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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1ebbc8908fab3f9b128f3cc7f4c13cb4.pdf
474d4d18732e0c911450d9a5a918f713
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development
Lejla DĠZDAREVĠC
International University Philip Noel Baker
71000 Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
lejla.hadzi@emu.edu.tr
Abstract: In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable
tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable
tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy
statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism
initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study
underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development
giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort
easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural
also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is
sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking,
encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial
steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development.
Introduction
Surveys done by WTO and many written papers conclude that significant number of the tourism
development plans brought in the past have been implemented partially or have not been implemented at all. What or
who is guilty for this? Maybe the problem is in tourism industry itself or among those responsible for tourism
planning, or it is in approaches used for planning tourism development. However the problem is in place,
implementation is not going well and plans remain on papers and shelves gathering only dust while at same time
development of sustainable tourism fail. Therefore, the question is not whether to plan or not to plan, but how to
plan, which practices to use and what approaches to choose. Tourism planning requires knowledge and rationality
which in practice may not be achievable. Besides that planning for sustainable tourism development assumes
environmental and social protection over pure economic goals. Finally politics is in the center of tourism planning.
Achieving agreement on a rationale, comprehensive, holistic and long-range planning approach to tourism may look
impossible task. However, knowledge, rationality and willingness may find suitable approaches to planning,
implementation and control.
The aim of this paper is to take you back to importance of tourism planning and to address key approaches
and practices, among many, to sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about
sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements but
when we look for good example of such tourism development there are only few of them. As Getz (1986) argues,
this is mainly because of the failure to put together theory and practice. Almost three decades ago the issue was
evident but still problem is not solved and drawing of rigid ―Master Plans ― is with no hesitation still considered as
main approach to tourism planning mainly in developing countries (Burns 2004). Although tourism planning
recently moved toward application of more sustainable approaches still failures of sustainable development are
superior.
Tourism, Planning and Sustainability
Tourism for long time is a major topic for many academics, researchers, industries, governments and
publics (Coppock 1982; Jenkins 1982; Getz 1986; Davidson 1993; Burns 2004). It is widely accepted that tourism is
one of the largest industries today with rare ability to move millions of people from one place to another on base of
something what is intangible in core. Until know many definitions on tourism have been brought and discussed.
However problem of developing one that best describes tourism phenomena is present. Permanently used term
―tourism industry‖ also received some criticisms, where some authors suggest that tourism cannot be described as an
industry because it does not produce a single, distinct product (Jefferson and Lickorish 1988). As Gilbert (1990)
608
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
argues this difficulty of defining tourism is mainly because of the nature of tourism as a concept and also inputs
involved in satisfying tourist‘s demands and needs and recently interests of host community. Tourism left that issue
behind and until now developed into a truly worldwide activity that goes far beyond political, cultural, geographical,
and ideological boundaries. It is not just another industry but important part of economy foundation in many
countries. Besides that is fastest growing and leading industry at global level and one of the top five exports for
80% of countries (WTO 1998).
Tourism can be viewed, described and measured from different perspectives depending on nature of main
interests, objectives and aims. Decades ago the most important indicators and objectives of tourism were related to
economic growth and employment rate, mainly measuring how much money can bring into a country, how many
people can employ and how much visitors can attract. Still these elements are important indicators in measuring
overall tourism development, but also by time some other essential aspects have been considered as well. Today
significance of tourism is also measured trough impacts which tourism has on people‘s lives, places where they live
and also the way tourism is affected by different forces. It has been argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2002, p. 5),
―Tourism is much like the elephant: diverse and sometime hard to describe, but just like the elephant, too big to be
ignored‖. Finally we can say that tourism represents an important element of global economy and today almost every
country in some way is trying to achieve greater development through development of tourism.
As it was mentioned before tourism was widely accepted and used to accomplish quick economic growth
and to increase employment rate which is important element of economical indicators. However, in early 1980s such
tourism development receives many critics because of increasing evidence of negative impacts of tourism (Logar
2010). Tourism planners are asked to employ different approaches to tourism planning in order to regulate tourism
development before essential resources and potentials reach their end. In different destinations unfortunately this
occurred, mainly due to planning approaches used which did not include social, cultural and environmental aspect
(Hall 2000). And this is in fact how the need for more appropriate and more responsible approach to tourism
planning was born. This remains difficult task to solve, although today is possible to find different and quite
adoptable approaches to work out. In following we remind on value and role of planning process.
Planning is a term that is difficult to define because it may be used in relation to individuals or groups,
governments and organizations and can be applied to different levels like regional, national and international. In
addition it is a term widely accepted and used to describe ways and means to achieve future goals and objectives.
However planning means and requires much more. As it was argued by Williams (1998) without planning there is a
risk that activities undertaken will be unregulated, formless or haphazard and likely will lead to a range of negative
economic, social and environmental impacts. This actually best describes the situation with tourism in early 1970s
and 1980s. Also Gunn (1988), argued similarly when he claimed that the lack of planning may cause serious mal
functions and inefficiencies.
It is important to mention that planning in early stages was largely reactive while modern planning in the
late twentieth century was far proactive and future oriented. Furthermore, in early stages focus on the plan as
physical design has probably contributed to the failure to recognize the importance of actions involved in planning
(Gunn, 1988), while main aim of modern planning is to seek for optimal solutions to perceive problems that is
designed to maximize development of benefits, producing predictable outcomes (Williams, 1998). In addition,
planning is an ordered sequence of operations and actions that are designed to realize one siege goal or interrelated
goals. To conclude, making plans and estimates for the future including measurable outcomes is essential and
continuous process that helps, and is necessary activity in today‘s uncertainty.
Previously mentioned brought us to discussion of tourism planning. Nearly three decades ago tourism
planning was summarized in following way: ―to ensure that opportunities are available for tourist to gain enjoyable
and satisfying experience and at the same time to provide a mean of improving the way of life for residents and of
destination area‖ (Matthieson and Wall 1982, p.186). Many researchers agreed upon that planning for tourism is not
an easy task (Boud-Bovy 1982; Gunn 1988; Williams 1998; Spanoudis 1982; Burns 1999) and it is more difficult
than planning for other industries. Tourism planning is not a fixed process, but rather is continuous and dynamic.
Similarly as it is argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2000, p. 294) ―tourism planning is continuous process based on
a number of steps to develop and also sustain revenues created by tourism‖. Planners are facing many challenges
when planning for tourism, and mainly in the areas of aims and objectives, coordination and corporation,
compromises, and more so impacts. Since tourism involves so many other industries in its functioning, its benefits
must be integrated with the development of other sectors and its goals set to be sustainable.
In another words approaches to tourism planning should pay attention to the real mechanisms of tourism
development and to its integration into the whole economy. One direction planning has led to the negative tourism
consequences in many countries what was mentioned previously. In addition, where planning process was limited to
the few narrow goals or interests of few people plans failed to bring positive and measurable outcomes. This can be
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
considered as one of the reasons why so many plans couldn‘t be implemented. Still debates and researches are
going on in direction of finding approach for tourism planning which will include broader set of economic, social
and environmental needs without excluding the indigenous values (Haywood 1988). According to Boud-Bovy
(1982), planners should ensure that important factors are integrated into planning sequence and some of them are:
The interdependency between tourism development and overall development of a country
The interdependency between tourism sector and all other participants in tourism development
The interdependency between domestic and foreign tourism.
Thus, it is obvious that need for elaboration of planning approach with ability to integrate all those factors and much
more is very present. Furthermore, stakeholders‘ participation in planning process should be completely accepted
and encouraged.
Evolution of tourism and different political, socioeconomic, technical and environmental factors has created
different approaches to tourism planning which were extensively used. We will mention and give very short
explanation about few of them:
Boosterism
Economic approach
Physical spatial approach
Community oriented approach
Sustainable approach
Boosterism has been planning approach since the emergence of mass tourism focusing on positive and ignoring
negative impacts on economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects (Baidal 2004).
Economic approach is actually continuation of boosterism giving importance to economic issues over
social and environmental ones (Burns 1999). The focus is on tourism as an export industry and its potentials for
economic growth.
Physical spatial approaches appear as opposite to those previously mentioned, focusing mainly on the
environmental issues, with emphasis on preservation of the natural resources.
Community oriented approach focuses on tourism development at local level and greater social involvement
in planning process.
And finally concept of sustainability and sustainable planning approach become incorporated in tourism.
This approach is based on a coherent, holistic perspective, and focusing on the balance between economic growth,
social justice and environmental preservation (Hall, 2000). In the following attention will be on sustainability and
sustainable tourism.
The issue of sustainability is introduced almost twenty or thirty years ago while its roots are found even
centuries ago. However, discussion over sustainable tourism is phenomenon of the 1990s. It is widely accepted that
sustainable in general represents development which meets our needs today without compromising the ability of
people in the future to meet their needs (Swarbrooke 1999). It is obvious that is directed toward future considering
long term perspectives what is hard to find in human decision-making. Besides that it underlines importance and
need of planning and interventions before it is too late. Furthermore, concept of sustainability is including integration
of environmental, people and economic systems. Discussions and debates over this were going on which mainly
influenced emergence of sustainable tourism.
In 1997, Hunter addresses some of essential issues of sustainable development that can be adopted as
important part of sustainable tourism debate and those are:
The role of economic growth in promoting human well-being
The impacts and importance of human population growth
The effective existence of environmental limits to growth
The sustainability of natural resources with human made capital created trough economic growth
and technical innovation
The different interpretation of the criticality of various components of the natural resource base and
, therefore, the potential for substitution
The ability of technologies to decouple economic growth and unwanted environmental side-effects
The meaning of the value attributed to the natural world and the rights of non-human species,
sentient or otherwise
The degree to which a system (ecosystem) perspective should be adopted and the importance of
maintaining the functional integrity of ecosystems
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Apparently, tourism industry begins to accept idea of sustainable tourism, but little of that actually was
applied. Much of that remains on presentation papers, reports and in poorly designed ―Master plans‖ for tourism
development.
Well known elements of sustainability can for sure provide better future how for human and natural environments
also for tourism industry. But it is clear that application of concept somehow find hidden reasons to be pushed in a
side while the center is occupied by economic growth and related indicators.
Finally we can say that incorporation of main principles of sustainable development into tourism may play
key management issues in its development. The study will proceed with new heading under which some of
noteworthy practices and approaches for sustainable tourism development will be presented.
Prospective approaches and practices for sustainable tourism
For quite long period, convincingly, mass tourism was blamed for negative impacts on the social, natural
and economic aspects. In addition arguments have appeared like, reaction to the tourism planning biases, discussion
of limited growth and suggestion of alternative tourism. This brought emergence of alternative forms of tourism and
especially ecotourism as a practical option (Cater 1993).
Burns (1999) in his work presents two basic approaches or so called bipolarities in tourism planning and
concludes that all tourism planning approaches can be placed within two main groups. First is so called ―Tourism
First, basically supply-led approach, focusing on the development of tourism facilities and on the need of production.
Tourism represents consumerism and commodisation, led by globalization where markers drive distribution. Second
approach is ―Development First‖ which is in line with UN‘s National Development concept and supposes to achieve
poverty elimination, development of rural areas creating productive employment. Tourism is perceived as holistic
system with emphasis on distribution and sustainable human development. Additionally, holds the philosophy that
tourism is the part of a whole structure for economic improvement.
As it can bee understood these two approaches represents two opposite sides, containing definite paradoxes
in relation to tourism planning. However, each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. While ―Development
First ―cannot ensure achievement of short-term goals, return on investment and other related issues, ―Tourism First‖
approach cannot satisfy needs of environmental preservation, sustainable use of resources and fair distribution of
benefits.
After all, as result of previously mentioned Burns (2004) presents its work introducing new model for
tourism planning so called ―Third Way‖. The attributes are fairly significant as listed below:
It is more flexible
Less limited with more alternatives for development
More politically and socially adjustable
May help the formation of different civil institutions
Moves beyond many other models
It requires realistic assessment of potential benefits and problems
Besides, application of this approach asks for complete commitment within democratic process giving no
rights without responsibilities. With its remarkable six elements, important factors and prerequisites ―Third Way‖
approach somehow appears as solution for sustainable tourism development especially in developing countries.
However, it is necessary to mention that model has not been tried representing an valuable option, what inspires in
fact. This proves still problematic harmonization between theories and practices. Unfortunately, what is given on
paper remains on paper. More about the model is given in original study written by Burns (2004).
Some benefits of sustainable tourism brought at Globe `90 conference in Vancouver are summarized in
following give us chance to draw adjustable actions toward sustainable tourism development.
Idea of sustainable tourism is based on understanding impacts of tourism on cultural, human and
natural environment. Education with accent on negative and positive impacts of tourism may play
an important role in understanding the main idea of sustainable tourism. Furthermore involvement
of academics and researchers in planning processes and open public discussions may contribute as
well.
Fair distribution of benefits and costs is encouraged by sustainable tourism. Tourism development
should be intergraded into broader national development ensuring involvement of different
stakeholders who will agree on responsibilities. Tourism development must manage to avoid
chances for achievement of monopolistic power and personal interests.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Sustainable tourism encourages development of domestic industries. Domestic investors and
owners of different enterprises should be encouraged through incentives and preferable conditions
to support the completion of tourism products. How various sectors directly or indirectly influence
tourism industry it is necessary to ensure good cooperation among them.
Tourism generates employment at local level, directly or through other sectors. Thus, local people
should have priorities even cheaper working force can be imported. This may reduce leakages and
contribute to the economy. Finally, seasonally imported workers are not part of long-term
sustainable development.
Tourism is a foreign currency earner for the country and helps the economy. Invisible export is key
power of tourism industry. Inflow of foreign tourists should be encouraged with respect to interests
of host community, cultural aspects and environmental issues like carrying capacity.
Tourism encourages improvement of local infrastructure, transportation and communication.
Developed infrastructure should be primarily there to serve local needs, then needs of tourism,
what ensures greater quality of life at the destination. Governmental involvement is necessary here.
Tourism encourages preservation of existing man-made attraction and development or recreational
facilities. Interest of tourists may help to preserve important historical monuments and sites
previously neglected. Development of various facilities should be encouraged mainly by
governmental help but also domestic investors, ensuring the same right for everyone. Such policies
may reduce tensions between hosts and foreigners.
Tourism helps the local economy to be diverse. Development of supporting tourism sectors should
be done at local level resulting in direct decrease of importing costs. In addition this is way to help
development of rural areas.
Sustainable tourism requires involvement of all stakeholders in the decision-making process. Here
is important to balance the interests of stakeholders and to develop mechanisms to manage
different views on same issues. This can be difficult task due to difficulty to find homogenous
communities but sustainable concept should be held at the center of main objectives and interests.
Sustainable tourism encourages natural protection and proper land use. Here the importance is on
understanding what is to be preserved and what is to be achieved. Clear thinking and good
management are very important which will help to design best ways for land use and methods for
natural preservation.
Sustainable tourism influence cultural aspect in a positive way. Tourism as it is known brings
diverse cultures together. Thus it can be used to help preservation of cultural heritage, traditional
way of life, and even civilizations.
Sustainable tourism is environmentally oriented and serves to protect natural and cultural
resources creating social and economical well being for community. Managing quality of the
natural environment is of great importance for tourism existence. It is the environment that mainly
attracts visitors. Control can be done through regular application of different methods like:
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Environmental auditing etc. Application of different
policies, laws and regulation can also help preservation of cultural heritage.
Sustainable tourism requires monitoring, assessment and management of tourism impacts. In
addition, counters any negative impact. To remain sustainable tourism must be monitored and
controlled by established regulatory institution. Thus development of different institutions is
necessary. Besides, different measures encountering negative impacts of tourism should be
constantly enlarged and improved.
Although one can think that sustainable tourism is impossible dream, sustainability can be managed by
application of different lows and regulations, policies, measures and methods. Trade-offs as well will be necessary in
accomplishing this task.
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to explore the importance of planning process especially in relation to tourism
industry and development. However the main aim was to underline the appropriate approaches and practices to
sustainable tourism development Aims were accomplished through relevant literature review what broaden the
discussion on mentioned issues. Based on this discussion it is possible to draw some general conclusions that can be
understood as recommendations. Firstly, concept of planning should be deeply understood and learned by so called
612
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
―planners‖. This can help to avoid pitfalls in designing plans especially for tourism development. Second, tourism
should be perceived from different perspectives but not only economical in order to forecast the possible social and
environmental changes resulting form tourism development. Third, concept of sustainability should not be used to
hide from view various unsustainable interests, goals, and objectives. In addition, sustainability should be at the
center of human, environmental, social and economical development. Fourth, agreement should be achieved at all
levels and among various stakeholders in order to carry on with tourism development. That is a way of ensuring
broader involvement of local people what is at the same time prerequisite for sustainable development. . Fifth,
appropriate approaches for sustainable development of tourism must be at place, developed according to all
potentials, problems, social, cultural and environmental characteristics of particular destination. This ensures
integration of home-grown values and their respect. Finally, benefits of sustainable tourism development should be
ensured trough carefully designed practices, policies and methods. We like it or not, sustainability represents our
future. It is hoped that this study will at least encourage some promising thoughts or likely brighter future for
sustainable tourism development.
References
Baidal, I.J. (2004). Tourism planning in Spain; evaluation and perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (2), 313-333
Baud-Bovy, M. (1982). New concepts in planning for tourism and recreation. Tourism Management, December
Burns, M.P. (1999). Paradoxes in planning; tourism elitism or brutalism? Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (2), 329-348
Burns, M.P. (2004). Tourism planning; a third way? Annals of Tourism Research. 31 (1), 24-43
Cater, E. (1993). Ecotourism in the third world: problems for sustainable tourism development. Tourism Management, April
Cook, A.R., Yale, J.L. and Marqua, J.J. (2002). Tourism; business of travel. (2 nd ed.). New Jersey, Person Education Inc. USA
Coopock, J.T. (1982). Tourism and conservation. Tourism Management, December
Davidson, R. (1993). Tourism. (2nd ed.). Harlow, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Gilbert, D. (1990). Conceptual issues in the management of tourism. Progress in Tourism Recreation and Hospitality, vol.2
Getz, D. (1986). Models in tourism planning; toward integration of theory and practices. Tourism management, March
Gunn, C.A. (1998). Tourism planning, (2 nd ed.). New York, Taylor and Francis
Hall. C.M. (2000). Tourism planning. Pearson Education, Prentice Hall
Huywood, M.K. (1988). Responsible and responsive tourism planning in the community. Tourism Management, June
Hunter, C. (1997) Sustainable tourism as a adoptive paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research, 24, 850-67
Jefferson, A. and LIckorish, L. (1988). Marketing tourism-a practical guide. Harlow, Longman
Jenkins, L:C. (1982). The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing counties. Annals of Tourism Research, 9, 229-249
Logar, A. (2010). Sustainable tourism management in Cirkvenica, Croatia , an assessment of policy instruments. Tourism
Management, 31, 125-135
Matthieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982) Tourism; economic, social and environmental impacts. London, Longman
Spanoudis, C. (1982). Trends in tourism planning and development. Tourism Management, December
Swarbrooke, J. (1999).Sustainable tourism management. CAB International, UK
Williams, S. (1998). Tourism geography. London, Rutledge
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
World Tourism Organization (1998). Tourism economic report
614
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Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development
Author
Author
DİZDAREVİC, Lejla
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking, encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c674d30bce1a08246fd0b8bccd83f957.pdf
474d4d18732e0c911450d9a5a918f713
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development
Lejla DĠZDAREVĠC
International University Philip Noel Baker
71000 Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
lejla.hadzi@emu.edu.tr
Abstract: In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable
tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable
tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy
statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism
initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study
underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development
giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort
easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural
also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is
sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking,
encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial
steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development.
Introduction
Surveys done by WTO and many written papers conclude that significant number of the tourism
development plans brought in the past have been implemented partially or have not been implemented at all. What or
who is guilty for this? Maybe the problem is in tourism industry itself or among those responsible for tourism
planning, or it is in approaches used for planning tourism development. However the problem is in place,
implementation is not going well and plans remain on papers and shelves gathering only dust while at same time
development of sustainable tourism fail. Therefore, the question is not whether to plan or not to plan, but how to
plan, which practices to use and what approaches to choose. Tourism planning requires knowledge and rationality
which in practice may not be achievable. Besides that planning for sustainable tourism development assumes
environmental and social protection over pure economic goals. Finally politics is in the center of tourism planning.
Achieving agreement on a rationale, comprehensive, holistic and long-range planning approach to tourism may look
impossible task. However, knowledge, rationality and willingness may find suitable approaches to planning,
implementation and control.
The aim of this paper is to take you back to importance of tourism planning and to address key approaches
and practices, among many, to sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about
sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements but
when we look for good example of such tourism development there are only few of them. As Getz (1986) argues,
this is mainly because of the failure to put together theory and practice. Almost three decades ago the issue was
evident but still problem is not solved and drawing of rigid ―Master Plans ― is with no hesitation still considered as
main approach to tourism planning mainly in developing countries (Burns 2004). Although tourism planning
recently moved toward application of more sustainable approaches still failures of sustainable development are
superior.
Tourism, Planning and Sustainability
Tourism for long time is a major topic for many academics, researchers, industries, governments and
publics (Coppock 1982; Jenkins 1982; Getz 1986; Davidson 1993; Burns 2004). It is widely accepted that tourism is
one of the largest industries today with rare ability to move millions of people from one place to another on base of
something what is intangible in core. Until know many definitions on tourism have been brought and discussed.
