and reluctant to
undertake any responsibility in this regard. Consequently it is possible to argue that the most striking result of
this research is that the most of Turkish CSOs turn a blind eye to the changing international economic and
political environment of the CSOs in the world (Özdemir & Başel & Şenocak 2009).
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232
Title
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The Increasing Importance of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
Author
Author
ÖZDEMiR, Süleyman
PARLAK, Zeki
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
“Civil Society Organizations” (CSOs), especially by developed societies, are "started to be re–explored" since 1970s in consequences of social welfare states' crisis, domination of neo–liberal philosophy and policies in the world, spreading of democracy, end of the cold war, improvements on information and communication systems etc… The most prominent difference between the last decades of the previous century and the first decade of the current century lies in the role that CSOs undertake in the society. As CSOs have suitable properties which are brought about the economic and political philosophy of globalization, they have got considerable attention of the states and have had a proper environment to develop in the countries where neo– liberal philosophy is being implemented. However, CSOs are not an alternative to the state, instead, they are supplementary institutions. Since CSOs are very appropriate to the rationale of economical and political philosophy of the last quarter of the twentieth century, which requires minimalization of the state, they are being supported by the state which was directed by liberal philosophy. Hence, they are increasingly developing in terms of quantity and quality.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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3527
Title
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THE INDIVIDUAL BETWEEN THE RESTRICTED AND THE ELABORATED LINGUISTIC CODE
Author
Author
Draçini, Rrezarta
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The individual as a part of the society owns a very important element so that he can become part of it: the verbal communication. If we focus here we will see that the language user is the past, the present and the future of language itself. From one generation to the other, from one linguistic areal to the other, the language is in constant movement together with its users. The question arises: Does the change between the linguistic codes of the same language create a problem for the linguistic performance? Does the society accept the users of restricted linguistic codes, or even prejudge them? Can we talk about a linguistic prejudice in between of the users of the same language, even though modern societies are trying to fight any kind of prejudice and discrimination? These questions take a great importance in the Albanian reality where even though there have been 50 years from the determination of the linguistic standard (the elaborated code), the debates and polemics between the academic and social groups continue to exist. The placement of one of the narrow codes ( the south’s tosk dialect) as a standard or as a elaborated code based on a political act of the communist dictatorship of that time has made the contradictions of the north dialect users even more apparent linguistically and politically. The users of Geg dialect live in between of two different realities the elaborated and restricted code. In this study we will analyze the results of a large scale questionnaire made in the north area, whose purpose was the identification of the linguistic individual’s problems while he is confronted with the standard language and also the results of another questionnaire made to the users of elaborated language and the dialect close to it, the tosk dialect.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2014
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
The Industrial Developments in Turkey during the Transition Period from
Ottoman State to Republic
Kadir Şeker
Mehmet Akif Ersoy University
Burdur/Turkey
kseker@mehmetakif.edu.tr
Abstract: The guild system in Ottoman State maintain its vitality as an economic and social
system until nineteenth century. The masters and apprentices who construct guild system
lost their chances of economic entegration to the new system brought by Industrial
Revolution which first started in England and then spread all over Europe.
Although the Ottoman State had taken some actions to keep up with the industrial
revolution in Europe, it couldn’t have industrialized in all fields. Ottoman State was
eliminated by First World War and Independence War and then Turkish Republic took
Ottoman State’s place. But the industry taken over from Ottoman State was almost next to
nothing. In this respect, founder of new goverment Mustafa Kemal, gathered economic
congress in Đzmir with the purpose with arranging industrial investments and economic
developments just after Independence War. Because according to him, military victories
which are unsupported by economical developments is not possible to be permanent. For
this purpose, some radical precautions had been taken to develop the industrial just after the
foundation of Republic.
In this study, it is emphasized on the applications for developing the industry in the late
period of Ottoman State and the industrial developments in the new state from the end of
Indepence War to 1940s.
Key Word: Ottoman State, Guild System, Economical Developments in Turkey
Introduction
Until the beginning of 19th Century, there was a developed industry which was made in small
workshops and organized as guiltd to its time in Ottoman State. Industrial branches, such as cotton thread, cloth
thread. Both met country’s needs and was exported. But starting of the Industrial Revolution in England and
spreading to other European countries in a fast way caused the emerging of capitalism in Europea with the
expression of economist J schumpeter while developing industry was bringing forth new goods with services,
new prodiction and new life styles, also demolished the old ones( Kazgan, 2009). But this life style did not occur
only special to Europe. It showed its effect nearly all around the world and as using its political interactions
Europe started to exploit weak countries by taking them under their power.
While the progress was going on like that at the ends of 18th Century and beginnings of 19th Century,
Ottoman State which had large lands spreading to three continents and innersides of Europe didn’t keep in step
with these developments for some reasons. Ottoman State didn’t get the technology which was bought by
Industrial Revolution according to Europe and also Ottoman State had political agitation caused by Ayanlar and
had to struggle with nationalist movements beceuse of French Revolution. Although movements about acquiring
a newness had started inner Ottoman since at the beginning of 18th Century, these movements did not come to an
end beceuse of reactions caused by either lawer or upper parts of society. As the most important examples to
these, Nevşehirli Damat Đbrahim Pasa and III. Selim attempts trying to do in every fields can be given as
examples. But these attempts did not work beceuse of Patrona and Kabakçı Mustafa rebellions.
One of the most important causes of the Ottoman industry’s unrealization is Capitulations.In the period
of Kanuni Sultan Süleyman for breaking the crusader unit, and between two sovereigns, by the condition of valid
as long as they live, the capitulations being given to French were started to be given to other European countries
in the following centuries of development, these attemps did not cause so many matters but these attemps started
to be a pressure component for the Ottoman State in the term of both political trade and also economic in the
period of unproductivity. Finally the conditions were followed to Industry Revolation, England, opening to
world markets and exploiting these markets step by step, sign the Trade Agreements, 1838, with the Ottoman
State (Cem, 1970). Trade agreements were signed with other European countries following this Trade
Agreement. All agreements included both the continuation of former privilepe’s components and also new
components with these agreements, for exporting and importing being limited to foreigns, and for zeroing the
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advantages of indigenous merchants in domestic trade and at the same convenience foreign investors and
merchants. But at the same time, against of England and French’s exploitation. while USA absorbed all the
safeguard principles in foreign trade, Germany Principalities set up duty unity by demoslishing duty unity
between them, and thus, supporting domestic production against England’s and France’s exploitation, they set
the foundation of German Empire in the future. Industry Revoluation, starting in England, Pelmestor, Minister of
foreign Affairs, started the process with the principle “any undeveloped country does not have right to obstruct
the effect of Europe”.
Thus, USA, Germany, Russia took against this progress by bringing function defending economic
politicians. But 1838 English Trade Agreement did not give any economic development opportunity to the
Ottoman State. In this way, while some countries were trying to keep their industries, The Ottoman State by
signing trade agreement, opened up markets to European’s Industry goods.
Economy Policies and Industrialization of 1838–1923
Administrative Reforms Period
The announcement which was published in November 3, 1839 in front of people who are muslim and
not Muslim just five months after the death of II. Mahmut and nearly one year after the commerce agreement
signed with English with the enterprise of ministry of foreign affairs was called “Administrative Reforms
Firman”. The word “Tanzimat” is the plural of “Tanzim” which means “putting into order”. Mustafa Reşit Paşa
who was sent as an ambasador to London in II. Mahmut period gave a note to Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
England in August 12, 1839. He explained the reform which he thought with three words in that note which was
written out in French. Those three words are “a system which was settled in the form of not being able to be
changed”.
In fact Firman which was announced in 1839 had the feature of a human right’ report. Equality of
Christian people who lived in Ottoman land, everbody paying tax according to their financial power, centralizing
disorganized goverment structure, conducting military expenditure with laws were main foresight of Firman.
Firman was announced by goverment administrator of Ottoman to decrease Europe’s intervention into
our internal affairs. But that Firman made it ease for European goverments to interfere Ottoman’s internal affairs
and in progressive term the process proceeded to work in non –muslem people’s favour. (yerasimov, 1976).
Europe which quaranteed to enter Ottoman’s bazaars with 1838 trade agreement aimed with Firman that their
own Merchant and minorty had a say in above their legal status. Briefly, while Ottoman Goverment was
included in international markets by bringing to an open bazaar state with 1838–39 trade agreements, it was also
introduced to Europe public law by 1839 Adminisrative Reform Firman (Kazgan, 2009). After those processes,
Ottoman lands were brought to an important bazaar of global economy whose leaders were England and France.
On the other hand, administrative Reforms Firman contributed to England Ambassador and also other
Europen goverment’s represenatives to be the inspecter of Administrative applications. Ambassadors who
complained that law and regulations wich would perform the reforms wich Firman promised weren’tmade and
those which were made were not applied. They started to put pressure on Ottoman State about new regulations
with the end of Crimea War in peace conference which woud be carried out in Paris. At the end of these attempts
Ottoman State had to declare Improvement Firman in 1856. Two-third of Firman were parted to minorities
privileges and the other parts were parted to foreigners privileges under Ottoman State. In fact, it started to be
seen how Europe would treat in Ottoman region. By taking minority rights under guarantee, making
cooperations with foreigners would be helped and thanks to minorities, commercial, economical and industrial
privileges woud be obtained. On the other side, these treaties economical effects shoued themselves in a short
time. In the period from 1838–1841 to 1852–1854 the growth in foreign trade rised as annually from 1–5 % to 5
% in Ottoman State. Although that was such a crucial figure, the main growth reached its peak with joining
Ottoman State to Crimea War and right after with declaration of Improvement Firman (Kazgan, 2009).
