29 10 3494 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3532 Title A name given to the resource AN EXPLORATION OF SPEAKING-IN-CLASS ANXIETY OF TURKISH AND FOREIGN PREP-SCHOOL STUDENTS Author Author Tasci, Samet Ariz, Caglar Abstract A summary of the resource. The main purpose of this study is to find out if there is difference between Turkish and foreign students studying in the same program in terms of their anxiety level regarding their speaking skill. A total of 35 students studying at Eskişehir Osmangazi University participated in the study. 22 students were male and 13 students were female. 20 of these students were Turkish natives while 15 students were foreigners from different countries such as 6 from Yemen, 4 from Afghanistan, 4 from Libya and 1 from Comoros. The students are prep-school students. A Turkish adaptation of FLCAS with 32 items was used for data collection. In addition to FLCAS, an open interview was also done with 8 of the students, 4 of them Turkish native, who were available. Items of the questionnaire were analyzed one by one to reach the mean scores. Content analysis was applied to the interview answers. Following the analysis, a conclusion was drawn. The results showed that Turkish students had higher level of anxiety than foreign students inhibiting students’ oral performance. Based on the findings, some suggestions for further research are proposed. Besides, possible educational implications of the anxiety are indicated. Keywords: Foreign language speaking anxiety, prep-school students, Osmangazi university, Students, speaking in class Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3d2e57dca77981cbfe062da2c7c4a72.pdf 32542adaa5c6ce4e566f2acb2392c1c0 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo An Implementation Of a New Video Parsing Algorithm For Uncompressed Digital Video Stream HalilIbrahim Eskikurt Sakarya University Technical Education Faculty, Sakarya, Turkey, eskikurt@sakarya.edu.tr Barıs Boru Sakarya University Technical Education Faculty, Sakarya, Turkey, barisb@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Today, the use of digital videos instead of analog ones has become most popular in terms of their easy recordability and low-cost storage. Hence, huge amount of digital video archives have come out dramatically. The meaningful search in a video has been an important demand in order to access the video database very fast. While the standard picture and text searching methods cannot be used in a digital video, the video indexing has become a popular interest, and lots of research has been done. In this study, an implementation of a new video parsing algorithm design used for uncompressed videos is presented. Through the investigation of the parsing algorithms in the existing literature, lack of these algorithms has been defined and a new algorithm for achieving high performance has been proposed. It is been determined that the proposed algorithm is much better than the other algorithms considering the computational overhead and the performance. Keywords: Video Parsing, Video Indexing 1. Introduction With wide spread use of computers and digital equipments, and digital communication getting easier and more common to apply than the analogue communication through the platforms like internet, the need for transferring the video information to the digital medium has arisen, asit happened in alltypes ofinformation. Digital video is applied by benefiting from the weakness of the human eye. A human eye can only sense consecutive figures changing more than 15-20 frames in a second. A digital video is obtained by photographing a video scene as much as 15~30 frames in a second. The information about how many frames in a digital video are taken and recorded in a second is called “fps (frame per second)”. As mentioned above, digital video information is digital data coming one after another.Ifthereis a sound record in a video,itconsists of both picture frames and sound information. 2. Video Parsing and Indexing As a result ofthe technological advances today, almost allvideos are used by recording in a digitalform. Since digital video records are increasing more and more, the need for fast access appears when a search is desired. For example, to get the information about the video records of a person or a vehicle in an archive of security videos recorded,the old records in the archive should be searched from beginning to end. As the standard text search methods cannot be used in digital video,the picture comparison methods are not suitable as well, because ofthe need for computational overhead and the demands forthe meaningful search [Cotsaces et al. 2006]. Therefore, special methods should be used for video access. Researchers dealing with video access have made a suggestion thatinstead of searching in the whole video,it would be betterto search in a video index got by processing the video before, and then access to video segments referenced by the suitable results[Cotsaces et al. 2006,Koprinska et al. 2001]. If a subjecttitlein a book is wanted to be accessed,the word can be found from the index or contents of the book and then the page referenced is directed. In a video wanted to make a search, scanning all the information every time would make the access as difficultas scanning the pages in a book one by one. For 369 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo this reason, to search in a video and be able to access to a wanted scene, itis better to make an index for the video and store itto the special database (Fig. 1). Each video added to the video database could be saved after having an index with a number of procedures. When a browsing is made, the required objectis scanned in the index. If a matching isfound the video segment referenced is showed to the user. Figure 1: Parsing a video and storing the summarized information to the database by referring to the segments. Video segments consist of consecutive frames having a meaningful integrity. Features and key frames defined for each segment constitute the video index. Video parsing, the most important section of video indexing,isthe grouping ofthe frames having a meaningfulintegrity(Fig. 2). Thus,this group is defined with an information in the index. Also,it provides the preparation of defining the segments showed after browsing. Figure 2: Examples of consecutive video frames and segments. In the literature, most of researches about video databases and access can be found dealing with video parsing [Cotsaces et al. 2006, Koprinska et al. 2001]. The developed methods in these researches are focused on the right comprehending of video segments as defining the transitions in which there are meaningful changes on consecutive video frames. There are two type segment transitions, such as gradual and sudden. Sudden segment transitions are usually formed by stopping the record of the camcorder like in filming and restarting for a different scene. Gradual segment transitions are the switching the scene contents gradually as happening by using to combine two segments in the film effects. The best examples of gradual transitions are fade-effect and dissolve effect. Because of the soft change instead of sharp change between consecutive frames,itis difficultto define gradual segment transition. These types of sensing should be separated from camcorder and object movements. Especially,itistoo difficultto sense the segment transitions consisting of brightness level change compared to the other segmenttransitions. Video parsing algorithms are usually making segment sensing by getting visual changing rates between consecutive frames based on the ideathatthereis a passing through the segments when the changing rateis high. Parsing algorithms startto browse from the first frame of video and evaluate the consecutive video frames. In some cases, even if there is no meaningful difference between two video frames, some big differences could appear when the numerical values were examined. The best examples of these types of changes are camcorder 370 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo movement and brightness levelchange. (a) (b) Figure 3: (a) An example of camcorder movements,(b) An example of brightness level changes. During the filming, even though the contents of the scene are the same, the objects in the scene move a few pixels between two consecutive frames (Fig. 3.a). Similarly again, changing the light source and the camcorder viewing angle result in change in the darkness level of all pixels in the video frame (Fig. 3.b). Although, these are big changes in the pixel values of two consecutive frames, mostly it is not a segment transition. Therefore, parsing algorithms should have low sensibility to camcorder movement and brightness level change. The parsing algorithms for uncompressed videos usually obtain a similarity rate between the consecutive frames due to the technique used. Ifthe similarity rate of two consecutive frames is too low, itis accepted that there is segment distinction and the video parsing can be done. In these techniques, over which values for consecutive frame similarities can be assumed as a segment transition, are defined with a threshold value. In literature,these types of algorithms are called threshold based algorithms. The algorithm having the simplest approach among the video parsing algorithms and being the fundamental ofthe other algorithms isthe pixel comparison algorithm. This algorithm defines a change value for each video frame as calculating the total differences of the overlapped pixels between two consecutive video frames. Defined change value is compared with a predefined threshold value and then itis decided whetheritis segment transition or not. Due to the higher computational overhead and the sensitivities of the camcorder movement and brightnesslevelchange,this simple method is not preferred today. Block based pixel comparison algorithm, developed as an alternative to the pixel comparison algorithm has been designed by [Kasturi et al. 1991] in a way that comparing the overlapped blocks with a similarity rate obtained from the pixel values and average darkness level values as dividing the video frame into blocks. This algorithm increased the computational overhead together with decreasing the sensibility ofthe brightness level change. To decrease the computational overhead and the sensibility to the camcorder objects movement, Histogram based comparison methods instead of pixel based approaches have been developed. The main idea of histogram comparison methodsisthatthereis not a big difference withthe histograms oftwo consecutive frames which have unchanging background and objects (moving or not) [Koprinska et al. 2001]. In addition to that, histogram is not sensible to the picture rotation and the changing of the shooting angle. According to these principles,there are a number of studies related to histogram comparisons ofthe consecutive frames. In the first histogram based parsing algorithm, the histograms of two consecutive frames have been compared and a segment transition approach has been applied by [Koprinska et al. 2001]. In literature, some amendments to this algorithm can be seen [Boreczky et al.1996]. In these methods, although the sensibility to the camcorder and object movementsislower,the sensibility tothe brightnesslevel change is considerably high, because the brightness level change is completely replacing the histogram of the picture [Gargi et al. 1995]. Block based comparison techniques have been developed by [Swanberg et al. 1993], based upon the histogram comparison techniques as mentioned above. In this technique, a histogram comparison for the overlapped blocks in consecutive frames has been done by dividing the video frames into blocks. Due to the failure of these methods in gradual segment transitions, twin comparison technique has been developed by [Zhang et al. 1994]. In this technique, a second sub-threshold value has been used for sensing the differences between the frames occurred in gradual segment transition and then the values above this sub-threshold value and the differences between the consecutive frames have been added. If the result is higher than the real threshold value, gradual segment transition could be defined. Boreczky and Rowe have decided that twin comparison technique was simple and reliable [Boreczky etal. 1996]. 371 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. The Proposed Algorithm for the Filtered Video Histogram Comparison The success of parsing algorithms on uncompressed videos has been defined as low level. These algorithms have better sensibilities to the brightness level change and camcorder movements. This work introduces a new algorithm for filtered video histogram comparison to eliminate the disadvantages in the histogram based methods. The video parsing process have benefited from the picture filtering techniques to be more fastand functional. Afterthe whole video stream has been filtered withthe picturefiltering techniques,itis subjected to histogram comparison. The main idea of designing the algorithm is to consider pixel movement, occurred from camcorder movement, and to interest with the objects in the scene. Consequently, motion blur and sobel filters have been applied for picture processing. Sobel picture filter has putforward the section, having sharp colour change in the filtered picture.In other words,sobel filter makes the objectedges inthe picture clear. To lower the sensibility to the camcorder movements,itis foreseen that the neighbour pixels are copied intothemselves with the specified weights. Hence, sharp edge values obtained by sobelfilter are being softened and the effects of sections (background and object edge sections) near to the edges are investigated. For this purpose, motion blur filter has been used. With this method following object edge moving, videos have been processed by converting black-white video. The steps of filtering process are shown in Fig. 4. Ifthe standard formulas of histogram comparison are used to obtain the difference values of consecutive frames, the flat areas, not interested in this method, will be causing false results to increase. To remove this disadvantage, the formula (Equation 1) used in the filtered video histogram comparison method, has been obtained with neglecting “0” value representing black colourinthe standard histogram comparison formula. The formula in Equation 1, can be used in digital videos having an 8-bit colour darkness value (darkness values: 0255, n=256). D value shows the difference value between i and i+1 frames, H value showsthe histograms of the corresponding frames and j value shows the darkness values. In the formula,the reason for the darkness values between 1 and 255, as mentioned above, is to neglect the darkness values representing the flat areas in the filtered histograms. 255 D(i, i + 1) = ∑ H i ( j ) − H i +1 ( j ) (1) j =1 Figure 4: Picture filtering steps. The working steps forthe Filtered Video Histogram Comparison method can be summarized as follows: 1- Making the video gray shading. 2- Filtering the video with Motion Blur Filter. 3- Filtering the video with SobelFilter. 4- Getting the difference values of consecutive frames with histogram comparison, while neglecting the black components ofthe filtered video (“0” darkness value). 5- Defining the frames overthe threshold value as a segmenttransition. 6- Making the segments generated using the defined segment transitions. 372 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Evaluation and Comparisons W hen the results, obtained from the application of proposed algorithm evaluated,itis easy to say thatthe sensibilityto camcorder movements and brightness level changes is much less compared to other uncompressed video segmentation algorithms. Test with several videos showed that especially sensibility to brightness level changes reduced much and videos including camcorder lighting changes have been segmented with very high accuracy. In Fig. 5, sequential frame differences, resulted by HSV Histogram Comparison and Filtered Video Histogram Comparison for a video including lots of brightness level changes and camcorder movements, has been shown with graphics. HSV Histogram Comparison was chosen for comparing proposed algorithm because it has less sensibilityin standard algorithms. Real segmenttransitions are shown in graphics with an arrow. HSV Hist. Compare Segments:9 Proposed Method Segments:6 Figure 5: Computed consecutive frame differences for a sample video. Video, used for comparison, is recorded specially with a poor camera and it has camcorder motions, brightness level changes also it consists of 6 segments. The fourth segment of sample video (between 300th and 515th frames) has lots of brightness level changes and camcorder motions. In the graphics itis shown that, the differences computed with HSV Histogram Comparison algorithm for fourth segment’s brightnesslevel changes is higher than real segment transitions. In addition, HSV Histogram Comparison computed difference level for camcorder motion just afterthe starting of 5th segment as nearto realtransition difference level. For measuring of the proposed algorithm, all algorithms mentioned above have been applied to several videos [NIST 2009]. After getting resultsitis observed that proposed algorithm has better performance than the other algorithms. In Tab. 1, comparison results for Chevrolet.avi [NIST 2009] (including 5 segments) video are given. In results, computing times, number of segments detected by algorithm, accuracy rate for real segment transitions, and extra (unnecessary) number of segments detected have been shown. For the best performance it is expected to have minimum computing time, best accuracy rate (%100), and not to detect any other extra segments. For comparison of computing overhead, itis clear that filtering steps used in Filtered Video Histogram Comparison algorithm are making computation time longer. But in the computation part of the frame differences, the proposed method computes faster in rate 1/3 because of using only gray scale darkness level. Other methods use Red, Green, Blue levels for computing consecutive frame differences. For this reason their computing times are much longer than the proposed method. The interface shown in Fig. 6 has been designed to apply the algorithms, include the proposed and existing algorithms. With this interface, a video loaded can be divided into sections according to the parsing method and then these segments can be stored for access. ALG ORITH M Time (s) Number of Accuracy Extra Segment (%) Segment Pixel Comparison 153.41 7 100 2 Block Based Pixel Comparison 212.23 9 80 5 373 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo RGB Histogram Comparison 2.74 8 40 6 Block Based Histogram Comparison 27,09 7 60 4 HSV Histogram Comparison 8 100 3 34.98 Filtered Video Histogram Comp. 17.67 5 100 Table 1: Comparison resultsfor Chevrolet.avi video. 0 Figure 6: Parsing interface. 5. Conclusion In this work, a new parsing algorithm design has been proposed which has superiority over the existing parsing algorithms, used with uncompressed videos. In literature, existing algorithms has been investigated and the lack of the algorithms have been defined. The new method has been applied to a number of example video streams. Also the other algorithms have been applied to the same video streams and then a comparison of these algorithms has been made. As a result of the comparison, it is seen that the algorithm has a better segment transition, and an acceptable level of computational overhead. References Cotsaces C., & Nikolaidis N., Pitas I. (2006). Video shot detection and condensed representation – A review, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, vol.23, iss.2, 28-37. Koprinska I., & Carrato S. (2001). Temporal Video Segmentation: A Survey, Elsevier Science, Signal Processing: Image Communication, vol.16, iss.5, 477-500. Kasturi R., & Jain R. (1991). Dynamic Vision, in Computer Vision: Principles IEEE Computer Society Press, Washington DC, 469-480. Zhang H.J., Low C.Y., & Smoliar S.W. (1994). Video Parsing and Browsing Using Compressed Data, in Proceedings of SPIE Conf. Image and Video Processing II, 142-149. Gargi U., Oswald S., Kosiba S., Devadiga S., & Kasturi R. (1995). Evaluation Of Video Sequence Indexing And Hierarchical Video Indexing, in Proceedings of SPIE Conference on Storage and Retrieval in Image and Video Databases, 1522-1530. Swanberg D., Shu C. F., & Jain R. (1993). Knowledge guided parsing in video databases, in Proceedings of SPIE Conference, vol.1908, 13-24. Boreczky J. S., & Rowe L. A. (1996). Comparison of Video Shot Boundary Detection Techniques, in Proceedings of IS&T/SPIE International Symposium on Electronic Imaging, vol.2670, 170-179. NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology (2009). TREC Video Retrieval Evaluation, http://trecvid.nist.gov/, USA. 374 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 510 Title A name given to the resource An Implementation Of a New Video Parsing Algorithm For Uncompressed Digital Video Stream Author Author Eskikurt, Halil Ibrahim Boru, Barıs Abstract A summary of the resource. Today, the use of digital videos instead of analog ones has become most popular in terms of their easy recordability and low-cost storage. Hence, huge amount of digital video archives have come out dramatically. The meaningful search in a video has been an important demand in order to access the video database very fast. While the standard picture and text searching methods cannot be used in a digital video, the video indexing has become a popular interest, and lots of research has been done. In this study, an implementation of a new video parsing algorithm design used for uncompressed videos is presented. Through the investigation of the parsing algorithms in the existing literature, lack of these algorithms has been defined and a new algorithm for achieving high performance has been proposed. It is been determined that the proposed algorithm is much better than the other algorithms considering the computational overhead and the performance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bf8eb87ab42430abb1586e107d481524.pdf f245e37d2cbb0fb92d72e8517933b761 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo An Implementation on the Effect of Organizational Performance on EFQM Excellence Model at Eskisehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital Gülten Eren GÜMÜŞTEKIN Associate Prof. Dumlupinar University, Institute of Social Sciences Ercan TAŞKIN Assistant Prof. Dr. Dumlupinar University, Institute of Social Sciences Durmuş KOCA Health Science Expert Abstract: One of the quality works used to achieve success in organizational performance is EFQM Excellence Model. The model targets sustainable excellence in all dimensions of performance and organizes effective and productive usage of all resources, high-performance, processes that provide constant improvement and the relationship between these. The excellence model formed for this purpose is an instrument which shows companies where they stand on the way to excellence by determining the obstacles and offering the usage of the suitable approach to reach the appropriate solutions. In this paper, it is tried to determine the effect of EFQM Excellence Model applied at Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital. Key Words: EFQM, Excellent Model, Performance, Organizational Performance Introduction The biggest challenge for companies today when global competition has increased enormously leading to crucial obstacles but also radical opportunities is to survive and have a long life. Constant performance development is seen as a requirement for companies to sustain the constant development trend. Therefore, they should take the necessary precautions by constantly evaluating their performance through quality studies so that they can manage their performance. In order to raise the enterprise performance, institutional scales should be determined. By evaluating performance, executives will have internal and external evaluation opportunities so that they can take the necessary steps to exist in global competition. Feedback of organizational output contributes to sustaining the success of companies both on the individual base and on organizational base and to the management of future activities of the company. Just through a short training period and a case study, the executive committee of a company can easily evaluate their company on the basis of model