285 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ac4140c70da3c537917d04689b742245.pdf 963dd24329735d7bfb643ffc0f38818e PDF Text Text Poisonous Marine Organisms In Turkey And First Medical Aids Mustafa Alparslan Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology, Çanakkale malparslan@comu.edu.tr Hasan Barış Özalp Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology, Çanakkale Sadettin Doğu Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Hydrobiology, Çanakkale Abstract: There are many poisonous marine organisms in BlackSea, Mediterranean, Aegean Sea and Marmara Sea in Turkey. These organisms: Trachinus draco, Scorpaena scrofa, S. porcus, Rhizostoma pulmo, Chrysaora hysoscella, Aurelia aurita, Pelagica noctiluca, Anemonia sulcata sulcata. First aid : if tentacles of nematocysts are still stuck to the skin, they need to be removed gently. Be careful not to squeeze them as to not discharge more nematocysts. Local anesthetic spray or ointment may remove some of the pain on minor stings. Tannic acid is believed to work well. Give cardiovascular and respiratory assistance if needed. Medical treatment:The best anesthetic ointments in order of efficiency seem to be: Lignocaine 5%; Ultralan 0.5% . Lignocaine gel. Benadryl cream isn’t as effective. Commercial creams don’t work as long. Se For other jellyfish stings, soak or rinse the area in vinegar (acetic acid) for 15-30 minutes to stop the nematocysts from releasing their toxins. vere itching may occur after a few days. Steroid ointments (i.e. hydrocortisone) could help. Keywords: Black Sea, Marmara Sea, Poisonous organisms, First aid. Introduction Human deaths attributed to poisonous marine animals, particularly fishes, have been recorded since biblical times and some religious laws still condemn eating fish that are finless or scaleless. Figures of scaleless, poisonous fishes have been found on Egyptian tombs. Some early naturalists went further than just recognizing dangerous animals, they actually used marine toxins to remedy ailments. For example, Pliny the Elder (29–79 A.D.) used ground sting ray stingers to relieve the pain of toothaches. The best procedure to follow, if you are stranded, starved, and have to eat a fish you know nothing about, is to skin it, remove the head and internal organs carefully, and then soak the remaining meat in water for several hours, throwing away the water before cooking. Many poisons from plants and animals are soluble in water. Often, cooking alone will not destroy or remove the toxic substances. In Japan, finer restaurants have licensed puffer cooks that have been specially trained in preparing puffer for human consumption. Yet the Japanese, even though they are familiar with poisonous fishes, suffer about 100 deaths yearly from puffer poisoning. Puffer poison has the scientific name tetrodotoxin, after the family name for puffer fishes, Tetraodontidae. It can take 10 minutes or 3 hours before symptoms are evident: nausea, vomiting, muscular weakness, paralysis, and respiratory distress. No specific antidote is known. It is estimated that 30,000 human illnesses from eating poisonous marine animals, primarily fishes and shellfish, occur each year, some of them resulting in death. With figures like that, the title of the article "Eat Puffer and Maybe Suffer" should be taken seriously. Fortunately, we are not rich in point of dangerous marine organisms according to Australia and New Zealand. owever, some poisonous fish and jellyfish effect to human during summer time in Turkey.: Scorpaena scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 (Red scorpionfish) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: British Isles (rare) to Senegal including Madeira, the Canary Islands, and 616 �Cape Verde. Also throughout the Mediterranean except Black Sea. South African species thought to be the same as population in the northeast Atlantic. Biology: Solitary and sedentary over rocky, sandy or muddy bottoms. Feeds on fishes, crustaceans and Mollusks Human uses: Fisheries: commercial; aquarium: public aquariums Scorpaena porcus Linnaeus, 1758 (Black scorpionfish) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: British Isles to the Azores, and the Canary Islands, including Morocco, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.. Biology: Solitary and sedentary over rocky, sandy or muddy bottoms. Feeds on fishes, crustaceans and Mollusks Human uses: minor commercial; aquarium: commercial Scorpaena notata Rafinesque, 1810 (Small red scorpionfish) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: Bay of Biscay to Senegal, Madeira, Azores and the Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean (rare in northern Adriatic) and the Black Sea (as Scorpaena notata afimbria). Biology: Common in rocky littoral habitats. Feeds on crustaceans and small fishes. Flesh is tasty and used in making 'bouillabaisse' Human uses: Fisheries: commercial; aquarium: commercial Scorpaena elongata Cadenat, 1943 (Slender rockfish) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: Mediterranean Sea and Morocco to off northern Namibia Biology: Sedentary species which occurs in rocky areas. Feeds on fishes, shrimps and other benthic invertebrates Human uses: Fisheries: minor commercial Scorpaena maderensis Valenciennes, 1833 (Madeira rockfish) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: Azores, Madeira, and Morocco to the Canary Islands, Cape Verde and Senegal. Also known from several localities in