At the same time, Crimea War brought the firsts inside Ottoman State. Ottoman State went into dept to
foreigner investors for the first time in its history. This debt was in fact based on very high interest. While some
of European were going into debt only with 3 %, Ottoman State went into dept with high interest like 8 % in
those years. While that situation was leading to conclusion of not being paid of Ottoman State’s depts in
progress, it caused the foundation of Duyunu Umumiye characterized as depts law. Ottoman State went into dept
sixteen times between 1854–1876. Borrowed Money started to be spent to cover new depts and their interest
more than countrie’s development and being turned into investments. At that point, Ottoman State couldn’t pay
its dept and declared moratorium. In the end, firstly Rüsum-i Sitte Đdaresi (A Traditional Board) was founded in
order to make debts paid in Berlin Congress gathered in 1878. As a result, some incomings were left to Ottoman
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Bank with creditor local banket. As that system worked well, that time, Duyunu Umumiye which was fathered
by European creditor was turned into “General Debts Management” (Kazgan, 2009).
The Term of Constitutional Monarchy
In 1876, 1st Constitutional Monarchy was announced with Abdulhamit’s ascending the throne and the
suggestions of some intellectual people and statesmen of that time. The term from that year to 1908 is called 1st.
Constitutional Monarchy. The time from 1908 to the demolition of the Ottoman State is called Era of 2nd
Constitutional Monarchy.
In the term, passing from the beginning of going in to debt to the announcement of moratorium, that is
within twenty years, the debts were used in a great proportion for consumer items, buying weapons, construction
of barracks and palaces. The interests’ being already high and the exportations’ being insufficient brought the
investments to the last point. When the increase of income couldn’t be obtained in the Ottoman State, the credits
taken from outside were transformed into paying for the debts of outside again. Especially in 1894, that the short
time debt’s reaching to 16 million sterlin while export income was 19 million sterlin was the most important
factor sabotaging the investments. In the same term, total state income remained at only 22,5 million sterlin
(Pamuk, 1984). Maybe among the increase of income was that foreign merchants weren’t paying tax to the
Ottoman State due to the advantages the capitulation guaranteed. Native minorities also began to try ways of
avoiding from capitulations. Naturally, these two groups whose income increased couldn’t be taxed in the some
proportion. Therefore, the state tried to increase the Asar tax applied on Muslim population in order to assure the
increase of income. However; since the agriculture was done with traditional ways, any increase of production
couldn’t be ensured. Consequently; increase of tax couldn’t be realized in this area, either. But especially
increase of the military expenses was observed in the same term (Kazgan, 2009).
General Debt Management ensures Ottoman’s debts’ being organized in response to take 20-32 % part
of Ottoman’s income in hand. On the other hand, operations which decreased tax evasion were put into force.
Thanks to administration holding tightly the work, nearly until the end of 1880, deficit in budget was ceased.
Moreover excess budget came about and that action continued until I. World War. After that time, in different
regions of Ottoman territories, some rail ways, shipyards and hardbours were started to be built.
Especially, accelaration of building of railways both aimed at strengthening of central admiration and
providing of collection, control and transportation of taxes collected. In fact, when 1908 was reached Tithe tax
that was collected in country increased nearly the foundation of General Debt Manegement, Ottoman state
directly went towards invesment and started to grow in agriculture and in industry. In spite of low proportion,
devolopments started in proportions of natural income. Findings related to the development are given in the chart
below.
Annual Avarage increase Speed (%)
With the Price of 1948 and1968
Portion in GNP (%)
WPI Annual Average
Exportation/Inportation Development
Period
Population GNP IGNP
Agriculture Industry
Exportation Investment
Inportation Speed (%)
1889-1914
1.0
2.0
1.0
1.6
3.0
55
7–8
15.5
-
1923-1929
-
10.4
9.2
15.0
8.5
62.6
9.1
14.5
3.1
(%)
Chart 1: Turkey’s main Development indicators: 1889–1929
Resource: Taken from Kazgan, G. 2009, p.75).
On the other hand, investment activity based on national capital was tried to be carried out with the
help of II. Constituonal Monarchy and the power of Ittihat Terakki Party. Nevertheless, in this term, the portion
which could be seperated from state’s budget to investment below shows regional distribution of business
enterprises called as factory and ethnic structures of workers together with capital structures, since the year of
1915.
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Recional Distribution (Numbers)
Cities
Factory
Đstanbul
Đzmir
Other Cities
149
61
73
Total
283
Ethnic Distribution of Capital and Work Power (%)
Worker
Ethnic Origin
Capital
Worker
Muslim-Turk
Greek-Roum
Armenian
Jewish
Foreigner
15
50
20
5
10
15
60
15
10
-
100
100
15.000
Chart 2: The Distribution of Big Manufacture Industry in the Otoman State in 1915, as percentage (%)
Resource: Taken from Kazgan, G.(2009, p.52).
As it can be inferred from the table, the shares at non-Muslims are %75 in 283 factories. The Muslim
have only % 15 capital and also %15 at the working class. If it is thought that, although the owners and the
ruling class at the state are Muslim- Turks, it is understood that how low the rates are. In Ottoman, that change
which occurred with the foreign capital continued to increase the injustice of the incomes. Because while on the
one side the European merchants, living in the big cities, and the non-Muslim minorities that are cooperating and
having commercial privileges with the agreements made with. European Merchants, on the other side, were
continuing to increase their incomes, the Muslims that had to manage with the difficulties at the state, started to
be poor with the same rate. Futhermore, foreign and non-Muslim investors were not solely doing investments in
the Ottoman lands but increasing their income via exporting goods and on the other hand, they were not doing
anything that would be beneficial to the employment.
So, as a result of the changes above the objections to ‘’the Constitutional Monarchy’’ started. Now the
changes that we could say as ‘’improvements in every aspects’’ started to occur. While the intellectuals were
interpreting books of economy, they started to argue whether liberal trade or conservative policies should be
followed. As a result at these arguments the increasing responses against foreign investors started to emerge. The
tram workers in Istanbul and Izmir, the railway workers in Aydın and the workers at Şirket-i Hayriye went on
strikes. And also in 1908, the boycott was carried out against the exported Austrian goods. These boycotts did
not only stand as strikes but also meant to be the starting of the Nationalist movements which emerged and
spread a many Turks after The Constituonal Monarchy II. Actually, these changes and movements were
inevitable in the flow of history. Because all of the ethnic groups living in the borders at the Empire were in a
search for independence and started to collaborate with variuos European Countries.
As a conclusion, for the period of Ottoman we can say that; during the period between Tanzimat
Reforms and The Constituonal Monarchy I, the goverment did not make a considerable investment. The most
important one, was maybe, in 1870s ‘’Menafi’’ caissons –later in 1878 they turned out to be Agriculture Bank.
This meant that the first ‘’Public Financial Association’’ was founded. (Yasa, 1966). But it was difficult to say
that these improvements could be accepted as industrialization. However, it can be observed that some
investments started to be done; especially the railway construction was hastened after The Constutional
Monarchy I. Also, as a paralel with the investments, ‘’GNP’’ started to increase which can be understood from
the tables. Besides, the starting of railway construction, some industrial associations were founded with the aim
of compensating the military needs. (Anonim, 1980) However, in the Ottoman State, the large number of foreign
priviledged companies, the practice of Capitulation, the non-extistence at customs policies and the poor economy
of the state prevented public investments.
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The Period of 1923–1933 the Practice of Financial Policies and Insdustrialization
The Period 1923–1933
From year 1923 to 1929, in which the Great Depression occured, corresponding with the foundation
years at the Republic. During this period, our country where social, political and legal improvoments and
reforms were done, faced with financial problems and sought for the solutions. Soon after the Indepence War,
Atatürk stated that Military Victories that we did not support with economical success can not be permanent. So,
with this aim to define financial policies and to practise them immediately, he arranged Izmir Congress of
Economy in 1923 with the participation of every group. That Congress was held between 17 February- 4 March
1923 in Izmir with the participation of some public associations, trade, industry, farmer, worker and other groups
members.
‘’We must give much importance to our economy to be able to carry Turkey to the highest level it
deserves. It is completely time of economy, nothing else. In fact, if Turkish history is analysed, it will be seen
clearly that the reasons for rise and collapse are economical reasons.’’ Atatürk emphazised the importance of
economy and the reason why this congress was held.
The decisions made in meeting were gathered in two parts as ‘’Economical Decisions and the problems
belonging to farmer, merchant, industrialists and worker groups. Some of the decisions made in the meeting
were studied because of its connection to our topic. At the first session of the meeting, such decisions as
developing the sectors of forest and mine, letting foreigns capital in condition of contribution to developing
economy, not letting to monopoly, were made. And at the second session of the meeting, such decisions as
cancelling the Tithe (Aşar) tax, refoundation of Agriculture Bank, the developing in gunpowder and other war
industry branches, processing productivity in coke antracite and emery branches, training some coal area, were
taken. The most important decision made in the second session was maybe the protection of native industry
against to foreign industry products with putting customs tax. When the decisions were investigated as a whole,
it may be said ‘’a protective and nationalist economical policy that would get the success in developing with
special enterpise.’’ (Akbank Culture Prints, 1980)
Though most of the decisions taken in this congress were reflected in the economic policies after the
declartation of Republic, the adhibition of some items took some time. For example monopoly of baccy could
not be taken away and the import of sugar was kept on. Above all, Treaty of Lausanne congealled the customs
fax for five years, thereby domestic manufacture could not be espoused. Even though command economy was
stood by some enouraging cautions with Insentive Industry Law, both the opportunities of goverment and private
sector were limited, the desired industry investment were not elicited.
As the government’s installation term between the years 1923-1932, exaggerated loan contracted could
not be done and the investments could be done on the condition of taxes. For instance, though the ancestral
railroad net which was 4138 kms inherited from Ottoman State reached 6040 km in 1932 it could not be
supported with motorways which could maintain these railroads. Nationalizing the industry facilities in foreign
goverments were limited with a few adhibitions because of limited financial impossibilities (Avcıoglu, 1968) . In
the same way, though the decisions of Izmir Economics Congress foresaw mixed economy structure, liberal
policies were tried to be applied in general term. In other words, 1930’s Goverments saw the private sector as
dominant factor in Economic policies and tried to help private sector and adopted the principle that cluster the
areas private sector made investments.
Goverment founded World Bank of Turkey which was characterized as a trade bank in order to give
credits to private sector and develop it in 1924 while it was carrying at this foresight. Right after this it also
constituted Industry and Mine Bank of Turkey in order to bring functionality to private industrial organizations.