However problem of developing one that best describes tourism phenomena is present. Permanently used term
―tourism industry‖ also received some criticisms, where some authors suggest that tourism cannot be described as an
industry because it does not produce a single, distinct product (Jefferson and Lickorish 1988). As Gilbert (1990)
608
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
argues this difficulty of defining tourism is mainly because of the nature of tourism as a concept and also inputs
involved in satisfying tourist‘s demands and needs and recently interests of host community. Tourism left that issue
behind and until now developed into a truly worldwide activity that goes far beyond political, cultural, geographical,
and ideological boundaries. It is not just another industry but important part of economy foundation in many
countries. Besides that is fastest growing and leading industry at global level and one of the top five exports for
80% of countries (WTO 1998).
Tourism can be viewed, described and measured from different perspectives depending on nature of main
interests, objectives and aims. Decades ago the most important indicators and objectives of tourism were related to
economic growth and employment rate, mainly measuring how much money can bring into a country, how many
people can employ and how much visitors can attract. Still these elements are important indicators in measuring
overall tourism development, but also by time some other essential aspects have been considered as well. Today
significance of tourism is also measured trough impacts which tourism has on people‘s lives, places where they live
and also the way tourism is affected by different forces. It has been argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2002, p. 5),
―Tourism is much like the elephant: diverse and sometime hard to describe, but just like the elephant, too big to be
ignored‖. Finally we can say that tourism represents an important element of global economy and today almost every
country in some way is trying to achieve greater development through development of tourism.
As it was mentioned before tourism was widely accepted and used to accomplish quick economic growth
and to increase employment rate which is important element of economical indicators. However, in early 1980s such
tourism development receives many critics because of increasing evidence of negative impacts of tourism (Logar
2010). Tourism planners are asked to employ different approaches to tourism planning in order to regulate tourism
development before essential resources and potentials reach their end. In different destinations unfortunately this
occurred, mainly due to planning approaches used which did not include social, cultural and environmental aspect
(Hall 2000). And this is in fact how the need for more appropriate and more responsible approach to tourism
planning was born. This remains difficult task to solve, although today is possible to find different and quite
adoptable approaches to work out. In following we remind on value and role of planning process.
Planning is a term that is difficult to define because it may be used in relation to individuals or groups,
governments and organizations and can be applied to different levels like regional, national and international. In
addition it is a term widely accepted and used to describe ways and means to achieve future goals and objectives.
However planning means and requires much more. As it was argued by Williams (1998) without planning there is a
risk that activities undertaken will be unregulated, formless or haphazard and likely will lead to a range of negative
economic, social and environmental impacts. This actually best describes the situation with tourism in early 1970s
and 1980s. Also Gunn (1988), argued similarly when he claimed that the lack of planning may cause serious mal
functions and inefficiencies.
It is important to mention that planning in early stages was largely reactive while modern planning in the
late twentieth century was far proactive and future oriented. Furthermore, in early stages focus on the plan as
physical design has probably contributed to the failure to recognize the importance of actions involved in planning
(Gunn, 1988), while main aim of modern planning is to seek for optimal solutions to perceive problems that is
designed to maximize development of benefits, producing predictable outcomes (Williams, 1998). In addition,
planning is an ordered sequence of operations and actions that are designed to realize one siege goal or interrelated
goals. To conclude, making plans and estimates for the future including measurable outcomes is essential and
continuous process that helps, and is necessary activity in today‘s uncertainty.
Previously mentioned brought us to discussion of tourism planning. Nearly three decades ago tourism
planning was summarized in following way: ―to ensure that opportunities are available for tourist to gain enjoyable
and satisfying experience and at the same time to provide a mean of improving the way of life for residents and of
destination area‖ (Matthieson and Wall 1982, p.186). Many researchers agreed upon that planning for tourism is not
an easy task (Boud-Bovy 1982; Gunn 1988; Williams 1998; Spanoudis 1982; Burns 1999) and it is more difficult
than planning for other industries. Tourism planning is not a fixed process, but rather is continuous and dynamic.
Similarly as it is argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2000, p. 294) ―tourism planning is continuous process based on
a number of steps to develop and also sustain revenues created by tourism‖. Planners are facing many challenges
when planning for tourism, and mainly in the areas of aims and objectives, coordination and corporation,
compromises, and more so impacts. Since tourism involves so many other industries in its functioning, its benefits
must be integrated with the development of other sectors and its goals set to be sustainable.
In another words approaches to tourism planning should pay attention to the real mechanisms of tourism
development and to its integration into the whole economy. One direction planning has led to the negative tourism
consequences in many countries what was mentioned previously. In addition, where planning process was limited to
the few narrow goals or interests of few people plans failed to bring positive and measurable outcomes. This can be
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considered as one of the reasons why so many plans couldn‘t be implemented. Still debates and researches are
going on in direction of finding approach for tourism planning which will include broader set of economic, social
and environmental needs without excluding the indigenous values (Haywood 1988). According to Boud-Bovy
(1982), planners should ensure that important factors are integrated into planning sequence and some of them are:
The interdependency between tourism development and overall development of a country
The interdependency between tourism sector and all other participants in tourism development
The interdependency between domestic and foreign tourism.
Thus, it is obvious that need for elaboration of planning approach with ability to integrate all those factors and much
more is very present. Furthermore, stakeholders‘ participation in planning process should be completely accepted
and encouraged.
Evolution of tourism and different political, socioeconomic, technical and environmental factors has created
different approaches to tourism planning which were extensively used. We will mention and give very short
explanation about few of them:
Boosterism
Economic approach
Physical spatial approach
Community oriented approach
Sustainable approach
Boosterism has been planning approach since the emergence of mass tourism focusing on positive and ignoring
negative impacts on economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects (Baidal 2004).
Economic approach is actually continuation of boosterism giving importance to economic issues over
social and environmental ones (Burns 1999). The focus is on tourism as an export industry and its potentials for
economic growth.
Physical spatial approaches appear as opposite to those previously mentioned, focusing mainly on the
environmental issues, with emphasis on preservation of the natural resources.
Community oriented approach focuses on tourism development at local level and greater social involvement
in planning process.
And finally concept of sustainability and sustainable planning approach become incorporated in tourism.
This approach is based on a coherent, holistic perspective, and focusing on the balance between economic growth,
social justice and environmental preservation (Hall, 2000). In the following attention will be on sustainability and
sustainable tourism.
The issue of sustainability is introduced almost twenty or thirty years ago while its roots are found even
centuries ago. However, discussion over sustainable tourism is phenomenon of the 1990s. It is widely accepted that
sustainable in general represents development which meets our needs today without compromising the ability of
people in the future to meet their needs (Swarbrooke 1999). It is obvious that is directed toward future considering
long term perspectives what is hard to find in human decision-making. Besides that it underlines importance and
need of planning and interventions before it is too late. Furthermore, concept of sustainability is including integration
of environmental, people and economic systems. Discussions and debates over this were going on which mainly
influenced emergence of sustainable tourism.
In 1997, Hunter addresses some of essential issues of sustainable development that can be adopted as
important part of sustainable tourism debate and those are:
The role of economic growth in promoting human well-being
The impacts and importance of human population growth
The effective existence of environmental limits to growth
The sustainability of natural resources with human made capital created trough economic growth
and technical innovation
The different interpretation of the criticality of various components of the natural resource base and
, therefore, the potential for substitution
The ability of technologies to decouple economic growth and unwanted environmental side-effects
The meaning of the value attributed to the natural world and the rights of non-human species,
sentient or otherwise
The degree to which a system (ecosystem) perspective should be adopted and the importance of
maintaining the functional integrity of ecosystems
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Apparently, tourism industry begins to accept idea of sustainable tourism, but little of that actually was
applied. Much of that remains on presentation papers, reports and in poorly designed ―Master plans‖ for tourism
development.
Well known elements of sustainability can for sure provide better future how for human and natural environments
also for tourism industry. But it is clear that application of concept somehow find hidden reasons to be pushed in a
side while the center is occupied by economic growth and related indicators.
Finally we can say that incorporation of main principles of sustainable development into tourism may play
key management issues in its development. The study will proceed with new heading under which some of
noteworthy practices and approaches for sustainable tourism development will be presented.
Prospective approaches and practices for sustainable tourism
For quite long period, convincingly, mass tourism was blamed for negative impacts on the social, natural
and economic aspects. In addition arguments have appeared like, reaction to the tourism planning biases, discussion
of limited growth and suggestion of alternative tourism. This brought emergence of alternative forms of tourism and
especially ecotourism as a practical option (Cater 1993).
Burns (1999) in his work presents two basic approaches or so called bipolarities in tourism planning and
concludes that all tourism planning approaches can be placed within two main groups. First is so called ―Tourism
First, basically supply-led approach, focusing on the development of tourism facilities and on the need of production.
Tourism represents consumerism and commodisation, led by globalization where markers drive distribution. Second
approach is ―Development First‖ which is in line with UN‘s National Development concept and supposes to achieve
poverty elimination, development of rural areas creating productive employment. Tourism is perceived as holistic
system with emphasis on distribution and sustainable human development. Additionally, holds the philosophy that
tourism is the part of a whole structure for economic improvement.
As it can bee understood these two approaches represents two opposite sides, containing definite paradoxes
in relation to tourism planning. However, each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. While ―Development
First ―cannot ensure achievement of short-term goals, return on investment and other related issues, ―Tourism First‖
approach cannot satisfy needs of environmental preservation, sustainable use of resources and fair distribution of
benefits.
After all, as result of previously mentioned Burns (2004) presents its work introducing new model for
tourism planning so called ―Third Way‖. The attributes are fairly significant as listed below:
It is more flexible
Less limited with more alternatives for development
More politically and socially adjustable
May help the formation of different civil institutions
Moves beyond many other models
It requires realistic assessment of potential benefits and problems
Besides, application of this approach asks for complete commitment within democratic process giving no
rights without responsibilities. With its remarkable six elements, important factors and prerequisites ―Third Way‖
approach somehow appears as solution for sustainable tourism development especially in developing countries.
However, it is necessary to mention that model has not been tried representing an valuable option, what inspires in
fact. This proves still problematic harmonization between theories and practices. Unfortunately, what is given on
paper remains on paper. More about the model is given in original study written by Burns (2004).
Some benefits of sustainable tourism brought at Globe `90 conference in Vancouver are summarized in
following give us chance to draw adjustable actions toward sustainable tourism development.
Idea of sustainable tourism is based on understanding impacts of tourism on cultural, human and
natural environment. Education with accent on negative and positive impacts of tourism may play
an important role in understanding the main idea of sustainable tourism. Furthermore involvement
of academics and researchers in planning processes and open public discussions may contribute as
well.
Fair distribution of benefits and costs is encouraged by sustainable tourism. Tourism development
should be intergraded into broader national development ensuring involvement of different
stakeholders who will agree on responsibilities. Tourism development must manage to avoid
chances for achievement of monopolistic power and personal interests.
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Sustainable tourism encourages development of domestic industries. Domestic investors and
owners of different enterprises should be encouraged through incentives and preferable conditions
to support the completion of tourism products. How various sectors directly or indirectly influence
tourism industry it is necessary to ensure good cooperation among them.
Tourism generates employment at local level, directly or through other sectors. Thus, local people
should have priorities even cheaper working force can be imported. This may reduce leakages and
contribute to the economy. Finally, seasonally imported workers are not part of long-term
sustainable development.
Tourism is a foreign currency earner for the country and helps the economy. Invisible export is key
power of tourism industry. Inflow of foreign tourists should be encouraged with respect to interests
of host community, cultural aspects and environmental issues like carrying capacity.
Tourism encourages improvement of local infrastructure, transportation and communication.
Developed infrastructure should be primarily there to serve local needs, then needs of tourism,
what ensures greater quality of life at the destination. Governmental involvement is necessary here.
Tourism encourages preservation of existing man-made attraction and development or recreational
facilities. Interest of tourists may help to preserve important historical monuments and sites
previously neglected. Development of various facilities should be encouraged mainly by
governmental help but also domestic investors, ensuring the same right for everyone. Such policies
may reduce tensions between hosts and foreigners.
Tourism helps the local economy to be diverse. Development of supporting tourism sectors should
be done at local level resulting in direct decrease of importing costs. In addition this is way to help
development of rural areas.
Sustainable tourism requires involvement of all stakeholders in the decision-making process. Here
is important to balance the interests of stakeholders and to develop mechanisms to manage
different views on same issues. This can be difficult task due to difficulty to find homogenous
communities but sustainable concept should be held at the center of main objectives and interests.
Sustainable tourism encourages natural protection and proper land use. Here the importance is on
understanding what is to be preserved and what is to be achieved. Clear thinking and good
management are very important which will help to design best ways for land use and methods for
natural preservation.
Sustainable tourism influence cultural aspect in a positive way. Tourism as it is known brings
diverse cultures together. Thus it can be used to help preservation of cultural heritage, traditional
way of life, and even civilizations.
Sustainable tourism is environmentally oriented and serves to protect natural and cultural
resources creating social and economical well being for community. Managing quality of the
natural environment is of great importance for tourism existence. It is the environment that mainly
attracts visitors. Control can be done through regular application of different methods like:
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Environmental auditing etc. Application of different
policies, laws and regulation can also help preservation of cultural heritage.
Sustainable tourism requires monitoring, assessment and management of tourism impacts. In
addition, counters any negative impact. To remain sustainable tourism must be monitored and
controlled by established regulatory institution. Thus development of different institutions is
necessary. Besides, different measures encountering negative impacts of tourism should be
constantly enlarged and improved.
Although one can think that sustainable tourism is impossible dream, sustainability can be managed by
application of different lows and regulations, policies, measures and methods. Trade-offs as well will be necessary in
accomplishing this task.
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to explore the importance of planning process especially in relation to tourism
industry and development. However the main aim was to underline the appropriate approaches and practices to
sustainable tourism development Aims were accomplished through relevant literature review what broaden the
discussion on mentioned issues. Based on this discussion it is possible to draw some general conclusions that can be
understood as recommendations. Firstly, concept of planning should be deeply understood and learned by so called
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―planners‖. This can help to avoid pitfalls in designing plans especially for tourism development. Second, tourism
should be perceived from different perspectives but not only economical in order to forecast the possible social and
environmental changes resulting form tourism development. Third, concept of sustainability should not be used to
hide from view various unsustainable interests, goals, and objectives. In addition, sustainability should be at the
center of human, environmental, social and economical development. Fourth, agreement should be achieved at all
levels and among various stakeholders in order to carry on with tourism development. That is a way of ensuring
broader involvement of local people what is at the same time prerequisite for sustainable development. . Fifth,
appropriate approaches for sustainable development of tourism must be at place, developed according to all
potentials, problems, social, cultural and environmental characteristics of particular destination. This ensures
integration of home-grown values and their respect. Finally, benefits of sustainable tourism development should be
ensured trough carefully designed practices, policies and methods. We like it or not, sustainability represents our
future. It is hoped that this study will at least encourage some promising thoughts or likely brighter future for
sustainable tourism development.
References
Baidal, I.J. (2004). Tourism planning in Spain; evaluation and perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (2), 313-333
Baud-Bovy, M. (1982). New concepts in planning for tourism and recreation. Tourism Management, December
Burns, M.P. (1999). Paradoxes in planning; tourism elitism or brutalism? Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (2), 329-348
Burns, M.P. (2004). Tourism planning; a third way? Annals of Tourism Research. 31 (1), 24-43
Cater, E. (1993). Ecotourism in the third world: problems for sustainable tourism development. Tourism Management, April
Cook, A.R., Yale, J.L. and Marqua, J.J. (2002). Tourism; business of travel. (2 nd ed.). New Jersey, Person Education Inc. USA
Coopock, J.T. (1982). Tourism and conservation. Tourism Management, December
Davidson, R. (1993). Tourism. (2nd ed.). Harlow, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Gilbert, D. (1990). Conceptual issues in the management of tourism. Progress in Tourism Recreation and Hospitality, vol.2
Getz, D. (1986). Models in tourism planning; toward integration of theory and practices. Tourism management, March
Gunn, C.A. (1998). Tourism planning, (2 nd ed.). New York, Taylor and Francis
Hall. C.M. (2000). Tourism planning. Pearson Education, Prentice Hall
Huywood, M.K. (1988). Responsible and responsive tourism planning in the community. Tourism Management, June
Hunter, C. (1997) Sustainable tourism as a adoptive paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research, 24, 850-67
Jefferson, A. and LIckorish, L. (1988). Marketing tourism-a practical guide. Harlow, Longman
Jenkins, L:C. (1982). The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing counties. Annals of Tourism Research, 9, 229-249
Logar, A. (2010). Sustainable tourism management in Cirkvenica, Croatia , an assessment of policy instruments. Tourism
Management, 31, 125-135
Matthieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982) Tourism; economic, social and environmental impacts. London, Longman
Spanoudis, C. (1982). Trends in tourism planning and development. Tourism Management, December
Swarbrooke, J. (1999).Sustainable tourism management. CAB International, UK
Williams, S. (1998). Tourism geography. London, Rutledge
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World Tourism Organization (1998). Tourism economic report
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Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development
Author
Author
DİZDAREVİC, Lejla
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking, encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
The Views of Early Republican Intellectuals on Language Teaching in
Turkey and an Evaluation of Them in Context with Linguistic Revolution
Hüseyin EFE
Asst. Prof. Dr.
Atatürk University Erzurum, Turkey
hefe@atauni.edu.tr
Ahmet Selçuk AKDEMĐR
Lecturer
Erzincan University Erzincan, Turkey
aakdemir@erzincan.edu.tr
Abstract: In this study, our aim is to derive the views of intellectuals and authors published
in the journals and papers during the first years of Republican Era in Turkey on language
teaching and the teaching of basic language skills and to evaluate them in context with
Linguistic Revolution of Turkey (July 12, 1932).
The views we deal here compose a good source for those interested in developing educational
programme and they caused a brainstorming on cultural revolutions and linguistic issues of
the new Turkish State among our intellectuals and authors of the time.
Principally being a literature review, our study also presents useful information to solve
today’s problems on language teaching.
Key words: language teaching, linguistic revolution, Republic of Turkey, Turkish, Turkish
intellectuals.
Introduction
After many turbulent years of the last period of Ottoman Empire, new Turkish Republic had in one
hand steam to make major innovations and serious problems to overcome the difficulties of creating a new
society on the other hand. Nearly in all fields of the society, constituted innovations and revolutions. Tradition
left its position to modernity. Educational activities also received its share from these revolutions. However,
before talking about educational activities, we need to deal Turkish Linguistic Revolution.
Evolution and revolution in a language are very different concepts. While talking about these two
concepts, Korkmaz (1970) explains that, the first one occurs in a long time span without any human intervention.
So it should be evaluated as a maturation process. The second concept is very different by means of the
intervention as any revolution is made by some human effect and it occurs in a short time span comparatively. In
this sense, the changes, Turkish language experienced, can be said to be revolution.
In order to explain the term ‘revolution’, Karal (1956) quotes from Atatürk as follows:
“Revolution is something like replacing all old –
fashioned institution with those ones providing
opportunities of civilization to the nation.”
Dealing linguistic revolution in this sense, we can conclude that Turkish Linguistic Revolution is an
attempt to create a national language including all national developments of culture, gaining self – development
opportunity and self – confidence (Korkmaz, 1970 s; 99).
Turkish has three main periods: Seljuks, Anatolian Principalities and Ottomans. Having the knowledge
of these periods of Turkish language in mind, we can examine the effects it had throughout its history. When it
reached to Republic period, Turkish language was in a state of deterioration and corruption to the culture and
nation it belonged to.
In spite of the attempts made by some public officials and intellectuals to purify and simplify Ottoman
Turkish during the Tanzimat, the language could never succeed to become a nationalized one. During Ottoman
period, the influence of Arabic and Persian was so much that Turkish language was very far from being an
original one. The influences of other languages were multi directional such as rules, vocabulary, syntax, and
alphabet and so on (Korkmaz, 1970 s; 100). Regarding all these factors, Atatürk made a revolution on 12 July
1932 known as Letters Revolution. This revolution is an attempt to facilitate education, relations of society and
to increase literacy level. In essence, this is not merely a revolution of letters and writing. After the use of Latin
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alphabet, many innovations and explorations occurred in grammar, phonology, semantics and syntax of Turkish
language.
As a result of purification, simplification and derivation practices, many diligent works were carried
out. Authors, intellectuals, scientists and journalists adopted different ways to enhance their works with genuine
Turkish. Vocabulary that our language acquired during revolution era has three types: 1- Derivations from vulgar
(from regional spoken language) 2- Derivations from old written texts of Anatolian Turkish Literature 3- Newly
created words (Korkmaz, 1970 s; 110).
As all other revolutions, Linguistic Revolution was sustained by the support and care of Atatürk and
Turkish Language Institute. In a short time, efforts turned out to be fruitful and new Turkish Republic managed
to create a fresh and modern society by means of educational, cultural and social aspects.
While the results of Linguistic Revolution had their way to educational systems of the new state, many
debates, concerning Linguistic Revolutions and unity of education, arose among the intellectuals of the time.
1. The Views of Early Republican Intellectuals on Language and Language Teaching
Before starting to discuss their views, we need to explain what we mean by the phrase ‘Early
Republican Intellectuals’. Turkish Republic, founded on 1923, had a new type of intellectuals supporting almost
all revolutions held by the government. That was valid for nearly 15 years between 1923 and 1940. Those
intellectuals mostly grown up to the last days of the Empire and experienced ending struggles of modernization
of the Empire. Having those desperate struggles in their vision, they bore some kind of modernist intelligence to
the new State of old country (Anatolia). Here, our expression of ‘Early Republican Intellectuals’ stands for that
group of writers, journalists, pedagogues, sociologists and academicians.
However being modernist enough, intellectuals of early period had many problems to solve especially
on educational issues. Language teaching was one of the most prominent of these.
