29 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/834d2f57aaa78554384266c47ca43036.pdf 35c274225608b3326e64f9421004c0bc PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Impact of Expectations on International Trade: A Panel Data Analysis in the Framework of the Gravity Model Elif NUROĞLU Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina enuroglu@ius.edu.ba Abstract: The objective of this paper is to investigate bilateral export flows and its determinants between European countries from 1964 to 1972 and from 1973 to 1998 to show how expectations affect the volume of international trade across European countries. This study extends the gravity model of bilateral trade with population and volatility of exchange rates. It is demonstrated that during fixed exchange rate period volatility in exchange rates has a very large impact on bilateral trade volumes, while the same change causes much lower decrease during floating exchange rate period. Keywords: gravity model, panel data, fixed versus floating exchange rate 1. Introduction This study investigates bilateral exports among EU15 countries from 1964 to 1998 by employing panel data analysis. First, the gravity model of bilateral trade which was developed by Tinbergen to explain bilateral trade flows between two countries with the product of their income and distances between them is extended by inserting population of both countries and exchange rate volatility. This augmented gravity model is used in panel data analysis. In this model, real bilateral exports is the dependent variable on the income and population of both countries, distances between them and the volatility of exchange rates. The gravity model has long been used to explain and estimate bilateral trade flows in the international trade literature. The basic gravity model says that bilateral trade between two countries depends on their GDPs positively and distances between them negatively suggesting that higher income tends to increase trade by leading more production, higher exports and also higher demand for imports ( Balogun: 2007; Clark et al.: 2004; Cushman: 1983; Dell`Ariccia: 1999; De Grauwe & De Bellefroid: 1986; Glick & Rose: 2002; Matyas: 1997; Rose et al.:2000). Furthermore, larger distances between countries tend to decrease bilateral trade (Clark et al.: 2004; Glick & Rose: 2002; Rose et al.:2000) by imposing higher transport costs and some other difficulties to trade such as informational and psychological frictions (Huang: 2007). Transport costs are an important barrier to trade and therefore they tend to reduce international trade (Jacquemin & Sapir: 1988; Neven & Röller: 1991). The basic gravity model was extended later with the population of both countries to see how the population of exporting and importing countries affect bilateral trade. In some studies, population is found to have a positive effect on trade and to increase the level of specialization by creating gains from specialization as a result (Matyas: 1997). On the other hand, other studies show that population coefficient has a negative sign, suggesting that imports and exports are capital intensive (Bergstrand: 1989; Dell`Ariccia: 1999). Some studies which analyze the effects of exchange rate uncertainty and/or volatility on international trade find significant negative effects (Akhtar & Hilton: 1984; Chowdhury: 1993; Cushman: 1983; Dell`Ariccia: 1999; De Grauwe: 1987; De Grauwe: 1988; De Grauwe & De Bellefroid: 1986; Ethier: 1973; Kennen & Rodrik: 1986; Kowalski: 2006; Lane & Milesi-Ferretti: 2002; Rose et al.:2000; Thursby & Thursby: 1985; Thursby & Thursby: 1987; Wei: 1999;). Frank and Bernanke (2007) offers one explanation for this negative effect suggesting that uncertainty in exchange rates under flexible exchange rate systems makes exporters` profits less predictable, therefore it makes people more reluctant to export and reduces total trade. On the other hand, there is another side in the literature which claims that there is no significant effect of exchange rate uncertainty and/or volatility on the volume of trade. Some of these studies argue that even if there is some small significant effect of exchange rates on trade, this effect is neither stable nor consistent (Hooper & Kohlhagen: 1978; Gotur: 1985; Bacchetta &Van Wincoop: 2000). One reason for those who could not find any significant effect may be because they have concentrated on the short term measures. Recently, Clark et al. (2004) find a negative association between exchange rate volatility and trade in certain country groupings. However, when they analyze the time of the increase in volatility and decrease in trade, they see that the decrease in trade may not be attributed only to the increase in exchange rate volatility. At crises, for instance, even if volatility in exchange rates increases, the fall in domestic demand is a much more important factor that decreases imports. When they allow time-varying fixed effects they do not find any negative association between exchange rate volatility and trade. 273 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo International trade history shows that different exchange rate regimes were preferred at different periods. In the last decades there seems a tendency towards purely fixed or purely floating exchange rate regimes. A survey (Fischer, 2001) indicates that most countries prefer a purely floating or a purely fixed exchange rate instead of intermediate exchange rate regimes. The percentage of fixed exchange rate regimes increased from 16% in 1991 to 24% in 1999 while percentage of the floating exchange rate regimes increased from 23% to 42% in the same years. On the other hand, the number of intermediate regimes declined from 62% in 1991 to 34% in 1999. According to Fischer (2001), this move away from the center is towards currency boards, dollarization or currency unions on the hard peg side, and towards a variety of floating exchange rate arrangements on the other side. He states that the main reason for this change is that soft pegs are crisis-prone and not usable over long periods. Moreover, Bubula and Otker-Robe (2003) provide some support for the proponents of the bipolar view. They find that during 1990–2001, the frequency of crisis episodes has been higher for intermediate regimes as compared with purely fixed and floating ones, although the latter have also not been free of pressures. The choice of exchange rate regime gives a country the freedom to use macroeconomic policies to manipulate the economy and enables it to fight with recessions, crises etc. Furthermore, exchange rates influence the level of international trade. Therefore, the effects of changes in exchange rates and of different exchange rate regimes on the economy and on international trade have been a popular topic among researchers. The main point of this paper is to study the effects of volatility on bilateral exports during different exchange rate periods namely fixed and floating exchange rate regimes. When exchange rates are fixed officially, traders do not expect so high changes in exchange rates and make their plans based on their estimations of a stable economic environment. Therefore, any volatility or fluctuation in the exchange rates during fixed exchange rate periods affect their revenues and future plans deeply and reduces the level of exports. On the other hand, during floating exchange rate periods traders adjust their expectations accordingly and they are ready to any volatility in exchange rates. Thus, their plans are more flexible during floating regimes and volatility in exchange rates does not change their plans and hence the level of exports so much. The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 2 and 3 introduces the data set used and our modified gravitiy model respectively. Section 4 discusses the results of panel data analysis and finally, section 5 concludes. 2. Data The data used in this study is obtained from IMF`s International Financial Statistics, World Bank`s World Development Indicators 2005, and OECD`s International Trade by Commodity Statistics. The sample period covers 35 years from 1964 to 1998. Countries included are EU15 countries where Belgium and Luxemburg are taken as one country because of data availability. The model was estimated using bilateral trade flows among EU15 countries from 1964 to 1972 for the fixed exchange rate period and from 1973 to 1998 for the floating exchange rate period. Nominal exports in the data set are converted into the export volumes by using GDP deflators. Volatility of exchange rates is calculated as the moving average of standard deviations of the first difference of logarithms (i.e. percentage changes) of quarterly nominal bilateral exchange rates (Kowalski, 2006). Vol ( xrijt ) is 5-year (“t-4,...,t”) average of standard deviations from the average quarter-on-quarter percentage change in bilateral nominal exchange rate calculated over the last 4 quarters, given by the following formula: 1 q −19 Volxrijt = ∑δ q 20 q Eq. 1 where q is the last quarter in year t, where: δq = q −3 1 1  de − ∑q 3  q ∑q 4 deq  q −3 )2 Eq. 2 δ q is a standard deviation from the average quarter-on-quarter percentage change in bilateral nominal exchange rate calculated over the last 4 quarters where at the end of quarter q. 274 deq = eq − eq −1 and eq is a logarithm of bilateral exchange rate �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. The Gravity Model of Bilateral Exports and its Application to Panel Data Analysis According to the Gravity Model, trade flows between two countries depend on their income and on the distances between them as shown in Equation 3. Tij = C × GDPi × GDPj where c is a constant term, income, Eq. 3 Dij Tij is the value of trade between country i and country j, GDPi is country i`s GDPj is the country j`s income and Dij is the distance between two countries (Krugman & Obstfeld, 2006). This original gravity model can be extended with population, exchange rates, common language, common borders, foreign currency reserves etc. to explain the variation in bilateral trade better. We insert population of both countries and volatility of exchange rates into the equation. The modified gravity model of bilateral trade used is given by: Eq.4 ln Expijt = β 0 + β1 Dij + β 2 ln Yit + β 3 ln Y jt + β 4 ln Popit + β 5 ln Pop jt + β 6 vol( xrijt ) + ε ijt where (i=exporter and j= importer) � Expijt represents the volume of exports from country i to country j in year t, � Dij is the distance between country i and country j measured in kilometres, � Yit is the exporting country`s real GDP in year t, Y jt is the importing country`s real GDP in year t, � � Pop it is exporter country`s population in year t, Pop jt is importer country`s population in year t, � Vol ( xrijt ) is the volatility of nominal exchange rate between exporter and importer country in year t, � ε ijt � is the error term. 4. Results of Panel Data Analysis The data set used in this study consists of trade flows, GDPs, population, volatility of exchange rates and distances between EU15 countries from 1964 to 1972 (fixed exchange rate period) and from 1973 to 1998 (floating exchange rate period). For each country pair we have 35 years of data. The objective of this paper is to investigate how trade flows across European countries can be explained by income, population, distance and especially by the volatility of exchange rates under different exchange rate regimes. Since we have cross sectional data, the best way is to conduct a panel data analysis by using equation 4. (Table 1) shows the results of panel data analysis for the fixed exchange period from 1963 to 1972 while (Table 2) gives the results for the floating exchange rate period from 1973 to 1998. The results indicate that as distance becomes larger, bilateral trade between countries tends to decrease. Furthermore, higher income in the exporting country has a positive affect on bilateral trade by leading more production and higher exports. As the tables show, as the income of exporting country increases by 1%, its bilateral exports increases by 0.41% during the fixed exchange rate regime and 0.38% under the floating exchange rate regime. For a very similar reason, higher income tends to increase the level of imports as well. According to Tables 1 and 2, 1% increase in the importing country’s real GDP increases its imports by 1.24% and 0.91% during fixed and floating exchange rate periods respectively. Moreover, population of the exporting country has a positive effect on bilateral exports. This shows that higher population will create opportunities for specialization which will boost production and exports from that country. The last variable of interest is the volatility of exchange rates. Our results indicate that volatility of exchange rates has a negative effect on real bilateral exports. However, exchange rate volatility affects bilateral exports by different amounts depending on the exchange rate regime. As Tables 1 and 2 show, the effect of volatility in exchange rates on bilateral exports is much higher during the fixed exchange rate regimes (8.12) than the floating exchange rate regimes (3.74). 275 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1: Panel least squares with period fixed effects, for the period from 1964 to 1972 C Distance Exporter GDP Importer GDP Exporter Population Importer Population Volatility of Exchange Rate R-squared Adjusted R-squared Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Number of observations Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. 1,64 -16,01 0,00 -26,30 -0,0003 0,00 -5,11 0,00 0,41 0,11 3,83 0,00 1,24 0,08 16,09 0,00 0,42 0,11 3,86 0,00 -0,54 0,09 -6,30 0,00 -8,12 2,44 -3,33 0,00 0,72 0,71 2,66 2,74 804 Table 2: Panel Least Squares with period fixed effects, for the period from 1973 to 1998 C Distance Exporter GDP Importer GDP Exporter Population Importer Population Volatility of Exchange Rate R-squared Adjusted R-squared Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Number of observations Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. -22,56 0,87 -25,86 0,00 -0,0008 0,00 -30,45 0,00 0,38 0,05 6,95 0,00 0,91 0,04 22,28 0,00 0,43 0,05 7,96 0,00 -0,17 0,04 -3,81 0,00 1,05 -3,56 0,00 -3,74 0,84 0,84 2,03 2,10 2334,00 R-squared given by panel data analysis is 72% for the fixed exchange rate period and 84% for the floating exchange rate period, which shows that 72% and 84% of the variation in bilateral exports can be explained by distance, GDPs and population of exporting and importing countries and the volatility of exchange rates during fixed and floating exchange rate periods respectively. For all variables that are used to explain the variation in bilateral exports, our coefficients are highly significant which makes our model and data set reliable. 5. Conclusion This study compares the results obtained by panel data analysis during fixed and flexible exchange rate periods. Volatility in exchange rates seem to affect the volume of exports negatively but this negative effect is much higher during fixed exchange rate period than the floating exchange rate period. Under fixed exchange rate regimes traders do not expect high volatility in exchange rates. When there is any volatility, the effect of it on the trade volumes is really high. On the other hand, during floating exchange rate regimes all agents in the economy are ready to fluctuations; therefore, the impact of any volatility in exchange rates is smaller. It can be concluded that expectations of agents in the economy should be given special importance to avoid any decrease in the level of trade. Even if there is a high possibility for any fluctuation or unusual movement in the economy, when people are ready to overcome with it, the negative effects tend to be smaller. References Akhtar M.A., & Hilton R.S. (1984). Effects of exchange rate uncertainty on German and US trade. Federal Reserve Bank of NewYork Quarterly Review, 9(1), 7-16. Bacchetta P., & Van Wincoop E. (2000). Does Exchange Rate Stability Increase Trade and Welfare? The American Economic Review, 90(5), 1093-1109. 276 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Balogun Emmanuel Dele (2007). Effects of Exchange Rate Policy on Bilateral Export Trade of WAMZ Countries. MPRA Paper, No: 6234. Bergstrand Jeffrey H. (1989). The Generalized Gravity Equation, Monopolistic Competition, and the Factor-proportions Theory in International Trade. The Review of Economics and Statistiscs, 71(1), 143-153. Bubula Andrea, & Inci Otker-Robe (2003). Are Pegged and Intermediate Exchange Rate Regimes More Crisis Prone? IMF Working Paper. Chowdhury Abdur R. (1993). Does Exchange Rate Volatility Depress Trade Flows? Evidence from Error Correction Models. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 75(4), 700-706. Clark Peter, Natalia Tamirisa, Shang-Jin Wei, Azim Sadikov, & Li Zeng (2004). Exchange Rate Volatility and Trade Flows Some New Evidence. International Monetary Fund. Cushman David O. (1983). The Effects of Real Exchange Rate Risk on International Trade. Journal of International Economics, 15, 45-63. De Grauwe Paul & De Bellefroid (1986). Long Run Exchange Rate Variability and International Trade. Chapter 8 in S. Arndt and J.D. Richardson(eds), Real Financial Linkages Among Open Economies, London: The MIT Press. De Grauwe Paul (1987). International Trade and Economic Growth in the European Monetary System. European Economic Review, 31, 389-398. De Grauwe Paul (1988). Exchange Rate Variability and the Slowdown in the Growth of International Trade, Staff Papers – International Monetary Fund, 35(1), 63-84. Dell`Ariccia Giovanni (1999). Exchange Rate Fluctuations and trade flows: Evidence from the European Union. IMF Staff Papers, 46(3), 315-334. Ethier Wilfred (1973). International Trade and the Forward Exchange Market. American Economic Review, 63(3), 494-503. Fischer Stanley (2001). Distinguished Lecture on Economics in Government: Exchange Rate Regimes: Is the Bipolar View Correct? The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 15(2), 3-24. Frank Robert H. & Ben S. Bernanke (2007). Principles of Economics. Mc Graw Hill Irwin. Glick Reuven & Andrew K. Rose (2002). Does a currency union affect trade? The time-series evidence. European Economic Review, 46, 1125 – 1151. Gotur Padma (1985). Effects of Exchange Rate Volatility on Trade. IMF Staff Papers, 32, 475-512. Hooper Peter & Stewen W. Kohlhagen (1978). The Effect of Exchange Rate Uncertainty on the Prices and Volume of International Trade. Journal of International Economics, 8, 483-511. Huang Rocco R. (2007). Distance and trade: Disentangling Unfamiliarity Effects and Transport Cost Effects. European Economic Review, 51, 161-181. Jacquemin Alexis & Andrè Sapir (1988). International Trade and Integration of the European Community. European Economic Review, 32, 1439-1449. Kennen Peter B. & Dani Rodrik (1986). Measuring and Analyzing the Effects of Short-term Volatility in Real Exchange Rates. Review of Economics and Statistics, 68, 311-315. Kowalski Przemyslaw (2006). The Impact of the Economic and Monetary Union in the EU on International Trade- A Reinvestigation of the Exchange Rate Volatility Channel. PhD Thesis, University of Sussex. Krugman Paul R. & Maurice Obstfeld (2006). International Economics: Theory and Policy, Seventh Edition, Pearson Addison Wesley: London. Lane Philip.R. & Maria Milesi-Ferretti (2002). External Wealth, the Trade Balance and the Real Exchange Rate. European Economic Review, 46, 1049-1071. Matyas Làszlò (1997). Proper Econometric Specification of the Gravity Model. The World Economy, 20(3), 363-368. Neven Damien J. & Lars-Hendrik Röller (1991). European Integration and Trade Flows. European Economic Review, 35 (6), 1295-1309. Rose Andrew K., Ben Lockwood & Danny Quah (2000). One Money, One Market: The Effect of Common Currencies on Trade. Economic Policy, 15(30), 7-45. Thursby Marie & Jerry Thursby (1985). The Uncertainty Effects of Floating Exchange Rates: Empirical Evidence on International Trade Flows. in Arndt S. W., R. J. Sweeney, & T. D. Willett, Exchange Rates, Trade and the US Economy. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Co., 153- 166. Thursby Jerry G., & Marie C. Thursby (1987). Bilateral Trade Flows, the Linder Hyphotesis and Exchange Risk. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 69(3), 488-495. Wei Shang-Jin (1999). Currency hedging and goods trade. European Economic Review, 43, 1371- 1394. 277 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 220 Title A name given to the resource The Impact of Expectations on International Trade: A Panel Data Analysis in the Framework of the Gravity Model Author Author NUROĞLU, Elif Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this paper is to investigate bilateral export flows and its determinants between European countries from 1964 to 1972 and from 1973 to 1998 to show how expectations affect the volume of international trade across European countries. This study extends the gravity model of bilateral trade with population and volatility of exchange rates. It is demonstrated that during fixed exchange rate period volatility in exchange rates has a very large impact on bilateral trade volumes, while the same change causes much lower decrease during floating exchange rate period. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/722f59cb7e2b36636f2d4bb5914f0ecd.pdf ebf4d29ce33235a553af027e9ee60c80 PDF Text Text Sources of Pre-Islamic Turkish History İsmail Mangaltepe Faculty of Letters Department of History, İstanbul University Turkey ismailmn@istanbul.edu.tr Abstract: There are not too many sources about the historical events of the periods before the adoption of Islam of the Turks. Given the thousands years of the Turkish history, the fact that adequate written and archeological materials have not been left may be criticized. However, it may be understood if the role played by the Turks in the formation of a crucial stage of history is taken into consideration. Even though the number of the written sources left by the Turks, who achieved dominance in many geographical regions from Asia to Europe, is not high it is possible to shed light on the pre-Islamic history of the Turks thanks to the obtained archeological materials, oral sources and the information given by the people they were connected. In this study, we shall try to introduce Orkhon Inscriptions, which are the most significant written sources of the Turks, after giving brief information about the oral sources, archeological materials and written sources of the Turkish history. All scientific studies on history should be based on a source. Sources may be defined as materials of any kind providing us with information about historical events or we may call any data guiding and aiding scientists to write out historical events as sources. Sources of the Turkish history are evaluated under three titles: Oral Sources, Archeological Materials, Written Sources. A- Oral Sources: It is widely known that in the political and social life of the Turks there are many oral sanctions which are not written yet agreed. The body of oral laws which we may call usage at the present day and the Turks called “Töre” (traditional law) is the most important of oral sources. As a matter of fact, it is much more appropriate to regard Töre as the basic establishment of the political philosophy, mentality and lifestyle of the Turks rather than just a body of laws. Coming into existence as result of a process based on centuries, Töre is an essential element, the irresistible law, the constitution that should be abided by and a body of sanctions and senses keeping national reflexes alive of the community life. For the Turks, the primary practices of Khagans are to protect and glorify the state and Töre (traditional law). Thus, it is possible to find tens of examples in Orkhon Inscriptions in this regard: a- “My ancestors Bumin Khan and İstemi Khan dominated over the humankind. Following this dominance, they maintained and arranged the state and Töre (made usage dominant)”. (Kül Tigin, East, 1) b- “My uncle khagan dominated over that Töre” (Kül Tigin, East, 16). c- “..created and brought up in accordance with my ancestors’ Töre..” (Bilge Khagan, East, 12) (Ergin, 1988a). As is seen, for the Turks Töre is considerably alive and has a significant value of source for a historian as it enters into all realms of life. In addition, epics and legends which maintain their liveliness for centuries constitute another part of oral sources. They have spread over different geographies by being talked about. In Chinese sources, stories in which the adolescence and fights of Mo-Tun are told are the materials having the characteristics of the first epic of the Turkish history. Since his father does not announce Mo-tun (B.C. 209-174) as the successor of the throne, he revolts against his father together with the soldiers under his command. He kills his father and takes the throne of Hun Empire (A. Onat, S. Orsoy- K. Ercilasun, 2004, p. 6). Epics about the creation and reproduction of the Turkic people provide historians with information having essential value of source. Epics may be defined as a total of heroic stories of nations, a kind of national history (Gömeç, 2009, p. 26), the most important source of motivation in indoctrinating rising generations with the idea of loyalty to their origins and a significant element in the increase of pride and esteem against other nations. Being the literary reflections of the steppe culture, these epics and legends are the best oral sources which tell the claim of Turkic nation their place in history, their fights against the enemies and their struggles for life and existence in the best way. Numerous tragic and pleasant events have been experienced during the travel in the historical scene of the Turks, who have a special place among the deep-rooted nations. As a result of the fact that these events developed in the form of story and were talked about, several epics came into existence. It is possible to list these basic epics which are among the important oral sources of the Turkish history without going into particulars as follows: 285 �1Epic of Creation (Yaradılış Destanı): The subject is the creation of the world, sources of good and evil and the order of the world. This epic was edited among Altay Turks by W. Radloff in the 19th century. (Ögel, 1993, p. 451) 2Alp Er Tonga Epic: According to Mahmud al- Qashqari, writer of “Divan ü Lûgat-it Türk” (“Diwan Lughat at-Turk”) and Yusuf Has Hajib, writer of “Kutadgu Bilig”, “Alp Er Tunga” is the great and legendry Turan emperor of the Iranian epic “Şehname” (“Shahnameh”) named Efrasiyab (“Afrasiyab”). There are three different versions of the epic.( Gömeç, 2009, p. 247). 3Oghuz Epic: Oghuz Epic took form around the life of Hun emperor Mo-tun, who reigned between 209 and 174 B.C.. (Togan, 1981, p. 68). Oghuz Epic has very different versions. Besides, narratives which have the characteristics of an epic are encountered in the works of numerous authors under the title of “Oghuz-Nâme”. 4Ergenekon Epic: The variance identified in Chinese sources is known as “Bozkurt” and the variance identified in History of the Turks (Şecere-i Türk) by Abu’l-Ghazi Bahadır Khan is known as “Ergenekon”. The epic is named after Ergenekon, which is a sacred place surrounded by impassable mountains and where the Turks lived and reproduced for centuries by ploughing, hunting and processing mine. Ergenekon Epic was written out by a Mongolian historian named Rachid-al Din for the first time in the 13th century. The epic has five different versions. 5Reproduction and Migration Epic of the Uyghur (Türeyiş ve Göç Destanı): Two epic parts were identified named Reproduction and Migration of the Uyghur. The part called Reproduction exists in Chinese sources and the part called Migration exists both in Chinese and Iranian sources. 6Şu Epic: Telling the life and experiences of a Turkic emperor called Şu, who lived in 400 B.C, and being combined with the march of Alexander the Great of Macedon to the Turkic countries, this epic lived among the Turks until the 11th century and recorded by Kaşgarlı Mahmud (Mahmud al- Qashqari) in that century. 