the Mediterranean Sea Biology: Inhabits shallow coastal waters. Feeds on crustaceans and small fishes. Anterolateral glandular groove with venom gland Human uses: Fisheries: commercial Trachinus draco Linnaeus, 1758 (Greater weever) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: Norway to Morocco, Madeira and Canary Islands, including the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, Reported from Mauritania Biology: On sandy, muddy or gravelly bottoms, from a few meters to about 150 m. Rest on the bottom, often buried with eyes and tip of first dorsal fin exposed. At night they swim around freely, even pelagically. Feed on small invertebrates and fishes; chiefly nocturnal. Oviparous, eggs and larval stages pelagic. There are dark markings along the scales; the anterior dorsal fin is black and contains venomous spines. Utilized fresh and frozen; can be pan-fried, broiled, boiled and baked. Spawning takes place in June and August, pelagic eggs are 1 mm. Human uses: Fisheries: minor commercial; gamefish: yes; aquarium: public aquariums Trachinus radiatus Cuvier, 1829 (Starry weever) 617 �Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: Gibraltar to the Gulf of Guinea; probably further south. Known from the Mediterranean. Biology: Found on sand and mud bottoms on the continental shelf from shoreline to a depth of about 150m. Oviparous. Eggs and larvae are pelagic. Human uses: Fisheries: commercial Trachinus araneus Cuvier, 1829 (Spotted weever) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: Portugal to Angola. Also known from the Mediterranean Distribution in the Turkish coasts: Marmara Sea, Agean Sea and Mediterranean Sea Biology: Inhabit shallow waters to about 100 m depth, burrowing in the bottom. Feed on small fishes and Crustaceans. Anterolateral glandular grooves and opercular spine with venom gland Oviparous, eggs and larvae are pelagic. Human uses: Fisheries: minor commercial Echiichthys vipera Cuvier, 1829 (Lesser weever) Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: North Sea to the Mediterranean, Morocco and Madeira. Reported from the Canary Islands Distribution in the Turkish coasts: Marmara Sea, Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea Biology: Littoral and benthic, on sandy, muddy or gravelly bottoms, from a few meters to about 150 m (in winter). Rest on the bottom, often buried with eyes and tip of first dorsal fin exposed. Considered as the most dangerous of the European weevers, both for its poison and for its frequent occurrence very near to beaches There are venom glands on the first dorsal fin, which is totally black, and on the gill cover Human uses: Fisheries: minor commercial; gamefish: yes Dasyatis pastinaca Linnaeus, 1758 (Common stingray) Distribution: Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea Distribution in the Turkish coasts: Marmara Sea, Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea Biology: Found over sandy and muddy bottoms, sometimes in estuaries and near rocky reefs. Feed on bottom fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. Ovoviviparous, gestation period about 4 months and 4-7 young are produced. Wings marketed smoked, dried-salted, and also used for fishmeal and oil. Harmful to shellfish banks; dangerous to bathers and fishers due to its poisonous spine. Barbed poison spine is a modified denticle that can be 35cm long, shed occasionally and replaced. Siganus luridus Rüppell, 1829 (Dusky spinefoot) Distribution: Western Indian Ocean: Red Sea and East Africa to islands in the western Indian Ocean. Immigrant to Mediterranean via the Suez Canal Distribution in the Turkish coasts: South Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea Biology: Found in small schools in very shallow water close to the bottom. Prefer hard bottoms of compacted sand with rock or coral debris. Solitary adults and groups of 3 or 4 adults have also been observed. Feed on a wide range of benthic algae. May suddenly stop and erect its fins (dorsal, anal and pelvic) presenting an encircling array of spined to potential predators; these spines are venomous. A food fish that is occasionally poisonous. Probably does not adapt well in captivity. Minimum depth from. Human uses: minor commercial Siganus rivulatus Forsskål, 1775 (Marbled spinefoot) Distribution: Western Indian Ocean: Red Sea and East Africa to islands in the western Indian Ocean. Immigrant to Mediterranean via the Suez Canal Distribution in the Turkish coasts: Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea 618 �Biology: Inhabits shallow waters and generally in schools of 50 to several hundred individuals; prefers protected areas. Feeds by grazing on algae Human uses: Fisheries: minor commercial; aquaculture: commercial First Aids for Poisonous Fish Venomous fish stings: - stonefish - catfish venomous -other stinging fish Wash the wound site and immerse in hot water about 45ºC for a maximum duration of 90 minutes Irrigate the wound and remove foreign debris Radiograph to exclude retained spiny material Give oral or parenteral analgesia and occasionally local or regional anaesthesia for severe pain Stonefish antivenom is available for stonefish stings with severe pain or systemic effects Surgical consultation for involvement of joints or bones Stingray injuries • 6. 7. • Wash the wound site and immerse in hot water about 45ºC for a maximum duration of 90 minutes Apply local pressure for bleeding and resuscitate if there are thoracic or abdominal injuries 3. 