To see the picture of the day, we should remember the Linguistic Revolution and Letters Revolution
that demolished all the possessions of tradition. The government enacted to use Latin alphabet instead of Arabic
letters in 1928 and four years later another revolutionary process, can be defined as a purification and
simplification of the language, was started by the government and the intellectuals of the period.
After these revolutionary steps, there occurred a new problem: adapting these changes to educational
programs especially by means of language teaching and literacy. While proposing their ideas, early republican
intellectuals performed considerable brainstorming.
As we get on our presentation of their opinions, our subjects will prove to have very different and
genuine proposals on language teaching.
There are a great many of people in number so we need to group them by means of their arguments.
2. Their Proposals on Syntax:
Kazım Sami, a republican intellectual, says that grammar is important but it should be taught embedded
into reading and speaking (Yetiş, 2005). He supports grammar, but does agree with teaching rules barely.
According to him, vivid examples should be used to teach grammar.
Şükriye Emel, another intellectual of the time, has different views from K. Sami. According to her, the
main problem of language teaching is the chaotic situation caused by Letters Revolution (Yetiş, 2005). She
observes both teachers and students having great difficulties in understanding new letters (Latin alphabet). Being
accustomed to vowel points of Arabic script, students and teachers are perplexed on how to pronounce the
words. If this problem is solved then other fields of language teaching will be eased.
M. Zekeriya participates to these issues with examples he derived from American and Russian
education systems. He argues that grammar has no importance for a student’s linguistic development and
learning (Yetiş, 2005). As anyone do not need to revise grammar rules while speaking, grammar and rules
should be considered to be sub – conscious base for language and they need to be learned by speaking, reading,
writing and vocabulary. M. Zekeriya is so strict in his view that he even proposes that grammar should be
removed from curriculums while the new Republic is trying to create a reasonable level of literacy.
Kazım Nami, an instructor of Turkish for foreign students of different ethnic origins, talks about his
educational story and emphasizes that during his years as a student in military school nearly all of the language
courses were constructed on reading, writing and speaking. Grammar has a very slight place in the last grade
according to his educational experience. He states that though his little formal training on grammar, he is very
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successful to teach Turkish grammar to others (Yetiş, 2005). He argues that grammar is useful only to teach it to
others.
According to his views, he is a supporter of some kind of Transformational – Generational-learning style.
Grammar rules should be learned sub – consciously. While learning a language – or for any first language
curriculum – grammar rules and structures are formed subsequently. He states that the language itself is so
flexible that you can not stuff it into a grammar book. Grammar shall only be used as a tool for brainstorming.
His criticism on grammar is so strict that he can not stop himself but calling grammar courses as ‘parasitic’.
Mustafa Şekip has very different views on grammar. According to him, new script and letters need a
new grammar and the structure of this new type of grammar is difficult to estimate beforehand. From this
obscurity, he thinks that as the rules are not clear, there is nothing to say about teaching (Yetiş, 2005).
According to Yusuf Ziya, grammar is useless to use a language fluently. They are human’s instincts and
competences to determine the fluency of the language (Yetiş, 2005).
Orhan Seyfi, a well-known poet of the time, supports sub-conscious learning for grammar. He points
out that first of all grammar needs to be revised whether it is suitable for linguistic revolution and new alphabet.
Grammar rules should be in accordance with both spoken and written language.
Sadri Etem is another intellectual to refuse the necessity of grammar in the curriculum as a separate
topic. Trying to teach a language with grammar is something like trying to teach swimming someone in a desert
says for grammar and language teaching.
Peyami Safa, one of the greatest authors of Modern Turkish Literature, thinks that grammar is only
important to understand the content of a language not the language itself. An inductive style should be adopted.
Grammar consolidates the structures that we already know.
Nazım Hikmet, one of the greatest poet of the day and whose reputation still exist in literary world, calls
everyone to put the grammar aside and learn reading, writing and speaking. Grammar should be considered only
useful for those having academic interests.
3. Their Proposals on Writing – Reading
On writing and reading activities, Kazım Sami has many things to say again. He presents American
style of education and emphasizes that reading and writing skills are best developed when they are conducted
together. All examples should be suitable to children linguistic development.
Şükriye Emel is more pessimistic than others about new alphabet and the problems of educational
regulations. According to her, as the Minister of Justice stated in the Parliamentary, letters and their spelling is
the main cause of chaos. Therefore, the standardization of spelling must be ensured and changeover process must
be completed as soon as possible.
M. Zekeriya is also another opponent of grammatical patterns and rules while teaching reading and
writing. As we, Turkish nation, are in a very need of creating an educated society, we should eliminate all other
patterns like abandoning new alphabet and removing grammar from curriculum.
4. Conclusion
As a general assessment of their opinions, we can conclude that nearly all intellectuals of the period
agree in approving a language teaching method in which grammatical patterns and rules are thought not directly
but in a sub-conscious manner, in doing so the language will be learned and thought easily. Regarding the fact
that the period was a very sensitive one by means of revolutions especially cultural ones, it is easy to understand
their concerns on practical and quick language teaching ways.
Nearly all of them are aware of the importance of revolutions and the sensitive manner of the society.
So no offensive proposal exists in their writing. The main concern for them is to help the development of the
society.
The opinions of intellectuals form a good source for us as language teachers and researchers. Somehow
they saw many problems of our field beforehand and they tried to bring practical solutions. While doing this,
they benefited from their early experiences many of which depended on the period of Empire.
As we observe, we realize that language teaching became easier thanks to Linguistic Revolutions
especially to Letters Revolution.
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Bibliography
ĐMER, Kamile; Türk Dil Devrimi, TDK 1976.
ĐMER, Kamile; Türk Yazı Dilinde Dil Devriminin Başlangıcından 1965 Yılı Sonuna Kadar Özleşme Üzerine
Sayıma Dayanan Bir Araştırma, TDK 1972.
KORKMAZ, Zeynep; Dilde Doğal Gelişme ve Devrim Açısından Türk Dil Devrimi, TDK 1970.
PALA, Đskender; Türk Dili Nereden Nereye, Đstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi Dergisi 2002.
ŞAVKAY, Tuğrul; Dil Devrimi, Gelenek Yayıncılık 2002.
YETĐŞ, Kazım; Atatürk ve Türk Dili, TDK 2005.
458
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Title
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The Views of Early Republican Intellectuals on Language Teaching in Turkey and an Evaluation of Them in Context with Linguistic Revolution
Author
Author
EFE, Hüseyin
AKDEMİR, Ahmet Selçuk
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, our aim is to derive the views of intellectuals and authors published in the journals and papers during the first years of Republican Era in Turkey on language teaching and the teaching of basic language skills and to evaluate them in context with Linguistic Revolution of Turkey (July 12, 1932). The views we deal here compose a good source for those interested in developing educational programme and they caused a brainstorming on cultural revolutions and linguistic issues of the new Turkish State among our intellectuals and authors of the time. Principally being a literature review, our study also presents useful information to solve today’s problems on language teaching.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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ad92001278bc57db48efac04802b68a2
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Attitudes of Education Faculty Students towards Compulsory English
Courses: The Case of Ağrı Ibrahim Ceçen University
Assist. Prof.Dr.Gencer ELKILIÇ
Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters,
Department of Science and Letters
Kars,Turkey
gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com
Inst.Adem AKALIN
Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı, Turkey
ademakalin86@gmail.com
Inst.R.Mutlu SALMAN
Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı, Turkey
rmutlusalman@gmail.com
Abstract: Attitudes toward learning a language is thought to be one of the most important factors
affecting the failure or success of the foreign language learners. In this respect, the aim of this study
was to determine the attitudes of Education Faculty students at Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı,
Turkey, towards compulsory English courses. The subjects of this study were 249 Faculty of
Education students from 5 different departments. In the study, the relationship between attitudes of
the students towards such variables as demographic data related to the participants’ genders and
departments was searched using a foreign language attitude scale prepared by Çakıcı (2007). For
the data analysis, SPSS 17 program was used and for the assessment of the results independent
Sample t-test and descriptive statistics were used. According to the result of the study, at the
Education Faculty of Đbrahim Çeçen University 135 (54,2%) of the students had a negative attitude
towards compulsory English courses, whereas 114 (45,8%) of them had positive attitude. The results
of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the attitudes of male students and
female ones t(247)=2,45, p<0,05. Female students had more positive attitudes (M =137,79) than
male students (M = 132,40).
Keywords : students’ attitudes, compulsory English, Ağrı Đbrahim Çeçen University,
gender, department
Introduction
Attitudes are considered to be one of the most important factors affecting the failure or success of
foreign language learners. Therefore, much research has been carried out to show the role of the beliefs and
attitudes of the students (Gardner, & Lambert, 1972; Fishbein, & Ajzen, 1975; Boykin, & Trungamphai, 1982;
Horwitz, 1988, 1991; Saracaloğlu, 1992; Lanara, 1999; Ajzen & Fishbein, 2000, 2005; Rifkin, 2000; Jernigan,
2001; Mattern & Schau, 2002; Dornyei, 2003). Dornyei (2001) argues that unsuccessful learners’ lack of
learning attitude and motivation affects their learning in a negative way. Attitude and motivation play a
significant role in determining the learners’ level of achievement in language learning. According to Gardner
(1985) there is a strong connection between achievement and language attitude, motivation and anxiety. In his
two studies about the psychology of second language learning, Lambert (1963,1967, Cited in Reynolds &
Lambert 1991) discussed some psychological theories related to language learning of Hebb (1949) and, Skinner
(1957) and the concept of language attitude of Carroll (1959). Lambert, in his article in 1963, described his
“Social Psychology of Second Language Learning” and “Psychology of Bilingualism.” Lambert’s theory
proposes that a learner who is acquiring a second language gradually gets various aspects of behavior that are
unique to the members of another cultural group. The learners’ attitudes toward the other group are believed to
determine their success in learning the new language and their motivation to learn is thought to be determined by
their attitudes.
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Problem
Although learning a foreign language is considered to be vital in Turkey, there hasn’t been much
progress in achieving it, except in private schools. Students learn a foreign language, namely English, at primary,
secondary, high school, and university level, however, with the exception of foreign language departments and
departments with preparatory classes, no satisfactory result has been reached.
Research Questions
1.Do students at Đbrahim Çeçen University in Education Faculty have a positive attitude towards compulsory
English courses?
2. Is there a significant difference in the attitudes of students in relation to their gender?
Methodology
This study was carried out to investigate the attitudes of Ağrı Đbrahim Çeçen University students’
attitudes towards compulsory English courses in relation to departments and genders.
Participants
The subjects of this study were 249 students (164 males and 85 females) from Education Faculty.
Instrument
A language attitude scale formed by (Çakıcı, 2007) was used in this study. The scale aimed to measure
four aspects of the participants; affective features (Cronbach Alpha: 0.95), perceptions about the usefulness and
importance the compulsory foreign language (Cronbach Alpha: 0.87), the reasons for negativity (Cronbach
Alpha: 0.77), and the reasons related to the teacher (Cronbach Alpha: 0.79). The questionnaire was composed of
two parts. First part was prepared to elicit demographic information related to the participants. The second part
consisted of a 45- question containing 5- point likert-type scale that attempted to determine the attitudes of the
first year students towards English as a common compulsory course. Of 45 statements in the second part, 26
were positive and 19 were negative.
Procedure
In order to use the attitude scale in the study, a permission e-mail was sent to Dilek Çakı on 22nd
02.2010. Çakıcı responded our e-mail on 03rd 03.2010, accepting our using her attitude scale. Then on 15th 03.
2010 an official permission was requested from the authorities of Ağrı Đbrahim Çeçen University and the
authorities accepted our proposal. 0n 14th March we administered the questionnaire to 249 students from five
different departments of Education Faculty during the class hours.
Data Analysis
For the data analysis SPSS 17 for windows was used and significance level was set as 0,05. For the
statistics, descriptive statistics and independent simple t-test were used.
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Results
Anaysis of Demographic Data
Gender and Department
As can be seen in Table 1, mostly the participants were from Primary School Teaching 80 (32,1%) and
from Social sciences 68 (27,3%).
Gender
%
Department
Primary School Teaching
N
80
32,1
Teaching of Physical Education
43
17,3
Social Sciences
68
27,3
Turkish Language Teaching
46
18,5
Preschool Teaching
12
04,8
Total
249
100,0
Table 1.The Numbers and Percentages of the Participants according to the Departments.
As for the other departments, 46 (18,5) were from Turkish Language Teaching department, 43 (17,3%)
from Teaching of Physical Education department, and 12 (4,8%) were from Preschool Teaching department,
respectively. 164 of the students were males and 85 females.
The high schools and departments and the University
The high schools, the participants graduated from and their departments at the Education faculty of Đbrahim
Çeçen University have been given in Table2.
Department
at the University
Primary
School
Teaching
Teaching
of
Physical Education
Social Sciences
Turkish Language
Teaching
Preschool Teaching
Total
High School Type
General
Private
High School College
N
%
N
%
60
24
01
0,01
Anatolian
High School
N
%
19
08
Vocational
High School
N
%
00
00
36
14
00
0,00
04
02
03
0,12
62
41
25
16
01
00
0,01
0,00
05
04
02
02
00
01
00
0,01
00
02
0,00
0, 1
06
38
2,4
15
02
06
01
2,4
04
203
02
82
Table 2.High School Types of the Participants and their Departments
As seen in Table 2, of 249 students 203(82%) came from general high school, 38 (15%) from Anatolian
high school, 6(2,4%) from vocational high school and 2 (0,1) from private college.
Having English Lessons at Secondary and High Schools
Course Taken
Yes
N
%
187
75,1
No
62
24,9
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Table 3.The numbers and Percentages of the Participants having English Lessons at Secondary and High School
It is clear in Table 3 that 187 (75,1%) of the students had English courses at secondary and high school, while
62(24,9) didn’t have.
English Level of the Students
English level of the students have been given in Table 4.
Knowledge
Little
Medium
Good
Excellent
Total
N
174
42
29
04
249
f
69,09
16,09
11,6
01,6
100
Table 4. English Levels of the Students
According to Table 4, 174 (69,09%) of the students had little knowledge of English, 42 (16,09%) had
medium, 29 (11,6%) had good, and 04 (1,6) had excellent, respectively. Therefore, it is clear that students mostly
didn’t have enough knowledge of English.
Attending to a Private Course
According to the results of the study, none of the students attended any private courses.
Analysis of the Research Questions
Research Question 1: Do students at Đbrahim Çeçen University in Education Faculty have a positive attitude
towards compulsory English courses?
In determining the attitudes of the students, the means of the responses were taken into consideration(M= 132,
S=31,91). If the total scores of the subjects were under the mean value, they were considered as negative
attitude, if ever than the mean value then they were considered as positive attitude. The result have been given in
Table5.
Atitude
Positive
N
%
114
45,8
Negative
135
54,2
Table5.Attitudes of Subjects towards Compulsory English Courses
As seen in Table 5, 135 (54,2%) of the students had a negative attitude towards compulsory English
courses, whereas 114 (45,8%) of them had positive attitude.
The highest attitude scores were “I believe the essence of English to be able to communicate with
people who speak this language”(M=4,09, S=1,25, “I envy people who speak English fluently” (M=3,81,
S=1,40), “I think knowledge of English improves the individual's general knowledge” (M=3,81, S=1,40). The
lowest attitude scores were “I never want English courses to be finish” (M=2,15, S=1,18), “I'm more willing to
study English than other courses” (M=2,26, S=1,30), and “I like studying English at my free time” (M=2,32,
S=1,24), respectively.
Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in the attitudes of students in relation to their gender?
The results of the study have been given in Table 6.
Gender
Male
N
X
S
sd
t
164
132,40
18,12
247
2,45
184
P
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Female
85
137,79
12,79
Table 6.Attitudes of Male and Female Students towards Compulsory Foreign language
It is clearly seen in Table 6 that there was a significant difference between the attitudes of male
students and female ones t(247)=2,45, p<0,05. Female students had more positive attitudes (X =137,79) than
male ones did (X = 132,40).
Discussion and Conclusion
Burstall (1975) claims that indices of attitudes and motivation are strongly related to success in the
second language. Likewise, McDonough (1986) and Skehan (1998) assert that second language acquisition is a
cyclical process: strong motivation and positive attitude may lead to the desired level of success in learning a
second language process. However, in this study it is clear that most of the participants had a negative attitude
towards compulsory English courses and therefore, this may cause them failure.
In a study carried out at Dokuz Eylül University by Çakıcı (2007), it was determined that there was no
significant difference between the gender and the attitudes of the students. Similarly, Karaş (1996) and
Saracaloğlu (1996) found no gender difference in their studies. However, Graham (1990) , Saracaloğlu(2000),
and Spolsky (1989) found out that females had a significantly much more positive attitude towards foreign
language learning. Our study is in paralel with Graham and Spolsky, as female students had a significantly more
positive attitude than males did.
As a result, in order to make students have more positive attitudes towards compulsory English
courses, teachers should:
1.plan the courses according to interests and levels of the students.
2.present the lessons in different techniques such as role plays and dramas.
3.benefit from information technologies.
4.encourage students to participate in the classroom activities.
5.create a friendly atmosphere in the class.
6.provide group works and pair works.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank to Dr. Dilek Çakıcı for letting us use her attitude scale and to authorities of Đbrahim
Çeçen University for letting us carry out the study and to the students at the faculty of Education for participating
in the study.
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Burstall, C. (1975). French in Primary School: The British Experiment. Canadian Modern Language Review, 31,
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research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
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Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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ELT Conference. Đstanbul: 5-7 September.
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Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching. London: Routledge. Mclaughlin, B. (1991). Theories of Second
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187
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Title
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Attitudes of Education Faculty Students towards Compulsory English Courses: The Case of Ağrı Ibrahim Ceçen University
Author
Author
ELKILIÇ, Gencer
AKALIN, Adem
SALMAN, Mutlu
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Attitudes toward learning a language is thought to be one of the most important factors affecting the failure or success of the foreign language learners. In this respect, the aim of this study was to determine the attitudes of Education Faculty students at Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı, Turkey, towards compulsory English courses. The subjects of this study were 249 Faculty of Education students from 5 different departments. In the study, the relationship between attitudes of the students towards such variables as demographic data related to the participants’ genders and departments was searched using a foreign language attitude scale prepared by Çakıcı (2007). For the data analysis, SPSS 17 program was used and for the assessment of the results independent Sample t-test and descriptive statistics were used. According to the result of the study, at the Education Faculty of Đbrahim Çeçen University 135 (54,2%) of the students had a negative attitude towards compulsory English courses, whereas 114 (45,8%) of them had positive attitude. The results of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the attitudes of male students and female ones t(247)=2,45, p<0,05. Female students had more positive attitudes (M =137,79) than male students (M = 132,40).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
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Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ab5eb1ca628fc62598a9d64804bc80bb.pdf
f2dceca9ad59e2fb8767b0ef96f8ccc2
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Turkish EFL Students’ Failure of the Use of Interjections Properly: The
Example of Kafkas Univeristy
Assist. Prof.Dr. Gencer ELKILIÇ
Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters
Department of English Language and Literature,
Kars,Turkey
Gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com
Assist.Prof.Dr.Bilal GENÇ
Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters
Department of English Language and Literature,
Kars,Turkey
bgenc@hotmail.com
Abstract: Interjections in English are very complex and confusing elements of the language
for EFL learners. However, EFL learners have to know enough number of them in order to
carry out daily conversations English with native speakers as well as nonnative speakers
properly. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the awareness of Turkish EFL learners
of the use of interjections. To this end, 42 intermediate-level EFL students (10 males and 32
females) and 40 advanced students (9 males and 31 females) , attending to classes regularly at
Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey, were the subjects of the study. The participants were given
36 types of interjections wanted to identify which interjections they knew. The responses of
the subjects were assessed using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent
t-test were used for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study,
interjection “good ” was known by 75(97,5%) participants, “hello” by 75 (92,7%), and
“goodbye” was known by 69 (91,5%) participants. On the other hand, the least known
interjections were As for the lowest frequencies, they are “pshaw” 03 (3,6%), “alas”
3(3,6%) ,and “bah” 04 (4,8%). The results showed that there was no significant difference
between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced students in
knowing interjections. (p>0,05).
Keywords: Interjections, Kafkas University, EFL, conversations.
Introduction
Interjections are very important in daily conversations and, therefore, have a direct effect on the listener
and speaker. As Hişmanoğlu (2010) states “…the functions expressed by interjections are typically emotional,
such as pleasure, surprise, pity, hesitation, greeting, pain, pleading, etc.” (p.22). Such features of the language
are considered among the pragmatic components. Therefore, in order for non-native speakers to be proficient
in the target language, besides grammatical structures and vocabulary, they have to know the pragmatic
components of that language. Çelik (2009) supports this idea as he maintains “sentences are only a part of the
overall fabric of the verbal (or written). Therefore, in addition to the concepts of syntactic and semantic wellformedness, pragmatic well-formedness is also required. This is achieved through pragmatic
competence”(p.236). According to Bachman, (1990, cited in Hişmanoğlu, 2010) “pragmatic competence
includes both illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic competence. While illocutionary competence refers
to the functional use of language, sociolinguistic competence refers to the appropriateness of an utterance to
context “ (p.21).
On the other hand, much as there has been much research on the different aspects of foreign and second
language learning and teaching over the last two score years (Jones and Charlton, 1996; Andrews, 1998; Gewehr
et al., 1998; Berk, 2000; Davies, 2000; Fischer, 2000; Brooke, 2001; Crystal, 2001; Colaizzi, 2002; Crystal,
2003; Dörnyei, 2003; Wierzbicka, 2003; Miller, & Endo, 2004; Erbe, 2007; Weeks, 2007), except for a few
studies (Wilkins, 1992;Trask, 1993; Crystal, 1995; Li, 2005; Essberger, 2009; Hişmanoğlu, 2010; ) there is no
detailed research on the interjections.
