287 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e3a9f49ae30ccf0038017d963f740ae2.pdf efd4cfd4e274faa2cb67c30fed71cd7a PDF Text Text Who are Our Students? Investigating Learners’ Risk Taking Ability and Achievement on Second Language Acquisition Assiye BURGUCU Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, TURKEY sybrgc@gmail.com Turgay HAN Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, TURKEY turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Ali Osman ENGĐN Kafkas University, Faculty of Education Department of Education Sciences, Kars, TURKEY aosmanengin@gmail.com M. Dursun KAYA Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum, TURKEY dursun@atauni.edu.tr Abstract : Teachers of second language, to be most effective, should be aware of who their students really are. It means that teachers must comprehend diversities among their students in many individual characteristics, such as age, self-esteem, motivation and motivation span, sex, cooperation, competition, language learning techniques, strategies, styles, and the last and one of the distinctive individual characteristics is risk-taking ability. All of these variables are directly related to achievement; however the general purpose of this study is to overview the links between learners’ risk-taking ability and achievement on second language acquisition in a comprehensive manner. The study examines three stages. The first part of this paper presents the general overview of learners’ risk-taking ability and behaviors on language acquisition process and its effects on learners. The second part introduces how it affects achievement, the proportion between risk-taking ability and achievement. The third part of the article is related to advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking on second language teaching. The article concludes with how teachers and learners use this character positively. Key words: Risk-taking ability, L2 learning, achievement, individual differences. “The world lies in the hands of those who have the courage to dream and who take the risk of living out their dreams- each according to his or her own talent.” Paul Coelho �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Introduction The term “risk-taking” is defined “a situation where an individual has to make a decision involving choice between alternatives of different desirability; the outcome of the choice is uncertain; there is a possibility of failure” (Beebe, 1983, p. 39). On the other hand, according to some linguists, they define risk-taking as the ability of being eager and ambitious to experience new information intelligently regardless of embarrassment in linguistics. (cited in Hui-An Yu, 2005). Risk-taking is not only one of the dimensions of individual differences (IDs), but also, it is one of the important parts in second language learning process; moreover, it is a language learning strategy for good language learners who are willing to take risks (cited in Gass & Selinker, 2000). Language learners are willing to understand new knowledge from their teachers; however, how should they communicate or interact with teacher? or how should language teachers understand important learning-related differences among their students? how should they courage and support their students? For students, the answer is taking risk (Dörnyei, 2005, Hui-An Yu, 2005). For teachers, the answer is about encouraging students to take risk (Oxford, 1992). Therefore, in order to reinforce risk-taking, language teachers should organize risk-taking process. Oxford, (1992; p.38) implicated that classroom atmosphere affects learners’ learning process in risktaking situation; “[…] a non-threatening classroom climate, class discussion of fears, individual counseling with inhibited students, and training in strategies that facilitate taking risks (e.g., compensation strategies like guessing or using synonyms). Teachers can help learners relax and not be worried if they do not understand everything right away; and at the same time, they have the ability to assist learners in knowing when and how to take risks, particularly in conversational settings”. It means that it is necessary to develop positive classroom climate and to reinforce risk-taking, [language] teachers should arrange and develop an ample affective framework to overcome learners’ anxiety of learning the target language (Brown, 2000). Table 1 shows that Skehan (1989), and Dörnyei (2005) look insight IDs such as language aptitude, personality, motivation and the other less central IDs. Nevertheless, they have an important role in L2 learning process; for instance, intelligence, self-esteem and “risk-taking” (Ellis, 2008). In the literature, many different studies focused on IDs and second language learning. For example, “Aptitude, attitude and motivation in second language proficiency” by Clement and Kruidenier (1985), “Personality and speech production: a pilot study of second language Learners” by Dewaele and Furnman (2000), “Individual differences in second language learning” by Dörnyei (2005) and Skehan (2003), “Language anxiety and achievement” by Horwitz (1986), and “Risk-taking and language learner” by Beebe (1983). Skehan (1989) Robinson (2002) 1- Language aptitude 1- Intelligence 1- Personality 2-Motivation 2- Motivation 2- Language Aptitude 3-Language learning strategies 4- Cognitive and affective factors: a) extroversion/ introversion b) risk-taking c) intelligence d) field independent e) anxiety 3- Anxiety 3- Motivation 4- Language Aptitude 4- Learning and cognitive strategies 5- Other learner characteristics a) anxiety b) creativity c) willingness to communicate d) self-esteem e) learners beliefs 5-Working memory 6-Age Dörnyei (2005) Table 1: Factors listed as influencing individual learner differences in language learning three surveys Source: Adopted from Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: OUP, p.644 2 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo “Explaining Individual Differences” In this paper we will focus on one particular psychological dimension about risk-taking and its effects on second language learning and achievement. After the review of the literature, we shall discuss advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking ability and how language teachers stimulate their students to be riskier in oral proficiency. The Literature Review Risk-taking behavior appeared in the literature of psychology in 1960s (Kogan & Wallach, 1967), and 1970s (Bem, 1971) and it appeared in literature of linguistics and English as a Second Language (ESL) in 1960s, (Labov, 1969), 1980s (Beebe, 1983, Ely, 1986a). Kogan and Wallach correlated two personality dimensions, motivation and risk-taking behavior to this basis McClelland –Atkinson position, which is a theory of achievement motivation developed by McClelland, Atkinson, Clark and Lowell in 1953, (cited in Beebe, 1983). In this context, Kogan and Wallach (1967) implicates that high motivated persons are prone to achieve moderate but not high risk takers contrary to popular belief. Also Beebe (1983) advocates that “[…] low need achievers, persons who strongly fear failure, and those with a high need for approval, are likely to take courses of action which are extremely risky or extremely conservative. They are less likely to change their risk-taking behavior even when it leads to failure” (p. 41). According to Kogan and Wallach, this theory has been repeatedly tested out and confirmed, however, they do not admit that it controlled for individual differences in skill and studied chance condition. Another study about risk-taking is of Bem (1971) who studied risk-taking behavior through three categories; all of these categories are external as: the situation (e.g.: previous experience), the individual (e.g.: personality factors) and the social setting (e.g.: cultural value for risk) (cited in Beebe, 1983). Studies on language learning and risk-taking are few in number. We turn to examine some research studies literature in linguistics and ESL related to risk-taking. Labov (1969) had a study on black students who never speak teachers in class or during conversational and oral practice. These students and ESL students, who behave like this, are in common. However, we should not label them “nonverbal” (Labov, 1969). Although they are often quite talkative students in their peer groups, they are quiet with their teachers. Their perception of risks involved in oral skill in classroom atmosphere. On the other hand, Beebe (1983, p.43) emphasizes that when students act with their peers, speaking is a low risk – high gain situation. Trimpop (1994) named risk-takers in two characters depending on their base-levels; one of them is “risk-avoider (… Coward) and the other is riskseeker (…Hero). Thus, we can deduce that the risk-avoider students, basically, could be risk-seeker in their peer groups. It depends on atmosphere and situation. Language teachers should know how to behave their students both inside and outside of the class, because it affects students’ risk-taking behavior. Beebe (1983) illustrated that “encouraged dread of risk-taking both in classroom and in natural settings can cause some of negative ramifications, such as a bad trade in the course, a fail on the exam, a scolding from teacher, a sneer from a classmate, punishment or embarrassment either inside the classroom or outside the classroom” (p. 40). It means that the negative factors both inside and outside of the classroom may affect language learners’ intention and aptitude of risk-taking. Moreover, language learners who fear the frequent ambiguities of language learning often suffer reduced risk-taking ability (cited in Beebe, 1983). Because of these important reasons, as Woolfolk (2001) noted and advised that activities can be done in order to increase the confidence of silent students in the classroom; 1. Break instructions into small steps and provide short activities, chosen and sequenced by the teacher. 2. Cover material thoroughly and at a moderate pace, give plenty of practice, immediate feedback and specific praise. 3. Have students work as a whole class so that the teacher can supervise. Avoid individualized, self-paced, or independent work. 4. Maintain a level of difficulty that guarantees high rates of success. 5. Ask convergent questions – one correct answer. 6. Make sure to call on everyone, and stay with a student until a question has been answered. 7. Avoid interpretations, open-ended questions, and non-academic conversations. 8. Emphasize short, frequent paper-and-pencil exercises, not games, arts, craft, discovery or inquiry learning activities (Johannessen, 2003). These activities, especially to improve students’ oral skills, reduce anxiety level, and risk-taking ability improves. Hence, students show that they are not afraid of their possible off beam guesses and as a result take the risk of going wrong (Woolfolk, 2001). Ely (1986a) studied risk-taking behavior of university students and studied the relationship between risk-taking tendencies and classroom participation. At the end of the study, Ely (1986a) found that a correlation 3 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo between risk-taking tendencies and classroom participation, the students’ risk-taking behavior was a positive predictor of students’ voluntary classroom participation. On the other hand, although the correlation of risktaking and participation was high, the relationship with actual success was relatively weak. This result supports the idea that individual differences and personality affect language learning in a specific manner. Personality (risk-taking behavior) does not affect longer tem success (Gass & Selinker, 2000). Besides, Ely (1986b) reported that “the learners with a high level of discomfort were less likely to take risks in class suggesting that high anxiety negatively affected motivation” (Ellis, 2008, p.694). Another study about classroom participation and risk-taking ability, Beebe (1983) tried to find the reason why L2 learners are shyer a second language around peers or classmates from their mother tongue group than around native speaker and teachers is that they perceive the risk of looking foolish as a greater in the presence of peers from their own country. Beebe (1983) presented data from twenty Puerto Rican bilingual (Spanish-English) children who were selected randomly from one school in the New York area. The study maintained in four occasions with these children. The children were interviewed in English once by a bilingual (Spanish dominant) interviewer, once by a monolingual English-speaking interviewer and then again by a bilingual interviewer, but this time the interviewer is English dominant, and once by all three interviewers (in groups of three children). In this context, Gass and Selinker (2000) explains that “Beebe operatically defined risk-taking in terms of a number factors, among them number of attempts to use particular grammatical factors avoidance, amount of talk, amount of information volunteering” (p. 361). At the end of the study, the results showed that risk-taking was the greatest with monolingual interviewer (Gass & Selinker, 2000). It means that taking risks may depend on situation and learners’ willingness, not only with their general type (Beebe, 1983, Gass & Selinker, 2000). Beebe (1983), also states willingness and risk-taking relationship, willing to guess and accurate guesser, willing to appear foolish in order to communicate, willing to use what knowledge they do have of the target language, we know these three strategies from seven general strategies research by Rubin (1975) that the Good Language Learner. Beebe asserts that they are related risk-taking although Rubin does not directly say. For Rubin, these strategies are abilities for poor language learners need to develop. Beebe states that all of these three strategies are related risk-taking, for example willing to guess is a part of risk-taking and willingness to appear foolish is willing to take risk. Beebe also added about motivation which Rubin claims to be second crucial variable in good language learning. The students do not want to look foolish in the classroom and do not take risk. I have practically observed this behavior among some students in my speaking class. Some of my students are silent and look like stressful throughout the lesson. After the lesson, when I asked the reason, why they did not attend the conversations, their explanation about that their friends might laugh them and this situation could disturb their psychology and learning enthusiasm. This is a common student thought about them. However, as Beebe’s cogitation, “willingness to appear foolish is willing to take risk.” Willingness is a part of risk-taking. Advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking on second language teaching When we see again Skehan (1989), Robinson (2002), Dörnyei (2005) researches about individual differences table, we can realize that risk-taking behavior is one of the personality - cognitive - affective factors. It is clear that all of these factors are correlated each other like a chain. For instance, “extrovert students tend to participate more in classroom interactions, worry less about accuracy and have a tendency to take risks with their language, all of which are assets when it comes to communicative oral competence” (Kelly, 2004). Extroversion may well have a role to play in the development of oral skills. Last of all, these students are motivated, have less anxiety and are in an advantaged position while L2 learning process. However, introvert students have some problems about L2 learning, because they have anxiety of speaking inhibition themselves and anxiety causes ambiguousness. So, risk-taking is related to competitiveness and in these kinds of situation, risk-taking may cause anxiety; anxiety may encourage or discourage risk taking; and inference, insofar as it involves an element of guesswork, is a risk-taking activity. For these reasons, some students keep in the background while risk-takers have chance to speak, attend to the lesson, be more active, learn better etc. Shortly, sometimes risk-taking behavior brings disadvantaged position for some students who are mostly introvert. Consequently, “the advantage for a learner is to motivate them to learn language and increase their imagination; the disadvantage for a learner is to deduce theory impulsively” (Hui-An Yu, 2005, p.9). Discussion and Conclusion In the conclusion, risk-taking ability effects L2 learning in many ways and has a significant role in L2 acquisition, risk-taking ability is associated with success in second language teaching (Emerson, 2005) and it 4 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo affects oral proficiency (Beebe, 1983, Ely, 1986b, Gass & Selinker, 2000; Johannessen, 2003, Kelly, 2004, Labov, 1969, Hui-An Yu, 2005). Teachers should establish an encouraging class atmosphere in their classes to reveal risk takers. Oxford (1992) noted that “risk-taking ability, though sometimes considered inherent character traits, can be developed through a nonthreatening classroom climate, class discussion of fears, individual counseling with inhibited students, and training in strategies that facilitate taking risks (e.g., compensation strategies like guessing or using synonyms)” (p. 38). Language teachers should be aware of who their students are, what are the individual differences among their students. Because, learners need teacher’s reward and respect to boost their learning style. If the teachers assure this atmosphere in their classes, learners are not afraid of being blamed and humiliated, also, they can be risk-takers in many situations when they talk and share their ideas, they will take part in the class willingly and do well on L2 acquisition unconsciously. Researches suggest that language learners should take moderate but intelligent risks to learn L2 better, for instance “guessing meanings based on background knowledge and speaking up despite the possibility of making occasional mistakes, rather than taking no risks at all or taking extreme, uninformed risks” (Oxford, 1992, p. 38). In many research shown, the key point to accomplish L2 learning, be sure the personality differences among learners, classroom should be student-centered and being a risk taker in many situations, because an outgoing and risk-taking person inclining to take advantage of learning the language. Further research may search relationship between the strategies language learning and risk-taking they feel might help the learners to become more effective in their learning experience and also researching may be done with questionnaires or the whole year (in the first and second term) language teacher may observe his/her speaking class (for speaking skill), but firstly, at the beginning of the year, she makes an interview in English with the students about English, its difficulties, personal differences and then at the end of the year , she may ask the same questions (make the same interview) to the students. Between these two terms, most probably, teacher, also students realize the differences. Results may show us “risk avoiders” or “risk seekers” (Trimpot, 1994). References Bebee, L.M. (1983). Risk-taking and language learner. In Seliger H.W & Long M.L. Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House: 36-66. Bem, D.J. (1971). The concept of risk in the study of human behavior. In R.E. Carvey (Ed.), Risk-taking behavior Springfield, III : Charles, C. Thomas. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. NY: Addison-Wesley. Clément, R. & Kruidenier, B.G. (1985). Aptitude, attitude and motivation in second language proficiency: a test of Clément's model. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 21-37. Dewaele, J-M., & Furnham, A. (2000). Personality and speech production: A pilot study of second language learners. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 355-365. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Longman. Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. In Doughty C. and Long M. (Eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ellis, R. (2003). Second language acquisition. Oxford: OUP. Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: OUP. Ely, C. (1986a). An analysis of discomfort, risk taking, sociability and motivation in L2 classroom. Language learning 36: 1-25 Ely, C. (1986b). Language learning motivation: a descriptive and casual analysis. The Modern language Journal. 70: 28-35 Emerson D. C. (2005). English 418-Course notes. session twelve. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from California State University Bakersfield website: http://www.csubak.edu/~ecase/Session_12_notes.htm. Johannessen, L. R. (2003). The Clearing House 77: Achieving Success for the Resistant Student. 1, 6-1 Retrieved March 28, 2010 from Education Full Text. 5 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Gass, S.M., & Selinker, L. (2000). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (2nd Ed.). Retrieved March 25, 2010 from. Horwitz, E., M. Horwitz & J. Cope. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 2: 125-132. Hui-An Yu, C., & McCarty, K. (2005). How risk-takers succeed on second language acquisition. Retrieved April 12, 2010 from http://it.snhu.edu/EFL-537/yuhuian/EFL%20501/How%20Risktakers%20Succeed%20on%20SLA.doc Horwitz, E. (2001). Language A-anxiety and achievement. Annual review of applied linguistics. 21: 112-26 Horwitz, E., Horwitz M., & J. Cope. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 2: 125-132. Kelly, M. (2004). Taking account of affective learner differences in the planning and delivery of languagecourses for open, distance and independent learning. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from University of Southampton website: http://www.lang.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/resourcesitem.aspx.resourceid=1315. Kogan, N. & Wallach, M. A. (1967). Risk Taking as a function of the situation, the person, and the group. New directions in psychology III. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Kelly, M. (2004). Taking account of affective learner differences in the planning and delivery of language courses for open, distance and independent learning. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from University of Southampton website: http://www.lang.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/resourcesitem.aspx.resourceid=1315, Labov, W. (1969). The Logic of Nonstandard English. Georgetown Monographs on Language and Linguistics, Vol. 22:1-31. McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., 4 Lowell, E. L. (1953). The Achievement Motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Oxford, R. (1992). Who are our students? A synthesis of Foreign and Second Language Research on Individual Differences with Implications for Instructional Practice. TESL Canada Journal, 9, 2: 30-48. Robinson, P. (2002). “Learning conditions, aptitude complexes and SLA: A Framework for research and pedagogy” in P. Rubin, J. (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51. Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second and foreign language learning. London: Edward Arnold. Trimpop, R. M. (1994). Advanced in psychology, the psychology of risk-taking behavior. Holland: Acid Free Paper: 48-51. Woolfolk, A. (2001). Motivation: issues and explanations. In educational psychology (8th Ed.), Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 320 Title A name given to the resource Who are Our Students? Investigating Learners’ Risk Taking Ability and Achievement on Second Language Acquisition Author Author BURGUCU, Assiye HAN, Turgay ENGİN, Ali Osman KAYA, M. Dursun Abstract A summary of the resource. Teachers of second language, to be most effective, should be aware of who their students really are. It means that teachers must comprehend diversities among their students in many individual characteristics, such as age, self-esteem, motivation and motivation span, sex, cooperation, competition, language learning techniques, strategies, styles, and the last and one of the distinctive individual characteristics is risk-taking ability. All of these variables are directly related to achievement; however the general purpose of this study is to overview the links between learners’ risk-taking ability and achievement on second language acquisition in a comprehensive manner. The study examines three stages. The first part of this paper presents the general overview of learners’ risk-taking ability and behaviors on language acquisition process and its effects on learners. The second part introduces how it affects achievement, the proportion between risk-taking ability and achievement. The third part of the article is related to advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking on second language teaching. The article concludes with how teachers and learners use this character positively. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b933193cc7c0eb4a71ad92f8001034a3.pdf 4e9c0141c2e7ab43c430ea1ce021b866 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Border Matters and Border Determination Studies Between the Provinces of Montenegro and Kosovo after the Berlin Pact Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hasan Babacan Afyon Kocatepe University Faculty of Science and Letters History Department babacan@aku.edu.tr Introduction Today, Gusinye ve Pleve are within the borders of Montenegro State and placed in the north-east part of the country†††††††††††††††††††††. These lands shape the west part of Kosovo. During the reign of Abdülhamid II., Gusinye and Plave which bound to Kosovo were the provinces of Đpek Sub-province, it had great importance as; at one side it forms some part of the Montenegro - Ottoman border, on the other side, it forms the Kosovo Montenegro Province’s borders. For Ottoman State 19th century was such a period that its effects continued many years. Particularly at the end of the Ottoman-Russia War in 1877, at first in Ayastefanos and then in Berlin Pact, Albanians in Kosovo and Ottoman borders reacted these two provinces are given to the Montenegro State. According to the 28th article of the Berlin Pact, the lands of Montenegro expand one time as much, but with Berlin Pact, it is forced to give back some parts of the lands which are gained at Ayastefanos Treaty. Piva, Nişnik, Kolaşin, Podgoriça, Jabliak, Đşbuz (Spuz) and near the Bar Port, including the provinces of Kosovo, these wide lands Gusinye and Plave, are in the borders of Montenegro‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. a- Gusinje and Plave’s giving to the Montenegro and Kosovo’s Reaction Gusinye and Pleve are generally formed with Albanians. For this reason, They don’t accept to be a part of Montenegro and resisted§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. The Christian Albanians living that region are not pleased to be abandoned to the Montenegro like Muslim Albanians**********************. As a matter of fact, they rebel after a few years††††††††††††††††††††††. The organization of the Albanian and Kosovo Albanians raise after Berlin Pact. In July 1878, an organization established which is called ‘Albanian League ‘including Kosovo Albanian members, so that in order not to give Gusinye and pleve to the Montenegro, they armed. When Montenegro acts to take the control of the lands which they own with the pact, they face with the resistance of the Albanians and forced to go back‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. After that Montenegro consults to the states which have signatures in Berlin Pact and complain the attitudes of Ottoman. In the declaration which is sent to the international commission, come together to determine Ottoman State and Montenegro, it is said that ‘Without the consent of Albanian, no Albanian land can be transferred’ but European States are continued to be ‘deaf ‘ to these protests. Albanians in Kosova Province are sad about their lands to be given Montenegro, Greece and Sırbia. They start to think that their lands are dispersed and sacrified to the use of Balkan States§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. On the other hand, muslims and christian Albanians in Kosovo State, in order to preserve their religion and ††††††††††††††††††††† Today Gusinje is a unit connected to plave. Prime ministry otoman archieves, Sadanet Muhimme Kalemi Evrakı (A.MKT.MHM) Nihat Erim Internatıonal law and politics passages. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ In spite of treaty Judgements, this place remained as a unit of ottomans until 1913. Yılmaz Öztuna: our losing European Turkey, Losing Rumeli,Babıali Kültür Yayıncılığı. Đst. 2006 pages 62-68. ********************** 4 M.S Anderson The Eastern Question 1774-1923 Macmillian, London 1966 pages 221. †††††††††††††††††††††† Besim Darkot “ Montenegro” encyclopedia of Islam C.6, MEB Ankara pages 226-227. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Constantine A. Chekrezi, Albania Past and Present, McMillan Company, NY 1919, p. 51. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Constantine A. Chekrezi, Đbid, p. 52. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ 459 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo nationalistic thoughts, declared that they want to be in the borders of Otoman State and they tell their wishes to Abdulhamid on this matter. ‘States and the sub-states where Albanians live should be united under the roof of one state and to manage the state somebody who is talented should be appointed.’ The Kosovo Albanians who wish ‘States and the sub-states where Albanians live should be united under the roof of one state and to manage the state somebody who is talented should be appointed.’ declared that if not so, they’ll completely lose Albanians and this means the end of Ottoman State in Rumeli. Kosovo representatives also declared they wish Abdulhamid to form an organization ‘komisyon-ı ali ‘to find a solution to this matter***********************. While the gossip of bad treat is being done to the Muslims in Montenegro spreads, The Kosovo Albanians who don’t want to prefer Gusinye to Montenegro†††††††††††††††††††††††, ın November 1879 established an organization called ‘Yakova Cemiyyet-i Đttihadiyesi” and with the assistance of the citizens try to raise the number of the members of the organization‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In 2nd of Nov 1879, they establish Prizren Heyet-i Đttihâdiyesi in Prizen. The organization which aims to unite the Albanians, if not so they declare, they’ll not accept any renovation. Prizren Heyet-i Đttihâdiyesi which is bound to Kosovo State, by arranging The Albanian soldiers, they decide to defend Yakova, Đpek and Gusinye provinces from the Karada𧧧§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. It can be seen that Ottoman State is under the pressure of two sides. At one side as for the treaty signs with great nations they are forced to go back from the lands which are given to Montenegro, on the other side, they face with the resistance of Albanians. Otaman State, at first, decides not to give any chance to the organizations which struggle for ‘freedom’************************. This decision is both for to calm down the great nations and to give a thought that a solution to these matters is aimed. Montenegro wants to carry this attitdue of Otoman who is late to abondon Gusinye and Plave, to the international platform. b- Being Sent of Mehmet Ali Pasha’ and Nasihat Heyeti Otoman State sent Mehmet Ali Pasha to the region in order to pasify Kosovo Albanians by giving advices to them, to make studies in order to make them unarmed and to give the lands to Sırbia and Montenegro according to the articles of Berlin Pact††††††††††††††††††††††††. On the other hand Mehmet Ali Pasha announced to the Prince of Montenegro for his being appointed to the region as superintended of police‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In addition, Mehmet Ali Pasha§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§, who will determine the borders of Ottoman - Montenegro to the Kosovo, meet with the governor and president of Albania and try to tell the aims and orders of the Ottoman State*************************. Mehmet Ali Pasha who meet the governors of Đşkodra, Debre, Priştine, Đpek, Yakova and the other provinces in Prizen tell them that, Gusinyeli Ali Pasha’s acts are not wright and this Albanian alliance force should be seperated urgently†††††††††††††††††††††††††. Mehmet Ali Pasha goes from Prizen to Yakova and he causes about two thousand Albanian to meet in 6th of September. At that time, he is shot at Abdullah Pasha’s mansion‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. The soldiers with Mehmet Ali Pasha who are almost composed of Albanians, avoid shooting to their own citizens§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. Albanians, with the leadership of governor *********************** Yıldız Perakende Evrâkı Arzuhal ve Jurnaller (YPRK AZJ), 1/25. BOA, Yıldız Hususi (YAHUS), 162/81. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YAHUS, 162/103. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Prominent people of Cosova, Debre, Pristine, Prizren, Uskup, Yenipazar, Yonya, Ergiri, and Berat Sanjaks gathered in Maraş Tekke. BOA, YPRK MYD, 2/1-3-4. ************************ BOA, Yıldız Parakende Başkitabet (YPRK BŞK), 2/36. †††††††††††††††††††††††† Fahir Armaoğlu; 19th century history of politics 1789 – 1914, TTK Ank. 2003, p. 540. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, ĐMMS, 59/2772, Mehmet Ali Pasha was known as Maxhari Ali Pasha in Albaniç. Peter Bartl; Albanian Muslims during national independence struggles. Trans. Ali Taner, Bedir Yay Đst.1998 page 203. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Born in Prution Brandeburg, Mehmet Ali Pasha raan away to Istanbul when he was 15 and became a Muslim. After he graduated from military school, Mehmet Ali Pasha commanded the Tuna west army with the rank of Muşir in 1875. Mehmet Ali Pasha was appointed as the second Murahhas with Karato dori Pasha in Berlin treaty. Süleyman Külçe Albania in otoman history. Izmir 1944 page 257. Mehmet Ali Pasha is the grandfather of poet Nazım Hikmet. ************************* BOA, Foreign ministry politics parts (HR,SYS), 126/22. ††††††††††††††††††††††††† BOA,YPRK.A, 2/10. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Süleyman Külçe, Đbid pages 257. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuad Türkgeldi; Mesâil-i Mühimme-i Siyâsiyye, TTK, Ankara 1987, p. 137; Peter Bartl; ibid, p. 203. ††††††††††††††††††††††† 460 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo of Yakova killed Mehmet Ali Pasha and Abdullah Pasha**************************, as they think that they betray their thoughts††††††††††††††††††††††††††. While Albanians go well together, Prince Nikola wants Podgoriçe and Đşboz Castles to be given to Montenegro in his telegraph‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Montenegro Governor declared with his order to Bab-ı Ali that, if the lands are not un-settled in ten days, Montenegro army will enter Gosine§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. Before the Montenegro governors negotiate the matter of Gosine and Plave’s abandonment, solving by the European Commission is thought***************************. Bab-ı Ali tells the Muslim citizens to abandon the lands. There will be given lands in Đşkodra, Manastır and the villages in Kosovo to the citizens who are volunteer to migrate and they’ll not pay any tax†††††††††††††††††††††††††††. It is clear that the crime of Mehmet Ali Pasha proved Albanians being decided in the matters of Gosine and Plave. It is not seen easy for both Albanians and Montenegro citizens to give up armed struggle by advice. The insisted attitudes of Montenegro makes the situations hard. It shouldn’t be forgotten that Mehmet Ali Pasha is one of the people who has signature in the Berlin Pact‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. And this is one of the reason why Albanians feel anger to Mehmet Ali Pasha so much. The crime of Mehmet Ali Pasha makes Montenegro anxious. Montenegro starts to act to enter Gosine. Gosine people even start any preparation for the defense. When it is heard that Albanians in Đpek and Yakova go to region in large numbers for to defense, in order not to make the situation hard, the governor of monastery and 3rd army commander Müşir Ahmet Muhtar Pasha is sent to Gosine, immediately. If it is not possible to go there, he wants to go to Prizen§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. It is a fact of Abdulhamid’s being silent towards the Kosovo Albanians. With this reason Abdülhamid can find an excuse to great countries why the lands, which should be given to Montenegro, are not abandoned****************************. As the offer of the lands where Albanians live, should be united isn’t accepted by the government, Albanians arm approximately 10.000 people. With the management of Ali Pasha by uniting 12 flags, they attack Anderviça Church. While Montenegro is announcing his anxiety first with the help of Russia and then the other great states, at the same time with the management of Mark Milan, attacks to Ali Pasha with for about 10-15 thousand people and turned to apply the articles of Berlin Pact. Ali Pasha who is supported by Albanians from the Ipek, Gaç, Kristic, and in Pepic and Nisnik collide with Montenegro in bloody wars††††††††††††††††††††††††††††. On 4th December 1879, in spite of Ottoman State, Kosovo Albanians and the Montenegro People who do not want to give their lands, come face to face in Novic – Velika. The Albanians with the leadership of Ali Pasha, fights against the Montenegro Army, and forced them to go up to Andrijevica. Upon losing the battle, Montenegro people become aware of the difficulty of occupying Gusine and Plave by force‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In conclusion, the Ottoman Albanians, living in the lands abandoned to Montenegro, are decisive not to give their lands. At this point there are to alternatives to be done. First one is, to persuade the Albanians, the second one is to convince the great states to accept another alternative. As the other ones except these can cause new divisions and wars. At this point the most peaceful way, admonition, is chosen. ************************** A great rage occured among the Albanians against Mehmet Ali Pasha. However later, this hostility vanished and the tomb of Mehmet Ali Pasha was transformed in to a turbe Süleyman kani irtem. Macedonia issue Temel Yayınları, Istanbul 1999, p. 132. †††††††††††††††††††††††††† Nicolae Jorga: History of Ottoman Empire Yeditepe Yayınları. Trans.: Nilüfer Epçeli. After he was wounded, Mehmet Ali Pasha`s head was separated from his body and put on a stick. It was showed for three days. A tomb was made for him in 1897. Süleyman Külçe, Đbid, page 259. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, Yıldız Esas Evrakı (YEE), 100 /1. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuad Turkgeldi; Đbid, p. 137. *************************** BOA,YAHUS, 160/28. ††††††††††††††††††††††††††† Peter Bartl; Đbid. p. 204. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 260. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuad Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 137. **************************** However, these societies are known to have an important role in establishing the Albanian Kingdom. Mustafa L. Bilge “Albania”, TDVIA, V: 3 ist 1991, page 386. †††††††††††††††††††††††††††† Süleyman Külçe: Đbid 247-248. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Peter Bartl: Đbid page 204. 461 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo On the other hand, Montenegro Prince announces, if Kosovo Muslims surrender, they will be behaved humanly, but if not, he declared they’ll be behaved unjustly§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. Montenegro general Bojo Petroviç claims that, Kosovo people in Gusinje and Plave are directly supported by Babı-ali and Ahmet Muhtar Pasha gives 500 riffles and a lot of ammunition to Gusinyeli Ali Pasha*****************************. As for new events strike out, Ottoman’s attention should be taken in a proper way before it is too late†††††††††††††††††††††††††††††. Also Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s being sent to the region again doesn’t make it possible to gain not the Kosovo Albanians but Albanian Albanians‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Ahmet Muhtar Pasha aims to accept his advises to Albanians for not to shed blood in vain and give up rebellion, so he’ll do this with words instead of using force. Ahmet Muhtar Pasha says to Albanians that, whose lands are given to Montenegro people, you can immigrate to Prizen, Kosovo, Đşkodra, Manastır and Ergiri and you’ll be settled to farms in these lands, you’ll be given seeds and machines for agriculture. Even it is said that they are free from tax for a few years, finding a solution to the matter with advise and peace method doesn’t work§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. c- Italy’s mediation instead of Gusinye and Plave Gruda, Klemendi and Hot’s being given to Montenegro: Kont Corti Pact Montenegro delegate Voyvoda Gabroye is in Đstanbul and he urgently wants to go his hometown. The reason is it is understood that as because of the article of Gusinye, Montenegro people want to start a war. The transmission of some materials to the region is started. Prince Nicola send the message to abandon Gusinye in 34 days, if not so Montenegro army’ll enter Gusinye. Also Montenegro who sent nato to great states send their complaints. He wants Ottoman State to pay 2 billion Frank as indemnity and up to fulfill the articles of Berlin Pact completely, he declares that he seizures the possessions of the Muslims who immigrate from the lands which are abandoned to Montenegro******************************. Ottomans effect on Albanians becomes lesser as; Mehmet Ali Pasha’s being killed who is sent to Albania to find a solution and then instead of him Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s been sent and his struggles come out with no result. It should be declared that; Mostly, Italy interests the national development in Albania. As Italy, who afraid of the situation, knows Austria has potential to interfere in Albania, so immediately in the side of the problems being solved between Ottoman State and Montenegro. How earlier it is solved, much better it will be††††††††††††††††††††††††††††††. After Albanians reacted for Gusinye and Pleve’s been given to Montenegro, on 2nd April in 1880 the member countries’ leaders of Berlin Pact start to think about the matter. Italian representative Kont Corti who mediates between Ottoman and Montenegro, offers to give Gruda, Hot and Klemendi instead of Gusinye and Plave, because Gruda, Hot and Klemendi are mostly formed by Catholic Albanians. Finally, it is accepted to leave Hot, Gruda and Klemendi to Montenegro. According to the treatment called Kont Corti‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡; 1- Border starts from Vakroçi up to the lake. It passes the lake and goes between the Kasrati and Hoti Lakes, then passes the top of Tuzi and Hoti Mountains and reaches the River of Zam. It goes through the river of Zam and climb foot of Goliş and following the tops of Yenzika Mountain by passing the Vermos Valley reach the top of the Stovica Mountain. The border passing from the top of Libovica Zerintin ends with by leaving Kerya to Montenegro and Okra Plantya to Ottoman State. 2- These lands will be abandoned 10 days after the treaty. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, YAHUS, 163/30. ***************************** Beitullah Destani (Ed.) “Mr. Kirby Green to Marques of Salisbury 17 January 1880 Cettinje” Montenegro: Political And Ethnic Boundaries 1840–1920, Volume I, Cambridge University Press Archive Editions, Wilts 2001 UK, p. 640. ††††††††††††††††††††††††††††† BOA, Yıldız Perakende Evrakı Elçilik, Şehbenderlik Ve Ataşemiliterlik (YPRKEŞA), 2/11. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Armaoğlu; Đbid, p. 540. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 138; BOA, Đradeler Meclis-i Mahsus (ĐMMS), 66 /3104. ****************************** Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 138. †††††††††††††††††††††††††††††† Armaoğlu Đbid page 540-541. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ For the whole text of the treaty look at Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid, page 353-356. 462 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 3- 24 hours before the evacuation Montenegro informs Podgorica Commanders, so that Ottoman Commanders can pass at that hour. After the evacuation, Ottoman State does not be responsible with the events in these abandoned lands. 4- People keep remaining their possessions in these abandoned lands. But it is told by the Sultan, who wants to immigrate should already tell where they want from Ciftligat-ı Hümayun in Kosovo and Monastery. Nikola, the Prince of Montenegro accepts the treaty and via Ambassador of Cetine sends his thanks to II. Abdulhamid. With the help of a published declaration§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§, the matter, between the Foreign Minister of Ottoman Sava Pasha and Charge of the Affairs of Montenegro Gavro Vaucovitch, is solved on 12th of April. So that, the border is determined with the leadership of Kont Corti and the treaty which carries the same name with him. It is accepted by the states and which have signatures in the Berlin Pact, and it is made valid in a protocol on 18th of April*. On May 1880, Iskodra’s governor and commander sends a notification to Đzzet Pasha in order to make Albanians abandon Tuz and Hot†. As it is understood from the articles, Christian Albanians are shown the possible element for giving Hot, Grude and Klemend instead of Gosine and Pleve. That is; It is supposed that, Christian Albanians do not have any matter with Christian Montenegro Citizens. Nothing happens as Kont Corti has foresighted. When the citizens of Hot and Gruda receives such an information, they start to act and 26 people composed of olds and the leaders of aşiret, sends Kirby Green a letter and express that they give a signal of resistance by saying ‘they will fight till the last drop their blood’‡. The citizens of Hot, Gruda Ksatrat, Đşkirek and Repol declare that they’ll struggle with Montenegro people, so reacted to the decision and on 4th April they send an article to representatives of the six states. In this article by protesting the occupation; ‘For centuries we are devoted to our Sultan with obedience and faith. We are proud as we live our independence. We’ll fight everybody whoever changes our situation.’§ The leaders of tribes in Hot, Gruda and Klemendi come together and with ‘Besa Oath’∗ they give the signals of they’ll struggle. Telegraphs are send to Đşkodra, Prizen, Đpek, Yakova, Debre, Elbasan and Tirana and asked for help**. They sent a manifesto to II. Abdulhamid on 10th April 1880 and again they take their desire of autonomy to agenda. II. Abdulhamid refused their offer. Abdulhamid do not completely refuse the Albanians by not accepting their autonomy offer. He sends a telegraph to Albanians with aiming to show favors. In his telegraph he says he knows how Albanians are devoted to himself††. He expressed his good feelings to them and even giving a small portion of land gives sorrow to him but they do that because of the forceful effect of the policy. If the Albanians who have faith to Ottoman State, and love their religion and state, should leave Hot and Klemendi to the Karadağ Government. If the citizens cease from their rights in these lands, they’ll be given some lands and inhabitances in Ciflikat-ı Humayun which has the same value‡‡. They will be exempt from some responsibilities§§. So they’ll keep themselves, Albanians and also Ottoman State from a great danger. If they insist on not abandoning Hot and Klemendi, they cause danger for the state and warns them by saying you come face to face God’s and his own torture. He gives morale to §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Armaoğlu, Đbid page 540-541. According to our research Hot Gruda, Klemendi and virmoş valley are the places that were intended to leave to Montenegro with the treaty of cant Corti. For the whole text of treaty signed by Düvel-i Muazzama Murahhas Look at Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid page 357 Beitullah Destani; Đbid V.2 page 65-67 * BOA, YPRK BŞK, 2/71. † Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 261. ‡ § Beitullah Destani ; Đbid, Volume I, s 628-629. Peter Bartl; Đbid, p. 205. ∗ Besa, an Albanian word, means Albanian swearing. At the same time, it means the treaty made between the bloody hostiles through swearing. Ottoman language dictionary “Besa” ** Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 261. †† Abdin Temizer: Ottoman-Montenegro border disagreements and solution, On dokuz Mayıs University, SBE unissued master`s thesis, consultant Ass. Prof. Mucize Ünlü. ‡‡ Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid page, 146 §§ YAHUS, 164/57, 17 ca 1297, (27.04.1880). 463 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Albanians whose lands are given to Montenegro by saying ‘you’ll gain the lands again with the help of God and Our Prophet which you have to abandon, don’t lose your hope.’*** According to Corti Treaty by considering the borders between Ottoman and Montenegro†††, it is started to the solution of the matter and carrying out the articles of the barter. Also the military and material needs for the evacuation are provided‡‡‡. Ghazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha demands soldiers in order to fight against the terrorists§§§. He gives the order of making Albanians accept the border which is determined in Corti Traty by advise if not with help of soldiers by force. It is explained that they’ll be given lands from Hümayun farms and other places. Besides, in order not to cause any problem it is desired what need to do****. But, Albanians tell Ferik Necip Pasha that they’ll not accept the advice committee††††. In conclusion, at least Ottoman State tries to give a sense of faith to treaty and ready to do what’s necessary, it is not easy to solve the problem. It comes out that the plan that Italy puts forward with great hopes doesn’t work. The insistent acts of Albanians require to think Berlin Pact, again. In the region Abdulhamid’s struggles to find a peaceful solution is in vain because of Albanians an insistent thought. d- England’s Efforts, Ülgün’s Exchange With Gusinye and Plava Upon the Kont Corti Treaty is out of use, a solving plan is put forward by England. The article comes forth,as before European ambassadors give a note to Ottoman, if the submission of the lands ,which are determined in Berlin Pact, are not taken in, it is thought to give Ülgün instead of these lands. As it is known by the Albanians that it impossible to abandon that note which is published August 1878, different alternatives are applied‡‡‡‡. In 2 years time, liberal party is in power. The leadership is done by William Gladstone who is known with his Turk hostility. A great deal of changes occur in England’s political aspects about Turkey. This worries Abdulhamid§§§§. The prime minister of England Gladstone makes great efforts to protect the rights of the small countries especially Montenegro*****. But this offer is given up since it may cause a new crisis in the Balkans. In short, with Glindstone period England’s policy changes towards Ottoman. It is a period of breaking Ottoman State instead of protecting it†††††. In Kont Corti Treatment which is done with Italy’s moderation on 12th April 1880, England’s Foreign Affairs Minister Lord Grandville‡‡‡‡‡ who seen Ottoman State responsible with the problems, prepares an offer pack and present it to great countries which consists of Montenegro’s legal wishes§§§§§. Gladstone, who declares that carrying out some articles of Berlin Pact is a European crisis, wishes for from the six states to give a memorandum to Ottoman State via their ambassadors. Gladstone wants to be carried out the agreements in Montenegro and Greece and he puts forward Albanians to be given autonomy. The agreement is send via the ambassadors to Babı-Ali on 11th June 1880******. It is also added that Ottoman himself will responsible from the bad results delaying to carrying out the agreement††††††. Ottoman is accused of not pertaining the Kont Corti Pact and ignoring Albanian’s invasion of the lands, which are given to Montenegro. On the memorandums which Ambassadors of the great states one by one give to Babı-ali, it is also expressed that Ottoman will be responsible *** Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 146-146. BOA, YPRK UM, 1/102. ‡‡‡ BOA, YPRK.KOM, 2/75. §§§ BOA, YEE, 147/12. **** BOA, YEE, 101/16. †††† BOA, YAHUS, 164/160. ‡‡‡‡ BOA, YEE, 101/15. §§§§ Britain, having pursued a “Turcophil” policy was highly agitated because of the otoman attitude during Bulgarian revolt. The British public turned against Turks after Gladstone published “Bulgarian Horrors and the question of the East” and issued 200 thousand copies. M.S Anderson Đbid, page 221-184. ***** Joan Haslip; Unknown Soultan IInd Abdulhamid, IQ Kültür Sanat Yay. Ist. 2001 Trans: Nejdet Öztürk, page 190. ††††† Armaoğlu; Đbid, p. 541. ‡‡‡‡‡ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 144. §§§§§ BOA, YAHUS, 164/83. ****** BOA, YAHUS, 165/22. †††††† Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 144. ††† 464 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo for any conflict between Albanians and Montenegro and it is wished Corti Pact to be applied‡‡‡‡‡‡. Because of the unavoidable resistance of Kosovo Albanians in in Gusinye and Pleve, England declares that Montenegro and Ottoman should come together immediately to solve the problem. They come together in Berlin and discuss with the matters Montenegro and Greece on 16th June 1880§§§§§§. England’s Cabinet finds an alternative solution to the border matter between Ottoman and Montenegro on 26th of 1880. For this reason; these lands should be abandoned to Montenegro, which are Hot and Grode lands between Adriatic Sea and Iskodra which comprises Ülgün and upto the river Boyona. In order to lessen the reactions of the Albanians it is offered to establish an autonomic Albanian State which is again connected to the Ottoman, but it is refused. Instead of this, it is wished some means to some extend satisfy the legal inclinations of Albanians and give them some administrational discriminations*******. In spite of all the facts, Ottoman State prefers Corti Pact to 26th June offer. It insists on carrying out these decisions as it’ll be better for Ottoman State to carry out the responsibilities in Corti Pact on 18th April. Because as it is seen if these are not carried out, great states don’t mind Montenegro’s invading Ülgün†††††††. On 18th August Abidin Pasha gives a reply to representatives of six states and he wants border determination Agreements to be organized. Also he declares that he prefers Ülgün’s being abandon instead of Gosine and Plave. Because of England’s Gladstone policy six states send Ülgün a navy. Ottoman State who knows using force results in bad consequences and this is not true for religious and political morals, force his own citizens to bind a government which they don’t want‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. The navy reached to Ülgün on September 1880 and spends about 2 months there§§§§§§§. This is only a kind of warning and threat. As it is ordered to captains not to shoot. This threats works and Albanians, who do not want to give Ülgün to Montenegro starts to resist. Ottoman State’s unhurried actions and instead of forcing Albanians, trials of convincing them delay Ülgün’s being abandoned. England becomes angry about Ottoman’s these inconsiderate attitudes and offers to invade Đzmir with Russia and Italy. Gladstone’s this offer is refused by Germany, Austria and France********. Abdulhamid doesn’t believe that they will give an end to the navy show, which is given after ülgün abandoned. He says; the aim of great nations is to make Ottoman state just a land, for this reason it is difficult to take a written guarantee††††††††. So, it stated that instead of gosine and plave, ülgün can be abandoned in certain conditions‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In Berlin Pact the possessions and religions are already taken under guarantee§§§§§§§§. The reason of Abdulhamid’s wish to take such a guarantee is the obligations of the six states, which make a navy show, and the worry about the Yanya matter*********. Ottoman State, with the decision of Meclis-I Vükela gives Rıza Pasha an order and for this reason††††††††† Rıza Pasha immediately goes to the region with a six battalion soldier on 10th October ‡‡‡‡‡‡ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 358. Armaoğlu; Đbid, p. 541. ******* For the whole text of the passage look at Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid page 364 Darkot, Đbid article, page 227. ††††††† BOA, YEE, 101/23. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ For the whole text of the document look at Ali Fuat Türkgeldi: Đbid page 368-369. §§§§§§§ Francis Seymour Stevenson; A History Of Montenegro, Elibron Classics, London 2005, p. 202; BOA, YPRK ASK, 4/49. ******** BOA, YPRK. ASK, 4/36; Constantine A. Chekrezi, Đbid page 53; The six country fleet anchored to Dubrounik consisted of 3 french, 2 British, 2 Austrain, 2 Đtalian, 1 Russian and 1 German ships. Peter Bantl; Đbid page 207-208, Armeoğlu; Đbid page 542. †††††††† Soultan IInd Abdulhamit Han. “Detect” V.2 memleket görüşlerim, çağır yay. Đst. 1976, p. 76-77. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YEE, 76/83. §§§§§§§§ BOA, YPRK HR, 5/35. ********* Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 157. ††††††††† BOA, YEE, 101/29. §§§§§§ 465 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1880‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. On the other hand the time is up which is stated by Admiral Simon to give Ülgün§§§§§§§§§. These decisions are prepared by Meclis-I Vükela********** and they are presented to great nations††††††††††. Ottoman State decides to use force to Albanians for to abandon Ülgün and sends Müşir Derviş Pasha as the magnificent commandor who is in Selonika, in order to send Albanian forces out of Ülgün‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Dervis Pasha with 1300 soldiers come to the Ülgün by using Istanbul and Mecidiye Ships§§§§§§§§§§. Upon this order, Dervis Pasha comes from Đskodra to Ülgün with Ottoman soldiers and gives an end to rebellion by using force on 23rd November 1880. With the demand of an officer from Montenegro, an agreement is prepared with Ottoman officer Bedri Bey and Montenegro citizens entered Ülgün*********** at the night of connecting 26th to 27th November in 1880†††††††††††. At the same night Düvel-i Sitte‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ ambassadors are informed by Asım Pasha and the navy’s showing of is ended on 5th December 1880§§§§§§§§§§§. In conclusion, it is given to Montenegro instead of Ülgün, Gosine and Plave which are composed mostly of Albanian Muslims. The effects of this barter, which is done by taking the support of all the great nations, continue for a long time. An existing problem is solved but it causes many other ones. As it is understood, the lands, which are given to Montenegro indirectly triggers the independence of Albanians. The Albanian lands, which are lying on the connection line of Ottoman and Montenegro are given to Montenegro after the Berlin Pact. Although Ottoman State doesn’t want to this, with the force of great nations these lands are given and Albanians are bartered. This causes a disappointment among Albanians which lasts long years. e- The Determination of Montenegro’s Border and Göksu Pact Gosine and Pleve keep on binding to Kosovo Province. But the problem is where will be the border passes. Montenegro doesn’t want to abandon some of the villages in Gosine where they occupy as Ottoman gives Ülgün to Montenegro************. Also they don’t contend a new agreement††††††††††††. Ottoman offers a new and unusual recommendation in order to solve the matter. It is absolutely certain that Albanians do not want to abandon their lands to Montenegro. But it is necessary from one side to step back. Otherwise the matter can become long lasting and again an international conflict. Ottoman offers Nikola if he gives up the insisting on the lands on Tuz region, he’ll be given a scar, and some of his debts to Ottoman State will be ignored‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In order to conclude the border studies on 19-31st August, some meetings are held between Prince Nikola, Nusret Pasha, who is the representative of Ottoman State, in Göksu town. Prince pleases from the meetings and expresses his thanks§§§§§§§§§§§§. There occur some conflicts during the meetings held by the representatives of the two states in Lim Valley. So the problems become hard to solve. Prince Nikola and Montenegro Government’s offers do not cover each other. In order the correct the fault, Prince Nikola during his visit in Istanbul makes some meetings in Göksu Town where he stays as a guest. At the end of these meetings and exchanging of ideas, which are held on ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Nuray Bozbora: Albania under otoman control and development of Albanian nationalism, Đstanbul, 1997, p. 200-202. BOA, YPRK PT, 1/31, 18 za 1297 (23.10.1880). ********** BOA, YEE, 100/39. †††††††††† BOA, YEE, 100/43; According to this, 1.States will give up fleet shows, 2.Inhabitants of the abondoned towns will be protected in terms of religion, residence, legal rights. 3. Rights of the Muslim and Catholic community will be guaranteed. 4. Podgorica boundary will be accepted log the states. Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid page 156; Peter Bantl; Đbid page 208. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Süleyman Kocabaş; Đbid, s 170; Darkot; Aynı makale, p. 227. §§§§§§§§§§ Peter Bartl; Đbid, p. 209. *********** BOA, YEE, 101/66. ††††††††††† BOA, YEE, 101/61. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YPRK KOM, 2/87. §§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 166. ************ BOA, YPRK UM, 5/104. †††††††††††† BOA, YPRK UM, 5/103. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, Đrade-i Dahili (ĐDH), 1295/-3 /102094. §§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, YAHUS, 174/66. §§§§§§§§§ 466 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo between 19-31 August 1883, Prince Nikola, Montenegro Foreign Affairs Minister M. Radonic and Nusret Pasha, who is the representative of Ottoman State, reach these decisions;************* The Places in Lim Valley and under Montenegro’s management will be abandoned to Montenegro. Prince will leave all the places, which are not invaded or belonged to Montenegro, to Devlet-i Aliye whether they are Christian or not. Villages are determined with the borders of the towns. As between in Sisko, Jezero and Moikovach the places, which verified in Berlin Pact, become exceptions. On the decided border line, Montenegro and Devlet-I Aliye superintendent of polices make determination studies together†††††††††††††. For this reason, Prince Nikola expresses his thanks to Babı-Ali for their good thoughts and attitudes‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Göksu pact is a very important progress. It is seen as a good step to lessen the conflicts even if it doesn’t finish them. After the pact is signed, the necessary instruction is given to Mustafa Asım Pasha§§§§§§§§§§§§§. With the determination of Montenegro, Ottoman officers Mustafa Asım ( Brana Head superintendent of police ), Đsmail Hakkı, Ahmet Tahir, Bedrettin and Sabri Bey continue to decide undetermined parts of the borders of Gosine – Plave and Montenegro – Ottoman in 1884**************. Another determination study of border is in Ülgün–Pilaninçe (Planintiza). In order to determine the Ottoman – Montenegro border in its last form, G. Vooucovitch, Istanbul Montenegro Charge of the affairs, sends a memorandum to Ottoman Delegates,Müşir Derviş and Nusret Pasha. In the memorandum it is foreseen to interfere to the Christians in Berane††††††††††††††. Charge of the Affairs of Montenegro and Ottoman representatives Nusret Dervis Pasha and Rıza Pasha sign an agreement in order to determine the Ottoman – Montenegro border, definitely. In this agreement, particularly in Planenitza, where rebellion signs can be seen, border determination is done. According to agreement;‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Morino Province is given to Montenegro, Repic Province is given to Devlet-I Aliye, Rjenitza Province is given to Devlet-I Aliye, Velika Province is given to Montenegro, Mokra Planina is given to Ottoman State. In this agreement Christian Villages are given to Montenegro§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. So, Göksu Pact signed on 29 August 1883, is affirmed***************. Nikola The Prince of Montenegro is pleased from this agreement as he thinks it gives an end to the conflicts. He immediately requests Dersaadet Charge of the Affairs Gavro Voukovich to forgive the citizens of Montenegro††††††††††††††† who are in prison and soon after this request these are left free‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. ************* BOA, YAHUS, 174/66, 30 L 1300 BOA, YAHUS, 174/66, 30 L 1300. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YAHUS, 174/66, 30 L 1300. §§§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, Đrade-i Haricî (ĐHR), 337 /21725, 24/Z /1300 (Hicrî). ************** BOA, YAHUS, 205 /83, 29/Za/1304 (Hicrî). †††††††††††††† BOA, YEE, 109/17, 02/Z/1301. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YEE, 100/44, 11 Ra 1302. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Thomas Erskine Holland (e.d.); Đbid, p. 295 *************** This agreement was signed among Ibrahim Rıza Pasha, Nusrat Pasha and Montenegro Dersaadet charge d`affaires G. Voucovithe on 12th December 1884. BOA,YEE, 100/44i 11,RA 1302. ††††††††††††††† The letter,which includes the list of ten Montenegro prisoners and signed by Montenegro embassador, was presented to the soultern. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, ĐDH. 958 /75775, 04/Z /1302 (Hicrî). ††††††††††††† 467 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo In conclusion, the completion of the determination of the borders causes a relaxation among the citizens. But it should be remembered that the people who do not like the completion of the determination of the borders will try to arise some incidents in order to cause some conflicts between the two countries. The Continuation of the Border Matters After leaving Ülgün to Montenegro, the determination studies are carried out between Ottoman – Montenegro officers. The members are changed from time to time and new appointments are done. We can see that up to 1882 - 1887 years, Gusinyeli Ali Pasha worked in the border determination commission. In Albanian, Ali Beg Shabanagaj is a leader who was born in Gusinye and gets military education in Istanbul. He works as a head officer in Gusinye since 1845. Also in determination of borders, he tries hard to the keep the borders utterly in Gusinye§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. In 1883, Erkan-I Harbiye Head Officer Bedri Bey is appointed to remove the conflict in the border of the Montenegro****************. In January 1884, Mustafa Asım, Ismail Hakkı, Ahmet Tahir, Bedrettin Bey and Sabri Bey are appointed as the officer to the determination commission of Montenegro border††††††††††††††††. In 1887, the determination of Montenegro border is carried out by a mixed commission, which is composed of Gusinyeli Ali Pasha, Cetine Sefiri, charge of the Affairs of the border and an officer who is sent by Montenegro Government‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In 1890, Ahmet Pasha is appointed again for the determination of the border§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. In 1905, Montenegro requests to form a commission for the determination of the borders. In 1906, with the leadership of Ferik Enver Pasha from Ottoman State and General Vukovic, National Defense Minister of Montenegro, a report is prepared*****************. After that in 1908, in order to analyze the border matter deeply, a commission is appointed as the representative of Ottoman State with the leadership of Bedri Pasha, who is the Governor of Đşkodra†††††††††††††††††. The two countries commissions continue to border determination negotiations‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. While determining the borders, the expenses are paid by the public treasury. Salaries are given to the members of the commission. From time to time some difficulties arise and the obligation of sending the military forces to the region. Süleyman Külçe points out that, lots of people die because of the conflicts in these border matters. He also indicates that, the height of the corpsesare as long as the borders between Ottoman and Montenegro and he specifies the determination of Ottoman and Montenegro border is a very difficult task. Montenegro’s struggles to expanse and take more money makes the determination of the borders difficult and Ottoman’s patriotism makes it too long§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. As it is seen the missions of the commissions, which determine the Ottoman – Montenegro border are carried out many years. Up the end of the Abdulhamid’ period this commission tries hard to determine Kosovo – Montenegro border. But it is a difficult task to find a solution. It can be understood from the struggles of the commissions that, the determination of the borders is not easy and they come face to face lots of difficulties. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Peter Batl; Đbid, page 204, Gusinyeli Ali Pasha was originally from plve. While he was oppsed to the legality of Berlin treaty, he became famous with his revolt. He used interesting methods in fixing the borders. At once, Montenegro murahhas offered him to determine the border by using the pathway of his horse. But later, whild the protocol was being prepared, some disagrements were occured on the pathway of his horse. Süleyman Külçe; Đbid page 310. **************** BOA, YPRK ASK, 15/62. †††††††††††††††† BOA, YPRK ASK, 15/62. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, Meclis-i Vâlâ (MV), 16/9. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, ĐMMS, 114/4868. ***************** BOA, YEE, 100/45. ††††††††††††††††† Devleti Aliyye-i Osmaniye Đle Karadağ Hududu Tarifnamesi, Matbaa-i Askeriye, ist. 1324, p. 4-19. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, MV, 162/61. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 311. 468 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 735 Title A name given to the resource Border Matters and Border Determination Studies Between the Provinces of Montenegro and Kosovo after the Berlin Pact Author Author Babacan, Hasan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2c1d2dfed5b06b53daec24813880b780.pdf 9e6e2cf757c2c682520734981c7b0c61 PDF Text Text Hot-Weather Concreting Hakan Basaran Golmarmara Vocational High School, Celal Bayar University, Turkey haba1969@mynet.com Oktay Demirdag Civil Engineering Department, Pamukkale University, Turkey oktaydemirdag@pau.edu.tr Absract: In practice, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures. There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously. Introduction Laboratory testing of concrete is usually performed at a controlled temperature, normally constant. In practice, however, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures. Indeed, the actual range of temperatures has widened considerably with much modern construction taking place in countries which have a hot climate. There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously (Neville, 1997). Effects of Hot Weather Conditions Because high temperatures increase the speed of hydration of cement and setting of concrete, a good planning is needed for placing the concrete at high temperatures. The most unsuitable conditions for pouring of concrete are hot, sunny, windy and dry (having low relative humidity) weather. The increase in temperature of weather increases the rate of evaporation, e.g. an increase of 10 oC in temperature increases the evaporation about 2 times. If the concrete has a higher temperature than the weather the evaporation becomes more rapidly. When the humidity in the air decreases the evaporation becomes easy and fast. As the relative humidity decreases from 90 % to 5 %, it is seen that evaporation increases about 5 times. In the sunny days, when the wind velocity increases from 0 to 20 km/h the evaporation increases about 4 times (Baradan, 1998). 345 �A high ambient temperature causes a higher water demand of the concrete and increases the temperature of the fresh concrete. This results in an increased rate of loss of slump and in a more rapid hydration, which leads to accelerated setting and to a lower long-term strength of concrete. Furthermore, rapid evaporation may cause plastic shrinkage cracking and crazing, and subsequent cooling of the hardened concrete can introduce tensile stresses. It is generally believed that plastic shrinkage cracking is likely to occur when the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate at which the bleeding water rises to the surface, but it has been observed that cracks also form under a layer of water and merely become apparent on drying. Plastic shrinkage cracks can be very deep, ranging in width between 0,1 and 3 mm, and can be short as long as 1 m. (Neville, 1997). Influence of Early Temperature on Strength of Concrete A rise in the curing temperature speeds up the chemical reactions of hydration and thus affects beneficially the early strength of concrete without any ill-effects on the later strength. Higher temperature during and following the initial contact between cement and water reduces the length of the dormant period so that the overall structure of the hydrated cement paste becomes established very early. Although a higher temperature during placing and setting increases the very early strength, it may adversely affect the strength from about 7 days onwards. The explanation is that a rapid initial hydration appears to form products of a poor physical structure, probably more porous, so that a proportion of the pores will always remain unfilled. It follows from the gel/space ratio rule, that this will lead to a lower strength compared with a less porous, though slowly hydrating, cement paste in which a high gel/space ratio will eventually be reached. The rapid initial rate of hydration at higher temperatures retards the subsequent hydration and produces a nonuniform distribution of the products of hydration within the paste. The reason for this is that, at the high initial rate of hydration, there is insufficient time available for the diffusion of the products of hydration away from the cement particle and for a uniform precipitation in the interstitial space. In connection with the influence of temperature during the early life of concrete on the overall structure of the hydrated cement paste, it is useful to recall that a low early gain of strength has a beneficial effect on strength also when the hydration is slowed down by the use of retarders. Water-reducing and set-retarding admixtures were found to be beneficial in compensating for the reduction in the long-term strength of admixture-free concrete placed at a high temperature. However their effect arises from water reduction and therefore a lower water/cement ratio. Moreover, the rate of loss of slump is higher when these admixtures are used (Neville, 1997). Evaporation from Fresh Concrete The combined effects of air temperature, humidity, concrete temperature and wind velocity as they influence rate of evaporation of water from freshly placed and unprotected concrete is presented in Figure 1. This information is based on data taken from a free water surface. As an example, with air temperature at 26°C, a relative humidity at 50%, a concrete temperature of 30°C and a wind velocity of 20 km/hr, the rate of evaporation would be 1.2 kg/m2 hr. Importantly, plastic shrinkage cracking more commonly occurs when the rate of evaporation exceeds 0.5 kg/m2 hr. When the evaporation rate exceeds 1.0 kg/m2hr, precautionary measures to prevent plastic shrinkage are mandatory. The hydration is greatly reduced when the relative humidity within the capillary pores drops below 80 per cent. Hydration at a maximum rate can proceed only under conditions of saturation. For hydration to continue, the relative humidity inside the concrete has to be maintained at a minimum of 80 per cent. If the relative humidity of the ambient air is at least that high, there will be little movement of water between the concrete and the ambient air, and no active curing is needed to ensure continuing hydration. The preceding statement is valid only if no other factors intervene, e.g. there is no wind, there is no difference in temperature between the concrete and the air, and if the concrete is not exposed to solar radiation. In practice, therefore, active curing is unnecessary only in a very humid climate with a steady temperature. 346 �Figure 1: Influence of air temperature, relative humadity, concrete temperature and wind velocity on rate of evaporation Prevention of the loss of water from the concrete is of importance not only because the loss adversely affects the development of strength, but also because it leads to plastic shrinkage, increased permeability, and reduced resistance to abrasion. For hydration of cement to continue, it is sufficient to prevent the loss of moisture from the concrete. This is true only if the water/cement ratio of the concrete is sufficiently high for the quantity of the mix water to be adequate for hydration to continue. The minimum periods of curing for external exposure are given in Table 1. Rate of gain of strength of concrete Temperature of concrete, oC Ambient conditions during curing [rh = relative humidity in per cent] 2) R 3) apid M 4) edium S low 5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15 No sun, rh≥80 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 3 2 Medium sun or medium wind or rh≥50 4 3 2 6 4 3 8 5 4 Strong sun or high wind or rh<50 4 3 2 8 6 5 10 8 5 Table 1: Minimum curing times (in days) due to rate of gain of strength of concrete, temperature of concrete and ambient conditions during curing (Neville, 1997). 347 �Curing Concrete Systems In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of an appropriate mix must be followed by curing in a suitable environment during the early stages of hardening. Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete (Neville, 1997). Curing is the protection of fresh concrete from evaporation and temperature extremes which might adversely affect cement hydration. To provide these conditions on site, the concrete must be protected from the harmful influences of wind, sun, low humidity and variable weather whilst hardening. A temperature of about 23°C is considered ideal for hydration to achieve strength and durability characteristics, however, it is known that such conditions will rarely be consistently achieved on site. Curing techniques for concrete fall into two groups:- those designed to prevent loss of water (such as the application of impermeable membranes), and those that supply moisture throughout the early stages of the hydration process (such as pounding or the application of wet sand ).(3) The influence of curing on concrete compressive strength development is demonstrated in Figure 2. Lack of curing can significantly reduce concrete strengths when compared with designed values.(3) Figure 2: Influence of curing on concrete compressive strength development Curing Concrete at High Ambient Temperatures The dangers of placing and curing concrete at temperatures in excess of 30°C are to be noted as such conditions lead to high evaporation rates. The maximum temperature for field hardening allowed under AS1012 Part 18 for concrete specimens taken in the Standard Temperature Zone is 33°C. In the Standard Tropical Zone, the maximum allowable temperature is 35°C. (3) Water Retaining Materials Chemical or liquid membranes are commonly used for curing on site largely because of convenience (Figure 3). They can be applied by hand or power sprays. Membrane compounds form a vapor seal on the surface of the concrete when dry. Water in concrete is therefore sealed in and good curing conditions can be established. Figure 3: Using chemical or liquid membranes 348 �Mechanical Barriers The use of waterproof building papers or plastic film (polyethylene sheeting) will prevent the evaporation of moisture from concrete (Figure 4). Pigmented polyethylene sheeting provides a good curing medium as it is impervious to moisture, light in weight, and can be re-used. Plastic sheeting also has the advantage of flexibility. It is easy to drape over complex shapes, and the progress of curing and condition of the concrete can be checked easily at any time. Any material used as a mechanical barrier to evaporation should cover the concrete as soon as the placing of it does not cause surface damage. Figure 4: Using mechanical barriers Water Addition Curing Theoretically, flooding, pounding or mist spraying (Figure 5) is better than the retention methods for achieving curing described above. However, such methods are not always practical under field conditions. On roads, pavements or floors, the method of flooding or pounding is simple. A small dam of earth or other water retaining material can be placed around the perimeter of the surface and the enclosed area is kept flooded with water. Care should be exercised to prevent large temperature differentials between the concrete mass and curing environment so as to avoid potential cracking due to temperature gradients within the concrete. This can result in thermal shock cracking.(3) Figure 5: Using water addition curing Absorptive Covers An absorptive medium such as sand, or canvas will hold water on the concrete surface during curing (Figure 6). Any such media must be kept damp constantly during the curing period, for if drying is permitted, the media itself will absorb moisture from the concrete. Alternate drying out and wetting of the cover may also cause cracking. The use of sawdust as a cover is not advisable for it has, on occasion, retarded the hardening of concrete through the action of sugars in the sap present in the sawdust.(3) 349 �Figure 6: Using absorptive covers Summary To sum up the advantages of careful control of moisture and temperature in curing: 1. The strength of concrete increases with age if curing conditions are favorable. Compressive strength of properly cured concrete is 80 to 100 per cent greater than the strength of concrete which has not been cured at all. 2. Properly cured concrete surfaces wear well. 3. Drying shrinkage cracking is reduced. 4. Greater watertightness in constructions is assured. Points to keep in mind when curing : 1. Start curing operations as soon as possible after concrete has been placed. 2. For proper curing concrete needs moisture. 3. Continuity in curing is a must. Alternate wetting and drying promotes the development of cracks. 4. If during curing concrete is allowed to dry out (as may happen in hot weather) the hydration reaction rate significantly reduces at the stage when the concrete loses its moisture. 5. The ideal curing temperature is about 23°C. 6. Cure concrete for at least 7 days. The problems of inadequate curing need to be highlighted. If enough water evaporates from the concrete before it has attained sufficient strength, there will not be sufficient water remaining in the concrete to fully hydrate the binder and so achieve design performance. This will lead to design performance requirements not being achieved on site. Precautions Recommended for Concreting in Hot Weather • Placing the concrete in the coolest part of the day : preferably at a time such that the ambient temperature will rise following the setting of the concrete, that is, after midnight or in the early hours of the morning. • Pre-cooling one or more of the ingredients of the mix : � Cooling mixing water. The mixing water should be get from a cooler source. The water reservoirs and the pipelines should be white, and should be placed away from sun radiation and under the ground if possible. Mix water can be chilled partially by crushed or flaked ice. All the ice must melt prior to the end of the mixing operation. � Cooling aggregates: The aggregate masses should be kept in the shade. Coarse aggregate can be cooled by spraying with chilled water or by inundation. Another method is to use evaporative cooling by blowing preferably chilled air through moist aggregate. Fine aggregate can also be cooled by air. � If possible, cement can also be used cool. 350 �• Using low heat cement types. • Keeping the cement content as low as possible: so that the heat of hydration does not unduly aggravate the effects of high ambient temperature. • Keeping all equipment used in concreting in the shade and painting them white if possible. • Cooling the places of contact of concrete: the formwork, the steel reinforcement, and the ground can be cooled by spraying cold water just prior to the placing of concrete. • Making the placing of concrete as soon as possible: placing of concrete should be previously planned. Delays in concreting lower the workability and increase the temperature of the concrete. • Using set-retarders: in general, they prolong the time during which concrete can be transported, placed, and compacted (workability time). Since they have water-reducing effect, they reduce the cement content without changing the w/c ratio, and prevent shrinkage cracks. • Sufficient and successful curing: the fresh concrete should be kept wet for preventing the fast evaporation. The concrete should be protected from the effects of direct sunlight and wind. References Neville, A.M. (1997). Properties of concrete, Fourth and Final Edition Baradan, B. (1998). Structural Materials II (in Turkish). Izmir, Dokuz Eylul University Engineering Faculty Editions No:207 http://www.csr.com.au/product_homeswork/construct/concrete http://www.miconcrete.org 351 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 451 Title A name given to the resource Hot-Weather Concreting Author Author Basaran, Hakan Demirdag, Oktay Abstract A summary of the resource. In practice, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures. There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c62d8421c6b8cf0f14ab596ca4eb88fb.pdf aaefaa96bae2fbcc7a25c0e965bf189a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Teacher Factor in Foreign Language Education Process Le Facteur d’Enseignant dans le Processus d’Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère Mehmet Baştürk Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Necatibey Education Faculty, English Language Teaching Department, Balıkesir, Turkey basturk@balikesir.edu.tr Ömer Koçer Res. Assist., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education, French Language Teaching Department, Erzincan,Turkey okocer@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: When examined carefully the existing problems in the foreign language teaching, it is seen that teacher factor has been in the first order. On browsed to formation of the teachers working in the schools of Turkish Minister of Education and in private ones, the graduated schools of these teachers are very different from each other. In addition to this, outof branch teachers trying to make the foreign language courses make the situation more desperate. Moreover, these teachers learning the experience as lecturer in the classrooms by method of trial and error not only affect negatively the language acquisition of the students but also decrease their interest on a new language. These facts have been a meaningful reference to many questions to be replied in the foreign language education. Recently, the problems in this field and not to teach enough the four language skills to the students make experts incline on searching new education methods. The researches pointing to the role of teachers which have been done recently in Turkey in the process of effective foreign language teaching emphasis the out-of date of the teachers’ teaching methods and the deficiencies of teachers in terms of linguistic and pedagogic. Moving from the publications related to this study, in the process of effective foreign language teaching, many advices related to modern language teachers’ duties have been given. Key words: Effective Language Teacher, Teacher Inefficiencies, Foreign Language Education, Teacher Duties. Résumé : On voit que le facteur d’enseignant est dans le premier ordre si l’on recherche attentivement les problèmes existants dans l’apprentissage de langue étrangère. Lorsqu’on regarde la formation des enseignants qui travaillent dans les écoles publiques et privées dans le cadre de Ministère de l'Éducation en Turquie, les facultés diplômées par ces enseignants sont très différentes de l’un et l’autre. De plus, on fait le processus d’enseignement plus désespéré par les enseignants parascolaires qui s’efforcent de faire les cours aux élèves. En outre, ces enseignants apprenant la profession dans la classe par la méthode d’essais et erreurs non seulement affectent négativement l’acquisition de langue des élèves mais aussi diminuent leur intérêt à une nouvelle langue. Ces faits sont les références significatives aux plusieurs questions à répondre dans l’apprentissage de langue étrangère. Récemment, les problèmes dans ce domaine et ne pas assez enseigner aux élèves les quatre compétences de langue font les experts incliner sur la recherche des nouvelles méthodes éducatives. Les recherches que l’on fait récemment en Turquie dans le processus d’apprentissage de langue étrangère mettant l’accent sur le rôle des enseignants tirent l’attention aux méthodes obsolètes et aux carences des enseignants sous l’angle de linguistique et pédagogique. En mouvement des publications liées à cette étude, on donne les conseils concernés aux devoirs des enseignants des langues. 45 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Les mots clés: Efficaces Enseignant de Langue, Inefficacités des Enseignants, Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère, Devoirs d’Enseignant. Introduction It has long been one of the scientific issues by researchers why not to teach a foreign language completely in the educational institutions in Turkey. Therefore, it needs to investigate the sources of the problems in foreign language education. According to Yiğiter (1988), there have been three factor affecting foreign language education; “teacher”, “student” and “method”. These problems in foreign language education result mostly from these three factors. According to Demirel (1990), the subheadings stated by researchers in foreign language education are like below; traditional education is based on teaching grammar rules, not to renewal of teaching programs, differences in practice, method problems in practice. So far, what has been the contribution of the current methodologies in practice to the foreign language teaching in our country? It is obvious to everyone that the application of these methods could not have an efficient outcome. Though the methods applied by teachers have a great importance, the founders of these methods could not introduce them according to our criterion and circumstance. Then, methods must be questioned in this context. Throughout the learning life of a student, that is only foreign language skill that might just work rather than the all subjects in curricula. Education in our schools including mathematic is based on theory. In this way, the only skill is of foreign language. But unfortunately so many years of education is too far to bring in this skill to the students. Any student takes foreign language courses 8 years in Elementary School, 3 years in High School, and 4 years in University totally 15 years of foreign language courses. Why he/she could not succeed in foreign language completely? The students take foreign language courses between 80-100 hours in Anatolian High Schools and in private colleges. But, the majority of them could not be successful in practice. In that case, looking at the teacher side in the educational process between teacher and student is needed. Foreign Language Education From Past to Present in Turkey When evaluated the current situation of foreign language education in Turkey since the declaration of Republican era, the first and most important step in the Republican period is the occurrence of the Unification of Education (Teaching of the Consolidation) Act, No. 430 dated March 3, 1924. Taught for a long time as foreign languages in the educational institutions of the Ottoman Empire Arabic and Persian in this period were revoked and instead of them western languages; German, French and English were taken in schools’ curricula. After the declaration of Republic our country has given more importance to the foreign language education for not to stay away from the rapid advances in technology over the world. And it can be said that in this issue Turkey has reached a more willing level. Hence, western languages (German, French and English) have been taught compulsory in the schools. But the deficiencies of methods and backgrounds practiced in public schools make inefficient foreign language education. It does not seem possible to teach a foreign language in such an environment and so it could not be trained qualified foreign language teachers. This deficiency is resulted in one another and the chain is going on so. Moreover, the state could not attract the qualified language teachers with its inefficient opportunities (Göktürk, 1983). In later years, new schools under the name of Anatolian high schools based on foreign language education in their curricula were opened. According to 1974-75 school years, the high number of high schools based on foreign language education in their curricula has increased twelve and this figure has reached in 103 Anatolian high schools totally to 40.715 students and 2845 teachers in 1986-87 school years (MEGSB 1986). 46 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Current Situation of Foreign Language Teaching in Turkey, Teachers and Problems Foreign language education in Turkey is basically dealt with elementary schools, yet in public high schools foreign language lessons are only given in the first grade. For this reason, the problematic situation in elementary schools is the point at issue in this study. And we handled with this problem as a main concern. Before the application of stepped rate system in general education put into practice in 1988-89, foreign language had being taught in secondary schools and high schools totally six years, that is to say, at least three hours per week. But it was not possible for the graduated students to speak three to five words. Then, stepped rate system was in practice and foreign language was not compulsory from then on in those schools. However, the stepped rate system was removed after one year and then English has been a compulsory lesson in the school curricula. But this lesson was removed from the curricula of second and third grade of high schools. Today, foreign language lesson starts firstly in the fourth grade of primary schools. But it is not possible for the students to speak effectively foreign language. One of the serious problems experienced in foreign language education is the lack of qualified teachers. Language teacher should consider the educational aspect of foreign language (knowing the culture of the country whose language is learnt, interacting with the people whose language is learnt, orienting the students to the main aim). Teachers have two tasks in foreign language education process. Thus, they should be a linguist and must integrate this skill with pedagogic skills. In our schools “grammar” that is to say, “about language” is given to students. And the students think that the main purpose is so. However, it is considered that one person has learned the foreign language if he/she succeed in understanding and using the sentences that he/she heart (Songün, 1983). One of the most important functions of education is to discover and to cultivate the existing capacity of the student (Hoşgörür & Taştan, 2009). The teachers in traditional education process do not include the students actively to the process and they apply the teacher-centered methods in their application. So, they do not need to update themselves. Today, it has been tried to apply the constructivist approach in all field of education including language education but it is too difficult to apply new methods and techniques with the teachers having no language skills and being inefficient in terms of pedagogy (Kömür, 2007). In Turkey’s conditions one or more primary school teachers in some schools in small towns or villages have been forced to practice all the lessons. The out-of branch teachers have been practicing the foreign language lessons and most of them are primary school teachers (Ünal, 2007). It is required to the out-of branch teacher to develop themselves in this field and to participate in in-service training programs. Foreign language lessons are generally practiced by out-of branch teachers (Primary school teachers) in Primary schools. In Europe, these lessons are practiced by these types of teachers too. Only in seven countries (Czech Republic, Greece, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania) these lessons are practiced only by branch teachers. In Germany, the semi-specialists are relinquishing by and by their position to the primary school teachers (Eurydice, 2005). In Turkey, foreign language lessons were being practiced by the out-of branch teachers in Primary schools. The system based on practicing all the lessons by the primary school teachers in the first five years of primary schools was removed in 2006. Ministry of Education has agreed with the branch teachers’ practicing, instead of Primary school teachers, the branch lessons in fourth and fifth grade in Primary schools (MEB Notification of Ministry Magazine, 2005). Until today, graduated schools of teachers have been very different from each other. The sources of foreign language teachers pointed before 1982 are like below (Demircan, 1988); • Those studying a type of X, Y, Z language courses after graduated from different departments, • Those graduated from institutions of education as open-university, • Those graduated from institutions of education as Higher Education Summer School in common, • Those graduated from accelerated institutions of education (1 or 2 months instead of 1 year, 1978-80), • Those succeeded in the exam of assistant teacher organized sometimes by Ministry of Education. Like seen above, it does not seem possible to consider the schools, which these types of teachers have graduated, are the institutions which educate people in terms of foreign language. These types of teachers 47 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo graduated from any kind of schools out-of faculty of education practice the language courses with the method of “we have learnt like that”. Especially, the teachers having no professional knowledge and working in many schools have been trying to learn their job with the method of trial and error. Though Ministry of Education has been trying to carry on this situation thanks to in-service education courses for teachers, the products cultivated by the teachers are evident. The students not understanding what is said, having no words for speaking, not expressing his/her feelings and thoughts. The findings of Enginarlar (2003) related to the language teachers in Turkey working in many different schools has a great importance. According to him, many language teachers throughout their primary and secondary schools’ lives; • • • • • • Have never taken any foreign language courses by native teachers Have never gone to the target country whose language has been learnt Have not used foreign language out of classes because of no opportunity and communication needs. Have never watched any foreign movies without subtitle. Have never used to read permanently any magazine or newspaper in foreign language Have generally used their mother tongue(Turkish) as a teaching tool When examined the teaching process, classroom practices and the measurement and evaluation of the teachers, it is seen the main reason of the problem. Either the teachers do not know modern language teaching methods and techniques or they do not use them in classroom even if they know them. For this reason, it results in coming into being the faulty students. Demirel (1990) explains ten tasks for the language teachers; 1. Developing four language skills 2. Planning teaching activities in advance 3. Teaching from the simple to the complex and from concrete to abstract 4. Using Audio-visual tools 5. Using mother tongue if it is needed 6. Presenting only one sentence pattern at a time 7. Trying transferring the data to daily life 8. Trying integrating the students actively to the lesson 9. Paying attention to the individual differences 10. Motivating and encourage the students These principles should be adapted to the age and readiness level of the students and the students should be faced with orally and writing of target language. However, on browsed the classroom activities, homework and the exams, it is seen that all activities are full of grammar. The teacher generally focusing on grammar in all activities gives this message unconsciously to the students: “The student who knows the grammar learns language.” This thought creates this equation in minds of teachers and students; learning foreign language means learning grammar rules. This is very inaccurate and incomplete information because language is learnt with its all skills. Besides, speaking fluently a foreign language does not mean knowing its grammar rules. Especially, it has not any great importance knowing all grammatical rules for a child in language learning process (Ellis, 1990). These rules only take advantage to the adults in language learning process. By a Hungarian researcher Nikolov (2001), in her study based to the unsuccessful students, it is stated that the teachers’ classroom activities has been the failure reason of the students. In another study related to Israeli students Arabic learning success, the quality of teaching program is the most affecting factor to the success of students (Donitsa, 2004). Like in all field of life, the reasons resulted in being unsuccessful of students in language learning process; ones arising from the student, ones arising from the environment and ones arising from the teacher. Primarily, high motivation of the person will increase the chance of success (Dörnyei, 2005). The attitudes and behaviors of foreign language teacher being willing to teach in the classroom has a great importance affecting the motivation of students. It is unavoidable for a teacher coming to the class with a down faced, tired and reluctant to find the teaching environment as if it were his/her self reflection. This situation results in communicate fear in the students. According to a study related to the communicate fear of student, approximately 35% of students said that they could not dare to speak in the classroom because of 48 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo teachers’ down faced and temper (Ergin, 2005). Foreign language education should considerably be based on communication and the students should learn foreign language in an environment having no communication fear. Here, the primary task is up to the foreign language teachers. How to be an Effective Teacher? It is not an easy concept to describe the term of “effective teacher” because the term “effective” can be interpreted differently by different people. Depending on the criterion used to judge effectiveness, an “effective teacher” can mean a teacher who always produces a class of high-achievers, or a teacher who generally receives positive evaluations from supervisors and administrators (Stronge, 2002). However, if the focus is on the teaching process and not on the end result, then it is possible to define an effective teacher as a person who “provides information to students in a way that is clear, understandable, and motivating” (Benson et. al., 2001). In another study, Young and Shaw (1999) found that teacher effectiveness is linked with qualities such as “effective communication, a comfortable learning atmosphere, concern for student learning, student motivation, and course organization.” Whereby; the quality which distinguishes ineffective teachers from the effective ones is the latter’s ability to make the most boring course interesting and important to the students. According to Clark & Walsh (2002), some of the common features which described the qualities of effective teachers like these; Strong discipline content knowledge, Pedagogical skills appropriate to the environment and discipline, Personal knowledge which included: the ability to forge strong relationship with the students, a concern for individual students and a firm moral code, Intimate knowledge of the context in which they were teaching. Research on teacher effectiveness in Turkey has shown that there are a number of qualities attached to an effective foreign language teacher (Demirel, 1990; Saraç-Süzer, 2007) among which having personal strategies to teach, creating a positive classroom atmosphere, to be able to a model teacher, being knowledgeable on target cultures, possessing positive personal characteristics, having correct pronunciation of the English sounds, teaching with effective classroom materials and using technology are the most common. Taşkafa (1989) found that giving positive reinforcement and being friendly were the most desirable qualities that were expected from a teacher. Similarly, Telli, den Brok, and Çakıroğlu (2008) found that students gave much importance to the quality of positive teacher-student interaction although other characteristics (such as subject-matter knowledge) were mentioned at lesser degrees. According to Alkan (1984), a teacher should be in accordance with specifications as follows: “A teacher should determine in what extent successful his/her each student, should help each student to understand how he/she has reached this success, should know what kind of support he/she will provide for each student for reaching to the top, should encourage each student to learn more and should help them to take much more responsibility for their wellness”. According to a research practiced by Prodromou in 1991 over 40 students by the aim of determining how a teacher students desire, these results revealed; A desired language teacher is a person who is proud of his/her students, behaves friendly, explains everything, makes students take notes, knows how to behave the students sitting on the desk, behaves as if he/she were a student, asks their opinions, has lots of experiences, speaks of individual problems, has a moderate personality, pays attentions to unsuccessful students, knows about physiology, believes and trust in students, communicate with students (Prodromou, 1991). Conclusion and Suggestions The teachers should be a qualified instructor using new educational approaches, being update to the era and being aware of their tasks for to make more effective the foreign language education in Turkey. It will be possible for them to have these skills and to function in a good way only if the problems faced by them in the process are removed. The first step is to determine the problems in detail. The reasons of not attaining to the desired level in foreign language education are the lack of teacher posts, out-of branch teachers and the other professional groups practicing language courses in the schools and the language teachers themselves using out-of date language teaching methods and techniques. Instead of out- of branch teachers taking only 2 hours of language courses in university or high school, it is possible for the students studying in the foreign language departments to teach foreign language only by taking the second foreign language as an auxiliary field and by taking methodology courses. Thus, it can be reached to the measure of professional formation in some extent. 