4. 5. 8. 9. Irrigate and debride the wound Titrate intravenous analgesia and/or local or regional anaesthesia Surgical consultation for deep injuries, injuries to the chest or abdomen, or with retained material Resuscitation and surgical intervention for major trauma from thoracic or abdominal injuries Table 1. First aids of poisonous fish Results An estimated 500 or so poisonous fishes are inshore species living in warm seas between 45 degrees N and 45 degrees S. Many forms are numerous around small islands in the Pacific. Unfortunately, it is impossible to just look at a fish and tell whether it is poisonous. In some fishes, toxicity is strongly associated with the ripening of their reproductive organs or where the fish lives. Fish toxins are sometimes concentrated in a single organ, such as the liver, muscles, skin, or reproductive organs, or the whole animal may be poisonous. Puffers, of course, are not the only poisonous fishes. Certain species of snapper, sea bass, barracuda, jack, moray eel, parrotfish, shark, grouper, wrasse, and surgeonfish have also been implicated in human illnesses. Most of these fishes contain one or several toxins, one of which is known as ciguatera toxin. Ciguatera is more famous in Pacific waters; however, in Florida, the red tide organism, Karenia brevis, a one-celled dinoflagellate, and shellfish exposed to blooms of this organism, reportedly have a ciguatera-like toxin that can cause human suffering. Ciguatera poison is thought to originate at the base of the food chain. In Pacific waters, it has been traced to toxic blue-green algae that are eaten by small fishes and, in turn, are eaten by larger fishes. It is through the food chain that the toxin is taken in and accumulated. Perhaps other animals of the sea are better known as poisonous and dangerous animals to be avoided. Their effect on man is more direct—by attack. This involves stinging cells or venom glands. The sea wasps or jellyfish of the Austro-Asian area have caused many swimmers pain, scars, and even death. There have been 55 documented deaths attributed to sea wasps since 1963. Physalia, the Portugese Man-of-War, is a jellyfish-like animal known as a siphonophore that periodically causes swimming activity to cease along the Florida east coast and other areas. First-aid stations are set up on beaches to help those suffering from Physalia attacks. Jellyfish and siphonophores have stinging cells called nematocysts in their tentacles, and some Physalia tentacles have been reported to extend 30 feet deep in seawater. Physalia toxin interferes with the conduction of nerve impulses and can cause the heart to stop beating. In addition to poisonous jellyfish and siphonophores, there are poisonous or venomous (having venom glands) cone shells, octopuses, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, marine worms, and other ocean denizens. In almost all cases, the toxin interferes with the permeability of the nerve membrane and inhibits passage of nerve impulses. The physical effect may only involve nausea, drowsiness, weakness, or vomiting, or it may 619 �proceed to paralysis and death. In most cases, a cure is not known; however, a drug called neostigmine has been successful in the treatment of barracuda poisonings. Some human illnesses attributed to eating fish are caused by decomposing bacteria and are common among jacks, skipjacks, and oceanic bonito; however, symptoms usually subside within 12 hours. It is estimated that 30,000 human illnesses from eating poisonous marine animals, primarily fishes and shellfish, occur each year, some of them resulting in death. With figures like that, the title of the article "Eat Puffer and Maybe Suffer" should be taken seriously. Poisonous marine animals can kill people, but unbelievable as it may sound, they can save lives too. Natural products from land plants have been used for years as antibiotics, narcotics, analgesics, anti-leukemia agents, and other drugs in the treatment of human distress. Why not use products from marine plants and animals as drugs? After all, poisons from marine animals show potential in the treatment of hearing diseases, intestinal troubles, infections, tumors and other ailments. One of the biggest problems is money. It takes approximately 7 million dollars to develop a drug before it is submitted to the federal Food and Drug Administration and then only 1 out of 2,500 drugs submitted reach the commercial market. Another problem involves the collecting and harvesting of suitable marine organisms. If the chemical structure and properties of the poison are known, then scientists can artificially recreate the substance and need not worry about how many animals they have to collect. Prior to the 1960s, little was known about the chemical makeup of marine toxins, but now that scientists have unraveled the chemistry of these poisons, synthesis of these potential drugs is possible. There is one outstanding use of a marine poison as a drug—puffer poison is being used as a narcotic for terminal cancer patients in Japan. Perhaps the Japanese, because they are surrounded by the sea and depend on it so desperately for food, are more attuned to its resources. The Japanese also found that a certain acid in the brown seaweed Digenia is a valuable drug in the control of tapeworm, whipworm, and roundworm. There are many natural compounds of seaweeds that show antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity. However, these are not poisons, rather