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Definition
The Columbia Encyclopedia defines interjections as “part of speech consisting of exclamatory words
such as oh, alas, and ouch”. According to vikipedia “The word "interjection" literally means "thrown in
between" from the Latin inter ("between") and iacere ("throw"). Interjections are generally uninflected function
words and have sometimes been seen as sentence-words, because they can replace or be replaced by a whole
sentence (they are holophrastic)”. In vikipedia also it is stated that “in grammar, an interjection or exclamation
is a lexical category used as a way to refer to some mentioned or understood noun without a grammatical
connection with the rest of the sentence, by simply expressing an isolated emotion on the part of the speaker
(although most interjections have clear definitions).”
As the definitions indicate, interjections are not connected to other parts of the sentences in the grammatical
sense, rather they are separate words or utterances showing emotion.
Problem
Interjections used in daily conversations and writing are very important as they indicate the emotions of
the speakers and writers. Yet, in the foreign language situation, lack of interjections or improper use of them
cause misunderstandings.
Purpose of the Study
The aim of the study is to show the importance of English interjections for EFL learners and determine
whether Turkish EFL learners know them sufficiently or not.
Methodology
Subjects
42 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced-level students, studying at Kafkas University,
Kars, Turkey, participated in this study.
Instrument
A questionnaire, containing 36 interjections in English, formed by the researcher was used in this study.
The first part of the questionnaire aimed to solicit information related to the classes and genders of the
participants. The second part aimed to elicit information on how much the participants knew the given 36
interjections. A five-point Likert-type scale was used to elicit information (1.Know exactly, 2. Know, 3. Not
sure, 4. Don’t know, and 5. Don’t know at all). For the statistics SPSS 17 was used. Data were evaluated through
Descriptive Statistics and Independent Sample t-test.
Procedure
In order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, a plot study was carried out on 35 students and
the reliability Cronbach’s Alpha was computed as 0,792 reliable, which is very reliable.
Research Questions
1.How much do the EFL students know English interjections?
2.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their gender in knowing interjections?
3.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their level?
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Results
The genders and levels of the participants have been given in Table 1.
Gender
Male
Female
N
%
N
%
Intermediate
10
24
32
66
Advanced
09
22,5
31
77,5
Total
19
23,2
63
76,8
Table 1.Genders and Levels of the Participants
In Table 1, it is seen that 19 (23,24%) of the students were males and 63 (76,8%) were females. Of 82 students,
42 (66%) were intermediate level, while 40(44%) were advanced level.
Answers to the Research Questions
Level
Ah
Aha
Ahem
Alas
Bah
Damn
Eh
Fie
Good
Goodby
Goodness
Ha
Hello
Hem
Ho
Hum
Hurrah
Lo
My
Now
Ohh
Ouch
Pooh
Pshaw
Pugh
Rot
Shoo
Shoot
Shucks
So
There
Ugh
Well
Whew
Woow
43
52,4
28
34,1
07
08,5
02
02,4
38
46,3
24
29,3
06
07,3
08
09,8
08
09,8
05
06,1
14
17,1
17
20,7
02
02,4
01
01,2
05
06,1
24
29,3
02
02,4
02
02,4
06
07,3
20
24,4
24
29,3
09
11,0
07
08,5
11
13,4
22
26,8
22
26,8
15
18,3
11
13,4
05
06,1
02
02,4
05
06,1
27
32,9
71
86,6
09
11,0
02
02,4
00
000
66
80,5
09
11,0
04
04,9
03
03,7
51
62,2
23
28,0
04
04,9
03
03,7
17
20,7
30
36,6
18
22,0
06
07,3
71
86,6
05
06,1
02
02,4
01
01,2
12
14,6
16
19,5
11
13,4
15
18,3
05
06,1
04
04,9
23
28,0
14
17,1
02
02,4
12
14,6
19
23,2
11
13,4
20
24,4
18
22,0
09
11,0
13
15,9
10
12,4
04
04,9
09
11,0
23
28,0
62
75,6
13
15,9
04
04,9
02
02,4
63
76,8
11
13,4
05
06,1
02
02,4
54
65,9
11
13,4
11
13,4
06
07,3
17
20,7
07
08,5
09
11,0
17
20,7
07
08,5
04
04,9
17
20,7
14
17,1
01
01,2
02
02,4
12
14,6
11
13,4
01
01,2
01
01,2
10
12,2
22
26,8
03
03,7
04
04,9
10
12,2
15
18,3
04
04,9
03
03,7
16
19,5
16
19,5
21
25,6
14
17,1
20
24,4
10
12,2
17
20,7
07
08,5
06
07,3
19
23,2
57
69,5
12
14,6
05
06,1
06
07,3
54
65,9
09
11,0
11
13,4
03
03,7
22
26,8
10
12,2
13
15,9
16
19,5
60
73,2
09
11,0
05
06,1
06
07,3
05
06,1
04
04,9
24
29,3
22
26,8
51
62,2
06
07,3
03
03,7
12
14,6
Table 2. Frequencies and Percentages of the Responses of Participants
23
Not know
at
all
Not Know
Not Sure
Know
Exactly
Know
Interjection
Research Question One: How much do the EFL students know English interjections?
02
06
38
50
52
31
12
43
00
00
01
11
03
28
36
38
22
36
01
01
00
32
40
56
48
50
43
17
33
02
05
21
02
27
10
02,4
07,3
46,3
61,0
63,4
37,8
14,6
52,4
00,0
00,0
01,2
13,4
03,7
34,1
43,9
46,3
26,8
43,9
01,2
01,2
00,0
39,0
48,8
68,3
58,5
61,0
52,4
20,7
40,2
02,4
06,1
25,6
02,4
32,9
12,2
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
The responses of the students have been given in Table 2. According to Table 2, the highest frequencies of their
awareness of interjections are “good” 71(86,6%) exactly know, 09 (11%) know, “hello” 71(86,6%) exactly
know, 05(6,1%) know, and “goodbye” 66 (80,5%) exactly know, 09 (11%)know, respectively.
As for the lowest frequencies, they are “pshaw” 01(1,2%) exactly know, 02 (2,4 %) know, “alas” 02 (2,4%)
exactly know, 01(1,2 %) know, “bah” (2,4 %) exactly know, 02 (2,4 %) know, respectively. It is clear in Table 2
that students know mostly the interjections they encounter very often in daily life situations.
Research Question Two: Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their
gender and knowing interjections?
Gender
N
Male
Female
19
63
X
96,79
97,33
S
sd
t
p
15,18
14,29
80
,143
,87
Table 3. Answers of the Students and their Genders
It is clear in table 4 that there is no significant difference between male and female students in knowing
the interjections, t(80)=,143, p>,05.
Research Question Three: Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their
level?
Gender
N
Intermediate
Advanced
42
40
X
99,52
94,77
S
sd
t
p
11,77
16,55
80
1,85
,137
Table 4. Answers of the Students and their Levels
It is seen in Table 4 that there is no significant difference between intermediate and advanced level
students in knowing the interjections, t(80)=1,85, p>,05. In this respect it can be inferred that since the same or
similar interjections are used in the commercially prepared materials for classroom uses, they do not help
students improve their levels.
Discussion and Conclusion
Interjections are very important in performing daily conversations, however, there are not enough
number of studies on English interjections. In a study of interjections on EFL students at European University of
Lefke, Hişmanoğlu found out that non-native first year students mostly misused the given common twelve
interjections. According to Hişmanoğlu (2010)”Lack of pragmatic competence on the part of the learner may
result in undesirable misunderstandings which can give rise to a breakdown of communication”(p.21). This
study is in parallel with Hişmanoğlu’s study, as EFL students at Kafkas University know only the very common
interjections well. When the genders of the students are taken into account, it is clear that there was no
scientifically significant difference between the male and female students (p>,05). Another striking result was
that there was no difference between intermediate and advanced students (p>,05). So, it can be concluded that
the knowledge of interjections do not improve in parallel with the level of the students.
As a result, there are some ways to help students improve their interjection knowledge.
1.EFL students should be taught interjections through authentic materials such as commercially made videos and
type records.
2.New textbooks and audio-lingual materials containing all aspects of interjections should be prepared by
professionals.
3. Cultural differences between the interjections of English and Turkish should be taught comparatively.
4.Non-native teachers should be given trainings on interjections.
5.Students should be encouraged to use interjections in their conversation classes as well as in other classes.
24
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
References
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Berk, R. A. (2000). Does Humor in Course Tests Reduce Anxiety and Improve Performance?. College Teaching,
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Brooke, S. (2001). GENDER AND WORKING CLASS IDENTITY IN BRITAIN DURING THE 1950s.
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Çelik, M.(2009). Linguistics for Students of English .Volume II. Lecture Notes. Ankara: EDM publishing.
Colaizzi, P. F. (2002). Psychotherapy and Existential Therapy. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 33(1),
73+. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d= 5000610887
Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP.
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Retrieved March 11, 2010 from Encyclopedia.com:
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Davies, C. (2000). 7 ‘correct’ or ‘appropriate’?. In Issues in English Teaching, Davison, J. & Moss, J. (Eds.) (pp.
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Essberger, J. (2009). Interjections. Retrieved February 10, 2009 from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/
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Particles. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database:
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and Teachıng.Journal of Theory and Practice in Education.6(1), 17-35.
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26
�
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356
Title
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Turkish EFL Students’ Failure of the Use of Interjections Properly: The Example of Kafkas Univeristy
Author
Author
ELKILIÇ, Gencer
GENÇ, Bilal
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Interjections in English are very complex and confusing elements of the language for EFL learners. However, EFL learners have to know enough number of them in order to carry out daily conversations English with native speakers as well as nonnative speakers properly. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the awareness of Turkish EFL learners of the use of interjections. To this end, 42 intermediate-level EFL students (10 males and 32 females) and 40 advanced students (9 males and 31 females) , attending to classes regularly at Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey, were the subjects of the study. The participants were given 36 types of interjections wanted to identify which interjections they knew. The responses of the subjects were assessed using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent t-test were used for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study, interjection “good ” was known by 75(97,5%) participants, “hello” by 75 (92,7%), and “goodbye” was known by 69 (91,5%) participants. On the other hand, the least known interjections were As for the lowest frequencies, they are “pshaw” 03 (3,6%), “alas” 3(3,6%) ,and “bah” 04 (4,8%). The results showed that there was no significant difference between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced students in knowing interjections. (p>0,05).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8cdcd23b4983134e5800dec6c6b1df6.pdf
b0da2ae361f3664c0af7253836640273
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
International English Abbreviations:Manifestation of Proficiency in
English
Assist. Prof.Dr. Gencer Elkılıç
Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters
Department of English Language and Literature,
Kars,Turkey
gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com
Instr. Hayrettin Köroğlu
Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty
Erzurum, Turkey
hkoroglu08@hotmail.com
Abstract: English abbreviations used on an international scale are of vital importance in the
daily usage of English not only speaking, but also in listening, reading and writing. In order to
be proficient in English, besides knowing the structures, vocabulary and other aspects of the
language, EFL learners should be equipped with standard uses of international abbreviations
such as WHO, ILO, and UN. To this end, 45 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced
students, studying at Kafkas University, Turkey, were assigned as the subjects of the study.
The participants were given 20 most commonly used international English abbreviations in
written form and they were asked to write how much they know them. The results were
evaluated using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent t-test were used
for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study, USA UK ,and NATO
were known by the participants (100%) as they are encountered not only in the textbooks and
materials but also in the media, however the least known abbreviations were ECHR 0(0%),
RSVP 0(0%) and ILO 02(2,4%), respectively. The results showed that there was no significant
difference between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced
students (p>0,05).
Keywords: International, abbreviations, Kafkas University, EFL, proficiency.
Introduction
Foreign or second language learning is a process which relies heavily on a continuous study and
practice. In this respect, there has been abundant research on the theories of language teaching and learning
(Koike, 1980; Bloom, 2000; Foster-Cohen,2001; Diessel, 2004; Blommaert, 2006; Ellis& LarsenFreeman,2006;House, 2006; Lanksmanan, 2006) as well as language transfer (Selinker& Lanshmanan, 1993;
Jarvis,2000; Pavlenko, 2000; Odlin, 2003;) and change (Hughes, 1988; McArthur, 1998; Croft, 2000; Fitch,
2005; ) in order to contribute to the acquisition of second or foreign language.
In the last three decades English language has been very important all over the world due to partly the
power of the US in the military affairs and to partly the scientific developments carried out in English. As
Crystal (2003) maintains “you hear it on television spoken by politicians from all over the world. Wherever you
travel, you see English signs and advertisements. Whenever you enter a hotel or restaurant in a foreign city, they
will understand English, and there will be an English menu” (p.19). For Crystal “There is the closest of links
between language dominance and economic, technological, and cultural power, too, and this relationship will
become increasingly clear as the history of English is told” (p.7).
Therefore, English language is almost the global language of the world. From health issues to
environmental, technical matters and internet communications almost everything is in English. Crystal (2003)
maintains that “without a strong power-base, of whatever kind, no language can make progress as an
international medium of communication. Language has no independent existence, living in some sort of mystical
space apart from the people who speak it. Language exists only in the brains and mouths and ears and hands and
eyes of its users. When they succeed, on the international stage, their language succeeds. When they fail, their
language fails” (p.7). According to McCrum et al., (2002) “today, English is used by at least 750 million people,
and barely half of those speak it as a mother tongue. Some estimates have put that figure closer to one billion.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Whatever the total, English at the end of the twentieth century is more widely scattered, more widely spoken and
written, than any other language has ever been. It has become the language of the planet, the first truly global
language” (pp. 9–10). As English language is so common in the world, it is inevitable that abbreviations of
English are also used commonly all over the world. On the other hand, with the exceptions of dictionaries and a
few Internet sources, it is difficult to encounter scientific studies on the common international abbreviations.
Problem
International abbreviations used in the textbooks and media are sometimes given in their long forms and
can be understood by language learners easily, however, if they aren’t given in long forms they cannot be
understood by Turkish EFL students.
Purpose of the Study
The aim of the study is to shed light on the importance of international English abbreviations for EFL
learners and determine whether Turkish EFL learners know them sufficiently or not.
Methodology
Subjects
45 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced-level students, studying at Kafkas University,
Kars, Turkey participated in this study.
Instrument
A questionnaire, containing 20 commonly used international abbreviations, formed by the researcher
was used in this study. The first part of the questionnaire aimed to solicit information related to the classes and
genders of the participants. The second part aimed to elicit information on how much the participants knew the
given twenty common international abbreviations and where they learned them from. To this end, a five-point
Likert type scale was used (1.Know exactly, 2. Know, 3. Not sure, 4. Don’t know, and 5. Don’t know at all). For
the statistics SPSS 17 was used. Data were evaluated through Descriptive Statistics and Independent Sample ttest.
Procedure
In order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, a plot study was carried out on 30 students and
the reliability Cronbach’s Alpha was computed as 0,67 reliable. As Özdamar (1999, p.522) maintains “if Alpha
is higher than 0,60 and lower than 0,80, the scale is very reliable”.
Research Questions
1.How much do the EFL students know common international abbreviations?
2.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their gender?
3.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their level?
Results and Dicussion
The genders and levels of the participants have been given in Table 1.
Level
Intermediate
Advanced
Total
Gender
Male
N
16
13
29
%
35,6
32,5
44,0
Female
N
29
27
56
%
64,4
67,5
66,0
Table 1.Genders and Levels of the Participants
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
According to Table 1, 29 (44%) of the students were males and 56(66%) were females. Of 85 students 45(53%)
were intermediate level, whereas 40(47%) were advanced level.
Source
Textbooks and materials
TV and similar sources
Friends and teachers
Total
Frequency
32
44
09
85
%
37,6
51,8
10,6
100,0
Table 2. Sources the Participants Learn the International English Abbreviations
It is seen in Table 2 that students learn the International abbreviations from TV and similar sources
44(51,8%), textbooks and materials 32(37,6%), and friends and teachers 9(10,6%), respectively. It can be said
that textbooks and materials do not contain enough information related with the abbreviations.
Answers to the Research Questions
Don’t Know Exactly
Don’t Know
Not Sure
Know
Abbreviation
Exactly Know
1.How much do the EFL students know common international abbreviations?
According to the results of the study, participants could mostly know the very common abbreviations used in the
textbooks or media, however, they couldn’t know the ones which weren’t found in the textbooks. The
frequencies and percentages of the participants responses have been given in Table 3.
As seen in Table3, the highest frequencies of their awareness of common international abbreviations are USA
82(96,5%) exactly know, 03(3,5%) know, UK 81(95,3%) exactly know, 04(4,7%) know, NATO 72(84,7%)
exactly know, 13(15,3%)know, respectively.
F
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
WHO
35
41,2
19
22,4
09
10,6
18
21,2
4
04,7
ILO
UN
EU
NATO
UK
USA
FAO
UNESCO
PC
CV
NASA
PM
MA
PhD
OPEC
VIP
ECHR
RSVP
UNICEF
02
48
57
72
81
82
01
39
48
46
40
03
00
04
02
40
00
00
10
02,4
56,5
67,1
84,7
95,3
96,5
01,2
45,9
56,5
54,1
47,1
3,5
00
4,7
02,4
47,1
00
00
11,8
05
28
19
13
04
03
08
32
13
21
27
3
12
14
03
24
00
01
38
5,9
32,9
22,4
15,3
04,7
03,5
09,4
37,6
15,3
24,7
31,8
3,5
14,1
16,5
03,5
28,2
00
01,2
44,7
14
06
05
00
00
00
46
12
15
10
10
16
16
19
11
01
04
02
30
16,5
07,1
05,9
00,0
00,0
00,0
54,1
14,1
17,6
11,8
11,8
18,8
18,8
22,4
12,9
01,2
04,7
02,4
35,3
45
03
04
00
00
00
30
02
09
08
08
48
43
40
49
12
42
38
06
52,9
03,5
04,7
00
00
00
35,3
02,4
10,6
09,4
09,4
56,5
50,6
47,1
57,6
14,1
49,4
44,7
07,1
19
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
14
08
20
08
39
44
01
22,4
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
16,5
09,4
23,5
09,4
45,9
51,8
01,2
Table 3.Frequencies and Percentages of the Responses of Participants
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
The lowest ones are ECHR 00(0%) exactly know, 00(00%) know, RSVP 00(0%) know exactly, 01(1,2%) know,
and ILO 02(2,4%) exactly know, 05(5,9%) know, respectively.
It is clear that the highest frequencies belong to the items used in daily life almost everyday in the textbooks,
media and vice versa. However, even though used commonly in the world, the abbreviations ECHR, RSVP , and
ILO do not exist in the textbooks so often, therefore participants mustn’t have learned them.
2.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their gender?
Gender
N
Male
Female
29
56
X
52,21
52,00
S
sd
t
p
7,07
6,12
83
,140
,89
Table 4.Aswers of the Students and their Genders
It is clear in table 4 that there is no significant difference between male and female students in
answering the abbreviations, t(83)=,140, p>,05.
3.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their level?
Gender
N
Intermediate
Advanced
45
40
X
53,27
50,73
S
sd
t
p
7,10
5,33
83
1,85
,07
Table 5. Aswers of the Students and their Levels
It can be seen in Table 5 that there is no significant difference between intermediate and advanced level
students, t(83)=1,85, p>,05. It can be inferred that since the same abbreviations are mostly given in the
textbooks and materials implicitly, both intermediate and advanced students know similar, if not the same,
abbreviations.
Conclusion
Knowing a language proficiently is a challenging process as it requires micro skills as well as macro
skills. Therefore, Turkish EFL students learning English should learn the structures, vocabulary, cultural norms,
proper pronunciations, dialectical variations, and formal and informal uses of English language in order to be
proficient enough.
The result of the study showed that Turkish EFL students could know the common English international
abbreviations if they encounter in their textbooks and materials, yet if they do not encounter in the textbooks and
materials, they couldn’t know. There was no significant difference between intermediate and advanced students
(p>0,05) in relation to knowing international abbreviations. It is clear that students do not go beyond surface
level of them even they study years. Therefore, in order for them to understand such abbreviations students
1. should be given abbreviations explicitly.
2. should realize the importance of them.
3. should be given textbooks and materials aiming to instruct such abbreviations.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
References
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94
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401
Title
A name given to the resource
International English Abbreviations:Manifestation of Proficiency in English
Author
Author
ELKILIÇ, Gencer
Köroğlu, Hayrettin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
English abbreviations used on an international scale are of vital importance in the daily usage of English not only speaking, but also in listening, reading and writing. In order to be proficient in English, besides knowing the structures, vocabulary and other aspects of the language, EFL learners should be equipped with standard uses of international abbreviations such as WHO, ILO, and UN. To this end, 45 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced students, studying at Kafkas University, Turkey, were assigned as the subjects of the study. The participants were given 20 most commonly used international English abbreviations in written form and they were asked to write how much they know them. The results were evaluated using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent t-test were used for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study, USA UK ,and NATO were known by the participants (100%) as they are encountered not only in the textbooks and materials but also in the media, however the least known abbreviations were ECHR 0(0%), RSVP 0(0%) and ILO 02(2,4%), respectively. The results showed that there was no significant difference between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced students (p>0,05).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Right to Information and Consultation of Employees: Evaluation of EU
Directives in Turkey
Ekrem ERDOĞAN
PhD., Sakarya University,
Labor economics and industrial relations department, Turkey
eerdogan@sakarya.edu.tr
Yasin Kerem GÜMÜġ
PhD. Candidate, Sakarya University,
Labor economics and industrial relations department,
ykgumus@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: In Turkish, because of the definitive role of the state, attitude of employers and
powerlessness of the working class, the employers do not effectively have a say. In the EU,
the employees participate their workplaces in various methods as a part of European Social
Model. However, in the reconstruction process in the EU, labour and its participation
methods remained local in the European scale despite the globalisation of capital especially
with the increase of activities and relationships of MNCs. At this point, to reduce the
differences arising from national applications and the effects of the process of
reconstruction, the Commission has created a number of directives in order to provide the
right to information and consultation of employees. These directives became important also
for Turkey as of membership negotiations. This article aims to examine the employee
participation in Turkey and indicate the possible effects of EU information and consultation
directives.