Meanwhile, Ottoman Bank’s privilege period also was prolonged for ten years and Real Estate Bank of Turkey
was established in order to deal with legal residence credit (Anonymous, 1980). But in spite of these
organizations, improvement in economy couldn’t be carried on beceuse of the World Economic Crisis in 1929
and developing private sector was not at the demanded level.
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Annual Average Increase Level (%)
With 1948 and 1968 Charges
GNP Portion (%)
Turkey Consumer Price
Index
Export/Import
Period
1929–1935
1935–1939
1939–1948
Population GNP
2.1
1.7
1.06
IGNP
3.2
0.7
11.6 8.8
0.5 -0.07
Agriculture Industry
-1.3
15.6
1.0
17.1
11.0
-0.9
Import (%)
105.2
113.1
137.2
Invest
10.1
10.1
8.6
Export
8.0
7.0
5.6
Speed (%)
-12.0
5.1
19.0
Chart 3: Turkey’s Main Development Indicators: 1929–1948
Resource: Taken from Kazgan, G.(2009, p.75).
1929 World Economic Crisis
As in many cases affecting the World, lots of studies have been carried out and different comments
have been made on the reasons of this case, as well. However, some common reasons taking part in most of
these can be ordered in this way; the first one is the economic power of the companies in USA. While in the
1870’s there were so many companies both large and small in USA, the small companies had to unite and after
war monopolies emerged against the difficulties caused during World War I. In 1929, the number of holding
companies having autharity on the 50 percent of the USA economy was about 200. This meant that even a single
holding company’s bankruptcy is enough to weaken economy.
The second reason is the banks’ having been badly constructed. The laws determining the banks’ capital
essentials and the proportions of reserve and credit had not been made yet. For instance, there were no laws
providing the reliability of financial tables of companies. For this reason, the investor was unable to have enough
information about the company from which he took the written certification. Again, there were no laws that
distinguish the commercial banks from investment banks, either.
As for the third reason, it is the inexperience of the goverment of President Hoover approved not to
interfere in economy according to the liberal economy understanding that prevailed in the 1920s. However, not
interfering in the 1929 crisis costed society so much. Later on, when the President decided to interfere, it was too
late and the interference could not succeed. The other sign of the inexperience of the goverment is its having
insisted on depending on the gold standard. The goverment pursued a strict money policy by refusing to print
money independent from gold. So, the markets began to experience the liquidity problem, the economical
activities halted and the real sector had to become small. And, this meant more unemployment, less income.
Fourth reason, America was almost the only country which giving debt in the world. During first World
War, USA had given debt about 10,3 billion Dollars to its the Allied Powers. After first World War, USA was
demanding to pay as gold its compensation from Germany and England. But, the gold stock was insufficient on
Earth and the amount of stock in hand was under control of America. For this reason, Mentraned compensation
and credit was tried to pay as property and service but this affected badly American own property and service
sector. As a result, America couldn’t get credits which giving without financial record. (Armaoğlu, 1987)
USA gave debt about to twenty goverments during war. England with 4.2 Dollars, France with 3.4
billion Dollars, Italy with 1.6 billion Dollars were in debt. The total debt lended by America was almost 10.3
billion Dollars. After war, these goverments didn’t want to pay their debts. Because they depended on the repair
debt which would be gotten from Germany. America struggled to collect debts exactly. The other goverments
didn’t pay on They paid as sembolic. (Armaoğlu, 1987)
With the begining of crisis, USA exchange collapsed. These improvements in America affected Turkey
which was founded justly and the term of new industry. In the same years, personal enterprise failed in progress
and redounding capital done under difficult conditions. A lot of people lost their jobs with the company which
went bankrupt. At last, in 1930s, Defending etetism politics were applied in all world countries.
The Economic Politics of 1933–1950 and KIT’s Emergence in The Name of Industrialization
In 1930s, the economic crisis which wrapped up the world also had influence on our
country.(Hiç,1998). Consequently, in the same years a new approach named as ‘Statism’ was adopted. While
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this approach was being adopted, it was declared that there would be a support for Private Enterprises but for the
vulnerable condition that was in, the priority would be given to the Public Economical Organization about
conducting improvements. Likewise, this understading entered into the People of Republic Party (CHP)
programme. In this programme, Statism was defined in such words : “on condition that keeping the individual
work and activity, as quickly as possible, making the community reach prosperity and improvement… making
the community concerned with law in act…’’ As far as we understand from the developments, Statism appeared
not because of a doctrine but the requirements in that period which had to have realistic approaches. During the
years 1930–38 when the etatism principles was in use compulsorily, Atatürk was not in favor of strict etatism
and was suspicious of the success of etatistic economic politics. Even the period’s Prime Minister Đsmet Đnönü
declared that Atatürk was in favor of private enterprises and liberal economy. The failure of providing a
successful improvement in the field of economy from the time of founding Republic made Atatürk think over the
issue. Because the country had to develop fast and was aware of the fact that with slow down bureaucracy,
unstable government mechanism, industrialization could not be fast and enterprising. In 1932, with the demand
of Atatürk, the appointment of Celal Bayar who was the manager of Is Bank in place of Mustafa Seref, the
Economics Deputy, was important from the perspective of Atatürk’s preferences in politics. Likewise in 1937,
the seperation of Atatürk and Đsmet Đnönü might have been the leading result of this difference in opinions. But
in the same period, the lack of investors entailed the government to be active in economics and the statistic
economic model was to be adopted inevitably. (Koçak, 2007). Between 1933 and 1938, with the Statism
practises, Five Years Development Plans were put into use. ( Boratav, 2007 ).
Again, as a continution of applying of this program, between 1938–43 Second Development Plan For
Five Years was applied. The basic feature of these plans is having proposed to carry the investments in such
sectors as industry, banking and transportation by goverment. In this period, business enterprises which would be
called as Public Economic Formations and as an abbreviation KIT (Public Economic Enterprise) started to
increase rapidly. Government increased its investments such industrial branches as weaving, mine, celluase,
ceramic and chemistry. From these branches, weaving industry in the construction of Sumerbank and mine
enterprises in the construction of Etibank were collected.
Conclusion
The civil financial institutions started to be established in 1934 carried out the duty of being locomotive
of economy until 1950s. With the death of Atatürk and Ismet Inonu’s being President, statism in economy was
applied strictly until 1946. Even, some private enterprise attempts had to be closed at this period. (Primiership
Republich Archive. 030.10-59.399.25). Transition into multi-partied era in 1946 and change of government with
1950 election caused return to liberal policies again.Parallel to these developments, KITs (Public Economic
Enterprise), founded under the name of industrialization lost its importance. (BCA, 030. 10-174.202.6) There
are so many reasons for KITs (Public Economic Enterprise) to lose their importance in industry. Some of them
are like those: administration, production, investment and financial issues. In time, these institutions were closed
as they could not renovate themselves or were left out of state’s industry production by privatizing.
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Pamuk, Ş.(1984). Osmanlı Ekonomisi ve Dünya Kapitalizmi., Ankara: Yurt Yayınları.
Yaşa, M. (1966). Đktisadi Meselelerimiz, Đstanbul:
Yerasimos,
Y.
Az
gelişmişlik
sürecinde
Türkiye,
432
Đstanbul:
C.II,
C.III,
Gözlem
Yayınlan.
�
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The Industrial Developments in Turkey during the Transition Period from Ottoman State to Republic
Author
Author
Seker, Kadir
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The guild system in Ottoman State maintain its vitality as an economic and social system until nineteenth century. The masters and apprentices who construct guild system lost their chances of economic entegration to the new system brought by Industrial Revolution which first started in England and then spread all over Europe. Although the Ottoman State had taken some actions to keep up with the industrial revolution in Europe, it couldn’t have industrialized in all fields. Ottoman State was eliminated by First World War and Independence War and then Turkish Republic took Ottoman State’s place. But the industry taken over from Ottoman State was almost next to nothing. In this respect, founder of new goverment Mustafa Kemal, gathered economic congress in Đzmir with the purpose with arranging industrial investments and economic developments just after Independence War. Because according to him, military victories which are unsupported by economical developments is not possible to be permanent. For this purpose, some radical precautions had been taken to develop the industrial just after the foundation of Republic. In this study, it is emphasized on the applications for developing the industry in the late period of Ottoman State and the industrial developments in the new state from the end of Indepence War to 1940s.
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2010-06
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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
The Infectıon of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (fouget, 1876) ın Some of the Aquarıum
Fıshes (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum gunther, 1867) ın Mersin.
¹C.Erkin Koyuncu
²Erol Tokşen
3 Serhat Taşkın
¹Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries, Mersin University,Turkey
²Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University,Turkey
3Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries, Mersin University,Turkey
E-mails: ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr, erol.tokşen@ege.edu.tr, staşkın@mersin.edu.tr
Abstract
This study were conducted in October 2008 in order to find out the reason of instant mortality
of Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum (Gunther, 1867) fishes in some of the aquarium facility in
Mersin. The fish parasitological point of view. Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Fouget, 1876) was
found responsible high mortality. The histopathology samples from the skin tissues of
infested fish were examined and hyperplasia of epithelial in the skin of the fish were markely
determined. Fish were succesfully treated with FMC bath (15 mg l־¹, 60minutes/2-3day).
After FMC applications the mortality stopped.
1.INTRODUCTION
Commonly known as “Ich”, the white spot disease (Ichthyophthiriasis), can infect almost all
freshwater fish (Ventura and Paperna, 1985). The disease is recognized as one of the most
pathogenic diseases of fish caused by eukaryote parasites resulting in significant economic
losses in the affected cultured fish species (Matthews, 1994). Causing infection in fish
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis Fouget, 1876 are included within the genus Hymenostomatida
family.
The parasite is commonly distributed, occurring in tropical, subtropical and temperate
regions, and extending north to the Arctic Circle (Matthews, 1994). The fish, which are
cultivated in the pools of the fish farms or in the aquariums, have high numbers of
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in their skin if the enviroment is stressful, the water criteia is not
appropriate and if they are given low quality feed. This situation can lead to high rates of
mortality (Riehl et al. 1996).