criteria by using EFQM Excellence Model, which is a sort of selfevaluation instrument for organizations. Thus, by determining the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, executives can prioritize the rehabilitation areas and can come up with the needed action plans for these rehabilitations. EFQM Excellence Model & Basic Concepts of Excellence EFQM Excellence Awards history started with the establishment of EFQM. The mission of EFQM is to be the driving force of sustainable excellence in Europe, and its vision is a world in which European organizations have achieved excellence (KalDer, 2000). Upon the idea that evaluation enables achievement of works, but appreciation makes them done better, in October 1991, this award started (Cansever, 1993). The first award was given in November 1992. This award is given by EFQM in the annual EFQM forum (Yalavaç, 1997). EFQM Excellence Model is an instrument that shows organizations where on the path to excellence they are, enables them to detect the bottlenecks and suggests a certain approach as an appropriate solution (Rees, 1997). EFQM Excellence Model is based on TQM principles and includes these basic concepts: result-focused, customer-focused, processes and management through data, improvement and participation of employees, continuous learning, rehabilitation, innovation and rehabilitation, development of leagues, institutional social responsibility. The Concept of Performance & Organizatinal Performance As a concept, performance (Akal, 2003) is what determines the result of an activity qualitatively/quantitatively. Also defined as accomplishing the predetermined criteria to achieve a task, the 458 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo concept of performance (Performance Management System) stands out in business literature as a more important concept when combined with the concept of evaluation. The concept of performance evaluation has many definitions besides denoting a process in which the performance of an individual, a unit or organizations in terms of predetermined standards or on the basis of other similar performances. In evaluation of personnel on individual base, an executive evaluates the performance of his/her personnel through comparison with predetermined standards (Palmer, 1993). Performance evaluation enables him/her to know his/her employees better (Şenol, 2003) and therefore, is a planned instrument that, on an individual basis, details an individual’s success in a task, his/her willingness, attitudes, behaviours, moral nature and characteristics and evaluates his/her contribution to the overall success of the organization (Sabuncuoğlu, 2000). On the organizational basis, performance evaluation is nothing more than an evaluation of organizational success through predetermined standards or comparison. Evaluation of organizational performance forms an important frame in sustaining success in today’s business life in which global competition is rapidly increasing and radical opportunities exist together with crucial obstacles in terms of information technologies. In this study, we found that all the criteria are grouped under seven criteria. Though the names might be different, these criteria all reveal the organizational performance. These criteria are as follows: quality, efficiency, innovation, productivity, financial performance (profitability and suitability for the budget), quality of work life, customer satisfaction. The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Organizational Performance One of the quality studies used in achieving success in organizational performance is EFQM excellence model. EFQM Excellence Model defines how to achieve success in employee and customer satisfaction, how to leave a positive effect on the society and how to achieve success in basic business activities by managing the company’s policy and strategy, its employees, leagues and processes with appropriate leadership. The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Productivity The concept of productivity may be used in different meanings depending on the private interests and situations of organizations; however, while it used to be perceived as producing more with the same resource in the beginning of the 20th century, quality was added to this meaning through the end of WW II. Thus, the dimensions of productivity have since been extended. Recently, with an increase in environmental sensitivity, a new humane dimension has been added to productivity: producing more and higher quality without damaging the environment (Törün, 1991). In this perspective, EFQM Excellence Model includes productivity in labour, product and service and environmental service. Through these, For the purpose of the participation and improvement of employees, employees criterion was included in input criteria and productivity studies on employees were evaluated in results criterion about employees. For this purpose, in customer criterion, planning of human resources aims to make maximum use of employees’ potentials. It aims to sustain productivity by keeping motivation high because it allows participation of employees, delegation and appreciation. In the criterion of results about employees, it is aimed to determine the motivation, satisfaction and success levels of employees so that their performance and productivity level can be evaluated. In order to use the resources effectively, the model includes processes criterion so that the product and services can be introduced effectively. Certain processes are designed and feedback is supplied through social general image surveys so that the services won’t harm the sensitive structure of nature. The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Product/Service Quality The concept of quality is no more an accessory attached to the product after production processes but rather a performance dimension that starts with design, provides productivity of resources, gives products and services suitability for use, reinforces such an production and service understanding that is suitable for customer requirements and thus enables companies fulfil their public responsibilities positively. EFQM excellence model determined certain sub-criteria in the criterion of processes so as to enable the organization to satisfy the customer needs and expectations and to increase the company’s competition level: the following requirements should be fulfilled in order to design and develop products and services on the basis of customer’s needs and expectations. Market researches, customer satisfaction surveys and other feedback instruments should be used so as to learn the customers’ current and future needs and expectations from the product or service and their perceptions about the available product or service. Such rehabilitation works to enrich the products and services should be envisaged and determined that are based on future needs and expectations of customers. Such new products and services should be designed and developed that can fulfil the needs and expectations of customers. Innovation and creativity should be incorporated into the development of 459 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo competitive products and services. New products should be developed through cooperation with related organizations. The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Innovation Innovation is by no means just about invention. It is also about additional applications under current conditions, for instance, that will yield a solution or rehabilitate a shortcoming so as to boost performance or meet new needs with the current available technology. Aiming excellence, EFQM follows an innovation philosophy in management, product and service, technology, marketing, and procurement and selling on the basis of the needs and expectations of customers. The innovation philosophy dispersed into the criteria as follows. In leadership criterion, leading employees in and promotion of creativity and innovation have been shown as targets for leaders. In employees criterion, creation of opportunities that will support creative and innovative enterprises has been aimed. In leagues and resources criterion, by making use of leagues, it is aimed to form and support an innovative and creative way of thinking and to come up with technological developments. In processes criterion, it is aimed to make use of innovators so as to develop competitive products and services. The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Quality of Work Life/Labour Dimension In order to guide the employees with different expectations to common organizational targets and to raise their performance, and hence the organizational performance, their professional conditions should be improved. In order to raise the quality of work life, work conditions should be enhanced by taking not only the physical but also mental, psychological and social expectations of employees in to account (Schulze, 1998). In this perspective, in order to raise the quality of work life, EFQM has determined these factors in employees criterion, and also in the criterion of results about employees in order to determine the level of quality of work life within the company, performance and perception surveys are conducted on the employees so that the current relation between the organization and the employees and expectations of the employees are revealed. As a result, executives will be acting by taking the opinions of employees in to account. The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Financial Performance Financial performance gives us information about activities and changes in the monetary situation due to the activities of the company. The financial situation measured according to such data as financial reports and accounting records. In this context, EFQM Excellence Model aims to provide added value to all shareholders. In order to manage leagues and resources effectively, leagues and resources criterion has been formed. In this criterion, it is aimed to use the financial resources in such a way to support policies and strategy, to form and apply financial strategy and processes, to evaluate the investments through tangible and intangible assets, to make use of financial mechanisms and parameters so as to form an efficient and productive financial resource structure, and to manage the risks in financial resources. In the processes criterion, it is stressed that strategic processes should be formed in accord with the financial structure of the company, e.g. the processes of income management and purchasing. In these processes, the company makes decisions about its financial conditions. Long-term strategies can be developed by reviewing the weekly, monthly and annual conditions. In the basic performance results criterion, the financial performance outputs are analysed and thus the financial condition of the company is evaluated. The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Efficiency Efficiency denotes a company’s shaping its organizational structure after evaluating its own resources and synergic powers to achieve its aims and by taking its relations with the environment into account (Göksel, 2003). Organizational efficiency is the organizational success level gained by gaining the already inadequate and precious resources to achieve the organizational goals, by using these recourses efficiently, by adapting to the environment and making the best use of environmental conditions, by encouraging the employees through soft policies and methods and thus enabling them to get job satisfaction (Gümüştekin, 1999). EFQM Excellence Model aims to take the opinions of shareholders and to manage the activities systematically so that organizational efficiency will increase and so will the performance. Thus, the desired results will be focused on, the employees and the resources will be used effectively, the consistency of the results and the variables will be kept under control, such a management will be conducted that is based on data of realistic targets and strategic orientation. 460 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relation Between EFQM Excellence Model & Customer Satisfaction Based on a customer-focused approach, EFQM thinks that the customer is the last person to evaluate the quality of product and service. Maintaining customer loyalty and sustaining the market share depend on focusing on available and potential customer’s needs. In order to enable this focus, the following factors are included in EFQM Excellence Model. In the processes criterion, the product and services are designed and developed on the basis of customer’s needs and expectations. EFQM EXCELLENCE MODEL CRITERIA ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS Leadership Efficiency Policies & Strategies Innovation Employees Productivity Leagues & Resources Processes Life Quality of Employees Results about Customers Quality of Product / Service Results about Employees Results about Society Financial Performance Customer Satisfaction Basic Performance Results Figure 1. The Effect of EFQM Excellence Model Criteria on Organizational Performance Dimensions The relation between EFQM Excellence Model criteria and organizational performance dimensions is summarized in Figure 1. In order to learn the customers’ current and future perceptions about, needs and expectations from the product and the service market researches, customer satisfaction surveys and other feedback instruments should be used. Rehabilitation studies should be foreseen and determined to enrich the product and the service in line with customer’s future needs and expectations. New products and services should be designed and developed in such a way that will meet customer’s future needs and expectations. In the criterion of results about customers, what kind of results has been obtained about customers is analysed. The level of satisfying the customer’s needs and expectations is presented through numeric tendencies, targets, and comparisons with competitors and the best of the sector. The scales should involve the level of importance in terms of customers. 461 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Methodology & Findings The Place of the Research The reason why Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital was chosen as sampling is as follows: as a special branch hospital, with 350 active beds and 400 employees, Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital aims to give the best maternity and paediatric service to the patients in the city of Eskişehir and vicinity. This institution has had the certificate of ‘Bbay-friendly Hospital” twice. Quality studies in Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital started in 1999. The first application of customer and employee survey. The institution got ISO 9001 Certificate in 2000. In 2001 they started EFQM Excellence Model studies. They were nominated to National Public Quality Award in 2002. In 2003 they received ISO 9001-2000 certificate again. In 2004 they applied to National Quality Award. In 2005 they applied to National Quality Award again and were awarded Incentive Award. In 2006 they received the National Quality Grand Award. In 2007 they received ĐSO 14001 and OHSAS 18001 certificates. In 2007 they also applied to European Quality Award and passed the first stage and received field visit. In 2008 they got European Quality Award. Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital has been transferring its information and experience in TQM studies to other health organizations in the cities of Eskişehir and Kütahya. The Aim & the Importance of the Research The research studied the effect of EFQM Excellence Model on a company’s performance. According to the Model, effective company performance can be guaranteed through an appropriate understanding of leadership, determination of policies and strategies, and efficient management of employees, resources and processes. In the Model, if all these criteria used as input factors are well-used and managed, it will be possible to attain excellence. The research, by testing how valid the theoretical assumptions on excellence are compared to real application, aims to contribute to performance and excellence literature. Method Face to face survey method is used for data gathering in the research. The questionnaire is made up of three parts. In the first part, there are questions to reveal the demographic characteristics of the participants (gender, age, marital status, education, occupation) so that the profile of the hospital staff can be determined. The second and third parts include certain expressions, total 37, to evaluate the criteria of EFQM model and organizational performance. The contents of the expressions are as follows: Leadership, policy and strategy, employees, leagues and resources, processes, results of patient-societyemployee and basic performance results with organizational performance (Expressions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37). All the expressions in the questionnaire were prepared in Likert scale of 5. The questions in the first part about the demographic characteristics are multiple choice type. The expressions in the Likert scale of 5 are (1)Strongly Disagree, (2)Disagree, (3)Undecided, (4)Agree, (5) Strongly Agree. Population & Sampling The population of the research is the employees of Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital. The number of its employees is 400. The sampling represents the population with %10 margin of errors at a reliability level of %90. The following formula is used in determining the number of the sampling(Baş, 2003). n=Nt 2 pq/d 2 (N-1) + t 2 pq n = (400*1,96*1,96*0,5*0,5)/(0,1*0,1*399)+(1,96*1,96*0,5*0,5) = 69 forms The survey was conducted face to face when the sampling was determined as 100. The forms were delivered to the employees working in different departments and then were gathered back after being filled in. All the expressions in the survey are in the Likert scale of 5. Data Analysis The data from the survey were analysed with SPSS 13.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). The information having been gained through survey was evaluated. The first thing done was reliability analysis. Because the number of the participants was 100, frequency and percentage calculations meant the same thing for the questions about the demographic characteristics in the first part of the survey, only the frequency was 462 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo calculated. Reliability was calculated and correlation test was conducted to test the hypotheses about the variables. The hypotheses were then tested with regression analysis to measure to what extent independent variables explain the organizational performance- a dependent variable. Hypotheses H1: There is a positive relation between Leadership criteria of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H2: There is a positive relation between Policies and Strategies criteria of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H3: There is a positive relation between Employees criteria of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H4: There is a positive relation between Leagues and Resources criteria of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H5: There is a positive relation between Processes criteria of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H6: There is a positive relation between Results criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance H7: Organizational performance is related with Leadership criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H8: Organizational performance is related with Policies and Strategies criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H9: Organizational performance is related with Employees criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H10: Organizational performance is related with Leagues and Resources criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H11: Organizational performance is related with Processes criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H12: Organizational performance is related with Result criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. Findings In this part of the research, the results and interpretation of the data acquired from the survey study in Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital about the effect of EFQM Excellence Model on organizational performance. Demographic Characteristics The questionnaire includes questions about gender, marital status, age, education and occupation of the participants. The frequency and percentage distribution of the questions is given below. Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the participants. According to the data in the Table, %29 of the participants are male while %71 are female. Whereas %79 are married, % 21 are single. %52 of the participants are between 30-39 years of age. According to the data about the education and occupation of the participants, 1of them is primary school graduate, while 16 are high school graduate, 59 have bachelor degree, 21 are university graduate and 3 have degree of doctor. %7 of the participants are doctors, while %18 are staff of general administrative services and %75 are allied health personnel. 463 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants Frequency 29 71 79 21 29 52 15 4 1 16 59 21 3 7 75 18 100 Male Female Married Single 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50 years and above Primary School High School Bachelor’s Degree University Masters Degree Doctor Allied Health Personnel General Administrative Services Total Gender Marital Status Age Education Occupation % 29 71 79 21 29 52 15 4 1 16 59 21 3 7 75 18 100 Results of Reliability Analysis on Variables Before evaluating the results of the questionnaire, validity and reliability analyses of the scales were performed. Table 2. Results of Reliability Analysis on Variables Leadership Criterion Alpha: 0,779 Policies & Strategy Criterion Alpha: 0,827 Employee Criterion Alpha: 0,914 Leagues & Resources Criterion Alpha: 0,816 Processes Criterion Alpha: 0,861 Result Criterion Alpha: 0,861 Organizational Performance Alpha: 0,872 As a result of the analyses, it was decided that the scales were valid and reliable. According to the reliability analysis, none of the questions decreased reliability; therefore, there was no need to omit any of the questions. Testing of the Hypothesis about the Variables Correlation test was performed to determine the relation between EFQM Excellence Model criteria and organizational performance. Table 3. Correlation Results of the Variables Correlations 1 2 3 1. Leadership 1 2. Policies & Strategy ,548(**) 1 3. Employees ,604(**) ,616(**) 1 4 5 4. Leagues & Resources ,609(**) ,606(**) ,620(**) 1 5. Processes ,586(**) ,465(**) ,575(**) ,705(**) 1 6. Result Criterion 7. Organizational Performance ,465(**) ,441(**) ,538(**) ,522(**) ,660(**) 1 7 ,458(**) ,488(**) ,616(**) ,610(**) ,661(**) ,714(**) 1 ** Significant relation at the level of 0,01 (bilateral) 464 6 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to the results of correlation analyses, there is a relation between organizational performance and leadership very little weak at the level of 0,458 at significance level of p<0,01; between organizational performance and policies and strategies very little weak (Nakıp, 2003). (The relation levels of correlation coefficients: 0 no relation, 01-10 very weak, 11-20 relatively very weak, 21-30 weak, 31-40 relatively weak, 4150 very little weak, 51-60 very little strong, 61-70 relatively strong, 71-80 strong, 81-90 relatively very strong, 91-100 very strong) at the level of 0,488; between organizational performance and employees relatively strong at the level of 0,616; between organizational performance and leagues and resources relatively strong at the level of 0,610; between organizational performance and processes relatively strong at the level of 0,661; and between organizational performance and results criteria strong and positive at the level of 0,714. Regression analysis was performed to measure to what extent independent variables explain the organizational performance- a dependent variable. The results are below. Table 4. Summary Table for the Regression Analysis of the Relation between Independent Variables & Organizational Performance Model Summary Model R R Square Corrected R Square F Significance. 