49 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The teachers should practice their profession by adopting positive and negative aspects of their profession not because of its obligation. A teacher should have knowledge, skills and attitudes required in his/her profession. The teachers should update and renewal themselves and integrate technological developments to the class. An effective teacher in the same time should be aware of his profession without compromising from his national and moral values. And he/she could not forget that next generation has been commended to them. Finally, with words of Mevlana, “A teacher must be a person whose one foot is on his national root, the other one is that is turning like a compasses across the world, that is to say, a person who modernizes without alienating, a person who reaches to the era without breaking off from his root”. References Alkan, C. (1984). Eğitim teknolojisi (3.baskı). Ankara: Aşama Matbaacılık. Benson, L., Schroeder, P., Lantz, C., & Bird, M. (2001). Student perceptions of effective teachers. [Online]: Retrieved on 12April-2010, at URL: http://www.usfca.edu/ess/sym2001/PDFbooks/naspe/naspep53-56.pdf Clark, J. C., & Walsh, J. (2002). Elements of a model of effective teachers. AARE 2002 Conference papers. [Online]: Retrieved on April 4, 2010 from http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/wal02220.htm Demircan, Ö. (1988). Türkiye’de yabancı Dil. s. 92., Remzi Kitabevi, Đstanbul. Demirel , Ö. (1990). Yabancı dil öğretimi: ilkeler, yöntemler, teknikler. Ankara: USEM Yayınları. Donitsa-Schmidt, S., Inbar, O., & Shohamy, E. (2004). The effect of teaching spoken Arabic on students’ attitudes and motivation in Israel. Modern Language Journal, 88 (2), 217-228. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psycology of the language learner. London:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ellis, R. (1990). Instructed second language acquisiton. London: Basil Blackwell. Enginarlar, H. (2003). Đlköğretim çağında yabancı dil öğretimi., Türk eğitim sisteminde yabancı dil eğitimi ve kalite arayışları. Đstanbul: Özel okullar Derneği. Ergin, A., & Cem, B. (2005). Eğitimde iletişim. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Eurydice, (2005). Directorate-general education and culture,. Key data on teaching language sat school in Europe. 2.11.2005, from the World Wide Web: www.eurydice.org Göktürk, A. (1983). Yabancı dil öğretimi., Türk Dili, Dil Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 379-380, s.102, Ankara 1983. Hoşgörür, V., & Nuray, T. (2009). Eğitimin işlevleri. eğitim bilimine giriş (Editörler:Özcan DEMĐREL ve Zeki Kaya).Ankara : Pegem Yayınları. Kömür, Ş. (2007) Đçerde neler oluyor? 8.Sınıf Đngilizce dersine bir bakış XVI Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresinde Bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. Tokat MEB Resmi Web Sayfası. (2005). Đkinci yabancı dil programı, Retrieved on April 8, 2010 at URL: http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/indir/ttkb/programlar/ikinciyabancidil/ortogrt2yabdilfransızca.pdf Milli Eğitim Gençlik ve Spor Bakanlığı, (1986). M.E.G.S.B’nın 1987 Yılı Bütçe Konuşması, Đstanbul M.E.Basımevi. Nikolov, M. (2001).Why do you learn English? Because the teacher is short. A study of Hungarian children’s foreign language learning motivation. Language teaching Research, 3, 33-56. Prodromou, L. (1991). The Good language teacher. English Teaching Forum, XXIX (2), s.2-7. Songün, R. (1983). Doğu Anadoludaki orta dereceli okul Đngilizce öğretmen ve öğrencilerinin öğretim, öğrenim ve ilişkileri, Türk dili, Dil Öğrenim Özel Sayısı, 379-80, Ankara. 50 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Saraç-Süzer, S. H. (2007). Examining methodological issues through pedagogical and practical knowledge of experienced teachers: A case study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,. Hacettepe University: Ankara. Stronge, J.H. (2002). Qualities of effective teachers. Washington DC: ASCD. Taşkafa, G. (1989). As teachers we are evaluating our students constantly: Have you ever thought how our students evaluate us? Çağdaş Eğitim, 14, 27-30. Telli, S., den Brok, P., & Çakıroğlu, J. (2008). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the ideal teacher. Eğitim ve Bilim, 33(149), 118-125. Ünal, M. (2007). Đlköğretim yabancı dil programının sınıf öğretmenliği adaylarının görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. XVI. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresinde Bildiri olarak sunulmuştur.Tokat Yiğiter, K.(1988), Günümüzde yabancı dil. Ondokuz Mayıs Ün. Eğt. Fak. Derg., Sayı: 3, s. 11-13. Young, S., & Shaw, D. (1999). Profiles of effective college and university teachers. Journal of Higher Education, 70(6), 670686. 51 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 375 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Factor in Foreign Language Education Process Le Facteur d’Enseignant dans le Processus d’Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère Author Author Bastürk, Mehmet Koçer, Ömer Abstract A summary of the resource. When examined carefully the existing problems in the foreign language teaching, it is seen that teacher factor has been in the first order. On browsed to formation of the teachers working in the schools of Turkish Minister of Education and in private ones, the graduated schools of these teachers are very different from each other. In addition to this, outof branch teachers trying to make the foreign language courses make the situation more desperate. Moreover, these teachers learning the experience as lecturer in the classrooms by method of trial and error not only affect negatively the language acquisition of the students but also decrease their interest on a new language. These facts have been a meaningful reference to many questions to be replied in the foreign language education. Recently, the problems in this field and not to teach enough the four language skills to the students make experts incline on searching new education methods. The researches pointing to the role of teachers which have been done recently in Turkey in the process of effective foreign language teaching emphasis the out-of date of the teachers’ teaching methods and the deficiencies of teachers in terms of linguistic and pedagogic. Moving from the publications related to this study, in the process of effective foreign language teaching, many advices related to modern language teachers’ duties have been given. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05c800e1459ff623860b45ce94aacb5d.pdf 0fb9fb2c141e7ef2bada80a35cec817b PDF Text Text Recovery of Boric Acid From Colemanite Waste by Sulfuric Acid Leaching and Crystallization Salih Ugur Bayca University of Celal Bayar, Soma Vocational School, Soma, 45500 Manisa, Turkey. salihbayca@gmail.com Abstract: The Balikesir -Bigadic mine is worked by open pit operations to produce colemanite ore. Colemanite ores are processed by mineral processing techniques to prepare colemanite concentrates in the Bigadic plant. Colemanite process waste from this concentrator is pumped to the four tailing dams of the plant. Each passing day increases the amount of this waste stored since it is not using in the industry. In this study, recovery of boric acid from colemanite waste by sulfuric acid leaching and crystallization process was investigated. Colemanite waste was leached using sulfuric acid solutions. The experiments of leaching parameters were solid/liquid ratio, stirring speed, acid concentration, and reaction temperature. The most significant parameters were found in the leaching. The optimum leaching conditions were determined by these parameters. The filtered leach solutions were studied by using crystallization to obtain high purity boric acid. For this purpose, the influence of crystallization time was affected on purity of boric acid. The effects of reaction time on the particle size of gypsum were investigated. The results showed that high purity boric acid crystals were obtained using colemanite waste. Keywords: Boric acid; Colemanite waste; Leaching: Crystallization; Sulphuric acid. Introduction Boric acid is used as a product in the industry. It is also used as a raw material to produce boron compounds. Boric acid has triclinic crystal structure and its chemical composition is H3BO3 containing 56.3% B2O3 (Jansen, 1999). Turkey uses colemanite concentrate to produce boric acid in sulfuric acid solutions at Bandirma (capacity 85,000 t/yr) and at Emet (capacity 100,000 t/yr). Boron minerals colemanite, ulexite, and tincal are commercially produced in large amounts with colemanite ore produced in open mines in Bigadic, Balikesir province (Turkey). Colemanite is a calcium borate mineral (theoretically, 50.8% B2O3) with monoclinic crystal structure and a chemical composition of Ca2B6O11.5H2O. The colemanite process is carried out in ore preparation facilities near the ore mines in Bigadic. Colemanite is enriched via processes such as crushing, wetting in water, washing in a thumbling, sieving, triage and classification, produced for sale as concentrated colemanite in different grain sizes and chemical compositions. A major portion of the produced concentrated colemanite is exported (Bayca, 2009). Recently, experimental studies on the colemanite leaching have been investigated by researchers. Alkan and Dogan (2004 CEP) were investigated dissolution kinetics of colemanite in oxalic acid solutions they found that the dissolution rate increased with decreasing particle size and increasing temperature, but it was not affected by stirring speed. Cavus and Kuslu (2005) studied dissolution of colemanite in citric acid solutions. They reported that the dissolution rate increases with increasing temperature, and decreases with decreasing particle size and solid/liquid ratio. Kurtbas et al. (2006) investigated dissolution of Colemanite in Aqueous Solutions Saturated with Both Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Gas and Boric Acid. They found that the conversion rate increased as the particle size and solid-to-liquid ratio each decreased and the temperature increased; however, the effect of stirring speed was very minimal. Taylan et al. (2007) investigated effects of ultrasound on the reaction step of boric acid production process from colemanite. They found that the dissolution rate increases, as expected, with decreasing particle size in both absence and presence of ultrasound. It was found that ultrasound enhances the dissolution of colemanite in aqueous solutions containing boric acid and sulfuric acid after 1 h. Ultrasound decreases the particle size of gypsum probably due to the increasing of primary and secondary nucleation rates as well as the breakage of the crystals by ultrasonic effect. Ekinci et al. (2007) studied that optimization and modeling of boric acid extraction from colemanite in water saturated with carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide 793 �gases. They reported that the optimum conditions were found to be as follows: reaction temperature, 41 °C; solid-to-liquid ratio, 0.0685 g/mL; mean particle size, 0.2835 mm; stirring speed, 266 rpm; reaction time, 7 min. The calculated boric acid extraction efficiency from colemanite ore was approximately 99.9% under the optimum conditions. Gur (2007) investigated Dissolution mechanism of colemanite in sulphuric acid solutions. He found that the analysis of the experimental data shows that increasing H3O+ acid concentration increased the dissolution rate, but increasing SO4−2 concentration reduced dissolution rate because of the precipitation of a solid film of CaSO4 and CaSO4·H2O. Tunc et al (2007) studied dissolution of colemanite in (NH4)2SO4 solutions. they found that the conversion rate was increased by decreasing particle size and solid to liquid ratio, by increasing ammonium sulfate concentration and temperature. Bulutcu et al. (2008) investigated Impurity control in the production of boric acid from colemanite in the presence of propionic acid. They determined that increasing the ratio of propionic acid in the acid mixtures leads to increase the reaction time, but to decrease the soluble impurity level in strong boric acid solution. Gur and Alkan (2008) studied leaching kinetics of colemanite in perchloric acid solutions. they reported that the dissolution rate of colemanite was found to increase with decreasing particle size and solid to liquid ratio, with increasing reaction temperature and acid concentration, while it was not affected by stirring speed. The colemanite waste contains high amounts of boron. Therefore, colemanite waste can not be discharged into any river. In the Bigadic Process Plant, colemanite waste is pumped to waste dams. Although the supernatant water is used as water in the process, all dams are almost full. New tailing dams must be constructed for waste. However, these regions are agricultural areas. Therefore, a solution should be found this waste problem. The aim of present study is to investigate the leaching of colemanite waste in sulphuric acid solutions, to find the optimum conditions of the leaching process, to find the most effect parameters of leaching rate, to find the optimum conditions of completely separation of gypsum by crystallization from leach solution, to obtain high purity boric acid crystals from the waste, to reduce environmental damage of the waste and to increase economic value of colemanite waste. Materials and methods Materials The waste sample used in the experiments in this study was obtained from Eti Mine Bigadic Boron Works (Balikesir, Turkey). The Bigadic mine is worked by open pit operations. Colemanite ores are processed by mineral processing techniques to produce colemanite concentrates in the Bigadic plant. Colemanite process waste from this concentrator is pumped to the four tailing dams of the plant. Samples were taken from the first waste dam. This waste contains between 5 – 15 % solid. The sample is mainly comprised of colemanite and small amounts of quartz and calcite. This waste was dried at atmospheric conditions. The dried samples were sieved to determine particle size, and the results are given in Figure 1. This original particle size in the waste was used in the leaching experiments. Sulfuric acid, d-mannitol, sodium hydroxide, methyl red and phenolphthalein reagents were of analytical grade. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the sample was carried out on a Shimadzu with Cu Kα radiation, and the results are given in Figure 2. The chemical analysis results from XRF of the colemanite process waste (except B2O3) are given in Table 1. Methods Leaching Figure 3 is a flow chart of the processes used for recovery of boric acid crystals from colemanite waste. The leaching experiments were carried out in a 500-mL three-necked glass reactor at atmospheric pressure. A mechanical stirrer with a digital display was used to agitate the solution. The heating or cooling of the reactor was carried out with a bath. A programmable refrigerated bath/circulator was used to keep the reaction medium at a constant temperature. The initial leaching conditions was selected as 0.25 mol/L H2SO4, solid to liquid ratio of 3 %, stirring speed of 300 rpm, at 30oC. In the dissolution process, 100 mL of sulfuric acid solution was placed into the reactor, and the stirring was started. After the desired reaction temperature was reached, a given amount of dried waste was added to the solution. 794 �Crystallization The leach solution was filtered by filter paper without any change in temperature. Two phases, which were solid residue and leach liquor, were obtained by filtration. The leach liquor was crystallized by a programmable refrigerated circulator with cooling process at 35 oC. The crystals were centrifuging for separating of solids and the supernatant was discarded. The solids, crystals, were drying at 40 oC for obtaining of boric acid crystals. The dried crystals of liquid phase were analyzed by XRD (Rigaku D/Max-2200/PC). The image of dried crystal boric acid was analyzed by an SEM (JSM–6060 JEOL). Each experiment was repeated at least twice. The amount of B2O3 in the filtrate leach liquid was determined by a volumetric method (Scott, 1963), and the experimental parameters used in the dissolution processes are given in Table.2. Results and discussion Effects of parameters on leaching The tests were carried out at 3 – 10 % range with a stirring speed of 300 rpm and acid concentration of 0.25 mol/L at 30oC. Figure 4 shows that the slowest leaching rate was obtained at 10% solid/liquid ratio. The leaching rate decreases with increasing solid/liquid ratio. This may be attributed to the fact that an increase in the amount of solids in the suspension corresponds to declining the amounts of reagents. The experiments were performed at 300 – 700 rpm stirring speed range with a solid/liquid ratio of 5% and acid concentration of 0.25 mol/L at 30oC. As seen in Figure 5, the leaching rate was not affected by stirring speed. This may be attributed to the fact that the dissolution of colemanite waste was a chemical reaction controlled rather than diffusion controlled mass transfer. Similar results were found for colemanite in oxalic acid solutions (Alkan and Dogan, 2004) and for colemanite in SO2-saturated water (Ozmetin et al., 1996). All subsequent tests were performed at stirring speeds of 500 rpm that was used only to homogenize the solution for heat transfer. The influence of acid concentration on dissolution rate of colemanite waste is investigated at 30oC, stirring speed of 500 rpm and with a solid/liquid ratio of 6%. As seen in Figure 5, the maximum leaching rate was observed at 1.0 mol/L acid concentration. The extraction yield slowly increases as acid concentration increases from 0.25 to 1.0 mol/L and then decreases as acid concentration increases from 1.0 to 2.0 mol/L. This may be attributed to the fact that the more boric acid forms with increasing acid concentration. This occurred boric acid film on the particle inhibits diffusion rate of sulphuric acid into particle surface. Several studies showed similar results using colemanite dissolved in acetic acid solutions (Alkan and Dogan, 2004), oxalic acid solutions (Ozmetin et al., 1996) and using tincal in oxalic acid solutions (Abali et al., 2006). The experiments were carried out at different temperatures between 30 and 70oC. The influence of temperature on the dissolution rate of waste was investigated at a sulfuric acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L with a solid-to-liquid ratio of 5%, and stirring speed of 500 rpm. It was shown that the leaching rate increases with increasing temperature, which is expected from the exponential dependence of the rate constant in the Arrhenius equation. As seen in Figure 7, the maximum leaching rate was obtained at 70oC. Characterization of the leaching solid residuals In this study, the optimum conditions of waste leaching in sulfuric acid solutions were found to be: solid-toliquid ratio of 5%, stirring speed of 500 rpm, acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L and temperature of 70 oC. The waste was leached with sulfuric acid solutions at the optimum conditions. The leaching solid residue was dried at ambient temperature. The solid-phase XRD patterns are shown in Figure 8. The XRD patterns indicate diffraction peaks of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). This result is in agreement with equations (6) and (7). 2CaO.3B2O3.5H2O(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) + 6H2O (6) CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) + H2O 6H3BO3(aq) + 2(CaSO4.2H2O(s)) (7) CaSO4.2H2O(s) + CO2(g) Colemanite and sulfuric acid reaction equation (6) resulted in calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O) products. Furthermore, equation (7), calcite (CaCO3) and sulfuric acid reaction resulted in calcium sulfate dihydrate. Crystallization 795 �The liquid phase was crystallized in water bath medium at a temperature of 35oC to obtain boric acid crystals. The liquid phase was not dried at ambient temperature due to hygroscopic gypsum. Instead, the liquid phase was dried in an oven at 110oC for XRD analysis. As seen in Figure 9, anhydride (gypsum) and boric acid were observed in the XRD analysis. As the solid phase was dried at 110oC, the crystal water evaporated from gypsum which became anhydrous because of its low dehydration temperature. A leaching solution containing gypsum and boron oxide was obtained from the leaching of waste. Gypsum must be completely separated from the leaching solution to obtain pure boric acid crystals. Leaching time is the dissolution time for the boron oxide. However, this time also serves as the crystallization time for gypsum. Boron oxide in the waste water can be completely dissolved in a leaching time of 30 minutes. A crystallization time of 30 minutes for gypsum was insufficient as gypsum remained in the solution after filtering. Gypsum crystals did not pass through the filter after crystallization of 120 minutes. Hence, the solution passing through the filter was sufficiently pure. Pure boric acid crystals were obtained by crystallization out of this solution. Taylan et al., (2007) reported that the size of gypsum crystals increases with time due to crystal growth. The waste was leached using sulfuric acid solutions at the aforementioned the optimum conditions for 120 minutes. The leachant solutions were filtered, and the liquid phase was crystallized at 35oC. The obtained crystals were dried at ambient temperature due to the low dehydration temperature of boric acid, and the crystallized liquid phase was analyzed by XRD (Rigaku D/Max-2200/PC). Figure 10 shows the XRD patterns of the crystals. Only boric acid (H3BO3) peaks were observed with XRD analysis. The result of XRD is in agreement with equation (3). Colemanite and sulfuric acid reaction equation (3) resulted in boric acid. 2Ca2+(aq)+ 6H3BO3(aq) + 2H2O) 2CaO.3B2O3.5H2O(s) + H3O+(aq) (3) An SEM (JSM–6060 JEOL) image of crystal boric acid is given in Figure 11. The boric acid crystals, which have a triclinic structure, can be observed in the SEM images. The XRD and SEM analyses show that pure boric acid crystals can be produced using colemanite waste. Conclusions The leaching of colemanite waste in sulfuric acid solutions was studied in a batch reactor. The results showed that the leaching rate increases with increasing reaction temperature and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio. The most important parameter on the leaching rate was found to be the reaction temperature while the least important parameter on the leaching rate was found to be the stirring speed. The optimum conditions were found to be a solid-to-liquid ratio of 5%, a stirring speed of 500 rpm, acid concentration of 1 mol/L and temperature of 70oC. Maximum boron oxide extraction efficiency is 99.99%. The leaching solution containing gypsum and boron oxide was obtained from the leaching of waste. Gypsum must be completely separated from the leaching solution to obtain pure boric acid crystals. Leaching time is the dissolution time for the boron oxide. However, this time also serves as the crystallization time for gypsum. Therefore, leaching time should be at least 2 hours. The XRD and SEM analyses show that pure boric acid crystals can be produced using colemanite waste. Boric acid has a great deal of utility as a raw material in various industries. Moreover, boric acid has been sold commercially as an expensive product with a price of $800/t. The highest boric acid purity crystals were obtained from colemanite waste. These results suggest that commercial boric acid can be produced by using colemanite waste. Thus, environmental problems from tailing dams will be reduced and waste will gain an economic value. Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Eti Mine Works General Management for the XRD and XRF analysis. References A. Gur, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 24 (2007) 588 – 591. A.N. Bulutcu C.O. Ertekin, M.B. Kuskay Celikoyan, Chemical Engineering and Processing 47 (2008) 2270–2274. 796 �Abali, Y., Bayca, S.U., Mistincik, E., 2006, Chemical Engineering Journal, 123, 25–30. Abdusselam Kurtbas, M. Muhtar Kocakerim, Özkan Küçük, and Ahmet Yartaşı, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 45 (2006) 1857–1862. Alkan, M., Dogan, M., 2004b, Chemical Engineering and Processing, 43: 867–872. Bayca, Salih Ugur, 2009, Journal of Ceramic Processing Research, No. 2, 10: 162–166. Cavus, F., Kuslu, S., 2005, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 44, 8164–8170. Gur A, Alkan M. E. journal of chemical engineering of japan 41 (2008) 354-360. Jansen, L. H., 1999, Boron Compounds, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol.4, John Wiley & Sons, p. 377. Mehmet Tunc, Mehmet Muhtar Kocakerim, Ozkan Kucuk, and Mehmet Aluz, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, 24 (2007) 55 – 59. Ozmetin, C., Kocakerim, M.M., Yapici, S., Yartasi, A., 1996, Ind. Eng. Chem Res., 35: 2355–2359. Scott, W. W., 1963, Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis, D. Van Nostrand, New York. Taylan, N., Gurbuz, H., Bulutcu, A. N., 2007, Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 14: 633 – 638. Zafer Ekinci, Enes Sayan, Ayse Vildan Bese, Osman Nuri Ata, Int. J. Miner. Process. 82 (2007) 187–194. Oxides Waste, % SiO2 7.27 Al2O3 0.28 Fe2O3 0.11 B 2O 3 40.72 CaO 23.03 MgO 3.14 Na2O 0.05 Table 1. Chemical analysis of the studied tailings List of Figures Figure 1. Cumulative undersize of colemanite waste. Figure 2. X-ray diffraction analysis of waste. Figure 3. Process flow chart for recovery of boric acid crystals from colemanite waste. Figure 4. Effect of solid liquid ratio on leaching of waste. Figure 5. Effect of stirring speed on leaching of waste. Figure 6. Effect of acid concentration on leaching of waste. Figure 7. Effect of reaction temperature on leaching of waste. Figure 8. X-ray diffraction analysis of leaching solid residue Figure 9. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase. Figure 10. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase for 120 min. Figure 11. SEM images of crystal boric acid. 797 SrO 1.18 LOI 23.80 �100 Cumulative undersize, % 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Particle size, µm Figure 1. Cumulative undersize of colemanite waste Figure 2. X-ray diffraction analysis of waste. 798 �Colemanite Waste (% 5 – 15 Solid) from tailing dams Atmospheric Leaching Waste Gypsum Solid residue H2SO4 Filtration Leach liquor Crystallization By cooling Figure 3. Process flow chart for recovery of boric acid crystals from colemanite waste. Water Centrifuging Solids Drying Boric Acid Crystals 799 Water �100 90 Leaching rate of B2 O3 , % 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Solid-to-liquid ratio, % Figure 2. Effect of solid-to-liquid on leaching of waste. 100 90 Leaching rate of B2 O3 , % 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Stirring speed, rpm Figure 3. Effect of stirring speed on leaching of waste. 800 550 600 650 �100 90 Leaching rate of B 2 O3 , % 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Acid concentration, mol/L 2 2.5 Figure 4. Effect of acid concentration on leaching of waste. 100 Leaching rate of B2O3, % 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 o Temperature, C Figure 5. Effect of reaction temperature on leaching of waste. 801 70 80 �Figure 8. X-ray diffraction analysis of leaching solid residue (acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 30 minutes). Figure 9. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase. 802 �(acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 30 minutes). 60000 A A: Sassolite - H3 BO3 Intensity (Counts) 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Two-Theta (degrees) Figure 10. X-ray diffraction analysis of crystallized liquid phase for 120 min. (acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 120 minutes). a) 803 �b) Figure 11. SEM images of crystal boric acid a) x1000 and b) x2500 (acid concentration of 1.0 mol/L, solid to liquid ratio of 5 %, speed of 500 rpm, for 120 minutes). 804 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 630 Title A name given to the resource Recovery of Boric Acid From Colemanite Waste by Sulfuric Acid Leaching and Crystallization Author Author Bayca, Salih Ugur Abstract A summary of the resource. The Balikesir -Bigadic mine is worked by open pit operations to produce colemanite ore. Colemanite ores are processed by mineral processing techniques to prepare colemanite concentrates in the Bigadic plant. Colemanite process waste from this concentrator is pumped to the four tailing dams of the plant. Each passing day increases the amount of this waste stored since it is not using in the industry. In this study, recovery of boric acid from colemanite waste by sulfuric acid leaching and crystallization process was investigated. Colemanite waste was leached using sulfuric acid solutions. The experiments of leaching parameters were solid/liquid ratio, stirring speed, acid concentration, and reaction temperature. The most significant parameters were found in the leaching. The optimum leaching conditions were determined by these parameters. The filtered leach solutions were studied by using crystallization to obtain high purity boric acid. For this purpose, the influence of crystallization time was affected on purity of boric acid. The effects of reaction time on the particle size of gypsum were investigated. The results showed that high purity boric acid crystals were obtained using colemanite waste. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/003fbb153c14ce7cf7dcafc4ffcb7075.pdf 54e4018f57ac8ee2162a009a0d444b6e PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Effects of Sustainable Development on Environmental Education Zehra Nesrin Birol Fatih Educational Faculty The Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance Karadeniz Technical University zehranesrin@hotmail.com Asst. Prof. Dr. Hikmet Yazıcı Fatih Educational Faculty The Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance Karadeniz Technical University yazicihikmet@yahoo.com Abstract: Sustainable development is an umbrella term, which encompasses many disciplines including ecology, economy, biology, and education. Today, the world has started to pay much more attention to environmental problems. As these problems continue to grow day by day, human behaviors must play a salient role in solving these sort of problems. The sustainable development movement is creating a newer and a stronger awareness for environmental issues. Therefore, a process of questioning, in which some questions such as “Who teaches the environmental issues to whom, and how?” can be answered, has started, and this process is still continuing to improve. This paper discusses the effects of sustainable development on environmental education. Within this scope, various applications in the field of environmental education are going to be discussed. Introduction The world today is very concerned about environmental issues. It is so concerned that environmental problems have become the main focus not only for the environmentalists, but also for the governments, societies, industries and many disciplines as well. The studies on the environment mainly consist of its relationship to human behaviors. As a result, environmental education and training have seen rapid improvement in the last 30 years. Adults and children have been included in these environmental training programs using various methods and miscellaneous points of views (Keleş, 200O, p.10). The terms “environment” and “education” have not been used together since the middle of 1960s. The term “Environmental Education”, was first used by Thomas Pritchard in 1948 at a meeting of International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Pritchard suggested the term environmental education in supposition of a lack of terminology in the field (Palmer, 1998). The term was first used in scientific literature in a 1986 study conducted by Schoenfeld. However, he stated that he did not specifically use the term and asserted that its use for the first time was coined by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 1964 (Disinger, 2005b). Before the term environmental education, “natural study”, “outdoor activity” and “the education of natural protection” were used (Elder, 2003). Additionally, “the training in the use of sources”, “innovative training”, “training in source management”, and “population training” were also the other terms used in environmental subjects (Disinger, 2005a). The History of the Environmental Education When the history of environmental education is taken into account, it is possible to say that it is in its embryonic stage. One of the first studies about environmental education was the conference held by the United Nations in Stockholm in 1972. Growing environmental problems were mentioned in a declaration given after the conference (UNESCO, 1972). After the conference, it was assumed that environmental issues were the problem of all of the nations throughout the world. An environmental training program was prepared with the cooperation of UNESCO and The United Nations in 1975. 311 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo An international governmental conference was held in Tbilisi, Georgia, in 1977. The decisions taken at the conference were: People at different ages should undertake an environmental education both formally or informally. Also, the mass media should share the responsibility to ease these educational processes in this mission. Environmental education was understood to be a lifelong process. The training should be given in an interdisciplinary and holistic way. Environmental education should help people to be aware of world problems faced today, and develop a sense of productive skills for problem solving in order to protect the environment regarding ethical issues as well. Environmental education should be viewed out of the society that we live in. It should consist of a problem solving process that is focused on the issues and the actions of individuals. At the conference, the roles, the goals, and the framework of the environmental training were determined. Additionally, the basic principals were defined. The goals of environmental education are raising the awareness and consciousness, and changing the attitudes, skills and contributions of people and research to bring about a better environment. Among some principles are the ongoing environmental studies, which are started at pre-school and continue on after school, adopting interdisciplinary approaches, focusing on “now” and “future”, and in order to teach environmental issues, getting help from educational institutions and methods (UNESCO, 1977). The 1977 conference in Tbilisi demonstrated that it is a necessity to cooperate internationally to reach the goals in environmental education. As a result the conference is regarded to be a turning point in placing the environmental education in a human training context. In 1992, The Project on Environmental Education and Progress in Rio de Jenerio set forth a new term “sustainable development” in education. The United Nations set the basis of sustainable development at an international environmental conference with the help of 81 countries in order to contribute to the sustainability in 1997 (Knapp, 2000). UNESCO highlighted the significance of a sustainable future in 1997 (Mortensen, 2000, p. 28). Educators use the term environmental education in various ways because of its diverse nature. The term environmental education associates with the definitions of ecology, environmental science, outdoor training or the explanation of the environmental issues. Each of these plays a part within the term “environmental education”. The goal in this training is to prepare individuals for the constantly changing world of technology, to understand continuously changing problems of the earth, to play an effective role in the protection and the development of the environment and finally to have people gain the necessary practical skills, so that they can easily fill this role (Ramsey, Hungerford, and Volk, 2005). The main purpose of environmental education is to train individuals by raising an awareness of environmental sensibility. While teaching the ecological knowledge, the change in behavioral attitudes towards the environment should be paid more attention. Trainees are supposed to indicate their reflections in their behaviors towards environmental issues after training (Erten, 2007, p.3). Another goal in environmental education is to inform the trainees about the environment, including its problems, and then to subsequently motivate and create awareness about how to solve these problems (Stapp et al, 2005, p.34). In order to reach these goals, the number of people who are conscious about environmental issues and their responsibilities should be increased (Culen, 2005). Environmental literacy constitutes another goal in environmental education (Volk and Mcbeth, 2005). Environmental education is an interdisciplinary subject. It consists of many disciplines, and is a process which requires practice. It focuses on results. The current focal area in environmental education is man and his relationship with the environment whereas it was economical and social in the past. The content and the pedagogy are still being explored (Elder, 2003). The starting point for training sensitive individuals is based on the cognitive, emotive and behavioral relations. Numerous environmental education programs have been developed regarding these relations since 1960 (Culen, 2005). Views in Environmental Education There are three main views about the relation between man and the environment. These are Cornucopian, utilitarian conservationist, and preservationist. The Cornucopian view states that nature has limited and unbalanced sources. The Utilitarian conservationist focuses on the needs of mankind and believes that the management of natural resources should be under the control of scientists. As for the preservationist, they state that men rule the nature and that the equilibrium of nature should stay in balance (Disinger, 2005, p.2). These views constitute three different understanding in environmental education. They are fact based, rule based, and environmental education for sustainable development. Fact based environmental education was developed in 1960s. It is mostly based on science and ecology. In this approach, specifically people who study in positive sciences are expected to solve environmental problems. The central focus of environmental education is on the definitions adapted to the aims of the training and scientific phenomenon. Normative environmental education originated from the idea that norms are important in solving environmental problems. It is considered that norms which are environmentally-friendly 312 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo can easily solve these problems. These norms can also contribute to educational fields. For instance, students can develop environmentally-friendly behaviors and notions within a training program based on social and scientific knowledge. Although courses are related to scientific notions, senses and feelings are included in these courses. The training for sustainable development was improved in the 1990s. Traditionally, environment and development are defined as an overlap between the interests of different people. This notion includes all of the social improvement. The definition of the environment includes not only the ecological development but also the economical and social sustainability as well. In this approach the educational goal is to create opportunities for people in order to acquire some knowledge and develop some skills to approach the environmental and sustainable issues with different points of view. The content of the training includes the past, the present, and the future. However, it is related to global and local problems (Sandel, Öhman and Östman, 2007, p.159-165). For the sustainable development education includes societal, economical and environmental factors. Traditionally, the approaches in environmental education aim to train students who attend formal schools whereas in the framework of sustainable environment education the target group is students at every age regardless of whether or not they are in school (Smith, Pero, Smith, 2007). There is no specific definition which researchers agree on for sustainable development (Palemer, 1998). Sustainable development widely contains natural sciences and the economy. However, it also includes some values which focus generally on humanity and how culture should relate to other domains (UNESCO, 1997). In formal education there are several applications for environmental education. These are: a) Adding supplementary courses about environmental education to the existing lessons, b) having one specific course solely for environmental education, and c) The Infusion approach which gives every subject an environmental perspective, d) Topic-based approach which selects one or more topics on the environmental problems and has studies focus on these problems, e) Ground-based educational approach which helps students learn the structural construction of the society through their own experiences and contribute to this construction under the guidance of their teachers, f) Project-based approach which provides students with information and skills through projects and conscientiously planned tasks, g) Sustainable education which plays a salient role in combining various fields in education. Sustainable education today is accepted as the future system which might help to improve of ideas and actions in environmental education. It is based on a concept of sustainable development into which social, economical, and environmental systems are integrated. It focuses on the solutions (Elder, 2003). Within the framework of the education, well-constructed environmental education programs are student-centered. Programs facilitate the ways in which students may develop a self-understanding. Imagining and doing make up students’ self-cognition. Students are directly led to experiences and are encouraged to make their own decisions. Environmental education supports a system which provides an active learning surrounding, sharing ideas, doing constant research and working towards expertise (Simmons, 2005). Environmental literacy is an important issue for many countries. In order to train conscious people about environmental issues, countries need individuals who are able to know how to teach environmental issues to people. Environmental education together with the topics related to education addresses social and ecological problems, and has a philosophy of its own. Within the boundaries of this definition, students need any prompt to encourage them to be environmentally literate and any programs which provide them to gain knowledge and skills on environmental education (Simmons, 2005). In the center of the sustainable environment education is mankind. In order to explain environmental issues within the framework of the educational programs, the environmental topics are scattered in the schedules of different kinds of courses at schools. That is, these topics are not given within a curriculum of only one course. Also, the goals not only include the educational programs at formal schools but also for people from different age groups, and with different levels of formal education may benefit from environmental education. Environmental education also focuses not only on ecological perspectives but it also takes the needs of nature, economy and the individuals into the consideration. Conclusion Although environmental education is in its embryonic stage, it is a discipline which rapidly improves. Sustainability as a part of environmental education has started a new era. However, there have been some problems about the applications of environmental education. These problems vary from a country to another or from a city to city. In order to solve these problems environmentally educated people are needed. However, how to train these people about environmental issues and what kind of adequacy is needed are still questions to be answered. 313 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Culen, G. R. (2005). The Status of Environmental Education with Respect to the Goal of Responsible Citizenship Behavior. In H. R. Hungerford, Bluhm, W. J., Volk, L. T., Ramsey, M. J. (Ed.), Essential Readings in Environmental Education. Illinois: Stipes Publishing. Disinger, J., F. (2005a). Environmental Education's Definitional Program. In H. R. Huhgerford, Bluhm, W. J., Volk, T. L., Ramsey, J. M. (Ed.), Essential Reading in Environmental Education. Stipes Published: Illinois. Disinger, J., F. (2005b). Tensions in Environmental Education: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. In H. R. Hungerford, Bluhm, W. J., Volk, L. T., Ramsey, M. J. (Ed.), Essential Reading in Environmental Education. Champaign, Đllinois: Stipes Publishing. Elder, J. (2003). A Field Guide to Environmental Literacy: Making Strategic Investments in Environmantal Education. Rock Spring, G.A: Environmental Education Coalition. Erten, S. (2007). Çevre Eğitimi ve Çevre Bilinçi nedir, Çevre Eğitimi Nasıl Olmalıdır? Çevre ve Đnsan Dergisi, 65/66, 1-13. Keleş, Ö. (2007). Sürdürülebilir Yaşama Yönelik Çevre Eğitimi Aracı Olarak Ekolojik Ayak Đzinin Uygulanması ve Değerlendirilmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Knapp, D. (2000). The Thessaloniki Declaration: A Wake Up Call for Environmental Education? . The Journal of Environmental Education, 31(3), 32-39. Mortensen, L. L. (2000). Teacher Education for Susutainability. I. Global Change Education: The Scientific Foundetion for Sustainability. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 9(1), 27-35. Palmer, J. (1998). Theory of Environmental Education. Florence: Routledge. Ramsey, J. M., Hungerford, H. R., Volk, T. L. (2005). A Technique for Analyzing Environmental Issues. In H. R. Hungerford, Bluhm, W. J., Volk, L. T., Ramsey, M. J. (Ed.), Essential Readings in Environmental Education. Illinois: Stipes Published. Sandell, K., Öhman, J. Östman, L. (2003). Educational for Sustainable Development Nature, School and Democrary. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Simmons, D. (2005). Education Reform, Setting Standards, and Environmental Education. In H. R. Hungerford, Bluhm, W. J., Volk, L. T., Ramsey, M. J. (Ed.), Essential Reading in Environmental Education. Illinois: Stipes Published. Smith, T., Pero, L. V., Smith, D. C. (2007). Value, Environmental In P. Robbins (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Environment and Society: Sage Publications. Stapp, W. v. d. (2005). The concept of Environmental Education. In H. R. Huhgerford, Bluhm, W. J., Volk, T. L., Ramsey, J. M. (Ed.), Essential Readings in Environmental. Illinois: Stipes Publisher. Unesco (1978). Final Report . Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education, Tbilisi,14- 26 October. 1977. Connect. Paris:Unesco/UNEP Unesco (1997 ). International Conference on Environment and Society: Educatioin and Public Awareness for Sustainability , Final Report ‘. Thessalonilci. Unesco (1972). The Stockholm Declaration, Volk, T. L., McBeth, W. (2005). Environmental literacy in United Stated. In H. R. Hungerford, Bluhm, W. J., Volk, L. T., Ramsey, M. J. (Ed.), Essential Reading in Environmental Education. Illionis: Stipes Published. 314 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 712 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Sustainable Development on Environmental Education Author Author Birol, Zehra Nesrin Yazıcı, Hikmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Sustainable development is an umbrella term, which encompasses many disciplines including ecology, economy, biology, and education. Today, the world has started to pay much more attention to environmental problems. As these problems continue to grow day by day, human behaviors must play a salient role in solving these sort of problems. The sustainable development movement is creating a newer and a stronger awareness for environmental issues. Therefore, a process of questioning, in which some questions such as “Who teaches the environmental issues to whom, and how?” can be answered, has started, and this process is still continuing to improve. This paper discusses the effects of sustainable development on environmental education. Within this scope, various applications in the field of environmental education are going to be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/baf7e338aabed3ff0db485291923a352.pdf 1178a25f502328813f8eef29dd4d9606 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Gentrification in Question: The Case of Bursa, Turkey Doğan Biçki Department of Sociology, 18 Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey doganbicki@comu.edu.tr | doganbicki@gmail.com Serhat Özgökçeler Department of Labor Economics and Industrial Relations, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey serhat@uludag.edu.tr | sozgokceler@gmail.com Abstract: Gentrification can be interpreted as a return of the affluent people to the city. This process is supported by authorities both due to the contributions it could make to the city in many ways. The studies concentrating on the subjective and cultural motives prioritize the characteristics that can be called “positive attributes” of gentrification in general, such as the conservation of the historical architecture by the renewal efforts as a positive outcome. While accepting the advantages provided by the gentrification for urban renewal, it can be claimed that it brings about social problems. The opportunity of cheap housing in the city center is lost as a consequence of the gentrification, and therefore the low-income groups holding jobs in the center are forced to move to distant locations. In this scope, the goal of the study is to identify whether the urban renewal observed in the Tophane, Hisar district in Bursa, one of the historical cities in Turkey, could be analyzed through the concept “gentrification”. Key Words: Urban Renewal, Gentrification, Housing, Globalization, Rant Gap, Urban Poor. Conceptual Framework Gentrification includes the partial or complete take-over of the ancient, historical and cultural texture in the city center by the high-income groups such as doctors, lawyers, and company managers of the low-income groups. This process is supported by national and local authorities both due to the contributions it could make to the city in many ways and to the increases it could cause in the tax income (Hackworth & Smith, 2001, p.467). There are many factors leading to the process of gentrification that can be interpreted as a return of the affluent people to the city. There is an emerging tendency towards the city center due reasons such as transportation facilities and proximity to the workplace (Cole, 1985, p.152); accessibility to cultural activities such as theatre, cinema, opera, exhibition, street shows (Butler & Robson, 2003, p.1791); the opportunity to express one’s own individuality and the state of being different from others (Redfern, 2003, p.2364); the feeling of belonging to the area and society resulting from the experience of living there or a similar place before (Bridge, 2003, p.2550); an atmosphere of freedom encouraging the social diversity of the society (Ley, 2003, p.2540). It is possible to consider all of the factors of “gentrification” in question in the category of subjective or cultural motives. The studies concentrating on the subjective and cultural motives prioritize the characteristics that can be called “positive attributes” of gentrification in general, such as the emergence of an interactive space creating social diversity; the conservation of the historical and public architecture by the renewal and restoration efforts as a positive outcome and many more similar reasons. Slater (2006, p.741) regards the discourse depicting the cultural advantages of the process as the sugar coating that can conceal the pitfalls. While accepting the advantages provided by the gentrification process for urban renewal is inevitable, it can be claimed that it can bring about other social problems. In addition, the opportunity of cheap housing in the city center is lost as a consequence of the gentrification process, and therefore the low-income groups holding jobs in the center are forced to move to distant locations which also cost more. According to Slatter (2006, p.752), gentrification, which should be defined as the colonization of areas by social classes, is also a factor that expands the social inequality because it ends the housing stock for rent to which working classes have access. With reference to Canadian practice, Slatter (2004, p.3229) claims that gentrification does not create an environment of social unity and social interaction but social tension and homelessness. On the connection between homelessness and gentrification, some writers make a distinction between the private and public sectors. In their study where they demonstrated the renewal made in Glasgow and Edinburgh as an example, Bailey and Robertson (1997, p.576) reported that the renewal carried out by the private sector aims at the owners of the houses individually unlike those by social sectors which prioritize the 436 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo community. They concluded that these efforts by the private and public sector succeeded in terms of the physical renewal of the district and the houses. However, they also concluded that, while the approach followed by the private sector caused gentrification, population exchange, the elimination of the settled groups and their displacement, the public sector allowed low-income groups to continue living in their current residence without being influenced adversely. The Rant Gap Theory developed by N. Smith sees gentrification not as the return of the people to the city centers but as the return of the capital. Therefore, in the process of gentrification lies the rant gap representing the difference between the value of the central real estate in the present time and the more values it will possibly gain in the future. The capital holders who invest in the physical structure of certain areas of the cities plan to possess this rant difference with the settlement of the affluent groups in these regions, which makes them the initiators of the gentrification process (Smith, 1979, p.545). Gentrification, as a rule, is known to involve the place in a city center, but it is also claimed to exceptionally involve the suburbs (Niedt, 2006, p.99– 120). The Rant Gap Theory and the studies supporting this theory to a partial or large extent interpret this process as based on capital accumulation logic and as an adverse process by which the poor are displaced (Atkinson, 2004: 126). Therefore, it turns out that there are two perspectives on which gentrification is theorized. One is the liberal humanist camp which tends to account for the process with reference to concepts such as lifestyles, culture, and consumption and demand (Clark, 1992, p.359). The other is the structural Marxist view that explains the process as based on capital accumulation, production for classes and demand. This view is compatible with those approaching the process in relation to class and seeing it as the spatial realization of the emerging middle class which carries out the functions of global capital (Bridge, 1995, p.239). Lees (2000, p.392) claims that both approaches are restrictive and the gentrification practice in the 1990’s should be re-analyzed considering globalization Lees conceptualized gentrification-which he also called super gentrification- based on financers. On the other hand, H. Smith & Graves (2005, p.421) also analyzed the process as part of the expansion strategies of global companies. Accordingly, the Bank of America supported the gentrification in the city centers because of the competitive superiority that it will have in the global labor and the respect it will be shown rather than the financial benefit it will bring. According to Zukin (1987, p.131), who defines the process as spatial and social differentiation, gentrification has been supported by the governments which plan to create an economic revival for the real estate investors and landowners in the city centers in the years 1970–75, when the prices of petrol in the Western Europe and America and the inflation rates and the costs of the building increased. In the period in question, there was also a change in the urban renewal policies of local authorities. This change was in the supply of the financial assistance encouraging the houses to be restored instead of their elimination. This period can be regarded as the beginning of gentrification based on the smallscale restorations. Though gentrification is a process realized by private financing in theory, the support given by the local authorities made it easier for the credit providers to be involved in the process (Zukin, 1987, p.132). The involvement of the local authorities in the process is directed towards expanding their own local tax potential because they can only cover 13 per cent of the sources they will use to produce service from the national budget. When considered that this proportion is close to 75 per cent in England, it is necessary to enrich the socio-economic potential of the city as well as enhancing the environmental quality in American cities (Atkinson, 2003, p.2345). The discussion of the scope and the quality of the gentrification process has ended, but what is slightly agreed upon is that space-specific differences may arise in different locations. Gentrification may come in a variety of forms and at different intensities in different cities, even in different places of the same city. There is still a need for a new categorization, as a comprehensive and foolproof definition has not yet been made (Clark, 1992, p.358). Criekingen & Decroly, considering the examples of Montreal and Brussels, analyzed gentrification in the scope of urban renewal. To them, gentrification is not an ultimate stage that happened step by step through an evolutionary development of the process. Authors rejected the idea of uni-dimensional foolproof gentrification and proposed urban renewal processes based on a set of different motives, each being unique to itself. These include gentrification, marginal gentrification, upgrading neighborhood renewal and incumbent upgrading. Gentrification is the transformation of the poor settlement where low-income people live into renewed, rich settlements created by artificially beautified environment and settled by the middle class as a result of the displacement of the poor. These transformations are observed in the cities home to the emerging middle class people as a consequence of global financial activities. On the other hand, marginal gentrification refers to the spatial and social renewal process arising as a result of the gathering of people, rich in cultural capital, but relatively limited in financial capital (2003, p.2451; p.2456). For example, the transformations occurring due to the preferences of artists, travelers, cosmopolitans, single and childless couples and sometimes gays can be seen in this group. 437 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo David Ley, who investigated the role of the artists as well as of the anesthetizing of historical places in the process of gentrification, indicated that the aesthetic appearance and the historical nature of the places near Canadian cities constitute an important cultural heritage and a highly symbolic value, which creates an economic asset. Accordingly, the aestheticisation of the places cause the prices of real estate to rise and the artists are forced to move to cheaper places (Ley, 2003, p. 2540). The artists, in turn, become the victim of the renewal process to which they contribute. Upgrading Neighborhood Renewal is typically observed in the bourgeois settlements owned by elderly people from middle and elite classes for an extended period of time. In these settlements, the renewals made on the buildings are limited to trivial changes that are to meet the special needs of those new comers. Incumbent Upgrading, considered to be one of the fundamental ways of urban renewal in the 1970s, is often implemented in places where people from the middle class have their own houses. For this reason, Incumbent Renewal causes little or no population displacement (Criekingen & Decroly, 2003, p.2456). The designs of the writers for Urban Renewal show that all the ideal types are not performed at the same density and in the same way everywhere and that there are now new models and conceptualizations taking into account the socio-spatial peculiarities. With reference to the models proposed by Criekingen & Decroly, this study, accordingly, investigates social and spatial characteristics of the renewal around Bursa, Hisar,Turkey. Methods of the Research In this study, qualitative research analysis based on interviews was employed. To this end, the interviews were recorded and then transcribed. In addition, during the interviews, structured question forms were used. The open-ended questions in the form were directed to the interviewees to guarantee the coherence of the interview. The form included questions to reveal the demographic features of those living in the building and to test the hypothesis of the theories related to gentrification. The data for the study was collected between the 7th and the 30th of March, 2009 from 24 participants –4 females and 20 males– who are the owners of the buildings located around Molla Gurani, Kavakli, Osmangazi and Alaaddinbey and Kale Street, the oldest streets and districts of Bursa near Tophane-Hisar. These regions are especially investigated because they preserve their historical texture, and they are those where renewals restorations were carried out. The names of the interviewees were used as pseudo names in the paper. In addition, a general manager of a firm, which has long carried out projects as developers in the regions, was also interviewed. The data from the interview shows the significance of the role that the developers play in the renewal of the region: We have been performing projects of building engineering in Bursa since 1989 and we have been involved especially in architectural projects since 1997. We have completed about 40 restoration and reconstruction projects since then. We can classify our projects into three groups: (1) the customer buys the house and has us do the restoration, (2) we buy the house and restore it to sell (3) we restore the house as in the original state. Another option is that we replace a house with a larger land around with a similar one to the original one and build one more in the rest of the land. (Interview, 14th September 2006). The interview with the developer firm yielded the first indications as to whether the urban renewal observed around Tophane can be associated with the concept of gentrification. Within the three years after the first interview, it was decided that the sustainability of the renewal process be observed and that field work be carried out. Findings Demographic features: Native Population When the birth places were considered, 18 of the 24 interviewees were born in Bursa and the others were born in other places and moved to Bursa for a variety of reasons. More specifically, two thirds of them were native settlers. Being a native to the country or city is regarded as an important feature in the theory of gentrification. It was reported that, especially at the end of the gentrification process experienced in West Europe and America, foreigners left the district and the natives started to live there more dominantly. However, in the context of Tophane, it seems possible to talk of a “nativization” arising from an exchange of natives with foreigners. It is also understood that native residents of the district are disturbed by this change: 438 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Affluent people who are not originally from here such as doctors and jewelers have started to settle here gradually recently.... (TmX, 69) If you asked the old state of this district, I should say that it was a place where the old natives settled and was a place of choice. This part (Ortapazar) of Hisar was a place where the most prominent people of Bursa lived such as merchants, tradesmen, high rank officials. However, I do not know what it is like now. Until very recently, you could not tell who was rich and who was poor. However, this is changing.... (RmY, 57) The native of the district is complaining about the newcomers. This complaint demonstrates that the uniformity of the city is gradually being eliminated and the general texture tends gradually to diversify and that the class disintegration is inevitably to occur (Alver, 2007: 58). In fact, the narrations of the recent gentrifiers support the concern expressed above: Unfortunately, we are not in close contact with the neighbors around. We have been here for almost two years, but we can come together only with some people. At the same time, these people are affluent enough, and they come from the same cultural environment. (AñZ, 39) Age profile The ages of those interviewed were in their forties and fifties, mostly in the middle-aged groups. Apart from this group, the number of people in their 20s and 30s equaled to those in their 60s and above. Most of the people in the elderly group are, as expected, originally from Tophane and have long been living in their own houses. People between 25–55 were living in the two-third of houses classified as gentrified ones, which means almost all of the young people in the study live in the gentrified houses. Marital status and number of children Most of the people who live in these houses are often married and have a nuclear family. One-fourth of them were single, and the others are married. Four of the six people coming from other cities to Bursa are married, and three of them have only one child. Those originally from Bursa often have two children. When evaluated from a broad perspective, the percentage of single people in Bursa is above the Turkish national average of 12.8% and the number of children seems below the average. This does not support the idea that part of the new arrivals involved in the process of the gentrification consists of women living alone and couples without any children as indicated in the literature (Bondi, 1991, p.191) because of the changing gender roles of the women and their participation in the working life. In fact, in this study there are only two femaleheaded households among all the home owners. Indications about education It is claimed in the literature that gentrifiers have high cultural capital and therefore have jobs with high status (Bridge, 2001, p.206). The basic idea that gentrification is the replacement of a low-income status group with a high income-status group is deeply related with educational status. This information found in the literature is quite in line with the case in Tophane. 