Observed in fish Ichthyophthirius multifiliis of general effects; parasites of fishes of the skin
tissue between the epithelial layer into that, and reached the basal membrane mucus
production by increasing irritation of the surface epithelium, mucous cells does not begin to
be, skin damage and the number of parasites depending on the breathing difficulties as have
been identified. Histopathologic examinations identified dropsy in lamella, hypertrophy in
epithelium cells, hyperplasia, dejeneration and necrocisis in line with the degree of irrritation
(Ferguson, 1989). Against the infection, formaldehyde (100-200 ppm/an hour), malachite
green (1.25-2.0 ppm/30minutes,5-10 days), methylene blue (2.0ppm/one day), acriflavin (10
ppm/3-10 days), Chloramin-T (2.5-20 mg l־¹), Trypaflavine(10 mg l־¹), Brillant green (0.1-0.2
ppm) have already been used by the researchers, and they have all proved to be effective.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
(Van As et al. 1984; Schperclaus, 1991; Egusa, 1992; Stoskoph, 1993; Hans et al. 2000;
Tokşen, 2000).
In the present study; the ectoparasite Ichthyophthirius multifiliis which has been observed in
cichlid (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum Gunther, 1867) and with symptoms that make up the skin
tissue that is intended to treat the disease and histopathological changes.
2.Materials and Methods:
The present study has been conducted in a fish farm located in Mersin/Turkey, which
cultivates aqarium fish in 2008. The study has been conducted in the cyclitis fish Cichlasoma
nigrofasciatum Gunther, 1867) to learn the reason of mortality as they have 50% mortality
rate (see Table 1).
Total body length (cm)
Number of fish (N)
Mean weight (gr) ± SE
3-4
2
1,09±0,15
4-5
19
3,06±0,17
5-6
20
3,95±0,35
6-7
16
6,68±1,63
7>
10
15,73±0,86
Table 1. Mean weight for height groups
Prozotoas, which live in fish as ectoparasites, leave the fish by the time the enviromental
conditions change in a short time. That’s why, fish has been observed in the farm.
As the first step, 67 cichlite fish’s skin, which are about to die, has been exarated so as to
make preparation. Secondly, gill lamels have been extracted carefully, and they have been
taken into petri dish which includes the surrounding water. These extracts are examined in
terms of parasite via using microscope. The criterias and the identification of the parasites
have been done according to Bykhoskaya-Pavlovskaya (1962), Bauer (1969), Nigrelli,(1976),
Kabata (1985)’s studies. The photographs and measurements of the permanent parasite
preparations have been done in Nikon (H550L) Phase Contrast Microscope.
The lamellas including parasite have been taken to the dishes which include 10 %
formaldehyde. The gills of the infected fish’s some sections has been taken
histopathologically, and they have been colored via the histological sections were
haematoxylin-eosin (H&E) were stained with. Histopathological examinations have been
done (Takashima et al., 1995).
In the volume of 30 liters of aquarium fish in ventilation for a period of 60 minutes can be
made 1 liter Formaldehyde (37%), 3.7 g Methylene Blue (methylene blue powder) 3.7 gr
Malachite Green (malachid green powder) was prepared from 2 ml of concentration by taking
bath application of FMC were. After application of the skin and gill preparations were
examined by preparing.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
3.Results
Business owner, fish pieces in the normal 3-6 at a time the death number rise to 20-50
numbers on the complaint of the diseases were determined. Ten days later, the average daily
death number has reached 100 numbers were seen contains the mortality rates.
The owner of the farm stated that the mortality number increased from 3 to 6, to 20-50
abruptly. Due to this fact, the disease has been identified. After 10 days, it has been observed
that the mortality rate has increased to 100 fish. The mortality rates can be seen in figure 1.
100
80
Mortality (number)
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Time(days)
Figure 1. The rate of mortality after the infestation Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
In the course of the days which have high mortality rate, the measurements have been
conducted, and the water temperature has been identified as 24-27.5°C on average. The
average absorption level of pH was 7-7.81, and the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, the
average 4,4-4,8 mg / l was determined as..
In the examination done in the farm, these things have been observed in the infestated fish; ,
swimming closer to the floor and borders of the pool, putting their gills closer to their body,
swimming faster than they usually, and even splashing to the surface of the water. It has been
identified that some fish has been gathered around the entrance of water, and they have been
also observed to open and close their gills in a rapid way. In many fish, many red and gray
spots have been observed in skin, fin and gills even with bare eye.
Prescription preparation which has been prepared from the spots’ place, there has been
observed macronucleus trofont in the shape of horseshoe, and tomit in the shape oval and
pear have been observed. Mature fish have been measured as 0.8-1.mm, and tomitler have
been measured as 30-50 µm. (Figure 2). The number of parasites in a view range (X100)
have been counted as more than 10. (Figure.2). When the preparations of the surface that
include many parasites have been examined in the microsope, it has been identified that there
has been a significant increase in mucus cells. In the feeding done daily, the infected fish has
been observed not to take the feed, and they have seemed to be weaker than other fish. The
parasite has been observed to increase its number by splitting up. The parasite has been
observed to multiply by dividing.
When the preparations of the surface that include many parasites have been examined in the
microsope, it has been identified that there has been a significant increase in mucus cells. In
97
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
the feeding done daily, the infected fish has been observed not to take the feed, and they have
seemed to be weaker than other fish. The parasite has been observed to increase its number by
splitting up. The parasite has been observed to multiply by dividing.
Figure 2. The show are Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in dorsal view
In the histopathologic examinations, it has been observed that mature parasites have entered
between epitel layer, and reached to basal membrane. The cells between parasite basal
membrane have been observed to be necrotik and hydropic. They have also become
vacuolization. Due to the tissue reaction, it has been observed that there has been an increase
in epithelial hyperplasia ve mucus cells (Figure 4).
Throughout two days, (pH:7, 25°C) 2ml FMC concentration has been applied, and it has been
bathed for 60 minutes to treat the disease. Also, throughout the treatment, tanks have been
ventilated. The fish haven’t been given feed prior to the treatment day. Moreover, during the
application, the toxic due to the medicine has not been observed. After the application, the
preparations have been observed via microscope, and there has not been observed any
parasite.
4. Discussion and Conclusion
In this research, a common aquarium fish business in the cause of death was determineted
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis.
Under adverse environmental conditions Ichthyophthirius multifiliis infections grown in
intensity and weak fish in fish appear to be rising too much (Kabata 1985). This study also
grown in unsuitable conditions infectıon was seen in fish.
Keeping the high water quality, feed residues and cleaning of the pool is very important in the
control of the parasite (Oğut et al 2005). We should use appropriate feeding for fishes,
instantly wipe out the wasted food from the bottom. Moreover, water circulation should be
conducted in a good way and we should use ventilate enough. The most important rule is that
inlet water must be filtered definitely (Woo,1995). At the month which the parasites appeared,
we have observed that the water has not been ventilated enough, and the farm hasn’t got filtler
system.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
At the patterns of under one age of carp, in x100 zoom in, Schaperclaus (1991)
suggests that when you see 5-10 parasites at one eyesight, you should treat. In this research,
we have taken some samples from the skin and gills of juvenils of cihklit. We have found 1060
parasites
on
an
average.
Ventura and paperna (1985) once in the host of the parasite is located in the epithelial
layer is reported. Epithelial cell layer of the timing of parasite development had increased in
number and development period, such as a capsule covering the parasites are indicated.
Tokşen (2000) reported that in raınbow trout fish experimentally infected with I.multifiliis,
an increase in the number of cells, mucus with hyperplasia is reported. In this study prepared
under the late histopatholojik sections trofont epidermis and dermis was determined that the
best accommodation. Epithelial cell hyperplasia in the region of interference settlement have
been identified.
As for this research, in the district of Mersin/Turkey, FMC has been applied for 60 minutes
bathing throughout two days, and it has proved to be effective for parasite. Via this research,
the ectoparasite which causes sudden mortality in Chiklit ICH has been identified. Moreover,
the clinical symptoms and its effects on gill tissues have been identified histopathologically.
As a result, the fish has been treated with FMC 2 ml concentration for 60 minutes.
REFERENCES
Bauer ON (1969) Key to the Parasites of Freshwater Fauna of The USSR, Vol.1, Leningrad,
Vol 1, 428.
Bykhovskaya-Pavlovskaya IE, Gusev AV, Dubinina MN, Izyumova NA, Smirova TS.
Sokolovskaya IL, Shtein GA, Shulman SS. & Epshtein VH (1962) Key To Parasites
Freshwater Fishes of the USSR. Izdatel’stvo Akademi Nauk S.S.S.R., Moskova, Leningrad:
1-919.
Egusa S (1992) Infectıons Diseases of Fish A.A Balkema/Rotterdam, Bookfield, 696.
Ferguson HW 1989 Systemik Pathology of Fish. Iowa State University Press, USA, 1260 .
Kabata Z (1985) Parasites and Diseases of fish cultured in the Tropics. Taylor & Francis
(Eds.), London: 1-318.
Kinne O (1984) Diseases of marine animals. Vol. IV, Part I, Introductions, Pisces. Hamburg.
Biologische Anstalt Helgoland, 114-179.
Matthews RA (1994) Ichthyophthirius multifiliis Fouquet, 1876: Infection and protective
response within the fish host. In (Pike AW & Lewis JW Eds.), pp.17-42. Parasitic Disease of
Fish. Samara Publishing, Tresaith, UK.
Nigrelli RF, Pokorny KS, Ruggieri GD (1976) Notes on Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, a ciliate
parasitic on freshwater fishes, with some remarks on possiblephysiological races and species.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 95: 607-613.
Ogut H, Akyol A, Alkan MZ (2005) Seasonality of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in the Trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) Farms of the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey Turkish Journal of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 5: 23-27
Ribelin EW& Migaki G (1975) The Patology of Fishes. The University of Wiscosin
Press, USA, 117-143.
99
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Riehl R, Baensch H.A (1996) Aquarium Atlas, Publishers of Natural History and Pet Books,
Germany, 1-991.