7Epic of Manas: Epic of Manas, which came into existence among Kyrgyz Turks, still endures with all its vividness within Kazak-Kyrgyz Turkic cultural circle. This epic is thought to have been formed between 11th and 12th centuries. The hero of the epic named Manas is regarded as a hero struggling for spreading Islam like Satuk Bugra Khan in the Islamic version of Oghuz Epic. 8Dede Korkut Stories: Dede Qorqut Epic comprises of twelve stories. It is possible to find information about numerous Turkic tribes in these stories as well as the traces of Oghuz people. In this regard, it is stated that the formation of the epic coincides with the period when the Turks mostly came to the west. The epic is thought to have been written out in late 16th century. (Ergin, 1988b, p. 12). B- Archeological Materials: Archeological materials are the base of the material cultures left by tribes. It is of essential to indicate primarily balbals (kurgan steales), inscriptions, tombs, burial vaults and tombstones, cooking utensils, guns, coins and clothes among those remnants. Thanks to these materials, social, cultural and financial life and military powers and materials of societies are understood much more easily. Additionally, it is possible to determine the development, activities, migrations, cultural backgrounds and civilizations of societies. As is known, the Turks had to emigrate from their native lands to the west for some reasons. Due to these emigrations, the archeological materials remaining from the Turks extend over a large area from Baikal Lake to Danube Basin. The number of archeological excavations has increased especially as of the 19th century in parallel with the increase of the interest in the characteristics of the Turkic people and the states they established. As a result, very rich materials belonging to the Turks have been brought to light rapidly. (Mangaltepe, 2008, p. 121). The inscription on a pot which takes the first written source of the Turks back to a period before Christ is the most significant source of the Turkish history. The most valuable historical document in terms of the Turkish history and civilization is an inscription comprising of two lines and 26 letters on a pot broken in half which is stated to belong to 5th-4th B.C (Kafesoğlu, 2003, p. 337) and was found in the tomb of a Turk Tigin (son of a sovereign or prince) (Donuk, 1988, p. 48) in Kazakhstan in 1969. This inscription is a treasure that sheds light on and guides the Turkish historical science, language and culture and takes the written history of the Turks to 25 centuries back. In this tomb, which has not been identified in terms of the Tigin yet, famous golden garments were found and thus these findings were recorded as “Golden Man” in the scientific world. The most ancient Turkic inscriptions which had been known until that day were the inscriptions on Yenisey and Orkhon inscriptions yet these date fourteen centuries back from our days. This inscription on the document says “Tigin died at the age of 23, May the life of Esik people be spared”. 286 �Esik Inscription Picture of Khagan and Hatun on a coin It is possible to list the archeological materials obtained from excavations and are of essential in terms of the Turkish history, culture and civilization as follows: 1. Casual dresses, military uniforms 2. Coins: may be called as the most important archeological material. 3. Ornaments: mirror, comb, earrings, hairpin, belt, necklace 4. Fighting tools: Arrow heads, spear, sword, knife, axe, mace 5. Harnesses, bridle, stirrup 6. Cooking utensils 7. Tamga (stamps) 8. Small structures: sacred stones, sculptures. C- Written Sources: a- Library Materials: Until the 19th century, Chinese almanacs, Byzantine sources, Travel Books and the works written by Arabian and Mongolian historians in the 12th and 13th centuries were used as sources for the Turkish history in the scientific world. Information in Chinese sources made use of in the Turkish history writing are placed under the chapters titled “Turks” of the almanacs called Shih-Chih, Han-Shu, Hou-Han-Shu, San-kuochih, Chin-Shu, Sung-Shu, Nan-Ch’i-Shu, Liang-Shu, Ch’en-Shu, Wei-Shu, Pei-Ch’i-Shu, Chou-Shu, Nan-Shih, Pei-Shih, Sui-Shu, Chiu T’ang-Shu, Hsin T’ang-Shu (there are 26 Dynasty Histories). Almanacs are divided into different chapters: Emperor Almanacs, Noble Families, Chronological Tables, Scientific Tracks and Biographies. The most important and detailed information about the Turks are in “Biographies” sections of the almanacs (Taşağıl, 1996, p. 116). Chinese Almanac There are many Byzantine sources giving information about the Turks. Of these sources, the ones giving the most important and detailed information are as follows: Priskos (Ahmetbeyoğlu, 2001, p.1), Jordanes, 287 �Ammianus Marcellinus, Eunapios, Olympiodoros, Zosimos (İplikçioğlu, 1997, p. 446) Prokopios, Ioannes Malalas, Agathias, Paschale Chronicle Menandros, Euagrios, Flavius Corripus, Maurice-Strategicon, Theophylact Simocatta, Sergios, Georgios Pisides, Theodoros Synkellos, Theophannes, Nikephoros, Konstantin Porphyrogennetos, Anna Komnena, Niketos Akominotos and Ioannes Kantakuzenos. As indicated before, the Turks established states in different geographies and contacted with different nations. Thus, it is very natural that they are mentioned in the works of those states. Furthermore, Arabic and Islamic sources which are the elements of a different geography and speak of the Turks should be mentioned as well. Geographical works and other sources evaluated under the name of Islamic sources are as follows: İbn Havkal, El-İstahrî, İbn Hurdazbih, El-Ya’kûbî, İbn Fakîh, İbn Rüsteh (Yörükan, 2004) İbn Kesir, Makdisî, İdrisî, Gerdızî, Mesudî, Kazvînî and Birûnî ( Şeşen, 1998) are the most significant authors. Russian almanacs comprise a part of written sources. Of these almanacs where quite detailed information about the period between the 9th and 13th centuries of the Turkish history may be found thanks to the studies carried out especially recently, it is possible to list the ones where particularly the Turks are the subjects as follows: Povesti Vremennih Let (Story of Previous Years), İpatiyevskaya Letopis (İpatyev Almanac), Lavrentiyevskaya Letopis (Lavrentev Almanac), Radzivilovskaya Letopis (Radzivilov Almanac), Troitskaya Letopis (Troits Almanac), Voskresenkaya Letopis (Voskresen Almanac), Nikonovskaya Letopis (Nikonov Almanac), Novgorodskoye Pervoye Letopis Sinodalnıy Spisok (1st Novgorod Almanac Sinodal Version), Novgorodskoye Pervoye Letopis Komissionny Spisok (1st Novgorod Almanac Commission Version) and Novgorodskoye Pervoye Letopis Akademiçeski Spisok (1st Novgorod Almanac Academy Version) (UyduYücel, 2007). Easterner and Westerner travelers stopped by the Turkic states during their travels. Having mentioned the things they saw, experienced and learned among the Turks in their works, authors made significant observations on the Turkish social, military and economical structure. These works are of essential in consequence of being the impressions written out by a person from a different culture and community. Giving information about the Turkic communities, Chinese Hsüan Tsang Travel Book, Wang Yen-Te Travel Book, İbn Fazlan Travel Book, Plano Carpini Travel Book, William Rubruck Travel Book, Marco Polo Travel Book, İbn Batuta Travel Book and Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo Travel Book have gone down in history as the most crucial ones of these works. The fact that the Turks, who had a steppe culture, gradually adopted a sedentary life and established cities after Gokturk Empire brought along important changes and developments in the social life. Furthermore, the Turks started to write large-volume works by making significant contributions to educational activities and science as a natural result of this process which accelerated upon the adoption of Islam. It is seen that two important works which are as valuable as a treasure for the Turkish history were created in this period. 1) Yusuf Has Hajib - Kutadgu Bilig The work named Kutadgu Bilig written by Yusuf Has Hajib is the leading of the most important works created in this period. The famous work of Yusuf Has Hâjib written between 1069 and 1070 is a political treatise which can be ignored neither by the history of the Turkic Culture nor by the Turkic Language and Literature in the Islamic period. The word “Kutadgu” was formed by adding the infix “+ad-” making verbs from names and then the suffix “-gu” making names from verbs to the word “kut” which means “happiness, bliss” and together with “bilig”, Kutadgu Bilig it means “the wisdom/science which brings happiness, bliss”. The entire work comprises of 6645 couplets. Apart from those couplets, there is a poem of 77 couplets added to the book later on. This poetic prologue provides information about the work itself and its author. Consisting of 88 sections in this manner, the work includes 173 quatrains (Yusuf Has Hacip, 1994). Has Hajip chose the form of dialogue in the text section of the work. It added both a different characteristic and a theatrical style to the work. For the purpose of expressing his ideas and thoughts, the author wrote his work as a discussion or stage writing with dialogues among four important people. The names and roles of the said four people are as follows: 1- Kün-Toğdı: He is the sovereign and represents justice and law. 2- Ay-Toldı: He is the vizier and represents happiness and state. 3- Ögdülmiş: He is the son of the vizier and represents wisdom and knowledge. 4- Odgurmış: He is the devotee and a relative of the vizier and speaks of conviction and fate. Kutadgu Bilig is a significant work giving information about the general knowledge, religious and world views and social lives of the Turkic intellectuals in the period of Karakhanids State, including such true and realistic ideas and advices that most of them are applicable even today and being exemplary in all respects. Yusuf Has Hajib identified most of the social and political problems of his time and offered prescriptions for the solution of these problems in his book. 288 �2) Kaşgarlı Mahmud (Mahmud al- Qashqari) - Divanü Lûgat-İt Türk (Diwan Lughat at-Turk) Having been written in the 466th year of the emigration (1072-1073), Divanü Lugat-it Türk (Diwan Lughat at-Turk) is a significant source of information with respect to the Turkic language, culture, civilization and art. The work was written for the purpose of demonstrating the greatness of the Turkic nation and teaching the Turkic language to Arabic people. It is a work where the Turkic words are listed in accordance with Arabic principles and their meanings are explained. It is a kind of Turkic-Arabic dictionary. The manuscript version comprises of 638 pages and includes quite detailed Arabic explanations of approximately 9000 Turkic words. Additionally, it contains information interspersed in the text and a brief introduction about the history, geographical spread, tribes, dialects and lifestyles of the Turks (Kaşgarlı Mahmud, 1998). The work is not only a dictionary but also a grammar book indicating the language properties and throwing light upon the morphology and phonology of the Turkic language in the 11th century and a source of personal names, tribe names and place names. Furthermore, it is an encyclopedic work containing rich information about the Turkish history, geography, mythology, folklore and literature as well as giving information about the medical and therapeutic methods of that time. Map drawn by Mahmud al- Qashqari b- Inscriptions: There is no doubt that inscriptions are the most significant cultural richness and sources left by the Turks as written sources. Until two centuries ago, the Turkish history had generally been written based on the information acquired from foreign sources. However, a new leaf was turned over for the Turkish history in the 17th century and the scientific world was informed about the inscriptions. There are not many sources for the Turkish history before Christ. Yet the cultural stages identified provide us with an idea about those periods. It is possible to point out the remnants taken out of the tomb of the above mentioned “Golden Man” as the first written source for Hun period in spite of the fact that they are not in the form of an inscription. In addition, it is witnessed that wide range of materials were left especially in Gokturk period. The unearth of the inscriptions having Gokturk letters which Cüveyni (Djuvaini) reported for the first time in the 13th century is a landmark (Ergin, 1988a, p.11). Being an orientalist and an envoy of Romanian origin and known as Nikolay Gavriloviç Mileski Spafariy, Nicolaie Milescu was sent by the Russian Tsar Aleksi Mihayloviç to China as an envoy and saw and described the stone inscriptions in the canyons of Yenisei River in the summer months of 1675. Later on, in his Siberian Cartography published in 1697, S.U. Remezov made use of the said information and informed the Swedish scientists about Yenisei inscriptions thanks to his writing called “Runic Stones in Russia”. In 1721 and 1722, D.G. Messerchmidt and P.J.T. Strahlenberg found out new inscriptions on the shores of Uybat, Erba and Tes rivers in Yenisei. On the other hand, new inscriptions were unearthed by P.S. Pallas in Uybat in 1793. In 1818, G.I. Spasskiy published the pictures of Yenisei inscriptions (Öztürk, 1996, p. 15). N.A Kostrov discovered Açura inscription in 1857 in Koybal steppe on the left shore of Abakan; E.F. Korçakov discovered Altın Köl inscriptions in 1878 on the shore of Golden Lake on the right side of Abakan; A.V. Adrianov discovered Kaya Uçı inscription in 1879. A museum was established in Minusinsk city as a result of the discovery of several ancient works in the vicinity of Yenisey River and its tributaries. Finnish Archeology Association charged O.H. Appelgren in 1887 and J.R. Aspelin in 1888 with transcribing those stones. Aspelin published the results of these researches in 1889 under the title of “Yenisei Inscriptions”. In the course of the studies on Yenisei Inscriptions, N.M. Yadrintsev who was sent to Mongolia in 1889 in order to carry out researches in the name of Russian Geography Association unearthed Köl Tigin and Bilge Khan Inscriptions in the vicinity of Koço-Tsaydam Lake and the shore of Orkhon River, 60 km from Karakum and Kara Balgasun Ruins and 400 km to Urga (Ulan-Bator). Then Fin-Ogur Association sent a committee under the presidency of A.O. Heikel to Koço-Tsaydam region in 1890 and had the inscriptions transcribed (O, Sertkaya- C. Alyılmaz- T. Battulga, 2001). O. Donner presented the album including the pictures and tablet copies of Köl Tigin and Bilge Khan Inscriptions prepared by Fin-Ogur Association in 1892 in London (Thomsen, 1993, p. 1). Upon these 289 �developments, Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent a committee under the presidency of Radloff to Orkhon region in 1891. Radloff published the information obtained in series. After the stones located in Orkhon had been published in Finnish and Russian cartographies and it had been understood from the Chinese texts of these stones that these inscriptions belonged to Turkic Khans and Tigins, experts started to compete for deciphering the alphabet on the inscriptions. The deciphering of the inscriptions was accomplished for the first time by Danish V. Thomsen (1842-1927) who thought that the texts were in Turkish (Thomsen, 1993). It is stated that Thomsen deciphered the inscriptions within one hour on November 25, 1893. Thomsen sended to Radloff a letter stating that he had managed to read the inscriptions and the solutions. Having deciphered 11 letters of Gokturk alphabet, Radloff succeeded in reading the texts with the help of the alphabet sent by Thomsen and published his famous work in 1895. V. Thomsen published his translations in 1896 under the title of Orkhon Inscriptions. This study is much more valuable than the work of Radloff due to the fact that Thomsen introduced his work containing a more accurate translation of the texts together with highly valuable explanatory notes. New inscriptions were found in the course of these studies. While examining the flora of Northern Mongolia, botanist N.Z. Klements discovered Tonyukuk inscriptions in Bain-Tsokto region which is 66 km from Ulan-Bator. Radloff prepared a preliminary report on Tonyukuk inscriptions in 1898 and published the transcriptions and translations of the inscriptions in 1899. Radloff became a guide who read, translated and prepared the dictionaries and grammars of a total of 56 inscriptions, namely 40 Yenisei inscriptions, 10 Hoytu Tamir inscriptions and 6 inscriptions in Mongolia (Köl Tigin, Bilge Khan, Ongin, İhe Aşete, İhe Hanin Nur and Tonyukuk) between 1894 and 1899 and evaluated new inscriptions from different aspects. (O, Sertkaya- C. Alyılmaz-T. Battulga, 2001) On the other hand, the first study on the texts with Gokturk letters was carried out by Şemseddin Sami who made use of the work of Thomsen in Turkey yet it was not published. In his publication called “The Most Ancient Turkic Writing” comprising of 35 pages, Necib Asım (Yazuksuz) who was a lecturer of “History of Turkish Language” in İstanbul Darülfünun (University) introduced Gokturk letters in 1897. Furthermore, N. Asım published his work “Orkhon Inscriptions” in 1925. Later on, valuable studies were performed on Orkhon and Yenisei Inscriptions by Ragıp Hulusi Özdem, then in 1990s by Nihal Atsız and Hüseyin Namık Orkun. Recently, Osman Nedim Tuna, Talat Tekin, Muharrem Ergin, Osman Fikri Sertkaya and Cengiz Alyılmaz have published new works on the inscriptions. Of the inscriptions discovered during the studies that have been conducted over the last centuries and created especially in Gokturk, Uygur and Turgesh periods, important ones are as follows. Bilge Khan İnscription, Köl Tigin İnscription, Tonyukuk İnscription, Ongin Inscription, Köl-İç Çor Inscription, Bugut Inscription, Çoyr Inscription, Hoyd-Tamir Inscriptions, Aru-Han Inscription, Sevrey Inscription, Şine-Usu (Moyun Çor) Inscription, Taryat Inscription, Karabalgasun Inscriptions, Suci Inscription, A-çor Inscription, Altın Köl Inscription, Uybat Inscriptions, Nagy-Szent-Miklos Treasures of Pechenegs and inscriptions of Bulgarian Turks written in Ancient Greek. Of these inscriptions which are called by the Turks as Bengü Taş (Eternal Stone) (Öztürk, 1996, p. 20), let us introduce Bilge Khan, Kül Tigin and Tonyukuk İnscriptions which include the most comprehensive information and are known as Orkhon Inscriptions as well. 1- Köl Tigin İnscription: Located in Koçho Tsaydam region of Arhangay Aymag in Mongolia, Köl Tigin Inscription was erected in 732 by Bilge Khan upon the death of his younger brother Köl Tigin in 731. Being a part of the külliye (social complex) constructed in the memory of Köl Tigin, the inscription has a height of 331 cm and a width of (eastern and western façades) 138 cm and (southern and northern façades) 41 cm. Of the inscription having four façades, 40-line and 13-line Turkic texts in Gokturk letters appear in the eastern façade and southern and northern façades respectively (Alyılmaz, 2005, p. 9). In Köl Tigin Inscription, events belonging to Gokturk history are narrated by Bilge Khan and a message of unity and integration is conveyed. In the inscription, whose author is Bilge Khan, it is stated that the Chinese deceive people by means of presents and pleasant words and do evil and emphasized that people should get hip to such things. In the western façade of the inscription, the Chinese message which was sent by T’ang Emperor of that period due to the death of Köl Tigin speaks of the order of the universe, the esteemed personality of Köl Tigin and the importance of peace. In the western façade of the inscription, except for the Chinese writings, there are two lines in Gokturk letters added afterwards. The author of the eastern, northern and southern façades of the inscription is Yollug Tigin. The inscription includes expressions of Yollug Tigin (southern façade, 13th line). On the other hand, the western façade was inscribed by Çang Sengün (General Çang), nephew of T’ang Emperor Hiuan Tsong. In the mausoleum complex of Köl Tigin some parts of the inscription, tortoise base, altar stone human sculptures, ram sculptures, balbals (kurgan steales), floorings, tiles, bricks and clay pipes were found. 290 �Köl Tigin İnscription A Detail From Bilge Khagan İnscription 2- Bilge Khagan İnscription: It was erected by Tengri Khagan in 735 after the death of his father Bilge Khagan. It has considerable similarities with Köl Tigin Inscription in terms of shape, structure and content. Probably Bilge Khagan prepared the texts of the inscription to be erected in the memory of himself before his death. Placed on a tortoise base, the inscription is approximately 369 cm high and 126 cm wide and comprises of four façades. 41-line and 15-line Turkic texts in Gokturk letters were detected in the eastern façade and southern and northern façades of the inscription respectively (Alyılmaz, 2005, p. 103). In addition to a Chinese text in the western façade, a Turkic text was inscribed in verse in the middle of the upper section. Furthermore, there are texts in Gokturk letters in the south-eastern, south-western and western façades. The one narrating the events and giving advices is again Bilge Khagan. Events which occurred after the death of Köl Tigin were included to the inscription as well. The sections in Gokturk letters were inscribed by Yollug Tigin. There are expressions of Tengri Khagan and Yollug Tigin in the southern and south-western façades respectively. Four blocks of the inscription were taken under preservation in Store-Museum-Excavation House building constructed in Koçho Tsaydam region by the Presidency of Turkish Cooperation and Development Administration (TİKA). Bilge Khagan gives essential advises which the next generations may make use of as well as historical warnings to the Turkic nation: “Turkish nation, if you dwell in Ötüken forest you shall have a state forever”. “Turkish nation; who may disturb your state order unless the sky falls down at the top and the earth is worn through at the bottom? Turkish nation; come to your senses, turn to your origin!”. “Here, I have inscribed that the Turkish nation shall be a powerful state if unified as well as that it shall die if not unified and integrated.” (Ergin, 1988a) 3- Bilge Tonyukuk İnscription: Bilge Tonyukuk inscriptions are located in Bayn Tsokto (Bayn Çokto) region of Mongolia. The reason why this inscription is mentioned under the title of Orkhon Inscriptions together with Köl Tigin and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions in spite of the fact that it is not in the vicinity of Orkhon River is that it belongs to the same period and consists of the same subject matters. Located in Bayn Tsokto region in the upper bed of Tola River and approximately 360 km from Köl Tigin and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions, Tonyukuk Inscriptions comprise of two inscriptions with four façades erected by the great vizier, commander and advisor of Second Gokturk Khaganate Bilge Tonyukuk himself before his death. The first inscription is 243 cm high and the second one is 217 cm high. 35-line and 27-line texts in Gokturk letters were inscribed in the first inscription and the second inscription respectively (Alyılmaz, 2005, p. 182). The exact date of the erection of the inscriptions is not known. Some researches state this date to be between 720 and 725 while others point out between 732 and 734. Just like Köl Tigin and Bilge Khagan Inscriptions, historical events belonging to Gokturk period are narrated by Tonyukuk himself in Bilge Tonyukuk Inscriptions. While conveying the historical events, Tonyukuk gives the messages of unity and integration; he highlights that the rulers achieve great successes if they have wise advisors and work in harmony with those advisors. As the fact that the Turks are an ancient civilization has been realized recently, especially as of the 20th century, thousands of research works have been introduced on the Turkish history, culture and civilization. The leaders of these works have been the westerners yet the Turkic scientists succeeded in creating sources including more reliable and accurate information by making use of these works. 291 �Conclusion If the sources of Pre-Islamic Turkish history are examined as a whole, the contribution of Turkic people to the social life, institutionalization, military developments and moral values may be seen explicitly. Even though the inadequacy of these sources is emphasized from time to time, it is possible to trace the three thousand years’ historical process of the Turks wholesomely thanks to the works, inscriptions and archeological materials discovered. However, as may be understood from the text, most of these sources are Turks, Byzantine and Arabic sources. Even if those works of foreign authors contain historical facts, they should be made use of carefully due to some partial, wrong and imperfect information from time to time. Data should not be accepted as exact information without their accuracy is proven and the most accurate and healthy information should be obtained by means of comparison. The Turks have not left several library materials except for one or two highvolume books and inscriptions. The majority of our sources are based on oral and archeological materials except for the inscriptions. The most significant characteristic of the inscriptions, which have an immense source value for us, is that they are the first Turkic texts where the name of Turkic nation is mentioned. They are the most important information treasures and sources in the history left by the Turks. In the inscriptions, Khans make their selfcriticism and emphasize the mutual duties of the state and the nation. Being the evidences for the existence of order, töre (law), civilization and culture of the state, the inscriptions are the biggest documentaries of the history of the Turkic Literature. Furthermore, they are valuable treasures owing to the contents which have the power of making a civilization out of a tribe and where the written language, rhetoric and style are excellent. References Ahmetbeyoğlu, A. (2001). Avrupa Hun İmparatorluğu. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. Alyılmaz, C. (2005). Orhun Yazıtlarının Bugünkü Durumu. Ankara. Kurmay Yayınları. Donuk, A. (1988). Eski Türk Devletlerinde İdarî-Askerî Ünvan ve Terimler. İstanbul. Türk Dünyası Araştırmalar Vakfı Ergin, M. (1988a). Orhun Abideleri. İstanbul. Boğaziçi Yayınları. Ergin, M. (1988b). Dede Korkut Kitabı. İstanbul. Boğaziçi Yayınları. Gömeç, S. (2000). İslam Öncesi Türk Tarihinin Kaynakları Üzerine, Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi, 20/31 (pp. 51-92). Ankara. Dil Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Yayınları. Gömeç, S. (2009). Türk Destanlarına Giriş. Ankara. Akçağ Yayınları. İplikçioğlu, B. (1997). Eskibatı Tarihi I, Giriş, Kaynaklar, Bibliyografya. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayını. Kaşgarlı Mahmud. (1998). Divanü Lûgat-it-Türk. Trans.: B. Atalay. Ankara. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Mangaltepe, İ. (2008). Arkeolojik Buluntulara Göre Avar, Peçenek ve Kuman-Kıpçaklarda Askeri Teçhizat. Eskiçağ’dan Modern Çağ’a Ordular-Oluşum, Teşkilat ve İşlev (pp. 121-152). Ed. M.F. Emecen. İstanbul. Kitabevi. Onat, A.- S. Orsoy & K. Ercilasun. (2004). Han Hanedanlığı Tarihi-Hsiung-Nu (Hun) Monografisi. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. Ögel, B. (1993). Türk Mitolojisi I. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. Öztürk, A. (1996). Ötüken Türk Kitabeleri. İstanbul. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Sertkaya, O.F- C. Alyılmaz- T. Battulga. Moğolistandaki Türk Anıtları Projesi Albümü. Ankara. TİKA (Türk İşbirliği ve Kalkınma İdaresi Başkanlığı. Şeşen, R. (1998). İslâm Coğrafyacılarına Göre Türkler ve Türk Ülkeleri. Ankara. Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü. Taşağıl, A. (1997). Türk Tarihi ile İlgili Çin Kaynaklarının Türkçe Neşri Üzerine Düşünceler. Tarih Boyunca Türk Tarihinin Kaynakları Semineri (pp. 113-124). İstanbul. İ.Ü. Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi. Thomsen, V. (1993). Orhon ve Yenisey Yazıtlarının Çözümü İlk Bildiri, Çözülmüş Orhon Yazıtları. Trans. V.Köken. Ankara. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Togan, Z.V. (1981). Umumî Türk Tarihi’ne Giriş. İstanbul. Enderun Kitabevi. Uydu-Yücel, M. (2007). İlk Rus Yıllıklarına Göre Türkler. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. 292 �Yörükan, Y.Z. (2004). Müslüman Coğrafyacıların Gözüyle Ortaçağ’da Türkler. İstanbul. Gelenek Yayıncılık. Yusuf Has Hâcip (1994). Kutadgu Bilig. Trans.: R.R. Arat. Ankara. Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. 293 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 359 Title A name given to the resource Sources of Pre-Islamic Turkish History Author Author Mangaltepe, İsmail Abstract A summary of the resource. There are not too many sources about the historical events of the periods before the adoption of Islam of the Turks. Given the thousands years of the Turkish history, the fact that adequate written and archeological materials have not been left may be criticized. However, it may be understood if the role played by the Turks in the formation of a crucial stage of history is taken into consideration. Even though the number of the written sources left by the Turks, who achieved dominance in many geographical regions from Asia to Europe, is not high it is possible to shed light on the pre-Islamic history of the Turks thanks to the obtained archeological materials, oral sources and the information given by the people they were connected. In this study, we shall try to introduce Orkhon Inscriptions, which are the most significant written sources of the Turks, after giving brief information about the oral sources, archeological materials and written sources of the Turkish history. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b5d0cf78e053482fa5b85b5273db3804.pdf 1d08b9c38e003aad3b22ec9c0eb73697 PDF Text Text The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Sadettin Küçük Recep Coşkun Meliha Temirkaynak West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey Abstract: In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 2006-2007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Keyworlds: Avocado, grafting, scion/rootstock combination, survival rate, Fuerte, Topa Topa. Indroduction Avocado is an important fruit species, belonging to Lauracea family, which is evergreen and economicaly significant (Zentmyer, 1987). Today avocado is being cultivated in nearly 50 countries in the world. The first rank of avocado production and trade belongs to countries such as Mexico, USA, Brezil, Dominic Republic and South Africa. World avocado production, as of 2007, has been realized in 3.2 million tons (FAO, 2007). These countries are relatively far from North European countries where avocado is consumed extensively. Turkey, due to its geographical and ecological conditions, has plays a significant role in avocado production and exportation. Particularly the Mediterrenean Region of Turkey, because of the fact that it supplies special temperature avocado requires is the most important province in growing this species. There is a 400-ton avocado production in Turkey all of which is being realized in Antalya, Hatay and Mersin, all situated in the Mediterrenean region. In order to investigate avocado growing facilities in our country, initial studies in early 1970’s started via our Institute by introducing the four important commercial avocado cultivars from California. Through this study and those in forthcoming years, the yield which is to show various cultivars of the Mediterrenean region in different locations will depict the fruit quality, the harvest time, adaptation to climate, have been examined, and relative varieties have been selected (Dogrular et al., 1983, Demirkol 1998, Bayram and Aşkın, 2006). Nevertheless, growing of avocado fruit, which was introduced in Turkey in the 1970’s, has not reached the required level as yet. At present, there is an avocado production of 400 tons in our country, particularly in the Mediterrenean region. In fruit culture, grafting of different scions and rootstocks has been a traditional practise with the aim to confer dwarfing characteristics and resistance to environmental stress like salinity, cold, drought, pests and diseases. The new charecteristics obtained in the plant must be the result of an intense interaction between the 38 �rootstock and scion carrying different genetic information (Reyes-Santamaria et all. 2002, Mickelbart1 and Arpaia, 2002, Krezdorn, 1973). Commercial avocado trees are propagated by grafting of budding scions of desirable cultivars onto seedling or grafted rootstocks. Avocados can be grown from seeds, but fruit quality and yield potential will be quite variable. Grafted on budded avokado trees usually produce fruits when three to five years old, while seedlings often require five to seven years. Originating in the tropics, the avocado is very sensitive to climatic factors prevailing in the subtropics, especially drought and extreme temperatures. Extreme temperatures result in low productivity and sometimes even in severe damage to the tree canopy ( Bergh 1976; Oppenheimer 1978). Avocado is also sensitive to soil stress and salinity. A very common soil stress factor is root rot disease, caused by the fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is usually associated with lack of aeration ( Ben-Ya’acov and Michelson, 1995). In certain years, due to this disease factor in avocado orchard in California, it has been stated that asmuch as 20% tree loss took place. In avocado growing, there is no resistant to this disease in tropical and subtropical climate zones. However by using grafting tecniques, it is possible to reduce loss resulting from this disease factor. The main climatic factor affecting avocado production in the cooler subtropics is low temperatures. Indeed, avocado is extremly sensitive to cold, especially in the blooming period. Furthermore, chilling problems associated with avocado growing in the subtropics such as Turkey do occur. Commercial avocado cultivars are more sensitive to cold temperature than rootstocks. Grafting is a widely used technique in avocado growing regions namely Turkey, Israel and Spain, for rootstocks are resistant to cold. Therefore, some rootstocks belonging to Mexican race, which is widely used in grafting, are more resistant to cold than others. Referring to the requirements mentioned above, the objective of this study, results of which have been presented, was to evaluate the rootstock potential of avocado cultivars, ‘Topa Topa’, ‘Blace’, ‘Mexicola’, ‘W1’ and ‘W2’ for commercial avocado cultivars. Material and Methods This study was conducted between the years 2006-2007 in a nursery situated in West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute in Antalya-Turkey (360 52 N', 300 43' E). In this study, five Mexican rootstocks (Topa Topa’, ‘Blace’, ‘Mexicola’, ‘W1’ and ‘W2’ were evaluated as rootstocks.Hass (belonging to Guatemale race), Zutano (belonging to Mexican race), Bacon and Fuerte (MexiconxGuatemala hybrids) were used as scions. By the time rootstocks levelled to 75 cm on May 2nd 2007, scions were grafted onto rootstocks with Whip&Tongue Grafting. On July 20th 2007, graft tie was untied; graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm) and shoot length (cm; distance between graft point and the top of shoot) were measured. All grafting groups were laid out with three replications and 10 plants in each replicants in the randomised block experimental design. Data were subject to analysis of variance by SAS statistical program (SAS Institute, Version 7) and means were compared by LSD’s (Least Significant Differences) test at 0.05 significance levels. 39 �Results 1. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Graft Survival Rate (%) The effects of different rootstocks on graft survival rate (%) is shown in Table 1. Results reveal that the effects of rootstocks on graft survival rate (%) are statisticaly significant (Table 1). According to reciprocal interaction between rootstocka and cultivars, it can be observed that graft survival rate is directly associated with, rootstocks and cultivars and their reciprocal interaction, at main effect level. At rootstock level, the highest graft survival rates that have been found out and fixed were 92.7 % in TTS rootstocks; the lowest graft survival rate 83.38 % in Y2 rootstock . When graft survival rates of cultivars are evaluated, on the otherhand, the highest graft survival rate of 96.67 % was determined in Fuerte cultivar.This cultivar is followed by Bacon (90.83) and Zutano (84.17 %) cultivar. Consequently, in terms of graft survival rate, however, the lowest graft survival rate of 83.34 % has been determined in Hass cultivar. Upon examination of data in Table 1.it can be seen that at reciprocal interaction level, Fuerte onto which TTS and Mexicola rootstock were grafted with a highest 100% graft survival rate was found. These differences, most probably resulting from ecological conditions, maintanence and the differences between cultural practices that are applied. Nonetheless, results clearly indicate rootstocks have affected graft survival rates and in the defined experiment conditions, the best results have been achieved from plants grafted onto TTS rootstocks. Table 1. Effect of rootstocks on the graft survival rate (%) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Zutano Rootstock Y1 79.17 Ed 91.67 Cc 79.17 Ed Y2 79.17 Ed 95.83 Bb 70.83 Ed TTS 91.67 Cc 91.67 Cc 100.00 Aa Blace 87.50 Dd 95.83 Bb 87.50 Dd Mexicola 79.17 Ed 91.67 Cc 100.00 Aa Çeşit Ort 83.34 d 96.67 a 84.17 c LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Bacon 95.83 Bb 91.67 Cc 87.50 Dd 87.50 Dd 91.67 Cc 90.83 b 86.46 D 84.38 E 92.71 A 89.58 C 90.63 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. 2. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Shoot Length (cm) Table 2. shows the effects of different rootstocks on shoot length (cm). Looking into shoot length and statistical analyses , it can be seen that rootstock and cultivar reciprocal interaction between rootstock and cultivar are significantly effective. The highest shoot length of 29.24 cm on rootstock level has been obtained from plants gtafted onto TTS rootstock. The lowest value, however, is observed in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock. The shoot length in this group has been fixed as 18.60 cm (Table 2.). In statistical analyses’ amount varieties, the highest shoot length of 28.27 cm with Fuerte; the lowest value of 16.62 cm with Bacon has been recorded (Table 2). At rootstock x cultivar reciprocal interaction level, the highest shoot length value of 36.55 cm has been obtained from Fuerte plants grafted onto TTS rootstock. 40 �Table 2. Effects of rootstocks on the shoot lenght (cm) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Zutano Rootstock Y1 18.33 Dd 25.32 Ba 26.37 Aa Y2 21.96 BCd 22.84 BCc 17.67 Dd TTS 29.28 Aa 36.55 Aa 29.97 Aa Blace 23.97 Bb 27.81 Ba 35.38 Aa Mexicola 23.32 Bb 28.82 Aa 30.44 Aa Mean Cultivar 23.37 c 28.27 a 27.97 b LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Bacon 15.31 Dd 11.92 Dd 21.14 Cd 16.56 Dd 18.18 Dd 16.62 d 21.33 C 18.60 D 29.24 A 25.93 B 25.19 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. 3. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Rootstock Diameter (mm) Data concerning effects of different rootstocks on rootstock diameter and their statistical evaluations have been presented in Table 3. It has been determined that rootstock diameter indicates different values according to reciprocal interaction. Upon being evaluated in terms of rootstock, the highest data with rootstock diameter of 9.39 mm has been measured in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 3). On the otherhand, when data in Table 3. are to be examined at cultivar level, the highest rootstock diameter of 9.32 cm with Zutano cultivar; the lowest rootstock diameter of 8.73 mm at Fuerte cultivar have been found out and fixed. When all rootstock and cultivars are assesed, the highest rootstock diameter of 9.99 cm has been fixed with Zutano grafted onto W1 rootstock. Table 3. Effects of rootstocks on the rootstock diameter (mm) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Zutano Rootstock Y1 8.65 BCc 9.55 Aa 9.99 Aa Y2 9.88 Aa 8.84 ABb 9.53 Aa TTS 8.84 ABb 8.13 Cc 9.03 Aa Blace 8.93 Bb 8.51 Cc 9.10 Aa Mexicola 9.20 Aa 8.63 Cc 8.94 ABb Mean Cultivar 9.10 a 8.73 bc 9.32 a LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Bacon 9.17 Aa 9.32 Aa 8.54 Cc 8.87 Bb 9.09 Aa 8.99 ab 9.34 A 9.39 A 8.64 C 8.85 B 8.97 AB *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. 4. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Scion Diameter mcm) Data related to effects of different rootstock on scion diameter have been presented in Table 4. Upon examining scion diameter values and their statistical evaluations,it can be stated that rootstocks, cultivars and the reciprocal interaction of these two factors have considerable impact on scion diameter. At rootstock level, the highest scion diameter value of 5.93 mm has been obtained from plants grafted onto W2 rootstock, while the lowest value of 18.60 mm has been found in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 4.). Statistical analyses between cultivars have been recorded as of the highest scion diameter being 5.99 mm in Bacon cultivar; the lowest scion diameter being 5.29 mm with Zutano cultivar (Table 4.). 41 �Table 4. Effects of rootstocks on the scion diameter (mm) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Rootstock Y1 5.62 Cb 5.56 Cbc Y2 6.43 Aa 5.33 Cc TTS 5.66 Bb 6.50 Aa Blace 5.71 Ba 5.56 Cbc Mexicola 6.17 Aa 5.40 Cc Mean Cultivar 5.92 a 5.67 b LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Zutano 5.81 Aa 4.75 Cc 5.16 Cc 5.53 Cc 5.21 Cc 5.29 c Mean Rootstock Bacon 6.02 Aa 5.81 Aa 6.41 Aa 5.70 Ba 5.99 Aa 5.99 a 5.75 B 5.58 C 5.93 A 5.63 BC 5.69 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Discussion and Conclusion In the previous studies concerning avocado rootstock and cultivar inter relations, the yield has been emphasized and assesments in graft survival rate in these sources have been mentioned to a certain extent. Research findings reveal that plants grafted onto different rootstocks vary in terms of graft survival rate, scion diameter,rootstock diameter and shoot length. Nevertheless, in Fuerte cultivar the highest graft survival rate (%) has been fixed in plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock. Similar results show similarities between findings by Ben-Ya’acov A. and Esther Michelson (1995) who researchs on effect of different rootstock on graft survival rate that were previously presented in Fuerte and Hass avocado cultivars. These researchers, in their studies, have obtained the highest graft survival rate of 90 % from plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock To put it in general terms, as a result of such studies, it can be stated that the Fuerte cultivar grafted onto TTS rootstock seems to be the best rootstock, scion combination, in the light of all findings. Acknowledgements The authors greatfully thank Mrs. Sedef Bircan for proofreading the material. References: Bayram S and M. A. Aşkın, 2006. Using of Oil and Dry Matter Parameters in Some Avocado Cultivars for Determination of Harvest Date. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 1(2):38-48 Ben-Ya’acov A. and E. Michelson, 1995. Avokado rootstocks. In: J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural Reviews. Volume 17:381-429. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, NY. Coffey M. D, 1987. Phytophthora Root Rot of Avocado — An Integrated Approach to Control in California. California Avocado Society 1987 Yearbook 71: 121-137 Demirkol, A. 1998. Avocado Growing in Turkey. World Avocado Congress III, 22–27 October, Tel-Aviv. Procedings, 451–456. Dogrular, H.A, M. Tuncay ve A. Sengüler, 1983. Antalya Ve Alanya Kosullarında Avokado Çesitlerinin Adaptasyonu (Ara Sonuç Raporu). Turunçgil Arastırma Enstitüsü, Antalya, Yayınlanmamıs. FAO, 2007. Statistical Database. http://www.fao.org Kadman, A. and A. Ben-Ya'acov. 1982. Selection of avocado rootstocks for calcareous soils. J. Plant Nutr. 5:639-643. Krezdorn, A.H., 1973. Influence of Rootstock on Cold Hardiness of Avocados. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 86:346-348 Mickelbart1 M. V. and M. L. Arpaia, 2002. Rootstock Influences Changes in Ion Concentrations, Growth, and Photosynthesis of ‘Hass’ Avocado Trees in Response to Salinity. J. AMER. SOC. HORT. SCI. 127(4):649–655. Reyes-Santamaría I., T. Terrazas, A. F. Barrientos-Priego and C. Trejo, 2002. Xylem conductivity and vulnerability in cultivars and races of avocado. Scientia Horticulturae, Vol.92, Issue 2, pages 97-105. Zentmyer G.A.,1987. Avocados Around The World. Calif. Avoc. Soc.Yearb., 71:63-77. 42 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 647 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Author Author Küçük, Sadettin Çoskun, Recep Temirkaynak, Meliha Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 2006-2007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/018156d4a60174be9d7d88e79c3a797b.pdf 3973252e19a903cad7def8bb28e6bc0d PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Sadettin Küçük West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute Antalya-Turkey Recep Coşkun West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute Antalya-Turkey Meliha Temirkaynak West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute Antalya-Turkey Abstract: In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 20062007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Keyworlds: Avocado, grafting, scion/rootstock combination, survival rate, Fuerte, Topa Topa. Indroduction Avocado is an important fruit species, belonging to Lauracea family, which is evergreen and economicaly significant (Zentmyer, 1987). Today avocado is being cultivated in nearly 50 countries in the world. The first rank of avocado production and trade belongs to countries such as Mexico, USA, Brezil, Dominic Republic and South Africa. World avocado production, as of 2007, has been realized in 3.2 million tons (FAO, 2007). These countries are relatively far from North European countries where avocado is consumed extensively. Turkey, due to its geographical and ecological conditions, has plays a significant role in avocado production and exportation. Particularlythe Mediterrenean Region of Turkey, because ofthe factthatitsupplies specialtemperature avocado requiresisthe mostimportant province in growing this species. There is a 400-ton avocado production in Turkey all of which is being realized in Antalya, Hatay and Mersin, allsituated in the Mediterrenean region. In order to investigate avocado growing facilities in our country,initial studies in early 1970’s started via our Institute by introducing the four important commercial avocado cultivars from California. Through this study and those in forthcoming years,the yield which isto show various cultivars ofthe Mediterrenean region in differentlocations will depict the fruit quality,the harvesttime, adaptation to climate, have been examined, and relative varieties have been selected (Dogrular et al., 1983, Demirkol 1998, Bayram and Aşkın, 2006). Nevertheless, growing of avocado fruit, which was introduced in Turkey in the 1970’s, has not reached the required level as yet. At present,thereis an avocado production of 400 tonsin our country, particularlyin the Mediterrenean region. In fruitculture, grafting of different scions and rootstocks has been a traditional practise with the aim to confer dwarfing characteristics and resistance to environmental stress like salinity, cold, drought, pests and diseases. The new charecteristics obtained in the plant must be the result of an intense interaction between the rootstock and scion carrying different genetic information (Reyes-Santamaria et all. 2002, Mickelbart1 and 89 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Arpaia, 2002, Krezdorn, 1973). Com mercial avocado trees are propagated by grafting of budding scions of desirable cultivars onto seedling or grafted rootstocks. Avocados can be grown from seeds, but fruit quality and yield potential will be quite variable. Grafted on budded avokado trees usually produce fruits when three to five years old, while seedlings often require five to seven years. Originating in the tropics,the avocado is very sensitive to climatic factors prevailing in the subtropics, especially drought and extreme temperatures. Extreme temperatures result in low productivity and sometimes even in severe damage to the tree canopy ( Bergh 1976; Oppenheimer 1978). Avocado is also sensitive to soil stress and salinity. A very com mon soil stress factor is root rot disease, caused by the fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is usually associated with lack of aeration ( Ben-Ya’acov and Michelson, 1995). In certain years, due tothis disease factorin avocado orchard in California,it has been stated that asmuch as 20% tree loss took place. In avocado growing, there is no resistant to this disease in tropical and subtropical climate zones. However by using grafting tecniques,itis possibleto reduce loss resulting from this disease factor. The main climatic factor affecting avocado production in the cooler subtropics is low temperatures. Indeed, avocado is extremly sensitive to cold, especiallyin the blooming period. Furthermore, chilling problems associated with avocado growing in the subtropics such as Turkey do occur. Com mercial avocado cultivars are more sensitive to cold temperature than rootstocks. Grafting is a widely used technique in avocado growing regions namely Turkey, Israel and Spain, for rootstocks are resistant to cold. Therefore, some rootstocks belonging to Mexican race, which is widely used in grafting, are more resistantto cold than others. Referring to the requirements mentioned above, the objective of this study, results of which have been presented, was to evaluate the rootstock potential of avocado cultivars,‘Topa Topa’,‘Blace’,‘Mexicola’, ‘W1’ and ‘W2’ for commercial avocado cultivars. Material and Methods This study was conducted between the years 2006-2007 in a nursery situated in West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute in Antalya-Turkey (360 52 N',300 43' E). Inthis study,five Mexican rootstocks (Topa Topa’,‘Blace’,‘Mexicola’,‘W1’ and ‘W2’ were evaluated as rootstocks.Hass (belonging to Guatemale race), Zutano (belonging to Mexican race), Bacon and Fuerte (MexiconxGuatemala hybrids) were used as scions. By the time rootstocks levelled to 75 cm on May 2nd 2007, scions were grafted onto rootstocks with Whip&Tongue Grafting. On July 20th 2007, grafttie was untied; graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm) and shoot length (cm; distance between graft point and the top of shoot) were measured. All grafting groups were laid out with three replications and 10 plants in each replicants in the randomised block experimental design. Data were subject to analysis of variance by SAS statistical program (SAS Institute, Version 7) and means were compared by LSD’s (Least Significant Differences) test at 0.05 significance levels. Results 1. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Graft SurvivalRate (%) The effects of differentrootstocks on graftsurvivalrate(%) is shown in Table 1. Results revealthatthe effects of rootstocks on graft survival rate (%) are statisticaly significant (Table 1). According to reciprocal interaction between rootstocka and cultivars, it can be observed that graft survival rate is directly associated with,rootstocks and cultivars and theirreciprocalinteraction, at main effectlevel. At rootstock level,the highest graftsurvivalratesthat have been found out and fixed were 92.7 % in TTS rootstocks;the lowest graftsurvival rate 83.38 % in Y2 rootstock . When graftsurvivalrates of cultivars are evaluated, on the otherhand,the highest graft survival rate of 96.67 % was determined in Fuerte cultivar.This cultivar is followed by Bacon (90.83) and Zutano (84.17 %) cultivar. Consequently, in terms of graftsurvival rate, however,the lowest graft survival rate of 83.34 % has been determined in Hass cultivar. Upon examination of data in Table 1.it can be seen that at reciprocal interaction level, Fuerte onto which TTS and Mexicola rootstock were grafted with a highest 100% graft survival rate was found. These differences, most probably resulting from ecological conditions, maintanence and the differences between cultural practicesthat are applied. Nonetheless,results clearly indicate rootstocks have affected graftsurvival rates and in the defined experiment conditions,the bestresults have been achieved from plants grafted onto TTS rootstocks. 90 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Cultivar Mean Rootstock Rootstock Hass Fuerte Zutano Bacon Y1 79.17 Ed 91.67 Cc 79.17 Ed 95.83 Bb 86.46 D Y2 79.17 Ed 95.83 Bb 70.83 Ed 91.67 Cc 84.38 E TTS 91.67 Cc 100.00 Aa 91.67 Cc 87.50 Dd 92.71 A Blace 87.50 Dd 95.83 Bb 87.50 Dd 87.50 Dd 89.58 C Mexicola 79.17 Ed 100.00 Aa 91.67 Cc 91.67 Cc 90.63 B Çeşit Ort 83.34 d 96.67 a 84.17 c 90.83 b LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 1. Effect of rootstocks on the graftsurvival rate (%) 2. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Shoot Length (cm) Table 2. shows the effects of different rootstocks on shoot length (cm). Looking into shoot length and statistical analyses , it can be seen that rootstock and cultivar reciprocal interaction between rootstock and cultivar are significantly effective. The highest shoot length of 29.24 cm on rootstock level has been obtained from plants gtafted onto TTS rootstock. The lowest value, however, is observed in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock. The shoot length in this group has been fixed as 18.60 cm (Table 2.).In statistical analyses’ amount varieties,the highest shoot length of 28.27 cm with Fuerte;the lowest value of 16.62 cm with Bacon has been recorded (Table 2). At rootstock x cultivar reciprocal interaction level,the highest shoot length value of 36.55 cm has been obtained from Fuerte plants grafted onto TTS rootstock. Cultivar Mean Rootstock Rootstock Hass Fuerte Zutano Bacon Y1 18.33 Dd 25.32 Ba 26.37 Aa 15.31 Dd 21.33 C Y2 21.96 BCd 22.84 BCc 17.67 Dd 11.92 Dd 18.60 D TTS 29.28 Aa 36.55 Aa 29.97 Aa 21.14 Cd 29.24 A Blace 23.97 Bb 27.81 Ba 35.38 Aa 16.56 Dd 25.93 B Mexicola 23.32 Bb 28.82 Aa 30.44 Aa 18.18 Dd 25.19 B Mean Cultivar 23.37 c 28.27 a 27.97 b 16.62 d LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 2. Effects of rootstocks on the shootlenght (cm) 3. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Rootstock Diameter (cm) Data concerning effects of different rootstocks on rootstock diameter and their statistical evaluations have been presented in Table 3. It has been determined that rootstock diameter indicates different values according to reciprocal interaction. Upon being evaluated in terms of rootstock,the highest data with rootstock diameter of 9.39 cm has been measured in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 3).On the otherhand, when data in Table 3. are to be examined at cultivar level, the highest rootstock diameter of 9.32 cm with Zutano cultivar; the lowest rootstock diameter of 8.73 cm at Fuerte cultivar have been found out and fixed. When all rootstock and cultivars are assesed,the highestrootstock diameter of 9.99 cm has been fixed with Zutano grafted onto W1 rootstock. 91 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Rootstock Y1 Y2 TTS Blace Mexicola Mean Cultivar LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Cultivar Hass Fuerte 8.65 BCc 9.55 Aa 9.88 Aa 8.84 ABb 8.84 ABb 8.13 Cc 8.93 Bb 8.51 Cc 9.20 Aa 8.63 Cc 9.10 a 8.73 bc Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Zutano 9.99 Aa 9.53 Aa 9.03 Aa 9.10 Aa 8.94 ABb 9.32 a Bacon 9.17 Aa 9.32 Aa 8.54 Cc 8.87 Bb 9.09 Aa 8.99 ab 9.34 A 9.39 A 8.64 C 8.85 B 8.97 AB *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 3. Effects of rootstocks on the rootstock diameter (cm) 4. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Scion Diameter (cm) Data related to effects of different rootstock on scion diameter have been presented in Table 4. Upon examining scion diameter values and theirstatistical evaluations,itcan be stated thatrootstocks, cultivars and the reciprocal interaction of these two factors have considerable impact on scion diameter. At rootstock level, the highest scion diameter value of 5.93 cm has been obtained from plants grafted onto W2 rootstock, while the lowest value of 18.60 cm has been found in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 4.). Statistical analyses between cultivars have been recorded as of the highest scion diameter being 5.99 cm in Bacon cultivar; the lowest scion diameter being 5.29 cm with Zutano cultivar (Table 4.). Cultivar Rootstock Hass Fuerte Y1 5.62 Cb 5.56 Cbc Y2 6.43 Aa 5.33 Cc TTS 5.66 Bb 6.50 Aa Blace 5.71 Ba 5.56 Cbc Mexicola 6.17 Aa 5.40 Cc Mean Cultivar 5.92 a 5.67 b LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Zutano 5.81 Aa 4.75 Cc 5.16 Cc 5.53 Cc 5.21 Cc 5.29 c Bacon 6.02 Aa 5.81 Aa 6.41 Aa 5.70 Ba 5.99 Aa 5.99 a 5.75 B 5.58 C 5.93 A 5.63 BC 5.69 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 4. Effects of rootstocks on the scion diameter (cm) Discussion and Conclusion In the previous studies concerning avocado rootstock and cultivar inter relations, the yield has been emphasized and assesmentsin graftsurvival rateinthese sources have been mentioned to a certain extent. Research findings revealthatplants grafted onto differentrootstocks vary interms of graftsurvivalrate, scion diameter,rootstock diameter and shoot length. Nevertheless, in Fuerte cultivar the highest graft survival rate (%) has been fixed in plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock. Similar results show similarities between findings by Ben-Ya’acov A. and Esther Michelson (1995) who researchs on effect of differentrootstock on graft survival rate that were previously presented in Fuerte and Hass avocado cultivars. These researchers, in their studies, have obtained the highest graft survivalrate of 90 % from plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock To put itin generalterms, as a resultof such studies,itcan be stated thatthe Fuerte cultivar grafted onto TTS rootstock seems to be the bestrootstock, scion combination,inthe light of allfindings. Acknowledgements The authors greatfully thank Mrs. Sedef Bircan for proofreading the material. 92 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Bayram S and M. A. Aşkın, 2006. Using of Oil and Dry Matter Parameters in Some Avocado Cultivars for Determination of Harvest Date. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 1(2):38-48 Ben-Ya’acov A. and E. Michelson, 1995. Avokado rootstocks. In: J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural Reviews. Volume 17:381-429. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, NY. Coffey M. D, 1987. Phytophthora Root Rot of Avocado — An Integrated Approach to Control in California. California Avocado Society 1987 Yearbook 71: 121-137 Demirkol, A. 1998. Avocado Growing in Turkey. World Avocado Congress III, 22–27 October, Tel-Aviv. Procedings, 451–456. Dogrular, H.A, M. Tuncay ve A. Sengüler, 1983. Antalya Ve Alanya Kosullarında Avokado Çesitlerinin Adaptasyonu (Ara Sonuç Raporu). Turunçgil Arastırma Enstitüsü, Antalya, Yayınlanmamıs. FAO, 2007. Statistical Database. http://www.fao.org Kadman, A. and A. Ben-Ya'acov. 1982. Selection of avocado rootstocks for calcareous soils. J. Plant Nutr. 5:639-643. Krezdorn, A.H., 1973. Influence of Rootstock on Cold Hardiness of Avocados. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 86:346-348 Mickelbart1 M. V. and M. L. Arpaia, 2002. Rootstock Influences Changes in Ion Concentrations, Growth, and Photosynthesis of ‘Hass’ Avocado Trees in Response to Salinity. J. AMER. SOC. HORT. SCI. 127(4):649–655. Reyes-Santamaría I., T. Terrazas, A. F. Barrientos-Priego and C. Trejo, 2002. Xylem conductivity and vulnerability in cultivars and races of avocado. Scientia Horticulturae, Vol.92, Issue 2, pages 97-105. Zentmyer G.A.,1987. Avocados Around The World. Calif. Avoc. Soc.Yearb., 71:63-77. 93 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 482 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Author Author Küçük, Sadettin Coskun, Recep Temirkaynak, Meliha Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 2006- 2007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/264f8a235b851856b57ef8ad196a6084.pdf 1af4862064588d1ca701c5a634b35174 PDF Text Text The Problems of Education of Technology and the Relations with the Field of Industry in Professional and Technical Education Rıdvan KÜÇÜKALİ Atatürk Üniversity e-posta: kucukali1960@hotmail.com Abstract:İt has become one of the fundamental obligations of today’s communities to obtain the quality of having knowledge and technology. For that reason, today’s communities and people should endeavour to constantly improve themselves and acquire the habit of learning all through the life. At the present time, these developments occurring in a dizzying speed are forcing the communities and people to obtain more information and keep up with the technological advancements. This situation has brought about the problem of the acquisition of information, the transmission of knowledge and the problem of having mature/ grown people. Nowadays, the education and teaching that are carried out with the traditional methods and equipments in the educational institutions giving their places to the multiple learning environments formed by making use of the information technologies. Because of this will be possible when the administrators re-establish the teaching environment employing the technology in the educational institutions presents the students a flexible, collaborative and prosperous environment, it will also provide the administrators of education and teachers with so significant conveniences and facilities. However, the questions ‘’how can such an environment be more efficient in learning of a student, how can a teacher organize the teaching setting in a favourable way that wiil make the students possible to learn on their own, how often and how efficient can he use the technology’’ should definitely be answered in advance. Key Words: Education, Technology, Technology Education. Introduction In education, social changes have a great role on the limelight that supports learning in teaching and learning process. An increase in alternative educational programmes and variations of schools caused individualism to excel in learning process. And these changes resulted in a change in content of teaching programmes (Ozden: 2002,s.16-19).So, this situation excelled the importance of learning more than teaching. It is needed to teach”to learn” to the new generations. Moreover, environments are to be constructed to help students practice to keep the information they learnt for a long time in addition to theoric knowledge. Doubtlessly, education systems of our day have to invent organisations, methods and new systems, which are not bound to traditions, in order to respond the increasing demands effectively with their limited oppurtunities. This, however, will conclude new problems and directions in education. We aimed to find answers for; professional and technical education and their relationship with industry which we assume as their practicing area; their features of working together; their skills of co-operation in project preparing; the harmonial features between professional and technical colleges and tools that are used in the industrial sector; physical conditions and educating and teaching environments of professional and technical colleges; the sufficiency of acquiring skills and teaching based on practition made by faculty members of professional and technical colleges in their employment areas; professional and technical colleges’ sufficiency of their financial sources to renew themselves; and which skills of future planning are co-operated by professional and technical colleges and students’ parents. 195 �Professional and technical education in Turkey is of minor importance in comparison to basic education and do not receive the expected interest. Today, even members of professional and technical education have not been able to reveal the theoretical aspect of professional and technical teaching. Furthermore, in our country professional education is neglected, meaning that the researches for an individual to improve his/her sufficiency in business-life are not enoughly undertaken (Alkan, Dogan, Sezgin: 1993,s.393). Similar to every sector, innovations in professional education world, the variations and inventions in technologic areas have a considerable effect on professional education. It is a common fact that business world needs qualified staff and always has room for such people. That’s why people who accomplish their education withing suitable contend and atmosphere are thought to become more succesful in their career. This success shows itself up as a re-evaluation with a high competing power which is international in various sectors of business world. Hence, such a progress is very important for a country to improve. Recently, there occur considerable efforts on the phases of preparation for profession and getting to work in Turkey. However, technological education has not been able to reach the expected level. The main reason for that is the lack of teachers both in numbers and quality. In order to level up the technological education, a system should be constructed to train teachers for high schools and colleges. If universities do not pay enough attention to the matter, new generations will keep being unaware of technology in the computer age (Alkan, Dogan, Sezgin: 1996, s.405406). The main purpose in professional education should be the forming of a training staff which is both international and able to invent value that has high competing power. This purpose should include various areas. In Turkey, similar in developed countries, professional educating programmes are to be constructed for every group of people with taking notice of human sources, age, information and skill. This way, the accordance of people to the value-invention programme throughout the country and to the business world will be obtained. This accordance programme should be enriched-not only in professional but also in individual and social aspects, to construct environments in which people can renew and improve themselves at any time in their lives. Hence, a great step will be taken in reaching a public constitution that has high inner performance and not only consuming but also inventing high value potentials. So,the social constitution will grasp a dynamic environment that improves its inner performance continually and the expectations from human sources such as quarantying the future of the country will be achieved.(hamlin.cc.boun.edu.tr/oud/panel.html) Despite from Turkey’s having many kinds of professional and technical colleges, only %10 of the population is made to these colleges (secondary education schools). The total amount of the students from every kind of secondary education schools is %25 of the population including professional and technical college students (Basaran: 1996,s.93). Besides, there are a number of faculties which train teachers to the various areas of professional and technical education. But the needed amount of teachers has not been trained yet which results in a deficiancy of qualified staff both in number and qualifications. In EU countries with the same profession standarts, the member countries must already have trained the expected number of staff with similar qualifications from now on. According to this situation, a profession capability licence is valid in all countries that are members of the EU. This licence, given with the notice of common standarts, will enable the workers’ and technicians’ work and travel among the EU countries. Rapid technologic advencements bring about some professions to set apart, some to vanquish and some new professions to occur. According to a belief, today’s children will have to prepare themselves for non-heard professions of future. Researches in business life is getting mechanised day by day and they encounter some advencements called “automation”. Automation is the main purpose to be dealt with carefully when training staff for business-life. Professions, industry and works of industry in industry are changing with a great speed as they have never been. Under these circumstances the criticisms towards the professional education programmes can be summed up as: “There occur considerable changes in professions before the professional education college attendants graduate from the department they were trained.”(Alkan, Dogan, Sezgin: 1996,s.399-400) Also, the regional requirements, which are effective on development of professional and technical education, should be paid attention. 196 �The professional and technical education in Turkey is financied by the government. It is witnessed that the government is preparing some editions to create financial support for professional and technical education in addition to general and supplementary budget. (Milli Egitim Bakanligi,2001).We see that the budget for the professional and technical education is insufficiently small even though this education is very expensive. It should be remembered that the financial cuts made in professional and technical education will occur as deficiencies in the quality of the products produced by the staff of these schools. This is because; in the professional and technical education tools and equipments are of ultimate importance. Most of the professionals and technical colleges use outdated tools and equipments because of insufficient budget. But, the rapid advencements in technology demands an updating of the tools in workshops all the time. The decrease of the quality in professional and technical education, especially since 1985, has directed the Ministry of Education to find outer financial sources. According to the technical cooperation made with the governments of Germany, France and Japan, the loaning agreements done between Turkey and the World Bank aimed that the ateliers and the labarotories in the industrial technical education schools would be equipped according to the modern Technologies, the technical teachers would be taken to the education of foreign languages and to the education of profession both in the land and abroad and the edutaion programmes would be improved. In this sense, since 1985, six projects originated from outer financial source have been put into practice and with these projects about 170, 7 million USA dolar have been provided as income of outer source to the industrial technical education. The “Fund to Widen and Improve the Technical and Professional Education, Apprenticeship” that is found with the law numbered 3308 has an important place in financing of Professional and technical education. Another important element in financing of the Professional and technical education are the incomes provided from the revolving funds of the schools and the institutions. In the Professional and technical schools, with the aim of helping students gain enough real work experiments, provide schools to be equipped with technological developments, introduce school and new Technologies to environment and the environment developed by this way, revolving fund is found in the Professional and technological schools with the law numbered 3423. The business institutions in Turkey need the work power that adopt and comprehend the rapid technological developments in order to be able to complete in the bazaars both in national and international. The workers are the key factors to adopt quickly the new Technologies. Their quailifiedness on adopting is depending on their technological acknowledgement. New work power with high performance is an obligation for Turkey and Turkey’s future. In this sense, the need of quilified workpower in the Turkish industry and serving sector is an important problem from the point of the view of Turkish economy that is in the stuggle of gaining international power competence especially in the processes of EU and Customs Union and that tries to go beyond the borders of it. Method This work is designed according to the technic of qualitative research. The most important side of the qualitative researches is to try to understand what person does in the existing environment. In this kind of researches the opinions and the experiments of the individuals that are in the sample have great importance. Qualitative researches are closely related to many disciplines. Conditional research, interpretational research, action researrch and descriptive researches can be accepted as examples in this sense. (Yıldırım, şimşek: 2000, s.14-18) We selected qualitative research technic because of this reason Universe The universe of research is constituted from Erzurum city. Professional and Technical high schools, the tradesman and industrialists from the industry cite of Erzurum depending on Erzurum Chamber of Commerce, and the guardians of students. Sample Erzurum city is constituted from the central district; Teknik Lise ve Anadolu Teknik Lisesi, Ticaret Lisesi, Erzurum Kız Meslek Lisesi, Kazım Karabekir Meslek Lisesi, the thirty tradesmen and industrialists that are in the industry cite 197 �depending on Chamber of Commerce and Industry, fifty two guardians who have students in Professional high schools. Gathering And Evaluating The Data By having interview with; 52 guardians who have students in Professional high schools, 30 tradesman and industrialists that are in the industry cite depending on Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Kazım Karabekir Meslek Lisesi, Ticaret Lisesi, Teknik Lise ve Anadolu Teknik Lisesi,Erzurum Kız Meslek Lisesi from the central district, we try to determine the relations between these schools and the areas of industry and to determine the general situation of our Professional and technical high schools by asking open questions in this research. The general number of the samples from these schools comprises of 140 students, 45 teachers and 10 administrators. Upon determining these sample events we have fixed what the related institutions and people do and should do in the schools. The Findings And Comment The technology education problems in Professional and technical education taken from thirty tradesmen and industrialists from industry cite depending on Chamber of Commerce and Industry: ‰ We do not have characteristics enough to do work with the Professional and technical schools that are in our city. ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ 198 The contribution cannot be provided to the students studying in the Professional and technical schools and institutions about having the experiences in worklife by studyin on work. There are almost no projects produced with the purpose of providing extra income to the personell of Professional and technical education. The sources from general budget for developing the existing situation to support the institutions and foundations are not at the level of those are in developed countries. The women do not get help reinforce their knowledge and capabilities about their professions and there are not any area to improve themselves in worklife or they are not preffered because of the possibility that these could be some problems. The physical opportunities of professionalş and technical schools are not sufficient and the people who have got wanted characteristics cannot be trained in these schools. The guardians of students are not made conscious of being afraid of their responsibilities. There are not flexible programmes designed according to the information that are concluded from close colloborations between Ministries of Industry and Technology and Ministry of Education. Informing both the industrialists, tradesmen and the teacher and the students periodically about the industrial development in foreign countries and to enable them to reach the magazines and other similar works published with this aim. Planning seminars, short, middle and long time courses that develop both (industrialists, tradesmen etc.) and the students and putting them into the Professional education programmes. Providing a mental education that cause students gain some capabilities like the desire of working together, deciding quickly, comprehending industrial processes and the characteristics of automation and putting them into the education programmes. Providing opportunitiy to gain industrial experience to teachers with the way of relation between school and industry. The regional and national characteristics always should be taken into consideration in yhe studies and plans. It is certain that there will be serious changes in the structures of professions because of the increase of relations with European Union in the following years. The analysis and classifications of profession structures should be made permanently and all the related people should be informed about the conclusions upon these studies. These datum above show us that; our schools are stil not interesting for our children, they do not have the structure enough harmonious to work with industrial areas, the related people who are the main elements of the education out of our children do not work enough to provide this harmony and especially the guardians leave these officials alone by not interesting in schools. �The problems of technology education in Professional and technical education taken from Teknik Lise and Anadolu Teknik Lise, Ticaret Lisesi, Erzurum Kız Meslek Lisesi, Kazım Karabekir Meslek Lisesi ( 10 administrators, 45 teachers and 140 students) ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ We do not have the capabilities to work with industrialists end tradesmen. There is almost no shared Project made with industrialists and tradesmen. The equipments used in these schools are not similar to the ones used in industry. There is almost no Project made with the purpose of prividing extra income to Professional and technical education. The sources from general budget for developing the existing situation to support the institutions and foundations are not at the level of those are in developed countries. There are not enough opprtunities to provide industrial experience to our teachers working in our schools.there are not enough scientific publications and magazines published with the purpose of informing teachers and students about the developments that are out of country. There are not enough needed education equipments. Physical structure do not support the existing developments. There are not enough institutions and foundations that support the activities in our schools and try to make them do work and in addition to this there are not enough volunteer foundations . The foundations of industry and trade do not want to accept trainee with the worry of causing extra outcome. The problems of technology education in Professional and technical education taken from 52 guardians who have got students in Professional and technical high schools in the central district of Erzurum: ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ There are not enough institutions and foundations that support the activities in our schools and try to make them do work and in addition to this there are not enough volunteer foundations. There are not enough education equipments needed. The sources from general budget for developing the existing situation to support the institutions and foundations are not at the level of those are in developed countries. That student’s; redirections to the programs convenient for the needs of the working life, with their interest and skills, are not being made in desired format. That irofessional and Thecnical High Schools do not have enough skill to make plans for the feature with data. That the women do not take the essential precautions eith the aim of making easy to find a jop, strenghten their economic situation. Making the sutudents acquire a wide technical knowledge and skill in a certain group of profession, in a way to fit in various Works. That the convenient programs cannot be prepared sufficiently in order to make the physically and mentally disabled ones to have a profession. That the students do not have the industrial practice done in a certain group of profession, containing various works. Contrary to the technological changes or the conditions of the profession education in establishments,it is the continuance of the consitance problems of the education establishments. Acording to the statistics,the problems of technological education in professional and technological education,taken from the 44 curators from Teknik Lise and Anadolu Teknik Lisesi,Ticaret Lisesi,Erzurum Kız Meslek Lisesi,Kazım Karabekir Meslek Lisesi in the center town of Erzurum province,are determined in that way.As it is understood here,it is necessary that we should create the environment in which we can give the technical and Professional education which is very important in terms of catching the era and make the schools and related establishments attractive that will affect our children and our schools positively. Results Problems of Technological Education in Technological and Professional Education and Exuces of These Aplications: 199 �The studies made in this part are dealt with as the professional and thecnical high schools and the relations in the manifacture and industrial area,the education environment of Professional and technical high schools,physical opportunities,the sufficiencies of the teaching staff in professional and technical high schools in gaining teaching and skill aimed at the pratices in employment locations,the sufficiencies of the professional and technical high schools in the financial resources aimed at refreshing themselves,the abilities of Professional and technical high schools in making prodential plans with the curators and practices outside schools. 1.The Professional and Technical High Schools and The Relations in The Manifacture and İndustrial Area: Manifacture and İndustrial areas need experienced qualified personnels.What is going to provide this,is the schools giving Professional and technical education.The schools also need these fields.Because,this place will provide the working areas of the personnels to be cultivated in these areas.Besides,students will gain various proficiencies as comprehending the features of automation,understanding the industrial progressions,deciding properly and quickly,and the wish to work together in these areas,by undergoing training.Schools,too will make an affort in order to cause the students gain vide technical knowledge and skills in the way that it can suit various works in a certain profession group,by considering the activities of these fields.The school must provide,by the way of industrial relations,the possibility of gainingindustrial experience for the teachers,as well.The relation of these two establishments,in terms of refreshing and cultivating one another,will provide the teacher and the students to be aware of the industrial developments outside the country. 2. The Educational Environment of The Professional and Technical High Schools: The role of the physical environment of the school,teachers and the eqıipment that the school have,is great in the education and cultivation of the students.İn the school and the classroom,it is needed to create every kind of media providing the cultivation of the children.Furthermore,the teachers should provide their redirections according to the children’s will and skills.Economical support is needed to create these medias.While the physical construction of the school is formed,the environmental factors should be considered,and multi-purpose classrooms should be created.These medias to be created,while having the feture to be able to satisfy the current needs,also should be open to the innovations.Therefore the medias to be arranged,acording to the information taht will be obtained at the end of the firm cooperation of the employers and the Ministry of Education,Ministries of Labour,İndustry and Technology,should be created and the activities should be sustained acording to the joint programs to be arranged.Nevertheless,the environments in which the activities will be hold should be arranged in the way that it will not give harm to the children’s health and these environments should be made attractive to the children and should be endeared. 3.The Sufficiencies of The Teaching Staff in Professional and Technical High Schools in GainingTeaching and Skills Aimed at the Practices in Employment Locations: İn Education,it is inevitable that the new teaching and the technics providing the productivity and the efficiency will be developed.(Yalın,2003,Si 82-90.)The technology at the present day and the one to come is needed to be gone through carefully so that the education,that must be given in this,can be given by the best method.(Usun:2000,S.43.)İn the field of education,as a result of the quick increase of the student’s number,the lack of teachers accured in the proportioning of the teacher/students,the quick increase of the quantity of the knowledge that must be taught to the individuals,some problems have emerged.Besides,that the teacher cannot refresh himself and follow the innovations sufficiently,on the other hand the steady increase of the will for education,the will of the individuals to make much more increase of the facilities of education,has become a problem.(Usuni:2004,S.35.)İt has been observed that many teachers and training managersare not sufficient in using the technologicalequipment.(Turan,2002,S.279-280)İn order to dipsel these problems,the facility should be provided to the teachers and the managers taking place in the Professional and technological education so that they can refresh themselves and whatever needed for this should be done. 4.The sufficiencies of The Professional and Technical High Schools in The Financial Resources Aimed at Refreshing Themselves: As the resources parted for the Professional and technical high schools’ education is not sufficient,it is needed that the resources parted from the budget should be increased in such a proportion that it can reach the level of the developed countries,the domestic resources(trade associations,civil governments,special provincial administrations cooperatives,public contributions)should be triggered.Besides,it is needed that the facilities of free boarding and the government given scholarship whose number is scarse,should be increased,the establishments and Professional 200 �unions should give scholarship for the professional and technical education,the number of the voluntary establishments supporting the Professional and technical education should be activated.(yayim.meb.gov.tr/yayimlara7155-156/scetin.htm) 5.The Abilities of Professional and Technical High Schools in Making Prudential Plans With the Curators: The curators have the responsibilities for the works in schools.These responsibilities involves being able to make use of the sophisticated curators.