they are often components of the cell walls or byproducts of everyday functions. Ironically, some poisons are thought also to be the byproducts of everyday functions, particularly among the one-celled organisms. One product of marine seaweeds, although not of a poisonous nature, deserves attention because of its potential anti-tumor and anti-leukemia activities in animals exposed to radiation. Sodium alginates of seaweeds tend to inhibit the absorption of radioactive strontium in the bloodstream and bone tissue of rats by 75 percent. To cite examples of potential uses for poisons or toxins often involves using the effect of the poison as the cure. For example, ciguatera poison, which affects the neuromotor system, can relax spasms when administered in small doses. Another poison isolated from an electric eel shows potential as an antidote for pesticide poisoning. These are only a few examples, but they are enough evidence to support research on potential drug sources from the sea. Poisonous Jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo Macri, 1778 Description Umbrella hemispherical, translucent; exumbrella surface finely granular, jelly thick, central portion stiff, thinner and flexible in outer third. With 8-12 velar marginal lappets per octant; marginal tentacles absent. Eight rhopalia; rhopalial lappets smaller than inter- rhopalar, pointed. Subumbrellar musculature in eight distinct peripheral muscle fields. Stomach occupying central third of bell, roughly square with concave sides; from it 16 substantial canals connect to bell edge; younger specimens have narrow ring canal which follows closely outline of each marginal lappet; in many older specimens ring canal apparently absent in places and perhaps in some is completely lacking; an intermediate ring canal about 1/3 of radius in from margin, broad; centripetal to this is a coarse, irregular anastomosing network of canals, connecting only with intermediate ring canal and not with radial canals. Peripheral to intermediate ring-canal a similar but finer meshwork, branchings become increasingly more fine towards perimeter. Manubrium short, massive and translucent; concealed by 16 scapulets upon it. Each scapulet small, inverted Y-shaped in section, bearing numerous mouthlets. The eight oral arms are inverted Y-shaped in section, supporting two long, massive, outwardly-directed blades also bearing numerous mouthlets. Oral arms without lateral clubs and filaments, each arm with a large, translucent terminal club. Four gonads, each a much convoluted lobe fundamentally forming most of a circle but not obvious due to 620 �convolutions. In older animals surface of gonad bearing grooves extending to its edge. Ecology Strobilation and the production of the ephyra stage seem restricted to the summer months; peak abundance of mature medusae in late summer and autumn with large numbers cast ashore in autumn and winter storms. Specimens living in deeper offshore waters will probably survive the winter and can be encountered as late as June of the following year. Depth range Medusae are usually recorded at or near the water surface, but probably being more abundant in the (coastal) water column as the result of the strong currents of ebb and flow and resting on the bottom during slack-water periods. World distribution North and South Atlantic Oceans, Mediterranean, Black Sea, Red Sea. Distribution in the Turkish coasts: Aegean Sea, Marmara Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea Chrysaora hysoscella Linnaeus, 1767 Distribution: Belgian Coast, Dutch Exclusive Economic Zone European waters Morphology: Umbrella flat smooth and thick, 15-49cm in diametar, the color is variable, but is characterized by 16 v-shaped gold-brown or yellow-brown marks on the upper umbrella, radiating from the central region, there are 24 marginal tentacles, which are easly broken off, and thirty-two pigmented semi-circular marginal lappets. Present from half May until half September. Umbrella between 1 and 12 cm. Young medusa with umbrella diameter less than 4 cm have only 8 tentacles and are hard to distinguish from Pelagia noctiluca (Leloup, 1952, Russell, 1970). Small medusa (2-4cm) identified as Pelagia noctiluca (De Blauwe, 2001) were in fact Chrysaora hyosescella. (C.hysoscella was very intensive around Marmara Sea, Çanakkale Strait and Aegean Sea in 2009.Tentacles reached to 2.45 cm.(Ozalp,Alparslan,and Dogu,2009). Cassiopea andromeda Forskäl, 1775 (Upside down jellyfish) Description This jellyfish usually lies mouth upward on the bottom, in calm shallow water, gently pulsating its bell to create water flow over it's arms. The bell of Cassiopea is yellow-brown with white or pale spots and streaks. The outstretched arms are also brownish with extended frilly tentacles. Adults can grow to 30 cm in diameter. They are often mistaken as sea anemones. Habitat Cassiopea are typically found in shallow lagoons, intertidal sand or mud flats, and around mangroves. Cassiopea feed on drifting zooplankton. Individuals also harbors photosynthetic dinoflagellate algae that provides food to the jellyfish. The zooxanthellae live in the tissues on the ventral surface of the jellyfish, and the jellyfish sits on the bottom upside-down to provide sunlight to the symbiotic algae. Distribution Hawaiian Islands Throughout main Hawaiian Islands. Native Range Indo-Pacific Danger to humans and first aid These jellyfish can deliver a painful sting. If stung, apply a cold pack to relieve the pain if necessary Aurelia aurita Linnaeus, 1758 Life History Sexual maturity in Aurelia aurita commonly occurs in the spring and summer. The eggs develop in gonads located in pockets formed by the frills of the oral arms. The gonads are commonly the most recognizable part of the animal, because of their deep and conspicuous coloration. 