Schaperclaus W (1991) Fish Diseases Volume 2 A.A Balkema/Rotterdam, 1397.
Stoskoph MK (1993) Fish Medicine, W.B. Saunders company, PA, USA, 882.
Takashıma F & Hıbıya T (1995) An Atlas of Fish Histology Normal and Patholological
Features. Second Edition, Kodansa Ltd., Tokyo, 195.
Tokşen E (2000) Ege Bölgesinde Bir Alabalık (Onchorhynchus mykiss) İşletmesinde
Görülen Ichthyophthirius multifiliis Fouget, 1876 Enfeksiyonu ve Tedavisi, Bornova Vet.
Kont. Araşt. Enst. Dergisi, 25 (39) 59-64.
Ventura MT& Paperna I (1985) Histopathology of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis infections in
fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 27, 185-203.
Woo PTK (1995) Fish Diseases and Disorders.CAB International. 200-202.
Researches on Protection, Propagation and Sustainable Usage of Native Bulbous Plants
of Turkey
Özgül Karagüzel1, İbrahim Baktır2, Deniz Hazar3, Gülden Yılmaz2
1 Western Mediterranean Research Institute, Antalya
2Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Antalya
3Akdeniz University, Kumluca Vocational School, Antalya
E-mail: tezkara@yahoo.com
Abstract
Over 1000 flowering bulbous plants are naturally grown in Turkey. Flowering bulbs
exportation has been in effect for years from Turkey. In recent years, exportation has been
under strict control, it has been realized according to yearly given quota by The Ministry of
Food, Agriculture and Livestocks. Even though the present regulations and status, negligable
amount of illegal wild collections are still going on. A number of researches has been
conduted to prevent illegal collections and meantime to encourage artificial propagations and
sustainable uses. These projects are mainly financed by the concern ministries, research
institutes and universities. A good scale of geophyte exibition garden has been establised in
Yalova Provience to take the interest of people and administrative staff. The present research
projects are mainly concentrated on some well known flowering species such as tulips,
hyacinthus, crocus, stenbergia, iris, fritillaria, snowdrop, lilies so on.
Keywords: Geophytes, sustainability, researches
100
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The Infectıon of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (fouget, 1876) ın Some of the Aquarıum Fıshes (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum gunther, 1867) ın Mersin
Author
Author
C.Erkin , Koyuncu
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study were conducted in October 2008 in order to find out the reason of instant mortality of Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum (Gunther, 1867) fishes in some of the aquarium facility in Mersin. The fish parasitological point of view. Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Fouget, 1876) was found responsible high mortality. The histopathology samples from the skin tissues of infested fish were examined and hyperplasia of epithelial in the skin of the fish were markely determined. Fish were succesfully treated with FMC bath (15 mg l־¹, 60minutes/2-3day). After FMC applications the mortality stopped.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cb590dd30330c3b79bf8afef2497efd7.docx
a192e22483e9466fb9fb920a67a14434
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d449b82250e6fab944bdf38e3921aab8.pdf
84497ca52bd41c94ce14a470a70fb64d
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Text
The Influence of Family Tradition and Gender Differences on
Entrepreneurial Intentions: Perception of Business Students at Public
University in Turkey
Göknur Ersarı
Atatürk University
Turkey
goknur_3686@hotmail.com
Ömer Faruk İşcan
Atatürk University
Turkey
oiscan@atauni.edu.tr
Atılhan Naktiyok
Atatürk University
Turkey
anakti@atauni.edu.tr
Abstract: It seems possible to increase the development levels of societies through increasing the
number of entrepreneurs. It is important to determine the entrepreneurship intentions of
university students and to encourage them towards entrepreneurship to increase the number of
entrepreneurs. Based on its importance the aim of this study is to determine the influence of
family tradition and gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions of university students in
Turkey. To achieve that a survey has been performed to the students at the faculty of and
administrative sciences in Public Universities in Turkey and their entrepreneurship intention has
been comparatively determined. The obtained data will be analyzed using SPSS Version20.
Keywords: Entrepreneur, Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial Intentions.
160
�160
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The Influence of Family Tradition and Gender Differences on Entrepreneurial Intentions: Perception of Business Students at Public University in Turkey
Author
Author
ERSARI, Goknur
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
It seems possible to increase the development levels of societies through increasing the number of entrepreneurs. It is important to determine the entrepreneurship intentions of university students and to encourage them towards entrepreneurship to increase the number of entrepreneurs. Based on its importance the aim of this study is to determine the influence of family tradition and gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Turkey. To achieve that a survey has been performed to the students at the faculty of and administrative sciences in Public Universities in Turkey and their entrepreneurship intention has been comparatively determined. The obtained data will be analyzed using SPSS Version20. Keywords: Entrepreneur, Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial Intentions.
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2014-04
Keywords
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Article
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ISSN 2303-4564
H Social Sciences (General)
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2e9ca0d5c533312a58a49a193abb2bfe
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Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 1 (2), pp. 53-64, Winter 2018
Original research paper
ISSN 2566-4638
© International Burch University
http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/jeh2018123
The influence of Grade point Average and
Socioeconomic Status on Learning Strategies
Haris Delić, MA
Senad Bećirović, PhD
Faculty of Education and Humanities, International Burch University
Francuske revolucije bb, Ilidža 71210, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
harisdelic91@gmail.com
senad.becirovic@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: A variety of different factors seem to have an influence on
both second language learning difficulties as well as learning
strategies. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of
different socio-economic status and grade point average on learning
strategies and learning difficulties in second language acquisition
(SLA) process. A 5-point Likert scale questionnaire was used to
gather data, i.e. a survey method was applied. The research sample
included 206 high school participants. The results showed that a
socioeconomic status did not have a significant influence on the
students’ second language acquisition difficulties. However, the
students’ grade point average significantly affected second language
acquisition difficulties and also language learning strategies. The
results of this study may help instructors to tailor instructions and
content to students’ needs and their preferable styles of learning.
Taking into consideration students’ learning difficulties and
learning strategies in designing and implementing classes may
significantly improve teaching and learning outcomes.
Keywords: learning
strategies, learning
difficulties, socio-economic
status, GPA level, second
language acquisition.
Article History
Submitted: 1 December 2018
Accepted: 15 January 2019
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018
1. INTRODUCTION
Many factors make English language instruction in a foreign language context
such as the one in Bosnia and Herzegovina largely important. As the country
strives to become a part of international bodies and an equal member in the
international community, the significance of the mastery of the English language
is increasingly emphasized (Bećirović, 2017). As Wu (2001) points out, the
English knowledge has become highly important worldwide since it plays an
important role in all fields of modern life, starting from business or science to
communication between members of different cultures. With the growing
number of educational institutions in the country that are oriented towards
international education, it becomes natural that learners in Bosnia and
Herzegovina are expected to reach an advanced level of proficiency in the
English language by the time they finish their high schools. Thus, there is a need
to investigate all possible factors influencing the process of reaching higher levels
of proficiency, including socioeconomic status, learning strategies and average
grade.
Ariani and Ghafournia (2016) suggest that in the process of language
acquisition a socio economic status plays one of the major roles. However, the
literature on the relationship between socioeconomic status and language
learning does not include many empirical studies. On the other hand, there are
numerous research papers that deal with the relationship between
socioeconomic status and motivation for language learning presenting a bridge
to the language learning process. Khansir et.al. (2016) investigated to what extent
a higher socioeconomic status can influence motivation for language learning.
After investigating 10 year old students they realized that “when parents were at
the high level of the economical status, participants could have better situation
in dealing with English learning“ (2016, p. 749) mainly because students could be
more reinforced by their parents’ financial support and the level of language
success is increased as the family’s economical level is increased. In almost
similar investigation conducted in Chile, Kormos and Kiddle (2013) found that
“social class has an overall medium-size effect on motivational factors“ (2013, p.
400).
Next, language learning strategies, i.e. tactics making a new cognitive
demanding linguistic system simpler (Selinker, 1972), appear to be one of the
psycholinguistic processes that shape interlanguage system. Likewise, Abhakorn
(2008) deals with the learners’ strategies, also known as a cognitive model of
learning, as one of the possible factors in the L2 acquisition process. Learning
presents an active, ongoing, and dynamic process in which a learner “shapes”
the information that he/she receives, connects it with the previous ones, retains
the parts he/she thinks are important and uses it for further learning. Strategic
knowledge refers to the information about what strategies are likely to be
effective in achieving the learning goal (Flavell, 1979, p. 909). In other words,
54
�The influence of Grade point Average and Socioeconomic Status on Learning Strategies
Haris Delić & Senad Bećirović
strategic knowledge is general knowledge about the nature and utility of
strategies (Wenden, 1987, p. 580). More precisely, it includes information about
the strategies as such, why they are useful and specific knowledge about when
and how to use them. The implications in learning English as a second language
that may negatively influence students’ achievement are situations when the
teaching methods used do not match students’ preferred learning styles, or the
teaching content does not match students’ levels.
Following, GPA (Grade Point Average) is a very important factor in the
process of language acquisition. Merriam-Webster dictionary defines GPA as
“the average obtained by dividing the total number of grade points earned by
the total number of credits attempted“ (Merriam-Webster.com, 2017). The
relationship between GPA and other factors such as gender, age, and language
proficiency has been investigated by Pan (2005). She explored the relationship
between these factors and found a significant correlation between GPA and other
three factors (2005, p. 109-121). She also investigated the connection between
GPA and language learning strategies. The results in her study showed that “the
higher the proficiency level, the greater the variety of learning strategies used“
(Pan, 2005, p. 120).
The purpose of this study is to investigate how GPA and socioeconomic status
influence second language learning difficulties and strategies among high school
students. In order to investigate the impact of these factors the study employed
quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. The identification of those
factors and relationships enables easier understanding of the situations and steps
that need to be taken into consideration in order to create a better SLA
environment and improve the existing one.
2. THE PRESENT STUDY
Based on the aforementioned aim, the following research questions guided the
study:
RQ 1 Is there any statistically significant difference in second language
acquisition difficulties based on the students’ socio-economic status?