Introduction
Employees in Turkey are represented in their workplaces mostly by trade unions. Although there is no
legal barrier, workplace participation methods are almost non-existing except for trade unions. Besides,
unionisation density is reducing in Turkey and members of labour unions suffer several problems arising from
implementation. In a general view, in Turkish Industrial Relations System, because of the definitive role of the
state within the system, attitude of employers and powerlessness of the working class, the employers do not
effectively have a say.
When one looks at the European Union countries, although it is being said that the European Social
Model has recently transformed within the framework of competitiveness in the global market, flexibility and
adaptation to innovation, employees participate to the decisions which concern them in their workplaces with
various methods as a part of this model. In the reconstruction process which appeared as a result of the European
Union project, especially the activities and relationships of MNCs in the European scale facilitated the
globalisation off the capital. On the other hand, employees of these businesses do not have difficulties in
participating the decisions which concern them in the reconstruction process. In serious conditions such as
replacement, closure, purchase, merger, etc. experienced in businesses in this reconstruction process, employees
of businesses are affected by the decisions of head office which may be thousands of kilometres away from
them. At this point, the European Commission has introduced a number of directives in order to provide the
information and consultation rights of the employees in the European scale for the purpose of minimising the
differences arising from national applications and decrease the effects of the reconstruction process. Taking into
consideration the EU membership process, these directives will apparently have various effects on the current
participation structure of Turkish Industrial Relations System. These directives should be evaluated in Turkey by
taking into consideration the current structure.
Employee Participation in General
One of the most important subjects in the field of industrial relations is participation of employees
and/or their representatives to decisions and the question of its scope, while the debates on what the best method
of this could be are still ongoing (Hyman and Mason, 1995: 5).
The term participation has survived throughout the years in various forms starting from the
communities attempted by Owen (Owenite communities) who wanted to reorganise the society of 1800s on a
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social basis until today. Most of the definitions of participation are ideological, and participation can shortly be
defined as a process which allows employees to affect its working conditions and operations to some extent
(Strauss, 2006: 779). Besides, below one can find the methods appearing concerning the participation of
employees until today and the countries these emerged in.
Type
(
ı
)
Self
management of
workers
(2)
Producer
cooperatives
Defined qualities Structural Features
Implemented in socialist economies. Employees
participate in the basic decision making structures,
have wide range of rights, however do not own the
property of the institution. There are representative
organs in the management committees which
include workers‘ councils and workers‘ assemblies.
Based on the property ownership of workers. Most
of the employees are property owners. Ownership is
distributed widely. Employees participate in the
business management, control and distribution of
profit.
It is as common decision making in business board
of directors. Employees are represented in a certain
ratio in single or double level boards of directors
(audit and management). They have several rights
such as veto.
(3)
Codetermination
(4)
Work
Councils
and
Structures which may hold regular negotiations
similar
(meetings) with the management in matters which
Institutions
concern the business and represent the employees in
various political economies.
A-Local
It is defined as the social dialogue structure based on
the enterprise. The employees have the right to
B-Regional
European Work information and consultation when decisions which
concern them are being taken.
Councils
It is seen is pluralist societies which accept the
(5) Union Actions current clash of interests through unions. Unions,
aSeparator which are the representation method of the worker
through collective side is based on laws and volunteering on a certain
bargaining
basis.
State socialism or corporatism. There is an
b-Complementary environment in which state, employer and trade
unions can determine several matters in cooperation.
It is as the participation of employees to the
(6)
Workplace organisation of work in various political economies
(autonomous work groups or work life quality
participation
programs). Effects of the workers are usually
programs
dependent on task-based programs.
Countries (Key Examples)
Algeria, Peru, Poland, Yugoslavia
and several 3rd world and Eastern
European societies
(Yugoslavia)
France, Italy, Spain, USA, Britain
and most 3rd world countries
(Mondragon, Basque region of
Spain)
Western Europe (Italy, Norway,
Sweden, West Germany), Africa
(Egypt) and South America
(Argentina)
(West Germany)
Finland,
Indonesia,
the
Netherlands, Spain Sri Lanka,
West Germany, Zambia.
(The Netherlands and West
Germany)
European Union, AEA Countries
and other countries with a MNC
active within the borders of EU.
Australia, Canada, USA, Britain
(USA, Britain)
Russia, Eastern Europe
Management techniques in first,
second and third world countries
Scandinavia, USA
Table 1. Comparison of Basic Types of Industrial Democracy
Source: edited from Poole, M. (2004): 156-157.
As it can be seen from the table, the issue of employee participation is affected by various factors.
These can mostly be defined as ideologies, or the parties which start the participation methods.
Other than that, concerning participation methods, modern capitalism has created autonomous
workgroups, profit sharing and co-partnership enterprises; liberal pluralist and social democrat thought has
created collective bargaining, co-determination and work councils experiences; and democratic socialism has
created the applications of self-management (Poole; 2004: 150). When the starting parties are taken into
consideration, employee participation methods; employee attempts (for instance, employee (production unit)
control on the production process), union attempts (negotiation and bargaining on employment terms and
conditions), state attempts, and employer attempts arising from the workplace in order to increase the loyalty,
effectiveness, productivity of employees can be mentioned (Poole et al., 2001: 492-493).
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Information and Consultation Methods of Employees in Europe
Labour relations have a central role in the basis of European Social Model (ESM); because this field is a
field which provides the balance of the model in general. In this area, on one hand economic growth and
efficiency, on the other hand equality and security is balanced together (Koray, 2005: 129-130). Working class
played an important role in the emerging of ESM and the labour relations play a central role in this social model.
One of the basic pillars of ESM consists of employees and their participation in the workplace.
Although the applications in Europe have an important place as a different model in terms of employee
participation, it is not really possible to mention a single method of participation in Europe. This is because
various systems emerged because of differences in the national applications, traditions and legal systems of the
EU countries (Gülmez, 2008: 429).
Trade unions as free and independent unions have been accepted in the EU in general. The traditional
collective bargaining structure in Europe is a basic source for the employees to determine their wages policies
and working conditions freely. This means that collective bargaining actors are very effective on the functioning
of the labour market.
Other than these, information and consultation methods in workplaces are officially established and
strengthened with a legal framework in most of the European countries. This workplace representation can be
organised by work councils and/or trade union representatives. Although workplace representation has too much
diversity, it is a distinctive feature of today‘s EU industrial relations system. These systems of workplace
representation have generally been developed in Western Europe after the World War II as a way of
organisational and economic democracy. When the Central and Eastern European countries transitioned to
modern market economy, they obtained these methods of participation. This trend caused this area of industrial
relations to be more legally active in the EU (European Commission, 2006: 57).
Recently, the issue of employee participation is perceived as an element of reconstruction of enterprises
and providing required integration in this process in order to increase the competition, protect and increase the
level of employment in Europe. The traditional model in Europe concerning employee participation used to be
defined as employee representation in the business level (work councils or trade unions), triple structures,
collective bargaining and strong trade unions. This traditional model which provided serious job security,
generous welfare state conditions and relatively high wages was criticised on the grounds of causing instability,
high level of unemployment and a decrease in competitiveness in the current economic and political period and
caused discussions in questions such as how an increase in competitiveness, flexibility and efficiency be
provided and how the current changes be adapted to. As a result of these discussions, it can be seen that a new
European model which is based on increase in education, lifelong learning, job security, use of information
technologies and the concept of flexibility; which is connected to worker ownership and profit sharing, indirect
participation based on employer-employee confidence and partnership and empowering individual employees;
and which includes direct participation (Gill and Krieger, 2000: 109-112).
For the last 10 years, the basic issue in the political agenda of the EU is related to the regulation of
labour market. In the process of cooperation on labour market policies, some concrete results have been achieved
in matters such as part-time employment, employment periods, EWCs, sexual equality and work life
environment. Social dialogue attempts performed in European level and resulted with several agreements
between ETUC, CEEP and UNICE developed certain examples of cooperation among the labour market actors
of Europe (Jensen, Madsen and Due, 1999: 118-119). As a result of this cooperation, the Council of Ministers
agreed on some directives related to this matter. These directives are EWC Directive (94/45/EC), Information
and Consultation Directive (2002/14/EC) and Directive supplementing the Statute for a European company
(2001/86/EC) (Schwimbersky, 2005: 189).
European Works Councils
EWCs are structures which allow information and consultation of employees in businesses or groups of
businesses in the community level. The importance of EWCs in terms of European industrial relations has
increased since their emergence, as an institution representing the interests in the business level. EWCs indicate
an acceptance that the need for ―Europeanization‖ introduced by European Single Market increased, beyond
national information and consultation methods (Eurofound, 2010).
Although all EWCs are established in a structure which does not have the role of negotiation and
providing rights to information and consultation, they provide an institutional framework which may potentially
support international bargaining. In relation to that, they have concluded framework conventions or more
moderate joint texts. However, this condition was only effective when commercial decisions need to be taken
(reconstruction and rationalisation) in the European level and when trade unions or works councils in different
countries could strongly organise. In conclusion, Europeanization of industrial relations is seen as a part of the
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process in which collective negotiations which are more appropriate for competitiveness and adaptability
objectives of employers (Arrowsmith and Marginson, 2006: 255-263).
The purpose of this Directive, as indicated in the official text, is to reinforce the rights of the employees
who are employed in the undertakings active in the Community scale to information and consultation
(2009/38/EC, art. 1-1). In line with this purpose, a European Works Council or another procedure which provides
these rights should be implemented in undertakings or groups of undertakings active in the community level.
Since it does not provide any participation other than information and consultation in terms of rights to
participation, it has a limited participation structure.
According to the purposes of this Directive, ―Community-scale undertaking‖ means any undertaking
with at least 1000 employees within the Member States and at least 150 employees in each of at least two
Member States. ―Group of undertakings‖ means a controlling undertaking and its controlled undertakings.
―Community-scale group of undertakings‖ means a group of undertakings with at least 1 000 employees within
the Member States, at least two group undertakings in different Member States, and at least one group
undertaking with at least 150 employees in one Member State and at least one other group undertaking with at
least 150 employees in another Member State (Article 2/1-a,b,c).
The European Works Council shall have the right to meet with the central management once a year, to
be informed and consulted, on the basis of a report drawn up by the central management, on the progress of the
business of the Community-scale undertaking or Community-scale group of undertakings and its prospects.
(Subsidiary requirements art. 2).
Other than these, the content of these meetings and information and consultation subjects will be related
to the structures of community-scale undertakings and groups of undertakings, their economic and financial
conditions, possible development and production conditions and wages. Information and consultation of EWC
will especially be related to employment conditions and possible trends, investments and important changes
concerning the undertaking, new work techniques or formation of production process, production transfer,
closure of undertaking, institution or important parts thereof, mergers or downsizing conditions and collective
redundancies. In this process, consultation will be conducted with a method in which personnel representatives
can negotiate with the central management, have a right to answer and a negotiation environment in which they
express their views is provided (Subsidiary requirements art. 1 (a)). Here, the basic principle is based on EWC
informing the employees about developments on time and improve the dialogue and cooperation environment by
introducing an alternative proposal by personnel representatives to the solution proposals recommended by the
management (Hekimler, 2004: 324).
Besides, other than the ordinary meetings in the subsidiary article 3, it is required in extraordinary conditions
which affect the interests of the employees greatly such as collective redundancies and closure of undertakings or
companies, change of location, etc. that the elected committee, or in the absence of such committee, EWC
should be informed.
Directive numbered 2009/38/EC which came into force with its publication on the Official Gazette in
May 2009 combined the preceding directives and included EU-27 countries and countries within AEA. Member
states are obliged to implement the required regulations in order to adapt to the provisions of this directive not
later than June 5, 2011 (Article 16).
Participation of Employees Employed in European Companies
European Company, or with its Latin term, Societas Europaea, basically has the purpose that a
company to be able to act in the union scale and to participate in the European industrial relations system with
regard to the participation rights of the employees (Hekimler, 2006: 76). European legislator issued the
regulation numbered 2157/2001 (O J, 2001a) and the directive numbered 2001/86/EC (O J, 2001b) in order to
regulate this type of company. Here, while the regulation includes provisions required by the company law,
Directive regulates the areas concerning the labour law.
SE allows the companies active in more than one member states to be regarded as a single company
under the union law and thus makes it possible for them to be subject to a single law within the EU and to be
managed jointly. For the companies active in European Common Market, SE decreases administrative costs and
a single legal framework adapted to the Common Market as a whole. This legislation gives the businesses the
possibility to enlarge and reconstruct their international activities without costly and time consuming
bureaucratic transactions in order to establish an inter-corporation network. This is a convenient step taken in
order to encourage international activities of more companies and thus increase the competitiveness of Europe in
accordance with the targets determined in Lisbon Conference (OUT-LAW, 2001).
A European Company can be established in 4 ways (Europa, 2007);
Merger of two or more public companies which are active in at least two member states (two or more
companies established and active subject to the legislation of more than two member states).
By establishing a holding by a public or private company active in at least two member states
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By establishing subsidiaries of companies active in at least two member states
By transformation of a public company with a subsidiary for at least two years in another member state.
Participation rights of employees in SE are secured and regulated with the Directive numbered 2001/86/EC. The
existing participation rights of employees were protected in the Directive and it was attempted to prevent the
limitation of these rights. The principle of regulating the participation rights of employees here was attempted to
be secured regardless of the size of the SE or the number of employees (Hekimler, 2006: 87).
According to the paragraph h of article 2, ―involvement of employees‖ means any mechanism,
including information, consultation and participation, through which employees' representatives may exercise an
influence on decisions to be taken within the company. This article also defined the meaning of the rights of
―information and consultation‖, as well as ―participation‖. It was expressed that participation to a decision occurs
in two ways. First, by directly electing or appointing some members of supervisory or advisory organs of the
company; second, by recommending or opposing the appointment of some or all of the members of the
company's supervisory or administrative organ (Article 2, paragraph k).
Framework Directive 2002/14/EC on Informing and Consulting Employees
The incident that Renault company applied redundancies without informing the employee
representatives in Vilvoorde near Brussels on the second half of 1990s had an important role in accepting this
Directive. Here the directive 2002/14/EC was introduced by the commission since 98/59/EC (O J, 1998)
collective redundancies, 2001/23/EC (O J, 2001c) workplace transfer and previous 94/45/EC (O J, 1994) ve yeni
2009/38/EC (O J, 2009) European Works Councils Directives could not provide the adequate security
concerning information and consultation of employees (Hekimler, 2006: 103-104; Gülmez, 2008: 460-461).
This Directive establishes a general framework in order to reduce the deficiencies within the provisions
in force in national or community levels and fill in the gaps for rights to information and consultation of
employees in the European Community (Europa, 2008). The purpose of the directive is to establish a general
framework determining the minimum requirements in order to contribute to the information and consultation
rights of employees (art. 1/1). Two important principles are emphasised here. Firstly, practical regulations
concerning information and consultation should be determined and implemented in order to provide their
effectiveness in accordance with the industrial relations applications in member states and national legislation
(art. 1/2). Secondly; worker and employer representatives should work in line with mutual rights and obligations
and within the cooperation spirit, taking into consideration the interests of each undertaking or institution and
employee in defining and implementing practical legislations concerning information and consultation (art. 1/2).
In line with the preferences of member states, undertakings with at least 50 employees or
establishments which employ at least 20 employees can be selected to implement the Directive (art. 3/1). Here,
undertaking is used in order to define the workplaces with a separate legal personality which have an economic
activity regardless of whether profit-seeking or not, public or private, and establishment is used to define
workplaces which have a constant economic activity, defined as workplace nationally, do not have a legal
personality and registered to only one employer (TĠSK, 2006; art. 2/a-b).
Information should be provided to employee representatives with an appropriate time, content and
method which makes it possible for them to make required preparations and adequate studies for consultation.
Consultation is defined as the dialogue and exchange of ideas between employer and employee representatives
(art. 2/f-g).
Information and consultation consists of three areas concerning undertakings. These are (art. 4/2, a-b-c);
information concerning the activities or economic conditions of the establishment or information concerning the
current status and possible development of undertaking; information and consultation related to any measures to
be taken in advance concerning the conditions, structure and possible development of employment in
undertakings or establishments; information and consultation on possible decisions which may cause important
changes in contractual relations and labour organisation within the scope of the Community provisions expressed
in article 9(1).
The Commission accepted the Directive on March 11, 2002 and required the member states to adapt it to their
national legislations at the latest on March 23, 2005. Other than this, according to article 10, in case that there are
not any legal, general and continuous information and consultation methods which regulate the representation of
employees on the date that the Directive comes into force, the member states may limit the application area of
the Directive as undertaking with 150 employees and establishment with 100 employees until March 23, 2007.
In the continuance of this article, it was indicated that these undertakings can be limited within one year as
undertakings with 100 employees and establishments with 50 employees (Art. 10).
Although it was said that almost half of all undertakings and establishments in the European Union
would provide right to information and consultation to their employees and thus ensure the development of
employee participation and social dialogue within ―European industrial relations system‖ with complete
implementation of the Directive (Hekimler, 2006: 113), European Trade Union Confederation has some criticism
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arguing that quantitative thresholds are too high. Accordingly, the threshold of undertaking employing 50
employees correspond to only 3% of all undertakings in Europe (Gülmez, 2008: 475). This fact seriously
narrows down the area of application.
Employee Participation in Turkey and Evaluation of EU Directives in Turkey
When one looks at Turkish Industrial Relations System, it can be seen that detailed and restrictive legal
arrangements, attitude of employers towards employees and unionisation, scale of the illegal economy and big
role of the state within the system (Yildirim and Calis, 2008) have a restrictive effect concerning the
participation of employees. These conditions affected negatively on the creation of methods which allow the
employees to participate in the work life.
Labour Laws in Turkey clearly include only those who are employed in large scale undertakings. In the
Labour Law numbered 4857, it is indicated that Labour Law provisions will not be valid in workplaces and
undertakings which employ less than 50 workers and agriculture and forest works are performed (art. 4) and the
condition that more than 30 workers should be employed for the job security to be implemented (art. 18) (Resmi
Gazete, 2003). Taking into consideration that according to SSK statistics, 2.300.000 of 5 million insured
employees are employed in work places which employ less than 30 employees (Simonetti et al., 2008:4), it can
be found that almost half of even the legally employed insured workers are not covered by the Labour Law.
Also, the subject of unionisation of employees in our country appears quite problematical. Taking into
consideration that the problems continue using the union rights and calculating the unionisation ratios, it is
claimed that the ratio of unionisation is between 10 and 15% (Çelik ve Lordoğlu, 2006: 28). Besides, it should be
mentioned that number of workers according to the scale of work place within the scope of collective labour
agreements is very little compared to the collective labour agreements agreed in the large scale enterprises
(ÇSGB, 2008:32).
Although freedom of trade union is secured by the constitution and related laws in Turkey, there are several
limitations in implementation. One encounters legal article breaches in actual use of this right and trade unions
have difficulties in registering new members (Simonetti et al., 2008:3).
Social policy in Turkey was created under the control of the state and independent from social and class
dynamics because of reasons such as late capitalism, late working class and late democratisation. Delay in
industrialisation in our country also delayed the emergence of working class and prevented the formation of
social policy with pressure coming from below (Çelik, 2008: 185-186).
In addition to the constitution (1982 Constitution) which introduced restrictive regulations to trade
unions and union activities, Law of Trade Unions and Laws of Collective Bargaining, Strike and Lockout which
came into force in 1983 introduced administrative control and extreme limitations on trade unions and imposed
judicial and bureaucratic limitations on collective bargaining and strike activities. These laws are still in force
without substantial amendments and constitute the main legal framework of industrial relations system.
Although officially freedom of organisation and the right to collective bargaining and strike was recognised in
these laws, they impose many anti-unionist applications as proved by ILO investigations and later ICFTU
reports. Because of structural reforms imposed by the World Bank and the IMF since 1980 and acceleration of
privatisation caused illegal economy and subcontracting to develop. Today, approximately 50% of those who
work in unqualified and low-wage positions constitute the insecure and informal labour market. All those
developments limited the realm of industrial relations and affected negatively on the employees, their organised
power and the actual wage levels. Also, today the state continues to play the dominant role in determining the
basic characteristics of industrial relations in Turkey; because despite the recent attempts and privatisation, the
public sector employs nearly 40% of all wage earners. On the other hand, the role played by the state as a large
employer places it in the centre of industrial relations in Turkey. Legal framework created in detail allows the
state to be effective on the structure of industrial relations. Starting from the first years of the Republic of Turkey
until 1940s, it has been expressed that the state was dominant in the economic and political agenda with a single
party ideology, a kind of corporatist ideology, almost all industrial institutions were established and managed by
the state while worker organisations were not allowed (Yildirim and Calis, 2008: 214-216).
Concerning the representation and participation of employees in Turkey, although various methods
which provide participation in work place and undertaking level with trade unions, institution of collective
bargaining, new management techniques, various industrial democracy methods, this structure is heavily
provided by the union representation method. Turkish trade unionism has the structure which obtains its power
from legal supports and limits itself with collective bargaining activities. Unionisation of public employees also
faces several problems and limitations. Moreover, there is an employer unionism with a week representative
power (Kutal, 2005: 17).