18 residents born in Bursa (except three) are graduates of high school and university. Those coming from other cities to Bursa are all graduates of university. The education profiles of the interviewees reveal that those interested in such houses are rich in culture and education. The study of N. Uzun (2006, p.352) on the gentrification of Cihangir–Kuzguncuk, Istanbul and their neighbors indicates the high education levels of gentrifiers. The results of these two studies show the relation between the demand for the gentrified houses and the education level. Profession profile One of the main arguments in the theory of gentrification is the displacement of the dominant settlements of workers with the groups having professional jobs with high statuses and high income. The profession profile of the interviewees is consistent with those in the literature. Among them are the professionals such as administrators, technicians, accountants, architects, doctors, and engineers as well as jobs of commerce and service with high income such as jewelers, representatives, and textile businessmen. 439 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Though professional status is an important signal in terms of gentrification, it is far from sufficient, for there is no possibility of knowing whether a change in the status has occurred in the profession unless it is known whether the house has been sold before and how long the owner of the house has lived there. Therefore, there is also a need for investigation as to whether houses have been sold before and when. Ownership status: From the data of the field work, a model with three categories emerged that shows whether the house has been exchanged recently and whether those living in the houses are landowners or tenants. These categories include tenants, those still owning the house they inherited from their family, and those previously sold and typically gentrified. Tenants Five of the twenty-four houses interviewed were tenant occupied. The landowners sometimes have the renovations of the houses completed for rent. The tenants live in the same block as their landowners. Some tenants have been living in Tophane for 20–25 years. There is a similarity in the sense of belonging and in the interpretation of the neighboring relationships between the old dwellers in Tophane as tenants and those living in their own houses for a long time. However, the relatively new comers have different views on the sense of belonging and on the neighboring relationships. There is a complete coldness in the relations of friendship and neighborhood rather than a warm approach. (FfQ, 28) Those inheriting the house from their family and still owning it This group consists of elderly people who are originally from Bursa and who can afford the renewal of their own houses. The number of such houses is 7. Except for the tenants, there are people living in more than one-third of the houses (7/19) who have afforded to have the house partially reconstructed. These people see it as a firmly-attached identity worth being praised about to say that they are from Hisar or Tophane: We say we are from Hisar. This is an important case. We have the same opinions as my wife and my children. Therefore, I have always said that I can’t live anywhere else. One of the things that makes this district resemble us or makes it us is the vivid neighboring relations). It seems that what makes this district so vivid is its being one of the old Ottoman places. The narrations of the commitment to the residence sometimes imply how hard it is to sustain this identity or include challenges. If affluent people offered me millions, I would not sell my land here, though. Here is my heart, my life. We can never allow our Hisar to be replaced by blocks. (ßfQ, 65) Perouse (2006) indicates that the regions having a cosmopolitan identity such as Fener-Balat, Galata, and Kuzguncuk, Đstanbul are more suitable to being gentrified and that the non-Muslim identity here is more attractive, more universal and more prominent for elites and middle classes. To him, “those seeking cosmopolite traces in historical districts” actually would also like to have the sense of belonging in the case of Kuzguncuk (Behar & Islam, 2006, p.84, 85). The non-Muslim history of Đstanbul seems parallel to the “Ottoman” past of Hisar in Bursa. The sense of belonging to the district in Hisar is expressed through an “Ottoman” identity, functioning as a collective memory. The associations of this identity, far from being a reality and close to imaginary vision, are remarkably valued not only by those living here for a long time but also by those who have recently settled. 440 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The houses whose owners were changed and typically gentrified Of all those interviewed, the number of such houses under investigations is the majority. According to the calculation, excluding the tenants, 12 of the 19 houses have had several different owners so far. It seems interesting that 5 of them and the others have had different owners and were restored or reconstructed in 1980– 1987 and 1995–2003 respectively. The statements of the manager of the firm working as a developer in the region give insight into the timing of the socio-spatial renewals in Tophane: In the very beginning of the 1990s, there started a trend to prefer houses with garden rather than living in blocks of apartments. They, for example, moved to Bademli (a kind of “garden city” 20 km far from city centre). For the last few years, people have tended to live in the city centre. This is because around Bademli there is a shortage of some social services such as schools, hospitals, etc. due to the limited population and those working in the city center need to travel a long distance, and there is also a traffic problem there. Another reason for returning to the city center is the fear of an earthquake. Those moving into the apartments in the 1970s and 1980s and stayed there felt the need for their old houses in the wake of the 2001 earthquake. The floor of these houses cannot be more than 9.5 meters tall according to the laws. There are a few blocks built before the region was taken in the scope of protection, which can be considered an exception. In the field study, it was learnt that of the twelve houses, three were reconstructed and nine were restored and used. One of the buildings surviving through the restoration –a historical one– is now run as a boutique hotel and changed its property/owner last year. Before the change in ownership of the property, the hotel that was owned by a well known architect of Bursa can be thought to a leading role in the renewal of the region. This hotel changed its owner but is run by its former manager. One of the other buildings which create attraction in the gentrification of the region is a building, some part of which is used as a cafeteria and some part to run a painting course. The building owned by a couple, an architect and an art teacher, contributes to the revival of the region through the workplaces. Similarly, in the literature, there are also studies investigating the transformation of the workplaces in the process of gentrification with the renewals of the buildings (for example, see. Patch, 2004, p.181). This model, which investigates what the property statuses of Tophane residents are and how the houses in the region are gentrified, is consistent with the model of Van Criekingen & Decroly (2003), except for marginal gentrification. In the last section, it will be questioned whether the gentrification displaced the poor residents. Results of property ownership change Most of the articles in the literature of gentrification focus on the displacing effect, which emerges as a social problem. In this respect, whether an influence has occurred or not is interpreted from what the interviewee has told in the field work. There is an agreement among all the interviewees on the fact that the renewals have increased the value of the houses in a way. However, there is a more dominant understanding that these houses have not been purchased for rent but for owner residence for a long period. There is a high expectation that, when such houses have been bought, restored, and used, they will increase in value. (ÑfQ, 51) Yes, there may be a rent expectation in the long run, though not in the short. The rent value is doubled after the restoration. People usually restore such houses to live in and they do not have an intention to sell it right after the restoration. They invest money in the building just for the house and for living in it. You cannot see anyone expecting a rent here. You can see such expectations in Ayvalık, which is a tourist town. It is out of question that a house is restored by the support of TOKĐ (Housing Development Administration) and sold in two years. I mean people restore their houses to dwell in. 441 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo (MfQ,43) Those who have been living in the same house for an extended period of time and the tenants cannot see a relation between the abandonment of the region by the low-income people and the value increase in the houses following the renewal. However, nearly half of those settling in the region and those working as developers there can see that there is a relation: While the old buildings in the districts, such as Pınarbaşı and Kavaklı, are renewed, the poor tenants living here were sent away because the houses increased in value. Therefore, people had to move into other districts. (TmX, 69) The houses have been sold and bought. There are people coming outside. They force the old residents living here and especially the tenants to move into other places. (MmT, 34) For example, when we moved here, there were tenants living here. They had to move into a street behind. I mean they went on living in Hisar. There are many similar families. (AñZ, 39) Those who could not afford to restore their houses had to sell them and go away. This condition also forces the poor tenants to move as well. There are also many others living in the poverty, which have to leave when the inheritors sell the houses. (Interview, 14th Sept., 2006) Conclusion As Lefebvre said, city center is the locus of urban life (1988, p.15). The return to the city may have to do with the expectations that the economic theories claimed. However, this relation is for the developers, not for the residents. It is not that developers are trailing the residents because they are investing in a region of the city. What happens is that a region is rediscovered which lost its attraction and fell into disrepute for any reason as it harbors invaluable social values. In other words, an already gentrified city is re-gentrified. In the process of regentrification, the new residents of the district do not think of substituting the former ones because they have connections with a wider cultural environment though they enjoy the historical texture and the nativity of the neighbors there. The way those that gentrify their houses perceive the area is laden with the associations of senses of acquaintance and the houses of those involved in the gentrification process serve for creating a history through the considerable use of the area. As for the tenants to whom the former residents of the places entrusted their houses for a variety of reasons: Unfortunately, the tenants have great trouble in the houses before they are restored. I mean, these poor people have to live in conditions where mice and insects abound. On the other hand, if these houses are restored with some financial sources, then the landowners may start to live there. I think tenants live there before restoration, but after the restoration the landowners settle in these places. (MfQ, 43) According to the witness of the residents, it seems highly likely that the tenants living in the old houses waiting to be renewed will not go on living there for longer time. If the house is well protected and continually renewed by its owner, then the rent value will rise and therefore low-income people will not be able to afford to live there. The solution is to organize low-cost housing systems in places not far from city center for low-income groups or to optimize the transport systems in ways not to increase the costs for those in the suburbs. On the other hand, in the renewal of Hisar, except for a few, families renew their houses with their own financial budgets over a period of time. However, there are also those who cannot do so neither with their own money nor with credits. Therefore, these houses should be put under protection directly by the public sector and should be sustained with the people inside. To this end, on condition that the original state is not spoilt, these buildings should be made to function as boutique hotels, art galleries, and private museums which can be thought of as an important solution in terms of the speed of the renewal process. In conclusion, in the case of Tophane, Bursa the process of gentrification is still continuing in some places. Due to this process, it is highly likely that the low-income people will have to leave their houses for the newcomers in the wake of the renewals. However, it should not be interpreted that there is a population exchange between the tenants and the landowners. After all, the houses in the district are predominantly used by 442 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo the landowners. A possible adverse effect of the gentrification for the low-income people is that the old districts where there are some cheap alternatives for housing for the poor class will no more be an alternative for them. However, this does not mean that the old houses should be left to the poor people with all its deficits. Rather, as we indicated before, alternatives such as affordable housing systems should be increased for the urban poor. References Alver, K. (2007). Steril Hayatlar: Kentte Mekansal Ayrisma ve Guvenlikli Siteler [Sterile Lives: Spatial Segregation in the Urban and Gated Communities]. Ankara: Hece Yayinlari. Atkinson, R. (2003). Introduction: Misunderstood Saviour or Vengeful Wrecker? The Many Meanings and Problems of Gentrification. Urban Studies, 40 (12), pp. 2343–2350. Atkinson, R. (2004). The Evidence on the Impact of Gentrification. New Lessons for the Urban Renaissance. European Journal of Urban Policy, 4 (1), pp. 107–131. Badcock, B. (1989). An Australian view of the Rent Gap Hypothesis. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 79 (1), pp. 125–145. Bailey, N. & Robertson, D. (1997). Housing Renewal, Urban Policy and Gentrification. Urban Studies, 34 (4), pp. 561–578. Behar, D. & Islam, T. (2006). Istanbul’da ‘Soylulaştırma’: Eski Kentin Yeni Sahipleri [Gentrification in Đstanbul: New Owners of the old City]. Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayinlari. Bondi, L. (1991). Gender Divisions and Gentrification: A Critique. Transactions of the Instıtute of British Geographers, 16, pp. 190–198. Bridge, G. (1995). The Space for Class? On Class Analysis in the Study of Gentrification. Transactions of the Instıtute of British Geographers, 20 (2), pp. 236–247. Bridge, G. (2001). Bourdieu, Rational Action and the Space Strategy of Gentrification. Transactions of the Instıtute of British Geographers, New Series 26, pp. 205–216. Bridge, G. (2003). Time-Space Trajectories in Provincial Gentrification. Urban Studies, 40 (12), pp. 2545–2556. Butler, T. & Robson, G. (2003). Negotiating their Way in: The Middle Classes, Gentrification and the Development of Capital in a Globalizing Metropolis. Urban Studies, 40 (9), pp. 1791–1809. Butler, T. (2003). Gentrification and It’s ‘Other’ in North London. Urban Studies, 40 (12), pp. 2469–2486. Clark, E. (1988). Rant Gap and Transformation of the Built Environment: Case Studies in Malmö, Sweden 1860–1985. Geografiska Annaler Series B–Human Geography, 70 (2), pp. 241–254. Clark, E. (1992). On Blindness, Centrepieces and Complementarity in Gentrification Theory. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series 17 (3), pp. 358–362. Cole, D. B. (1985). Gentrification, Social Character, and Personal Identity. Geographical Review, 75 (2), pp. 142–155. Criekingen, M. & Decroly, J.M. (2003). Revisiting the Diversity of Gentrification: Neighbourhood Renewal Processes in Brussels and Montreal. Urban Studies, 40 (12), pp. 2451–2468. Hackworth, J. & Smith, N. (2001). The Changing State of Gentrification. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 92 (4), pp. 464–477. Lees, L. (2000). A Reappraisal of Gentrification: Towards a ‘Geography of Gentrification’. Progress in Human Geography, 24 (3), pp. 389–408. 443 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Lefebvre, H. (1998). Modern Dunyada Gundelik Hayat [La Vie quotidienne dans le monde moderne]. I. Gürbüz (çev.), Đstanbul: Metis Yayinlari. Ley, D. (2003). Artists, Aestheticisation and the Field of Gentrification. Urban Studies, 40 (12), pp. 2527–2544. Niedt, C. (2006). Gentrification and the Grassroots. Popular Support in the Revanchist Suburb. Journal of Urban Affairs, 28 (2), pp. 99–120. Partch, J. (2004). The Embedded Landscape of Gentrification. Visual Studies, 19 (2), pp. 169–187. Redfern, P.A. (2003). What Makes Gentrification ‘Gentrification’?.Urban Studies, 40 (12), pp. 2351–2366. Slatter, T. (2004). Municipally Managed Gentrification in South Parkdale, Toronto. The Canadian Geographer, 48 (3), pp. 303–325. Slatter, T. (2006). The Eviction of Critical Perspectives from Gentrification Research. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 30 (4), pp. 737–757. Smith, H. & Graves, W. (2005). Gentrification as Corporate Growth Strategy: The Strange Case of Charlote, North Carolina and the Bank of America. Journal of Urban Affairs, 27 (4), pp. 403–418. Smith, N. (1979). Toward a Theory of Gentrification A Back to the City Movement by Capital, not People. Journal of the American Planning Association, 45 (4), pp. 538-548. Uzun, N. (2006). Kentsel Donusumde Yeni Bir Kavram: ‘Seckinlestirme’ [A New Concept in Urban Renewal: ‘Gentrification’]. In A. Eraydın (ed.), Degisen Mekan [Changing Space]. Ankara: Dost Kitabevi. Zukin, S. (1987). Culture and Capital in the Urban Core. Annual Review of Sociology, 13 (-), pp. 129–147. 444 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 732 Title A name given to the resource Gentrification in Question: The Case of Bursa, Turkey Author Author Biçki, Doğan Özgökçeler, Serhat Abstract A summary of the resource. Gentrification can be interpreted as a return of the affluent people to the city. This process is supported by authorities both due to the contributions it could make to the city in many ways. The studies concentrating on the subjective and cultural motives prioritize the characteristics that can be called “positive attributes” of gentrification in general, such as the conservation of the historical architecture by the renewal efforts as a positive outcome. While accepting the advantages provided by the gentrification for urban renewal, it can be claimed that it brings about social problems. The opportunity of cheap housing in the city center is lost as a consequence of the gentrification, and therefore the low-income groups holding jobs in the center are forced to move to distant locations. In this scope, the goal of the study is to identify whether the urban renewal observed in the Tophane, Hisar district in Bursa, one of the historical cities in Turkey, could be analyzed through the concept “gentrification”. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/112c9ea588a51351ec5948bddf70db2b.pdf aa1d7539acd82b2cfe902579f662fe4a PDF Text Text A Computer Based Flexible Real Time Fuel Controller System Implementation for Four-Cylinder Internal Combustion Engines Barış Boru Sakarya Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik-Bilgisayar Eğitimi, 54187 Esentepe/Sakarya barisb@sakarya.edu.tr Halil Đbrahim Eskikurt Sakarya Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik-Bilgisayar Eğitimi, 54187 Esentepe/Sakarya eskikurt@sakarya.edu.tr Adnan Parlak Sakarya Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitin Fakültesi Makine Eğitimi, 54187 Esentepe/Sakarya parlak@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, a computer and microcontroller based fuel control system for fourcylinder internal combustion engines has been designed and some applications have been implemented. Fuel control system designed for real time control the amount of fuel in alternative fuel applications. System is suitable to use with both diesel and petrol engines. A Graphical User Interface has been designed in computer side. The pc programme uses Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and Curve Fitting calculation methods. The percentage of the fuel to be sprayed has been defined according to the engine speed, load and fuel rack or throttle position got from the engine. These physical signals have been controlled and read by microcontroller based electronic circuit. Communication has been set using RS232 standard between PC and microcontroller. Introduction Energy as the most important input for economic and social development, has been took place in all world countries as an important agenda about 1970's (Tekin et al.,2004). Having limited amount of oil resources, which is decreasing rapidly, economic and political differences, dependence on foreign countries and the air pollution are important problems for all countries. To reduce the dependency on oil and to minimize the problems about potential oil crisis in the future has brought up the researches about alternative fuels (Çetinkaya et al.,1997, Salman et al, 1990). Using of fossil fuels and environmental awareness, has made the engineers and scientists to oriented develop of clean, renewable and sustainable energy system (Yüksel et al., 2002, Borat et al., 1992) The reduction of harmful and pollutant emissions and the improvement of the engine performance are today's most popular research subjects. For this purpose, many studies are performed by researchers and automotive manufacturers. Lots of researches can be found in literature about using alternative fuels instead of petrol or using alternative fuels with petrol. These researches have such aim like fuel costs lowering, increasing engine performance with the same cost and eliminating or lowering percentage of exhaust gases, harmful to atmosphere . These alternative fuels or substances are mostly alcohol, alternative fuels, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biomass, natural gas, hydrogen, water and water vapour. These substances are alcohol, LPG, natural gas, hydrogen, and biodiesel for engine performance and emissions are widely used as an alternative fuel. While using the substances mentioned above, the effects on engine performance and engine emissions should be well analyzed. According to the various researches it is clear that to have good results, it is very important to use the correct fuel mixture amount or spray correct amount of fuel. In other application, the alternative fuels are sprayed with a nozzle to the intake manifold by vacuum effect. Unlike other studies, an injection system supported by on electronic programme has been developed to spray alternative fuels with a certain rate. This system uses solenoid injectors to spray the fuel. It is targeted that, 732 �to build a such compatible fuel control system for all four-cylinder engine using alternative fuel. Since using alternative materials in the engine is not dependent on a single parameter linearly. The injection signal cannot be produced by a mechanical way. Because of nonlinear engine operating conditions and dependency of these conditions more than one variable makes difficult to produce the injection signal by a typical electronic circuit without a programme. In the system, the calculation methods, Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and Curve Fitting, have been used to achieve high accuracy for all working conditions The general structure of the system The fuel control system designed consists of a computer programme and an electronic circuit controlled by a 8051 based microcontroller. The connection between the microcontroller and the PC is provided with RS232 serial protocol. Reading and controlling the physical data are carried out by the microcontroller. Calculating of the fuel amount, the injection signal's length and timing are performed by the computer programme. Block diagram of designed system can be seen in Figure 1. Figure 1: Block diagram of the fuel control system During the operation, mcu reads the inputs load, speed and fuel rack position momentarily and sends them to the programme. According to these three values, the fuel amount is calculated and the injection signal's timing and length will be determined by considering the injector parameters and advance angle and sent to the mcu. After data is received mcu will constitute the injection signal related to angle read from encoder. So that the desired amount of fuel is sprayed. For determining the correct amount of fuel to be sprayed, it is very important to read momentarily working conditions such as engine speed, fuel rack position and engine load. Measurement of this data has been done by the microcontroller with a number of sensors. Angular velocity has been measured by digital absolute encoder fitted to crank of engine. At the working conditions, the instant measurement and control of angle are needed to provide a real time system. While the engine is running, encoder also has functions to determine upper dead point and to produce the right signal to spray the fuel on start and end at the correct angles. Position of the fuel rack of the engine has been measured with a potentiometer by mcu’s ADC unit. Potentiometer’s analogue output voltage is been changing linearly according to fuel rack position. Engine load has been measured with a load cell fitted to the engine dynamometer. Data acquired from the load cell have been read by mcu’s ADC unit and digitally filtered by mcu programme. Defining injector parameters For a high precision control of fuel timing and amount, an injection signal must be produced according to the parameters of the injectors. System is designed to be used with solenoid injectors. As known there are opening and closing time delays in solenoid injectors caused by injectors coil windings (Zhao et al., 1999) These delays causes a problem in which to construct the right injection signal length and spray the fuel with the right advance angle. These delays must be well defined for the injectors. While the system is running for applying the fuel to the engine in the right advance angle, it has to produce the injection signal before the real advance angle. There is no linear correlation between injection signal length and sprayed fuel amount (Zhao et al., 1999). In this work, it is aimed to control the amount of fuel as massively by a fuel control system. Hence, the correlation between sprayed fuel mass and signal length must be well known. 733 �injector ti Precision Balance Figure 2: Injection signal and injector parameter measurement While the system was designed, a set of experiments has been done for injector parameters measurement. The system is designed to work under 3 bar standard fuel pressure. Experiments for measuring injector parameters have been done under same conditions. For measuring correlation between the signal length and the fuel amount, the injection signal having 50 mS period, has been applied in 1000 times. When the engine is running on 1200 rpm single revolution takes 50 mS. Therefore, this period was accepted to fit the real working conditions. During the tests, injection signals increased step by step. After finishing every step sprayed fuel weight measured and divided to 1000 to find fuel consumption for each period (Fig. 2). The test results shown in Figure 3 give the correlation between the injection signal length and the sprayed fuel amount. 50 Fuel Mass (mg) 40 30 20 10 0 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 Injection Signal Length (mS) 12.5 15 Figure 3: Correlation between the signal length and the fuel amount for a solenoid injector While the system is running, the computer programme calculates the fuel amount with a selected calculation method. Finally the signal length has been calculated by using the injector parameters obtained by these results as shown in Figure 4. To produce the injection signal in a right time, the opening delays of the injectors have also been used by the system. td ti °Injection Advance Figure 4 Produced injection signal, td corresponds injector delay, ti corresponds injection signal length User Interface The core functions of the user interface is the setting a communication between pc and mcu and providing a practical and visual platform to the user. The user interface designed can be seen in Figure 5. 734 �Figure 5: The User interface for the designed fuel control system. Interface instantly shows input and output values in graphics to increase functionality and user interaction. In the operation, these graphs are always updated for each input and output data pair. Engine's fuel consumption which can be found from engine catalogue data or obtained by experimental analysis, is a basis for all calculation methods. The user interface, designed uses fuzzy logic, neural networks and curve fitting methods to perform calculations. Calculation method can be selected by the user. After calculation, the fuel amount can be applied to the engine with different percentages defined by the user. However, it has a manual control option to apply the fixed amount of fuel, entered by the user. The user can also enter the injection advance. During the operation, the injection signal is generated according to the injector parameters and the advance angle. Received input values and calculated data are displayed on the user interface are also updated for each input and output data pair. A test section, has been located on the user interface to test calculation method results without sending them to the microcontroller. User can check whether the calculation method gives expected results or not. Received input values and calculated data can be saved to the computer automatically by user interface and they can be used for evaluating of results. Serial port connection settings, the injector parameters and the engine fuel consumption data set can be changed by using the settings section of user interface. To use the system with another engine and injector, user only need to enter new injector's parameters and engine fuel consumption data set from settings section. Therefore the designed fuel control system can easily be adapted to all 4 cylinder engines. The system is ready for use after entering settings and choosing desired control options. The system can be connected to mcu unit and started to control the fuel with real time data flow by clicking to connect button. The calculation methods In the designed fuel control system three different calculation methods have been used. All methods have been designed to adapt themselves to new values when the engine fuel consumption data set changed. In the calculation, artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic and curve fitting methods have been applied. All these methods have been tried to produce an output corresponding to the three input values. As mentioned previously, engine speed, load and fuel rack position are used as inputs. It is expected that the calculation methods will determine the fuel amount for every new input value with minimum error based on the engine's fuel consumption data set. Engine Speed Load(kg) Fuel rack position Fuel Consumption (mg) 1000 3,43 50 17,43 1000 4,45 77 29,24 1000 5,61 100 34,6 Table 1: Fuel Consumption Data set example 735 �The above examples in Table 1 are part of the example fuel consumption data set. The fuel consumption data set can be obtained by the experiments that have been on the engine. The data set should be carefully obtained because of the nonlinear relationship between the engine fuel consumption and input values. Engine load and fuel rack position input are two values that can be changed by user. While data set is obtained by changing these two values step by step, so as to cover minimum and maximum values of them. The smaller step size the calculation method's error rate will be. Curve fitting method directly uses this data set to find what interim values. Neural Networks use this data set as training data and estimate this data with minimum error. This data set will be used for determining fuzzy logic rules by ANFIS method. Inputs Fuel Consumption Data Set Engine Speed Calculation Method Output Fuel Amount Fuel Rack Position Load Figure 6: Calculation Methods The fuzzy logic controller for the system is designed with the Sugeno fuzzy inference method in common structure, shown in Figure 6 .The designed fuzzy logic controller has three membership functions for engine speed input, three membership functions for fuel rack position input and four membership functions for load input. Fuzzy logic rules, for the controller have been determined by ANFIS method according to the engine fuel consumption data set mean absolute error of. 2x10-4 was obtained with the controller from a four-cylinder diesel engines date set. By experimental analysis it is achieved that the controller can find the values which are not been in fuel consumption data set with mean absolute error of 0.02. According to this explanation given above, the controller’s accuracy has been accepted as suitable for this work. The neural network controller for the system is designed in Feed Forward Back Propagation structure. Like other controllers the Neural Network controller has three inputs and one output. The Neural Network Controller has three hidden layers in a structure of 8,13,7. For neural network controller training LevenbergMarquardt algorithm is preferred. Training was conducted with an error of 10-5 from a four-cylinder diesel engines data set. As another option for calculation method, 3. order curve fitting algorithm has been used in the system. Corresponding fuel for interim input values, which are not in the fuel consumption data set, can be calculated with curve fitting method. Conclusions and Evaluation For testing the system, ethanol as an alternative has been fuel applied to diesel engine It is known that if ethanol is applied to diesel engines with appropriate percentages it reduces NOX emissions(Jiang, Q. et al). During the experiments ethanol applied in a percentage of 3.75 %, 7.5%, 11.25% to the engine while the engine was running in maximum position of fuel rack. Measured NOX emissions with ethanol injection and standard NOX emissions are shown in the Figure 7. It can be seen that NOX emissions have been reduced by ethanol injection as expected. 