RQ 2 Is there any statistically significant difference in second language
acquisition difficulties based on the students’ GPA?
RQ 3 Is there any statistically significant difference in language learning
strategies based on the students’ GPA?
The following null hypotheses were tested:
H01 There is no statistically significant difference in second language acquisition
difficulties between the students with different socio-economic status,
55
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018
H02 There is no statistically significant difference in second language acquisition
difficulties between the students with different GPA and
H03 There is no statistically significant difference in language learning strategies
based on the students’ GPA.
2.1.
PARTICIPANTS
The research sample consisted of 206 high school student. The participants were
selected from all four high school grades. The research sample includes 125 males
(60.7 %) and 81 females (39.3%). All participants were from Bosnia and
Herzegovina. A detailed summary of the sample according to socio-economic
status and GPA level is presented in the table below.
Table 1 Descriptive analysis of the participants
N
Percentage
Socio-economic status
GPA groups
2.2.
Low
Middle
High
2.5-2.9
3.0-3.4
3.5-3.9
4.0-4.4
4.5-5.0
15
124
67
10
10
31
39
116
1.5
61.7
36.9
4.9
4.9
15.0
18.9
56.3
INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURE
The instrument used for data collection was built on Rebecca Oxford’s Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (Oxford, 1990) and Dörnyei's Motivation
questionnaire (You & Dörnyei, 2016). The parts from the aforementioned
instruments were utilized and adapted for this research. The questionnaire
consisted of 40 statements and a 5-point Likert scale was used. The students could
choose one out of five statements (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and
strongly disagree). The questionnaire is composed of the following subscales:
second language impact on mother tongue (α = 0.51), motivation difficulties for
acquiring second language (α = 0.50), negative impact of school environment and
atmosphere (α = 0.97), target language difficulties (α = 0.86), passive learning
strategies (α = 0.64), individual strategies (α = 0.65), and language skills strategies
(α = 0.50). The questionnaire containing 40 items was distributed to the high
school students in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and they needed around
20 minutes to fill it out.
56
�The influence of Grade point Average and Socioeconomic Status on Learning Strategies
Haris Delić & Senad Bećirović
In order to minimize the possibility of false responses the students were
informed that the questionnaire was completely anonymous and would not have
any effect on their grades or school status. They were also told that the results
would be used just for the purpose of this study.
2.3.
DATA ANALYSIS
The collected data were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS, v. 23). Following the guidelines for the questionnaire analysis, frequencies
and means were computed to ascertain the types and frequencies of the
implications and language learning strategies expressed by the participants.
Firstly, descriptive analysis including mean, standard deviation (SD) and
frequencies was employed. A one way ANOVA was used to show the differences
between the study groups.
3. RESULTS
The first research question focused on the differences of second language
acquisition difficulties between three different levels of socioeconomic status,
namely low, medium, and high.
Table 2 Descriptive statistics of differences based on socio-economic status
Socio-economic status
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Low
15
3.42
.56
Middle
124
3.25
.47
High
67
3.27
.49
Total
206
3.27
.48
A one-way ANOVA between subjects was conducted to compare second
language acquisition difficulties among students with different socio-economic
status. The results showed that there was an insignificant difference F (2.203)
= 1.18, p = .450, η2 = .008. The group of students of low socio-economic status had
the highest mean (M = 3.42, SD = 0.14) and the lowest mean was achieved by the
group of middle socioeconomic status (M = 3.27, SD = 0.47) Therefore, the results
showed that the students’ socio-economic status did not have a significant effect
on second language acquisition difficulties and the first null hypothesis was
supported. However, a one-way ANOVA between subjects showed that socioeconomic status had a significant influence on the difficulties in terms of second
language impact on mother tongue F (2.203) = 3.86, p = .023, η2 = .037, and on
motivation difficulties for acquiring second language F (2.203) = 4.84, p = .009, η2
= .046, and did not significantly affect the school environment and atmosphere
F (2.203) = 0.556, p = .574, η2 = .005 and target language difficulties F (2.203)
= 0.522, p = .594, η2 = .005.
57
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018
The second research question referred to the differences in second language
acquisition difficulties among five different GPA groups of students.
Table 3 Descriptive statistics of differences based on GPA
GPA
N
Mean
Std. deviation
4.5-5
4-4.5
3.5-4
3-3.5
2.5-3
Total
116
39
31
10
10
206
3.42
3.11
3.10
2.98
3.05
3.27
.48
.41
.51
.21
.37
.48
A one-way between subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare second
language acquisition difficulties among students with different GPA levels.
There was a significant difference at p < .05 between the students of different
GPA levels F (4.20) = 6.65, p < .001, η2 = .117. The students with the highest GPA
(4.5-5.0) reported the most difficulties M = 3.42 (SD = 0.48), while students with
GPA 3.0-3.5 reported the least difficulties M = 2.98 (SD = 0.21). Thus, GPA proved
to have a significant impact on second language acquisition difficulties and the
second null hypothesis was refuted. Post hoc Tukey HSD (Table 4) showed that
the GPA group 4.5-5.0 was statistically significantly different from all other GPA
groups except the group 2.5-3.0. The differences between the 2.5-3.0 group and
all other groups were insignificant.
(I)
GPA
4.5-5
4-4.5
3.5-4
58
Table 4 Analysis of variances between different GPA scores
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: Overall Implications
Tukey HSD
(J) GPA
Mean
Std.
Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
Differenc
Error
Lower
Upper
e (I-J)
Bound
Bound
4.0-4.5
.30*
.08
.00
.07
.54
3.5-4.0
.31*
.09
.00
.06
.57
*
3.0-3.5
.43
.15
.04
.01
.84
2.5-3.0
.36
.15
.12
-.05
.78
4.5-5.0
-.30*
.08
.00
-.54
-.07
3.5-4.0
.01
.11
1.00
-.29
.31
3-3.5.0
.12
.16
.94
-.32
.57
2.5-3.0
.05
.16
.99
-.39
.50
4.5-5.0
-.31*
.09
.00
-.57
-.06
4.0-4.5
-.01
.11
1.00
-.31
.29
3.0-3.5
.11
.16
.96
-.34
.57
�The influence of Grade point Average and Socioeconomic Status on Learning Strategies
Haris Delić & Senad Bećirović
3-3.5
2.5-3
2.5-3.0
.04
.16
.99
-.41
4.5-5.0
-.43*
.15
.04
-.84
4.0-4.5
-.12
.16
.94
-.57
3.5-4.0
-.11
.16
.96
-.57
2.5-3.0
-.06
.20
.99
-.63
4.5-5.0
-.36
.15
.12
-.78
4-4.5.0
-.05
.16
.99
-.50
3.5-4.0
-.04
.16
.99
-.50
3.0-3.5
.06
.20
.99
-.50
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
.50
-.01
.32
.34
.50
.05
.39
.41
.63
As for the subscales of second language difficulties, GPA had a significant
influence only on target language difficulties p < .001, η2 = .139 and did not have
a significant influence on second language impact on mother tongue p = .147, η2
= .033, on motivation difficulties for acquiring second language p = .124, η2 = .035,
school environment and atmosphere p = .413, η2 = .019.
The third research question was related to the differences in language
learning strategies between five different GPA groups. In order to answer this
question, a one-way between subjects ANOVA was conducted. The results
showed that in terms of overall usage of language learning strategies there was a
significant difference F (4.201) = 2.87, p < .024, η2 = .054. The group of students
with GPA 4.0-4.5 reported the highest mean M = 2.73 (SD = 0.37), while students
with GPA 4.5-5.0 reported the lowest mean M = 2.51 (SD = 0.41). GPA also had a
significant influence on passive learning strategy F (4.201) = 2.76, p = .029, η2 =
.052. where the group 4.0-4.5 reported the highest mean M = 2.63 (SD = 0.68), and
the group 4.5-5.0 reported the lowest mean M = 2.24 (SD = 0.73). GPA did not
have a significant influence on individual learning strategies and on the language
skills strategies. Regarding the subscale of individual learning strategies the
highest mean was again reported by the group with GPA 4.0-4.5 M = 3.13 (SD =
0.74), and the lowest by the group with GPA 2.5-3.0 M = 2.73 (SD = 0.43). As for
the language skills strategies the group with GPA 2.5-3.0 reported the highest
mean M = 2.77 (SD = 0.51), while the lowest mean was reported by the group
with GPA 4.5-5.0 M = 2.35 (SD = 0.59).
Table 5 Descriptive results of learning strategies
Report
GPA groups
Overall Lang.
Passive
Individual
learning
learning
Strategies
strategies
strategies
4.5-5
4-4.5
Mean
Std. Dev.
Mean
2.51
0.41
2.73
2.24
0.73
2.63
3.06
0.64
3.13
Language
Skills
Strategies
2.35
0.59
2.55
59
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018
3.5-4
3-3.5
2.5-3
Total
Std. Dev.
Mean
Std. Dev.
Mean
Std. Dev.
Mean
Std. Dev.
Mean
Std. Dev.
0.37
2.62
0.33
2.70
0.42
2.67
0.33
2.58
0.39
0.68
2.44
0.58
2.60
0.64
2.54
0.63
2.38
0.71
0.74
2.97
0.85
3.03
0.65
2.73
0.43
3.04
0.69
0.60
2.55
0.46
2.50
0.86
2.77
0.51
2.44
0.60
4. CONCLUSION
We anticipated that there is no statistically significant difference in L2 difficulties
between students belonging to three major socio-economic groups, or that this
socio-economic status does not affect the language acquisition process. The
results showed that this hypothesis was supported. There can be a number of
reasons for such results, but we believe that they might be mainly attributed to
the fact that the most participants study at a private school with strict procedures
regarding paying and students are forced and inspired by their families or tutors
to struggle and force for the success regardless of their socio-economic status.
Moreover, the school administration struggles to treat all students equally which
is more probably recognized by the students. These results are even more
indicative when we compare them with our previous research on related topic.
Delić, Bećirović and Brdarević-Čeljo (2018) investigated gender differences in
second language acquisition difficulties and found out significant differences.