İn this context,the curators available in industry and doing a profession as a tradesman,doing instructiveness in the works of students,taking part in the works of students by doing instructiveness,by joining the organisations in the school and outside the school,they would be supporting the children’s education both physically and intangibly as a participant. Suggestions ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ The students should be directed to the programs convenient for the business life in accordance with their interest and skills. He should make long, middle and short predictions about professional and technical developments and reflect these in professional education programs.Opinions of industrialists, tradesmen, employers and trainers should be taken, in accordance with the wills of the sides, these programs should be created. To trigger the domestic resources (trade associations, civil governments, special provincial administration unions, various industry establishments, and public and curators contributions) should be provided, and the resources parted from the budget should be increased in such a proportion that it can reach the level of the developed countries. Precautions, aimed at to dipsel the consistence problems emerged between the education institutions and the establishments, should be taken. The studies made other countries should be followed closely, and the innovations made about the technology and labour force qualifications should be taken instantly. The education programs should be restructured in the light of aim, scope and the other qualifications, considering the Professional standards. The school should not be left alone about the education of our children; curators, industrialists, tradesmen and the civil governmens should support them and take place somehow in the activities to be arranged. Symposiums and activities, aimed at to give wide information about the environment in which the school is present, for the teachers and the school managers, should be arranged. References ALKAN, Cevat., Doğan, Hıfzı., Sezgin, İlhan., Mesleki Ve Teknik Eğitimin Esasları, Gazi Büro Kitapevi, Özkan Yayınevi, Ankara,1996. BAŞARAN. Ethem. İbrahim, Türkiye Eğitim Sistemi, Yargıcı Yayınevi, Ocak 1996. Özden Yüksel, Eğitimde Yeni Değerler Eğitimde Dönüşüm, PegemA Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2002. TURAN Selahattin, ‘Teknolojinin Okul Yönetiminde Etkin Kullanımında Eğitim Yöneticisinin Rolü’, Eğitim Yönetimi, sayı:30 Ankara, 2002. USUN Salih, Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Bilgisayar Destekli Öğretim, Pegem Yayın, Ankara, 2000. USUN Salih, Bilgisayar Destekli Öğretimin Temelleri, Nobel Yayın, Ankara, 2004. YALIN Halil İbrahim, Öğretim Teknolojileri Ve Materyal Geliştirme, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara, 2003. YILDIRIM Ali, ŞİMŞEK Hasan, Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Seçkin Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2000. M.E. B. Eğitim ve Teknolojileri ile İlgili Yönetmenlik Maddesi, 2001. hamlin.cc.boun.edu.tr/oud/panel.html. Erişim Tarihi:30-03-2008. yayim.meb.gov.tr/yayimlar/155-156/scetin.htm. Erişim Tarihi:30-03-2008. 201 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 397 Title A name given to the resource The Problems of Education of Technology and the Relations with the Field of Industry in Professional and Technical Education Author Author KÜÇÜKALİ, Rıdvan Abstract A summary of the resource. İt has become one of the fundamental obligations of today’s communities to obtain the quality of having knowledge and technology. For that reason, today’s communities and people should endeavour to constantly improve themselves and acquire the habit of learning all through the life. At the present time, these developments occurring in a dizzying speed are forcing the communities and people to obtain more information and keep up with the technological advancements. This situation has brought about the problem of the acquisition of information, the transmission of knowledge and the problem of having mature/ grown people. Nowadays, the education and teaching that are carried out with the traditional methods and equipments in the educational institutions giving their places to the multiple learning environments formed by making use of the information technologies. Because of this will be possible when the administrators re-establish the teaching environment employing the technology in the educational institutions presents the students a flexible, collaborative and prosperous environment, it will also provide the administrators of education and teachers with so significant conveniences and facilities. However, the questions ‘’how can such an environment be more efficient in learning of a student, how can a teacher organize the teaching setting in a favourable way that wiil make the students possible to learn on their own, how often and how efficient can he use the technology’’ should definitely be answered in advance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7d323ca845aac907781937922ef720b2.pdf 63efa77a8a8da5a2176c3781ca7d38fc PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Effects of the Air Pollution Observed in Winter with Regard to Water and Soil Resources in Erzurum Site Yasemin Kuşlu Atatürk Uni. Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural Structures and Irrigation Dept. Erzurum, Turkey ykuslu@atauni.edu.tr Üstün Şahin Atatürk Uni. Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural Structures and Irrigation Dept. Erzurum, Turkey ussahin@atauni.edu.tr Fatih Mehmet Kızıloğlu Atatürk Uni. Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural Structures and Irrigation Dept. Erzurum, Turkey kizilogluf@yahoo.com M ustafa Okuroğlu Atatürk Uni. Faculty of Agriculture, Agricultural Structures and Irrigation Dept. Erzurum, Turkey okuroglu@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: On Erzurum site, usage of fossil fuels for artificial heating causes atmospheric pollution and especially by means of precipitation it plays an important role on pollution of soil and water sources. This study has planned to indicate the dimension of precipitation transmissions. In this study, the concentration values of SO2 and PM before and after precipitation through 2003-2008 winter seasons were analysed. It appoints a negative relationship between SO2 and PM concentrations with winter precipitation; and their correlation coefficients are -0.138 and -0.150 respectively. In order to examine the effects of precipitation on reducing of SO2 and PM concentrations, t-paired tests were performed. It adjusts that, precipitation affect reducement of SO2 and PM concentrations with p<0.01 significance level. As a consequence, it indicates that the polluted air can affect the east side of Erzurum plain and Sakalıkesik plain negatively in Erzurum where winters are long and tough. Keywords: air pollution, water, soil, Erzurum Introduction Air pollution means exceeding the normallimit offoreign substancesinthe air by means of density and abundance which can cause material damages and also affect health of livings negatively. (Güler and Vaizoğlu 2006). World Health Organisation (WH O) defines air pollution as existing of sand, dust,ash, fume, fog, smoke, steam, gas, scent, which can damage humans, plants and animals and also affect lifestyles excessively, around surrounding atmosphere in quantity, characteristics and in time (WH O 2000). As being most common possible contaminating elements, NOx and SO2 complete their enchaining reactions by constitution of nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2 SO4), as a result of gas cycle after oscillation to atmosphere and finally,they fall down to soilsurface as acid rains (Al-Khashman 2009). The detrimental effect of PM changes due to physical and chemical contents. Also merging with humidity in the atmosphere, P M converts into acid and it composes acid damage. By including heavy metals such as Ni and Cd, PM makes toxic effect on livings by meddling into soil and water (Başar et al. 2005; Cole et al. 2005; Turalıoğlu 2005; Dietz et al. 2007; Beyhun et al. 2008; Der Duh et al. 2008;). The contaminating elements in the air can move quickly and horizontally via airflows along cities, countries and even continents (Kurita et al. 1985; Jaffe et al.1999; Givati and Rosenfeld 2004). After carried in the atmosphere, the contaminators fall on soil, water, buildings etc by a range of process like decantation, dilution and chemical reactions. 231 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Atmospheric deposition velocity values can be different according to depositsurfaces or meteorological parameters. Wet deposition occurs by any hydrometeor effect and dry deposition occurs withoutthis effect, only the effect of gravity is efficient. In wet deposition, a mechanism which on the one hand with contraction by water drops (rainout) and on the other hand sweeping with drops (washout) which are on the ground cause alienation of PM and other gasesfrom atmosphere. Thus, plant, water and earth surfaces become polluted.Inthis way it causes,livings, microorganisms on or in the polluted surfaces and the insects like birds, bees and snails which are fed with pollens,todie in masses from time to time. The polluted water which fallon earth combine with surface water by the help offloodwater or combine with groundwater with the substances in the soil (Güler ve Çobanoğlu 1994). During the way to ground, according to the kind of geologic formation and deepness, itis exposed to filtration process and it feeds wells, lakes, rivers and seas which are located in the region where geological formation is saturated. To sum up, like other contaminators,the final place of air contaminatorsis water so wateris exposed to pollution more than any others easily and quickly. As a result offalling of acid and other substances which constitute acid with rains,remains H+ ion in the soil. Being replaced by theseions,theionslike Ca++, Mg++,Na+, K+ and NH+ leave their place on the soilsurface and move to soilsolution (Güler ve Çobanoğlu 1997). Although there is notintensive industrialisation in Erzurum,the increasing number of vehicles, cement and sugar factories form some part of air pollution source. The main reason for air pollution in Erzurum is the usage of fossil fuels for heating (Turalıoğlu et al. 2005; Beyhun et al. 2008). Despite the usage of natural gas since 2004 partially, using of poor quality coalis still a big problem. As a result ofthe wind which blows south and west directions, carriesthe polluted airtothe eastside of Erzurum and Sakalıkesik plains. This study took place in order to indicate the important effects of the convection of air pollution parametres SO2 and PM and their negative effects on soil and water sources during the years between 2003 and 2008 in Erzurum. Material and Method Erzurum, located in the Eastern Anatoliais situated on a plateau surrounded by high mountains at north (Gavur-Dumlu mountains, 3200m), south (Dumanlı-Plandöken mountains, 3125m) and east(Eğerlidağ, 2974m). The height ofthis plateau is 1950m above the sea level and the city population is about 450000 (Fig. 1). The risky places which are located in the is a north and east of city centre in terms of exposure to air pollution, Erzurum and Sakalıkesik plains have altitude 1850m and 1750m respectively,it means thatlower than city centre. Erzurum is located in the terrestrial climatic zone as a result mean daily temperature is 5.9o C, coldest month is January with -8.7oC and the hottest month is August with 19.5o C. Average annual precipitation is 447m m; at mostin May with 73.1mm, atleastin August with 18.7mm. 43.78% of average annual precipitation takes place in October-March period. The highest relative humidity values take place in December and January with 76% and lowest values accrue in August with 47% and average annual relative humidity is 64%. In the research area wind speed is 2.6 m/s. Some meteorological parameters of study area are given in Table 1. In this study SO2 and PM values, which are the factors of air pollution take place between 2003-2004 and 2007-2008 winter seasons, have been analysed with wet days and precipitation amounts together. The data were obtained from General Directorate of Meteorology. SO2 and PM values were evaluated in 12 different regions (Fig. 1) twice a day, in the morning (08.00-09.00) and in the evening (16.00-17.00) and in this way average daily values were obtained. SO2 and PM values were observed in October-January winter season between 2003-2004 and for the other years, values were observed in October-March winter season because of legislative changes. Jan. Feb. M arch April Ave. Temp. (o C) Min. Temp. (o C) Relative Hu m. (%) Precipitation (m m) 232 -8.7 -7.2 -2.6 -36.0 -37.0 -32.2 76 24.7 M ay June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 5.2 10.7 14.4 19.3 19.5 14.9 8.3 -5.1 -18.5 -7.0 -3.2 -1.8 -1.1 -6.8 56 50 47 50 61 72 76 18.7 25.0 47.5 36.8 22.6 75 74 65 61 28.9 35.2 53.3 73.1 52.0 29.2 1.4 -12.0 -28.0 -35.0 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Average wet day Days with snow cover Ave. wind speed (m/s) Prevailing wind direction 11.5 11.1 12.3 13.3 15.8 11.1 6.6 4.8 5.0 9.2 9.5 10.6 29.4 26.5 21.5 4.0 0.2 - - - 0 0.9 6.4 23.2 2.4 2.5 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.6 3.3 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.0 ENE ENE SS W WS W ENE ENE ENE ENE WS W WS W ENE E Table 1. Some meteorological parameters of study area Figure 1. Map ofthe study area In order to determine the relationship between SO2 and PM concentrations with precipitation amounts, regression tests and Pearson correlation tests were performed by using the program SPSS 15.0. Also in order to indicatethe effects of precipitation on daily SO2 and PM concentrations,t-paired methods were applied. Results and Discussion In Erzurum between the years 2003-2008 winter seasons, monthly average of SO2 and P M concentrations are shown in Figure 2. 233 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo (a) (b) Figure 2. The change of SO2 (a) and PM (b) concentrations in winter periods of 2003-2008. As shown in the figure,the peak time for SO2 and PM concentration values is 2004-2005 winter season and the values are minimum in 2007-2008 winter season. Generally,the highestlevels take place in December and secondly in January. This study shows parallelism with the studiestook place in 1995-2002 by Turalıoğlu et al.(2005) and in 2003-2006 by Beyhun et al.(2008). Because of artificial heating needs continue till mid-May, the SO2 and PM concentration values are lower in October than March. As shown in the Figure, air pollution shows roll- off rate from the year 2003 to 2008. The main reason of this decline isthe increase of using natural gas for heating. Beyhun et al.(2008) claims thatthelowestpollution took place in 2006 between the years 20032006 because natural gas usage began that year. Average annual precipitation is 2.38mm, maximum precipitation levelis 38.3mm and minimum levelis 0.1 mm during the observed years. Pearson correlation analysis shows a negative relationship between precipitation amounts and SO2 and PM concentrations. It designates coefficients between precipitation amounts and SO2 concentration as ρ=-0.138 and between precipitation amounts and PM concentration as ρ=-0.150 under p<0.01 significance level. Turalıoğlu et al.(2005) defines thisrelationship as ρ=-0.137 for SO2 and ρ=0.075 for P M. Regression analysis shows equations dependently to precipitation (P) as; SO2 =109.996-1.863P and P M=59.901-1.602P. In orderto examine the effects of precipitation on SO2 and P M concentrations,the concentration values of before and after precipitation were analysed by paired-ttest. Results of evaluation are shown at Table 2. There has not been any study on the chemical content of winter precipitation in Erzurum. On the other hand,itis determined by Turalıoğlu et al.(2008) during a study around Erzurum, that measured PM includes Si, Ca, Al, Fe, S, K elements with high levels. The other studies throughout the world indicates that for places having combustion sourced air pollution, by wet deposition Mg and Na anions and cations fallto the rural and urban areas (Lee et al. 2000, Flues et al. 2002; Der Duh etal. 2008). Forthe period between March 13 and June 234 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 29 2002, maximum 299.1 µeq/l and 67.4 µeq/l SO4 and NO 3 anions respectively were measured in precipitation (Bayraktar et al. 2004). ni SO2 344 +18.1824 PM 349 +10.3953 3333.818 2376.443 3.113 2.609 5.841 3.984 2.568 2.568 p<0.01, null hypothesis (H0); µb-µa =0 and alternative hypothesis (H1 ); µb-µa >0 * *Since the expectation of precipitation willreduce the SO2 and PM concentrations, one-tailed alternative hypothesis was set up. ; Therefore,it was rejected the null hypothesis of no difference. Table 2. The results of paired t-test The east of Erzurum plain and Sakalıkesik plain are located near settlement premises, so because of winds, air pollutants were carried and with winter rains considerable amount of air pollutants blend in with soil and water sources. As a result of this fact, earth can be directly affected chemically and physically or underground and surface water sources can be polluted by runoff or drain away from soil. Conclusion Around Erzurum area, a fuel for artificial heating is used till mid-May. The air pollutants are carried eastern Erzurum plain during April, October and September and to Sakalıkesik plain during December, January, February and March. The entrained pollutants which fall on soil by deposition are an important subject statistically. The researches for air pollution effects directly and indirectly on agriculture should concentrate on production costs, market values and social effects apartfrom the environmentalimpact analysis. In Erzurum, the firstreason of air pollution isthe usage of fossilfuels for heating. That’s why in order to decrease the air pollution level, “Turkish Air Quality Protection Regulation” should be implemented effectively and for artificial heating natural gas or other sources which are not harmfulto environment should be used widespread. References Al-Khashman, O. A. (2009). Chemical characteristics of rainwater collected at a western site of Jordan. Atmospheric Research 91,53–61. Başar P., Okyay, P., Ergin, F., Coşan, S. & Yıldız, A. (2005). Aydın ili kent merkezinde hava kirliliği/19972004. ADÜ Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(3),11-15. Bayraktar H., Turalıoğlu F. S. & Nuhoğlu, A. (2004). Atmospheric Deposition of Sulphate and Nitrate on Soil. International Soil Congress 2004, Erzurum, Turkey. 14-20. Beyhun, N.E., Vançelik, S., Acemoğlu, H., Koşan, Z. & Güraksın, A.(2008). Erzurum ilikent merkezinde 20032006 yılları arasında hava kirliliği.TAF Preventive Medicine Bulletin, 7(3),237-242. 235 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Cole, M. A., Elliott, R.J.R. & Shimamoto, K.(2005).Industrialcharacteristics,environmentalregulations and air pollution: an analysis of the U K manufacturing sector. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 50,121–143. Der Duh, J., Shandas, V., Chang, H. & George, L. A. (2008). Rates of urbanisation and the resiliency of air and water quality. Science ofthe Total Environment, 400,238-256. Dietz, T., Rosa, E. A. & York, R. (2007). Driving the human ecological footprint. Front Ecol Environ, 5(1),1318. Flues, M., Hama, P., Lemes,M.J.L., Dantas, E.S.K. & Fornaro, A. (2002). Evaluation of the rainwater acidity of a ruralregion due to a coal-fired power plantin Brazil. Atmospheric Environment 36,2397–2404. Givati, A. & Rosenfeld, D.(2004). Quantifying precipitation suppression due to air pollution. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 43,1038-1056. Güler, Ç. & Çobanoğlu, Z. (1994). Su kirliliği. Çevre Sağlığı Temel Kaynak Dizisi:12, Temel Sağlık Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Güler, Ç. & Çobanoğlu, Z. (1997). Toprak kirliliği. Çevre Sağlığı Temel Kaynak Dizisi:40, Temel Sağlık Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü,Ankara. Güler, Ç. & Vaizoğlu, S.A.(2006). Hava kirliliği. Halk Sağlığı Temel Bilgiler. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayınları, Ankara. Jaffe, D., Anderson, T., Covert, D., Kotchenruther, R., Trost, B., Danielson, J., Simpson,W. et al. 1999. Transport of Asian air pollution to North America. Geophysical Research Letters, 26(6),711-714. Kurita, H., Sasaki, K. & Muroga, H.(1985). Long-range transport of air pollution under light gradient wind conditions. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, 24,425-434. Lee, B.K., Hong, S.H. & Lee,D.S. (2000). Chemical composition of precipitation and wet deposition of major ions on the Korean peninsula.Atmospheric Environment 34,563-575 Turalıoğlu, F. S.(2005). An assessment on variation of sulphur dioxide and particulate matterin Erzurum (Turkey). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 104,119-130. Turalıoğlu, F.S., Nuhoğlu A. & Bayraktar, H. (2005).Impacts of some meteorological parameters on SO2 and TSP concentrations in Erzurum, Turkey. Chemosphere 59,1633–1642. Turalıoğlu F.S., Tuncel G. & Bayraktar, H. (2008). Kentselatmosferde partikül madde bileşimlerinin belirlenmesi. Tübitak 104Y176 Proje Sonuç Raporu. W H O, (2000). Air quality guidelines for Europe. 2nd Edition, WH O regional publications, European series, No. 91, Copenhagen. 236 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 465 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of the Air Pollution Observed in Winter with Regard to Water and Soil Resources in Erzurum Site Author Author Kuslu, Yasemin Sahin, Üstün Kızıloğlu, Fatih Mehmet Okuroğlu, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. On Erzurum site, usage of fossil fuels for artificial heating causes atmospheric pollution and especially by means of precipitation it plays an important role on pollution of soil and water sources. This study has planned to indicate the dimension of precipitation transmissions. In this study, the concentration values of SO2 and PM before and after precipitation through 2003-2008 winter seasons were analysed. It appoints a negative relationship between SO2 and PM concentrations with winter precipitation; and their correlation coefficients are -0.138 and -0.150 respectively. In order to examine the effects of precipitation on reducing of SO2 and PM concentrations, t-paired tests were performed. It adjusts that, precipitation affect reducement of SO2 and PM concentrations with p<0.01 significance level. As a consequence, it indicates that the polluted air can affect the east side of Erzurum plain and Sakalıkesik plain negatively in Erzurum where winters are long and tough. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ad677eb8a8217ef99dabe6e501565d34.pdf 51e2ee92c10ae3993aea413459ec0fa2 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Dissolution Kinetics of Ulexite in Borax Pentahydrate Solutions Saturated with Carbon Dioxide Soner Kuşlu Atatürk University, Faculty of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Dept. Erzurum, Turkey skuslu@atauni.edu.tr Feyza Çavuş Atatürk University, Faculty of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Dept. Erzurum, Turkey fcavus@yahoo.com Sabri Çolak Atatürk University, Faculty of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Dept. Erzurum, Turkey scolak@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of the study was to investigate the dissolution kinetics of ulexite in borax pentahydrate solutions saturated with carbon dioxide in a mechanical agitation system. The effects of reaction temperature, stirring speed, CO2 flow rate, solid/liquid ratio and particle size on the rate of dissolution of ulexite were examined. It was observed that increase in the reaction temperature and decrease in the solid/liquid ratio causes an increase the dissolution rate of ulexite. The dissolution extent is not affected by the stirring speed rate in experimental conditions. The activation energy was found to be 58.7 kJ/mol. This value indicates the dissolution rate of ulexite is a chemically controlled reaction. The rate expression associated with the dissolution rate of ulexite depending on the parameters chosen may be summarized as: 1-(1-X) 1/3 = 7.4x105. D-0.8. (S/L)-0.6. W0.1. e (-58700 /R T).t Keywords: Ulexite, Borax Pentahydrate, Dissolution Kinetics, Heterogeneous reaction Introduction Boron is one of the most important mineral resources of Turkey (Davies et al., 1991). Turkey possesses 72% of the world’s boron reserves. Boron has both strategic and industrial importance. It is oxophilic, and occurs as borates (oxides) in nature (Kemp, 1956). The main boron minerals of different percentages of (B2 O3) contents are Colemanite (Ca2 B6 O11.5H2 O), Tincal (Na2 B4 O7.10H2 O), Kernite (Na2 B4 O7.4H2 O) Ulexite (Na2 O.2CaO.5B2 O3.16H2 O), Datolite (Ca2 B2 O5.Si2 O5.H2 O) and Hydroboracid (CaMgB6 O1 1.6H2 O) (Çetin et al., 2001). Although boron mineralscan be employed as raw materialsin some industries,the refined boron products and converted leading edge products are widely used in various industries (Garret, 1998; Özmetin et al., 1996). Borax is a natural mineral compound found in playa lakes. The basic structure of borax comprises chains of interlocking BO2 (OH) triangles and BO3 (OH) tetrahedrons bonded to chains of sodium- and water octahedrons. Borax can be mixed with other cleaning agents including chlorine bleach (Küçük et al.,2002). One of the most important minerals and derivatives of boron is ulexite,a hydrated calcium-sodium borate.Itis atype of hydrated calcium borate with a monoclinic crystal structure and contains many clay minerals.Itis used to produce boric acid (Küçük et al., 2002). Boric acid is the most commonly used boron compound, and is used as starting material in the preparation of many boron chemicals such as boron phosphate, boron tri halides, boron esters, boron carbide, organic boron salts and fluoroborates (Özmetin et al., 1996; Küçük et al., 2002; Temur et al., 2000).Itis used as a source of B2 O3 in many fused products(Kemp, 1956). There are many studies in the literature connected with the dissolution kinetics of ulexite in various solutions. A summary of these studies is as follows: Alkan and Kocakerim (1987), studied itin water saturated by sulfur-dioxide and the activation energy was calculated as 58 kJ/mol. Kocakerim et al.(1993),investigated it in water saturated with CO2 in low temperatures (17-35 oC) and the activation energy was found to be 51.7 kJ/mol. Künkül et al.(1997),studied itin ammonia solution saturated with CO2 and described the dissolution rate 142 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo by a first-order pseudo-homogeneous reaction model and found the activation energy to be 55 kJ/mol. Tekin et al.(1998), carried out experiments with itin ammonium chloride solution and found the activation energy to be 80 kJ/mol. Tunç et al. (1999), investigated it in H2 SO4 solution. They found that increasing H3 O+ acid concentration increased the dissolution rate, but increasing SO4 2- concentration reduced the dissolution rate due to the precipitation of a solid film of CaSO4 and /or CaSO4.2H2 O. Alkan et al. (2000), reported it in aqueous EDTA solutions and its dissolution was expressed according to the un-reacted shrinking core model with changing fluid phase concentration and calculated the activation energy to be 35.95 kJ/mol. Künkül et al.(2003), studied itin ammonium sulfate solutions. They described dissolution process by heterogeneous diffusion control through the ash layer or product layer model and found the activation energy was 83,5 kJ/mol. Alkan et al. (2004),investigated itin oxalic acid solutions. The reaction rate was controlled by product-layer diffusion and calculated the activation energy as 59,8 kJ/mol. Demirkıran and Künkül (2007), studied it in perchloric acid solutions and found that the process was described by the Avrami model and found the activation energy was 19.2 kJ/mol. Ekmekyapar et al.