1 ,793(a) 0,629 0,605 26,261 ,000(a) t Significance 1,132 0,26 Model 1 Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients Beta B Std. Error Constant 0,413 0,364 Leadership -0,112 0,103 -0,097 -1,089 0,279 Policies & strategy 0,036 0,086 0,037 0,423 0,673 Employees Leagues & Resources 0,166 0,07 0,222 2,353 0,021 0,171 0,11 0,16 1,556 0,123 Processes 0,197 0,111 0,185 1,766 0,081 Result Criterion 0,434 0,091 0,418 4,788 0,000 Dependent Variable: Organizational Performance In the first part of Table 4 it can be seen that correlation is %79,3, determination coefficient is %62,9 and corrected determination coefficient is %60,5. The Table shows the test results of the model as a whole. According to the results in the Table, the F value 26,261 is valid at the significance level of p< 0,001. The second part of Table 4.4 shows the coefficients of the constant and independent variables, t values and significance levels. According to the results in the Table, the coefficients of the employees and result criteria variables are significant, but the coefficients of the constant and the other variables are invalid. As a result, employees and result criteria affect organizational performance positively. Evaluation of the Findings In this study, the effect of EFQM Excellence Model on organizational performance was researched. For this purpose, an organization using this model was preferred and thus a research was conducted in Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital. A questionnaire was performed on 100 of the 400 employees of the organization and the data became the resource of the study. The questionnaire developed to determine the effect of EFQM Excellence Model on organizational performance consisted of three parts. The first part gave the personal information, while the second part included questions about EFQM Excellence Studies Criteria and the third part consisted of questions about dimensions of organizational performance. Before using the results of the survey, reliability and validity tests of the scales were done as a result of which it was found that the scales were valid and reliable. According to reliability analysis, none of the questions decreased reliability and therefore there was no need to omit any questions. The data were analysed with two different methods: correlation test and regression test in SPSS 13.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). The independent variables were EFQM Excellence Model Criteria and Organizational Performance was dependent variable. The following results were obtained from the analyses. According to correlation analysis, there is a relation between organizational performance and leadership very little weak at the level of 0,458 at significance level of p<0,01; between organizational performance and policies and strategies very little weak at the level of 0,488; between 465 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo organizational performance and employees relatively strong at the level of 0,616; between organizational performance and leagues and resources relatively strong at the level of 0,610; between organizational performance and processes relatively strong at the level of 0,661; and between organizational performance and results criteria strong and positive at the level of 0,714. Table 5. Results of the Hypothesis p Hypothesis H1: There is a positive relation between Leadership criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H2: There is a positive relation between policies and strategies criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H3: There is a positive relation between employees criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H4: There is a positive relation between leagues and resources criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance H5: There is a positive relation between processes criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H6: There is a positive relation between employees criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies and organizational performance. H7: Organizational performance is related with Leadership criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H8: Organizational performance is related with policies and strategies criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H9: Organizational performance is related with employees criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H10: Organizational performance is related with leagues and resources criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H11: Organizational performance is related with processes criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. H12: Organizational performance is related with results criterion of EFQM Excellence Model Studies. Explanation Result 0,001 Positive, very little weak relation Accepted 0,001 Positive, very little weak relation Accepted 0,001 Positive, relatively strong relation Accepted 0,001 Positive, relatively strong relation Accepted 0,001 Positive, relatively strong relation Accepted 0,001 Positive, strong relation Accepted 0,279 p>0,05 Rejected 0,673 p>0,05 Rejected 0,021 P<0,05 Accepted 0,123 p>0,05 Rejected 0,081 p>0,05 Rejected 0,001 p<0,05 Accepted As seen in the summary table showing the results of hypothesis tests, as a result of the analyses, while at the significance level of p<0,01 H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H9 and H12 hypotheses are accepted, H7, H8, H10 and H11 hypotheses are rejected. Regression analysis was done to check to what extent EFQM Excellence Model criterion explain the dependent variable, organizational performance, and it was found that the coefficients of the variables of employees and result criteria were significant. Result No matter what product or service is produced, organizations have to satisfy the expectations of their shareholders. The literature shows that those which have accomplished this have reached their goals and have been able to sustain their existence in intense competition. The most effective path to follow to reach this aim is to support and reinforce the quality activities in the organization. In the first part of the research, EFQM Excellence Model was explained. EFQM Excellence Model explains how an organization can be managed with an appropriate understanding of leadership taking policies and strategies, employees, leagues and processes in to account, how to achieve employee and customer satisfaction and positive effect on the society, and how to maintain success in basic business matters. The model, at the same time, is a kind of self-evaluation instrument that shows the weak and strong sides of the organization. For this aim an excellence model was established and it is an instrument that shows the organizations where on the way to excellence they are, and how to determine and find suitable solutions for bottlenecks. 466 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo EFQM Excellence Model is based on TQM principles and includes these basic concepts: being result-focused, customer-focused, leadership and consistency of the aim, management through processes and data, improvement and participation of employees, continuous learning, rehabilitation, innovation, development of leagues, and institutional social responsibility. The basic concepts above appear in the model as 5 input and 4 result criteria. The input criteria are leadership, policies and strategies, employees, leagues and resources and processes. The output criteria are results about employees, about customers, about the society and about basic performance. In the second part of the research, performance and organizational performance were explained. The stage of determining organizational performance criteria requires a delicate study. In national and international literature, there are many different factors to which the subject is attached to, so a crystal clear structure of criterion hasn’t been determined. This is because every company’s institutional scales to raise its performance in line with its own targets and strategies show difference. In this part, the world literature was scanned and it was tried to form an optimum general structure of criteria; as a result, the organizational performance criteria were grouped under seven headings. These are productivity, quality of product/service, innovation, quality of work life, financial performance (profitability, suitability to the budget), efficiency and customer satisfaction. In this study the effect of EFQM Excellence Model on organizational performance was analysed. For this purpose, an organization that had received European Quality Award was preferred and a research was carried out in Eskişehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital. A survey form composed of three parts was developed to determine EFQM Excellence Model and its effect on organizational performance. Before evaluating the survey results, validity and reliability analyses of the scales were performed as a result of which it was found that the scales were valid and reliable. The data were analysed with two different methods: correlation and regression tests on SPSS 13.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). In the study, it was found that there is a relation between EFQM Excellence Model Criteria and organizational performance at different levels. In order to determine to what extent affect the dependent variable organizational performance regression analysis was done and as a result it was found that the coefficients of the variables of employees and result criteria (results about customers, about employees, about the society and basic performance results) were significant. In the employees criterion, it can be argued that, in order to raise organizational performance, the knowledge and potential of the employees are managed and developed efficiently by the organization at individual level and on the whole of the institution. In the results criterion about employees, it can be said that the efforts of the organization to achieve employee satisfaction are perceived positively by the employees and this is reflected positively to their performance. In the results criterion about customers, it can be seen the general image of the organization meets both the current and the future needs and expectations about the services given and this image is also perceived positively by external customers. In the results criterion about society, it can be argued that the organization tries hard to fulfil its social responsibilities and the awards it has received are perceived positively by the society. In the criterion of basic performance results, it can be said that the organization has accomplished positive results about the pre-planned performance in terms of the aims and targets of the organization. In the research, no effect of the criteria of leadership, policies and strategies, processes, leagues and resources on organizational performance has been found. It can be deduced from this that reflection of perfect leadership applications to policies and strategies will yield more positive results. It can also be argued that making use of leagues and suppliers in such a way that is adaptable to the policies and strategies and that will support the processes. Continuous rehabilitation, cooperation and change should be turned into an institutional culture and not only the processes but also the other input factors of the organization should be rehabilitated at the same time. At this point, determination and support of the top management are crucial because their attitudes will shape the institutional culture and determine the attitudes of the employees. In this respect, we can list their duties as follows. The process rehabilitation teams should be given adequate time, required resources and training and furthermore, managers should join the process. In order to overcome the resistance to rehabilitation activities, employees should be told about the market and competition information about the organization and be convinced of the need for change. The fact that in the research no effect of the criteria of leadership, policies and strategies, processes, leagues and resources on organizational performance has been found shouldn’t be understood as these EFQM Excellence Model criteria are unimportant. 467 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Any application carried out for any dimension of EFQM Excellence Model criteria will definitely effect the applications about the other dimensions. For instance, the efficient relations of the leader with customers, leagues and social representatives will affect the results criterion. It can be argued that those companies that apply the Excellence Model in increasing the organizational performance can see their strengths and weaknesses by fulfilling the conditions in the sub-criteria and thus present innovative and rehabilitative activities by evaluating the results. The research was conducted in a public entity that conducts EFQM Excellence model in health sector. Another research that will be carried out on such a sector whose performance criteria are based on more people can yield more direct results about the effects of EFQM applications. Besides, the organizations to participate into the research might also be chosen from a certain sector or region. By differentiating the organization types in the research and the numbers, or by making comparisons between sectors or regions, the effects of EFQM on organizational performance can be interpreted. The study has both methodological and theoretical limitations; however, it is focused on the effects of EFQM Excellence Model applications on organizational performance. The limitations in the study can be eliminated or modified so that new study subjects can be formed. This research can be a resource that will lead and contribute to the future researches through its information and results. References Akal, Z., (2003). Performance Concepts and Performance http://www.ydk.gov.tr/seminerler/performans yönetimi/performans yönetimi.htm. Management, MPM, Ankara, Baş, T., (2003). How Is A Questionnaire Prepared, Performed & Evaluated, 2nd Edition, Ankara, p.43. Cansever, A. (1993). Quality Awards, Journal of Önce Kalite, October. Göksel, A. et al., (2003). Modern Management Techniques, Editor: Birol BUMĐN, Gazi Publishing, Ankara, pg.83. Gümüştekin, G. E., (1999). An Application of Measuring Organizational & Managerial Efficiency in Businesses, 7. National Management & Organization Congress, Đstanbul Bilgi University, Đstanbul. KalDer, EFQM, KalDer Publications. Nakıp, M., (2003), Techniques of Marketing Researches & SPSS-supported Applications, Seçkin Pub., pg. 322. Palmer, M. J., Winters T. K., (1993). Human Resources, (Trans: Doğan Şahinler) Repnosol Press, Đstanbul, Pg.9. Performance Management System, http://www.student.itu.edu.tr/~ergonomi/webdergi /5.html. Rees, B. P. (1999). Life After ISO 9000 or Continuous Improvement, Quality Illustrated, October Sabuncuoğlu, Z., (2000). Management of Human Resources, 1st Edition Ezgi Publishing, Bursa, pg.160. Schulze, N., (1998). Humanization of Business As the Basic Element Raising Life Quality, 6. Ergonomics Congress, MPM Publications No: 622, Ankara. Şenol, G. (2003). Introduction to Performance Values in Business Evaluation, C.5, S.1, No: 7/31 www.isgucdergi.org/?p =makale&id=31 Törün,A. H. (1991). Productivity Analyses in Planning and Control Processes in Enterprises, Tezer Ofset, Đzmir. Yalavaç, S. Ü., (1997). Business Excellence, Its Place in Total Quality and Its Applications, M.Ü. Masters Thesis, Đstanbul. 468 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 293 Title A name given to the resource An Implementation on the Effect of Organizational Performance on EFQM Excellence Model at Eskisehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital Author Author GÜMÜSTEKIN, Gülten Eren TASKIN, Ercan KOCA, Durmus Abstract A summary of the resource. One of the quality works used to achieve success in organizational performance is EFQM Excellence Model. The model targets sustainable excellence in all dimensions of performance and organizes effective and productive usage of all resources, high-performance, processes that provide constant improvement and the relationship between these. The excellence model formed for this purpose is an instrument which shows companies where they stand on the way to excellence by determining the obstacles and offering the usage of the suitable approach to reach the appropriate solutions. In this paper, it is tried to determine the effect of EFQM Excellence Model applied at Eskisehir Maternity and Paediatric Hospital Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2de3d610f8cf3b1edad6815d665e204d.pdf 9744b2b1044b4e55e7ee89d1df982317 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo An Inter-Rater Perspective for the Researches on Assessing Writing Turgay HAN Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, Turkey turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Hüseyin EFE Atatürk University, Faculty of Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Erzurum, Turkey hefe@atauni.edu.tr Erdinç Parlak Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Education, Erzurum, Turkey erdincparlak@hotmail.com Abstract:In assessing EFL students’ writings consistently, there are various factors that must be taken into consideration while rating. Especially those who want to make quantitative researches using raters or who aim to give suitable feedback to written productions should be responsible for fulfilling the requirements in marking and scoring process. In this context, this paper looks insight for some issues related to the raters, such as inter-rater reliability, analytic or holistic examinations, rating criteria, and others. This study includes 8 native raters and 8 non-native raters, each of whom rated an ESL essay both holistically and analytically. Every participant rater’s background of scoring ESL writings was similar. The result showed that there was no significant difference between raters, that is, participants’ grading of the essay is irrespective of their being native speakers. At the end of the study, some important implications for essay rating practices and both the researchers and language teacher were emphasized. Key Words: Rater, Reliability, Assessing Writing, EFL Introduction Many researches based on assessing writing and error treatment incline some variables with regard to the scoring each ESL writing accurately. In the process of deciding the effects of any types of feedback given to the EFL students’ writings, there are some sorts of musts that researchers fulfil in the course of doing their statistical analyses related to the data obtained by their scorings methods. Even though several factors influence scoring and the process of raters’ decision makings, researchers in the field of ESL essay rating delve into varying issues such as task requirement, rater characteristics and essay characteristics (Barkaoui, 2010; p.54). Assessing L2 writing accurately is very important for the validity of the inferences. Therefore, essays judged by more than one examiner will be closer to the fair score than judgement made by only one rater (Hamp-Lyons, 1990; p.79). Writing assessment process involves a multi-dimensional evaluation; for this reason, clarity, coherence and grammatical quality are some of the core points to be assessed for a writing paper. In this context, inter-rater reliability, one of the components of writing assessment process, is considerably the critical issue in scoring EFL/ESL writings as there are a few interfaces that raters are prone to experience such as the idiosyncratic, rating methods, and criteria during assessment. Since it is a subjective phenomenon, the decisions made through the scores given have some potentialities that effect overall research. In this research, to assure objectivity in scoring, two types of raters were chosen. As Stemler (2004) emphasizes, “Raters are often used when student products or performances cannot be scored objectively as right or wrong but require a rating degree. The use of raters results in the subjectivity that comes hand in hand with an interpretation of the product or performances (cited in Bresciani, Oakleaf, et al, 2009; p.3)”. 74 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Potentialities of Writing Assessment Hyland (2003) states that there are four basic elements in the design of writing assessment: Rubric (the instructions), prompt (the task), expected response (what the teacher intends students to do with the task), posttask evaluation (assessing the effectiveness of the writing task) (cited in Coombe, Folse, & Hubley, 2007; p.71). Sudweeks et al (2005) explain the factors involved in the rating a particular writing paper as external and internal ones. Sudweeks et al advocate that as students vary in their writing abilities it is difficult to expect them to receive the same rating or they cannot be measured the same, and the external factors can be counted for receiving rating are: (a) the nature of the particular writing prompt or task posed, (b) the raters who judge students’ essays (c) situation-specific factors (d) students’ background and interests related to the topic that will be developed (e) interactions among these varying sources (p.240). Raters are the fundamental variables in the assessing process. According to Weigle (2002) there are two foci points in assessment: a consideration of what attributes of the compositions raters focus on and the effects of background rater characteristics and of the process of reading compositions and ultimately on the scores that raters use (p.70). Researchers in recent years have looked for the effects attributed to the raters on ratings. Sweedler-Brown (1985) realized that rater trainers were more unforgiving in their scorings when compared to the ratings of novice raters (cited in Weigle, 2002; p.71). There are also some methods developed for analyzing writings accurately. For example, Generalizability Theory and Many-Facet Rasch Model are used in some researches to (a) estimate the sources causing rating errors, (b) to achieve reliability estimates, and (c) to make recommendations for improving rating process (Sudweeks, Reeve, & Bradshaw, 2005; p.239). In this context, scoring involves defining the rating scale and ensuring that raters use the scale appropriately and consistently as two central considerations (Weigle, S.C. 2002, p.108). Stemler (2004) explains that inter-rater reliability requires consensus estimates, consistency estimates and measurement estimates approaches to assure the accuracy and consistency in scoring. Consensus estimates come into meaning that the degree to which markers give the same scores. Consistency estimate is a sign of the extent of the similarities of the high and low scores among the markers. Additionally, measurement estimates show the degree to which scores can be attributed to common scoring rather than error components (cited in Brown, Glasswell, & Hardland, 2004; p.106). Moreover, consistency in scoring requires two sub-processes to eliminate the sources causing unreliable scoring. Weigle(2002) indicates two main types of inconsistencies: “[…] (1) Inconsistencies in the ratings of a single scorer across different scripts of similar qualities or the same script on different occasions, and (2) inconsistencies between different scores…” (pp.128-129). The Aspects in Rating Two main aspects of reliability involve raters’ markings which are the indications of consistencies of scorings. Inter-Rater Reliability and Intra-Rater Reliability Subjective marking of writing requires a measurement of reliability within a rater’s marking and among raters. The term ‘inter-rater reliability’ refers to the self consistency and the extent of similarity of ratings of different markers, that is, scoring of a single writing of a rater has not significant difference when compared to the one of other independent raters (Weigle, 2002), whereas intra-rater reliability contrasts with inter-rater reliability. Bachman (1995) advocates that “Ratings given by different raters can also vary as a function of inconsistencies in the criteria used to rate and in the way in which these criteria are applied…” (p.180). Bachman (1995), further, explains that when several essays are given to some independent raters for their ratings, the results probably will not be the same. The variability of the criteria of the raters can be counted as the outstanding source for these inconsistencies as some raters may look for the quality of content and some other may look for the organization (p.180). On