621 �Anemonia sulcata Pennant, 1777 A.sulcata has long tentacles and cnidoblast cells. .Approximately, that can reach 12-15 cm.long.Colors chances yellow and viyola. Some effects of the sea anemone toxin, ATX-II, on vertebrate skeletal muscle have been described. At a concentration of 1 X 10(-7)-1 X 10(-6)M, ATX-II caused a sodium-dependent depolarization of the muscle fibres of the rat soleus and extensor digitorum longus, of the mouse soleus and extensor digitorum longus and of the chicken posterior latissimus dorsi. The muscle fibres of the frog sartorius were insensitive to the toxin. Action potentials generated by direct stimulation were prolonged by ATX-II, but the degree of prolongation was variable. Chicken posterior latissimus dorsi muscle fibres were most sensitive in this regard, and mouse extensor digitorum longus were least sensitive. Both denervated and immature muscle fibres were more sensitive to ATX-II than mature innervated muscle fibres. The sensitivity to ATX-II declined rapidly as muscle fibres matured. In some muscles, the prolongation of the action potential was enhanced by repetitive stimulation, but not by the passive depolarization or hyperpolarization of the muscle fibres. The actions of ATXII could be reversed by washing in all but the innervated soleus of the mature rat. Prevention Wear protective clothing (gloves, wet suits, dive skins) when swimming in jellyfish-infested areas. Avoid picking up dead jellyfish. Dead jellyfish may still have live nematocysts that can still release toxins (even after they have dried up). Avoid going into known jellyfish-infested areas. If you do, know what type of jellyfish are common to the area. Be prepared to treat a jellyfish sting. Have a basic first aid kit (make sure it has an oral antihistamine in the kit) prepared and bring it with you. Take a course in basic first aid before heading to the beach, snorkeling, swimming, or scuba diving. In the evening or at night when swimming, snorkeling, or scuba diving, take care to look for jellyfish on the surface of the water. Expel air from the alternate air source while ascending during scuba diving to disperse any jellyfish directly above you. Educate yourself as to the type of jellyfish that may be in the waters in which you are swimming, snorkeling, or scuba diving. Bring Safe Sea Jellyfish After Sting® pain relief gel in case you do get stung. Do not swim in waters where large numbers of jellyfish have been reported. Wearing a wet suit or Lycra dive skin can prevent stings. If you have a known insect sting allergy carry an allergy kit, which contains injectable epi-pens (epinephrine, adrenaline). Make sure those with you know how to administer the epi-pen in case you are unable to do so. Do not touch any marine life while swimming, snorkeling, or scuba diving. Most marine animals have a protective coating that when touched, is rubbed off when and exposes the animal to bacteria and parasites; moreover, touching, "playing," or moving marine animals is stressful for them. Corals are easily damaged when touched and the area if the coral touched by hands, fins, or the body will die. To protect the ocean environment, when swimming, snorkeling, or scubadiving look, don't touch, and leave only bubbles. Never use fresh water for the skin. Jellyfish Stings Treatment If you are stung by a box jellyfish, seek medical help immediately. While you are waiting for medical help, flood the area with vinegar until medical help is available and keep as still as possible. If you are not close to medical care, soak the area and tentacles for 10 minutes or more, before attempting to remove them. If the sting is on the arms or legs, you can place a pressure dressing (like an ACE wrap used for a sprained ankle) around the sting. Be careful that you do not stop blood flow - the fingers and toes should always stay pink. This will help to slow down the spread of the toxin. For other jellyfish stings, soak or rinse the area in vinegar (acetic acid) for 15-30 minutes to stop the nematocysts from releasing their toxins. If you do not have vinegar available, rinse in sea water,70% isopropyl alcohol, or Safe Sea Jellyfish After Sting® pain relief gel. Do not use fresh water. Fresh water will cause the nematocysts to continue to release their toxin. For the same reason, do not rub the area, apply ice or hot water. Remove tentacles with a stick or a pair of tweezers. Wear gloves if you have them available. Apply shaving cream or a paste of baking soda to the area. Shave the area with a razor or credit card to remove any adherent nematocysts. Then reapply vinegar or alcohol. The shaving cream or paste prevents nematocysts that have not been activated from releasing their toxin during removal with the razor. Eye stings should be rinsed with a commercial saline solution like Artifical Tears; dab the skin around the eyes with a towel that has been soaked in vinegar. Do not place vinegar directly in the eyes. Mouth stings should be treated with 1/4 strength vinegar. Mix ¼ cup of vinegar with ¾ cup of water. Gargle and spit out the solution. Do not drink or swallow the solution. For pain, take acetaminophen (Tylenol) 325 mg 1-2 tablets every 4-6 hours for pain; or Ibuprofen (Motrin) or Aleve every 8 hours for pain. CPR may be necessary for all stings if the person stops breathing and/or no longer has a pulse. 