(2008),studied itin acetic acid solutions. They found thatthe dissolution kinetics obeys a shrinking core model with the surface chemical reaction as the rate-controlling step. The activation energy was found to be 55.8 kJ/mol. Demirkıran (2008) investigated itin the ammonium acetate solutions. The dissolution rate fitthe chemical reaction control model and the activation energy was found to be 55.7 kJ/mol. The aim of our study was to investigate the dissolution kinetics of ulexite in borax pentahydrate solutions saturated with CO2 in a mechanical agitation system. There is no study reported in the literatüre about such a procedure. In our study, we choose reaction temperature, stirring speed, CO2 flow rate, solid/liquid ratio and particle size of ulexite as parameters. Materials and Methods Ulexite samples used in the experiments were obtained from Bandırma Borax Corporation, TURKEY. The ulexite mineral samples were crushed, dried under vacuum and sieved with AST M standard sieves to give fractions of average sizes 1840, 725, 275, 165 and 107.5 µm for dissolution experiments. The chemical analyses of original ulexite samples and the B2 O3 content in the particle sizes used in the experiments are shown in Tables 1 and 2,respectively. Further, SEM photography ofthe original ulexite mineralsisshown in Fig.1. Leaching experiments were conducted under atmospheric pressure conditions. All reagents used in the experiments were prepared from analytical grade chemicals (Merck) and distilled water.A constanttemperature water circulator was used in combination with the reactor to maintain the mixture in the reactor at a constant temperature. The experiments were carried out in a 500 mL spherical glass reactor. The reactor was equipped with a reflux condenserto prevent evaporation during heating and a mechanical stirrerto obtain a homogeneous suspension inthe reactor. The mechanical agitation experimentalsystem isfairly common,so no illustration ofit appearsinthis paper. A typicalexperiment conducted was as follows: 400 mL of distilled water was poured into the flask. The solution was heated to the desired temperature, at which it was kept constant;to retain the ratio at [borax pentahydrate mol number / uleksitt mol number] as ¼ in all experiments, a large quantity of borax pentahydrate was added to the distilled water. Fig.1- SE M photograph of ulexite minerals 143 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Component CaO % 14.69 B2 O3 Na2 O Mg O Al2 O3 SiO2 Fe2 O3 41.12 7.48 1.78 p 0.01 4.13 p 0.01 Table 1. Chemical analyses of ulexite minerals 1840 725 275 165 Part.size (µ m) B2 O3 (%) 41.79 41.21 41.71 40.25 Table 2. Particle sizes of B2 O3 utilized SrO H2 O 1.43 29.35 107.5 40.85 All experiments were carried out using 725 µ m size fractions, except in experiments where the effect of particle size on the reaction rate was investigated. The CO 2 gas (97 %) was supplied to the reactor from a CO2 cylinder tank. CO2 gas was continuously fed to the reactor during leaching studies to maintain saturation conditions. The flow rates of CO2 were maintained at 514 mL/min.in allexperiments. The gas was bubbled from the bottom of the reactor by means of a disk-type gas dispenser. CO2 feed to the reactor for 20-25 min. was to obtain a saturated borax pentahydrate solution. After this,large qualities of solid ulexite and borax pentahdrate [depending on both the solid/liquid ratioin the reactor and the ratio between mol number of borax penta-hydrate and mol number of ulexite] were added to the solutions. Stirring of the solution was started immediately thereafter. The duration of the treatment depended on the experimental conditions. At definite time intervals, 1 mL samples of the reacted solution were taken for the assay of B2 O3 and analyzed by potentiometric and titrimetric methods (Nemodruk et al., 1965; Sookg et al., 1996). Based on the B2 O3 estimated, the degree of dissolution of ulexite was determined as a function oftime. Result and Discussion The following reactions occured during the dissolution process: Na2 B4 O7.5H2 O (s) + 2H2 O (l) 10CO2 (gas) 10CO2 (aq) + 10H2 O (l) 10H2 CO3 (aq) + 10H2 O (l) 2H3 O+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) ---------====== ====== ====== ---------- 2Na+(aq) + 2OH- (aq) + 4H3 BO3 (aq) 10CO2 (aq) 10H2 CO3 10H3 O+(aq) + 10HCO3 - (aq) 4H2 O (l) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 2Na+(aq) + 10HCO3 -(aq) + 4H3 BO3 (aq) + 8H3 O+ (aq) (6) Hence,the overallreaction isfollows: Na2 B4 O7.5H2 O (s) + 18H2 O (l) + 10CO2 (g) --------- W hen ulexite is added to the borax pentahydrate solutions, the reaction taking place in the solution can be written as follows: ------------------------- 4Na+ (aq) + 4Ca+2 (aq) + 12OH- (aq) + 20H3 BO3 (aq) 16H2 O(l) 4CO3 -2(aq) + 4H2 O (l) 4CaCO3 (s) (7) (8) (9) (10) Na2 B4 O7.5H2 O(s) + 10CO2 (g) + --------2(Na2 O.2CaO.5B2 O3.16 H2 O)(s) + 2H2 O(l) 6Na+(aq) + 6HCO3 -(aq) + 24 H3 BO3 (aq) + 4CaCO3 (s) (11) 2(Na2 O.2CaO.5B2 O3.16H2 O)(s) + 4H2 O(l) 8H3 O+ (aq) + 8OH- (aq) 4HCO3 - (aq) + 4OH- (aq) 4Ca+2 (aq) + 4CO3 -2 (aq) --------- The overall netreaction is: Reaction temperature, stirring speed, CO2 flow rate, solid/liquid ratio and particle size of ulexite is selected as process variables to investigate their effects on the dissolution level of ulexite. In the experiments, while the effect of one parameter was studied, the values of other parameters shown with asterisks in Table 3 were kept constant. The solubility of CO2 in water under reaction conditions is shown in Table 4. 144 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo parameter values stirring speed (rpm) 0, 100, 150, 300, 600*, 700, 900 flow rate of CO2 (mL/min) 514*, 1594, 2696, 3804, 4978, 6101 reaction temperature (K) 313, 323*, 333, 343, 353, 358 solid/liquid ratio (g/mL) 1/50*, 1/25, 1/12, 1/6, 1/3 1840, 725*, 275, 165, 107.5 particle size (µ m) Table 3: Parameters chosen and theirranges (* Whilethe effect of one parameter was studied, the values ofthe other parameters were kept constant.) Reaction Temperature (K) 313 323 333 343 353 358 Solubility of CO2 (g CO2/100 cm3 water) 0.0930 0.0761 0.0576 0.0553 0.0538 0.0529 Table 4: Solubility of CO2 in water under reaction conditions A quantity of 400 mL of borax pentahydrate solution saturated with CO2 was used [borax pentahydrate mole number / ulexite mol number ratio was 1/4] and was kept constant in all experiments. Homogeneity of suspension in the reactor was obtained with a stirring speed of 600 rpm, kept constant in all experiments. The data obtained were plotted in the form of time versus fractional conversion as appearing in Fig. 2-10. In these figures,the fractional conversion X(%) is defined: X (%) = (amount of dissolved B 2 O 3 in the solution ) x100 (amount of B 2 O 3 in the original sample) The effect of reaction temperature was examined at 313, 323, 333, 343, 353 and 358 K. The dissolution curves obtained are shown in Fig. 2. Fig.2 also shows that the quantity of ulexite dissolved increases with increasing reaction temperature. The reaction rate constant is exponentially dependent on reaction temperature. The effect ofthe stirring speed on the dissolution rate of ulexite was investigated at 100, 150, 300, 600, 700 and 900 rpm. The dissolution curves are given in Fig. 3.Itcan be seen from the Fig. 3thatthe dissolution level ofthe process increases with increase in the stirring speed rate until about 300 rpm. Although the stirring rate was increased from 400 rpm to higher speeds such as 600, 700 and 900 rpm, the dissolution level remained nearly steady. Homogeneity of the suspension was obtained at a stirring speed of 600 rpm. The stirring speed rate of 600 rpm was as constant value in all experiments. Although the stirring speed was increased from 300 to 600, 700 and 900 rpm, the increase of in dissolution rate was very small. It can, therefore, be assumed to have remained constant. Therefore, as all experiments were carried out at stirring speed of 600 rpm, it can be assumed that the dissolution level remained unaffected by the stirring speed in experimental conditions. In order to investigate the effect of flow rate of CO2, experiments were carried out with varying CO2 flow rates of 514, 1594, 2696, 3804, 4978 and 6101 mL/minute. It was observed that the flow rate of the gas has no significant effect on dissolution rate. Thisis probably because concentration of CO2 is not dependent on its flow rate, and because its solubility in water at a given temperature is constant and excess gas leaves the solution. 100 100 80 80 X (%) 60 X (%) 60 40 40 20 1/50 g/mL 1/25 g/mL 1/12 g/mL 1/6 g/mL 1/3 g/mL 20 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Stirring Speed (rpm) 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 t (min.) Fig. 3: Effect of stirring speed on dissolution rate of Fig. 4: Effect of solid/liquid ratio on dissolution rate of ulexite ulexite The effect of solid/liquid ratio on the dissolution rate of ulexite was investigated by varying ratio to 1/50, 145 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1/25, 1/12, 1/6 and 1/3 g/mL. The dissolution curves are given Fig. 4. It can be seen from the Fig.4 that, the dissolution rate decreases withincreasing solid/liquid ratio.This situation can be explained by the decrease in the number of ulexite particles per amount of solutions. The effect of particle size was studied by treating five sizes of fractions of this mineral, namely 1840, 725, 275, 165 and 107.5 µ m. The dissolution curves are presented in Fig. 5. As can be seen from Fig. 5, as the particle size decreases the dissolution rates increased because of increasing surface area. 100 0,7 0,6 80 0,5 60 X (%) 1-(1-X)1/ 3 0,4 40 1840 µ m 725 µ m 0,3 313 K r2= 323 K r2= 2 333 K r = 343 K r2= 353 K r2= 2 358 K r = 0,2 275 µ m 20 165 µ m 107.5 µ m 0,1 0,9898 0,9880 0,9224 0,9828 0,9773 0,9666 0,0 0 0 20 40 60 80 0 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 t (min.) t (min.) Fig. 5: Effect of particle size on dissolution rate Fig.6: Variation of 1-(1-X)1/3 with time for various temperatures The solid-fluid reaction rate can be obtained from the heterogeneous reaction model. To evaluate the ratecontrolling step; the experimental data were analyzed based on the the un-reacted shrinking core model (Levenspiel, 1972; Mazet, 1992). As ulexite particles are non-porous, the most appropriate reaction model appears to be that of shrinking non-porous particles. The rate of a reaction between a solid and a fluid can be expressed as heterogeneous and homogeneous reaction models. The heterogeneous reaction model gives rate equations for each control mechanisms. The kinetic data is analyzed based on the un-reacted shrinking core modelto determine the rate-controlling step. The step with the highestresistance isthe rate-controlling step. The model has been used forliquid-solid systems in both analytical and numerical methods.Integrated rate equations for the un-reacted shrinking-core model are shown in Table 5. According to the model,the kinetic data were treated by equations in Table 5. rate-controlling step rate equation surface chemical reaction t / t* = [1 − (1 − the film diffusion control t / t* = X B X B )1 / 3 ] t * = ρ B R / bksC Ag (12) t * = ρ B R / 3bkgC Ag (13) diffusion controlthrough t / t* = [1 − 3(1 − X B ) 2 / 3 + 2(1 − X B )] t * = ρ R 2 / 6bDeC B Ag the ash or productlayer Table 5:Integrated rate equations forthe un-reacted shrinking core model (14) The application of the above models to the experimental data will help in to determining the dissolution kinetics of the process. Experimental data that fits the rate determining step is the surface reaction chemical control. The evidence for this proposal is as follows: regression analysis has shown that experimental data correlate well with Equation 12, which means that the dissolution is chemically controlled surface reaction. During the reaction, calcium carbonate, CaCO3, precipitates. Therefore,it may appear thatthe reaction may be controlled by the ash film or a combination of ash film and chemically controlled surface reaction. The regression coefficients for ash film and chemically controlled surface reaction were found to be 0.9669 and 0.9993, respectively. The higher linearity between the two models obtained was 0.9993 for chemically controlled surface reaction. The variation of 1-(1-X)1/3 with time is plotted for reaction temperature, stirring speed, solid/liquid ratio and particle size in Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9,respectively. Using the surface chemicalreaction control model,the t* values were plotted versus R. The high linearity between t* and R is seen in Fig. 10. Fig. 10, also shows the regression coefficient (r2)to be was found as 0.9993. Arrhenius plots of ln ks versus 1/T are shown in Fig. 11. From the slopes of the straightlines,the activation energy of the reaction is found to be 58.7 kJ/mol. Further,this value indicates the dissolution rate of ulexiteis a chemically controlled surface reaction. It 146 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo has been reported that, the activation energy of the chemically controlled surface reaction is in excess of 40 kJ/mol (Jackson, 1986). Similar results were found in the literature (Yartasi et al., 1987; Alkan and Doğan, 2004). Because all experiments was performed at a stirring speed of 600 rpm, it can be assumed that the dissolution level remained un affected by this parameterin experimental conditions. The factthatthe dissolution rate of ulexite is independent of the stirring speed is shown by the fact that the control mechanism is the chemically controlled surface reactions. The values were found by non-linear regression analyses (Statistica 6.0, non linear estimation model, user-specified regression-leastsquares,security value of %95, comparison value of 1xExp(-6), and maximum iteration values of 500) and the analyses gave the mathematically model as follows: 1-(1-X) 1/3 = 7.4x105. D-0.8.(S/L)-0.6. W 0.1.e (-58700 /RT).t 0,7 0,7 0 rpm r2= 0,9967 100 rpm r2= 0,9614 2 150 rpm r = 0,9444 300 rpm r2= 0,9709 600 rpm r2= 0,9895 2 700 rpm r = 0,9867 2 900 rpm r = 0,9692 0,6 2 1/25 g/mL r = 0,9891 2 2 1/6 g/mL r = 0,9641 1/ 3 0,4 2 1/3 g/mL r = 0,9386 0,4 1-(1-X) 1-(1-X) 1/12 g/mL r = 0,9637 0,5 1/3 0,5 2 1/50 g/mL r = 0,9880 0,6 0,3 0,3 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,0 0 20 40 60 80 0,0 0 10 20 30 40 50 100 120 140 160 180 t (min.) 60 t ( min.) Fig. 7: Variation of 1-(1-X)1/3 with time for stirring speeds Fig. 8: Variation of 1-(1-X)1/3 with time for solid /liquid ratio 260 0,7 240 0,6 220 200 0,5 180 160 1-(1-X) 1/ 3 t* (min.) 0,4 0,3 140 120 100 1840 µ m 725 µ m 0,2 2 r =0,9931 r2= 0,9880 80 r2= 0,9901 60 165 µ m r = 0,9641 2 107.5 µ m r = 0,9976 40 275 µ m 2 0,1 r2 = 0,9993 20 0,0 0 20 40 60 80 100 t (min.) Fig. 9: Variation of 1-(1-X)1/3 with time for particle size of ulexite 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 R (mm) Fig. 10: Linearity between t* and R 147 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -2,5 -3,0 -3,5 ln ks -4,0 -4,5 -5,0 -5,5 -6,0 -6,5 0,00275 0,00285 0,00280 0,00295 0,00290 0,00305 0,00300 0,00315 0,00310 0,00325 0,00320 1/T (1/K) Fig. 11: Arrhenius plot ofthe dissolution process Conclusion The aim of the study was to investigatethe dissolution kinetics of ulexitein borax pentahydrate solutions saturated with carbon dioxide in a mechanical agitation system. The solubility of ulexite can be increased by addition of CO2. It was determined that the dissolution rate of ulexite increased with increase in reaction temperature and decrease in the solid/liquid ratio. The dissolution extentis not affected by the stirring speed rate in experimental conditions. The dissolution process was described by chemical control of the heterogeneous surface reaction. The activation energy was found to be 58.7 kJ/mol. The mathematical form of the model depended on the parameters chosen is as follows: 1-(1-X) 1/3 = 7.4x105.D -0.8.(S/L) -0.6.W 0.1 .e (-58700 /R T) .t Acknowledgement The Atatürk University Research Council financially supported this study (Project No. 2007/149). The authors highly appreciatethe Council’s support ofthis project. No menclature b C CA g D De EA kd ks ko L n r R R S T t t* X W B 148 stoichiometric coefficient(in eq. 7-9) concentration of borax decahydrate solution (mol/m3) concentration of A in the bulk solution (mol/m3) mean particle size (m) diffusion coefficient (m2/min) activation energy (kJ/kmol) mass transfer coefficient (m/min) reaction rate constantfor surface reaction (mol/min) frequency or pre-exponentialfactor, min.-1 amount ofliquid (mL) mol number (mol) correlation coefficient universal gas constant (kJ/kmol) initialradius of a solid particle (m) amount of solid (g) reaction temperature (K) reaction time (min.) reaction time for complete conversion (min.) fractional conversion of B2 O3 stirring speed (rpm) molar density of solid reactant (mol/cm3) �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Alkan, M. ; Kocakerim, M.M. (1987). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in water saturated by sulphur dioxide. J.Chem. Tech. Biotechnol., 40,215-222. Alkan, M., Çifçi C., Ayaz, F., Doğan, F. (2000). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in aqueous EDTA solutions, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 39, 433-439. Alkan, M. and Doğan, M. (2004). Dissolution kinetics of colemanite in oxalic acid solutions. Chemical Engineering and Processing, 43: 867-872. Alkan, M., Doğan, M., Namlı, H. (2004). Dissolution kinetics and mechanism of ulexite in oxalic acid solutions. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 43: 1591-1598. Davies, T.W., Colak, S., Hooper, R.M. (1991). Boric acid production by the calcinations and leaching of powdered colemanite. Powder Technology, 65: 433-440. Demirkıran, N., Künkül, A. (2007). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in perchloric acid solutions. Int.J.Miner. Process, 83: 7680. Demirkıran, N. (2008), A study on dissolution of ulexite in ammonium acetate solutions. Chemical Engineering Journal, 141: 180-186. Ekmekyapar, A., Demirkıran, N., Künkül, A. (2008). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in acetic acid solutions. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 86: 1011-1016. Jackson, E. (1986). Hydrometallurgical extraction and reclamation. Ellis Harwood Ltd. 400 Chichester. Garret, D.E. (1998). Borates, Academic Press Ltd: New York. Kemp, H.P. (1956). The Chemistry of Borates: Part I. Borax Consolidated Ltd: London. Kücük, O., Kocakerim, M.M., Yartası, A., Copur, M. (2002). Dissolution of Kestelek’s colemanite containing clay minerals in water saturated with sulphur dioxide. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 41: 2853-2857. Kocakerim, M.M., Çolak, S., Davies, T., Alkan, M. (1993). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in CO2-saturated water. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 32: 393-396. Künkül, A., Yapıcı, S., Kocakerim, M.M., Copur, M. (1997). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in ammonia solution saturated with CO2. Hydrometallurgy, 44: 135-145. Künkül, A., Demirkıran, N., Baysar, A. (2003). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in ammonium sulfate Eng.Chem. Res., 42: 982-986. solutions, Ind. Levenspiel, O. (1972). Chemical Reaction Engineering. Wiley, 2nd edition: NewYork. Mazet, N. (1992). Modeling of gas-solid reactions. 1. Nonporous solids, Int. Chem. Eng., 32: 271-275. Nemodruk, A.A., Karalova Z.K. (1965). in: R. Kondor (Transl.). Analytical Chemistry of Boron. vol. 1, section 2, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem,33. Ozmetin, C., Kocakerim, M.M., Yapıcı, S., Yartası, A. (1996). A-semi empirical kinetic model for dissolution of colemanite in aqueous CH3COOH solution. Ind. Eng.Chem. Res., 35: 2355-2359. Sookg, D.A., West, D.W., Holler, F.J. (1996). Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, Seventh Edition, Saunders College Publishing. Temur, H., Yartası, A., Copur, M., Kocakerim, M.M. (2000). The kinetics of dissolution of Colemanite in H3BO3 solution. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 39: 4114-4119. Tekin, G., Onganer, Y., Alkan, M. (1998). Dissolution kinetics of ulexite in ammonium chloride solution. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 37: 91-97. Tunç, M., Kocakerim, M.M., Yapıcı, S., Bayrakçeken, S. (1999). Dissolution mechanism of ulexite in H2SO4 solution. Hydrometallurgy, 51: 359-370. Yartası, A., Ozmetin, C., Kocakerim, M.M., Demirhan, M.H. (1987). Kinetics and mechanism of leaching colemanite in boric acid solution. Chim. Acta Turc., 26: 7-11. 149 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 495 Title A name given to the resource Dissolution Kinetics of Ulexite in Borax Pentahydrate Solutions Saturated with Carbon Dioxide Author Author Kuslu, Soner Çavus, Feyza Çolak, Sabri Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the study was to investigate the dissolution kinetics of ulexite in borax pentahydrate solutions saturated with carbon dioxide in a mechanical agitation system. The effects of reaction temperature, stirring speed, CO2 flow rate, solid/liquid ratio and particle size on the rate of dissolution of ulexite were examined. It was observed that increase in the reaction temperature and decrease in the solid/liquid ratio causes an increase the dissolution rate of ulexite. The dissolution extent is not affected by the stirring speed rate in experimental conditions. The activation energy was found to be 58.7 kJ/mol. This value indicates the dissolution rate of ulexite is a chemically controlled reaction. The rate expression associated with the dissolution rate of ulexite depending on the parameters chosen may be summarized as: 1-(1-X) 1/3 = 7.4x105. D-0.8. (S/L)-0.6. W0.1. e (-58700 /R T).t Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27c771e211bf79f89c64699848e7ab60.pdf 3692a898a672f237f67e699a0f277570 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Comparative Analysis Of Ict Performances Of Turkey And Bosnia And Herzegovina By Custom Scorecard Model Selahattin Kaynak Ataturk University, Ispir Hamza Polat VocationalTraining School Erzurum Turkey skaynak @atauni.edu.tr Hüseyin Özer Ataturk University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Economics, Erzurum Turkey hozer@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Information and Com munication Technologies (ICT), being com monly used in allthe sectors of an economy and one of the most important driving forces for social development in the last 20 years,facilitated to product goods and service for producers. Besides that, ICT has been begun to substitute other production factors, by reason of being cheaper of communication tools such as computer or internet and the changes observed in these tools. As it is looked consumers' perspective, falls of the prices and the high performance in these technologies reasoned in being used ofthem in every moment of daily life. The main purpose of this study is to compare the ICT performances of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina, based on the data set of the World Bank. KA M'S Custom Scorecards model developed by the World Bank has been used in the study. As a result of the analyses, it has been found that Turkey has delivered a better performance in generalthan Bosnia Herzegovina has done, except for the variables of Internet Users and Price Basket for Internet. Keywords: ICT, Custom Scorecards, Turkey, Bosnia And Herzegovina 1. Introduction Nowadays, information stored or newly generated in any place in the world are transmitted to corporations located in another locations by means of ICTs. In economic concept that approach defined as externality creates opportunity for organizations which fails to generate information to provide welfare as operators. So it creates supportfor the productivity of organizations (Saygılı, 2003:100). Further to rapid fallin the prices of computer and similar technological communication devices applications and expansions of ICT earned acceleration. As the natural outcome of that circumstance, ICT devices regularly and in significantlevel have been substituted instead of classical production factors such as labor and capital (Dursun and Vardareri, 2007:76). Intense and fast sophisticationsin ICT deeply affected economic and sociallife. That occlusion presently keeps its influence in increasing amount dynamically. ICT emerging as the indispensable component of public life connecting producers,consumers and state on a network setting moved economic operations related to goods and services to electronic environment. That related process operating in a different situation compare to traditional economic activities, enabling markets to possess transparent structure availed cost advantages in the production of plenty of goods and services. Rapid expansionsin ICT resulted in consumer satisfaction. Technological innovations transforming socio-economic life styles and cultural forms are considered as the discoveries of paper, printing house, telegram, steam machine, computer and internet. Discovery of paper and printing house while leading to expansions of information accumulation owned by mankind, discovery of steam machine has been a corner stone for the domination of mankind to element and mankind commenced to apply those mechanical settings instead of living tissues as production and transportation purpose. Telegram, telephone,telex, computer and internet communication devices applied by humans created transformation in 266 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo time and location perceptions and by means of ICT devices data flow accelerating in an extraordinary way led to widespread of innovations in various field (Yücel, 2006:6).ICT facilitating education and business life, enabled fast and productive communication emerged newly arising professional fields, eliminating some of the monotonous occupations. Rapid advancements in the field of ICT developed a new dimension in competition. Competitive force based on cheap labor and natural resources has been substituted by technological manufacturing processes adequately strong to compete in international markets. Corporations are providing increasing gains from ICT in their competition (Nelson, 2006). Those organizations applying advanced technologies are also providing great utilities in competitive power. In line with those developments, globalization in competition motivates organizationstointensifytheirinvestmentsininformation,qualified staff and information technologies. Because most fundamentalfeaturesin competition are concentrated on information. Eventually, ICT devices transform the world into a great village. At the present time, none of the transformations remain in domestic and nationallimits. Development or a method in somewhere on earth easily affects firms established in some other pars. Corporations for avoiding negative impacts from the advancements and to foresee the sophistications earlier and to gain information about those developments obliged to make adaptations (Ekinci, 2006: 56). 2. Summary Of Literature Aboutthe overall performances ofICT studiesinliteratureinterrelations between production, value added and productivity performed by ICT after 1990 have been investigated. Even though there is no consensus,ICT is found creating great effectin economic growth enabling productivity rise (Jorgenson and Stiroh 2000; Scarpetta, et. Al. 2000; Oliner and Sichel,2000). Empirical analysis,for example,long term productivity rise afterthe second part of 1990s indicates that approximately half of the productivity rise experienced two folds was originated from ICT sectors (Oliner and Sichel, 2000: 11). At the corporate level in executed lots of studies, a statistically positive correlation was found between ICT and productivity. Because, investigation at corporate level allows to measure the ICT’s impact over the quality and diversification of manufacturing process. However, excessively combining the data may musk those effect (Dewan and Kraemer, 2000:549). In the content of studies evaluating the subject in terms of micro econometric way, ICT’s positive contribution to the productivity rise will be found much easily.In that respect, for 1987-1991 era at the end of the investigation held by Brynjolfsson and Hitt over 367 gigantic USA firms covering 5 years time length subject to outcomes ICT expenses were found creating significant gains at corporate productions and productivity (Dursun &Vardareri, 2007). In a comparative analysis executed in Greece and Switzerland on the firms competing in a big size sector was founded statistically significant positive effects for physical capital,ICT capital, human capital and ‘‘employee voice”-oriented organizational practices for both samples (Arvanitis and Loukis, 2009: 43). Technology was adopted earlierin USA compare to Europe. In some of the countries adopted technology earlier and established required economic supports and legal organizations ICT created greater gain for productivity growth. ICT’s lesser impact over the productivity in Eurpoean countries compare to USA proves that(Matteucci& O’Mahony & Robinson & Zwick, 2005: 359). On the other hand, in macro studies Yamak and Kolçak (2007) provided different outcomes subject to developed and developing nations. ICT’s impact over economic growth found positive in developed and newly industrialized nations but, in developing nations no support has been created (Lee, Gholami and Tong, 2005: 2009). By means of using plenty ofindustrial data from USA and England in a study executed by dynamic panel data method, ICT has been found creating significant and positive effect(O’Mahony and Vecchi, 2005:615). In Spain in orderto find outthe contribution of ICT over economic development positive impact over productivity levels was found (Martinez, et all, 2008: 1596). ICT is creating direct and indirect effects for labor market. Employment rise in ICT sector and productivity level is usually at higher levels compare to alternative sectors. Demand for labor force possessing skills to use ICT devices is rising up. In an application performed for Spanish firms a positive correlation between the ICT and skill development was found (Bayo-Moriones et all., 2008:122). Searching out ICT’s influence on labor productivity for Turkey forthe era ranging between 1980-2004 estimating ICT’s impact over labor productivity levels Cobb-Douglas applied productivity function. Findings provided that there is no significant statistical correlation between ICT investments per labor productivity and labor (Dursun and Vardareri, 2007:76). According to Pilat and Lee (2001) ICT’s gain over productivity increase isrestricted in their own sectors. In plenty of nations globally even productivity made by ICT devices is restrained in infinitesimal magnitude, by means of policies contributing the expansion of those technologies in economics and their efficient use very rapid factor productivity rise is provided all around the nation. Ramlan et. al.(2007) the contribution of ICT to 267 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Malaysian economic growth is the highest at an average of 13 percent for the period 1966 to 2005 against 4.7 percent for Total Factor Productivity (TFP), 9.7 percent for Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 9.6 percent for capital, and 3.0 percent for labor. In a research study completed in five Asian states (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippine, Singapore and Thailand) (Ahmed, 2007:2254) ICTs has been found providing positive impact over the factor productivity. 