the other hand, “[…]intra-rater reliability refers to the tendency of a rater to give the same score to the same script on different occasions, while inter-rater reliability refers to the tendency of different raters to give the same scores to the same script…” (Weigle, 2002; p.135). Rationales for Holistic Scoring and Analytic Scoring Making inferences from the scores given to writings is variable as it depends on the method of scoring. In this context, “[...]Traditionally a student’s writing performance was judged in comparison with the performance 75 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo of others, but this norm-referenced method has largely given way to criterion-referenced practices where the quality of each essay is judged in its own right against some external criteria, such as coherence, grammatical accuracy, contextual appropriacy, and so on...” (Hyland, 2008; p.226). Moreover, scales that will be used for rating should cover objective characteristics as possible. Therefore, two questions can be raised to inquire a system for scoring a script: whether to give a single score to each script, or score each script depending on several different features. Three main approaches consisting of primary trait scales, holistic scales, and analytic scales are available in the composition assessment literature. Holistic scoring, or general impression marking, means that giving single scores to the writing by judging an overall impression. On the other hand, analytic scoring depends on several aspects of writing rather than a single score (Weigle, 2002; pp. 64-115). There are, of course, some probable limitations for both types of scoring. In holistic scoring, using the scale for analytic scoring bears some problems as it includes several sub-categories for rating. Then, again, the practicality of analytic scoring can be judged in terms of time consuming and difficulty of applying the criteria to each script (East, 2009; p.91). Furthermore, holistic scoring can be used to attract the attention of the readers to the strength of the scripts and not to the lack of it and thus, writers can be reinforced and awarded (White, 1984, 1985). Nevertheless, “analytic scoring schemes thus provide more detailed information about a test taker’s performance in different aspect of writing and are for this reason preferred over holistic schemes by many specialist” (Weigle, 2002; pp.114-115). There are some researches on the reliability of different scale types. In this context, Weir (1990) explains that analytic scoring is more reliable than holistic scoring (cited in Weigle, 2002, p.73). Also, Bauer (1981) found that even though holistic scoring is more cost effective, analytic scoring is more reliable than holistic scoring (cited in Weigle, 2002; p.73). Additionally, in the scoring process, validity is another decisive factor referring to the writing course goals and outcomes. In order to ensure that writings are scored objectively and to obtain high inter-rater reliability, there are some internal and external factors in the setting for marking errors in compositions of subjects under questions. Therefore, as defined in the Standards for Education and Psychological Testing, “Validity… is a unitary concept. Although evidence may be accumulated in many ways, validity always refers to the degree to which that evidence supports the interferences that are made from the scores. The interferences regarding specific uses of a test are validated, not the test itself” (American Psychological Association, 1985, p.9). It must be noted that “…any type of assessment should reflect the course goals…” (Coombe, Folse, Hubley, 2007, p.70). Background In this study, scoring reliably the learners’ scripts by the researchers gains the importance. Participants of the present study are 8 experienced and non-native English language teachers and 8 native English language teachers holding at least MA degree in language teaching. A writing paper was randomly selected from the administered writing exams given to the first year students studying English Language and Literature during the academic year 2010, and the paper was assessed by those 16 language teachers through scoring at two levels: holistic and analytic. Scoring processes of the paper were done according to a predetermined rubric. The scores of the participants got from holistic scale and analytic scale were statistically analyzed. Two research questions are addressed: 1. Is there any difference between the holistic ratings and analytic ratings of the participants in terms of inter-rater reliability? 2. To what extent do the mean of the scores of those 8 non-native English language teachers and 8 native English language teachers deviate? Methodology In this study, the raters used a “Direct Measures of Writing Assessment” approach while scoring the papers. In the direct approach, in contrast to indirect approach, students’ success in communicating through the written mode of texts is taken into consideration. This type of assessment process includes the quality of content, appropriate vocabulary, grammar and syntax (Coombe et al, p.71). Scoring Holistic Rubric The intermediate level ESL/EFL script was rated according to a pre-determined rubric for holistic scoring which includes 5 types of categories and in which general writing ability can be judged (see figure 1).Using such 76 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo a rubric, of course, has some advantages besides having disadvantages. Hyland (2003; p.227) compares and contrasts the gain and loss of Holistic scoring: Table 3.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Holistic Scoring Advantages Disadvantages Global impression no a single ability Provides no diagnostic information Emphasis on achievement not deficiencies Difficult to interpret composite score Weight can be assigned to certain criteria Smooths out different abilities in subskills Encourages rater discussion and agreement Raters may overlook subskills Penalizes attempts to use challenging forms Longer essays may get higher scores One source reduces reliability May confuse writing ability with language proficiency The participants of the study, both 8 native raters and the other 8 non-native raters, scored the intermediate level script according to the holistic scale (see figure 1). The requirements of the settings for the raters, rater training, and others were supplied in the process of reading. Scoring Analytic Rubric The paper under question was also rated by the participant raters through using a multiple-trait scoring rubric (see figure 2). This type of rubric is considered to be an ideal compromise on account of requiring raters to provide separate scores for different writing features. Furthermore, it is like a multifaceted scoring and in particular contexts and purposes, such rubrics can address the traits that do not occur in more analytic score (Hyland, 2003, p.230). Hyland (2003, p.230) explains the advantages and disadvantages of analytic scoring in the below table: Table 3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Analytic Scoring Advantages Encourages raters to address the same features Allows more diagnostic reporting Assists reliability as candidates gets several scores Detailed criteria allow easier rater training Prevents conflation of categories into one Allows teachers to prioritize specific aspects Disadvantages May divert attention from overall essay effect Rating one scale may influence others Very time consuming compared with holistic method Writing is more than simply the sum of its parts Favors essays where scalable into easily extracted Descriptors may overlap or ambiguous Obtaining High Inter-rater Reliability In this study, to keep raters reliable in their scoring marks there are some requirements that should be applied in the setting. Therefore, the following practice was taken into consideration while preparing the raters for the large-scale assessment of the single paper given to each of them. • White (1984) puts forward some practice to maintain high reliability in large-scale assessment: • At least two independent raters must score each script, and if there is any discrepancy a third rater’s score may be taken into consideration. • Scoring should be done in a controlled reading, that is to say, a group of readers meets together to grade scripts at the same place and time. There are two advantages of doing so: (a) the circumstances under which scripts are read are controlled. Therefore there will be a low variance as unnecessary sources causing erroneous scoring will be eliminated, and (b) a positive social environment which helps to set the rating standards is formed. • Checks on the reading in progress by reading leaders (also called Table Leaders) help to ensure that every reader participated in the process is maintaining the agreed-upon standards for grading. Evaluation and record keeping are essential for the ongoing assessment program. So unreliable raters may be eliminated (cited in Weigle, 2002; p129). 77 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results The distributions of two groups of raters’ holistic and analytic marks given to a single paper were shown in the below tables. The scores were analyzed by the statistical software SPSS 16.00 v. Native Speakers’ Markings Table 4.1. The Comparison of Native Speakers’ Holistic and Analytic Scores Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Holistic Marks Analytic Marks 13 12 13 13 12 13 13 12 16 13 14 16 13 14 16 14 Table 4.1. shows the marks given by 8 native English teachers. It can be easily realized that the marks given by analytic scoring is regularly a small amount higher than holistic scoring. NonNative Speakers’ Markings Holistic Marks Analytic Marks Table 4.2. The Comparison of Non-Native Speakers’ Holistic and Analytic Scores Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 11 11 16 13 15 11 11 12 13 14 16 12 12 13 14 In table 4.2., the marks given by 8 non-native speaker teachers of English depending on analytic and holistic scales were slightly different from those of native ones. It can be realized easily that the marks given by analytic scoring were to some extent higher than holistic scoring (the mean of holistic marks is 12.8750; the mean of analytic marks is 13.2500). The distribution of the marks given by native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) can be seen on the table 4.3 and table 4.4. B Table 4.3. The Marks Given by the Native Speakers Analytic Marks Holistic Scores Content Organization Cohesion Vocabulary Grammar Punctuation Spelling Total Score Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 12 13 13 12 13 13 12 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 16 13 14 16 13 14 16 14 Table 4.4. The Marks Given by the Non-Native Speakers 78 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo B Analytic Marks Holistic Scores Content Organization Cohesion Vocabulary Grammar Punctuation Spelling Total Score Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 11 11 16 13 15 11 11 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 13 14 16 12 12 13 14 The mean of holistic marks scored by NS raters was a little lower than analytic ones. Yet, it can be said that there was no significant difference between two types of scores (see table 4.5). Table 4.5. Paired Sample Statistics: Native Speakers’ (NS) Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Minimum Maximum Range Mean Std. Std. NSs’ deviation Error Scoring Marks Mean 8 12,00 13,00 1,00 12,6250 ,51755 ,18298 Holistic 8 13,00 16,00 3,00 14,5000 1,30931 ,46291 Analytic Table 4.6. shows that NNS gave more points in their analytic ratings than holistic ratings. And also this situation is similar to the results shown on Table 4.5. Table 4.6. Paired Sample Statistics: Non-Native Speakers’ (NNS) Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks NSs’ N Minimum Maximum Range Mean Std. Std. deviation Error Scoring Mean Marks 8 11,00 16,00 5,00 12,8750 2,16712 ,76619 Holistic 8 12,00 16,00 4,00 13,2500 1,38873 ,49099 Analytic Table 4.7. and table 4.8. show that there are high correlations between both groups raters’ holistic and analytic marks (p>0,05 level). Table 4.7. Paired Sample Correlations: Native Speakers’ Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Correlation Significance Holistic and Analytic 8 ,738 ,037 Pair Marks 1 Table 4.8. Paired Sample Correlations: Non-Native Speakers’ Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Correlation Significance Holistic and Analytic 8 ,059 ,889 Pair Marks 2 79 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Discussion and Conclusion Assessing L2 writing, in fact, is a subjective process where there is no exact correct answer that could be given to any test item when compared to other types of testing language skills such as multiple choice tests. However, to obtain high level of objectivity in assessing writing there are some requirements that scorers must fulfil. Therefore, the term ‘inter-rater reliability’ gains importance in scoring marks to L2 written productions. In this study, the amount of consistency between the ratings of both the groups of native speakers and non-native speakers were statistically analyzed. Scoring marks depending on analytic and holistic scales showed that both groups of raters are consistent in their analytic and holistic ratings. The correlation of native speakers’ scoring holistic and analytic marks is ,738 and significance is ,037 at p> 0,05 level and the correlation of non-native speakers’ scoring holistic and analytic marks is ,059 and significance is ,889 at p> 0,05 level. However, the mean of native speakers’ analytic scoring marks is a little higher than their holistic scoring marks. Similarly, the mean of non-native speakers’ analytic scoring marks is a little higher than holistic ones. Overall, native and nonnative raters rated the same paper consistently (12-15= good). In conclusion, the study is limited to 16 participant-raters and to replicate for confirming the outcomes of the present study, the participants and task may be varied in the further studies. 80 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References American Psychological Association Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1985). Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association. Bachman, L. F. (1995). Fundemental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford university Press. Barkaoui, K. (2010). Variability in ESL essay rating process: The role of the rating scale and rater experience. Language Assessment Quarterly, 7, 54-74. Bresciani, M. J., Oakleaf, M., Kolhorst, F., Nebeker, C., & et al. (2009) Examining design and inter-rater reliability of a rubric measuring research quality across multiple disciplines. Practical Assesment Research & Evaluation, 14, 12, p.3. Brown, G.T.L., Glasswell, K., & Harland, D. (2004). Accuracy in the scoring of writing: studies of reliability and validity using a new zealand writing assesment system. Assessing Writing, 9, 106. Coombe, C., Folse, K., & Hubley, N. (2007). A Practical Guide to Assessing English Language Learners. US: The University of Michigan Press. East, M. (2009). Evaluating the reliability of a detailed analytic scoring rubric for foreign language writing. Assessing Writing, 14, p.91. Hamp-Lyons, L. (1990). Second language writing: assessment isssues. In Coombe, C., Folse, K., Hubley, N. (2007). A Practical Guide to Assessing English Language Learners (p.84). US: The University of Michigan Press. Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stemler, S.E. (2004). A comparison of consensus, consistency, and measurement approaches to estimating, interrater reliability. Practical Assesment Research & Evaluation, 9, 4. Sudweeks, R. R., Reeve, S., & Bradshaw, W. S. (2005). A comparison of generalizability theory and Many-Facet Rasch Measurement in an analysis of college sophomore writing”. Assessing Writing, 9, 239. Sweedler-Brown, C. O. (1985). The influence of training and experience on holistic essay evaluation. English Journal, 74, 5, 49-55. TEEP Test of English for Educational Purposes, Associated Examining Board, UK, 1984.Weir, C. J, (1990). Communicative Language Testing. NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. UCLES International Examinations in English as a Foreign Language General Handbook, 1987. Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. White, E.M. (1984). Holisticism. College Composition and Communication, 35, 4, 400-409. White, E.M. (1985). Teaching and Assessing Writing. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. 81 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Appendix A. Holistic and analytic scales used in the study. Figure 1: Holistic Scale, Source: UCLES International Examinations in English as a Foreign Language General Handbook, 1987 Grade Excellent 18-20 Characteristics Natural English with minimal errors and complete realization of the task set. Very Good 16-17 More than a collection of simple sentences, with good vocabulary and structures. Some non-basic errors. Good 12-15 Simple but accurate realization of the task set with sufficient naturalness of English and not many errors. Pass 8-11 Reasonably Correct but awkward and non-communicating or fair and natural treatment of subject, with some serious errors. Weak 5-7 Original vocabulary and grammar both inadequate to the subject. Very Poor 0-4 Incoherent. Errors show lack of basic knowledge of English. 2. Some inappropriacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps some lexical inappropriacies and/or circumlocution. 3. Almost no inappropriacies in vocabulary for the task. Only rare inappropriacies and/or circumlocution. A. Relevance and Adequacy of content 0. The answer bears almost no relation to the task set. Totally inadequate answer. 1. Answer of limited relevance to the task set. Possibly major gaps in treatment of topic and/or pointless repetition. 2. For the most part answers the task set, though there may be some gaps or redundant information. 3. Relevant and adequate answer to the task set. E. Grammar 0. Almost all grammatical patterns inaccurate. 1. Frequent grammatical inaccuracies. 2. Some grammatical inaccuracies. 3. Almost no grammatical inaccuracies. B. Compositional Organization 0. No apparent organization of content. 1. Very little organization of content. Underlying structures not sufficiently apparent. 2. Some organization skills in evidence but not adequately controlled. 3. Overall shape and internal pattern clear. Organization skills adequately controlled. F. Mechanical Accuracy I (Punctuation) 0. Ignorance of conventions of punctuation. 1. Low standard of accuracy of punctuation. 2. Some inaccuracies of punctuation. 3. Almost no inaccuracies of punctuation. G. Mechanical Accuracy II (Spelling) 0. Almost all spelling inaccurate. 1. Low standard of accuracy in spelling. 2. Some inaccuracies in spelling. 3. Almost no inaccuracies in spelling. C. Cohesion 0. Cohesion almost totally absent. Writing is so fragmentary that comprehension of the intended communication is virtually impossible. 1. Unsatisfactory cohesion may cause difficulty in comprehension of most of the intended communication. 2. For the most part satisfactory cohesion though occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of communication are not always effective, 3. Some use of cohesion resulting in effective communication. D. Adequacy of Vocabulary for Purpose 0. Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the intended communication. 1. Frequent inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps frequent lexical inappropriacies and/or repetitions. 82 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Figure 2. Analytic Scale, Source: Test of English for Educational Purposes, Associated Examining Board, UK, 1984. Appendix B. Sample section from the composition scored by 8 NS and NNS raters. 83 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 395 Title A name given to the resource An Inter-Rater Perspective for the Researches on Assessing Writing Author Author HAN, Turgay EFE, Hüseyin Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. In assessing EFL students’ writings consistently, there are various factors that must be taken into consideration while rating. Especially those who want to make quantitative researches using raters or who aim to give suitable feedback to written productions should be responsible for fulfilling the requirements in marking and scoring process. In this context, this paper looks insight for some issues related to the raters, such as inter-rater reliability, analytic or holistic examinations, rating criteria, and others. This study includes 8 native raters and 8 non-native raters, each of whom rated an ESL essay both holistically and analytically. Every participant rater’s background of scoring ESL writings was similar. The result showed that there was no significant difference between raters, that is, participants’ grading of the essay is irrespective of their being native speakers. At the end of the study, some important implications for essay rating practices and both the researchers and language teacher were emphasized. Key Words: Rater, Reliability, Assessing Writing, EFL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1e6a2798ef5f138d15a77b1955795da9.pdf 5274ca90b414e08e4f180df5f247ca40 PDF Text Text An Investigation into the Nature of Academic Procrastination M. Yavuz KONCA Ataturk University Kâzim Karabekir Education Faculty English Teaching Department Erzurum/Turkey ykonca@hotmail.com Öznur SEMIZ Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Letters English Department Trabzon/Turkey oznozr@hotmail.com Abstract: Academic procrastination is the voluntary delay of the completion of an academic task within the expected or desired time frame despite expecting to be worse off for the delay (Senécal et al. 1995; Steel 2007) . It is a dispositional trait that can have particularly serious consequences for students who are required to meet frequent deadlines. Research claims that 80%–95% of college students engage in procrastination (Ellis and Knaus 1977) and about 50% procrastinate in a consistent and problematic fashion (Day et al. 2000), delaying essential school-related activities. Some of the major causes of academic procrastination include fear of failure, inability to complete the task, a lack of time management or study skills, stress, or feeling overwhelmed with their work. This paper discusses the reasons why academic procrastination is a problem, why students procrastinate, and techniques for managing it. Implications for teachers will also be discussed. Keywords: academic procrastination, motivation, college performance procrastinatory behaviour, Introduction Procrastination is one of the greatest problems affecting academicians as well as students while achieving their academic performance. According to Ferrari (1995), difficulty in meeting schedules, submitting assignment late, delaying writing of notes, delaying tasks till assumed convenient time, being reluctant in performing tasks and waiting for dying minutes to accomplish a task are some of the various ways through which students procrastinate. Today, scientists all over the world agree that procrastination is an extremely complicated and influential act, which is more serious than can be imagined by those who have not experienced it themselves. Naturally, it is not so easy to help people overcome this problem of habitually postponing their work. As in other parts of society, procrastination emerges as a serious problem among university students. Some university students show the tendency to postpone the work they are expected to do. The simple excuse for their postponement is that they are trying to find convenient time to act; some of them always feel hesitant or unwilling in doing work that should be done without any delay whereas some other university students hang around until the very last moment to study for examinations. The conduct sometimes develops to become a common practice or even a habit. In the end, this habit may become a chronic behavioral disease that these students suffer from throughout their lives. 