622 �References Bilecenoglu, M.(2002).A new jellyfish in Turkish Coasts: Cassiopea andromeda (Forsskal,1775) Chu, G.W. and C.E. Cutress. (1954). Human dermatitis caused by marine organisms in Hawaii. Proc. Haw. Acad. Sci.195354:-9. Coleman, N. (1991). Encyclopedia of Marine Animals. Blandford: London, U.K. 33. Cooke, W.J. (1984). New scyphozoan records for Hawaii: Anomalorhiza shawi Light 1921 and Thysanostoma loriferum (Ehrenberg 1835); with notes on several other rhizostomes. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 97: 583-588. Cornelius, P. (2010). Aurelia aurita (Linnaeus, 1758). Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=135306 on 2010-05-09 Cutress, C.E. (1961). [Comment on introduced jellyfish in Hawaii] p. 549, in: Doty, M.S. 1961. Acanthophora, a possible invader of the marine flora of Hawaii. Pac. Sci. 15(4): 547-552 . Handal, K. (1992).American Red Cross.Part 2: First aid and Safety Handbook.1.st.ed.Boston,MA: Little,Brown and Company;1992:59-62 Hernroth, L. and Grondahl, F. 1983. On the Biology of Aurelia Aurita. Ophelia, 22(2):189-199. http://web.ukonline.co.uk/aquarium/pages/greaterweever.html.Retrieved 2006-09-22. http://www.emedicineHealth.com http://www.fishbase.org http://www.suite101.com/blog/johnblatchford/mauve_stingers#ixzz0nRE1qElo Hummelinck, P. W. (1968). Caribbean Scyphomedusae of the genus Cassiopea. Studies on the Fauna of Curacao and other Caribbean Islands. 25: 1-57 Hummelinck, P. W. (1968). Caribbean Scyphomedusae of the genus Cassiopea. Studies on the Fauna of Curacao and other Caribbean Islands. 25: 1-57. Hyman, L. (1940). The Invertebrates: Protazoa through Ctenophora. Mc Graw Hill Inc., New York. 497-538. Kideys A.E. and Gücü, A.C. (1995). Rhopilema nomadica: A poisonius Indo-Pasific Scyphomedusan New to the Mediterranean Coast of Turkey. Israel Journal of Zoology 41: 615-617.) Malej, A. Faganeli, J. and Pezdic, J. (1993). Stable isotope and biochemical fractionation in the marine pelagic food chain. Marine Biology, 116(4): 565-570. Özalp, H.B., Alparslan, M and Doğu, S (2009). Monitoring Researches on Chrysaora hysoscella (Linnaeus, 1766) around Çanakkale Strait. 13th. Underwater Science and Technologies Conference. November,2009.p.71-73. Uchida, T. (1970). Occurrence of a rhizostome medusa, Cassiopea mertensii Brandt from the Hawaiian Islands. Annotat. Zool. Jap. 43:102-104. Uchida, T. (1970). Occurrence of a rhizostome medusa, Cassiopea mertensii Brandt from the Hawaiian Islands. Annotat. Zool. Jap. 43:102-104. 623 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 609 Title A name given to the resource Poisonous Marine Organisms In Turkey And First Medical Aids Author Author Alparslan, Mustafa Özalp, Hasan Barıs Doğu, Sadettin Abstract A summary of the resource. There are many poisonous marine organisms in BlackSea, Mediterranean, Aegean Sea and Marmara Sea in Turkey. These organisms: Trachinus draco, Scorpaena scrofa, S. porcus, Rhizostoma pulmo, Chrysaora hysoscella, Aurelia aurita, Pelagica noctiluca, Anemonia sulcata sulcata. First aid : if tentacles of nematocysts are still stuck to the skin, they need to be removed gently. Be careful not to squeeze them as to not discharge more nematocysts. Local anesthetic spray or ointment may remove some of the pain on minor stings. Tannic acid is believed to work well. Give cardiovascular and respiratory assistance if needed. Medical treatment:The best anesthetic ointments in order of efficiency seem to be: Lignocaine 5%; Ultralan 0.5% . Lignocaine gel. Benadryl cream isn’t as effective. Commercial creams don’t work as long. Se For other jellyfish stings, soak or rinse the area in vinegar (acetic acid) for 15-30 minutes to stop the nematocysts from releasing their toxins. vere itching may occur after a few days. Steroid ointments (i.e. hydrocortisone) could help. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/98ef3ef63e155fe19c5288629463fa32.pdf badb97ff9e20a17c32c6b42f328ff83f PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo How to Improve Effectiveness in Public Schools Hasan Arslan Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University Turkey arslan.phd@gmail.com Abstract: The aim of this study is to search effectiveness level of the primary schools, to examine the relationships between the levels of effectiveness and to study whether there is a meaningful relationship between independent factors and level of effectiveness or not. Inputs, climate, teaching, conditions and outputs are taken into consideration as the factors of the effectiveness. While the level of the effectiveness in the primary schools is found in medium level in the sample of 25 primary schools but mean levels are different. Meaningful differences are observed in some of the independent factors. The relationships between some factors are determined as strong positive in coefficient Pearson Correlation. Introduction The researches on the school effectiveness started to find out an answer to the question of “how can we use the facilities of schools to increase the success of students?” at the beginning. How the schools could be more productive and increase their success by using their facilities was discussed. The studies focused on the effectiveness of schools because of the failures of schools and the