The application of participation to management through collective agreements mostly occurs as
participation of labour or union representatives through commissions or committees. Common worker councils
which regulate the participation of workers to management in collective labour agreements are established in
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very different subjects and names. These are respectively, discipline councils, councils for settlement of disputes,
occupational health and security councils, examination commissions, special arbiter councils, damage
assessment councils, leave committees, central councils, worker-management cooperation committees,
application and supervision councils, employee-employer cooperation committee and workplace councils or
committees (Dicle, 1980: 265- 269; Erdoğan, 2009: 143).
Management participation applications through collective bargaining method aims to provide common
solutions in matters such as production, working conditions, wage, redundancies and discipline in the workplace
(GörmüĢ; 2003). Also, the basic purpose is to check whether the collective labour agreement agreed in the
workplace is appropriately working, and if not, to provide solutions for these problems.
The reason for the emergence of these councils which have tasks in various areas is the desire of trade
unions to increase their effects on workplace management. Taking into consideration the activities they perform,
these councils supervise the unilateral applications of the employer and increase democracy. If the employees are
not represented adequately in these councils whose proper functioning is dependent on the power of the
employee party and the trade union, the councils may transform into a formal tool (Aslan, 1998a: 161).
Although in principle the institution ―worker‘s representation‖ does not exist in the labour law, ―union
representation‖ institution exists according to the Law of Trade Unions numbered 2821. However, since in our
country the scope of collective labour agreement is quite narrow and it is not possible to conclude collective
labour agreements in the wider sense, the ―worker‘s representative‖ councils are applied in a very limited area
[Law of Trade Unions Art. 35] (Kayhan, 2007: 68).
Workers have been represented in the minimum wage commissions in the rate of 1/3 since the year
1921. In the Labour Law numbered 3008, ―arbitration‖ discipline councils and worker‘s representation are
important for our topic (Dicle, 1980: 239-240). In the Labour Law dated 1936, a council of ―worker‘s
representatives‖ was established. However, since the law was regulated narrowly in terms of scope, only certain
workers were granted this right. The law of trade unions numbered 274 and law of collective agreement, strike
and lockout numbered 275 accepted after the constitution of 1961 on 1963 ended this worker‘s representation
application and introduced union representation application instead. Workplace trade union representation
institution is still in force with the law numbered 2821 (Hekimler, 2006: 195). Other than these, in 1934, in a
state enterprise, Türkiye ġeker Fabrikaları A.ġ., the participation of employees in Turkey to the management
with the demand of the employer occurred through ―management committees‖ established in the undertaking
level (Dicle, 1980: 239–240).
The law numbered 23 dated 1960 allowed the participation of employees to the management through
election of a worker‘s representative to the Board of Directors in government business enterprises. Later, instead
of this law, the law numbered 440 which allowed the membership of a worker in the board of directors of ―those
who employ widely in industrial, agricultural and transportation sectors‖ and the management committees of
similar establishments came into force in 1964. In this law, it was stipulated that 1 worker‘s representative
should be elected to the Board of Directors in government business enterprises in which more than 10.000
workers are employed (Çelikkol, 1974: 248-249). The law numbered 440 and the regulations issued for its
application was applied in a very limited sense since the establishment size was defined very high and therefore
the number of representatives was inadequate (Tokol, 2005: 92). The law numbered 440 was abolished with the
laws numbered 2929 on 1983 and the introduced law did not include any provisions concerning the
representation of workers in the board of directors; and also the bylaw dated 1984 and numbered 23 did not
introduce any provisions when it abolished the law numbered 2929 (Ünsal, 2006: 95).
Either in the workplace level or enterprise level, a participation right has never existed in our country
except for some exceptional cases (Hekimler, 2006: 196).
Between 1960 and 1980, trade unions such as Asis, Dev Sağlık-ĠĢ, Sosyal-ĠĢ, Yer altı Maden-ĠĢ,
Türkiye Gıda-ĠĢ, Devrimci Metal –ĠĢ, Dev Maden-Sen, Tekges-ĠĢ, TĠS, Devrimci Toprak-ĠĢ, Maden-ĠĢ, Tek
Eğitim Büro-ĠĢ had an experience with their regulations and activities which included workplace council,
committee or assemblies were established. These structures were regarded as improving the intra-union
democracy, rather than being an alternative to trade unions. Also, the workplace committees which remained
silent after September 12 came into the agenda once again after the end of 1980s. Harb-ĠĢ Union which is a part
of Türk-ĠĢ had the workplace committees application which consisted of 2 representatives in larger undertakings
and 1 in smaller undertakings and gathering every month around 1986 (Aslan, 1998b: 158-159). Recently, at
least partially, some worker‘s council applications can be encountered. Some trade unions began to establish
relations with the EWCs of the workplaces they are organised in. Also, there are EWCs in some of the
workplaces in which the larger unions are organised. However, in very few of these workplaces a representative,
in the observer status from Turkey is sent to the EWC.
In this matter, Hak-ĠĢ Confederation and Konya Metropolitan Municipality have taken an important
step with the ―Konya Workplace Information and Consultation Councils Project‖. With the project, an original
model was attempted to be established which will constitute the basis for the legal regulations that our country
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will perform in the future concerning ―Workplace Information and Consultation Councils‖ and it has been put
into practice in Konya Metropolitan Municipality as of September 20, 2007 (Hak-iĢ and KBB, 2007: 51-52).
As it can be seen in the development plans, as the EU membership efforts gained speed since 1990s,
regulations concerning the participation of employees began to exist wihin the matters of adaptation to EU
directives and ILO norms. Especially the plans numbered 6, 7, 8 and 9 include commitments for these purpose
(DPT, 1990, 1996, 2000, 2006). When the commission report concerning the worker participation in Turkish
National Program was examined (DPT, 2007: 89-90); while partial conformity to the directives concerning the
cooperation between the parties of work life and information and consultation methods in EU acquis was
established (for instance, establishment of triple consultation council, abolition of some limitations before
unionist organisation with the amendment on the Law of Public Employees‘ Unions numbered 4688), it is
required that current information and consultation mechanisms should be strengthened, triple social dialogue in
the national level as well as bilateral dialogue in the sectoral and business level should be developed, and EU
directives such as ―EWCs‖, ―participation of employees of European companies‖, and ―information of
employees of undertakings‖ should be conformed to.
When the Labour Law numbered 4857 concerning the participation rights of the employees related to
information and consultation is examined, articles which formally or indirectly regulate this structure can be
observed. Along with some articles concerning information and consultation in the Labour Law, there are also
council structure which provide worker participation. Articles 8, 13, 17, 22, 29, 38, 39, 52 and 77 of the Labour
Law numbered 4857 are related to the information and representation of the employees (Resmi Gazete, 2003).
In the Labour Law numbered 4857, although there are some articles concerning information and
consultation, it is somewhat difficult to say that they conform with the content of information and consultation as
provided in EWCs. Although there is a regulation concerning giving information to employers and providing
participation of employees in matters such as collective redundancies, wage cut penalties, minimum wage,
percentage method, occupational health and security and formation tripartite consultation council, what attracts
attention is that this obligation is given for workplace union representative and related trade union while nonunion employees cannot benefit from these rights.
Moreover, employees in Turkey are also represented in various social dialogue structures. Among these,
Tripartite Consultation Council, Work Assembly, Economic and Social Council; Minimum Wage Determination
Commission and YHK focusing on a certain part of work life can be mentioned. Besides, Social Security
Institution and Labour Institution of Turkey which work on the general assembly and the management councils
of the institutions concerning the work life and Occupational Training Council, Council for the Disabled,
Consumers‘ Council and Tax Council which concern the work life indirectly can be mentioned (Koray and
Çelik, 2007: 395-396). The most important thing to be said about these institutions are that the employees are
represented through the representatives determined by the trade unions only organised in their workplaces and
having the most members.
Besides, all these councils cannot reflect the social dialogue completely. In the Minimum Wage
Determination Commission which has an important place among the councils of tripartite structure, decisions are
not taken unanimously, and the minimum wage is usually determined despite the dissenting opinion of the
workers‘ confederation. A similar condition is also valid for the ESC which became legal in 2001. The dominant
role of the government within the structure of the council whose purposes are to provide social consensus and
cooperation in establishing economic and social policies, to create a continuous and permanent environment, to
transfer the opinions to decision making organs creates problems. In member states of the European Union, it
can be observed that such committees are formed with an understanding in which social groups are widely
represented distant from government domination (ġahin, 2003: 68-69).
Social parties find the role of the government in the social dialogue inadequate and inefficient, and
demand from it to change its oppressive role to a more listening stance which does not act on its own. In the
matter of developing a behaviour code to which all parties would agree by the government, it has been expressed
that DĠSK and Türk-ĠĢ has demands as well as TĠSK (Valk and Süral, 2005: 50-51). However, lack of
cooperation culture between the government and social parties prevents agreement and weakness of social
parties also weakens their negotiation skills (Kayhan, 2007: 72).
Since ESC is unsuccessful in providing an effective consultation between social partners in the national
level, it has been criticised by the EU and it is argued that the government should decrease its number of
representation. For these reasons, the government expressed that it intends to review the composition of ESC and
especially its own dominant position in 2005. Although all social parties have responsibility in the success of
social dialogue, the actual responsibility belongs to the government in this matter. If the government contributes
in the serious functioning of ESC, it would have taken a big step towards the development of social dialogue
(Yildirim and Calis, 2008: 225).
The decision to start the negotiations with Turkey in the Brussels summit in December 17, 2004 is a
new phase in the EU process and it will probably be shaped within this framework in the following 10 to 20
years. Also, the least interested among two constitutional amendments and seven harmonization packages within
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the EU harmonization procedure of Turkey were social law and policies (Çelik, 2005: 23-25). Lack of interest on
this field in which the most enthusiastic debates should have occurred show that the problems still wait for
solutions.
EU candidacy procedure of Turkey develops on one hand with developments required for integration
and on the other hand the conflict of interest among the parties which want to be effective within this
development. In this phase of development and progress, the conditions which the preservation of status quo
prevents protection of rights cause pauses and deviations. In countries where bilateral and tripartite agreements
are used as effective social dialogue tools in the national level, matters such as protection and development of
competitive power of agreements, balanced economic growth, establishment of economic stability, development
of employment and decrease of unemployment, active employment policies, tax and income policies, social
security, training and occupational training, labour laws, discrimination, etc. are involved. From this point, the
developments in Turkey are not institutionalised, therefore deficient and lacks actual results. Procedures such as
ESC efforts, labour law and social security laws could only be formally existent and virtually ineffective under
the domination of government policies or the stronger party (Çelebi, 2007).
According to Dereli (2007), it is required that conformity to EU Directives which regulate the
participation of employees in workplaces should be provided in the process of conformity with EU acquis.
Removal of the provision which allowed election of workers‘ representatives in workplaces which did not have
union representatives from the draft law 4857 created a gap in the legislation especially in terms of information
and consultation related to collective redundancies, transfer of workplace, etc. In this matter, Turkey is required
to make legislations in line with the directives which include information and consultation of at least the
employees employed in the undertakings of national level or establishing workplace councils.
Also, an intensive process is expected in the future period. In our country, the legislations to which
could not be harmonized with the EU acquis and will be introduced with the following directives would
introduce new and important concepts and institutions in the Turkish work life;
— Directive 2009/38/EC on the establishment of a European Works Council for the purposes of informing and
consulting employees,
— Directive 2002/14 establishing a general framework for informing and consulting employees,
— Directive 2001/86/EC for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees.
Political conditions peculiar to Turkey and competitive power discourses of Turkey are two important obstacles
before the EU harmonization process. Although first one is partially overcome, the other discourse is difficult to
overcome and it is only possible by distancing from the paternalist and neo-liberal line (Çelik, 2005: 43-45).
However, Turkey generally accepts the EU directives with tactics such as nonconformity, extending over a
period of time or delaying – as in ILO norms. It also accepts the current applications either late, or with
reservations or not implementing them in the national law; thus is criticised in international supervision. Also,
required steps concerning political rights and freedoms in the EU process are not conformed to because of
excuses such as they do not conform with the dynamics of Turkey and would weaken the structure of the
country. It is observed that wider social groups in Turkey (employer-employee unions, academics, government
and EU organs) have varying opinions in this matter (Çelik, 2005: 26-27).
Conclusion
The fact that the scope of Turkish Industrial Relations system is narrow, that it includes detailed legal
provisions and dominant role of the state within the system caused negative consequences in terms of
participation of employees. It was quite difficult for the employees in Turkey to have power or legislation to
have a say in determining the economic and social policies because of reasons such as late capitalism, late
working class and late democratisation. As a matter of fact, even today, employees have difficulties in using
their universal rights. When one looks at the rights to participation in Turkey, the basic method of representation
is trade union and collective bargaining structure either in the micro (undertaking) or macro (national) level.
Those who are represented within this structure constitute only 10-15% of the wage earners. Workplace
participation methods other than this are almost nonexistent. Taking into consideration the non-unions, those
who are not included within the Labour Law and those who are not legally employed, a great majority of the
employees in Turkey lack the right to representation and say. From this point of view, the EU Directives which
provide the rights to information, consultation and participation to management in workplaces would
theoretically contribute a lot to Turkish Industrial Relations System. However, the attitude of employers towards
these Directives, legislations of the government concerning social policy and employment, delaying or
reservations concerning some articles, ineffectiveness of workers‘ representatives either in general or in social
dialogue structures and lack of a common strategy among the confederations in this matter may cause the
integration of these directives to be problematical.
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322
�
Dublin Core
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186
Title
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Right to Information and Consultation of Employees: Evaluation of EU Directives in Turkey
Author
Author
ERDOĞAN, Ekrem
GÜMÜŞ, Yasin Kerem
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In Turkish, because of the definitive role of the state, attitude of employers and powerlessness of the working class, the employers do not effectively have a say. In the EU, the employees participate their workplaces in various methods as a part of European Social Model. However, in the reconstruction process in the EU, labour and its participation methods remained local in the European scale despite the globalisation of capital especially with the increase of activities and relationships of MNCs. At this point, to reduce the differences arising from national applications and the effects of the process of reconstruction, the Commission has created a number of directives in order to provide the right to information and consultation of employees. These directives became important also for Turkey as of membership negotiations. This article aims to examine the employee participation in Turkey and indicate the possible effects of EU information and consultation directives.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/caf8b0c4518643950ba26e752bade1ba.pdf
27be261924be5c169a25448b73268631
PDF Text
Text
A Research on Heavy Metal Statues in Some Pasture Soil of Antalya
Cengiz ERDURMUŞ
Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya
Semiha ÇEÇEN
Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya
cecen@hotmail.com
Sadık ÇAKMAKÇI
Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Field Crops Department, Antalya
Ramazan TOKER
Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya
Abstract: Meadow and pasture resources fulfill many important tasks, besides feature of
being a source of feed for livestock production. Being natural balance element, erosion
prevention, clean water, air and food production and protection of genetic resources of
many plant and livestock organism can be accepted among these.
Because of rapidly growing urbanization, industrialization and tourism, meadow and
pasture resources in the Mediterranean region have been polluted with different pollutants.
In this study, soil pollution research was done in pastures near intensive industry and
tourism region of Antalya. Concentration of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Hg elements were
analyzed in 12 samples from 3 different pastures as 4 samples from each one.
Results showed us that the concentration of Ni was higher than the limits written in Turkey
Soil Pollution Control Regulation. The other concentrations are lower than the limits
written in Regulation. This study is a precursor study which shows the needs of other
detailed study.
Key words: Pasture, Soil, Heavy metal
Introduction
Meadow and pasture are being one of the important natural richness of a country (Altin et al., 2005). According
to last evaluations, nearly half of the land of the earth is taken in to pasture concept and these areas have been
accepted as valuable part of the nature and they should be protected as tropic forest (Avcioglu, 1999). Meadow
and pastures have important tasks such as protection of soil, protection of genetic resources and using as
livestock feed (Avcioglu, 1983). It is known that increasing with industrial activity, energy production,
transportation and urbanization is caused to environmental pollution. Environmental pollutants are dangerous to
human health, plants and other goods (Hodges, 1977; Biggins and Harrison, 1980).
The most negative effect of pollutants is carrying heavy metals which are toxic and carcinogenic (Lagerwer and
Specth, 1970; Linton et al., 1980; Biggins and Harrison, 1980; Sakai et al., 1988). Pb, Cd and Ni pollution are
more common in urban areas than rural areas because they are caused by industrial sources. Normally Pb and Cd
are not found in plants. Whether if they are found trace amount in plants, it is accepted as a sign of pollutions
(Foy et al., 1978). Heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr are toxic for human and animals (Lagerwerff et al Specth,
1970; Linton et al., 1980). These toxic heavy metals are spread out to environment by industrial activities and
emissions of motor vehicles (Biggins and Harrison, 1980; Miller and McFee, 1983; Chow, 1970).
Antalya is one of the provinces which has highest emigration rate in Turkey. This emigration causes to
industrialization. In this study, soil pollution of 3 selected pastures which have great role as livestock feed source
and near to urban and industry areas.
566
�Material and Method
Ooil samples were taken from 4 stations of each 3 pastures, totally 12 stations. Each sample was formed by
mixing 5 samples taken from 100 m2 representative areas of pasture. Samples were taken from 10 cm depth.
Analyses were carried out at Atmosfer Agriculture Analysis Laboratory.
Soil samples were prepared to analyses by sieving them through 2 mm sieves after making them as air dry at
laboratory conditions (Jackson, 1967). In soil samples, structure analysis were done by hydrometric method
(Bouyoucos, 1962), and water soluble total salt content were done by measuring electricity resistant in sature soil
priming (U.S. Soil Survey Staff, 1951). Amount of CaCO were analysed by Scheibler calcimeter (Schlichting
3
ve Blume, 1966), organic materials were analyzed by crossing organic C percentage, which were evaluated by
fresh burning method, with 1.724 factor (Reuterberg and Kremkus, 1951), total N was analyzed by modified
macro Kjeldahl method (Bremner, 1965).
In soil and ash samples, content of some trace elements (Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb) and heavy metals,
which were extracted in aqua regia (HNO +HCl), were analyzed at ICP-OES after extraction by aqua regia
3
extraction methods.
Result and Discussion
Analysis results of researched pasture soil are given in Table 1, contents of some useful macro and micro
nutrition elements are given in Table 2, results of some heavy metals are given in Table 3, changing of pollutant
heavy metals according to each station are shown in Figure 1. Pb content of soil is changed from 1.8 ppm to
13.16 ppm. The lowest Pb content of soil is at the Aşağıoba 3 and the highest one is at the Yağca 1 (Table 3).
According to values which were given by Kloke (1980) that shows the Pb pollution of soil (100 ppm), it can be
said that there is no Pb pollution at the researched soils (Figure 1).
Nickel contents of soils are changed between 12.76 ppm and 78.25 ppm. The lowest nickel level belongs to
Aşağıoba 4 soils and the highest one is belong to Kovanlık 2 (Table 3). According to values which were given by
Kloke (1980) that shows the Pb pollution of soil (50 ppm), some researched soil samples nickel contents are
higher than Klokes’s data. They are also higher that the limits (75 ppm) written in the Turkey Soil Pollution
Control Regulation (Figure 1). But according to Regulation, analysis results can be exceeded to this limit, if it is
proven scientifically, that they are not dangerous for human and environment at the feed crop cultivated areas.
Cupper contents of soils are changed between 0.7 ppm and 27.63 ppm. The lowest cupper level belongs to
Yağca 4 soils and the highest one is belong to Yağca 2 (Table 3). According to values written in the Turkey Soil
Pollution Control Regulation (140 ppm) there is cupper pollution at the researched soils (Figure 1).
Station
pH
Aşağıoba 1
Aşağıoba 2
Aşağıoba 3
Aşağıoba 4
Kovanlık 1
Kovanlık 2
Kovanlık 3
Kovanlık 4
Yağca 1
Yağca 2
Yağca 3
Yağca 4
6,1
5,4
6,1
6,4
8,1
7,9
7,9
7,9
7,8
7,6
7,7
7,3
Total Nitrogen
EC
CaCO3 Organic materials
(%)
(%)
(N), %
(mmos/cm)
0,7
2,0
0,9
0,10
0,7
2,0
1,6
0,14
0,9
2,0
1,0
0,12
1,0
2,0
1,5
0,10
1,6
16,0
2,7
0,15
1,4
10,0
2,5
0,14
1,3
8,0
2,3
0,13
1,2
9,0
2,3
0,14
1,7
6,0
4,4
0,27
1,6
3,0
3,9
0,23
1,2
5,0
4,6
0,35
0,4
2,0
4,6
0,25
Table 1. Some soil properties of research area
567
Structure
%
31
36
35
40
64
63
59
63
66
57
65
63
�.