3. Methodology 3.1. Purpose of the Research Purpose of that research is to investigate the performances of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina based on ICT variables and to find out the distance of those two states in the course of transforming into information societies. There are three reasons to selectthose states. 1. Based on the regional countrywide classification of World Bank under KA M conceptthey are located in Europe and Middle Asia region consisted of 27 states. First conditions of making comparison of different states countries have to be located in the same class according to regional income level and humanitarian development.(http://go.worldbank.org/CY9PINAVF0). 2. According to International Telecommunication Union (ITU), IDI (ICT Development Index) points states are divided into four sections (High, Upper, Medium, Low). Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina are classified inthe same group (Upper) (ITU, 2009: 49). 3. Turkey from the year 1995 forreinforcing the economic relations of Bosnia Herzegovina signed up a series oflegallaws. At the beginning those laws were “Trade and Economic With Turkey Agreement”, “Mutual Reinforcements and Protections of Investments” and “Free Trade Act”. (http://www.dtm.gov.tr/dtmadmin/upload/ANL/AvrupaDb/Bosna_Hersek.pdf). 3.2. The Model In the study World bank’s “Custom Scorecards” model was applied. Custom Scorecards model is an elastic model enabling the comparison of at least three models. There is no classification to select a variable. Custom Scorecards model compares ICT performances of the nations and use 12 variables. Those variables are stated under another nexttitle (http://go.worldbank.org/JGA O5XE940). 3.3. Data and Variables In the present study variables applied in the measurement of ICT performances of nations or regions W orld Bank variables were used as reference. In ICT calculations 12 indicator were used. But, Bosnia Herzegovina’s ICT Expenditure as % of GDP and Daily Newspapers per 1,000 People and Turkey’s indicators Daily Newspapers per 1,000 People since there is no data found those indicators were excluded from the investigations. Custom Scorecards modelis an elastic model an does not have any restrain in variable selection. Variables going to be applied fortwo countries are depicted down: • Telephones Per 1,000 People • Telephone Mainlines Per 1,000 People • Mobile Phones Per 1,000 People • Computers Per 1,000 Persons • TV Households with Television • International Internet Bandwidth • Internet Users Per 1,000 people • Price Basket for Internet, US$ per month • Availability of e-Government Services • Extent of Business Internet Use 4. Empirical Analysis Date of Bosnia Herzegovina and Turkey covered inthe study forICT variables are converged into standard form inthe equation (1). 268 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Normalized (u) = 10*(1-Nh/Nc) (1) The normalization procedure used in the KA M is as follows1: 1. The actual data (u)is collected from World Bank datasets and internationalliterature for allthe variables and countries. 2. Ranks are allocated to countries based on the absolute values (actual data)that describe each and every one of 83 variables (rank u). Countries with the same performance are allocated the same rank. Therefore, the rank equals 1 for a countrythat performs the best among the countriesin our sample on a particular variable(thatis,it has the highest score),the rank equalsto 2 for a country that performs second best, and so on. 3. The number of countries with higher rank (Nh) is calculated for each country. 4. The following formula is used in orderto normalize the scores for every country on every variable according totheirranking and in relation tothe total number of countries in the sample (Nc) with available data. 5. The above formula allocates a normalized score from 0 to 10 for each country. 10 isthe top score for the top performers and 0 the worstfor the laggards. Variable Total Telephones per 1,000 People, 2006 Main Telephone Lines per 1000 People, 2006 Mobile Phones per 1,000 People, 2006 Computers per 1,000 People, 2005 Households with Television (%), 2005 International Internet Bandwidth (bits pp), 2005 Internet Users per 1000 People, 2006 Price Basket for Internet (US$ per month), 2005 Availability of e-Gov. Services (1-7), 2006 Extent of Business Internet Use (1-7), 2006 Bosnia and Herzegovina (Group: Europe and Central Asia) actual normalized Turkey (Group: Europe and Central Asia) actual normalized 730.00 3.70 980.00 4.81 250.00 4.81 260.00 5.56 480.00 2.96 720.00 5.19 50.00 3.85 60.00 4.62 87.20 1.54 92.20 4.62 39.67 3.60 405.19 6.00 240.00 5.93 170.00 4.07 7.78 8.52 11.61 5.93 2.78 3.75 3.78 7.92 3.80 5.60 3.80 5.60 Table 1: ICT Variable Values of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina As seen from Table 1 according to Custom Scorecards modelICT indicator value sof Bosnia Herzegovina is stayed in the range of 1.54 and 8.52 and Turkey’s value isstayed between 4.07 and 7.93. Strongest value of Bosnia Herzegovinais 8.52 value of Price BasketforInternet and lowest value isfound as 1.54 of Households with Television. According to those values, Bosnia Herzegovina’s Price Basket for Internet exhibits a good value but Households with Television indicatorremains very low performance.In terms of the extent of Business Internet Users per 1000 People indicator Bosnia Herzegovina shows a medium level performance and remaining indicators remain atlow performance levels. W hen Turkey’s situation is considered it has satisfactory performance in terms of Availability of eGovernment Services, butin terms of Main Telephone Lines per 1000 People, Mobile Phones per 1,000 People, International Internet Bandwidth, Price Basket for Internet and Extent of Business Internet Use usually it remains at medium level performance levels. In terms of Total Telephones per 1,000 People, Computers per 1,000 People, Households with Television and Internet Users per 1000 People Turkey generates a low-medium performance. W hen the ICT variable values of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina are compared Bosnia Herzegovina’s Internet Users per 1000 People and Price Basketfor Internetratios are found higherthan Turkey and in terms of remaining rates Turkey has a better position than Bosnia Herzegovina. As a result,ICT variableindicators when investigated by Custom Scorecards Model, Turkey isfound creating more effortsthan Bosnia Herzegovina in the way of providing a information society. 1 http://go.worldbank.org/98RUI W A510, 02.05.2009. 269 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Total Telephones per 1,000 People Extent of Business Internet Use Main Telephone Lines per 1000 People Availability of e1,000 People Mobile Phones per Price Basket for Internet (US$ month) Government Ser. Computers per 1,000 People Internet Users per 1000 People Households with Television (%) International Internet Bandwidth (bits per person Figure 1: Spider Charts Form of Bosnia Herzegovina’s ICT Performance Investigations performed by Custom Scorecards model may be revealed by interferences of Spider charts. Center of Spider charts converted into standard form indicates to minimum value of 0,its peripheral section indicates to maximum 10. Therefore,if Spider charts are too wide and greatthat refers to region and country is meant having a good place. W hen we look at Figure 1 Spider Chart belonging to Bosnia Herzegovinaisfound having an irregular and narrow distribution. Except Internet Users per 1000 People and Price Basket for Internet,all other variables are found to be closerto the center ofthe chart. Especially, Households with Television (%) indicatoris very closer to the center of the chart. W hen evaluated generally, in terms of ICT Bosnia Herzegovina found spending inadequate effort. Total Telephones per 1,000 People Extent of Business Internet Use Main Telephone Lines per 1000 People Availability of eGovernment Services Mobile Phones per 1,000 People Price Basket for Internet (US$ per month) Computers per 1,000 People Internet Users per 1000 People Households with Television (%) International Internet Bandwidth (bits per person Figure 2: Spider chart of Turkey’s ICT Performance W hen we look at Figure 2 Turkey’s Spider Charts shows a regular and well organized distribution but not in a very wide form. Usually,location ofindicator variables on the chart are massed around 5 indicating medium level performance. Location of indicator values of Availability of e-Government Services being closer to the peripheral side of the chart reveals that Turkey is in a good position in that indication. When the chart is investigated as a whole Turkey’s ICT performance isfound at medium levels. W hen two countries are compared allindicators of Turkey excluding Price Basket for Internet (US$ per month) and Internet Users per 1000 People on the chart are found covering the shape of Bosnia Herzegovina. That circumstance refers to the factthatin Bosnia Herzegovina internet monthly access pocket price is cheaper and as a result users have widerinternet connection ratio. Highest variation among the indicators of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina is Availability of e-Government Services indicators. That refersthat Turkey in e-state services has a much better situation than Bosnia Herzegovina. As a result ofinvestigations completed in overall meaning Turkey’s performance is betterthan Bosnia Herzegovina. 270 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Turkey Total Telephones per 1,000 People Extent of Business Internet Use Availability of ePer 1,000 People Price Basket for Int. (US$ per month) Internet Users per 1000 People Main Telephone Lines per 1000 People Mobile Phones Government Serv. Computers per 1,000 People Households with Television (%) International Internet Bandwidth (bits per person Figure 3: ICT Comparison of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina Spider Charts Conclusions In that study compiled to investigate the performances of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina according to ICT variables Custom Scorecards modelis applied and findings have been depicted down. According to Custom Scorecards model, value of ICT indicators of Bosnia Herzegovina are in the range of 1.54 and 8.52, Turkey’s values areinthe range of 4.07 and 7.93. Strongestindicator of Bosnia Herzegovina is found as Price Basket for Internet and its lowest ratio is found as Households with Television. When we investigate Turkey’s situation strongest indicator is found as Availability of e-Government Services and its weakestindicatorisfound as Internet Users per 1000 People. A mong the 10 indicator applied in the study in two indicator Bosnia Herzegovina (Price Basket for Internet (US$ per month and Internet Users per 1000 People) is found more successful with its performance Turkey in 7 indicator (Total Telephones per 1,000 People, Main Telephone Lines per 1000 People, Mobile Phones per 1,000 People, Computers per 1,000 People, Households with Television (%),International Internet Bandwidth and Availability of e-Government Services) found more successful than Bosnia Herzegovina. With regard to Extent of Business Internet Use indicator both countries areinthe same success level. In two indicators Bosnia Herzegovina showed more efficient performance that Turkey. First of them is Price Basket for Internet and the other is Internet Users per 1000 People indicator. From that point, monthly internet connection pocket price is lower in Bosnia Herzegovina and as a result of that, users in Bosnia use internet more frequently. Highest variation between Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina is found at Availability of e-Government Servicesindicator. Thatreferstothe factthat Turkey has much better position that Bosnia Herzegovina in e-state services. As a result atthe end of the investigations held, Turkey in general meaning showed a better performance than Bosnia Herzegovina. But, both countries when evaluated independently their success level is not found satisfactory. Both countriesin orderto possess their desired location in the sophisticating global environment to promote their economic and social situations to more advanced levelsthey need to use ICT as a strategic device. References Ahmed, E. M. (2007). “ICT and Human Capital Intensities Impact on ASEAN5 Productivity” Uluslararası 6. Bilgi, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, Đstanbul, pp. 2254-2262. Arvanitis, S. and Loukis, E. N. (2009). “Information and Communication Technologies, Human Capital, Workplace Organization and Labour Productivity: A Comparative Study Based on Firm-Level Data for Greece and Switzerland”, Information Economics and Policy: 21, pp. 43–61. 271 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bayo-Moriones, A. Billon, M. and Lera-Lopez, F. (2008). “Skills, Technology and Organisational Innovation in Spanish Firms”, International Journal of Manpower Volume: 29 Issue: 2 pp. 122-145. Dewan, S. and Kenneth L. K. 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(2005), “Quantifying the Impact of ICT Capital on Output Growth: A Heterogeneous Dynamic Panel Approach”, Economica, 72, pp.615–633. Oliner, S. D. and Sichel, D. E. (2000), “The Resurgence of Growth in the Late 1990s: Is Information Technology the Story”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14, pp. 3-22. Ozcivelek, R. and Zontul, H. (2004). “Insights into the ICT Industry in Turkey”, European Commission Joint Research Centre (DG JRC), Techncial Report EUR 21392 EN, Spain. Pilat, D. and F. C. Lee (2001), “Productivity Growth in ICT-Producing and ICT-Using Industries: A Source of Growth Differentials in the OECD?”, OECD STI Working Papers, Sayı:4, OECD, Paris. Ramlan, J., Ahmed, E. M. and Leo Pointon (2007), “ICT, Human Capital and TFP in Malaysia: A Statistical Approach”, The Journal of Knowledge Economy & Knowledge Management, Volume II Fall, pp.1-17. Saygılı, Ş. Bilgi Ekonomisine Geçiş Sürecinde Türkiye Ekonomisinin Dünyadaki Konumu, Ankara, DPT Yayınları, Temmuz 2003. Scarpetta, S., Bassanini, A., Pilat, D. and Schreyer, P. (2000), “Economic Growth in the OECD Area: Recent Trends at the Aggregate and Sectoral Level”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No: 248, OECD, Paris. Türkoğlu, Y. (2009). ICT Sector in Turkey, IGEME, Export Promotion Center of Turkey. Verme, P. and Toksoy, B. (2005). “Report on Forecasting the Demand for Skills and Occupations in the ICT Sector in Turkey of Project, Contract TR /0205.01/001” The European Union’s Pre-accession Financial Assistance Programme for Turkey, Hifab International. Yamak, R. & Kolçak, N. A. (2007). “Bilgi Teknolojisi Harcamalarının Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerine Etkileri: 1993–2005”, Journal of Knowledge Economy & Knowledge Management, Volume: II, Spring, pp. 1-10. Yücel, Đ. H. (2006). Türkiye’de Bilim Teknoloji Politikaları ve Đktisadi Gelişmenin Yönü, DPT: Yayın No. 2690, Ankara. 272 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 479 Title A name given to the resource Comparative Analysis Of Ict Performances Of Turkey And Bosnia And Herzegovina By Custom Scorecard Model Author Author Kaynak, Selahattin Özer, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), being commonly used in all the sectors of an economy and one of the most important driving forces for social development in the last 20 years, facilitated to product goods and service for producers. Besides that, ICT has been begun to substitute other production factors, by reason of being cheaper of communication tools such as computer or internet and the changes observed in these tools. As it is looked consumers' perspective, falls of the prices and the high performance in these technologies reasoned in being used of them in every moment of daily life. The main purpose of this study is to compare the ICT performances of Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina, based on the data set of the World Bank. KA M'S Custom Scorecards model developed by the World Bank has been used in the study. As a result of the analyses, it has been found that Turkey has delivered a better performance in general than Bosnia Herzegovina has done, except for the variables of Internet Users and Price Basket for Internet. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3a28726211cf94cf4afb95e14c942ed7.pdf c8e4c3aa42a8b41917616cd77ad62e20 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Effect of Blended Cements Produced with Natural Zeolite and Volcanic Tuffs on Sulfate Resistance of Concrete Cenk Karakurt Department of Construction Bilecik University Turkey cenk.karakurt@bilecik.edu.tr Đlker Bekir Topçu Department of Civil Engineering Eskisehir Osmangazi University Turkey ilkerbt@ogu.edu.tr Abstarct: In this study, influence of blended cements produced with different types of pozzolans on sulfate resistance of concrete was investigated. For this reason, Manisa Enli Mining crushing waste natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) and two different types of volcanic tuff supplied from Eskişehir and Nevşehir region were used in blended cement production According to mechanical performance of these blended cements, sulfate resistance experiments were carried out in accordance with ASTM C 1012 code. The mechanical properties of the blended cements were determined on 40x40x160 mm mortar specimens. The 25x25x285 mm mortar bar specimens were produced in order to determine the length changes of the specimens under sulfate attack. Mortar bar specimens were cured in 10% Na2SO4 solution for 6 months. The length changes and mechanical properties of the mortar specimens with different types of blended cements showed that, zeolite and volcanic tuffs reduces the ettringite formation when compared with ordinary CEM I 42.5 reference specimens. Introduction Concreteis one ofthe most widely used construction material, owing toits good durability to costratio. However, when subjected to severe environments its durability can significantly decline due to corrosion of embedded reinforcement and/or degradation ofthe concrete(Roy et al.,2001). The mostimportant parameter on concrete performance is the properties of cement used in concrete production. It is possible to achieve environmental and economical benefits with utilization of pozzolanic mineral additives in cement production. The durability problems in concrete and reinforced concrete structures exposing to aggressive environment effects,lead to the damages in structures before the expected service life. One of the significant concerns in the design of durable concreteis sulfate resistance. Deterioration of concrete by sulfate attack is commonly observed in structures exposed to soils or groundwater containing a high concentration of sulfate ions (Irassar et al., 2000). Sodium sulfate reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium sulfate (gypsum). This reaction proceeds to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the conditions (Neville, 2004). Ettringite formation is considered to be the cause of most of the expansion and disruption of concrete structures involved in the sulphate attack (ACI, 1994). The penetration of sulfateions into the concrete,the calcium monosulfoaluminate crystalsin the paste may convertinto gypsum or ettringite; this results in a change to a larger molar volume. These volumetric changes cause expansion and internal stresses, which ultimately weaken and destroy the paste bonds, deteriorating the concrete (Tikalsky et al., 2002, Topçu, 2006). To mitigatethis attack, concrete codes recommend a concrete mixture with low water/cement ratio and containing a sulfateresistant Portland cement. The lowered availability of C3 A can reduce the damage caused by sulfate attack due to a direct reduction in the quantity of ettringite that can form. Also, ettringite formation in chloride-rich environments is not associated with expansion and cracking (Santahanam et al., 2006).In addition to the C3 A content, C3 S/C2 S ratio of cement is also found to be an effective parameter in the sulfate resistance (Cao et al.,1997, Ramyar & Đnan, 2007). Cements containing higher C3 S content, upon hydration produce significantly higher quantity of calcium hydroxide which may directly react with sulfate ions of high concentration (>8000 ppm) to cause gypsum corrosion (Rasheeduzzafer et al.,1990). Gypsum corrosion reduces the cohesion stiffness and strength ofthe hydrated cement paste. 150 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Under the new specification, various materials can be used freely, but the material design methods of various cementitious materials must be established to satisfy the performance requirements of concrete (Sakai et al., 2005). Pozzolanic materials have been widely used as substitutes for Portland cement in many applications because of their advantageous properties which include cost decrease, reduction in heat evaluation, decreased permeability, alkali aggregate-expansion control, decreased chemical resistance, reduced concrete drying shrinkage and the improvementin the properties of fresh concrete (Shi & Day, 2001). Amorphous silica present in the pozzolanic materials combines with lime and forms cementitious materials. These materials improve the durability of concrete and the rate of gain in strength and can also reduce the rate of liberation of heat that is beneficial for mass concrete (Khandaker & Hossain, 2003). Nevertheless, the use of natural and artificial pozzolans as blend materials for cement has been constantly increasing in order to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emission without causing any degradation to cement properties. Zeolites are crystalline alumina silicates with uniform pores,channels and cavities. They posses special properties like ion exchange, molecular sieves, a large surface area and a catalytic activity which makes them a preferable material for tremendous industrial applications (Breck, 1971). About 40 natural zeolites have been identified during the past 200 years; the most commons are analcime, chabazite, clinoptilolite, mordenite and philipsite. Worldwide production of natural zeolite was estimated at about 3-4 M ton on the basis of recorded production and production estimates (Virta, 2001). Ratherthan the known application areas, higher quantities of research (de Gennaro et al.,2004, de Gennaro et al., 2005) concerning the using of natural zeolite, especially clinoptilolitein concrete applications as pozzolanic cement,light weight aggregates and dimension stone is being increased in recent years. Zeolitictuffs and amorphous silicatetuffs arethe main natural pozzolansinthe cement industry. The pozzolanic activity of zeolites depends on their chemical and mineralogical composition. The pozzolanic properties of zeolites are due totheirreactive SiO2 and Al2 O3, which react with the Ca(OH)2 liberated during the hydration of cementand convertitinto C–S–H gelsand aluminates. As a result,the micro-structure of hardened cement concrete isimproved and the concrete becomes more impervious (Gervais & Ouki, 2002). On the other hand, some waste materials such as fly ash (FA) and ground granulated blastfurnace slag (BFS) can be used as supplementary cementing material, or artificial pozzolan,in concrete industry. The reactivity of FA and BFS is supposed to be particularly influenced by the glass content and its composition. In this study, influence of blended cements produced with different types of pozzolans on sulfate resistance of concrete was investigated. For this reason, Manisa Enli Mining crushing waste natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) and two differenttypes of volcanictuffsupplied from Eskişehir and Nevşehirregion were used in blended cement production. The first group single composition cements are produced by grinding different pozzolans replacing clinker, provided from Çimsa Cement Factory, at the ratios of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 45% together with gypsum stone in a ball mill. The second group composite cements are produced with 20-30% replacement ratios in binary replacement compositions. According to mechanical performance of these blended cements, sulfate resistance experiments were carried out in accordance with AST M C 1012 code (AST M C 1012, 2002). The mechanical properties of the blended cements were determined on 40x40x160 mm mortar specimens. The 25x25x285 mm mortar bar specimens were produced in orderto determine thelength changes of the specimens under sulfate attack. Mortar bar specimens were cured in 10% Na2 SO4 solution for 6 months. The length changes and mechanical properties ofthe mortar specimens with differenttypes of blended cements were determined and analyzed in order to obtain a durable cement composition against sulfate attack. Experimental Study The raw materials of blended cement compositions were supplied from different sources. Cement clinker, gypsum limestone and Eskişehir trass were supplied from Çimsa Eskişehir cement factory. Natural zeolite in clinoptilolite form was provided from Manisa Gördes region and Nevşehir Tuff was supplied from Nevşehir-Đnli region. Chemical analyses of the materials were made by means of X-ray spectrophotometer (XRF) and the test results are given in Table 1. In this study, 24 different types of blended cement mixes with zeolite (Z), Eskişehir tuff (ET) and Nevşehir tuff (NT), replacement of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 45% by weight, 5% limestone for particle size arrangement and 3% gypsum were produced by intergrinding these materials in ball mill. These are defined as first group. According to compressive strength results of first group cements, the optimum replacement ratio of additives was found as 20 and 30% of clinker. Then the second group mixes were designed by means of 20 and 30% replacement ratio as binary composition. These blended cements were compared with reference to CE M I 42.5 ordinary Portland cement in experimental studies. 151 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Chemical Co mposition SiO2 Clinker, % 20.98 Clinoptilolite, % 62.78 Eskişehir Tuff, % 61.12 Nevşehir Tuff, % 59.37 Al2 O3 5.55 10.66 12.32 14.46 Fe2 O3 3.85 4.20 6.51 6.99 CaO 65.85 2.37 4.28 5.82 Mg O 1.12 1.10 5.88 4.99 K2 O 0.53 0.74 1.73 2.66 Na2 O 0.14 0.35 2.44 2.52 SO3 0.97 - 0.1 - Table 1: Chemical composition ofthe raw materials. The prepared cement mortars with the produced cements were castin 40x40x160 mm prismatic moulds according to TS EN 196-1. The mortar specimens were removed from the moulds after 1 day and were then cured inlime saturated water at 20±1°C untilthe age of considering strength test. Atthe end ofthe curing period (2, 7, 28 and 180 days), mortar specimens were subjected to compressive strength test(TS EN 196-1, 2002). Mortar bars were prepared according to AST M C 1012 in dimension with 25x25x285 m m and 40x40x160 mm in orderto determine the effects of sulfate on differenttypes of produced blended cements. After the initial curing period, specimens were demolded and cured in lime saturated water (23 ± 1.7 °C) until the mortar cube specimens gained a compressive strength of 20 MPa as described by ASTM C 1012 (Sahmaran et al., 2007). Upon reaching a compressive strength of 20 MPa, the performance of cements under sulfate-attack were determined weekly through expansion measurements of mortar bars with which are immersed in 10% Na2 SO4 solution for one year. During this curing cycle, compressive strength and ultrasound pulse velocitytests were carried outto determine the mechanical and physical properties of different blended cement mortars. Results and Discussion Co mpressive Strength The aim of this study is to determine the strength development and sulfate resistance of different pozzolan blended cements. The mechanical performance of produced blended cements was determined by compressive strength test. The considered testresults are given in Table 2. The compressive strength testresults showed different behaviors depending upon the replacement ratio of pozzolans and age of the mortar specimens. In the early stage of cement hydration, Ca(OH)2 from the hydrating paste was incorporated into the pozzolan structure and led to the formation of hydration producttype C-S-H and hydrated aluminate phases (Topçu et al., 2008). According to compressive strength resultsthe early age strengths of blended cements were reduced with increasing amounts of replacement ratio. At the age of 28 days, the compressive strength values of zeolite blended cements were higher than reference CE M I 42.5 cement up to 40% replacement ratios. Moreover at 180 days, the compressive strength of BFS, FA and zeolite blended cements reached approximately 57 MPa depending on the pozzolanic reaction of the considered mineral additive. This result was higher than the reference ordinary Portland cement mortars (50 MPa). According to mechanicaltesting results,it may be stated thatlong term strength performances of natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) and Eskişehirtuff blended cements were better than reference CE M I 42.5 type cement. A comparison based on strength development indicates that the replacement of zeolite and volcanic tuffisthe most effective method in blended cement production. Sulfate Resistance According to compressive strength test results, the optimum usage of mineral additive in blended cement mixtures was found as 30% replacement ratio. Forthis reason the sulfate resistance tests were carried on 30% blended cements. The volume expansion of mortar bars was measured with 0.001 mm sensitive comparator for 6 months in order with AST M C 1012 code. According to AST M C 1157 the expansion limits of hydraulic cements were 0.10% and 0.05% at 26 weeks as moderate sulfate resistant and high sulfate resistant,respectively (AST M C 1157, 2000). Also 0.10% expansion limit was suggested for high sulfate resistant cements. Volume 152 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo expansion of different cement mortars which immersed in 10% Na2 SO4 solution for 26 weeks are given in Fig. 1. Co mpressive Strength, MPa Ce ment Code 2 Days 7 Days 28 Days 180 Days 45.25 50.69 CE M I 42.5 22.00 30.43 12 .31 46 .90 57.15 ZBC-10 22.56 11.23 48.28 54.89 ZBC-20 20.38 10.97 45.37 53.06 ZBC-30 18.56 7 .25 39 .65 50.65 ZBC-40 17.25 6.95 38.13 48.38 ZBC-45 15.03 44 .65 51.06 ETC-10 11.60 28.80 42.31 50.93 ETC-20 9.68 26.81 40.47 48.78 ETC-30 10.31 24.18 36 .46 44.38 ETC-40 8.80 20.52 35.34 43.25 ETC-45 6.00 16.50 42 .96 47.65 NTC-10 11.93 21.25 42.71 45.13 NTC-20 11.18 16.87 36.59 43.74 NTC-30 8.12 15.6 32 .28 40.68 NTC-40 5.67 14.00 28.81 39.23 NTC-45 4.32 12.5 11.51 21.78 36.25 ZBETC-20 43.67 10.45 20.37 35.75 ZBVTC-20 44.43 10.56 20.13 34.56 ETVTÇ-10 41.43 8.24 18.25 33.16 ETVTÇ-20 40.20 12.87 26.12 43.81 ETZKÇ-10 54.65 10.12 23.21 43.46 ETZKÇ-20 52.32 9.07 18.09 32.52 VTETÇ-20 41.6 12.56 23.50 42.96 VTZKÇ-10 53.72 11.43 22.90 40.00 VTZKÇ-20 45.75 Table 2: Compressive strength testresults of produced blended cements. Length Change, % sdf As seen from Fig.1 reference mortar specimen produced with CE M I 42.5 reaches as 0.518% above the 0.10% expansion limit after 26 weeks sulfate exposure period. Also, mortar bar expansion of ETC-30 type cement produced with 30% Eskisehirtuffreplacement ratio was determined as 0.109% a little bit higherthan the reference line on Fig.1. 