128 �What is Procrastination? The term procrastination originates from the Latin word "procrastinare" which means, "to put off until tomorrow. (“pro-“ prefix meaning “favour for” + “crastinare” derived from the Latin combination “crastinus” formed by Latin “cras” meaning “tomorrow” + “ –tinus the Latin suffix forming adjective”(Random House Dictionary, 1987; p.1543). Procrastination is the act or practice of continually, and in a sense habitually, putting significant tasks off until the last minute rather than doing them in a way that gives the individual sufficient time to complete the task without having to rush, and this practice can have unfortunate effects on an individual. Academic definitions of procrastination vary depending on the scientific field or approach. For instance, according to the approach considering procrastination as a psychological pain: “Procrastination is delay in conjunction with subjective discomfort (e.g., Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). One other approach states that procrastination is an Intended Action “when we delay beginning or completing an intended course of action (e.g., Beswick & Mann, 1994). Another view is that there is irrationality in procrastination and so “Procrastination is the illogical delay of behavior (Sabini & Silver, 1982). A common definition, in reference to the published research can be made stating that procrastination is the experience of psychological discomfort or distress as a result of failing to complete, or indefinitely postponing, a task or activity (e.g. Ferrari, McCown & Johnson, 1995; Johnson & Bloom, 1995; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). History of Procrastination Milgram (1992), claiming that societies that developed industrially need various commitments and time limits, is known to have written the first concrete historical investigation on procrastination, and this study encouraged further studies on procrastination (Steel, 2007). As a matter of fact, undeveloped rural societies are not so badly affected by procrastination. In their book, Ferrari, Johnson, and McCown (1995) took a similar although lighter position. They argued that procrastination had been present throughout history but that it only gained truly disappointing implications with the arrival of the industrial revolution in 1750s. Before then, procrastination was viewed neutrally and could be interpreted as a clever course of both action and inaction. Having considered all the facts, it may be said that, the belief that procrastination is a modern trouble may, to a certain extent, be true. Because self-reports of procrastination have indicated that it may be on the rise (Kachgal et al., 2001). Despite this increase, historical references have indicated that views about procrastination have been reasonably constant over the ages: It is and has long been a prevalent problem. (Steel, 2007). It is interesting that while searching classical texts we are shown the way to informative references to the natural perception of procrastination. Hesiod who is known to be one of the first recorded Ancient Greek poets and who is known to have written around 800 B.C., provides one of the earliest possible citations. Regarding procrastination he says: “Do not put your work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not fill his barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man who puts off work is always at hand-grips with ruin. (Works and Days, l.413)” Considering this consistency of belief, extending to a time about three thousand years ago, we are forced to regard procrastination as a typical human weakness. Hence, the fact that procrastination was not dealt with by scientists sooner is somewhat surprising and paradoxical. Again in about 450 B.C., Thucydides, who lived between c.460-400 B.C. also remarked about procrastination. He was an Athenian general writing much on the Athenian war with the Spartans, including various aspects of personalities and strategies, Thucydides was also a historian and he considered procrastination to be the most criticized of character qualities. To him procrastination was useful only in delaying the commencement of war so as to allow preparations that speeded its conclusion to be made. (Histoires, 1.84.1). Going back to year of 44 BC, we see Marcus Tullius Cicero as the consul whose position was the highest political office of Rome and as a very well-known spokesman who spoke against several political antagonists, such as Marcus Antonius, who later had him murdered. In one of a series of speeches criticizing Marcus Antonius, Cicero declared: "In the conduct of almost every affair slowness and procrastination are hateful" (Philippics, 6.7). Roman Emperor Marcus Annius Verus Antonius Aurelius, who reigned in 161-180 A.D. and who was a Stoic philosopher, commented on procrastination saying: "Think of all the years passed by in which you said to yourself "I'll do it tomorrow," and how the gods have again and again granted you periods of grace of which you have not availed yourself. It is time to realize that you are a member of the Universe, that you are born of Nature itself, and to know that a limit has been set to your time. Use every moment wisely, to perceive your inner refulgence, or 'twill be gone and nevermore within your reach."(Meditations,2.4). The English novelist John Lyly, who was supported by Queen Elizabeth I and who was well-known for his work titled Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, a book that relied heavily on proverbs for its content and which he wrote in 1579 (as cited in Gales' quotations, 1995), wrote in that work "Delays breed dangers; nothing is so perilous as procrastination"(p.513), a comment proving that procrastination was considered to be an illness in those days. 129 �Starting from the industrial revolution, The famous English Writer Samuel Johnson (1751) described procrastination as "one of the general weaknesses, which, in spite of the instruction of moralists, and the remonstrances of reason, prevail to a greater or less degree in every mind." A contemporary of Johnson, Phillip Stanhope (1749/1968), Earl of Chesterfield, advised, "No idleness, no laziness, no procrastination; never put off till tomorrow what you can do today." (Steel, 2007). Why Do We Procrastinate? The question Why We Procrastinate is a so frequently asked. Although the answers vary greatly, some excuses included in the answers appear to be expressed more often than can be imagined. Numerous reasons may be listed to describe the excuses for procrastination. Some major ones have been proposed by various researchers. The grouping below made by Timothy Quek (2009) seems to be worth quoting : 4.1. Disorganization It is a commonly accepted truth that procrastination and disorganization are fundamentally associated. Yet not all disorganization should be admitted to be the same. In fact, procrastination-oriented disorganization occurs in four primary areas. 4.1.1. A poor distinction between urgency and priority. In the beginning of the urgency-priority phase, procrastinators tend to concentrate on "comfort" tasks that are most convenient, interesting, or within reach. Here, it is apparent that priority is sacrificed for convenience. As these tasks are being focused to, however, other tasks begin to pile up, and soon an excess of tasks come very badly to need being given attention. An untidy heap of new and old tasks becomes marked as urgent, and the procrastinator is obliged to drop current tasks to attend to the urgent ones. In a sense, what is urgent has become priority. This disorder goes on as tasks divide into three categories which become badly in need of attention and which are increasingly difficult to distinguish, that is to say, priority/urgent; priority/non-urgent; nonpriority/urgent. In the meantime, the charm of the non-urgent, non-priority comfort tasks still attracts the procrastinator to do them. What comes out as the result is that the procrastinator becomes subject to the domination of the urgent, he becomes unable to set up appropriate priorities, and constantly seeks reprieve from these stresses by attending to tasks that are neither urgent nor priority! 4.1.2. Distractibility. The problem of distractibility is closely associated with the tendency of procrastinators to attend to comfort tasks. It is not surprising to find procrastinators explaining that a task is left unattended to because "something else came up". Setting better emotional boundaries (e.g., saying "No" to yourself) in order to stay on task usually helps to limit attention to the multitude of off-task behaviours that we know as distractions. 4.1.3. Forgetfulness. Unfortunately, no amount of prioritizing or boundary drawing can prevail over disorganized forgetfulness. Characteristically, procrastinators assume that they have an exceptional memory and they often claim that they remember even though they appear to have forgotten ("Of course, I remember. I was just about to do it"). They fill up their pockets and purses with many slips of "reminder" paper, and they usually seem to be using more than one appointment book or none at all (both practices have the same effect). A step in the right direction is to acknowledge a problem with forgetfulness, although it must never be used as an excuse for inaction. 4.1.4. Lumping. Finally, a major part of procrastination- oriented disorganization comes in the form of "lumping" or "chunking", that is, the errant perception that most tasks come as an inseparable whole (a "lump") that cannot be subdivided and dealt with systematically. The harried teenager who thinks of "cleaning my room" as a massive single-lump task would likely procrastinate over cleaning his room. 130 �4.2. Fear Many researchers believe that one of the major causes of procrastination is fear. Fear-induced procrastination generally expresses itself as avoidance and the intense desire to either delay performing a task or wait for its expiration so that it no longer has to be dealt with. Most of the time, one task is related to another, and the cluster of avoided tasks grows over time. As outstanding tasks mount, the procrastinator becomes resigned, depressed and inactive. The internal struggles of fear-motivated procrastination are usually of two types: the rational versus the irrational ("I know that I should, so why can't I just do it") and discipline vs. discomfort ("I planned to do it, but when the time came, I just didn't feel like it."). Attempts at resolving these conflicts must start at the level of dealing with the fear rather than with logic or greater discipline. 4.3. Perfectionism Almost all researchers accept perfectionism as the first and greatest of all reasons for procrastination among the academicians. Most procrastinators do not think of themselves as perfectionists. "If I'm a perfectionist, I would get things done," they say. Not necessarily. In fact, perfectionism can lead to "starts and spurts" performance, meaning that an individual goes on a cleaning spree, or attacks a task with great energy and then falls back in exhaustion after having exasperated, irritated, or alienated everyone around. Perfectionism has also been found to be strongly related to depression and an extremely critical spirit (either self or other critical).What is perfectionism, then? Perfectionism is a form of rigidity or inflexibility that is marked by three major characteristics: (i) The intense desire to jump in and do things yourself because others just can't do it right; (ii) the insistent attitude that you wouldn't even start on something if you can't do it well; and (iii) the profound need for closure, indicated by agitation or discomfort should something be left "hanging". Procrastination may also be an indicator of a more serious physical or psychological problem that would respond positively to treatment. Often, such procrastination is not observed by the one procrastinating, but by others close to that person. Extreme anxiety, severe clinical depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity, and illnesses that are related to memory loss are examples of such dysfunctions that may lead to procrastination. Each of these characteristics "forces or drives" the perfectionist to procrastinate. For perfectionist procrastinators, the first step in dealing with procrastination is acknowledging and disliking the three basic tendencies mentioned under perfectionism. Then practical solutions can be applied systematically. Types of Procrastination Considering what currently available data obtained through research conducted so far have proved, procrastination may be classified as chronic procrastination and non-chronic procrastination or temporary procrastination. Various forms of chronic procrastination have been proposed by some researchers. In general, researchers usually grouped procrastination under three titles each of which has its own set of characteristics (Ferrari et al., 1995). They are commonly known as: a) arousal procrastination, also known as thrill-seeking, where individuals wait until close to the deadline in order to promote a thrill seeking experience, and b) avoidant procrastination, also known as fear of failure, where individuals wait to complete a task in order to reduce potential disclosure of personal inabilities. c) decisional procrastination, also known as indecision, where individuals are indecisive as to whether to do the work or when to do it (Díaz-Morales & Ferrari, 2007). One specific form of procrastination occurs when a student experiences psychological distress from the postponement of school-related tasks (e.g. writing a paper, studying for an exam; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984, 1988). According to Rothblum and her colleagues, academic procrastination has been reported in a significant proportion of students tested, with up to 40% experiencing excessive levels. In addition, academic procrastination appears to be related to test anxiety, to various other symptomatology related to anxiety, and to external attributions of academic success (Rothblum, Solomon & Murakami, 1986). Depression, lack of assertion (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984), indecision, and low self-esteem (Beswick, Rothblum & Mann, 1988) have also been associated with academic procrastination. 131 �Effects of Procrastination Procrastination has a way of ruling our lives if we do not bring it under control. It may lead to extreme laziness if it is not dealt with at early stages. To be more precise, procrastination ends in laziness if it is not controlled. There are many different tests used today to measure academic procrastination. Among them are the questionnaire developed by Van Eerde (2003) which has nine questions for each of the five categories for a total of 45 questions and the test, developed by Solomon and Rothblum (1984) as cited by Onwuegbuzie (2004) called the PASS (the procrastination Assessment Scale-Students) which has six different categories, but with academic questions instead of personal ones. "Stemming from an intricate interplay of psychological variables, in its chronic form, procrastination may become maladaptive and eventually result in psychological dysfunction (Ferrari et al., 1995). Solving the Problem of Procrastination Based on her view that irrational fears form the basis of academic procrastination, Rothblum (1990) has suggested that behavioral treatment techniques be applied to treat academic procrastination such as those used in the treatment of phobias. Various ways of overcoming the problem of procrastination are recommended by many researchers (Díaz-Morales, J.F., & Ferrari, J. R., 2007; Johnson, J. L. & Bloom, A. M., 1995; Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J., 2001). For instance, choosing to do one task while temporarily putting another on hold is simply setting priorities, which allow people to cross things off their to-do lists one at a time. It is also suggested that the steps below be followed and attempts be made to overcome or at least to minimize the problem of procrastination (Timothy Quek, 2009) (a) Determine what you are afraid of In fear-motivated procrastination, it is necessary to identify the fear to begin with. For example, a person trying to find a job over an extended period of time may have developed a fear of being rejected...yet again. A high school student drags her feet in completing her class project because of a fear of obtaining another failing grade. Another example may be that an accounts analyst finds it an unpleasant task to complete even one assignment towards his certification exam because of his fear of the material itself. This last example may in fact have to do with his lack of ability in his chosen field! Briefly, both the fear and the sources of that fear must be confronted before the behaviours expressed by procrastination can be addressed. Often, a trained counsellor would be able to help in identifying the sources of fear and their effects on self-esteem, then provide some direction in dealing with these problems. (b) Get yourself an appointment book. And please...don't go overboard with this idea. Procrastinators often start ambitiously. (Remember the problem of "lumping"?) They run out and buy the most expensive bells-and-whistles appointment book, invest in an elaborate electronic daytimer, or photocopy reams of get-your-life-together organizers readily available on the market. You hear the reasoning, "Hey, if it's gotta be done, it's gotta be done right!" (Do you hear the perfectionist?) Eventually, the massive effort comes to an anticlimactic halt when they "run out of steam", and discouragement sets them three steps back after having dashed two steps forward. It is far wiser to purchase a simple appointment book, preferably one that is about the size of a small paperback that has a one week spread when the book is opened. Appointment books help to address the problems of disorganization and even poor memory. (i) First, learn to use it every day: Write down things you are going to do or that you have already done. Look ahead into the next week, if you like, but don't plan your life for the next year. To help you use the book more, write in important telephone numbers and addresses as you acquire them. Carry it around with you all day. Make its presence with you a habit. (ii) Second, learn how to plan ahead realistically: Break down tasks into tangible stage goals, and provide these goals with appropriate deadlines. Then write these deadlines into your appointment book. (iii) Third, provide yourself with daily "to do" lists that you write into your book: Even small, easy-to-do or habitual items could be added to the list. Check the items off as you go along. The point is to register accomplishment tangibly as you move through the day. (c) Dechunk Breaking a task down into manageable chunks ("dechunking") usually removes the threat of having to do a large task all at once. Sometimes, a task may be underestimated as costing very little energy and time when it really takes up a good chunk of your energies. Learn to break tasks down to 15 minute chunks to begin with. As you get more practised at it, increase the size of your chunks. It would be very helpful to use your appointment book to plan your dechunking. 132 �(d) Break Free Procrastination has a way of ruling our lives if we do not bring it under control. Many resigned procrastinators simply confess, "I'm just lazy" and hope that the explanation suffices. Not for a long time..Laziness is procrastination out of control. It takes a great deal of wisdom and effort to break the clutches of procrastination, but the results are often worth the while. Conclusion The rate of procrastination in society, especially among the university students and academicians, is high Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). This could obstruct the promotion of intellectual excellence in the academic environment. It therefore becomes necessary for the academicians to evolve effective management of their time through proper time scheduling, avoidance of procrastination and reduction of time wasters.Future research should re-examine existing evidence on correlates of procrastination in light of Council's (1993; Council et al., 1996) work on context effects. The present study reported a significant relationship between procrastination and irrational thinking when context was controlled; it is important to determine if other relationships will hold with similar controls for context. Considering the study conducted by Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M. (1997), subscale problem avoidance is seen as a key factor related to academic procrastination. Counselors’ efforts at reducing procrastination have focused on improving students’ study habits and teaching them time management skills (Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D., 1984). However, research has proved procrastination not to be merely a deficit of time organization and study skills, but it involves a complex interaction of psychological variables. Rothblum (1990) has suggested applying behavioral treatment methods in like in the treatment of phobias. The approach that psycological treatment technique be applied should be made use of not only by the therapists and counselors but also by teachers of such disciplines as language teaching as well mathematics and sience where procrastination greatly affects academic performance (Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M., 1997). This point has significant value considering the fact that procrastinatin is becoming more frequent among graduate students and academicians. References : Beswick, G., & Mann, L. (1994). State orientation and procrastination. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 391-396). Gottingen, Germany: Hogrefe & Huber. Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M. (1997). Academic procrastination and irrational thinking: A context controlled. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 941-944. re-examination with Díaz-Morales, J.F., & Ferrari, J. R. (2007). Procrastination: Different time orientations reflect different motives. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 707–714. Ferrari, J. R., Johnson, J. L., & McCown, W. G. (1995). Procrastination and task avoidance: Theory, research, and treatment. New York: Plenum Press. Flexner, S.B.(Ed).(1987). Random House Dictionary. New York: Random House Inc. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125—132. Yonge, C. D., Clark, A. (2009) M. Tullius Cicero, Orations: Three orations on the Agrarian law, the four against Catiline, the orations for Rabirius, Murena, Sylla, Archias, Flaccus, Scaurus, etc.; Editions and translations: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Texts.html Johnson, J. L. & Bloom, A. M. (1995). An analysis of the contribution of the five factors of personality to variance in academic procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 127-133. Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). Academic procrastination prevention/intervention: Strategies and recommendations. Journal of Developmental Education, 25, 14-24. McClure, J. B., (2007). Pearls from Many Seas; London; Read Books 133 �Milgram, N. A., Gehrman, T., & Keinan, G. (1992). Procrastination and emotional upset: A typological model. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1307-1313. Rothblum, E. D. (1990). Fear of failure: The psychodynamic, need achievement, fear of success, and procrastination models. Silver, M., & Sabini, J. (1981). Procrastinating. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 11, 207-221. Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal ofCounseling Psychology, 31, 503-509. Stanhope, P. D. (1968). Bartlett's familiar quotations (14th ed.). Boston: Little, Brown. (Original work published 1749) Steel, P., (2007). The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review of Quintessential Self-Regulatory Failure Psychological Bulletin 133, 65-94. Timothy Quek (2009) The Problem of http://webhome.idirect.com/~readon/procrast.html Procrastination. Retrieved Feb. 01, 2009 from 134 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 663 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation into the Nature of Academic Procrastination Author Author KONCA, M. Yavuz Semiz, Öznur Abstract A summary of the resource. Academic procrastination is the voluntary delay of the completion of an academic task within the expected or desired time frame despite expecting to be worse off for the delay (Senécal et al. 1995; Steel 2007) . It is a dispositional trait that can have particularly serious consequences for students who are required to meet frequent deadlines. Research claims that 80%–95% of college students engage in procrastination (Ellis and Knaus 1977) and about 50% procrastinate in a consistent and problematic fashion (Day et al. 2000), delaying essential school-related activities. Some of the major causes of academic procrastination include fear of failure, inability to complete the task, a lack of time management or study skills, stress, or feeling overwhelmed with their work. This paper discusses the reasons why academic procrastination is a problem, why students procrastinate, and techniques for managing it. Implications for teachers will also be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 948 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation into the PCK Development of Turkish Prospective Teachers of English through Lesson Preparation Author Author Kaslıoglu, Ozlem Abstract A summary of the resource. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), a type of specific knowledge that teachers possess, involves the synthesis of subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical knowledge (Shulman, 1986). PCK is developed through years of experience in the classroom since how to organize and represent specific content in forms that will facilitate students’ learning is one of the most difficult aspects of learning to teach (Veal, 1999). Although teacher education programs offer courses that aim to broaden prospective teachers’ (PTs) subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical knowledge, teaching opportunities are limited; thus, it may be assumed that PTs have limited or minimal PCK. Studies on the development of prospective teachers’ PCK are scarce and mainly conducted in the fields of science and mathematics education (Ruhama, 1993; Van Driel et al., 2002; Lee et al. 2007). The present study aims to investigate the PCK development of 5 Turkish prospective teachers of English who are currently completing their third year in a teacher education program of a state university in Turkey. Data comprises of lesson preparation tasks based on a literary text and written reflections of participants illustrating their thought processes. Data will be analyzed through qualitative means and the findings of the study will be discussed by referring to the relevant literature. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 842 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation of the Effecets of Critical Thinking Lessons on Learners’ and Teachers’ Perceptions and the Quality of Classroom Discussins: A Case Study Author Author Haifa, Alnofaie Abstract A summary of the resource. Recent studies have reached positive findings regarding the significant role of critical thinking pedagogy in learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). (See Davidson and Dunham, 1995; Erkaya, 2005; Correia, 2006; Yang, 2009; Chen, 2010; Li Li, 2011). However, further research is still needed to highlight the issue that this pedagogy could be challenging for learners and might lead to unsatisfactory outcomes, a point that the present paper addresses. Moreover, the majority of existing studies have paid more attention to examining learning outcomes rather than learning processes through employing pre and post achievement measures. This paper presents a case study that has infused critical thinking into an EFL speaking classroom over one semester in Saudi Arabia. The aim of this study was to investigate both barriers and merits of implementing the critical thinking pedagogy. The SPARE model (Burden and Williams, 1996) for evaluating classroom interventions has been adapted to evaluate this intervention. Participants were 18 high school graduates who have enrolled a compulsory English language programme, before starting their undergraduate degrees at a prestigious university. Data were collected through regular interviews with the learners and their teacher, observation field notes and audio recordings of classroom discussions. Findings suggested that participants did generally value learning through critical thinking lessons in terms of engagement. However, the quality of talk was influenced by the topics of discussions rather than the types of thinking tasks. Another finding was that learners avoided using argumentative phrases in both pre and post course speaking activities. They viewed these phrases as barriers to fluency. Speaking of transferability of argumentative skills, there was no evidence that learners have transferred these skills into discussions that occurred in other courses. Implications for future implementation of critical thinking pedagogy have been drawn from these findings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2909014f2301a7cf4e20d0ce87f6dafc.pdf 65bb958bdd15d440e20e8024d0ec91d3 PDF Text Text An Investigation of the Effective E-Learning Criteria for Higher Education Institutions Özcan Asilkan Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania oasilkan@epoka.edu.al Fatih Ersoy Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania afersoy@epoka.edu.al Abstract: The recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies affected education industry as well as other industries all over the world. Over the past decade, higher education institutions have been increasingly utilizing e-learning programs. However, some experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems might result in failure and disappointment. Therefore educational institutions should develop and follow the corporate guidelines so that the courses can be taught effectively and students can feel comfortable to adapt quickly to the other e-learning based courses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning for higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University in Spring semester of 2008-2009 academic year. The findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions who are planning to establish e-learning. Introduction The advancement in ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) and the widespread use of computers have generated a remarkable interest in on-line education in the past decade. This advancement led educational institutions search for alternatives to the traditional education. Consequently, they started to offer online education, or simply “e-learning” which aims to eliminate the dependency to the traditional classrooms and/or improve the learning environment (Eastman & Swift, 2001). There are many definitions of e-learning. For example, Zhang et al. (2004) defined it as “technologybased learning in which learning materials are delivered electronically to remote learners via a computer network”. A very comprehensive one was proposed by Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre: “learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communication technologies” (Jenkins & Hanson, 2003). Although e-learning is utilized by many educational institutions and companies today, the major beneficiaries are higher education institutions due to their high number of learners whose ages are very suitable for understanding e-learning. Nowadays, a great number of higher education institutions are providing e-learning courses or complete programs to the students. Besides, the number of those higher institutions is continually increasing. It is becoming evident that on-line education will become an integral part of higher education in the foreseeable future (Nakos et al., 2002). Despite this increasing interest in e-learning, some recent studies claimed that e-learning is less popular amongst learners compared with traditional learning and there is less demand for online study than enthusiasts predicted (Mcleod, 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008). Some other experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems may even result in failure and disappointment. Since e-learning is a new concept and has been popular swiftly, many higher institutions implemented it without determining corporate guidelines and critical success factors, measuring students perception, etc. Actually, an understanding of students’ perception and the factors that drive adoption intention will be very useful to make this mode of learning more acceptable. Additionally, teachers who are experienced in e-learning might be expected to understand what students are looking for when they are choosing their mode of studies (Lam & Bordia, 2008). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University which is located in a transition country, Albania. E-learning issues are comparatively little known in Albania and there seems no relevant study researching e-Learning in the higher 249 �education institutions in this small lovely country. Therefore findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions in Albania or other transition countries to establish their e-learning strategies. E-Learning Models E-learning models used at the higher education institutions can be classified according to various criteria. Three major categories are presented below (Eurybase, 2009): 1. The role of e-learning: a) Full e-learning programs – students obtain access to e-learning contents put on an online platform (like web) or distributed on CDs. Students are usually supported by tutors that use various communication tools (chat, discussion forum, e-mail, virtual classroom, videoconferences). Students take presence at the university several times a year, during which they take exams, participate in kick-off classes. This model is being used successfully only by a small set of universities. b) Traditional learning programs supported by ICTs in the area of communication and collaboration – this model is usually used by institutions that haven’t developed e-learning contents yet. c) Blended learning programs – students attend traditional led classes, which are supported with e-learning contents. This is the most popular model today. 2. E-learning content distribution method: a) Computer based training – it is a popular model in universities who are lack of high Internet access. b) Web based training – it is becoming more and more popular due to some improvements in IT infrastructure, as well as the increased availability of cost-effective e-learning solutions. 3. E-learning solutions used: a) Self-developed platforms – they were quite common a few years ago that universities started to develop own solutions instead of purchasing expensive commercial ones. However due to the need for continuous investment in self-developed platform to follow new standards, decreasing prices of commercial solutions, appearance and popularization of open source platforms (e.g. Moodle), only few universities still continue to develop their own platforms. b) Open source platforms – they are commonly used today in many universities. These platforms are usually free and can be easily adapted to the particular needs of a university. One of the most popular platforms is Moodle. Moodle implementations however are rarely integrated with other university systems and their usages lack standardization and coherence between various courses (Please see http://moodle.org/ for a detailed information on Moodle). c) Commercial platforms – they are usually integrated with other university systems and their usage seems to be the most professional compared to self-developed and open source platforms. These platforms are usually preferred by universities who offer a comprehensive set of e-learning courses. E-Learning Pros and Cons Recent developments in ICTs have made e-learning a feasible alternative to access to educational and training opportunities for learners of all ages, at all levels, and in different environments. In contrast to traditional classroom learning, e-Learning has several advantages for learners. First, e-learning provides time and location flexibility. Second, in the long run, e-learning results in cost and time savings for educational institutions. Third, it supports self-directed and self-paced learning by conducting learner-centered activities. Fourth, e-learning offers a collaborative learning environment by linking each learner with physically dispersed experts and peers. Fifth, it allows unlimited access to electronic learning materials. In addition, knowledge stored in a Web repository can be updated and maintained in a timely and effective fashion (Anaraki, 2004). 250 �On the other hand, superficial e-learning systems can result in frustration, anxiety, confusion, and reduced learner interest. Some of the problems that hinder the effectiveness of e-learning are listed below (Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). • Lack of forms of communication, body language and voice inflection: Compared to traditional classroom teaching, the electronic experience takes away much of the social and diversity aspects in the elearning class. These important skills are important in the business community and in an individual’s success in interacting face-to-face with others. • Text-based learning materials: The learning materials composed of only text may seem boring to learners and cause them to disengage during online learning. • Unstructured and isolated multimedia content: Many multimedia-based e-learning systems simply post content on the Web without any processing. Postings are usually static, passive and unstructured, without any link to relevant materials in different media. For example, instructional videos and PowerPoint slides of the same lecture are presented separately. Learners may even have to go to two different Web sites to view both of them. • Lack of rich content: A number of e-learning systems lack adequate instructions for students. Some systems provide only PowerPoint slides which may not ensure that learners understand the learning content. It is not uncommon for readers of those slides to fail in understanding what an instructor really means by all those bullet points. • Insufficient interactivity or flexibility: Many current e-learning systems are not quite interactive. Learners have little flexibility to adapt learning content and process to meet their individual needs. For example, it may not be possible to find exactly what is wanted or to skip a portion of content that is already known (Hammond, 1995). In other cases, a student may want to ask a question and get an answer right away instead of sequentially going through an entire instructional video or other multimedia content to find an answer. Most multimedia-based e-learning systems do not provide this capability. Table 1 illustrates the pros and cons of e-learning in comparison with traditional classroom learning (Zhang et al., 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). Advantages Traditional Classroom Learning Immediate feedback ƒ Being familiar to both instructors and students Motivating students ƒ Cultivation of a social community ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ Instructor-centered Time and location constraints ƒ More expensive to deliver Disadvantages ƒ Lack of individual interactivity especially in ƒ crowded classes. ƒ ƒ E-Learning Learner-centered and self-paced Time and location flexibility Cost-effective Potentially available to global audience Unlimited access to knowledge Archival capability for knowledge reuse and sharing Lack of immediate feedback in asynchronous elearning Increased preparation time for the instructor Not comfortable to some people Potentially more frustration, anxiety, and confusion Lack of social communication Table 1. Pros and Cons of E-Learning Effective E-Learning Criteria Establishing e-Learning courses is a very complex process that includes many critical success factors. Thus, institutions and educators need to consider these factors to provide effective learning environments. The institution should firstly determine its own corporate guidelines and inform the educators to base their courses on them. This is especially important in order to maintain a common user interface for each course. Here are some examples to corporate guidelines: (Zeidman, 2003; Anaraki, 2004) • • • • • • • Learning objectives must be clearly defined. The course structure must be well thought-out and consistent for each course The user interface must be easy to use and consistent for each course. Courses must be prepared by instruction experts with experience in instructional design. The courses must require regular interaction with the student. The progress must be measured, tracked, and reported. Minimum course materials must be determined (i.e. PowerPoint Slides, Videos, etc). 251 �• • Support tools (labs, references, collaboration, etc.) must be determined. Platform security must be maintained. A very comprehensive and challenging work has been done by Blass and Davis (2003) to explore the eight areas in terms of guiding principles that can be tailored to the needs of the particular student group and faculty. They grouped these principles into four higher order groupings or criteria, with the central concerns of each of these criteria identified (see Table 2). The relationships between the criteria and guiding principles are shown in the flowchart in Figure 1. Guidingprinciples 1Appropriatenessofstafandcontent 2Appropriatenessformarketandstudents .3Learningaspirations 4Cognitveergonomics 5Faculty-studentinteraction 6Student-studentinteraction 7Reinforcementstrategy 8Achievementofpurpose Higherordercriteria Centralconcerns Appropriateness Ise-learningappropriateandsustainable? Design Whatisthetargetpopulationandwhatshouldthee-learninglookandfeelike? Interaction Howwilstudentsandfacultyinteract? Evaluation Howarebothstudentlearningandproduct efectivenessassessed? Table 2. Guiding principles and Higher Order Criteria for E-Learning Development (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Figure 1. Relations between criteria and guiding principles. (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Obeying the guidelines of the institution, instructors must separately evaluate the student satisfaction towards the online course they are providing. Obtaining ‘feedback’ from students about the design and implementation of the learning environment provided is an essential part of identifying what has worked, and where improvements could be made in the future (Pearson & Trinidad, 2005, p. 396). Although educators may create their own survey forms, we can suggest them to use a qualified and effective survey instruments like OLES, one that was used and presented in the methodology section of this study. 252 �Methodology This study utilized an instrument called Online Learning Environment Survey (OLES). OLES is a webbased instrument for evaluating e-learning environments. Participants of the survey are asked to indicate their ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ experiences with components of online learning in a course they take. The data collected and the resultant statistics depict the actual and preferred learning environment of learners giving valuable feedback to educators working in these environments. OLES can be administered totally online by the educators. Using the OLES, educators can gather valuable pre-course and post-course data to evaluate the effectiveness of the e-learning environment. Adjustments can then be made accordingly to improve or adjust the learning environment. OLES instrument was developed by Dr. Sue Trinidad and Dr. John Pearson. Additional information about OLES can be obtained from http://www.monochrome.com.au/oles/survey.htm. OLES contains 54 items arranged in nine scales – Computer Usage (CU); Teacher Support (TS); Student Interaction and Collaboration (SIC); Personal Relevance (PR); Authentic Learning (AL); Student Autonomy (SA); Equity (EQ); Enjoyment (EN); and Asynchronicity (AS). Samples of items in each scale are shown in Table 3. Respondents are asked to rate items using a five-point scale (Almost Never; Seldom; Sometimes; Often; Almost Always). OLES is available in two forms: the student version and teacher version. In this paper, only data on the use of the student version has been used. SCALES SAMPLE ITEMS Computer Usage (CU) (6 items) I use the computer to find out information about the course. (3) I use the computer to take part in online discussions with other students. (6) Teacher Support (TS) (8 items) If I have an inquiry, the teacher finds the time to respond. (7) The teacher gives me valuable feedback on my assignments. (10) Interaction & Collaboration I discuss my ideas with other students. (18) I can collaborate with other students in the class. (19) (SIC) (6 items) Personal Relevance (PR) (5 items) I am able to pursue topics that interest me. (22) I link class work to my life outside of this class. (24) Authentic Learning (AL) (5 items) I work on assignments that deal with real-world information. (28) I apply real world experience to the topic of study. (30) Student Autonomy (SA) (5 items) I work during times I find convenient. (32) I play an important role in my own learning. (34) Equity (EQ) (7 items) I get the same amount of help from the teacher as do other students. (37) I receive the same encouragement from the teacher as other students do. (39) Enjoyment (EN) (6 items) Online learning is exciting. (44) I would enjoy my education if more of my classes were online. (47) Asynchronicity (AS) (6 items) I access the discussion forum at places convenient to me. (49) The process of writing and posting messages helps me to think. (52) Table 3. Guiding OLES scales and sample items (Source: Pearson & Trinidad, 2006) The data were collected from OLES that were applied to 13 MBA students taking Supply Chain Management course in Spring 2009 semester at Epoka University. The course included online discussions, assignments and some visual course materials as an adjunct to classroom presentations given by the lecturer every 3 weeks. Of the students 62% were female (n=8) and 38% were male (n=5). Findings The summarized responses of 13 students who completed OLES are shown in Table 4 and Figure 2. As one would expect, ‘preferred’ scores were higher than ‘actual’ scores. Means of scores ranged from 3.11 to 4.45 for ‘actual’ and 3.81 to 4.67 for ‘preferred’. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) revealed significant differences for the Computer Usage (CU), Teacher Support (TS), Personal Relevance (PR), and Authentic Learning (AL) scales in 95% confidence level. These results are giving opportunity to the lecturer of this course to identify unsatisfied aspects and update the e-learning environment supplied to the students. 253 �OLES Scale Computer Usage (CU) Teacher Support (TS) Student Interaction & Collaboration (SIC) Personal Relevance (PR) Authentic Learning (AL) Student Autonomy (SA) Equity (EQ) Enjoyment (EN) Asynchronicity (AS) Actual / Preferred Actual 3,40 Std. Deviation 0,964 Preferred 4,27 0,516 0,143 Actual 3,58 1,007 0,279 Preferred 4,48 0,788 0,218 Actual 3,35 1,287 0,357 Preferred 3,81 1,367 0,379 Actual 3,11 0,889 0,247 Preferred 4,05 1,120 0,311 Actual 3,37 1,110 0,308 Preferred 4,34 0,685 0,190 Actual 3,45 1,138 0,316 Preferred 4,03 1,183 0,328 Actual 4,45 0,606 0,168 Preferred 4,67 0,513 0,142 Actual 3,13 0,884 0,245 Preferred 3,82 1,039 0,288 Actual 3,72 0,939 0,261 Preferred 4,33 0,670 0,186 Mean Std. Error 0,267 F Sig. 8,243 0,008 6,502 0,018 0,785 0,384 5,598 0,026 7,177 0,013 1,650 0,211 1,005 0,326 3,340 0,080 3,708 0,066 Table 4. Statistics between students’ ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ scores on the OLES scales Figure 2. Graphical Representation of Students’ Actual and Preferred Scores Conclusion This study investigated the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. Elearning environments can not be effective without considering students’ needs and preferences. Obtaining student feedback is thus crucial for the successful design and implementation of e-learning environment. The study presented important findings regarding the students’ feedback on a sample e-learning course. By the help of effectiveness criteria and empirical results, higher education institutions can plan and implement e-learning strategies and thus improve the e-learning courses they offer to satisfy their students. The findings of this study also showed that OLES is a valuable tool to help higher education institutions and lecturers evaluate the effectiveness of their online courses. The results gathered by OLES or similar tools can be used to make changes to the design of actual e-learning environments. 