failures of preparing the students to the society. The indirect pressures held by the politicians, local governors and parents on the schools led to an increase in the numbers of school effectiveness researches (Bergin and Solman, 1995). Today’s schools are very beyond the classical view. The function of today’s school can be described as humanistic, social, cultural and educational (Cheng, 1996; Şişman, 2002). By the global developments, international competitiveness, economic relationships and the rapid changes in the information fostered changes in the structure and running of schools. The schools are affected from these external improvements. That is why, the schools must not deny the global goals of international relationships. Educational reformists, politicians and the school management specialists always have always been interested in the successes of the schools and constructing them better as much as possible. (Balcı, 2002). The researches on the effectiveness of schools are closely related with the educational system in both developed and developing countries. The evaluations on the effectiveness of the schools between the locally and centrally governed are expected to be different (Schiefelbein, 2000). The self improvements and managements of the schools are affected negatively in the countries having strong central governments, since the schools are expected to overcome the standards of central governments. It is inevitable that there are different school effectiveness evaluations between the locally governed schools and school based ones. The schools strictly dependent on central government are resembled to a plaything from a 301 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo distance. The successful results of school effectiveness are seen on school based systems (Gamage, Sipple and Partridge, 2002). The schools can represent their authentic characteristics and carry out best management styles and effective works in school based approach (MacBeath and Mortimore, 2001). Private schools like public ones can be regarded as more lucky in the implementation of effectiveness. Besides, being independent in private schools with more competitiveness and market oriented schools are in the competition of offering best service to the students and consequently to their parents. Having autonomous structures in the management of schools increase their effectiveness (MacBeath and MacCall 2001, Bedi and Garg, 2000). Thus, the effectiveness of private schools are higher than the publics. Factors of Determining School Effectiveness In this research 18 key factors are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the schools. Factors are divided into five categories related to each other. School inputs come into system influenced by the educational, cultural, economic and politic factors. This study was implemented to evaluate the effectiveness of public primary schools in Turkey which is a developing country with a very strong central government and not willing to transfer the power to the schools. Despite the lack of political pressures on school effectiveness, parents have some complaints about the schools for preparing the students insufficiently to the society. The government has been struggling to solve the problems about the quantity before the quality. Because the number of the students in the classrooms is more than 40’s and binary education is very common. The business of the schools can be seen as a very important barrier in school effectiveness studies. Designing a continuous improvement is significant to change the structure of today’s schools for effectiveness (Zamuda, Kuklis, Kine, 1996). The partial implementations and changes do not achieve the desirable outcomes. There is a strong relation with the existing culture and school effectiveness (Cheng and Wong, 1996). So the existing culture must have the characteristics of self renovation and development. The aim of this study is to determine the effectiveness level in primary schools and to research the intensity of the relation between the dimensions and to find out if there is a relation between the independent factors and the dimensions of effectiveness. Method This is a descriptive research and the survey of effectiveness was used as a survey instrument. The instrument was applied on 25 public primary schools and 20 teachers participated voluntarily in each school to the scope of the research. Firstly, the teachers were trained for the aim of the instrument and how to handle it. These teachers applied the questionnaire questions to the 20 voluntary teachers in their schools. They gave the questionnaires to the voluntary teachers by explaining the rules for the application. 302 Later, they collected the �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo questionnaire by giving academic support in case of necessity. 468 questionnaires of the total 500 were collected back available. Questionnaire form including 50 items was applied to the voluntary teachers. Questionnaire form contains five sections except demographic information part: inputs, climate, teaching-learning process, conditions and outputs. The answers to the questionnaire were examined generally and later analyzed as for dimensions, means, frequencies and the percentages. The correlation among the dimensions was analyzed by determining their effectiveness levels after T-Tests and Anova Tests about gender and similar factors. Result Kocaeli City is the targeted population of the research. 