736 �Figure 7: Ethanol applied and standard NOX emissions It is observed that the system can keep the fuel amount in fair values for optimum emissions and the engine performance. In addition suitability of system for all alternative fuel applications on both diesel and gasoline engines is another good result of this study. To enhance the efficiency and accuracy of the system it will be better to transfer instant information such as measured emission values and specific fuel consumption to the user interface. In such a structure, the computer programme could be designed to optimize error rate in real time. Therefore it will not be required to create a training set, so that a higher-performance and more practical fuel control system can be obtained. References Borat, O., Balcı, M., Sürmen, A., (1992), Đçten Yanmalı Motorlar”, Cilt 1, T.E.V. Yayını, Ankara. Çetinkaya, S., Çelik, M. B.(1997), Buji Ateşlemeli Motorlarda Yakıt Olarak Metanol-Benzin Karışımlarının Kullanılması, 5. Yanma Sempozyumu. F. Zhao, M. C. Lai and D. L. Harrington (1999), Automotive spark-ignited direct-injection gasoline engines, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science Volume 25, Issue 5, October 1999, Pages 437-562 Jiang, Q., Ottikkutti, P., Vangerpen, J., Vanmeter, D., The effect of alcohol fumigation on Diesel flame temperature and emissions. SAE Paper No: 900386. Juan F., Xian-Min M. (2009), Research on Fuel Injection Intelligent Control System, 978-1-4244-2800-7/09, ICIEA. Salman, M. S., Sümer, M.(1990), Buji Ateşlemeli Motorlarda Etanol ve Etanol-Benzin Karışımlarının Motor Performansına Etkileri, Politeknik Dergisi, Cilt: 2, Sayı: 2, S. 27-35. Tekin, M., Yörük, S. (2004), Motorlarda Metanol Kullanımının Performans ve Çevre Đlişkileri, GO. Ü. Zile MYO, Otomotiv Programı, TOKAT. Yüksel, F., Yüksel, B. (2004), The use of ethanol-gasoline blend as a fuel in an SI engine”, Renewable Energy, No: 11811191. 737 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 623 Title A name given to the resource A Computer Based Flexible Real Time Fuel Controller System Implementation for Four-Cylinder Internal Combustion Engines Author Author Boru, Barıs Eskikurt, Halil İbrahim Parlak, Adnan Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, a computer and microcontroller based fuel control system for fourcylinder internal combustion engines has been designed and some applications have been implemented. Fuel control system designed for real time control the amount of fuel in alternative fuel applications. System is suitable to use with both diesel and petrol engines. A Graphical User Interface has been designed in computer side. The pc programme uses Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and Curve Fitting calculation methods. The percentage of the fuel to be sprayed has been defined according to the engine speed, load and fuel rack or throttle position got from the engine. These physical signals have been controlled and read by microcontroller based electronic circuit. Communication has been set using RS232 standard between PC and microcontroller. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/81640422feed398c1c1bc7e9ca412a8c.pdf 127dc3e200c9a97e724eb43c3dc56ae7 PDF Text Text How can Agricultural Extension System in Turkey be Sustainable? Assoc. Dr. Murat Boyaci Ege University Agricultural Faculty Department of Agricultural Economics, Izmir-Turkey murat.boyaci@ege.edu.tr Abstract: In the study, extension services were examined through interpretation of data collected up to 1104 public and contracted extension workers. Turkish extension system is influenced by general and training-visit approaches which were employed in the past. The approaches employed are mainly directed to conventional production and yield increases using a top-down process and gives little place for human resources development and sustainable agriculture within Turkish extension system. Keywords: Agricultural extension; technology transfer in agriculture; sustainable extension Introduction Agricultural extension has contributed to agricultural production and development within the past century. Extension also has an important role in sustainable development and international trade competition with today’s knowledge based globe (Van der Bor, Brydan, Fuller, 1995; Csaki, 1999). Extension systems require decentralized, pluralized, client orientated and sustainable structures for adapting to today’s improvements (Wagemans, 1990; Roling, 1989). Agriculture takes a considerable part in Turkish economy with a 9% share in GNP, 29.5% share in employment, and 4.25% share in the export value (http://www.tuik.gov.tr). Public extension activities in Turkey are dominated and conducted by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA). Besides public financed, through the radical transformation on the financial support of farmers in agricultural extension was planned by “Village-Centered Agricultural Production Support Project” (KOYMER) in 2004. The first year salaries of advisors were completely paid by government but to additional government payments, farmer contributions were objected as 5% and 10% shares in following two years of the project. At the end of KOYMER project, a new project which is titled as “Development of Agricultural Extension Project (TAR-GEL)” has been implemented on 1th of January 2007. All KOYMER extension workers have been employed as contract based in public extension organizations (TEDGEM, 2009; ZMO, 2005). Present farming systems cause serious environmental problems. In many countries soil erosion and chemical pollution endanger the future of agriculture. Pollution of agricultural products limits the marketability of these products. These problems can only be tackled by collective decision making by farmers and other stakeholders (Van den Ban, 2005). The important components of sustainable development such as farmer participation, multi-actors cooperation, and the targets of extension had been examined for defining how sustainable the extension system in Turkey. For this goal, extension activities, objectives and target groups had been examined according to the regions. The other aspect in extension is financial sustainability unfortunately the farmers are mostly unwilling to pay for extension in developing countries. This reluctance causes to unsustainable activity and financial mechanism, and continue the public dominant structure in extension services. The study is focusing on extension activities directing to sustainable development. 103 �Material and Method The data have been taken from two formerly conducted researches on public extension services by Boyaci (2007) and contracted extension services by Boyaci and Arslan (2007) in Turkey. The purposive sampling for the selection of provinces according to agricultural zones for public extension services and although, all 1023 contracted advisors around the country were planned to including but, 566 of them filled the questionnaires. As the result, 538 public and 566 contracted totally 1104 extension workers participated in the study. The questionnaires were posted to the advisors addresses and/or extension organizations. Furthermore, up to 650 questionnaires were filled through mutually interviews. All field level technical staff who works to enhance the living standards of rural people was identified as extensionist/extension worker in the study. The data had been analyzed and interpreted by using statistical tests such as percentages, likert scale, Chi square, Kruskal Wallis, correspondence analysis and multidimensional scaling. Regions Marmara Ege Mediterranean Central Anatolia Black Sea Eastern Anatolia South-Eastern Anatolia Total Missing Total Frequency 146 222 83 158 236 107 150 1102 2 1104 Percent 13.2 20.1 7.5 14.3 21.4 9.7 13.6 100 --- Table 1: Sustainable extension (public and contracted advisors) Result and Discussion Extension coverage and expenditures The level of extension coverage, as measured by the ratio of extension worker to farmer, widely differs according to countries and regions of the world. The worldwide average is about one extension worker for every 2000 economically active people in agriculture (less than 400 farmers in developed countries). It is supposed that extension organizations are able to reach only 10% of their clients in the world (Feder, et al, 1999, Swanson et al, 1989). According to the findings, each extension worker serves 437 farmers and 496 hectar of land (furthermore, one veterinarian/technician serves 9730.4 cattle and sheep) in Turkey. Well-managed extension systems with adequate funding give relatively high rates of return on the financial investment. Optimally, it is suggested that at least 40% of an extension’s budget should go for programming and operational costs to give extension personnel adequate resources for traveling, teaching aids, publications, and field demonstrations (Feder, et al, 1999; Swanson et al, 1989). Extension and research expenditures in EU Countries are higher than US$150 per farmer (DPT, 2003; Boyaci, 1996). In the research, annual extension (e.g. field trials, demonstrations, visual aids, etc) expenditures per farmer were calculated as US$1.6 respectively. By taking into consideration the total budget of the public extension organizations, the figure allocated per farmer reached to US$49.2 in Turkey. Some Characteristics of extension staff Age, education level, in-service training attendance, and occupational experience affect the performance of extension workers (Boyaci, 1998; Expere, 1974). The proportion of female extension personnel is considered as inadequate (FAO, 1990). According to the findings, in Turkey, the average age of an extensionist is 34.7, 26.2% are women and 65.6% of extensionists have farming experience. About 69% of the extension staff graduated from agricultural faculties and 15.3% of them have a master’s and/or Ph degrees. English is widely spoken as foreign languages by the extensionists (Table 2). 104 �Extension workers Public Contracted in public Total Gender Male Female Total Experience with farming Yes No Total Faculty graduated Agriculture Veterinarian Others Total Master and/or Ph Degrees Yes No Total Spoken languages English German French Others Total Frequency 538 566 1104 Percent 48.7 51.3 100.0 806 296 1102 73.1 26.2 100.0 723 381 1104 65.6 34.5 100.0 758 134 212 1104 68.7 12.1 19.2 100.0 169 935 1104 15.3 84.7 100.0 858 62 53 23 996 86.1 6.2 5.3 2.3 100.0 Table 2: Some personal characteristics of extension workers Occupational satisfaction level of extension staff was found as low especially, economic reason was seen behind the result. This low motivation causes the limited farm/farmer visits during the extension activities. Unfortunately, ecology lessons attending level is low (2.6). According to the likert scale level of language proficiencies was found as 2.3. This level has negative effect on following the world agenda. The considerable numbers of extension workers face the social and political pressures during the activities (Table 3). None 1 21.4 26.6 31.9 7.7 Satisfaction level Ecology lessons Language proficiencies To be under the social, political pressure 2 19.7 23.5 28.3 14.0 3 27.6 24.9 25.4 28.4 very much 4 5 15.6 15.8 14.4 10.5 9.7 4.8 30.0 19.9 Table 3: The levels of some components of sustainable extension Time allocated in extension Extension staff should devote all their working time exclusively to agricultural extension activities. They should not be assigned regulatory or administrative duty. In this context, the number of farm visits and time spent for extension activities are important indicators for performance evaluation in extension organizations. For example, more than 100 farm visits (Expere, 1974), or 8-20 farm visits in a week (TOKB, 1987) are reported by different sources. Extension workers in European Union member states spend 75% of their 105 �working time for farmer training activities (Boyaci, 1996). According to the findings, extension workers are responsible for an average of 5.6 different crops, spend 16 days for farm visits in a month; devote up to 52% of their time for farmer training in Turkey. Targeted topics and groups Extension workers mostly focused on profits form agriculture, emphasizing the need for inputs and market, and training for farmers. Social and biological aspects of sustainability (such as soil fertility) were scarcely mentioned (Lawrence, 1997). The initial focus of extension services is to improve basic agricultural practices such as plant protection, fertilization, etc. The reason behind these technical objectives aiming at intensification is the extension approach which is based on production and yield increase in Turkey. The priorities of extension workers can be summarized as production and yield increase, quality improvement, reduction of cost and others (Table 4). Objectives Production and yield increase Quality increase Cost reduction New/alternative crops Farmers organizations Environment Marketing Total Frequency 654 115 69 66 61 36 27 1028 Percent 63.6 11.2 6.7 6.4 5.9 3.5 2.6 100.0 Table 4: The objectives in extension The findings show that human resource development or related topics have very limited share in Turkish extension system. According to the regions the objectives of extension are different (Table 5). For instance, while production and yield increases are seen important for South Eastern Anatolia, new/alternative crops for Central Anatolia, crop quality for Ege and Blacksea, finally environment for Ege are the important objectives of extension services in Turkey. Furthermore, although 80% of the farms are small (Miran, 2006), the extension activities are usually directed towards the big (32.7%) and medium (34.6%) scale farms in Turkey. Women farmers (7.6%) and the poor (3.4%) are insufficiently taken consideration in extension. Small scale farmers have advantage on sustainable agricultural techniques such as ecologic farming, and integrated pest management etc. because of intensively requires manpower applications. Regions Marmara Ege Mediterranean Central Anatolia Black Sea Eastern Anatolia South-Eastern Anatolia Total ** <0.05 number Mean rank Chi-square df Asymp sig 126 214 503.2 548.3 20.932** 6 .002 79 155 228 100 124 1026 490.5 555.7 514.6 498.7 435.8 According to the answers the share of extension activities is 49%; bureaucratic 29%; self education 13.9%; and other 8.1% in Turkey. Normally extension share must be higher for system effectiveness. As the result of multi-crop farming system in Turkish agriculture, extension workers are responsible for about 5.8 different crops and an adviser realizes 16 farm visits in a month. Education levels of farmers targeted is 5.7 106 �years. Extension workers mentioned 37% of target farmers were under 40 years old. Middle age and male farmers are explained as more frequently target groups. The 90s has already been called the environmental decade. It s important for extension to identify effective and efficient educational delivery systems of environmental issues (Radhakrishna et,al., 1991). According to the extension workers’ explanations, farmers mostly demand information on plant protection but, environmental matters have very limited share (Table 6). Topics consulted Plant protection Cultivation Economic topics Fertilizing Environmental topics Total Frequency 446 278 214 54 23 1015 Percent 43.9 27.4 21.1 5.3 2.3 100.0 Table 6: The topics consulted by farmers The topics consulted by farmers are changing according to regions. The plant protection applications are the most consulting in Marmara and Mediterranean Regions, furthermore, the farmers in Marmara Region also ask for more information about environmental topics (Table 7). Investments on extension can be financed by adoption of innovations/advices (Strauss et al., 1991). Extension for sustainable agriculture is not a matter of passing on the message. It requires a learning process and change in mentality, for farmers and extensionists (Proost, 1994). According to the extensionists, 52.7% of the farmers accept the extension suggestions in Turkey. Traditionalism, insufficient farmers’ circumstances, low education levels and limited information of farmers were mentioned by extension workers in the study as the reasons for low adoption levels. The adoption levels of extension advices are higher in Mediterranean, Marmara and Central Anatolia regions than the other regions (Table 8). Regions econom y Cultivatio n Plant protection Fertili zation envir onme nt 2 7 3 1 2 4 4 23 Chi square Df P value Marmara 26 30 65 5 128 51.764** Ege 46 53 89 8 203 Mediterranean 8 20 44 5 80 Central Anatolia 32 53 58 12 156 Black Sea 40 57 109 18 226 Eastern Anatolia 33 31 23 4 95 South-Eastern A 29 34 56 2 125 Total 214 278 444 54 1013 *** <0.05 Table 7: According to the regions the topics consulted by farmers (chi square test) 24 .001 Regions Total number Mean rank Chi-square df Asymp sig Marmara Ege 125 199 515.8 469.7 47.3876*** 6 .000 Mediterranean Central Anatolia Black Sea Eastern Anatolia South-Eastern Anatolia Total 75 153 216 92 125 985 687.1 512.9 443.1 446.1 487.3 107 �*** <0.01 Table 8: The adoption level of extension advices, Kruskal Wallis Test Program Preparation The program guides the staff and gives the indicators to the managers for monitoring and evaluating of activities. Furthermore, the program helps to sustain coordination of different actors in agriculture (Oakley and Garforth, 1992). The focus of effective environmental management is the using of a systematic approach to planning, controlling, measuring, and improving an operations environmental effort (Harrison, 2002). Program preparing tendencies were not found at the intended level in Turkey. According to the likert scale as “always to never (5 to 1)”, the average value of program preparing tendency of extension workers was calculated as 3.4. Approximately 20% of extension staff are not preparing program during their works. Today’s complicated activities and relations necessitate strong coordination among the actors. To be relevant and responsive to client concerns requires regular feedback at each level throughout the extension systems. Public dominant structure is restricted to contributions and relations with private companies and chambers of agriculture in the extension system. In the study, less than 5.0% of extension staff was declared to influence the local and farmer organizations on extension. Employed extension approaches The approaches guide the objectives, programs, clients, linkages, methods, and financing components of extension (Axinn, 1988). The Ministry and the National Research Institutes have dominantly directed the priorities and the information flows in developing countries. The new approaches in world agenda encourage farmer participation in extension programs as analyzers and problem definers and thus, help sustainable development (Rogers, 1993; Chambers, 1994). The most effective, pedagogic way to come to an understanding of complex issues is “learning by doing”, “action learning”, and “discovery learning”. All these principles stress the need to get involved in action and debate in order to build up experiences, share these with other people and learn more in an iterative process of action, reflection, self-evaluation and new action. Instead of being taught extension techniques, farmers are inspired to analyze their situation together, to put forward and try out their own ideas and known technical options. These experiences and lessons are then shared with other farmers and the larger community (Hagmann et al,1997). Extension workers intensively designate farmer problems via individual observations and/or interviews but, there is limited farmer participation in analyzing and problem solving processes in Turkey. This limited collaboration between actors is caused the low adoption rate of advices in extension system. Extension must understand the needs and problems of its clientele so it can select the appropriate information to help farmers understand their short and long term goals and provide them with tools for problem solving. The problems and the solutions are intensively decided by advisors themselves (Table 9). Human resources development approaches as the basic for sustainable development are insufficiently employed by extension services. Statements I and farmers jointly define the problems and but I find the solutions Farmers tell the problems I find the solutions I and farmers jointly define the problems and we also find the solutions jointly I define the problems and I find the solutions Total Frequency 404 248 239 percent 40.3 24.7 23.8 112 1003 11.2 100.0 Table 9: The statement identified on the problem definition process in extension The regions and sustainable extension system Turkey’s agricultural extension policy does not specifically focus on introducing sustainable agricultural production practices into the agricultural system. Existing efforts on sustainable agricultural production methods are mentioned as limited and nonsystematic (Kumuk and Akgungor, 1995). The significant 108 �variables for sustainability and performance increasing in the system were used in the multi-dimensional scaling analysis for examining the similarities of the regions. The variables can be divided in three groups such as individual characteristics of extension workers, cooperation with local actors and extension activities (Table 10). Individual characteristics Occupational experience Language proficiency attending to sociology class attending to extension class attending to ecology class Occupational satisfaction Cooperation with local actors effect of cooperatives effect of chamber of agriculture effect of local administration effect of farmers harmony with the chambers of agriculture harmony with the cooperatives problem discussion with the farmers harmony with the farmers’ priorities harmony with the farmers’ conditions individual interviews Extension activities Devoted time for extension Devoted time for bureaucratic works Devoted time for self-learning Crop numbers Numbers of farm/er visit 40 and younger farmers served 41 and elder group of farmers served Education levels of farmers advice adoption level of farmers to be under the pressure program preparing Table 10: The variables using for Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) According to these variables the regions have been grouped by multi-dimensional scaling (Stress = ,03813; RSQ = ,99725) as Marmara, Eastern, Blacksea and Central Regions (Group I); and the Southeastern, Ege, and Mediterranean Regions (Group II). The average situation of Turkey (TR) has taken place within Group I as shown in the model. During MDS an ideal region has been established for comparing the existing and objected/idealized situations. The exist situation in both region groups are quite far from the idealized situation of extension sustainability (Figure 1). Derived Stimulus Configuration Euclidean distance model ,6 southeas ,4 meditrn ege ,2 tr marmara eastern Dimension 2 -,0 ideal -,2 blacksea central -,4 -,6 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Dimension 1 Figure 1: Region groups (MDS) Mounting environmental problems call for new elements in our higher education curricula. Students should not only gain awareness of the environmental aspects related to their own discipline but should also acquire the ability to apply their specialist knowledge and understanding in multidisciplinary teams (Barendse and Hoek, 1996). For reaching ideal situation, individually extension staff must be well educated on sustainable farming practices and participatory extension approaches. Local participation is seen as the main 109 �requirement for system sustainability. Farmers take place not only problem defining but also, solution finding phases. Extension is long term process and needs regular following of farmers’ applications and extension advices. As a result of these devoted times for self learning and extension activities are important components of extension performance. Conclusion In a rapidly changing world, farming is becoming increasingly knowledge intensive activity that requires transformation on concepts and approaches of rural development. In this context future extension systems are assumed to be decentralized with highly skilled facilitator at the local level, and likely to be expanded to include various actors with different interests. The improvements in agricultural development approaches and alternative systems are not just a question of technology there are important social, economic and institutional issues as well (Roling, 1993). Extensions mission is to develop an integrated and multidisciplinary education plan that focuses on helping its clientele implement sustainable agricultural systems. In addition, Extension must design a program to meet the challenges of producing an abundant, healthy food supply while maintaining the quality of life and preserving natural resources (Ball, 2007). Sustainable extension has two dimensions as system working and objectives. Fiscal sustainability has been a generic problem for large-scale agricultural extension systems in developing countries high-cost national systems have been significantly scaled down or discontinued altogether in large part because the fiscal demands they placed on public budgets were not sustainable (Quizon et al, 2001). In both, Turkish extension system is not at intended level. Neither financing nor planning phases are not included the farmers in Turkish extension system. While the activities have directed to conventional farming, the small farmers, women and disadvantage groups also have very limited priorities in the system. In briefly, low technology adoption levels, intensifying on only production increase, limited local participation have been emphasized as the common disorders. In short term, public extension has to give place for ecological farming and sustainable development and both systems have to intensify on capacity building. Basically, the actors must have metamorphosis on utilizing approaches via participatory learning and sustainable basis. Based upon the findings and recent improvements in the world agenda, some suggestions can be made for developing countries and sustainable development in agricultural extension as follows: 1. Sustainable agriculture needs extensive consultation with the local actors. 2. The local actors not only take place but, must stay on the table in all stages of extension. 3. By considering the locations more flexible and participatory approaches must be employed in extension system. 4. Fundamentally, 15-20 extension workers must be trained on sustainable farming and participatory approaches as the core team for each province. 5. Sustainable farming practices, environmental management, health and safety farming skills are addressed as top priorities during the planning phase. 6. Agricultural chemical usage is not the only solution to farming problems, and farmers need to develop better understanding of diseases and their control. This needs to employ participatory approaches for collectively analyzing and creating the problems and their solutions. 7. The planning is important element of extension works. The activities should be based on the plan. The plans should include improved farming practices covering reduced cultivation/tillage, reduced fertilization and efficient water usage besides “clean” produce (Anonymous, 2000). The plan should be prepared locally and in a holistic manner. Acknowledgment: The study have been prepared from the data of two former researches such as “A Research on Using And Improving of Information And Communication Technologies in Agricultural Extension in Turkey”, The Scientifıc and Technical Research Council of Turkey Agriculture, Forestry, and Veterinary Science Research Grant Group” (Project No: 104O130-2007) and “A Research on Workings of Agricultural Consulting Model in Turkey”, Ege University Scientific Research Project Report (Project No: 2005-ZRF-020- 2007). 110 �References Anonymous, 2000, Education and Training Plan for Sustainable Agriculture in the Sydney Region NSW Department of Agriculture, p103. Axinn, G, 1988 Guide on Alternative Extension Approaches, FAO, Rome, Italy, p148. Ball, S., 2007, Sustainable Agriculture: Cooperative Extension Service’s Strategic Plan for Now Mexico, http://cahe.nmsu.edu/pub Barendse J. and Hoek, D.,1996, Interdisciplinary project teams on agriculture and environment: A problem-oriented approach, Eur J.Agric.Educ. Ext, Vol:1 No:3 pp.24-36. Boyaci and Arslan 2007 A Research on Workings of Agricultural Consulting Model in Turkey, Ege University Scientific Research Project Report Proje No: 2005-ZRF-020 p87. Boyaci M., 2007, A Research on Using And Improving of Information And Communication Technologies in Agricultural Extension in Turkey, The Scientifıc and Technical Research Council of Turkey Agriculture, Forestry, and Veterinary Science Research Grant Group Project No: 104O130 p106 Boyacı, M., 1996, Avrupa Birligi Ulkelerinde ve Turkiye‘de Tarimsal Yayim, E.U.Tarimsal Uygulama ve Arastirma Merkezi, Yayim Serisi (3), E.U. Basimevi, Bornova, 21s. Boyacı, M., 1998, Tarimsal Bilgi ve Teknoloji/Enformasyon Akis Sisteminin Ozellikleri, Sorunlari ve Cozum Onerileri Uzerine Bir Arastirma: Manisa Đli Ornegi, EU. Fen Bilimleri Enstitusu, Tarim Ekonomisi Anabilim Dalı, doktora tezi (basılmamış) 182s. Carol, L., 1989, Scanning the environment, JOE, Fall, Vol:27, N:3 http://www.joe.org Chambers, R., 1994, Challenging the Proffessions, Frointers For Rural Development, Intermadiate Technology Publications, p143. Csaki, C.,1999, Agricultural higher education in transforming Central and Eastern Europe, Agricultural Economics 21 pp109-120. DPT, 2003, On Ulusal Kalkinma Plani (2004-2006) Mevcut Ekonomik ve Sosyal Durum, Ankara, 186s. Expere, J.A., 1974, A Comparative Study of Job Performance Under Two Approaches to Agricultural Extension Organization, Land Tenure Centre, Research Paper (61), USA, p62. FAO, 1990, Organization and Overview of the Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension, Swanson, B. E (Ed), Report, Rome, Italy, p217. Feder, G., et al, 1999, Agricultural Extension Generic Challenges and Some Ingredients for Solutions, The World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2129, Washington DC., p32. Hagmann J. et al,1997 From teaching to learning, ILEA Newsletter, October, pp 26/27. Harrison, D. 2002, Managing for sustainable agriculture, JOE, Vol:40, N.4 p6, http://www.joe.org http://www.tuik.gov.tr, 9.4.2010 Kumuk T. and Akgungor, S., 1995, The role of public extension in introducing environment-friendly farming methods in Turkey, Eur J.Agric.Educ. Ext, Vol:1 No:4 pp.65-74. Lawrence, A., 1997, What does sustainability mean? ILEA Newsletter, April, p17 111 �Oakley, P., and Garforth, C., 1992, Guide to Extension Training, FAO Training Series No:11, Rome Italy, p144. Proost, M., 1994, Evaluation of the extension on crop protection in the Netherlands, Eur J.Agric.Educ. Ext, Vol:1 No:2 pp.15-30. Quizon J. et al, 2001, Fiscal Sustainability of Agricultural Extension: The Case of the Farmer Field School Approach, March, Development Research Group, The World Bank, p17. Radhakrishna B.R, et,al. 1991, Informing farmers on environmental issues, JOE, Fall, Vol:29, N. 3, http://www.joe.org Rogers, A., 1993, Third generation extension towards and alternative model, Extension Bulletin (3), The University of Reading, Reading, UK. Röling, N., 1993, Agricultural knowledge and environmental regulation in The Netherlands, a case study of the crop protection plan, Sociologia Ruralis 33 (22), Department of Extension Science, Agricultural University, Wageningen, Netherlands, pp261-280. Roling, N., 1989. The Agricultural Research Technology Transfer Interface: A Knowledge System Perspective, ISNAR, Hague, Netherlands. Strauss, J. et al., 1991, Role of Education and Extension in The Adoption of Technology: A Study of Upland Rice and Soybean Farmers in Central-West Brazil, Yale University Economic Growth Center, Paper (456), Connecticut, USA., p20. Swanson B.E., et al, 1989, The current status of extension worldwide, Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension, Swanson B.E. (ed), FAO, Rome, Italy, pp. 43-76 TEDGEM, 2009, http://www.tedgem.gov.tr/koymer.html, 01.09.2009 TOKB, 1987, TYUAP, Yayim Klavuzu, Bolum 1, Ankara, 28s. Van den Ban, A.W., 2005, Changes in society require changes in agricultural extension: some observations, Rural Development News, Volume 2, LBL, CH, 8315 Lindau, pp.26-33 Van der Bor, Brydan M and, Fuller, M., 1995; Rethinking higher agricultural education in a time of globalization and rural restructuring, Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, Vol. 2, Number 3, pp 29-40. Wagemans, M.C.H. 1990, Analysis the role of information in planning: the case of town and country planning, Knowledge in Society, The International Journal of Knowledge Transfer, Vol: 3 (4), pp:72-90. ZMO, 2005, Proje Kapsaminda Calisan Ziraat Muhendisleri Kaderleriyle Bas Basa Kaldi, Tarim ve Muhendislik Dergisi, Sayi:75, Sayfa:42. 112 �Determination of Stomata Densities of Some American Grape Rootstocks in Eğirdir/Isparta Seçkin GARGIN Eğirdir Horticultural Research Institute Eğirdir/Isparta Turkey secking32@hotmail.com Abstract It was aimed to determine stomata density of 10 different American grape rootstocks (5BB, 110R, 99R, SO4, 1616C, Rup. Du Lot, Harmony, Fercal, Dodridge, Ramsey) which were located in Eğirdir Horticultural Research Institute in this research. On leaves on 6th node of shoots for each rootstock were collected to determine stomata density in July. Preparations were made using nail varnish on five different parts of leaf. Stomata numbers were counted from area of 0.066 mm2 by using 10 x 40 magnification of light microscope. The results converted to number of stomata/mm2. Stomata density changed between 61 and 141 stomata/mm2. The lowest and highest stomata density was obtained from Rup Du Lot rootstock with 61 stomata/mm2 and Ramsey rootstock with 141 stomata/mm2 respectively. Introduction Stomata has an important role in epidermis tissue for plant gas taking and giving. They have already different from epidermis cells. They occur from two cells in shape of bean or kidney. These two cells convex surfaces come together and form stomata cell (Vardar, 1969). Stomatas can be found in the all parts of the plants except roots. Stomatas are small pores and generally can be found in epidermis tissue (Kaçar, 1989). Stomatas make gas diffusion by perspiration with cellular cavities and they control water and plant ratio in plants. Stomatatas in the leaves have an important role in adaptation to environmental factors (Salisbury, 1992). Stomata means “mouth“ in Greek language. Stomatas have important roles in photosynthesis and perspiration in plants. Stomatas can be found in plant tissues and especially they can be found in the bottom surface of Vitis leaves. They are in anomocytic type and surrounded by neighborhood cells (Ağaoğlu, 1999). Stomata density can vary according to plant species, varieties, ecology and cultivation practices. Stomata density can be affected by exogenous and indigenous factors (Kaiser, 2001). Leaf maturity and position of the leaves on the shoots affect stomata density (Düzenli and Ağaoğlu, 1992). 