254 �References Anaraki, F., (2004). Developing an Effective and Efficient eLearning Platform, International Journal of The Computer, the Internet and Management, 12 (2), 57-63. Blass, E. & Davis, A. (2003). Building on Solid Foundations: Establishing Criteria for E-learning Development, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 27 (3), 227-245. Eastman, J. & Swift, C. (2001). New horizons in distance education: The online learner centered marketing class. Journal of Marketing Education, 23, (1), 25-34. Eurybase – Retrieved from the web on May 25, 2009. http://www.easy-elearning.net/downloads/e-learning_in_Polonia.pdf Jenkins, M. & Hanson, J. (2003). E-Learning Series No.1: A guide for Senior Managers. Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre, UK, August 2003. Lam, P. & Bordia, S. (2008). Factors Affecting Student Choice of e-Learning over Traditional Learning: Student and Teacher Perspectives, The International Journal of Learning, 14 (12), 131-140. McLeod, D. (2004). Hefce Pulls the Plug on UK e-University. Education Guardian, March 4. Nakos, G. E., Deis, M.H., & Jourdan, L. (2002). Students’ Perceptions of On-line Courses: An Exploratory Study. Turkish Journal of Online Distance Education (TOJDE), 3 (1). Pearson, J. & Trinidad, S. (2006). Evaluating E-Learning environments in initial teacher education using the online learning environment survey (OLES), ACEC 2006 - The Australian Computers in Education Conference, Cairns, Australia. Zeidman, B. (2003). Guidelines for Effective E-Learning. Chief Learning Officer, 24-31. Zhang, D., Zhao, J., Zhou, L., & Numamaker, J. (2004). Can e-learning replace classroom learning?. Communication of the ACM, 47 (5), 75–78. 255 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/19855ede2c836370713ffc64c0d559b7.doc 3302f5ad64b9cd9b5046ed9b62f9041d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 423 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation of the Effective E-Learning Criteria for Higher Education Institutions Author Author ASILKAN, Özcan ERSOY, Ahmed Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. stract: The recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies affected education industry as well as other industries all over the world. Over the past decade, higher education institutions have been increasingly utilizing e-learning programs. However, some experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems might result in failure and disappointment. Therefore educational institutions should develop and follow the corporate guidelines so that the courses can be taught effectively and students can feel comfortable to adapt quickly to the other e-learning based courses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning for higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University in Spring semester of 2008-2009 academic year. The findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions who are planning to establish e-learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b041f2cdc16c3c74774a84f07fbe0664.pdf 2cef38050f0a08c9bd152a1a6631aef3 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo An Investigation of the Relationship between the Two Different Groups of Students’ Entrepreneurship Characteristics M. Dursun KAYA Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum, Turkey, dursun@atauni.edu.tr Salih Börteçine AVCI Atatürk University, Vocational College of AĢkale, AĢkale-Erzurum, Turkey, savci@gyte.edu.tr DilĢad GÜZEL Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Erzurum, Turkey, dguzel@atauni.edu.tr Betül BÜLADĠ ÇUBUKÇU Atatürk University, Vocational College of AĢkale, AĢkale-Erzurum, Turkey, betulbuladi@hotmail.com M. Fatih DEMĠRTAġ Erzincan University, Vocational College of Tercan, Tercan-Erzincan, Turkey, mfatih1981@hotmail.com Abstract: According to the definition of entrepreneurship and the studies carried out, the feature of the entrepreneurship is accepted unavoidable element for entrepreneurs‘ attitude. It is known that entrepreneurs have taken more risks or more opportunists and more innovative than he other entrepreneurs. But, these three entrepreneur dimension can change independently from each other in different environment circumstances. The purpose of this study is to evaluate these three factors affecting the entrepreneurship for this reason. A survey developed for such an evaluation was applied by face to face with 190 volunteer students attending to senior classes of three different vocational colleges with economics and administrative sciences faculty of Atatürk University. The data obtained from the research were taken into consideration and the students were classified into groups. While the students in the first group consisted of the students who don‘t take education or don‘t have any knowledge, the students in the second group consisted of the students who have some knowledge about entrepreneurship or those who have lived in an entrepreneur environment. While 47.0% of the students have taken the place in the first group, 53.0% of them are in the second group. Students‘ t test and one-way anova analysis in SPSS were used in the medium to data set obtained. In one-way anova analysis carried out, it was detected that the students who are not from entrepreneur milieu and attending to different academic units had innovative feature. But, in the dimensions of evaluation of opportunity and taking risks, in all comparisons, there was no distraction between both two groups and according to the demographic features. Introduction The impact of entrepreneurship education has been recognized as one of the crucial factors that help youths to understand and foster an entrepreneurial attitude (Gorman et al. 1997; Kourilsky & Walstad 1998). Due to the influence that education could have on the attitudes and aspirations of youth, there is a need to understand how to develop and nurture potential entrepreneurs even while they are still students in school. Few empirical studies have examined the entrepreneurial propensity of university students as a source of future entrepreneurs. Their attitude and knowledge of entrepreneurship are likely to shape their inclination to start their own businesses in the future. This type of study will also help universities and other institutions to develop suitable educational programs to promote entrepreneurship. Obviously, findings from such a study will have certain policy implications in inducing more university graduates to start their own businesses (Wang & Wong 2004). 733 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Definition of Entrepreneurship In literature about entrepreneurship it is difficult to find a common definition of entrepreneur. In total, there are more than 30 definitions of entrepreneur (Manasov 2006). In addition, since the 1960s, scholars with a variety of backgrounds such as; psychology, sociology, anthropology, history and management, have been interested in studying entrepreneurship (Ramachadran & Ray 1998). The concept of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial and entrepreneurial process is derivatives of the concept of Entreprendre (Arıkan 2002). It was Richard Cantillon, who used the entrepreneur concept the first time in an economic context. He describes the entrepreneur as any individual who operates under conditions where expenditures are known and certain, but incomes are unknown and uncertain. In other words the unique characteristics of Cantillon‘s entrepreneur are foresight and the confidence to operate under conditions of uncertainty (IrmiĢ & Selçuk 2002). The important role of entrepreneur in directing and redirecting resources in a state of perpetual disequilibrium was emphasized by the Austrian schools scholars (Manasov 2006). However, it was Joseph Schumpeter, who made the crucial contribution to definition of concept. Schumpeter‘s entrepreneur was not clearly a category or a person, but a conceptual abstraction which introduced the Notion of new combinations. The entrepreneur provided a new product or new production process via a different combination of inputs that have not been tried before. In the economic system the entrepreneur is one who innovates, and tries a new organization of inputs for the first time (Shionoya 1995). The Factors Defining Entrepreneurship The factors defining entrepreneurship may be studied as regards individual, environmental and institutional dimensions. Individual Approach: The researchers accepting individual approach try to explain the entrepreneur mostly focusing on the psychological, demographical and personal features. According to this approach the entrepreneurs have unique values, manners and needs. For that reason, the psychological influence, the personal features and the experiments lived influence the position of being entrepreneur. Environmental Approach: This approach advocates the existence of mutual interaction of environmental features affecting the decision of entrepreneurship and individual features in the basis of being entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship is a reaction to the cultural, social, politics, economic and technological circumstances. Individual past, experiment, personality, capability and skills influence entrepreneur attitude Company Approach: This approach focuses on the existing facilities in enterprises. In other words, according to this point of view approaching entrepreneurship to the managership, this determines being entrepreneur in the facilities enterprises (Nakdiyok 2004). The Features of Entrepreneurship Autonomy (Independency): Independent attitude is accepted behavioral attitude of entrepreneur. The research discovering independent orientation of entrepreneur is limited. There are a lot of successful entrepreneur. Independent entrepreneurs express their creativities and ideas without confirming status quo. The attitude of independent and autonomy is central for the entrepreneur concept. Independency is important for the initial process combining with entrepreneurship. The measurement for autonomy attitudes starts with pursuit in the fields of entrepreneurship. Against independent attitudes, it is necessary to manage itself in the pursuit of opportunity and orientation and capability. Risk, orientation and innovative attitudes are associated with opportunistic attitude (Sollymossy 1998, 56). Taking Risk: Nominates of entrepreneurship are those who can take risk without gambling and wisely. Taking risk is associated with creativity and being innovative, and it is necessary for realizing the ideas. Taking risk is associated with self-confidence. The more he has self confidence, the more he trusts his decisions and the more he can take risk which others can not. He accepts the risk which includes only profits or equal circumstances or conditions in which there are more profits (Gözek, 2006, 4). Individual Control: Individual control believes that it is formed as a result of their attitudes rather than the influence of external circumstances. Individual control is accepted as an entrepreneur feature by Rotter. The idea that all events are formed by your attitude and it enables to ignore the impact of the agents of the chance and other 734 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo environmental agents on the event. Individual control features gives entrepreneur the facility of detection of their priorities and being independent in his behaviors. This understanding encourages entrepreneur giving his decision by himself and forming his behaviors in this direction (AvĢar 2007, 14). Opportunism: Entrepreneurs are those who create the opportunities which other missed. They create these opportunities by means of syntheziation and obtaining of the knowledge. Because, knowledge provides low and high risk definition and comprehend the opportunity and perception of the limitations of entrepreneurs. Thanks to the knowledge entrepreneurs obtained, they may innovative and creative opportunity, he may occur original and potential market and he can find the sources and without trusting the chance he can show a consciousness and disciplined effort. Successful entrepreneurs focuses on more the opportunity than source, structure and strategy (Nakdiyok 2004, 25). Innovation: Drucker accepts innovation as concepts strengthen potential of welfare creation. In fact, entrepreneurs are accepted as a great innovative power in economy. For example, a lot of new products developed in all over the world are the result of entrepreneur efforts one of the most important reasons of these is that they have various experiences which hey acquire throughout the facilities of entrepreneurs. These experiences encourage entrepreneur about finding solution to the problems, and they oriented them about innovations (AvĢar 2007, 17). Success: The need of success is a factor oriented entrepreneurial attitudes. Individual having high success need trusted him, and likes to take estimated risks, and enjoys o investigate his environment actively, and he wonders how he does the work better. These kinds of behaviors increase his possibility of being entrepreneurs (Nakdiyok 2004, 24). Enjoy Him: In special works, it is discussed that enjoying himself is necessary for successful entrepreneur behavior. Enjoying himself, in addition, is for social and special works. The researchers indicate that the levels of enjoying themselves of entrepreneurs are more than those who are not entrepreneurs (Sollymossy 1998, 54). Characteristics of Entrepreneurial Colleges and Universities According to ―Trachtenberg Educational Institutions‖ with an entrepreneurial orientation work to create and develop new ideas for generating revenue and programs. In doing so, they foster new attitudes, direct and inspire individuals and develop interpersonal relationships and teams. The new entrepreneurial university is turning out to be a place that makes money. The new entrepreneurial university is a place where you can legally talk about your students as ―customers‖…. In the new entrepreneurial university, we have finally succeeded in making living contact with the world we purport to be teaching our students about. It is serious business we‘re in. Universities are critically important to American society. So it is serious business to get along with business leaders and with bureaucrats. It is serious business to listen to our customers and hear what they need and want. (Riggsd 2005) A search for alternative and unique income streams has been a focus of higher education management in creating this entrepreneurial institution. Indeed, Clark one of the most respected and prolific commentators on the rise of entrepreneurship in American colleges and universities, defines ―the entrepreneurial institution‖ in terms of its sources of revenue. Clark explains that there are three basic income streams for institutional resources: (1) Governmental allocation based on numbers and statistics about students, faculty and other aspects. (2) Funds from government research councils that focus on research groups, departments and professors that compete for research funds and contracts. (3) Income from virtually all other sources, such as endowments, student fees, profits on campus operations, monies obtained from industries, and others. Clark then defines ―entrepreneurial university‖ in terms of the third income stream. He describes entrepreneurial institutions as ―significant actors on their own terms seeking third-stream sources of financing and actively reaching out to them‖ (Clark 1998). This study used Clark‘s theoretical framework as a basis for defining and understanding the entrepreneurial university. In particular, the study considered entrepreneurial activities to comprise third-stream income sources that include: (1) Innovative and profit-based self-supporting operations that go beyond traditional sources, such as business development activities and innovative retail sales operations, (2) Activities that develop and enhance traditional income streams such as endowment and tuition, (3) Activities that involve both traditional and nontraditional aspects, such as distance learning, which uses nontraditional methods of teaching to gain tuition, which is a traditional source of income. Clark offers a number of important insights into the nature of the entrepreneurial institution of higher education. Principal characteristics that identify the entrepreneurial university are: 735 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (1) The ability to change its organizational structure, (2) Cooperative and unified stakeholders, and (3) Developed entrepreneurial attributes that lead to autonomy within the institution. Clark also points out three critical aspects of the evolutionary process that transform an institution into an entrepreneurial university: (1) The institution must have strong leadership, sturdy management and administration to direct the institution into achieving autonomy, self-sufficiency and financial stability through entrepreneurial approaches. (2) The institution must expand its development periphery, intentionally working to bring in outside interests to participate in projects that attempt to solve serious practical problems that are critical to economic and social development. In doing so, the institution seeks to acquire greater financial resources, widen the financial base, and diversify income to increase financial resources, provide discretionary money, and reduce governmental dependency. (3) The institution must diversify its funding base and balance its funding portfolio. ―Entrepreneurial universities learn faster than non-entrepreneurial counterparts that money from many sources enhances the opportunity to make significant moves without waiting for system wide enactments that come slowly‖ (Clark 1998). Material and Methods In order to evaluate entrepreneurship qualities of two groups of student, on empiric study has been designed. Opportunity, taking risk and innovation dimensions were examined between 190 Atatürk University students. The first group consists of students who don‘t receive any knowledge and training about entrepreneurship. The second group consists of the students expressing that they experienced on entrepreneurship acquiring about entrepreneurship coming from the faculties as gender the same age. All participants are taken from the students of different faculties and vocational colleges of Atatürk University. The participants were asked to answer the questions according to five-live likert scale from ―I don‘t participate in‖ towards ―I agree to participate in‖. In order to be able to test our hypothesis, ―Entrepreneurship Attitude Orientation‖ EAO framework and scale designed Simpson and Shanthakumar and developed Robinson were used. EAO is a behavioral management scale formed the evaluation opportunity dimension and selfishness, and innovation and personnel control. But this scale ignores taking risk and vagueness behaviors (see Shanthakumar 1992). In order for the tendency of individual risk taking including perceptive to measure, 3-line scale prepared by Winston was used. In addition to this, in order to evaluate the tendency of risk, two questions used in the evaluation of risk behavior from Covin and Dennis were added to the survey (see Covin & Dennis 1991). In our study we claim that high success orientation of entrepreneur individuals were completed with opportunity, innovation and risk taking behaviors. So, three dimensions of all EAO scale were evaluated. For the dimension of taking risk, innovation and opportunity according to the groups who are in the entrepreneur milieu or not, students‘ t test and variance analysis the evaluation the difference between subjects. Findings The data were collected by likert formed scale because of having systematic intervals to measure and compare the students‘ perceptional importance of tendency. The data were collected from each department‘s students during the lesson periods including 50 minutes. The purpose of the study before test and secret the situations were told the students before applying by researcher. In this study, 90 students who don‘t have knowledge about entrepreneur (41 of them female and 49 of them male) and 100 students coming from a entrepreneur milieu (35 of them female and 65 of them male) were included in the study. In both groups, the age of the subjects are between 18 and 25 years, and most of these are under 22 years of age. 736 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Gender Male Female Academic Unit Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Vocational College of AĢkale Vocational College of Erzurum Vocational College of Tercan Type of education Normal education Night education Those who are not entrepreneur milieu N % Those who are from entrepreneur milieu N % 49 41 54.4 45.6 65 35 65.0 35.0 17 9 56 8 18.9 10.0 62.2 8.9 12 11 61 16 12.0 11.0 61.0 16.0 63 27 70.0 30.0 59 41 59.0 41.0 Table 1: the distribution of the demographic features of the students who are or not from entrepreneur milieu The classification of the students included in the study is determined by the control questions prepared for the determination of environment features behind survey questions. In the result of the classification carried out while 54.4% those who are not from entrepreneur milieu are male, 65.0% of those who are from entrepreneur milieu are male. When the distribution according to academic unit where the students who are from entrepreneur milieu was examined, 62.2% of them attended to Vocational College of Erzurum, and 18.9% of them to Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, and 10.0% of them to Vocational College of AĢkale, and 8.9% of them Vocational College of Tercan. On the other hand, when the distribution of according to their academic unit of the students who are from entrepreneur milieu was examined, 61.0% of them attended to Vocational College of Erzurum, and 16.0% of them to Vocational College of Tercan, and 12.0% to Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, and 11.0% of them to Vocational College of AĢkale. While of 190 students, 70.0% of those who are not from entrepreneur milieu are those who attend to their normal education 59.0% of them was the students of normal education (Table 2). In data analysis, risk taking factor was measured by a scale consisting of 5 questions. And, its reliability was found as 0.87. The evaluation of opportunity was measured by scale consisting of 5 questions and, its reliability was found as 0.63. The dimension of innovation was measured by scale consisting of seven questions and its reliability was found as 0.62. Innovation Opportunity Taking risk Those who are not entrepreneur milieu Mean ± SD 3.90 ± 0.43 3.87 ± 0.74 2.97 ± 1.10 Those who are from entrepreneur milieu Mean ± SD 3.84 ± 0.39 3.82 ± 0.76 3.14 ± 1.12 t test 0.97 0.44 -1.04 Table 2: The comparison of those who are or not from entrepreneur milieu as regards high success orientation There was no statistical distinction as regards innovation between the first groups isn‘t from entrepreneur milieu (3.90 ± 0.43) and the second group which is from entrepreneur milieu (3.84 ± 0.39) (t=0.97; p>0.05). There was no statistical distinction as regards opportunity success orientation between the first group (3.87 ± 0.74) and the second group (3.82 ± 0.76) (t=0.44; p>0.05). Similarly, in the dimension of taking risk, same features between both groups were oriented (respectively, 2.97 ± 1.10; and 3.14 ± 1.12). When it was examined as regards taking risk, score averages of those coming from entrepreneur milieu was 3.14 while score averages of those who are not from entrepreneur milieu was 2.97. This can be interpreted as in both groups can take more risks. 