This is without doubt interesting for this research mainly because Bosnian
cultural identity, according to Bećirović (2012), is not gender-biased, and, on the
other hand, socio-economic status is an extremely important variable in this
community in general (Foco, 2002).
By the second null hypothesis we supposed that there was no statistically
significant difference in second language acquisition difficulties between
students with different GPA scores. We were interested in the students’ gradepoint average (GPA) because we believe GPA is important for many reasons.
GPA shows how hard-working a student is, how much he or she knows, and
what his or her strengths and weaknesses are. Students may find that improving
their study skills can have a positive effect on their overall academic
performance. The findings indicated the existence of a significant difference
based on GPA groups and the null hypothesis was rejected. The research of
Rizvić and Bećirović (2017) also showed that GPA had a significant influence on
willingness to communicate in English as a foreign language in the BosnianHerzegovinian EFL context. Besides the refutation of the null hypothesis, we
were also surprised by the group that had the highest mean. Among five different
groups based on GPA the highest mean had the group 4.5-5.0, that is the students
60
�The influence of Grade point Average and Socioeconomic Status on Learning Strategies
Haris Delić & Senad Bećirović
with best grades and achievements. Here we also anticipated that lower
achievement groups would have the highest mean but that was not the case. The
results showed that the group with the lowest mean is the GPA group 3.0-3.5
group. What is indicative here is that the students from the group that had the
highest mean, i.e. the group 4.5-5.0, comprised more than half of the total number
of sampled students, exactly 56.8 %. This means that more than half of the
students had some implications in terms of some of the categories that had been
examined.
By the third hypothesis we predicted that there was no statistically
significant difference in language learning strategies based on the students’ GPA.
According to the results, GPA had a significant influence on learning strategies.
However, Bećirović, Brdarević-Čeljo and Dubravac (2018) found that GPA had
an insignificant influence on reading strategies and Bećirović, Brdarević-Čeljo,
and Sinanović (2017) found that grade level and gender had a significant
influence on metacognitive reading strategies. The research conducted by middle
school participants showed that grade level and social context had a significant
effect on learning strategies while gender did not (Brdarević-Čeljo & Asotić,
2017).
Many researchers suggest that educators need to take into consideration
the needs and background of each learner in order to be able to employ
methodologies that guide students in using strategies which enhance their L2
learning process (Montano, 2017). Learning strategies are not always feasible to
promote L2 proficiency in advance students; these can be rather used by students
with a lower level of language proficiency (Oxford, 2003). As we discussed in the
review of literature, and as the definitions of individual strategies state, each
students adopt and create his/her specific way of learning. In the case of this
research we did not have any significant correlations between individual
strategies. There can be a possibility that our sample students did not actually
have much differentiated strategies or that, due to experience of having much
time spent together, they adopted similar learning strategies which did not differ
significantly. Each student has a certain degree in which he or she organizes and
follows his own way of learning. As presented in Table 5 individual strategies
had the highest mean (M = 3.04) which indicates that those strategies that each
individual adopts for him/herself are mainly used to overcome implications in
learning.
It is helpful for each individual to reveal which strategies work best for
them so the teacher or the facilitator can organize a lesson with the most
dominant strategies. There are supported arguments that some strategies work
better than others for learners but there can always be exceptions that teachers
need to be aware of. To do this all must be included, that is students, teachers,
and educational institutions. Educators should explain useful learning strategies
to students, raise their awareness of the importance of effective strategy usage,
61
�Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018
and what is the most important, the purpose of an appropriate strategy for them.
What can also be implemented is that teachers first identify already used
strategies and those that can be added then try to incorporate them in the learning
process later. In that was, a learner with strategy-adopted way of learning would
become an autonomous and independent learner.
Lecturers should emphasize skills such as analyzing and evaluating
content, using typographical features, summarizing text and using reference
materials. Typically, lecturers should analyze the strategies they teach, and find
out in which contexts these strategies should be applied. They should also
provide students with opportunities to practice these strategies. According to
Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002), teachers and mentors can use a combination of
direct and indirect strategy training.
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The influence of Grade point Average and Socioeconomic Status on Learning Strategies
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Abstract: A variety of different factors seem to have an influence on both second language learning difficulties as well as learning strategies. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of different socio-economic status and grade point average on learning strategies and learning difficulties in second language acquisition (SLA) process. A 5-point Likert scale questionnaire was used to gather data, i.e. a survey method was applied. The research sample included 206 high school participants. The results showed that a socioeconomic status did not have a significant influence on the students’ second language acquisition difficulties. However, the students’ grade point average significantly affected second language acquisition difficulties and also language learning strategies. The results of this study may help instructors to tailor instructions and content to students’ needs and their preferable styles of learning. Taking into consideration students’ learning difficulties and learning strategies in designing and implementing classes may significantly improve teaching and learning outcomes.
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Haris Delić
Senad Bećirović
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Journal of Education and Humanities
Volume 1 (2)
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International Burch University
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Winter 2018
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ISSN 2566-4638
DOI 10.14706/JEH2018123
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Keywords: learning strategies, learning difficulties, socio-economic status, GPA level, second language acquisition.
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International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
The Influence of Local Governments over the
Transformation in Inspection Understanding of Turkey
on Tutorship Inspection
Feyzullah Ünal
Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, Turkey
funal@dumlupinar.edu.tr
Selami Erdoğan
Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, Turkey
erdogans274@mynet.com
The expansion in the functions and activities of public administration in last
years led to the administration more systematic and convenient with the
scientific rules. However, the expansion and frequency for the functions
and activities of the administration brought about inertia in bureaucracy,
red taping and corruption and the complaints of the governed about the
activities of the administration. All these developments led to invent,
develop and use the contemporary inspection methods and techniques.
Local governments are the governmental administrative units which are
investable and complementary parameters of the public administration
together with the central government in almost all countries. During the
historical progress, the local governments has been transformed into the
essential institutions in executing the local services by providing the
productivity and effectiveness and enhancing the democratic possibilities.
Local governments are the closer and at the lower level administrative
bodies. The power and the functionality of local administration is directly
relevant with the level democracy in any given society. In analysing the
legal and structural transformation of public administrative inspection in
last years of Turkey, it can be seen that the important problems are still
remaining under the inspection of administration for the tutorship. In this
presentation, the influence of the transformation emerged in the
understanding of inspection in the public administration over the tutorship
inspection of local administration has been elaborated and offered some
new solutions for the problems which may arise during this process.
Keywords: Public Administration, Local Administration, Inspection,
Tutorship Inspection, Local Autonomy.
122
�
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/837e2f19997a945fa0e6012e4386a281.docx
5f045942c8ce36b8399e3657e607fb6f
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e3e259acd850185d41ea1163c5db700.pdf
6dec10440d79766924f60320ccfa2040
PDF Text
Text
International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
The Influence of Local Governments over the Transformation in Inspection
Understanding of Turkey on Tutorship Inspection
Feyzullah Unal
Dumlupinar University, Kutahya, Turkey
funal@dumlupinar.edu.tr
Selami Erdoğan
Dumlupinar University, Kutahya, Turkey
erdogans274@mynet.com
Abstract
The expansion in the functions and activities of public administration in last years
led to the administration more systematic and convenient with the scientific rules.
However, the expansion and frequency for the functions and activities of the
administration brought about inertia in bureaucracy, red taping and corruption and
the complaints of the governed about the activities of the administration. All these
developments led to invent, develop and use the contemporary inspection methods
and techniques. Local governments are the governmental administrative units
which are investable and complementary parameters of the public administration
together with the central government in almost all countries. During the historical
progress, the local governments has been transformed into the essential institutions
in executing the local services by providing the productivity and effectiveness and
enhancing the democratic possibilities. Local governments are the closer and at the
lower level administrative bodies. The power and the functionality of local
administration is directly relevant with the level democracy in any given society. In
analyzing the legal and structural transformation of public administrative inspection
in last years of Turkey, it can be seen that the important problems are still
remaining under the inspection of administration for the tutorship. In this
presentation, the influence of the transformation emerged in the understanding of
inspection in the public administration over the tutorship inspection of local
administration has been elaborated and offered some new solutions for the problems
which may arise during this process.
Keywords: Public administration, local administration, inspection, tutorship
inspection, local autonomy
Introduction
In the discipline of public administration, the changing process has been initiated in 1980s
and prolonged until now has influenced deeply the understanding of public administration
in Turkey as various countries and led to the legal and structural transformation. The most
important step in this changing the novelties suffered the control mechanisms and its
implementations. The old fashioned inspection in classical public administration contains
the punishment of the personal who committed the mistake was replaced by the
understanding of inspection consist of preventive approach to take precaution before
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�International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
creating the mistakes and faults and depending upon the guidance function for employees
and result and process-based parameters.
Local governments as the main parameter of the public administration are governing
bodies which has the separate entity and autonomy as well as public entity. Central
government attempts to control and take under provision the local governments in order to
prevent the abasement of the authorities given by the central government contrary to the
legal rules and the common interests, unity and the integration of the state and create the
harmony and coordination in the state services.
Local governments are bound to be supervised by the central government because it is the
direct representative of the central government. Nevertheless, overcontrol and excessive
surveillance of the local governments may lead to prevent the development of the potential
governance capacity of the local governments. However, the guardianship inspection of the
central government over the local governments can be hampered by the convenient balance
between the local autonomy and benefits expected from the inspection.
The regulations concerned with the guardianship inspection over the local governments put
in an appearance in Constitution and the laws. The extents, aims and the constrains of the
guardianship inspection should not be directed into the propriety control because of the
ambiguity of the legal framework. However, the guardianship inspection of local
governments may give harm their local autonomies. For this reason, this surveillance
should be in minimum level and in accordance with the legal framework. In this
presentation, the influence of the transformation within the understanding of the control
over the guardianship inspection of the local authorities and how this transformation led to
some legal and structural changings and existing problems and their ways of solution
concerned with this transformation will be subjected into the detailed analysis.