Station
Aşağıoba 1
Aşağıoba 2
Aşağıoba 3
Aşağıoba 4
Kovanlık 1
Kovanlık 2
Kovanlık 3
Kovanlık 4
Yağca 1
Yağca 2
Yağca 3
Yağca 4
P 2O 5
(kg/da)
2,15
6,14
5,95
4,08
2,15
0,82
1,88
1,60
42,73
3,25
31,24
8,34
K 2O
(kg/da)
21,02
32,40
56,64
33,60
41,04
37,44
37,68
40,80
158,16
188,16
206,40
262,56
Ca
(ppm)
1559
2250
2492
3255
7310
7518
6301
7436
7813
7975
7485
6874
Mg
(ppm)
249,00
348,00
366,00
417,00
367,00
468,00
339,00
416,00
358,00
383,00
330,00
434,00
Fe
(ppm)
32,4
71,4
33,8
11,8
0,7
1,2
0,6
0,6
1,0
1,5
0,2
1,5
Mn
(ppm)
35,78
55,74
29,19
34,93
0,39
0,08
0,44
0,04
0,04
3,88
2,84
2,94
Zn
(ppm)
0,24
0,01
0,24
0,42
0,68
0,74
0,68
0,53
0,53
6,20
1,53
6,90
Cu
(ppm)
0,87
1,62
1,28
1,69
1,76
1,24
1,20
1,72
1,66
1,19
0,39
2,43
Table 2. Some useful macro and micro nutrition elements in soil samples
Pasture
Aşağıoba
Kovanlık
Yağca
No
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
Cu
14.34
11.83
7.08
6.02
16.64
17.13
16.00
13.42
15.78
27.63
5.97
0.70
Ni
28.62
27.81
18.65
12.76
59.65
78.25
58.11
27.11
70.5
60.75
45.54
17.29
Heavy metals (ppm)
Pb
Zn
Bor
3.42
5.95
5.24
1.8
3.35
5.96
6.19
31.83
6.08
31.01
4.44
27.52
3.34
5.37
13.16
76.85
7.7
147.86
2.73
52.17
33.98
-
Table 3. Some heavy metals contents of soil samples, ppm
568
Hg
-
Cd
-
�Figure 1.Concentration values of polluted heavy metals according to stations
Amount of Zn contents of soils are changed between 3.35 ppm and 147.86 ppm. Aşağıoba 3 has the lowest Zn
level whereas Yağca 2 has the highest one (Table 3). According to values written in the Turkey Soil Pollution
Control Regulation (300 ppm) there is cupper pollution at the researched soils (Figure 1).
In this research, Bor, Cd and Hg, which were analyzed in the soils, were not found.
Results
Four elements (Ni, Pb, Cu, Zn) were found for soil pollution at the 3 pasture near to urban areas and industry
centers. Heavy metal pollution of soil is now at low levels. But if any precaution does not taken, this pollution
level can be increase. For this reason, this initiator research should be considered an than these type of researches
should be replicated periodically (once a 3 or 4 year) and results should be taken in to consideration carefully. If
it is thought, that large part of livestock feed needs are covered from pastures, pastures should be protected from
non-returning soil pollution
Acknowledgment
This paper was supported by the Scientific Research Projects Administration Unit of Akdeniz University.
References
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Avcıoğlu, R., 1999. Çayır Mera Amenajmanı ve Islahı. TBK TÜGEM. Ankara.
Avcıoğlu, R., 1983. Çayır - Mer’a Bitki Topluluklarının Özellikleri ve Đncelenmesi. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayın
No : 466, Bornova-Đzmir.
Biggins, P.D.E. and Harrison, R.M., 1980. Chemical specification of leaf compounds in street dusts, Env.Sci.Tech.14.
Bouyoucos, G. J., A., 1962. Recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of the soils, Agronomy
Journal, 4(9) :434.
Bremner, J. M., 1965. Total nitrogen, Editor C.A. Black. Methods of soil analysis part 2. American society of Agronomy. Inc.
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Foy, C.D., Chaney, R.L. and White, M.C., 1978. Physiology of metal toxicity in plants, Ann. Rev. Plant. Physiol. 29, 511.
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�Hodges, L.,1977 Environmental Pollution, Holt-Rinehart and Winston, 2nd Ed., 496, New York.
Jackson, M.L., 1967. Soil chemical analysis prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
Kloke, A., 1980. Orientierungsdaten für Tolerierbare Gesamtgehalte einiger Elemente in Kulturboden Mitt. VDLUFA, H 1-3,
9-11.
Lagerwer_, J.V. and Specth, A.W., 1970. Contamination of roadside soil and vegetation with Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn, Env. Sci.
Tech. 4, 583,
Linton, R.W., Natucsh, D.F.S., Solomon, R.L. and Evans, C.A., 1980 Physicochemical characterization of lead in urban dusts.
A microanalytical approach to lead tracing, Env. Sci. Tech. 14, 158.
Miller, W.P. and McFee, W.W.,1983. Disribution of Cd, Zn, Cu and Pb in soils of industrial Northwestern Indiana, J. Env.
Qual. 12, 29.
Reuterberg , E., Kremkus, F., 1951. Bestimmung von Gesamt Humus und Alkalischen Humusstoffen in Boden. Z.für
Pflanzenernaehrung, Düngung und Bodenkunde, Verlag Chemie Gmbh, Weinheim.
Sakai, H., Sasaki, T.and Saito, K., 1988. Heavy metal concentrations in urban snow as an indicator of air pollutions, The Sci.
of the Total Env. 77, 163.
Schlichting, E.; Blume, H.P., 1966. Bodenkundliches Practicum. Verlag Paul Parey. Hamburg, Berlin.
570
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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602
Title
A name given to the resource
A Research on Heavy Metal Statues in Some Pasture Soil of Antalya
Author
Author
ERDURMUS, Cengiz
ÇEÇEN, Semiha
ÇAKMAKÇI, Sadık
TOKER, Ramazan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Meadow and pasture resources fulfill many important tasks, besides feature of being a source of feed for livestock production. Being natural balance element, erosion prevention, clean water, air and food production and protection of genetic resources of many plant and livestock organism can be accepted among these. Because of rapidly growing urbanization, industrialization and tourism, meadow and pasture resources in the Mediterranean region have been polluted with different pollutants. In this study, soil pollution research was done in pastures near intensive industry and tourism region of Antalya. Concentration of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Hg elements were analyzed in 12 samples from 3 different pastures as 4 samples from each one. Results showed us that the concentration of Ni was higher than the limits written in Turkey Soil Pollution Control Regulation. The other concentrations are lower than the limits written in Regulation. This study is a precursor study which shows the needs of other detailed study.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6bc2f834c6505805fce26bd0597dc1f7.pdf
c3b2633d0598eb44ea4f484f8687b338
PDF Text
Text
Effects of Water Stress on Yield and Some Quality Parameters of
Broccoli
Okan ERKEN
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Irrigation
oerken@comu.edu.tr
Canan OZTOKAT
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture
cananoztokat@yahoo.com
Abstract: Under increasing impacts of global warming, effective water use and using
minimum amounts of water for irrigation have become the most critical issues to be
considered in irrigated agriculture. In this research, effects of water stress on yield and
some quality parameters of broccoli were investigated. Three different growing periods
(early vegetative, late vegetative and flowering) and four different water deficit levels
(80%, 60%, 40% and 20%) were applied to Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar. Yield per
plant, total leaf area, total chlorophyll, total sugar content, and antioxidant activity have
been determined. While a yield of 667,84 g/plant was obtained from control treatment
with 100% irrigation without any water deficit, a yield of only 101,59 g/plant was
obtained from 20% irrigation treatment. However, a yield of 591,01 g/plant was
obtained from 80% irrigation treatment applied at early vegetative period.
Keywords: Broccoli, drought stress, yield
Introduction
Among the winter vegetables of Turkey, production and consumption of broccoli from
magnoliopsida class and Bracicacea family have been increasing during the recent years (Eşiyok, 1996).
Broccoli is generally produced for sprouts but leaves of plant can also be consumed. There is an
increasing interest in broccoli production in the world beside the cauliflower known all around the world.
Average dry matter content of the plant is 10,3%. It has 24 cal nutritional value per 100 gram and contains
89,7% water, 3,3% protein, 0,2% fat ad 4,4-5,2% carbohydrate. Vitamin content is composed of 1542–2500
IU vitamin A, 0.07–0,1 mg/100 g B1, 0.12–0.23 mg/100g B2, 0.64–0,9 mg/100g Niacin ve 93,4–114
mg/100g vitamin C. Mineral content is composed of 48–105 mg/100g Ca, 0,9–1,3 mg/g Fe, 24 mg/100g
mg, 66–82 mg/100g P, 325–464 mg/100g K ve 27 mg/100g Na (Vural et al., 2000).
Plants of cabbage-group have significant benefits for human health with their rich vitamin C,
vitamin A and follic acid contents. Since they are also classified in fibrous foods, they can regulate the
intestinal processes. Among these groups of plants, especially broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, lady’s smock
and Brussels have been proven to be affective in prevention of several cancer diseases (Young and Wolf
1988, Farey et al. 2001, Zhao et al. 2001). Their preventive impacts against cancer diseases is due to their
glicozinolate contents (Seow et al. 2002, Fowke et al. 2003, Sarıkamış et al., 2006). Glicozinolates are
secondary metabolism products containing sugar and sulphur. Glucosinolates also serve as a defense
mechanism against various ecological and biotic stress factors in plants (Ratzka, 2002).
Environmental conditions to which plants are exposed have significant effects on both yield and
quality. These factors can be classified as climate factors, soil factors, artificial polluters, competition with
animals and other plants. Optimum environmental conditions should be provided for a proper production
with high yields. A deviation from these optimum requirements may cause a stress over the plants.
Biologists adopted the word ‘stress’ for an unpleasant environmental condition for living organisms and
called ‘stress resistance’ for ability to survive of plant against these unpleasant environmental conditions
(Levitt, 1980).
231
�Abiotic stress conditions like high temperature, drought, salinity and chemical toxicity and
oxidative stress threats agricultural activities all around the world. Abiotic stress is the most significant
cause for yield loses and may cause more than 50% loss in yield. It can cause morphological, physiological,
biochemical and molecular changes and has negative impacts on plant growth and yield (Wang, 2003).
Drought stress is also among the most significant stress component effecting the plant growth.
Synonymous to drought stress, water stress arises when the transpiration of plants are not met from the
environment. Water makes up almost 85-90% of several plants. Water taken by roots of the plants is
delivered through upper sections of plants based on osmotic rules. A negative pressure (tension) develops
within xylems in case of lower root water uptakes than transpirated water and a competition starts among
various parts of the plant (Kaçar et al. 2006).
Irrigation is an input in agriculture providing sustainability and stability, improving the
efficiencies of other agricultural inputs and providing higher yields per unit area. The basic principle for
receiving the desired benefit from irrigation is to provide the necessary amount of water to the root zones of
the plants at proper times. Otherwise, plants get into stress due to water deficiency. Main reason for water
stress is to have less water than the amount required for transpiration. Generally, the lower the water stress,
the higher the yield (Reginato, 1983).
Bandurska, (2004) investigated the variation of proline amounts in leaves of plants grown under
water stress and found out that broccoli leaves had the highest rational water loss and barley leaves had the
lowest.
Meyer and Adam (2008) investigated the variations of glicosinote in red-cabbage and broccoli
grown under organic and conventional conditions and concluded that glucoraphanine, glucobrassicine and
neo-glucobrassicinine were dominant glucosinolates in broccoli. They also found lower amounts of
glucobrassicinine in organic plants than conventional ones.
Since drought will increase parallel to global warming, negative impacts of drought on qualitative
and quantitative parameters of plants should be prevented. In this study, changes in plants under stress
conditions will be investigated, the best proper and economical method of growing will be determined; and
some physiological and biochemical changes and changes in yield and quality of broccoli will be
determined.
Material and Method
This study was carried out at experimental research fields of Agricultural Faculty of Çanakkale
Onsekiz Mart University during the fall season of the year 2008. Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar, able to reach
harvesting maturity in 90 days from the seedling plantation, was used as the plant material of the study.
Seedlings were planted into each 10 liter-pots with sieved soil inside. Each treatment was repeated in 5
pots. Four different water deficits were applied based on growing periods. Experiments were carried out in
randomized block design with 5 replications. Statistical method used in this study was summarized below:
Yijk = µ Li + αi + βj + αβij + εijk
µ = General population average
α = Water deficit levels (i:1,2,3,4)
β = Effect of growing periods (j:1,2,3,4)
αβ = Effect of water deficit x Growing period interaction
ε = Error term
To determine the amounts of water deficits, initially the pots with sieved soil were saturated with
irrigation water. Then the pots were left for seepage with gravity for 24 hours and weighed. This created
100% (control) treatment. Following the start of experiments, the amount lost by evaporation and plant
utilization were determined by weighing the pots every 3 days and this amount was applied to pots as
irrigation water. Other water deficit levels were determined based on the weight of control treatment and
irrigation water applied accordingly. The first irrigation was performed right after the seedling plantation.
Irrigations were performed at the same fashion for all treatments until the seedlings adapted to soil.
Following the adaptation period, water deficit levels were applied and continued until the last economically
harvestable broccoli is harvested.
Treatments and pot numbering were as follows:
232
�Early Vegetative
1I100
2I80
3I60
4I40
5I20
6I80
7I60
8I40
9I20
10I100
11I100
12I100
13I100
14I100
15I100
16I100
17I100
17*5=85 pots were used.
Late Vegetative
I100
I80
I60
I40
I20
I100
I100
I100
I100
I80
I60
I40
I20
I100
I100
I100
I100
Flowering
I100
I80
I60
I40
I20
I100
I100
I100
I100
I100
I100
I100
I100
I80
I60
I40
I20
Total chlorophyll was determined by sampling 4 leaves from each plant. Samples were prepared
by smashing the leaves in 90% 35 ml acetone solution. Solutions were filtered through Wattman No.2 filter
paper. The filtered extract was completed to 50 ml with 90% acetone solution. Then, extracts were put into
spectrophotometer tubes and readings were performed at 645, 652 and 663 nanometer wavelengths. In this
way, amount of chlorophyll was determined in mg/100g (Holden 1976).
Total sugar for samples was determined as g/100 g in accordance with dinitrophenol method
specified by Ross (1959). A 5g sample was taken from each sample representing each treatment and 5 ml
15% potassium ferrosynide and 5 ml 30% zinc sulphate were added. Then samples were completed to 250
ml with distilled water. Solutions were filtered through Wattman No2 filter paper. Extract of 0,5 ml was
taken into test tubes, 1,5 ml distilled water and 6 ml dinitrophenol were added to test tubes and they were
kept in 1000C hot water bath for 6 minutes. Samples were then cooled under tap water for 3 minutes and
absorbance readings were performed in T70 model PG Instruments brand spectrophotometers at 600 n
wavelength. A 6ml dinitrophenol + 2 ml distilled water solution was used as the control of the method.
Antioxidant activities and radical cleaning power were determined by DPPH method. This method
is based on spectrometric transition of characteristic color purple into yellow under the presence of
antioxidant chemicals yielding electron or hydrogen atoms by cleaning free radical 2,2- Diphenyl-1-picryl
hydrazyl (DPPH) with these chemicals. The more the antioxidant power, the brighter the color of
methanolic DPPH solution. In this method, solutions of test extracts prepared in various concentrations (2,5
– 160 mg) of methanol are mixed with 3 mL 6.10-5 M DPPH solution. Following 15 minutes dark
incubation period, sample absorbances were measured at 515 nm wavelength. Absorbance values were then
evaluated against control and curve (methanol). Extract % inhibition values were calculated by using
absorbance values of extract and empty control tests as follows:
A0 – (A – Ak)
% Inh =
x 100
A0
A0= DPPH absorbance at 515 nm.
A= Extract absorbance at 515 nm.
Ak= Metanol absorbance at 515 nm.
Calculated % inhibition values were plotted against extract concentrations prepared in mg/mL and
IC50 of extracts were calculated. BHT and Ascorbic acid were used as positive control.
Total amounts of phenolic compounds were also determined in this study in accordance with
Folin&Ciocalteu method. Gallic acid solutions at increasing concentrations were mixed with folin reactive
and Na2CO3 solutions to draw the calibration curve. Solutions were then kept at 20 0C for 30 minutes,
absorbance readings were performed at 765 nm and calibration curve was drawn. Extract was prepared as
defined above by using the same reactives, kept under the same conditions for 1 hour and absorbance
reading was made. Amount of total phenolic compound of plant methanol extract was calculated as Gallic
233
�acid equivalent (GAE) as follows:
C=cxV/m
C= Total amount of phenolic compounds, mg/g plant extract (GAE)
c= Gallic acid concentration calculated from calibration curve, mg/mL
V= Volume of plant extract
m= Weight of plant extract
Calculated phenolic compound amounts (as Gallic acid equivalent) were compared with standard
antioxidants BHT, α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid.
Results and Discussion
It was observed that broccoli was sensitive against water stress. It was also observed that water
deficit at some growth periods of broccoli didn’t statistically effect the yield values. Yield (g/plant), amount
of applied irrigation water (L), leaf areas (cm2), number of days passed until the harvest was given in Table
1. It can be seen from the table that all water deficits applied at early vegetative and late vegetative periods
decreased the yield of broccoli, however these decreased were placed statistically in the same group. Leaf
areas decreased with the water stress. Schreiner et al. (2009) indicated the impacts of water stress over the
leaves of mustard at every growth period.
Treatments
Yield (g/plant)
100% Irrigation
80% Irrigation
60% Irrigation
40% Irrigation
20% Irrigation
E.V. 80% Irrigation
E.V. 60% Irrigation
E.V. 40% Irrigation
E.V. 20% Irrigation
L.V. 80% Irrigation
L.V. 60% Irrigation
L.V. 40% Irrigation
L.V. 20% Irrigation
Flowering 80% Irrigation
Flowering 60% Irrigation
Flowering 40% Irrigation
Flowering 20% Irrigation
667,84 ± 29,72 a
473,12 ± 25,81bc
394,68 ± 33,43cd
195,68 ± 16,11ef
101,59 ± 10,51 f
591,01± 26,19 ab
583,89 ±22,10 bc
566,86 ± 19,16ab
573,61 ± 34,83 ab
528,52 ± 21,26 abc
521,83 ± 18,38ab
497,47 ± 21,74abc
359,83 ± 33,02ab
453,13 ± 13,26 bcd
475,92 ±40,40 bc
359,37 ± 26,75cd
301,18 ± 13,71de
Irrigation
Water (lt)
44,14
35,28
26,46
17,64
8,81
41,68
39,50
36,77
34,28
41,16
38,21
35,26
32,31
40,95
37,75
34,57
31,36
Leaf Area (cm2)
6424.94 ± 32,78 a
6058.97 ± 30,29 b
5421.89 ± 42,46 c
4825.54 ± 27,18 e
3429.35 ± 60,53 j
5055.91 ± 38,21 d
4784.82 ± 45,46 e
4337.51 ± 23,49 g
4147.75 ± 25,36 h
4662.83 ± 34,96 f
4622.16 ± 32,27 f
4608.61 ± 25,20 f
4296.85 ± 29,83 g
5327.01 ± 45,00 c
5083.02 ± 53,46 d
4676.38 ± 33,78 f
3998.64 ± 43,77 ı
Ripening Time
(day)
110
112
114
119
127
107
109
110
110
113
113
114
122
115
117
115
117
Table 1. Yield (g/plant), Amount of irrigation water (L), Leaf areas (cm2), Ripening time (days)
Results of physical measurements made over broccoli plants were given in Table 2. Significant
variations were not observed in diameter, height and perimeters of plants under water stress except the
flowering period. The lowest values were obtained from 40 and 20% irrigation water applications at all
growing periods. It was concluded that heavy water stress conditions exposed in flowering period could
cause significant decreases in yield and quality.
Treatments
Head Diameter X
(cm)
Head Diameter Y
(cm)
Head Height
(cm)
13.30 ± 0,644 a
12.65 ± 0,531 ab
10.89 ± 0,357
a
9.06 ± 0,375
ab
100% Irrigation
13.87 ± 0,475a
80% Irrigation
12.55 ± 0,704 abc
234
Head
Perimeter
(cm)
46.28 ± 2,066
a
41.68 ± 1,568
abc
�60% Irrigation
12.23 ± 1,06 abc
12.00 ± 0,958 abc
8.87 ± 0,622d
8.91 ± 0,754 d
6.65 ± 1,06 e
6.31 ± 0,685 e
9.47 ± 2,325 cd
40% Irrigation
9.46 ± 0,744
ab
6.89 ± 0,681
cd
20% Irrigation
E.V. 80%
Irrigation
E.V. 60%
Irrigation
E.V. 40%
Irrigation
E.V. 20%
Irrigation
L.V. 80%
Irrigation
L.V. 60%
Irrigation
L.V. 40%
Irrigation
L.V. 20%
Irrigation
Flowering 80%
Irrigation
Flowering 60%
Irrigation
Flowering 40%
Irrigation
Flowering 20%
Irrigation
11.55 ±0 ,708 abc
12.60 ± 0,847 ab
12.13 ± 0,334 abc
13.29 ± 0,429 a
13.26 ± 0,985 ab
12.95 ± 0,738 ab
13.22 ± 0,442 ab
12.64 ± 0,654 ab
12.12 ± 0,409 abc
13.29 ± 0,402 a
13.09 ± 0,438 ab
12.72 ± 0,310 ab
12.76 ± 1,005 ab
11.66 ± 0,561 abc
11.77 ± 1,024 abcd
13.05 ± 0,978 ab
13.08 ± 0,679 ab
12.39 ± abc
11.74 ± 1,133 abcd
10.46 ± 0,977 bcd
10.12 ± 0,943 abcd
10.15 ± 0,735 cd
10.08 ± 0,487 bcd
5.64 ±0,466 d
8.59 ± 0,690
bc
9.59 ± 0,813
ab
9.20 ± 0,510
ab
10.13 ± 0,723
ab
9.57 ± 0,239
ab
10.17 ± 0,565
ab
9.96 ± 0,916
ab
8.58 ± 0,677
bc
10.17 ± 0,455
ab
9.63 ± 0,881
ab
8.49 ± 0,341
bc
8.28 ± 0,345
bc
39.82 ± 3,134
abc
29.98 ±
2,371d
20.70 ± 3,158
e
40.36 ±
3,204abc
42.30 ± 2,452
ab
44.94 ± 1,289
ab
44.66 ± 2,309
ab
41.44 ± 2,256
abc
45.04 ± 1,390
ab
42.14 ± 0,573
ab
38.16 ± 2,858
abc
42.86 ± 1,733
ab
40.20 ± 3,454
abc
35.28 ± 3,128
bcd
34.14 ± 1,984
cd
Table 2. Canopy diameter (cm), canopy height (cm) and canopy perimeter (cm)
Reduced and total sugar, total chlorophyll values of samples were given in Table 3 and
Antioxidant activity (%), phenological compounds (mg/mL) and Flavonoids (mg/L) were given in Table 4.