737 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Academic Unit Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Vocational College of AĢkale Vocational College of Erzurum Vocational College of Tercan Innovation Those who are not entrepreneur milieu F Mean ± SD Those who are from entrepreneur milieu F Mean ± SD 3.52 ± 0.57 3.78 ± 0.50 3.89 ± 0.31 3.91 ± 0.39 4.02 ± 0.40 3.86 ± 0.34 3.89 ± 0.46 3.69 ± 0.29 1.14 4.02 ± 0.95 4.04 ± 0.30 3.75 ± 0.71 4.13 ± 0.79 1.21 3.01 ± 1.16 3.09 ± 1.14 2.87 ± 1.08 3.45 ± 1.15 0.71 3.37* Opportunity Academic Unit Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Vocational College of AĢkale Vocational College of Erzurum Vocational College of Tercan 3.93 ± 0.93 3.96 ± 1.17 3.79 ± 0.69 3.73 ± 0.57 0.32 Taking risk Academic Unit Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Vocational College of AĢkale Vocational College of Erzurum Vocational College of Tercan 3.21 ± 1.25 3.27 ± 1.13 3.05 ± 1.14 3.31 ± 0.99 0.31 Table 3: The comparison of the orientation of innovation, opportunity and taking risk of students who are or not from entrepreneur milieu according to academic units *: significant at 0.05 ―Entrepreneurship Attitude Orientation‖ (EAO) whether there was a distinction according to the students who are from entrepreneur milieu or who are nor from entrepreneur milieu according to academic units between each of factors of taking risk, innovation and opportunity from the EAO scale was tested by variance analysis. In the result of the analysis carried out, there was distinction only in innovation factor of academic units of the students who are not from entrepreneur milieu. There was no statistical distinction about situations on taking risk and opportunity students who are not from entrepreneur milieu and who are from entrepreneur milieu according to different academic units (Table 3). Discussion Unlike literature, we couldn‘t find significant distinction except taking risk attitude between those who are from entrepreneur milieu and those who are not from entrepreneur milieu in our study. Our hypothesis explaining that those who are coming from entrepreneur milieu are more opportunistic and more innovative than those who are not have not been supported in our study. The reason that is not such a distinction is that we haven‘t still had a clear answer about that some students are more innovation and opportunistic and more taking risk. In fact, we are on the opinion that the idea of entrepreneur should be examined by system of point of view and under the context each environmental factor on entrepreneur is an undeniable reality changing differentiated circumstances. In this respect, our comprehensive study together with other studies including studying with voluntary groups which plan to set up their own business or graduate from the universities has been going on, after other parts had been completed, and required analysis hade been made, we hope that we can reach at more significant results. References Arıkan, S. (2002). GiriĢimcilik Temel Kavramlar Ve Bazı Güncel Konular, Siyasal Kitabevi, Ankara. AvĢar, M. (2007). Yüksek Öğretimde Öğrencilerin GiriĢimcilik Eğilimlerinin AraĢtırılması, Çukurova Üniversitesinde Bir Uygulama, YayımlanmamıĢ Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Adana. Clark, B. R. (1998). Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation. Oxford, Uk: Pergamon Press. 738 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Covin, J.G. & Dennis P. S. (1991). A Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship as Firm Behavior, Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice. Fall, pp.7-25. Gorman, G., Hanlon, D. & King, W. (1997). Some Research Perspectives on Entrepreneurship Education and Education For Small Business Management: A Ten-Year Literature Review. International Small Business Journal 15 (3). 56–77. Gözek, S. (2006). GiriĢimci Adayının Özellikleri, GiriĢimcilik Eğilimleri ve GiriĢimci Adaylarına Sağlanan Destekler. BasılmamıĢ Yüksek Lisans Tezi. KahramanmaraĢ. ĠrmiĢ, A. & Selçuk, Ö. (2002). Ġktisadi GeliĢmede GiriĢimcilik: Denizli ve Erzurum Örneği. Ġstanbul, Beta Yayinevi. Kourilsky, M.L. & Walstad, W.B. (1998). Entrepreneurship and Female Youth: Knowledge, Attitudes, Gender Differences, and Educational Practices. Journal of Business Venturing 13 (1), 77–88. Manasov, Z. (2006). The Development and Problems of Agricultural Entrepreneurship in Kyrgyzstan. Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas Üniversitesi Uluslar Arası GiriĢimcilik Kongresi. Naktiyok, A. (2004). Ġç GiriĢimcilik, Beta Yayınevi, Ġstanbul. Ramanchadran, K. & Ray, S. (1998). A Framework and Entrepreneurship, in Entrepreneurship and Innovation by Rabindra N Kanungo. Riggsd, R. (2005). Entrepreneurial Activities in Independent College and University presidents: A View from the Top. Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the School of Education In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements For The Degree Of Doctor Of Philosophy. University Of Pittsburgh. Shanthakumar, D.K. (1992). Attitudinal Characteristics of Male and Female Entrepreneurs in India and a Comparison with American Entrepreneurs. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Brigham Yough University, UT. Shionoya, Y. (1995). Taking Schumpeter‘s Methodology Seriously, in Entrepreneurship, Technological, Innovation and Economic Growth. Ed. By Frederic M. Scherer and Mark Perlman. McGraw-Hill Book. Sollymossy, E. (1998). Entrepreneurial Dimensions: The Relationship of Individual, Venture and Environmental Factors to Success. Case Western Reserve University. Wang, C.K. & Wong, P. (2004). Entrepreneurial Interest of University Students in Singapore. Technovation 24, 163–172. 739 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 221 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation of the Relationship between the Two Different Groups of Students’ Entrepreneurship Characteristics Author Author KAYA, M. Dursun AVCI, Salih Börteçine GÜZEL, Dilşad BÜLADİ ÇUBUKÇU, Betül DEMİRTAŞ, M. Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. According to the definition of entrepreneurship and the studies carried out, the feature of the entrepreneurship is accepted unavoidable element for entrepreneurs‘ attitude. It is known that entrepreneurs have taken more risks or more opportunists and more innovative than he other entrepreneurs. But, these three entrepreneur dimension can change independently from each other in different environment circumstances. The purpose of this study is to evaluate these three factors affecting the entrepreneurship for this reason. A survey developed for such an evaluation was applied by face to face with 190 volunteer students attending to senior classes of three different vocational colleges with economics and administrative sciences faculty of Atatürk University. The data obtained from the research were taken into consideration and the students were classified into groups. While the students in the first group consisted of the students who don‘t take education or don‘t have any knowledge, the students in the second group consisted of the students who have some knowledge about entrepreneurship or those who have lived in an entrepreneur environment. While 47.0% of the students have taken the place in the first group, 53.0% of them are in the second group. Students‘ t test and one-way anova analysis in SPSS were used in the medium to data set obtained. In one-way anova analysis carried out, it was detected that the students who are not from entrepreneur milieu and attending to different academic units had innovative feature. But, in the dimensions of evaluation of opportunity and taking risks, in all comparisons, there was no distraction between both two groups and according to the demographic features. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/355c5ef218e20e7a76bf73eb84e09ffd.pdf 9b04d64542d304f6725bb1050366f283 PDF Text Text An Investigation on Improvement of Yield Potential of TMP-2 Composite Maize Gene Pool Ahmet ÖZ Çankırı Karatekin University, Science and Art Faculty, Çankırı-Turkey ahmetoz01@hotmail.com Halil KAPAR Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute, Samsun-Turkey halilkapar@yahoo.com Nevzat AYDIN Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Vocational School, Karaman-Turkey nevzataydin@gmail.com Abstract: This study was conducted at the Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute in SamsunTurkey in 2005 and 2006. The aim of this research was to improve the yield potential of the TMP2 corn gene pool. A composite corn cultivar with high adaptation potential called 'Karadeniz Yildizi' in Turkish was enhanced using genetic source material (TMP-2). Nineteen maize source materials with high yield potential and similar agronomic traits to TMP-2 corn gene pool were obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute. These materials were then crossed with TMP-2 corn gene pool as female parents in 2005. Obtained hybrids were tested and experiment was conducted by randomized block design with three replications. Data was recorded for grain yield and yield components. In the experiment, the seeds of high yielding hybrids were mixed with seeds of TMP-2 gene pool at the rate of 5 % and used as male parents for next generation crossing. Introduction Maize is the world’s third most important crop after rice and wheat. Recently, its production and yield has increased significantly. Maize is generally used as a food product and for animal feed. Maizecobs are also used as a biomass fuel source. Recent developments in quantitative genetics and experimental data in the last century have helped in the development of alternative approaches to the conventional hybrid methodology. Composite varieties have given yield levels which closely approach those of commercial hybrids (Singh, 1987). Composite varieties are important for countries where the hybrid seed industry has not been organized and regular hybrid seed replacement programs are not convenient. Composite cultivars are also important for regions where the climate is not very adequate for corn growing. The major advantages in the use of composites are; a) The seed of composite varieties is cheap and simple, b) Farmers can use their own seed for growing the next crops, c) Composites can be further improved for important characters, d) Because of wider genetic base composites are more stable to major biotic stresses and negative climatic conditions, and e) Elite composites can serve as base population for inbred lines (Singh, 1987). The genetic variability of breeding materials is very important for maize breeders. Germplasm complexes and composites were developed and used as a genetic resource for the improvement of grain yield and other desirable characteristics. Different breeding methods and approaches were used for composite corn cultivars. Sprague and Eberhart (1977) showed that response to selection for yield improvement was similar for the different intra and inter-population recurrent selection schemes. S1 family selection seems to provide better opportunity to screen out the poorest progenies and thus, make more rapid progress (Hallauer and Miranda, 1987). Recurrent selection methods have been widely used by maize breeders for population improvement. Maize breeders used recurrent selection methods for improvement of population mean performance and maintenance of genetic variation for continued selection (Weyhrich et al., 214 �1998). Increasing grain yield potential of maize is due to the successive development of better adapted varieties. Estimates of increased productivity due to genetic gain in U.S. maize production are about 77 kg ha-1 (Duvick et al., 2004). The aim of this research is to improve the yield potential of the TMP-2 composite maize gene pool by using high yielding source materials obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute. Materials and Method Nineteen maize source materials were obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute to use in this study (Table 1). These materials had high yield potential and similar agronomic traits to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. Hybrids were produced by crossing each nineteen source material with the materials from TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. The materials obtained from Sakarya were used as female parents in 2005. From this crossing effort, nineteen hybrids were developed. The composite cultivar “Karadeniz Yıldızı” was used as the control in the trial. Experiment was conducted in Samsun (Lat. 36°20’E, long. 41°17’N, 4 m above sea level) in the 2006 growing season. The experimental design was a Completely Randomized Block Design with three replications. Each experimental plot included four fivemeter long rows spaced 0.70 m apart, with 25 single-plant hills spaced 0.20 m apart. TMP-2 composite maize gene pool has a high plant height and the seed structure likes yellow flint. Composite cv. Karadeniz Yildizi, developed from TMP-2 composite maize gene pool is grown for silage and grain. Data was recorded for grain yield and yield components. According to the experiment results, the high yielding hybrids were selected. Stock seeds of selected source materials were mixed with seeds of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool at the rate of 5 % and used as male parents for next generation crossing. Data were taken on tasselling time (days from planting to 50 % of plants tasselling), grain yield (kg da-1). Plant height (cm), ear height (cm), grain moisture (%), yield/ear ratio (%), plant and ear appearance were estimated from a sample of 10 plants from each plot. All the data were analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures using the Statistical Software Package. The comparison of the treatment means was made by using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test. 1- KDEB.PN55 6- KDEB.PN155 2- KDEB.PN6 7- KDEB.PN165 3- KDEB.PN48 8- KDEB.PN176 4- KDEB.PN84 9- KDEB.PN187 5- KDEB.PN140 10- KDEB.PN261 Table 1. Maize source materials 11- KDEB.PN275 12- KDEB.PN350 13- KDEB.PN488 14- KDEB.PN587 15- KDEB.PN603 16- KDEB.PN632 17- KDEB.PN643 18- KDEB.PN644 19- KDEB.PN648 20- Karadeniz Yıldızı Findings and Discussion Grain yield, some yield related and morphological traits were investigated in this study. The results and statistical analysis were given in Table 1 and 2. Grain Yield The differences of grain yield of the hybrids were statistically significant (Table 1). The grain yields of hybrids ranged from 775 to 1155 kg/da, and averaged 984 kg/da. The highest grain yield was obtained from KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 hybrid, and KDEB.PN643 x TMP-2 and KDEB.PN350 x TMP-2 hybrids followed it. Karadeniz Yildizi improved from TMP-2 composite maize gene pool yielded 1004 kg/da. Grain yield is the most important trait for selection of genetic source material. The aim of this study was to improve the grain yield potential of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool, and high yielding genotypes were determined for this aim. It is expected that cultivars coming from different genetic background might have different yield potentials, however the yields of cultivars correlated with their adaptation ability to different environment (Emeklier, 1987). Some researchers reported that hybrids between inbred lines with 215 �high yield potential might have high yield potential (Lonnquist and Lindsey, 1964; Lamkey and Hallauer, 1986). Tasseling Time Tasseling time is an important trait in this study, because tasseling time of selected source materials should be same or very close to tasseling time of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. The tasseling time of source materials ranged from 64.3 days to 76.3 days, and difference of genotypes for tasseling time was statistically significant (p<0.01, Table 1). While some source material flowered earlier than Karadeniz Yildizi, some materials flowered later than it. The materials with high yield and similar tasseling time to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool were selected. Tasseling time can change according as genotype and climate. Martin et al. (1976) reported that ideal temperature for growing in corn was 21-27 0C for daylight and 13 0C for night. Corn is generally grown in hot climate, the temperature over 27 0C can decrease grain yield. Altinbas and Tosun (1998) found that late flowering cultivars generally had higher grain yield. Genotypes Grain yield Tasseling time Plant height Ear height (kg/da) (day) (cm) (cm) 1- KDEB.PN55 x TMP-2 1015 ae** 67.7 ij** 282 cf** 115 bd** 2- KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2 877 df 66.0 jk 270 eg 103 ce 3- KDEB.PN48 x TMP-2 983 be 69.3 gi 292 be 103 ce 4- KDEB.PN84 x TMP-2 1080 ab 69.7 fh 305 ab 112 bd 5- KDEB.PN140 x TMP-2 916 cf 74.0 b 307 ab 132 ab 6- KDEB.PN155 x TMP-2 870 ef 69.3 gi 277 df 108 bd 7- KDEB.PN165 x TMP-2 991 be 69.0 gi 280 df 118 bc 8- KDEB.PN176 x TMP-2 1000 be 71.3 df 293 bd 105 cd 9- KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 1155 a 72.0 ce 282 cf 108 bd 10- KDEB.PN261 x TMP-2 1068 ab 71.7 de 278 df 92 df 11- KDEB.PN275 x TMP-2 775 f 70.3 eg 273 df 92 df 12- KDEB.PN350 x TMP-2 1100 ab 72.0 ce 293 bd 120 bc 13- KDEB.PN488 x TMP-2 978 be 73.0 bd 292 be 110 bd 14- KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 1023 ad 76.3 a 320 a 153 a 15- KDEB.PN603 x TMP-2 1081 ab 74.7 ab 288 be 107 cd 16- KDEB.PN632 x TMP-2 803 f 64.3 k 247 h 73 f 17- KDEB.PN643 x TMP-2 1104 ab 73.7 bc 310 ab 117 bc 18- KDEB.PN644 x TMP-2 818 f 64.3 k 250 gh 80 ef 19- KDEB.PN648 x TMP-2 1044 ac 68.0 hi 260 fh 107 cd 20- Karadeniz Yıldızı 1004 be 68.7 gi 303 ac 112 bd Mean 984 72.3 285 108 CV (%) 9.0 1.61 4.71 13.8 **, Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 1% level. Table 2. Tasseling time, plant height, ear height and grain yield of genotypes. Plant Height The differences between plant height of genotypes were statistically significant (p<0.01) (Table 1). Plant height changed from 247 to 320 cm, and average plant height was found as 285 cm in the trial. The highest plant height was obtained from hybrid KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2. Plant height and ear height are important agronomic traits for cultivars and there is a close correlation between them. Plant height was a crucial trait to select for this source material. Selected material should have plant height close to the plant height of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool, because ‘Karadeniz Yildizi’ is grown for both grain and silage. 216 �Ear Height Significant differences among genotypes were observed for ear height. Obtained data for ear height ranged from 73 cm to 153 cm. Average ear height was 108 cm in the study. Hybrid KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 had the highest ear height such as plant height. Genotypic factor are known to influence ear and plant height more than environmental factor (Hallauer and Miranda, 1987). Attention was also given to select source material with similar ear and plant height to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool to obtain morphologic similarity. Hallauer and Sears (1972) reported that mass selection for early silking concluded with an average decrease of 15 cm per cycle of selection for ear height. They also found that there was a simple correlation between early silking and lower ear height (r = 0.89). Grain Moisture Grain moisture of genotypes changed from 20.3% to 31.3% in the harvest (Table3). Significant variation was found among genotypes for grain moisture (p<0.01). Grain moisture is an important trait for location conducted the trial. The lowest grain moisture was recorded for hybrid KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2, while the highest for hybrid KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2. Karadeniz Yildizi had 24.3% grain moisture and mean grain moisture was 24.3% in the trial. We selected the source material with close or lower grain moisture content to TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. Yield/Ear Ratio Yield/ear ratio were recorded as 76.1% to 83.9% and averaged 79.3% (Table 3). Differences of yield/ear ratio among genotypes were significant (p<0.01). The hybrid KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 with highest grain yield had the highest yield/ear ratio. Yield/ear ratio is a crucial trait for corn breeders and high yield/ear ratio is desired to develop high yielding hybrids. Plant and Ear Appearance Data for plant and ear appearances were not statistically analyzed (Table 3). Plant and ear appearance is an important criterion to selection for breeders. The genetic source materials having value 1 and close to 1 for plant and ear appearance were selected. Genotypes 1- KDEB.PN55 x TMP-2 2- KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2 3- KDEB.PN48 x TMP-2 4- KDEB.PN84 x TMP-2 5- KDEB.PN140 x TMP-2 6- KDEB.PN155 x TMP-2 7- KDEB.PN165 x TMP-2 8- KDEB.PN176 x TMP-2 9- KDEB.PN187 x TMP-2 10- KDEB.PN261 x TMP-2 11- KDEB.PN275 x TMP-2 12- KDEB.PN350 x TMP-2 13- KDEB.PN488 x TMP-2 14- KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 15- KDEB.PN603 x TMP-2 16- KDEB.PN632 x TMP-2 Grain moisture (%) 26,3 cd** 20,3 k 24,9 gh 23,5 i 24,5 gh 22,3 j 24,1 hi 26,9 c 26,3 cd 25,9 de 25,2 ef 26,9 c 27,9 b 31,3 a 26,9 c 23,9 hi Yield/ear ratio (%) 76,2 k** 76,1 k 79,5 gh 82,4 ce 76,4 k 79,4 gh 82,5 ac 78,4 hi 83,9 a 81,1 df 80,7 eg 76,5 k 77,3 ik 76,8 jk 76,5 k 79,6 fh 217 Plant appearance (1-5) 1,33 1,67 1,83 1,17 1,17 1,83 1,83 1,00 1,50 1,17 2,17 1,00 1,00 1,17 1,33 2,50 Ear appearance (1-5) 1,67 1,83 1,67 1,67 1,83 2,00 2,00 1,83 1,33 1,50 2,17 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,67 2,00 �17- KDEB.PN643 x TMP-2 25,8 de 81.0 df 1,33 1,83 18- KDEB.PN644 x TMP-2 21,9 j 78,2 hj 2,00 2,50 19- KDEB.PN648 x TMP-2 23,9 hi 83,3 ab 1.67 1,50 20- Karadeniz Yıldızı 24,3 gh 81,4 ce 2.00 1,67 Mean 25.1 79.3 1.53 17.6 CV (%) 1.76 1.13 **, Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 1% level. Table 3. Grain moisture, yield/ear ratio, plant appearance and ear appearance of source materials hybrids. Conclusion The genetic materials of KDEB.PN187, KDEB.PN644, KDEB.PN350, KDEB.PN261, KDEB.PN84, KDEB.PN648 and KDEB.PN55 were selected to use for improving of yield potential of TMP-2 composite maize gene pool. The seeds of selected source materials at the rate of 5% could be mixed to the seeds of TMP-2 gene pool, and could be used as male parents. The hybrids of KDEB.PN603 x TMP-2 and KDEB.PN587 x TMP-2 with high grain yield were not selected because of their late tasseling time. The hybrid of KDEB.PN6 x TMP-2 had the lowest grain moisture, however it had lower grain yield. References Altınbaş, M. and M. Tosun, (1998). Melez mısır (Zea mays L.) ıslahında kombinasyon yeteneiği kovaryanslarından yararlanma olanağı üzerine bir çalışma. Anadolu, 8 (2) 90-100. Duvick, D. N., J. S. C. Smith, and M. Cooper, (2004). Long-term selection in a commercial hybrid maize breeding program, Plant Breed. Rev., 24:109–151. Emeklier, H.Y, (1997). Erkenci hibrid mısır çeşitlerinin verim ve fenotipik özellikleri üzerine araştırmalar. Ankara Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, No:1493, Bilimsel Araştırma ve Đncelemeler: 817, Ankara. Hallauer A. R. and J. B. Miranda, (1987). Quantitative Genetics in Maize Breeding. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. Hallauer, A. R. and J. H. Sears, (1972). Integrating Exotic Germplasm into Corn Belt Maize Breeding Programs. Crop Sci 12:203-206 Lamkey K. R. and A. R. Hallauer, (1986). Performance of high x high, high x low, low x low crosses of lines from the BSSS maize synthetic. Crop Sci. 26: 1114-1118. Lonnquist, J. H. and M. F. Lindsey, (1964). Topcross versus S1 line performance in corn. Crop Sci. 4: 580-584. Martin, J.H., W.H. Leonard and D.L. Stamp, (1976). Principles of Field Crop Production. Third edition. Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York. Singh, J, (1987). Field Manuel of Maize Breeding Procedures. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations, Rome. Sprague, G. F and S. A. Eberhart, (1977). Corn Breeding. American Social Agronomy. Madison. Wisconsin. Weyhrich, R. A., K. R. Lamkey, and A.R. Hallauer, (1998). Effective Population Size and Response to S1- Progeny Selection in the BS11 Maize Population. Crop Science, Vol. 38, 1149-1158. 218 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 392 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation on Improvement of Yield Potential of TMP-2 Composite Maize Gene Pool Author Author ÖZKUL, Ahmet Sait KAPAR, Halil AYDIN, Nevzat Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was conducted at the Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute in Samsun- Turkey in 2005 and 2006. The aim of this research was to improve the yield potential of the TMP- 2 corn gene pool. A composite corn cultivar with high adaptation potential called 'Karadeniz Yildizi' in Turkish was enhanced using genetic source material (TMP-2). Nineteen maize source materials with high yield potential and similar agronomic traits to TMP-2 corn gene pool were obtained from Sakarya Agricultural Research Institute. These materials were then crossed with TMP-2 corn gene pool as female parents in 2005. Obtained hybrids were tested and experiment was conducted by randomized block design with three replications. Data was recorded for grain yield and yield components. In the experiment, the seeds of high yielding hybrids were mixed with seeds of TMP-2 gene pool at the rate of 5 % and used as male parents for next generation crossing. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)