Transformational Analysis of the Inspection Understanding in Turkey
New public administration understanding emerged as a reaction and alternative of
traditional and classical approach turned into the paradigm which is prevalent,
transforming, directing and interpreting the changings in the activities, structure of the
economic and executive system in 1980s (Bilgiç, 2003:36). This paradigm transformation
in the discipline of the public administration since 1980s became effective in Turkey and
implemented into the legal regulations in 2000s. This transformation suffered in the scope
of the public administration reflected into the inspection mechanism with the peculiarities
of focusing on the factual trues and convenience with the legal regulations, adequacy on
the new requirement and conditions and referring the contemporary inspection techniques
and mechanisms.
In this context, Public Fiscal Management and Inspection Code with 5018 number entered
into force in 2003 separates the inspection as the internal and external control. In
accordance with this Code, the internal control can be operated by the internal auditor and
internal control has been defined as the guidance, independent and objective security
building activities as well as inspecting the public administration to be governed in
accordance with the principles of efficiency, effectiveness and productivity (Article 63).
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�International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
The external control is the providence of the supreme court of public accounts after
spending the expenditure and its aim is the elaboration of the fiscal activities, decisions and
transactions of the government within the framework of political accountability of the
public administrations in accordance with the targets and plans determined bu the legal
regulations (Art 68).
The aim of inspection in the local government codes (Provincial Special Administration
and Municipalities) is to help the presentation of the mistakes in the activities and
transactions of the local governments and provide the improvement of the employees and
organizations and ultimately make the government and control system more reliable
coherent. In accordance with these targets, other aims of the inspection for the local
governments are to analyze the services which have been realized impartially and within
the framework of performance criteria and quality standards and to report the obtained
results for the concerned people (Provincial Special Administration and Municipalities
Codes Art. 37 and Obligation Law Art. 54). One thing to bear in mind here is to
overemphasizing the guidance function of the inspection and to focus on the human-based
understanding of the control mechanism.
The Aim, Extent and Constrain of the Guardianship Inspection
Guardianship inspection is the inspection of the local governments by the other
governmental institutions excluding the local authorities within the limits of the rules and
laws (Gözübüyük 1976: 158). Guardianship inspection is realized by the executive body,
institution and office authorized by the legal sources and this control has been limited with
the constrains determined by the law. Guardianship inspection is implemented in order to
provide the harmony in public services and secure the common interests of the state over
the activities, transactions, bodies and employees of the local authorities (Arslan,
1990:508-510; Gürsoy, 1987:8-9; Aktan, 1976:4). Impliedly, Guardianship inspection is a
kind of guarantee for the people benefited from the public services as well as the central
governments and local authorities.
The reasons of the guardianship inspection implemented by the central government over
the local authorities have been determined in 127 Article of 1982 Constitution. According
to the Constitution, the central government has the authority of guardianship inspection in
order to “provide the social interest” and “duly satisfaction of local necessities”. It means
that the Constitution allows for the guardianship inspection and the inspection for the
compliance with laws. This constitutional regulation has become the source and legitimacy
ground of the strong guardianship inspection over the local governments (Eryılmaz,
1997:29; Geray, 1993:31; Çoker, 1992:6).
European Autonomy Charter of Local Governments which Turkey signed by putting some
reservations includes the regulations pertaining with the guardianship inspection over the
local authorities. 8th Article of the Charter is directly relevant with the nature, extent and
way of implementation for the guardianship inspection. According to the Charter, the
executive governmental inspection of the local authorities can be implemented just only in
situations determined in the law and just only aims to provide the compliance with the
principles of the Constitution (Keleş, 1995:14). European Autonomy Charter of Local
Governments which Turkey signed by putting some reservations is principally limited with
the inspection for the compliance with the law in respect of executive guardianship (Yeter,
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�International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
1996:6; Gönül: 1993:33). The task, duty, responsibility of the direct local authorities is
constrained with the inspection for the compliance with the law.
Implementation Ways of Guardianship Inspection
In this kind of guardianship inspection, the inspector people and bodies are openly
determined and the scope of inspection is regulated with laws. A public servant or a public
institution or a body can be demonstrated as the guardianship post (Tezcan, 1995:268).
Turning over of the guardianship inspection is not possible and this authority cannot be
used by other bodies and institutions.
The guardianship inspection is a kind of inspection committed by the institutions placed in
the central government or their representative in local places or back country. In this
context, President of the Republic, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, Ministry of
Internal Affairs, other ministries, State Supervisory Council, Prime Ministry and Ministry
of Finance Committee of Inspection, Ministry of Labor and Social Security, court of State
and Court of Accounts and other relevant institutions and organizations and their
representatives in back country have the authority of the inspection (Bozoğlu, 1996:18;
Başsoy, 1993:300). However, the guardianship inspection over the provincial special
administrations, municipalities, and relevant institutions or local government unions has
been realized and some into enforcement by the local authorities as the representatives of
Ministry of Internal Affairs and within the back country.
The central government has under the subjection of the continuous inspection in order to
provide the compliance of all local authority transactions in accordance with the common
methods of the state. The guardianship inspection over the local governments principally
provides balance between de facto and de jure. This inspection can be implemented against
the negative activities such as the ignorance, negligence and mistakes of the public
servants (Onar, 1966:633).
The activities of provincial special administrations and the authority of the guardianship
inspection can be implemented just only the public servants who are not elected (Coşkun,
1976:32). The elected public servants are frequently inspected by the usual transactions
such as the promotion, employee personal rights, annual leave, discipline investigation,
suspension, dismissing.
The Problems in Guardianship Inspection and Ways of Solution
The inspection of local authorities by means of the administrative methods is really
important in protecting the local autonomies, inducing the improvement of these
institutions, guiding their activities and preventing the potential and possible mistakes. The
excessive and gross implementation of the administrative inspection has the danger of the
distortion in autonomy of the local governments. On the other hand, the inadequacy of the
inspection may lead to hinder for the targeted aims. Unfortunately, the inspection of the
local governments has many problems in Turkey.
The administrative guardianship inspection over the local governments has been removed
for the sake of their budget and employees, but it is rarely argued that the assembly
resolutions can revoke these inspection in necessary circumstances (Güler, 2004:31).
However, even though the administrative guardianship inspection over the local
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�International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
governments was not totally removed, it was partially palliated in many respects. The most
important problem in this matter is that much inspection council was abolished and many
institutions were dissolved. As a result of these removals, we can witness a great gap in
inspecting the search, investigation, analysis of the mentioned institutions.
Especially the Council of Accounts overtaken the mission of external audit cannot function
to inspect the local governments with more than three thousand units in accordance with
the legal compliance, performance criteria and fiscal dimension (Akdoğan, 2004:28; Uluğ,
2004:114-118).
The central government has the authority of guardianship inspection in order to “provide
the social interest” and “duly satisfaction of local necessities”. It means that the
Constitution allows for the guardianship inspection and the inspection for the compliance
with laws. Nevertheless, it has the potential danger to shift the guardianship inspection into
the discretionary and expediency inspection. Consequently, this kind of ambivalent and
ambiguous statements can lead to misunderstanding and abasement. Therefore, the
guardianship inspection should be limited with the compliance with the law and the
constrains of the determined targets, aims and extents.
Conclusion
The inspection of the local government could not be effective and influential in Turkey
because there is deprivation of the targets, performance criteria, the principles of the
compliance with the law for many years. However, we can mention about the overlapping
and repetition of the inspections because many institutions and bodies overtaken the
mission of inspection as a discrepancy of functions and conflict situations. In some cases,
the local authorities could not have their tasks because they were subjected of excessive
inspection and lessening of their power as a result of lack of confidence.
On the other hand, the corruption and extravagance and wastage have been prevalent in
administrative affairs because of the lack of inspection in different levels of administration.
As a result of the latest regulations, and amendments concerned with the local governments
in Turkey, many missions, services and powers of the central government were delegated
into the local authorities. However the local governments with their new and increased
authorities could not achieved to satisfy the expectations of the local people. For this
reason, the inspection of these bodies has become inevitable to be restrict inspected in
effective and efficient ways.
The old fashioned inspection in classical public administration contains the punishment of
the personal who committed the mistake was replaced by the understanding of inspection
consist of preventive approach to take precaution before creating the mistakes and faults
and depending upon the guidance function for employees and result and process-based
parameters.
This transformation suffered in the scope of the public administration reflected into the
inspection mechanism with the peculiarities of focusing on the factual trues and
convenience with the legal regulations, adequacy on the new requirement and conditions
and referring the contemporary inspection techniques and mechanisms. The regulations
concerned with the guardianship inspection over the local governments put in an
appearance in Constitution and the laws. The extents, aims and the constrains of the
5
�International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
guardianship inspection should not be directed into the propriety control because of the
ambiguity of the legal framework. However, the guardianship inspection of local
governments may give harm their local autonomies. For this reason, this surveillance
should be in minimum level and in accordance with the legal framework.
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The Influence of Local Governments over the Transformation in Inspection Understanding of Turkey on Tutorship Inspection
Author
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UNAL, Feyzullah
ERDOGAN, Selami
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The expansion in the functions and activities of public administration in last years led to the administration more systematic and convenient with the scientific rules. However, the expansion and frequency for the functions and activities of the administration brought about inertia in bureaucracy, red taping and corruption and the complaints of the governed about the activities of the administration. All these developments led to invent, develop and use the contemporary inspection methods and techniques. Local governments are the governmental administrative units which are investable and complementary parameters of the public administration together with the central government in almost all countries. During the historical progress, the local governments has been transformed into the essential institutions in executing the local services by providing the productivity and effectiveness and enhancing the democratic possibilities. Local governments are the closer and at the lower level administrative bodies. The power and the functionality of local administration is directly relevant with the level democracy in any given society. In analysing the legal and structural transformation of public administrative inspection in last years of Turkey, it can be seen that the important problems are still remaining under the inspection of administration for the tutorship. In this presentation, the influence of the transformation emerged in the understanding of inspection in the public administration over the tutorship inspection of local administration has been elaborated and offered some new solutions for the problems which may arise during this process. Keywords: Public Administration, Local Administration, Inspection, Tutorship Inspection, Local Autonomy.
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2013-05-10
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ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3