0.14 0.12 CEM I 42.5 ETC-30 ETZBC-20 ZBC-30 NTC-30 NTZBC-20 0.1 0.08 0.06 Expansion limit 0.04 0.02 0 Cement Types Figure 1: The length changes of mortar bar specimens. On the other hand, blended cements produced with clinoptilolite and Nevşehir tuff were varied around 0.02%. These results are lower than reference CE M I 42.5 ordinary Portland cement. It can be concluded that 153 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo performance of ZBC-30, NTC-30, ETZBC-20 and NTZCB-20 can be defined as high sulfate resistance cements. The physical deterioration of mortar specimens are given in Fig.2. At the end of 6 months curing regime ordinary Portland cement mortarlostits volume stability and stiffness. However, clinoptilolite and Nevsehirtuff blended cements did not change their shape. NT C-30 ZBC-30 CE M I 42.5 Figure 2: Physical deterioration of mortar bars at 6 months sulfate exposure. According to these results natural zeolite blended cements is more durable than ordinary Portland cement, under aggressive sulfate environments.It also seemsthat asthe proportion ofthe replacement of clinker by pozzolanic materialincreased,the sulfate resistance of the mixture also increased. This conclusion, which is in accordance with other research results indicates that the decrease of C3 A content of the mixture in combination with the reduction of large pores caused by the pozzolanic reaction, are more criticalthan the total porosity alone (which increases as the w/c ratio also increases) when sulfate resistance is of primary interest (Sideris et al., 2006). Mechanical behavior of different cement mortars during the sulfate test were investigated with compressive strength test results. As seen from Table 3 compressive strength of CEM I 42.5 cement was increased up to 59 MPa more rapidly than other cements at early ages. This increase should be attributed with the supplementary ettringite formation in the C-S-H structure of the composite. However,atthe end of 8 weeks this trend changed and strength reduction occurred with the expansion of ettringite salt in the composite structure. The same behavior was seen on ETC-30 specimens. On the other hand ZBC-30 and NTZBC-10 cement mortars were increased their compressive strength 61.00 MPa and 64.32 MPa respectively, atthe end of the experimental study. Compressive strength test results show a good agreement with volume expansion of cement mortars. ETC-30 NTC-30 ETZBC-20 NTZBC-10 1 2 3 4 8 13 15 20 26 ZBC-30 Curing Time, weeks CEM I 42.5 Co mpressive strength, MPa 20.43 34.13 40.23 48.54 59.28 55.06 54.30 52.55 38.32 21.03 28.30 34.30 44.54 52.31 54.19 58.45 60.14 61.00 20.40 26.44 35.86 42.93 47.29 50.95 52.87 51.37 50.55 21.50 29.35 36.57 43.56 45.91 47.58 48.01 49.26 49.27 20.50 27.84 37.50 41.25 51.82 52.13 53.05 55.50 59.05 20.74 32.65 40.14 47.05 58.17 61.95 63.23 64.11 64.32 Table 3: Compressive strength variation of blended cements under sulfate exposure for 26 weeks. 154 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ultrasonic methods are generally used for analyzing the porous structure, mechanical strength of concrete and to detectinternal defects(voids,cracks, delaminations,etc.)(Lafhaj etal.,2006). Mortar specimens were subjected to UPV testto determine the crack formation of the composite material.As seen from Table 4, the UPV values of mortars were increased with the curing time. However,the ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV) value of CE M I 42.5 specimen was reduced after 8 weeks exposure time. This significantreduction showed that the increasing volume expansion of the composite structure was the cause of the initial crack formation. Higher C3 A content of ordinary Portland cement causes rapid ettringite formation in the composite structure compared with othertypes of cements. The same UPV reduction occurred for Eskisehirtrass used ETC-30 blended cement specimen. On the other hand, ZBC-30, ETZBC-20 and NTZBC-20 blended cements were increased the UPV values purposefully with the pozzolanic reaction between mineral additives and Ca(OH)2. ETC-30 NTC-30 ETZBC-20 NTZBC-10 1 2 3 4 8 13 15 20 26 ZBC-30 Curing Time, weeks CEM I 42.5 Ultrasound Pulse Velocity, km/sec. 3.554 4.074 4.244 4.374 4.594 4.327 4.247 4.201 3.770 3.433 3.751 4.055 4.288 4.134 4.144 4.165 4.232 4.255 3.421 3.612 4.123 4.156 4.166 4.266 4.371 4.312 4.213 3.496 3.720 4.138 4.213 4.301 4.347 4.350 4.432 4.432 3.473 3.671 3.878 4.033 4.155 4.177 4.180 4.188 4.210 3.562 4.000 4.265 2.310 4.419 4.481 4.520 4.597 4.637 Table 4: Ultrasound pulse velocity variation of blended cements under sulfate exposure for 26 weeks. Conclusions Improving the durability of concrete structure members is an important point to achieve a sustainable developmentin structure industry. Prolonging the service life of concretein aggressive environmentsis possible with increasing the durability of these members. The sulfate resistance of concrete is related with the ettringite, gypsum and thaumasite formation in the composite. The main cause of ettringiteis C3 A content of cement used in concrete. Ordinary sulfate resistance cements are low C3 A (less than 5%) cements. According to test results zeolite blended cements showed high sulfate resistance performance against reference Portland cement. Utilization of economic blended cementsin sulfate environments has beneficial effects on concrete durability. References Roy, D.M., Arjunan, P., & Silsbee, M.R. (2001) Effect of silica fume, metakaolin, and low-calcium fly ash on chemical resistance of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 1809-1813. Irassar, E.F., González, M., & Rahhal, V. (2000) Sulfate resistance of type V cements with limestone filler and natural pozzolana. Cement and Concrete Composites, 22, 361-368. Neville, A. (2004) The confused world of sulfate attack on concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 34, 1275-1296. Tikalsky, P.J., Roy, D., Scheetz, B., & Krize, T. (2002) Redefining cement characteristics for sulfate-resistant Portland cement, Cement and Concrete Research, 32, 1239-1246. Topçu, Đ.B. (2006) Materials of construction and concrete. Ugur Offset, Eskisehir. ACI Committee 201. (1994) Guide to durable concrete. ACI manual of concrete practice Part 1. Detroit, Mich. 155 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Santahanam, M., Cohen, M., & Olek, J. (2006) Differentiating seawater and groundwater sulfate attack in Portland cement mortars. Cement and Concrete Research, 36, 2132-2137. Cao, H.T., Bucea, L., Ray, A., & Yozghatlian, S. (1997) The effect of cement composition and pH of environment on sulfate resistance of Portland cements and blended cements. Cement and Concrete Composites, 19, 161–171. Ramyar, K., & Đnan, G. (2007) Sodium sulfate attack on plain and blended cements. Building and Environment, 42, 13681372. Rasheeduzzafer, D.F.H., Al-Gahtani, A.S., Al-Saadoun, S.S., & Bader, M.A. (1990) Influence of cement composition on the corrosion of reinforcement and sulfate resistance of concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 87, 114–122. Sakai, E., Miyahara, S., Ohsawa, S., Lee, S.H, & Daimon M. (2005) Hydration of fly ash cement. Cement and Concrete Research,35, 1135-1140. Shi, C., & Day, R.L. (2001) Comparison of different methods for enhancing reactivity of pozzolans. Cement and Concrete Research,31, 813-818. Khandaker, M., & Hossain, A. (2003) Blended cement using volcanic ash and pumice. Cement and Concrete Research, 33, 1601-1605. Breck, D.W. (1971) Zeolite molecular sieves: structure. New York: Wiley Chemistry and Uses. Virta R.L. (2001) Zeolites. U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook. de Gennaro, R., Cappelletti, P., Cerri, G,. de’ Gennaro, M., Dondi, M., & Langella, A,. (2004) Zeolitic tuff as raw material for lightweight aggregates. Applied Clay Science, 25, 71-81. de Gennaro, R., Cappelletti, P., Cerri, G., de’ Gennaro, M., Dondi, M., & Langella, A. (2005) Neopolitan yellow tuff as raw material for lightweight aggregates in lightweight structural concrete production. Applied Clay Science,28, 309-319. Gervais, C., & Ouki, S.K. (2002) Performance study of cementitious systems containing zeolite and silica fume: effects of four metal nitrates on the setting time, strength and leaching characteristics. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 93, 187-200. ASTM C 1012. (2002) Standard test method for length change of hydraulic cement mortars exposed to a sulfate solution. ASTM International. TS EN 196-1. (2002) Methods of testing cements. Part 1. Determination of strength. Turkish Standards Institution. Sahmaran, M., Erdem, T.K., & Yaman, I.O. (2007) Sulfate resistance of plain and blended cements exposed to wettingdrying and heating-cooling environments. Construction and Building Materials, 21, 1771-1778. ASTM C 1157. (2000) Standard performance specification for hydraulic cement. ASTM International. Topçu, Đ.B., Karakurt, C., & Sarıdemir, M. (2008) Predicting the strength development of cements produced with different pozzolans by neural network and fuzzy logic. Journal of Materials Design, 29, 1986-1991. Sideris, K.K., Savva, A.E., & Papayianni, J. (2006) Sulfate resistance and carbonation of plain and blended cements. Cement and Concrete Composites, 28, 47-56. Lafhaj, Z., Goueygou, M., Djerbi, A., & Kaczmarek, M. (2006) Correlation between porosity, permeability and ultrasonic parameters of mortar with variable water/cement ratio and water content. Cement and Concrete Research, 36, 625–633. 156 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 497 Title A name given to the resource Effect of Blended Cements Produced with Natural Zeolite and Volcanic Tuffs on Sulfate Resistance of Concrete Author Author Karakurt, Cenk Topçu, ilker Bekir Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, influence of blended cements produced with different types of pozzolans on sulfate resistance of concrete was investigated. For this reason, Manisa Enli Mining crushing waste natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) and two different types of volcanic tuff supplied from Eskisehir and Nevsehir region were used in blended cement production According to mechanical performance of these blended cements, sulfate resistance experiments were carried out in accordance with ASTM C 1012 code. The mechanical properties of the blended cements were determined on 40x40x160 mm mortar specimens. The 25x25x285 mm mortar bar specimens were produced in order to determine the length changes of the specimens under sulfate attack. Mortar bar specimens were cured in 10% Na2SO4 solution for 6 months. The length changes and mechanical properties of the mortar specimens with different types of blended cements showed that, zeolite and volcanic tuffs reduces the ettringite formation when compared with ordinary CEM I 42.5 reference specimens. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/890775d5575e92ab870d6deb837e2823.pdf 094567cf3c83d7e63d1f9473e485e73e PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Investigation of Treatment of Boron Industries Waste Waters by Nanofiltration Đbrahim Karakaş Department of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Recep Boncukçuoğlu Department of EnvironmentalEngineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey M. Muhtar Kocakerim Department of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Alper E.Yilmaz Department of EnvironmentalEngineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: Turkey has the richest boron reserve in the world. Colemanite and Tincal, which are some of the ores produced in Turkey, are used in the production of Boric Acid and Sodium Perborates, respectively. As a result of this production process, the amount of solid waste and wastewater is quite high and in order for these wastes to not cause different environmental problems, they must either be disposed in some way or the boron they contain must be removed. In this study, the removal of boron from synthetic waters by nanofiltration was investigated. It was investigated operational parameters such as boron feed concentration, pH, pressure and flow rate at boron removal experiments. DMSO was used as complex agent and it was thought that DMSO forms a complex with water. Boron removal was not obtained at experiments, which was not used DMSO. The separation of the solid boron compound was studied in a wide range of conditions by nanofiltration (NF). The best result with DMSO was 290 ppm effluent boron concentration for 3000 ppm influent boron concentration with efficiency of 92%. In the final stage, cross-flow membrane filtration was used for the separation of solid-liquid. The result of this study showed that the boron recovery efficiency was as high as 95% from the wastewater. Keywords: Boron, boron removal, membrane, nanofiltration, DMSO 1. Introduction Boron is found in the form of borate in oceans, sedimentary rocks, coal,shale, and soils [1–3].In natural waters, boron is normally found at concentrations lower than 1mg B/L [4], although in seawater boron concentration is around 5mg B/L [5]. Boron concentrations over 3mg/L result in an accumulation in soil and increase toxicity to aquatic life [5,6]. Among the different anthropogenic sources of boron are agricultural products (micro-fertilizers), insecticides, glass manufacturing, domestic products (soaps, detergents, laundry powders), fire retardants, anti-freeze formulations, power generation using coal and oil, insulation and textilegrade fibers, and mild antiseptics [1–4,6]. Boron is one of the most important micro-nutrients for plants, and is essentialfor plant growth. However, boron is beneficialto plants only in small quantities,as excessive amounts are injurious and even lethal.Irrigation with more than 1mg B/L is harmfulto most plants[7]. The sensitivity of plantsto boron ranges from values lower than 0.5 mg/L up to 15 mg/L. Boron is a commonly known drinking water contaminant that affects the reproductability of living 273 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo organisms [8]. Due to itsinteraction with the environment,the boron concentration in both, drinking water and wastewaters discarded to the environment, is strongly limited according to the W H O and European Union regulations [9,10]. The maximum boron levelin drinking water was set at 0.5 mg/L and at 1 mg/L in the case of wastewaters discarded to the environment. Of particular interest is the removal of boron by RO and NF membranes which are nowbeing used increasingly in sea/brackish water desalination and wastewater reclamation. At pH above the pKa of boric acid (9.25 at25 ◦C),theionic borate species predominates and itsremoval by RO and NF membranes is relatively high [11,12]. However, at the pH of natural waters and wastewaters, boron occurs as boric acid and, consequently,the rejection ofthis uncharged species by RO and NF membranes isrelatively low [13,14]. Therefore, meeting the stringentlimits for boron in drinking water as set by the W H O and the EU (0.5 and 1mg/L, respectively) is a major challenge when using RO/NF membranes with natural waters and wastewaters [15,16]. Boron rejection by RO/NF membranes can be increased significantly by adjusting the pH of the feed watertolevels above the pKa of boric acid (i.e.,pH> 9.25).For example, at pH 10, boron rejection was reported to increase to 99 and 93% for seawater and brackish water RO membranes, respectively, whereas at pH 11 the corresponding boron rejection values increased to 99.5 and 99%, respectively [17]. A specially designed, high boron rejection membrane was evaluated by Taniguchi et al. and was shown to reject 94–96% boron at pH 8. With this high boron rejection seawater RO membrane, a single-pass RO operation resulted in low boron concentration in the product water. Other combinations of seawater RO membranes followed by a selective ion exchange resin can achieve higher boron removal, but the cost may be prohibitive due to regeneration of the resins [18]. 2. Experimental All experiments were performed with pure solutions of boron in distilled water. The pH of the solutions was adjusted using either 0.1 M NaOH stock solution or 0.2 M HCl. All chemicals used were of reagent grade quality. In order to assess the influence of different solution properties on the rejection of boron, membrane separation experiments were performed in a bench scale membrane filtration module unit operated at 15-25 bar pressure at room temperature. The unit was equipped with either a NF membrane sheet made of polyether sulphone of 14 cm2 netfiltration area. The solutions were recycled through the membrane from a 10 L feed reservoir and 10 ml permeate samples were collected for analysis as indicated. Solutions of 1500, 3000 and 4500 mg/l average boron concentration were used inthe NF experiments. The influence ofthe feed pH on the complexation and further on membrane rejection was examined in a pH range of 6,5-11,0. All experiments were repeated 2–3 times. Fig. 1 presents a schematic description of the cross-flow test unit. Boron rejection was calculated from the measured total boron concentration in the permeate (Cp) and in the feed solution (Cf) according to the following equation: Re jection = 1 − 274 Cp Cf �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Fig. 1. Schematic description of the batch NF test unit. 1. Me mbrane cell, 2. Feed tank,3. Pomp, 4. Manometer, 5. By-Pass, 6. Flowmeter, 7. Manometer, 8. Control panel, 9. Valf, 10.Changer, 11.Analytic balance, 12. Beher, 13. Computer The parameters used experiments were shown at Table 1 and specifications ofthe membranes were given at Table 2. Parameter Range of parameter Pressure (atm) 15, 20, 25 Flow rate (L/dak) 2, 4, 8 Boron concentration 1500, 3000, 4500 (mg/L) Table 1. Parameters used in nanofiltration experiments Material pH Max. temperature Max. operation pressure(atm) M W C O (Dalton) Hydrophilic polyetersulphon 0-14 95 o C 40 1000 Table 2. Specifications ofthe membranes used in nanofiltration experiments 3. Results and Discussion In this study,it was investigated to removable of boron industrial wastewater by filtration. Nanofiltration was selected as filtration process. Borax solutions with different concentration were prepared. Initial boron concentration, pH, flow rate and pressure were selected as operational parameters. Obtained experimental data shown that boron was not removed by nanofiltration process. Borate molecules size was increased with a chemical substance in order to achieve boron removal by nanofiltration. In the lied this aim, Dimethyl sulphoxide (D MSO) was added to boron solutions. These experiments were replicated. 275 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3.1. The effect of D MS O amount on boron removal efficiency To evaluate this effect, a series of experiments were performed, using solution containing boron of 4500 mg/L. The effect of D MSO amount on the boron removal was examined at 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60mL. Initial pH of 9.35,temperature 293 K, stirring time 15 min and stirring speed of 300 rpm were kept constant in the experiments. Obtained experimentalresults were shown graphically in Figure 2. 100 14 12 80 60 8 40 6 pH % removal 10 4 removal efficiency 20 2 pH 0 3 5 10 20 30 0 40 50 60 DMSO amount, mL Figure 2. The effect of DMSO amount on boron removal efficiency As seen Figure 2, boron removal increased with increasing the D MSO amount. It was thought that increasing boron removal was resultfrom reaction between D MSO and aqueous media. Because ofthisreaction, a fraction of water was not used as solvent. D MSO attached to a fraction of water in solution as following reactions; DMSO.2 H 2 O DMSO → DMSO.H 2 O + H 2 O DMSO DMSO.H 2 O → DMSO.HOH .DMSO (1) (2) D MSO has a characteristic of compose of hydrogen band. W hen D MSO was added to aqueous media,it composed doughty hydrogen band. In this situation, water as used solvent decreased and borax precipitated. 3.2. The effect of boron concentration on boron removal efficiency The effect of initial boron concentration on the boron removal was examined with solutions including boron of 500, 1500, 3000, 4500 and 7500 mg/L. D MSO amount of 30 mL, optimum pH of 9.35, solution temperature 293 K, stirring time 15 min and stirring speed of 300 rpm were kept constant in the experiments. The results obtained were shown graphically in Figure 3. 276 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 80 70 % removal 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 boron concentration, mg/L Figure 3. The effect of boron concentration on boron removal efficiency As seen Figure 3, increasing boron concentration increased boron removal efficiency. The reason of increasing boron removal efficiency was added to constant D MSO amount to solutions. Therefore, constant D MSO amount was decreased the same amount of water as used solvent. The solutions with high initial boron concentration were reached to saturation values. 3.3 Nanofiltration experiments Inthis section ofthe study, nanofiltration was investigated for removal of crystals obtained from reactions between boron and D MSO. Parameters at Table 1 were used in these experiments. The capable of filtration of solutions with boron and DM S O was investigated wit cross flow membrane filtration. The results obtained experiments shown that boron removal efficiency was highest at 15 atm pressure and 4 L/min flow rate. The results obtained from experiments investigating the effect of pressure and flow rate on boron removal were demonstrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5,respectively. 70 60 % removal 50 40 30 20 15 atm 20 atm 10 25 atm 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 time, min Figure 4. The effect of pressure change on boron removal (4500 mg/L boron concentration, 4 L/dak flow rate) The results obtained from experiment with different initial boron concentration and constant D MSO amount were demonstrated graphically in Figure 6. 15 atm pressure and 4 L/min flow rate were kept constantin 277 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the experiments. 70 % giderim verimi 60 50 40 2 L/dak 4 L/dak 30 8 L/dak 20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 zaman, dak Figure 5. The effect of flow rate on boron removal (4500 mg/L boron concentration, 15 atm pressure) As seen Figure 6, increasing initial boron concentration increased boron removal efficiency. Increasing boron concentration came near to saturation concentration of borate in solution. Therefore, increasing boron concentration increased removal efficiency with the assistance of constant DMSO amount. 80 70 % giderim verimi 60 50 40 30 1500 ppm 20 3000 ppm 10 4500 ppm 0 0 10 20 30 40 zaman, dak Figure 6. The effect ofinitialboron concentration on boron removal efficiency by nanofiltration References [1] Y. Magara, A. Tabata, M. Kohki, M. Kawasaki, M. Hirose, (1998) Development of boron reduction system for sea water desalination, Desalination 118 25–33. [2] S. Sahin, (2002) A mathematical relationship for the explanation of ion exchange for boron adsorption, Desalination 143 35–43. [3] C. Yazbeck, W. Kloppmann, R. Cottier, J. Sahuquillo, G. Debotte, G. Huel, (2005) Health impact evaluation of boron in drinking water: a geographical risk assessment in northern France, Environ. Geochem. Health 27 419–427. [4] D.L. Harp, (1997) Modifications to the azomethine-H method for determining boron in water, Anal. Chim. Acta 346 373–379. 278 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo [5] A.R. Dincer, (2004) Use of activated sludge in biological treatment of boron containing wastewater by fed-batch operation, Process Biochem. 39 723–730. [6] A.E. Yilmaz, R. Boncukcuoglu, M.M. Kocakerim, B. Keskinler, (2005) The investigation of parameters affecting boron removal by electrocoagulationmethod, J. Hazard. Mater. 125 160–165. [7] L. Melnyk, V. Goncharuk, I. Butnyk, E. Tsapiuk, (2005) Boron removal fromnatural and wastewaters using combined sorption/membrane process, Desalination 185 147–157. [8] R.E Linder, (1990), Effects of acute exposure to boric acid on the male reproductive system of the rat. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, 31 133–146. [9] WHO, Guidelines for drinking water quality, 3rd ed., vol. 2, WHO, Geneva, 1998. [10] A.J. Wyness, R.H. Parkman and C. Neal, (2003) A summary of boron surface water quality data throughout the European Union. Sci. Total Environ., 314–316 255–269. [11] A. Sagiv, R. Semiat, (2004) Analysis of parameters affecting boron permeation through reverse osmosis membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 243 79–87. [12] M. Taniguchi, M. Kurihara, S. Kimura, (2001) Boron reduction performance of reverse osmosis seawater desalination process, J. Membr. Sci. 183 259–267. [13] D. Prats, M.F. Chillon-Arias, M. Rodriguez-Pastor, (2000) Analysis of the influence of pH and pressure on the elimination of boron in reverse osmosis, Desalination 128 269–273. [14] J. Redondo, M. Busch, J.-P. De Witte, (2003) Boron removal from seawater using FILMTEC high rejection SWRO membranes, Desalination 156 229–238. [15] Council of European Communities, Directive 98/83. (1998)On the quality of water intended for human consumption. EC Official J., L330–L341. [16] WHO. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, first addendum to third edition, vol. 1, 2006 Recommendations, 3rd ed., WHO, [17] C. Fritzmann, J. Lowenberg, T. Wintgens, T. Melin, (2007) State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination, Desalination 216 1–76. [18] M. Taniguchi, Y. Fusaoka, T. Nishikawa, M. Kurihara, (2004) Boron removal in RO seawater desalination, Desalination 167 419–426. 279 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 481 Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Treatment of Boron Industries Waste Waters by Nanofiltration Author Author Karakas, İbrahim Boncukçuoğlu, Recep Kocakerim, M. Muhtar Yilmaz, Alper E. Abstract A summary of the resource. Turkey has the richest boron reserve in the world. Colemanite and Tincal, which are some of the ores produced in Turkey, are used in the production of Boric Acid and Sodium Perborates, respectively. As a result of this production process, the amount of solid waste and wastewater is quite high and in order for these wastes to not cause different environmental problems, they must either be disposed in some way or the boron they contain must be removed. In this study, the removal of boron from synthetic waters by nanofiltration was investigated. It was investigated operational parameters such as boron feed concentration, pH, pressure and flow rate at boron removal experiments. DMSO was used as complex agent and it was thought that DMSO forms a complex with water. Boron removal was not obtained at experiments, which was not used DMSO. The separation of the solid boron compound was studied in a wide range of conditions by nanofiltration (NF). The best result with DMSO was 290 ppm effluent boron concentration for 3000 ppm influent boron concentration with efficiency of 92%. In the final stage, cross-flow membrane filtration was used for the separation of solid-liquid. The result of this study showed that the boron recovery efficiency was as high as 95% from the wastewater. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)