An increase was observed in amounts of reduced and total sugar with increased water stress. However, a
decrease was observed in amounts of chlorophyll with increased water stress. In a fertilization study for
broccoli, Sanwal et al. (2006) determined reduced sugar values between 17,42 – 20,41 and total sugar
between 34,07 – 43,63. Murcia et al. (2000) determined the amount of chlorophyll for broccoli as 0,3 g kg1
. Generally, amount of chlorophyll for broccoli varied between 0,32 – 0,75 g kg-1 in other studies (Hidaka
et al. 1992, Hidaka Fukuda and Taniguchi, 1992).
Treatments
100% Irrigation
80% Irrigation
60% Irrigation
40% Irrigation
20% Irrigation
E.V. 80% Irrigation
E.V. 60% Irrigation
E.V. 40% Irrigation
E.V. 20% Irrigation
L.V. 80% Irrigation
L.V. 60% Irrigation
Reduced Sugar
(g/100g)
1,263 ± 0,318 j
1,886 ± 0,491 c
1,920 ± 0,461 bc
2,130 ± 0,288 a
1,436 ± 0,202 hı
1,530 ± 0,346 gh
1,773 ± 0,318 d
1,833 ± 0,260 cd
1,603 ± 0,375 fg
1,640 ± 0,346 f
1,663 ± 0,318 ef
235
Total Sugar
(g/100g)
31,56 ± 0,260 ı
41,30 ± 0,346 f
41,66 ± 0,375 f
42,16 ± 0,375 f
44,20 ± 0,378 e
32,80 ± 0,404 ı
36,13 ± 0,433 h
37,53 ± 0,375 g
37,73 ± 0,466 g
29,76 ± 0,636 j
21,83 ± 0,433 k
Total Chlorophyll
(mg/100g)
7.90 ± 0,055 a
7.77± 0,070 ab
7.53 ± 0,125 bc
7.37 ± 0,140 c
7.63 ± 0,034 abc
7.06 ± 0,083 d
6.96 ± 0,488 e
6.11 ± 0,085 fg
5.97 ± 0,141 g
6.74 ± 0,087 de
6.14 ± 0,070 fg
�L.V. 40% Irrigation
L.V. 20% Irrigation
Flowering 80% Irrigation
Flowering 60% Irrigation
Flowering 40% Irrigation
Flowering 20% Irrigation
1,746 ± 0,260 de
1,640 ± 0,288 f
1,273 ± 0,260 j
1,420 ± 0,404 ı
1,986 ± 0,260 b
2,123 ± 0,260 a
29,53 ± 0,638 j
32,10 ± 0,435 ı
49,40 ± 0,378 d
52,30 ± 0,635 c
59,66 ± 0,753 b
65,06 ± 0,523 a
5.95 ± 0,080 fg
5.47 ± 0,120 h
6.26 ± 0,100 f
6.03 ± 0,192 f
5.68 ± 0,336 h
5.17 ± 0,120 h
Table 3. Amounts of reduced, total sugar and chlorophyll
Antioxidant activity was investigated by DPPH method with radical cleaning effect. Based on
DPPH method, radical cleaning powers between 8,1 – 17,3% were observed. It was found as significantly
low. Varying percentages may be due to varying amounts of flavonoid and phenolic compounds and it was
thought that these parameters could be analyzed by using other methods in future studies.
Treatments
100% Irrigation
80% Irrigation
60% Irrigation
40% Irrigation
20% Irrigation
E.V. 80% Irrigation
E.V. 60% Irrigation
E.V. 40% Irrigation
E.V. 20% Irrigation
L.V. 80% Irrigation
L.V. 60% Irrigation
L.V. 40% Irrigation
L.V. 20% Irrigation
Flowering 80% Irrigation
Flowering 60% Irrigation
Flowering 40% Irrigation
Flowering 20% Irrigation
Antioxidant
Activity (%)
Phenolic
Compounds
(mg/mL)
0,0020
0,0043
0,0098
0,0099
0,0102
0,0025
0,0032
0,0030
0,0034
0,0045
0,0051
0,0054
0,0059
0,0065
0,0072
0,0081
0,0093
8,1
10,3
11,8
15,9
17,3
9,3
10,2
10,8
11,5
10,8
11,2
12,0
12,6
13,6
14,8
15,1
15,6
Flavonoids
(mg/L)
9,14
10,28
12,98
13,03
13,35
9,58
9,77
9,82
9,95
10,95
11,29
11,74
12,08
11,88
12,32
12,56
12,97
Table 4. Antioxidant activity (%), phenolic compounds (mg/mL) and Flavonoid (mg/L) amounts
As a conclusion, water deficits applied at early and late vegetative periods will not cause
significant decreases in yield and quality of broccoli plants grown under Çanakkale conditions. However,
water deficit at flowering period will cause decreases in yield. Broccoli exhibits a tolerance against water
deficit at early or late vegetative period. Deficit irrigation can be applied during these growing periods and
production can be carried out over larger areas with the same amount o water and without causing
significant losses in yield and quality.
References
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Mellitus in 15-29 Age Group in Warmiz and Mazury Region Between 1994-2003. Betalogia 47:614-621.
Eşiyok, 1996. Bornova Koşullarında Yetiştirmeye Uygun Brokoli Çeşitlerinin Belirlenmesi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. E.Ü.
Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 33(1): 55–62, Bornova-Đzmir.
Fahey, J.W., Zalcmann, A.T., Talalay, P., 2001. The Chamical Diversity and Distribution of Glicozinolates and
Isothiocyanates Among Plants. Phytochemistry 56:5-51.
236
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Urinary Isothiocyanate levels, Brassica and Human Breast Cancer. Cancer Research 63: 3980–3986.
Hidaka T, Fukuda N, Taniguchi K and Kanzaki J, Fat-soluble components of lateral ¯ower buds from different varieties
of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L var. italica Plen). J Jpn Soc Nutr Food Sci 45:453±455 (1992).
Hidaka T, Fukuda N and Taniguchi K, Contents of lipids, fatty acids, carotenoids and chlorophylls in broccoli (Brassica
oleracea L var. italica Plen). Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkaishi 39:425±428 (1992).
Kacar, B., Katkat, V., Öztürk, Ş. 2006. Bitki Fizyolojisi. Nobel Kitabevi yayınları.
Levitt, J. 1980. Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses. Volume II, 2nd ed. Academic Pres, New York.
Meyer, M., Adam, S., 2008. Comparison of glucosinolate levels in commercial broccoli and red cabbage from
conventional and ecological farming. Eur Food Res Technol, 226:1429–1437
Murcia, M.A. Ayerra, B.L. . Tome M.M and Carmona F.G. 2000. Effect of industrial processing on chlorophyll
content of broccoli. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 80:1447±1451 (online: 2000).
Ratzka, A., Vogel, H., Kliebenstain, D.J., Mitchell-Ols T., Kroyman, J., 2002. Disarming the Mustard Oil Bomb.
Proceedings of The National Academy of Science 99: 11223–11228.
Reginato, R.J. 1983. Field quantification of crop water stress. Trans. ASAE 26: 772–775.
Sarıkamış, G., Roberts, J., Mithen, R., 2006. Brokolide Glukozinolat içeriğinin Belirlenmesi. VI. Sebze Tarımı
Sempozyumu 19–22 Eylül 2006. s. 271–274.
Schreıner, M., Beyene, B., Krumbeın, A. And Stutzel H., 2009. Ontogenetic Changes of 2-Propenyl and 3Indolylmethyl Glucosinolates in Brassica carinata Leaves as Affected by Water Supply. J. Agric. Food Chem.
2009, 57, 7259–7263
Seow, A., Yuan, J.M., Sun, C.L., Van Den Berg, D., Lee, H.P., Yu, M.C., 2002. Dietary Isothiocyanates, Glutathione
S-Transferase Polymorphisms and Colorectal Cancer Risk in the singapore Chinese Healty Study.
Carcinogenesis 23: 2055–2061.
Sanwal, S. K. , Laxminarayana, K. , Yadav, D. S. , Rai, N. andYadav, R. K.(2006) 'Growth, Yield, and Dietary
Antioxidants of Broccoli as Affected by Fertilizer Type', Journal of Vegetable Science, 12: 2, 13 — 26.
Vural, H., Eşiyok, D., Duman, Đ., 2000. Kültür Sebzeleri (sebze Yetiştirme) Ders Kitabı. ISBN: 975–97190–0–2.
Young, T.B., Wolf, D.A., 1988. Case-Control study of Proximal and Distal Colon Cancer and Diet in Wisconsin.
International Journal of Cancer 42: 167–175.
Zhao, B., seow, A., Lee, A.J., Poh, W.T., The, M., Eng, P., Wang, Y.T., Tan, W.C., Yu, M.C. Lee, H.P., 2001. Dietary
Isothiocyanates, Glutathione S-transferase-M1, -T1 Polymorphisms and Lung Cancer risk Among Chinese
Woman in Singapore. Cancer Epideiolpgy Biomarkers and Prevention 10: 1063–1067.
237
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Title
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Effects of Water Stress on Yield and Some Quality Parameters of Broccoli
Author
Author
ERKEN, Okan
OZTOKAT, Canan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Under increasing impacts of global warming, effective water use and using minimum amounts of water for irrigation have become the most critical issues to be considered in irrigated agriculture. In this research, effects of water stress on yield and some quality parameters of broccoli were investigated. Three different growing periods (early vegetative, late vegetative and flowering) and four different water deficit levels (80%, 60%, 40% and 20%) were applied to Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar. Yield per plant, total leaf area, total chlorophyll, total sugar content, and antioxidant activity have been determined. While a yield of 667,84 g/plant was obtained from control treatment with 100% irrigation without any water deficit, a yield of only 101,59 g/plant was obtained from 20% irrigation treatment. However, a yield of 591,01 g/plant was obtained from 80% irrigation treatment applied at early vegetative period.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
A Key Concept in Effective School Development: Strategic Leadership
S.Sule Ercetin
Hacettepe University, Ankara
ssule@superonline.com
Ilknur Calıskan Maya
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale
mayailknur@gmail.com
Abstract: Effective school development is a project which links school
effectiveness and school development. Research studies have shown that
obtaining positive results in effective school development depends on the
school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood, & Hopkins, 2006).
Considering the fact that 21st century is uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will
be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the
administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that
the leadership required by the organisations of the third millenium is
strategic leadership. This current research aims at handling the dynamics of
effective school development within the framework of strategic leadership
and thus evaluating and analysing them.
Introduction
Effective school development is a project which links school effectiveness and school development.
The project, which contributes positively to students’ achievement, was implemented in the 1988-2001 period;
and many EU countries such as Belgium, England, Finland, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain
participated in the project (Reezigt & Creemers, 2005). Afterwards, similarities and differences between
countries in terms of effective school development were discussed and comparisons were made. Because of the
major differences between countries, especially in their educational context, it was virtually impossible to draw a
general model that would act as an explanation of success or failure of improvement efforts and be applicable in
all ESI (Effective School Improvement) countries.
Research studies have shown that obtaining positive results in effective school development depends
on the school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood, & Hopkins, 2006). Considering the fact that 21st century
is uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the
administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that the leadership required by the
organisations of the third millenium is strategic leadership.
Purpose of The Study
This current research aims at handling the dynamics of effective school development within the
framework of strategic leadership and thus evaluating and analysing them.
Effective School Development
Effective school development is a project which links school effectiveness and school development.
The project, which contributes positively to students’ achievement, was implemented in the 1988-2001 period;
and many EU countries such as Belgium, England, Finland, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain
participated in the project (Reezigt & Creemers, 2005). Afterwards, similarities and differences between
countries in terms of effective school development were discussed and comparisons were made. Because of the
major differences between countries, especially in their educational context, it was virtually impossible to draw a
general model that would act as an explanation of success or failure of improvement efforts and be applicable in
all ESI (Effective School Improvement) countries.
The framework shows that the concept of an improving school is firmly embedded in the educational
context of a country. School improvement can never be studied seperately from that educational context. The
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
improving school is always confronted with contextual concepts such as pressure to improve, resources for
improvement, and educational goals (Reezigt & Creemers, 2005):
1.Pressure To Đmprove: Ideally, schools (as organizational units) define their own improvement needs, design
their improvement efforts, and evaluate them as to whether those needs have been met. Theories about schools as
learning organizations often depict this kind of improvement (i.e learning). In practice, however, schools often
need some form of external pressure to start improving. The research identified four factors which constitute
pressure to improve: market mechanisms, external evaluation and accountability, external agents and the
participation of society in education and societal changes.
2. Resources Support For Đmprovement: In order to make school improvement effective, the resources made
available by the educational context are very important. Without these, schools are likely to experience
difficulties in their improvement efforts. Resources can be material, but there are also other resources that may
be essential for effective school improvement. The identified factors that together constitute the concept of
resources are: autonomy granted to schools, financial resources and favourable daily working conditions for
teachers and schools, and local support.
3. Educational Goals: Although schools tend to set specific goals for improvement, the context generally sets
the wider educational goals and all improvement efforts have to fit within these. For some countries, these
nationally set goals form a broad framework, whereas others they are detailed and prescriptive.
Effective School Improvement Process
Hargreaves & Hopkins (1991), outline a five-staged improvement process: getting started, conducting
an audit of the schools strengths and weaknesses, setting priorities and targets, implementation or putting the
plans in place, and evaluating the success of the plans and their implementation.
1.The First Stage: The first stage in ESIP involves activities and decisions leading to the adoption or beginning
of the planning process. In some cases, the decision to engage in school developmental or improvement planning
is mandated by a senior level of goverment. Commnications with stakeholders in the school community about
the planning process is typically part of this stage. In many schools, a group or several teams are organized to
participate in the planning process. Training in the process of school development planning may be undertaken.
2. Conducting An Audit Of The Schools Strengths and Weaknesses: Schools examine their strengths and
weakness using achievement data and other pertinent information. A plan is established according to a
framework that requires action to be taken over a period of time, usually 1 to 5 years.
3. Setting Priorities and Targets: During the “Design” stage, schools determine what should be included in their
plan by incorporating requirements from district and senior levels of goverment with school needs and priorities.
4. Đmplementation or Putting The Plans: Plans are carried out at the classroom and school level.
Responsibilities for implementation may be shared by the principal, teachers, school-based decision-making
groups (or improvement teams), and other stakeholders. Monitoring is sometimes viewed as part of the
implementation stage and is carried out for formative purposes. Monitoring the effects of the plan and the
processes used for its implementation allows schools to see where they are succeeding or where they may
needto make adjustments during the implementation process.
5. Evaluating The Success Of The Plans: Evaluation is sometimes undertaken by external bodies and by the
school itself. Evaluation also may be less formal and limited to school personnel discussing progress towards
goals as they have experienced it. Reporting on the results of the planning process within the school community
or beyon to districts or goverments is also a feature of the evaluation phase in some settings.
In addition to the stages typically associated with ESIP, our review uncovered considerable amounts of
evidence of the factors determining the outcomes of school improvement processes, for example, the role
principal, the teacher teams, district support and the like.
Strategic Leadership
Strategic leadership is a critical component in the effective development of schools. The key foci for
those who led schools in the last two decades, in many countries, have been school effectiveness and school
improvement. The emphasis now is shifting to focus on how short-term improvements can become sustainable.
This study will put forward the view that renewed attention needs to be paid to the strategic dimension of
leadership to ensure this sustainability. We have worked to isolate the strategic dimension of leadership by using
two major categories that emerge from the research, which are: (1) what strategic leader do, and (2)
characteristics that strategic leaders display.
What Strategic Leaders Do?
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Davies & Davies (2006) revealed that those strategic leaders involve themselves in five key activities:
Direction setting, translating strategy into action, enabling the staff to develop and deliver the strategy,
determining effective intervention points and developing strategic capabilities.
1. Direction Setting: Strategic leaders are concerned with not just managing the now but setting up a framework
of where the organization needs to be in the future, setting a direction for the organization. School leaders
articulate the definition of the organiations moral purpose , which can be considered as “why we do what we
do”. The values that underpin this moral purpose are linked to the vision considering “where we want to be and
what sort of organization we want to be in the future”.
2.Translating Strategy into Action: The articulation of the strategy can take place in three ways: oral, written
and structural. Oral articulation is the way leaders communicate, through strategic conversations the strategic
purpose and direction of the organization. Written articulations are the formal statements and plans that are
clearly distinguishable from operational short-term plans. Structural articulation refers to the organizational
infrastructure that supports and develops the strategic approach, for example, setting up futures or strategy
meetings seperate from the cycle of operational meetings.
3. Enabling the Staff to Develop and Deliver the Strategy: Wilson (1997), states “organizational change has
two principal aspects-change in mission and strategy and change in culture and behaviour. This could be
developed as: it is impossible fundamentally to change mission and strategy without changing culture and
behaviour. Key to this is changing the mind-set and the behaviour of the people within the organization.
4. Determining Effective Đntervention Points: The leadership challenge of when to make a significant strategic
change is as critical to success as choosing what strategic change to make. When individuals in the organization
are ready for change, when the organization needs the change, and when the external constraints and conditions
force the change all have to balanced one against the other.
5. Developing Strategic Capabilities: Strategic capabilities relate to the longer-term fundamental attributes of an
organization rather than shorter-term specific skills. This capability building approach is a central factor in a
strategically focused school and is one of the key activities of a strategic leader.
Characteristics Strategic Leaders Display
The NCSL (National College for School Leadership) research established significant characteristics of
strategic leaders in schools. These were identified in the research as follows (Davies & Davies 2006):
· Strategic leaders have a dissatisfaction or restlessness with the present,
· Strategic leaders prioritize their own strategic thinking and learning,
· Strategic leaders create mental models to frame their own understanding and practice,
· Strategic leaders have powerful personal and professional networks.
1. Strategic Leaders Have a Dissatisfaction or Restlessness with the Present: This restlessness involves living
the reality of having to manage the current situation and not being able to change it for some time until greater
capacity and capabillity has been built.
2. Strategic Leaders Prioritize Their Own Strategic Thinking and Learning: A very significant number of the
school leaders participating in the study referred to their own learning and stressed the importance of new
knowledge to promote the strategic direction for the school.
3. Strategic Leaders Create Mental Models to Frame Their Own Understanding and Practice: One of the
ways that school leaders can make of complexity is to create mental models and framework to aid their
understanding.
4. Strategic Leaders Have Powerful Personal and Professional Networks: Strategic leaders constantly scan
their environment locally, regionally and internationally. They seek both to develop new ideas and to benchmark
current practice in their own schools with those of colleagues in the wider educational community. The ability to
develop personal and professional networks that provide alternative perspectives from those prevalent in their
immediate educational environment is a key skill of strategic leaders.
Conclusion
It is well known that leadership plays a key role in school improvement and school effectiveness. The
evidence from the internetional literature demonstrates that effective leaders exercise an indirect but powerful
influence on the effectiveness of the school and on the achievement of the students in most countries (Muijs et
al., 2004).
Research studies have shown that obtaining positive results in effective school development depends on
the school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood & Hopkins, 2006). Considering the fact that 21st century is
uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the
214
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that the leadership required by the
organisations of the third millenium is strategic leadership. With schools under short-term pressure to deliver on
the standards agenda the need also to build strategic processes to ensure longer-term success and sustainability
gathers increased importance.
References
Besler, S. (2004). Đşletmelerde stratejik liderlik. Beta Basım A.Ş. Kırklareli.
Davies, B. J. & B. Davies. (2006). Developing a model for strategic leadership in schools. Educational
Management Administration & Leadership., Vol. 34(1), p:121-139.
Hargreaves, D. H. & D. H. Hopkins. (1991). The empowered school: The management and practice of
development planning. London: Cassell.
Hitt, M., Ireland D. & R. E. Hoskisson. (1999). Strategic management: Competitiveness and globalization:
Concepts and cases., Cincinnati: South_Western College Pub.
Leithwood, K., Jantzi D. & C. M. H. Hopkins. (2006). The developmnet and testing of a school improvement
model. School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 17, No.4, December, p:441-464.
Muijs, D., Harris A., Chapman C., Stoll L. & J. Russ. (2004). Improving schools in socioeconomically
disadvantaged areas-A review of research evidence. School Effectiveness and School Improvement Vol.15, No.2,
p:149-175.
Ranson, S., Farrell, C., Peim, N. & P. Smith. (2005). Does governance matter for school improvement?.
School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 16, No.3, September, p:305-325.
Reezigt, G., & B. P.M. Creemers. (2005). A comprehensive framework for effective school improvement.
School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 17, No.4, December, p:441-464.
Wikeley, F., Stoll L., Murillo J. & R. Long. (2005). Evaluating effective school improvement: Case studies of
programmes in eight European countries and their contribution to the effective school improvement model.
School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 16, No.4, December, p:387-405.
215
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
698
Title
A name given to the resource
A Key Concept in Effective School Development: Strategic Leadership
Author
Author
Ercetin, S.Sule
Maya, Ilknur Calıskan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Effective school development is a project which links school effectiveness and school development. Research studies have shown that obtaining positive results in effective school development depends on the school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood, & Hopkins, 2006). Considering the fact that 21st century is uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that the leadership required by the organisations of the third millenium is strategic leadership. This current research aims at handling the dynamics of effective school development within the framework of strategic leadership and thus evaluating and analysing them.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)