1.000 – 60.000 stomata can be found generally in 1 cm² leaf surface depending on plant species and environment. Stomata number can change for same plants which are grown greenhouse and natural conditions (Bozcuk, 1997). Stomatas take CO2 for photosynthesis and also take out water with transportation. Transpiration affects root pressure and prevents leaves from excess heating (Eriş, 1992). Breeding Vitis studies main aim is to increase resistance for drought. Drought resistance is thought to occur from using water efficiently and proportion photosynthesis to transpiration (Duering, 1999). Grapevine is a mezofit plant but like ksefofıt plants. It is resistant to drought that it can be caused by intense stomata density and resistant to drought tolerance correlation (Düzenli and Ağaoğlu, 1992; Kara and Özeker, 1999; Maraşalı and Aktekin, 2003). Also it is known that mesofit plants abscisic acid high levels are more effective for drought tolerance than kserofits. Some varieties can have different stomata number in natural conditions and green house conditions. This event strengthens the thesis about environmental factors affect the stomata number. Plants which are grown in drought conditions it is more important to evaluate their stomata densities according to the variety and ecological conditions. 113 �This study was conducted to determine stomata numbers of 10 different American Grape rootstocks (5BB, 110R, 99R, SO4, 1616C, Rup Du Lot, Harmony, Fercal, Dodridge, Ramsey) in Eğirdir ecological conditions. Material and Method This study’s main material was 10 different American grape rootstock ( 5BB, 110R, 99R, SO4, 1616C, Rup. Du Lot, Harmony, Fercal, Dodridge, Ramsey) which were cultivated in Eğirdir Horticultural Research Institute. Position of leaf on the shoot affects stomata number (Düzenli and Ağaoğlu, 1992). For this reason each rootstock’s leaves were taken from the sixth node (same for all varieties) in July. Leaves were taken from same thickness of shoots with 10 replicates. Colorless nail vanish was used in order to extract samples from the leaves. Samples were prepared from different places on the leaves. Nail vanish was dripped 1-2 drops on the bottom surface of leaf and when it was dried, it was taken off like a pattern form the leaf by the help of a gillette. After the sample was put on a lam and 1-2 water drop was dripped on lam, was covered with lamella (Mısırlı and Aksoy, 1994). Stomata count was done in a 0.066 mm² area by a light microscope with 10X40 magnificent. Stomata numbering 1 mm² was calculated from proportional calculation. Counted stomata numbers were statistically analyzed by Jump software programme. Results and Discussion Stomata density changed between 61 and 141 stomata /mm2. The lowest and highest stomata density was obtained from Rup. Du Lot rootstocks with 61 stomata /mm2 and Ramsey rootstock with 141 stomata /mm2 respectively as seen in table 1. Stomata density (number/mm2) 141 136 133 132 131 117 108 98 90 61 Rootstock name Ramsey 110 R Dodridge 99 R 5 BB Fercal 1616 C Harmony SO 4 Rup Du Lot Table 1. Rootstock stomata density in a 1 mm² area First stomata number researches in Vitis species have been started in 19th century last times. First study about stomata number of Vitis was Müller-Thurgau’s “Ampalographische Berichte” in 1882. He counted “Riesling” variety that it had 186 stomata/mm² on the bottom of the leaves (Oraman,1972). Düzenli and Ağaoğlu (1992), found that Razakı grape variety had more stomata number than the other varieties. Razakı grape variety can be grown in different ecological conditions. Razakı variety may be more resistant than other varieties for drought. Other studies showed that stomata number could vary according to ecological conditions. For example Çavuş grape variety stomatas were counted 187 stomata /mm² in Marmara and 277 stomata /mm² in Ankara ecological conditions (Eriş and Soylu 1990). Hegedüs (1974) determined that stomata numbers and volumes could vary in the different places of same plant. He determined that stomata numbers of some varieties Sultani Çekirdeksiz 216, Hafızali 194, Portugieser 206, Pinot Gris 164, Weisse Gutedel 183, Müller Thurgau 158, 5 C rootstock 209, Rup Du Lot’da 171, Portalis’de (Vitis Riparia) 194 stomata/mm². Duering (1980) counted the mature leaves of Vitis rupestris 114 �and Vitis cinerea and determined 174 stomata /mm² and 349 stomata /mm² respectively. They determined that stomata number could rarely vary in the same plant’s same leaf. Scienza and Boselli (1981), studied about stomata dimensions and they reported that stomata dimensions can be affected from the genotype and position of the leaf on the shoot. Biggest stomata numbers were 1103 P and 3309 rootstocks, 157-11C and 140 R had the lowest stomata number. They determined the stomata number differences between grape varieties and rootstocks. When stomata numbers are counted according to leaf maturity, young leaves have more stomatas than mature leaves. Also it was reported that if there wasn’t a much water stress, irrigation conditions wouldn’t have an important effect on stomata number (Marasalı and Aktekin, 2003). It is necessary to research ABA synthesis and like similar factors about stomata density for drought resistance. Yuvarlak çekirdeksiz grape variety grafted on 99 R and 110 R rootstocks had been determined 284.4 and 294.8 stomata numbers respectively. Stomata numbers were determined more than grafted on the other rootstocks. Stomata number had been evaluated statistically important in this study. Stomata number differences had been evaluated also in different studies. For example in a study Vitis species stomata densities had been determined and average stomata number had been found 198.3 stomata /mm². Stomata density of Vitis berlanderi was determined 143.6 stomata /mm² and Vitis cardifolia was determined 302 stomata/ mm². Stomata density of Muscadinia rotundifolia was determined 407.7 stomata /mm². Diploid’s average stomata density was 182.4 stomata/mm²and tetrapolid’s average stomata density was 114 stomatamm² (Shiraishi and et. all 1996). Jump software programmes analyse results are given in below. Source Model Error C. Total DF Sum of Squares 9 36116,254 39 9191,950 48 45308,204 Mean Square 4012,92 235,69 F Ratio 17,0262 Prob > F <,0001 Table 2. Analysis of Variance Level RAMSEY 110 R DODRĐDGE 99 R 5 BB FERCAL 1616 C HARMONY SO 4 RUP DU. LOT A A A A A B B B B B C C C D D Least Sq Mean 141,60000 136,20000 133,25000 132,60000 131,20000 117,20000 107,80000 98,00000 70,20000 60,80000 Table 3. Groups of LSD Test Levels not connected by same letter are significantly different. Conclusion Some grape rootstocks had been evaluated for stomata density in this study and rootstocks had been found statiscally significantly important for stomata density. Stomata density may vary according to ecological conditions and cultivation practices in Vitis. Stomata density gets higher by losing water with transpiration but it has not been proved clearly up to now. But sometimes it is seen that stomata density get high in irrigated conditions. Stomata density researches must be continued because of these reasons. Stomata numbers and densities must be evaluated and expect stomata density, stomatata pores, stomata index, transpiration ratios distances between stomatas must be evaluated. Drought resistance and stress 115 �studies are getting more important in nowadays stomata studies with plant physiology must be done continuously with the other subjects concerning stomata. References Ağaoğlu, Y.S. (1999). Scienfitc and Practical Viticulture Volume 1. Kavaklıdere Education Publishing, No 1. Ankara. Bozcuk S. (1997). Plant Physiology. 2. Edition Ankara Univ. Science Faculty Publishing 48-56 Ankara. Duering, H. (1980). Stomata frequency of leaves of Vitis Species and Cultivars. Vitis 19:91-98. Duering, H. (1999). Improvement of Drought Tolerance of Grapevines by Breeding (in German). Berichte Über Landwirtschaft Germany 77 (1) 43-48. Düzenli, S. (1983). Researchs on Stomata Features and Effect of Acetil salicilic Acid on Stomata Movements for Some Vitis Species and Grape Garieties. 2.Edition Ankara Univ. Science Faculty Publishing (Doctora thesis). Ankara. Düzenli, S. and Ağaoğlu, Y.S. (1992). Effects of Leaf Age and Position of the Leaves for Stomata Density in Some Vitis Vinifera L. Doğa-Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 16, (63-72). Eriş A., and Soylu A. (1990). Stomatatal Density in Various Turkish Grape Cultivars (Proceedings of the 5th. International Symposium on Grape Breeding, 12-16 September 1989, Germany). Vitis Special Đssue 382-389, Đzmir. Eriş, A. (1992). Special Viticulture. Uludağ University Publishing. Bursa. Kaiser, H., and L. Kappen. (2001). Stomatatal Oscillations at Small Apertures: Indications for a Fundamental Insufficiency of Stomatatal Feedbackcontrol Inherent in the Stomatatal Turgor Mechanism. J. Exp. Bot. (52):1303-1313. Kaçar, B. (1989). Plant Physiology . Ankara University Science Faculty Publishing no:1153, p:323. Kara, S. and Özeker, E. (1999). Researchs About Leaf Features and Stomata Densities of Yuvarlak çekirdeksiz Grape Variety Grafted on Different Rootstocks. (Journal of Aegean Agricultural Research Institute) Volume 9:76-85. Marasalı, B. and Aktekin, A. (2003). Comparision of Some Grape Cultivars Stomata Densities Irrigated, 9(3): 370-372. Mısırlı, A. and Aksoy, U. (1994). Researchs About Leaf Features and Stomata Densities of Some Yellow Fig Clons. Ege Univ. Agricultural Faculty, Journal Volume 31 :57-63, Đzmir. Oraman, M. N. (1972). Viticulture Technics. II, Ankara University Science Faculty Publishing No: 470, Ankara. Salisbury, F.B. and Ross, C.W. (1992). Plant Physiology. Fourth Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, California. Shiraishi. Et all. (1996). Preliminary Survey on Stomatatal Density and Length of Grapevine. Journal of The Faculty of Agriculture Kyushu University. Japan, 41 (1-2) 11-15. Vardar, Y. (1969). Plant Anatomy Lessons. Ege University Science Faculty Publishing. p93- 99 Đzmir. 116 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 340 Title A name given to the resource How can Agricultural Extension System in Turkey be Sustainable? Author Author Boyaci, Assoc. Dr. Murat Abstract A summary of the resource. In the study, extension services were examined through interpretation of data collected up to 1104 public and contracted extension workers. Turkish extension system is influenced by general and training-visit approaches which were employed in the past. The approaches employed are mainly directed to conventional production and yield increases using a top-down process and gives little place for human resources development and sustainable agriculture within Turkish extension system. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/581049ba259f06fdecb8f5a145b8778e.pdf 0e4713355ef97aff22406ca49591833a PDF Text Text In vitro Antioxidant Properties and Phenolic Content of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Root Ercan Bursal Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Department of Chemistry Muş Alparslan University, Turkey ercanbursal@gmail.com Ekrem Köksal Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Department of Chemistry Erzincan University, Turkey ekoksal@erzincan.edu.tr Đlhami Gülçin Faculty of Sciences, Department of Chemistry Atatürk University, Turkey igulcin@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Ginger root is one of the most widely used plants for medicinal aims in Anatolia. Determination of antioxidant properties and of phenolic contents traditionally used plants is important in respect to pharmacologic studies. In this study, antioxidant properties and phenolic content of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) root are investigated. Antioxidant activity of plant is measured with ferric thiocyanate method, reducing power and metal chelating assays. Also, antiradical activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) root is measured with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH•) radical scavenging activity. Additionally total phenolic content of plant are determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu reactive method. Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), α-tocopherol and trolox were used as standard antioxidants for comparison. It has been show that ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root have gat antioxidant and antiradical properties and there is the correlation between these properties and phenolic and flavonoid contents of plant. Introduction Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a common additive in a number of commercial foods and beverages and is valued both for its aromatic volatile constituents and for its spicy, pungent constituents. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) has been used as a spice for thousands of years. World production is estimated to be 100000 tyear-1 on a dry weight basis and it is cultivated in many tropical and subtropical countries (Bartley and Jacobs, 2000). Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), belonging to a tropical and sub-tropical family – Zingiberaceae, originating in South-East Asia and introduced to many parts of the globe, has been cultivated for thousands of years as a spice and for medicinal purposes (Park and Pizzuto, 2002). Oxygen and nitrogen are very important elements for aerobe livings, but reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) generated in the living body can be very dangerous (Willet, 1994). Existing lifestyles cause free radicals and RONS to over-produce in human organism, and to decrease the physiological antioxidant capacity (Lopez, Akerreta, Casanova, Garcia-Mina, Cavero, & Calvo, 2007). RONS can cause many diseases such as atherosclerosis, coronary heart diseases, aging and cancer (Li, Wong, Cheng, & Chen, 2008). These diseases result from uncontrolled production of RONS and unbalanced mechanism of antioxidant protection. RONS contain superoxide anion radicals (O2.-), hydroxyl radicals (OH.) and non free-radical species such as H2O2 and singlet oxygen (1O2) and these molecules are a class of highly reactive molecules generated on aerobic respiration in livings (Halliwel & Gutteridge, 1989). On the other hand, RONS can cause lipid peroxidation in foods that leads to the deterioration (Sasaki, Ohta, & Decker, 1996). Antioxidants can inhibit the outbreak or the advance of oxidative reactions and thus prevent cell 86 �damage caused by RONS (Esmaeili & Sonboli, 2010). In order to decrease harmful effect of RONS, the antioxidants from plants can be used. Also, there are synthetic antioxidants such as butylhydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT), but the usage of these molecules has some risks (Sun & Fukuhara, 1997). Therefore, in recent years, the use of synthetic antioxidants has been limited in many countries and the interest in natural antioxidants has increased more and more. The most important one of natural antioxidants is the medicinal plants on which many studies have been done so far. The medicinal plants have been used to treat many diseases in the Anatolia for a long time. Many researches have shown that many medicinal plants used in Anatolia have highly antioxidant activity. Also, these plants have rich phenolic content. Natural antioxidants in plants protect the human body from free radicals, oxidative stress and associated diseases. Hence, these antioxidants play a very important role in human health (Lopez et al., 2007). Plants are rich in biologically active compounds which have features such as antioxidant and radical scavenging activities. Many studies reveals that most of the foods contain phytochemicals such as phenolic compounds having potential protective effects (Rice-Evans, Miller, & Paganga, 1997), and increasing consumption of fruits and vegetables decrease degenerative diseases (Ames, Shigenaga, & Hagen, 1993; Reddy, Sreeramulu, & Raghunath, 2009). Materials and methods Chemicals We obtained butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT), the stable free radical 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH•), linoleic acid, 3-(2-Pyridyl)-5,6-bis (4-phenyl-sulfonic acid)-1,2,4-triazine (Ferrozine), 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), α-tocopherol, polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate (Tween-20), 2,2’-bipyridine and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) from Sigma (Sigma-Aldrich GmbH, Sternheim, Germany) and purchased ammonium thiocyanate from Merck. Samples and preparation of extract We obtained dried ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) from local market at Erzurum, Turkey. For ethanol extract ginger root (EEGR), 25 g dried ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root ground into in a mill, and the powdery ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root is mixed with 100 mL ethanol on a magnetic stirrer for 1 hour. The extracts are filtered and then filtrates are collected. The ethanol in mixture is removed using a rotary evaporator (RE 100 Bibby, Stone Staffordshire England) at 50oC to dry the extract. The extract is placed in a dark plastic bottle and stored at -20oC until used for experimental studies. Total antioxidant activity determination by ferric thiocyanate method The total antioxidant activity of EEGR and standard antioxidants is determined using the ferric thiocyanate method in linoleic acid emulsion (Mitsud, Yuasumoto & Iwami, 1996). The stock solutions are prepared by 10 mg of EEGR dissolved in 10 mL distilled water. The different concentrations of stock EEGR solution samples (10-20 µg/mL) are prepared in 2.5 mL of potassium phosphate buffer solution (0.04 M, pH 7.0) and then these are added to 2.5 mL of linoleic acid emulsion in potassium phosphate buffer solution (0.04 M, pH 7.0). The final solutions are incubated at 37oC. During the incubation periodically, a 0.1 mL aliquot of the mixture is diluted with 3.7 mL of ethanol, and then it is added to the mixture of 0.1 mL of 30% ammonium thiocyanate and 0.1 mL of 20 mM ferrous chloride in hydrochloric acid (3.5%). The absorbance is measured at 500 nm for the determination of the peroxide level. The peroxides formed during linoleic acid oxidation oxidize Fe2+ to Fe3+ and the latter ions form a complex with thiocyanate. The complex has a maximum absorbance at 500 nm. The process is repeated every 6 h until the control reaches its maximum absorbance value. The amounts of inhibition are calculated by the following equation: A  Inhibition of lipid peroxidation (%) =100 −  S x 100   AC  87 �Where, AS is the absorbance value of the control reaction and AC is the absorbance value of working samples and standards. In the control, ethanol is used instead of the sample. Fe3+ reducing power assay The reducing activity of EEGR is determined according to the method of Oyaizu (1986). The capacity reducing of EEGR to reduce the ferric-ferricyanide complex to the ferrous-ferricyanide complex of Prussian blue is measured by reading the absorbance at 700 nm. Shortly, different concentrations of EEGR (10-30 µg/mL) in 1 mL of distilled water are mixed with phosphate buffer (2.5 mL, 0.2 M, pH 6.6) and potassium ferricyanide [K3Fe(CN)6] (2.5 mL, 1%). The mixture is incubated at 50oC for 20 min. Then, 2.5 mL trichloroacetic acid (10%) was added to the mixture. Finally, 0.5 mL of FeCl3 (0.1%) is added to this solution, and the absorbance is measured at 700 nm. Increased absorbance indicates greater reduction capability. Cu2+ reducing power assay In order to determinate of the reducing ability of EEGR, the cupric ions (Cu2+) reducing method recommended by Apak et al. (2004) with slight modification is used. Shortly, 0.25 mL CuCl2 solution (0.01M), 0.25 mL of ethanolic neocuproine solution (7.5×10−3 M) and 0.25 mL of CH3COONH4 buffer solution (1 M) are added to a test tube, followed by mixing with different concentrations of EEGR (10-30 µg/mL). Then, the final volume is increased to 2 mL with distilled water. The absorbance is read at 450 nm 30 minute later. The increased absorbance indicates the greater reduction capability. Chelating activity on ferrous ion (Fe2+) Ferrous ions (Fe2+) chelating activity of EEGR is measured according to the method of Re and co-workers (1999). Briefly, the different concentrations (10-30 µg/mL) of ethanol extract from ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root in 0.25 mL ethanol, 0.25 mL FeSO4 solution (2 mM), 1 mL Tris-HCl buffer solution (pH 7.4), 1mL 2,2’-bipyridine solution (0.2% in 0.2 M HCl) and 2.5 mL ethanol solution are added to a test tube, respectively. Then, total volume is adjusted to 6 mL with distilled water, and stirred well. The absorbance is measured at 562 nm. Na2EDTA is used as a standard ferrous ions (Fe2+) chelator. DPPH free radical scavenging activity DPPH free radical scavenging activity for EEGR is measured according to the method of Blois (1958). Briefly, a 0.1 mM ethanolic solution of DPPH· was prepared on daily bases. Then, 1 mL of this solution is added to 3 mL of EEGR solution in ethanol at different concentrations (10-20-30 µg/mL). After half an hour, the absorbance is measured at 517 nm for every sample. The DPPH· concentration (mM) in the reaction medium was calculated from the following calibration curve, determined by linear regression (R2: 0.9974): Absorbance = 5.869x10-4[DPPH·] + 0.0134 The capability to scavenge the DPPH· radical was calculated using the following equation:  A -A  DPPH· scavenging effect (%) =  C S  x 100  AC  Where, AC is the initial concentration of the stable DPPH free radical and AS is the absorbance of the concentration of vestigial DPPH·in the presence of EEGR (Cristiane de Souza, Soares de Araujo, & Imbroisi 2004). 88 �Determination of total phenolic content by Folin Ciocalteau assay The total phenolic content in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root is estimated by a colorimetric assay based on the procedure described by Slinkard et al. (1999) with slight modification. From EEGR 1 mg is added into a test tube and the final volume is increased to 23ml with distilled water. 3 minutes later FolinCiocalteu’s reagent (0.5 mL) and 2% Na2CO3 (1.5 mL) are added. The samples are vortexed and then kept at room temperature for 30 minutes. The absorbance measurements are recorded at 760 nm. The distilled water is used either as blank or for control instead of sample. Gallic acid is used for comparison. The absorbance measurements of samples that contain 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 µg gallic acid are recorded and standard gallic acid graph is drawn. The results are reported as µg gallic acid equivalents per mg extract. Determination of total flavonoid content Flavonoids are the most common group of polyphenolic compounds in the human diet and are found ubiquitously in plants (Spencer, 2008). The total flavonoid content in EEGR is estimated by a colorimetric assay based on the procedure described by Park et al. (1997). One mg EEGR samples are added into a test tube. Then 0.1 mL CH3COOK (1 m) and 0.1 mL of 10% Al(NO3)3 in 4,3 mL ethanol solution is added and the samples are vortexed. Then the vortexed samples kept at room temperature for 40 minutes. The absorbance measurements are recorded at 415 nm. The distilled water is used either as blank or for control instead of sample. Quercetin is used for comparison. The absorbance measurements of samples that contain 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 µg quercetin are recorded and then the standard graph is drawn. The results are reported as µg quercetin equivalents per mg extract. Statistical Analysis All the analyses on total antioxidant activity are carried out in duplicate sets. The other analyses were carried out in triplicate. The data are recorded as mean  standard deviation and analysed by SPSS (version 11.5 for Windows 98, SPSS Inc.). One-way analysis of variance is performed by ANOVA procedures. The significant differences between means are determined by LSD tests. P values  0.05 and  0.01 are regarded as significant and very significant, respectively. Result and discussion Lipid peroxidation can cause hazardous effects in foods by forming complex mixture of secondary breakdown products of lipid peroxides. The further intake of these foods can cause a number of adverse effects including toxicity to mammalian cells. Lipid peroxidation is thought to proceed via radical mediated abstraction of hydrogen atoms from methylene carbons in polyunsaturated fatty acids (Rajapakse, Mendis, Byun, & Kim, 2005). Antioxidant activity is defined as the ability of a compound to inhibit oxidative degradation, such as lipid peroxidation (Roginsky & Lissi, 2005) Natural antioxidants have biofunctionalities such as the reduction of chronic diseases, DNA damage, mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, etc. and inhibitions of pathogenic bacteria growth, which are often associated with the termination of free radical propagation in biological systems (Zhu, Hackman, Ensunsa, Holt, & Keen, 2002). Thus, for medicinal bioactive components, antioxidant capacity is widely used as a parameter. A number of assays have been introduced to measure the total antioxidant activity of pure compounds (Miller, Castelluccio, Tijburg, & Rice-Evans, 1996). In this study, the antioxidant activity of the EEGR is compared to BHA, BHT, α-tocopherol and its watersoluble analogue trolox. The antioxidant activity of the EEGR, α-tocopherol, trolox, BHA and BHT is measured according to the total antioxidant activity by ferric thiocyanate method, DPPH free radical scavenging activity, metal chelating activity, reducing Fe3+ and Cu2+ activity. Besides, the total phenolic and flavonoid contents of these samples are determined. 89 �Total antioxidant activity determination by ferric thiocyanate method The ferric thiocyanate method determines the amount of peroxide produced during the initial stages of oxidation. 20 g/mL concentrations of EEGR on lipid peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion are shown in Figure 1 and are found to be 57.4%. Otherwise, α-tocopherol and trolox display 61.5 and 81.5% inhibition on peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion, respectively at the 20 g/mL concentration. As a result, Ginger have potent antioxidant activity in the ferric thiocyanate assays (Figure 1). Figure 1. Total antioxidant activity. Reducing power Reducing power of EEGR and standards (BHT, α-tocopherol and trolox) are determined by using the potassium ferricyanide reduction and cupric ions (Cu2+) reducing methods. For the measurements of the reductive activity, the Fe3+-Fe2+ transformation is investigated in the presence of EEGR using the method of Oyaizu (1986). The reducing activity of EEGR, and standard compounds increases with increasing their concentrations. Ferric ions (Fe3+) reducing ability of samples is as follows: Trolox ˃ BHT ˃ Ginger ˃ αTocopherol (Figure 2A). The results indicate that EEGR has notable ferric ions (Fe3+) reducing ability and electron donor properties for neutralizing free radicals. Also, Cu2+ reducing capability of EEGR by Cuprac method is found to be concentration dependent. Cupric ion (Cu2+) reducing ability of EEGR is shown in Fig. 2B and there is a correlation between the cupric ions reducing ability and concentrations of studied samples. Results are as follows: BHA ˃ Ginger ˃ Trolox ˃ α- Tocopherol (Figure 2B). Figure 2A. The Fe3+ reducing activity. activity Figure 2B. The Cu2+ reducing Chelating capacity Metal ions can cause lipid peroxidation that can produce free radicals and lipid peroxides. Therefore, metal chelating activity indicates antioxidant and antiradical properties. The decreased absorbance of the reaction mixture indicates higher metal chelating capability. EDTA is used as a standard metal chelating agent at the 90 �method firstly used by Re et al. (1999). According to the results, EEGR indicates less metal chelating from EDTA (Figure 3). In this study 2,2'-bipyridine is used as a metal chelating agent. Radical scavenging activity DPPH has been extensively used to measure the free radical-scavenging ability of various antioxidant substances. DPPH• assay is used in the this study for a primary screening of the EEGR free radicalscavenging activity, because this assay can accommodate a large number of samples in a short period and is sensitive enough to detect natural compounds at low concentrations. DPPH• scavenging method provides information on the reactivity of test compounds with a stable free radical. Besides, this method is simple and fast. Antioxidants react with DPPH•, which is a free radical, and convert it to 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazine. In the meantime the discolouration degree at the test tube indicates the radical-scavenging capability of the antioxidant (Singh, Murthy, & Jayaprakasha, 2002). In this study, antioxidant activities of EEGR and standards are measured. DPPH• gives a strong absorption at 517 nm because of its odd electron. As this electron becomes paired off in the existence of a free radical scavenger, the absorption vanishes. Consequently, EEGS exhibits remarkable DPPH free radical scavenging activity. The decrease (p0.05) in the concentration of DPPH radical due to the scavenging ability of EEGR and standards is shown in figure 5. BHA and BHT were used as references radical scavengers in this study. The scavenging effect of EEGR and standards on the DPPH radical decreased in that order: BHA  Ginger  BHT (Figure 4). Figure 3. The ferrous ion (Fe+2) chelating activity. scavenging effect. Figure 4. The DPPH Total phenolic content The total phenolic contents of ethanolic extract ofginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root is determined with Folin Ciocalteu reagent. The standard graph of gallic acid is drawn (r2: 0.994). The amount of total phenolic is determined from the standard graph equation as gallic acid equivalents per one mg of extract (GAE/mg extract). As can be seen in Table 1, 136 µg/mg of gallic acid equivalent of phenolic content is calculated in 1 mg of EEGR. The correlation between the antioxidant capacities of EEGR and the standard graph of gallic acid is determined. According to this result, it says that the phenolic compounds contribute significantly to the antioxidant capacities of the root parts of of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) plants. Total flavonoid content Flavonoids, including flavones, flavanols and tannins, are a class of secondary metabolites in plants. The consumption of the flavonoid containing fruits and vegetables has been linked to the protection against cancer and heart disease (Hertog, Hollman & Venema, 1992). Flavonoids are the most common group of polyphenolic compounds in the human diet and are found ubiquitously in plants. Quercetin is a well known plant-derived flavonoid; studies show that it may have antioxidant properties (Davis et al 2009). The standard graph of quercetin is drawn. The amount of total flavonoid is determined by this standard graph equation as quercetin equivalents per one mg of extract. The result of EEGR is found to be 15.4 µg QE/mg extract (Table 1). 91 �Total phenolic content (GAE) EEG (µg/mg) 136 Total flavonoid content (QE) 15.4 Table 1: Total phenolic and flavonoid contents of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Root Conclusions This study pointed out comparatively the potential antioxidant properties of ginger. According to the obtained data, ginger is found to be effective antioxidants in different in vitro assays including ferric thiocyanate method, reducing power and DPPH• scavenging activities when compared to standard antioxidant compounds such as BHA and BHT, synthetic antioxidants, -tocopherol, a natural antioxidant, and trolox which is water-soluble analogue of tocopherol. Besides, phenolic and flavonoid contents of ginger are determined as gallic acid and quercetin equivalent, standard phenolic and flavonoid compounds respectively. Also, according to the result obtained, ethanol extract of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root has effective antioxidant and antiradical capabilities, compared to standard antioxidant compounds. However, this extract doesn’t has good chelating power. The inhibition of lipid peroxidation in linoleic acid emulsion of EEGR is found to be higher than α-tocopherol, a standard antioxidant. The amount of total phenolic is approximately nine times of the amounts of total flavonoid in this extract. References Apak, R., Güçlü, K., Özyürek, M., & Karademir, S. E. (2004). Novel total antioxidant capacity index for dietary polyphenols and vitamins C and E, using their cupric ion reducing capability in the presence of neocuproine: CUPRAC method. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52, 7970-7981. Bartley, J. P., & Jacobs, A. L. (2000) Effects of drying on flavour compounds in Australian-grown ginger (Zingiber officinale). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 80, 209-215. 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Ginger root is one of the most widely used plants for medicinal aims in Anatolia. Determination of antioxidant properties and of phenolic contents traditionally used plants is important in respect to pharmacologic studies. In this study, antioxidant properties and phenolic content of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) root are investigated. Antioxidant activity of plant is measured with ferric thiocyanate method, reducing power and metal chelating assays. Also, antiradical activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) root is measured with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH•) radical scavenging activity. Additionally total phenolic content of plant are determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu reactive method. Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), α-tocopherol and trolox were used as standard antioxidants for comparison. It has been show that ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) root have gat antioxidant and antiradical properties and there is the correlation between these properties and phenolic and flavonoid contents of plant. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)