500 of the 2000 total primary school teachers in the city participated randomly as a sample. The differences in the rates of teachers according to the gender are close to the each other. % 50.4 of the sample is female and % 49.4 is male (Table I). The range in age group is between 28-33 with the frequency of % 35.5. 22-27 age interval followed this group with frequency of % 25. As it seen on the table I, the teachers participated in the research are relatively young. As to the occupational experience, the rate of 1-5 year interval is % 36.8. The experienced teachers with 6-10 years are in the rate of % 31. According to this data, the teachers participated in the research have the experience of more than 1-10 years in % 60. Variables Gender Female Male Age 22-27 28-33 34-39 40-45 46-above Branch Pr Science and Math Branch Social Sciences Fine Arts Other Job Experience 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-above F % 236 232 50.4 49.6 117 166 85 51 49 25.0 35.5 18.2 10.9 10.5 179 85 138 30 36 38.2 18.2 29.5 6.4 7.7 172 145 56 95 36.8 31.0 12.0 20.3 Tablo I. Frekance and Percentage of Independent Variables by Gender, Age, Branch, 303 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Experience The studies about school effectiveness were held on five dimensions. These dimensions: school inputs, school climate, conditions, outputs of learning-teaching process and the outputs of this process. The three of the five dimensions were divided into sub-dimensions among each other. School inputs were examined in the subtitles of “support of parents and environment”, “support of educational system”, and “sufficient material support”. The dimensions of school climate were examined in the sub-titles of “the expectation from the students”, “positive teacher behaviors”, “order and discipline”, “schedules”, and “rewards and reinforcements”. Finally, conditions were examined in the sub-titles of “effective leadership”, “qualified teacher power”, “flexibility”, and “autonomy”. Learning-teaching process and process outputs were taken up as a single dimension. The highest effectiveness level is in “conditions” with the mean of 3.29 on 5 (Table II). Following the mean of conditions, learning-teaching process is the second highest one with the mean of 3.22, school climate mean is 2.87, school inputs mean is 2.86 and school outputs mean is 2.81. The average mean was found as 3.01 (Table II). The effectiveness level of schools is seen as average from the obtained data. Especially, learningteaching process, school climate and the process outputs are found below the average. The lowness in the school inputs can be explained with the lack of sufficient support from the parents and environment, the problems in the relations between school, parents and environment, unsuitable educative conditions of educational system and insufficient support of material for educative purposes. The lowness of effectiveness level in school climate can be explained as the lack of qualitative schedules for the teachers and students needs, the communication problems between teachers and students, discipline problems in class and school level, old schedules, insufficient rewards and reinforcements for students and teachers. The lowness in educative conditions can be stem from ineffective leadership, inflexibility of working conditions and compulsion. The lowness in the learning-teaching and process outputs can be result from the poor commitment of teachers to the school, methods and techniques of poor quality, overcrowded classes, binary education, the lack of enough effort for students’ success and perfection. f X ss alfa I.School Inputs 466 2.86 .63 .87 The Support from Parents and Environment 466 2.94 .67 .80 The support of Educational System 468 2.84 .83 .82 The Support of Sufficient Material 468 2.79 .77 .85 II.School Climate 462 2.87 .55 .93 The Expectations from the Students 468 2.84 1.07 .53 Positive Teacher’s Behaviors 467 3.17 .78 .79 Order and Discipline 466 2.63 .50 .75 Dimensions 304 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Schedules 467 2.82 .76 .74 Rewards and Reinforcements 467 2.90 .85 .74 III.Conditions 463 3.29 .63 .83 Effective Leadership 466 3.23 .89 .78 Qualitative Teacher Power 466 3.60 .70 .77 Flexibility and Autonomy 467 3.06 .76 .84 IV.Learning-Teaching Process 467 3.22 .58 .85 V.The Outputs of Process 465 2.81 .58 .65 General Mean 457 3.01 .49 .99 Tablo II. Dimensions of School Effectiveness by School Inputs, School Climate Conditions, Learning-Teaching Process, School Outputs (frekans,means,ss, alfa) As the analysis of Table III, the differences between the effectiveness of the dimension can be realized better. The outputs of the process are the lowest mean of 2.81 while the inputs of schools are the second lowest mean of 2.86. The school climate as the process between input and output is the mean of 2.87, conditions; 3.29 and learning-teaching process; 3.22. As it seen in this table III, the effectiveness level of conditions and learning-teaching process are seen relatively higher. Maybe, this data can be result from the effective communication between the teachers, certain culture and climate of school, sufficient device and equipment for the lessons, appropriate methods and techniques. Besides, it is significant that the effectiveness means are relatively higher than the outputs in the reflection. School Climate (X= School Inputs Providing Conditions (X= 3.39) Outputs of ProcessX=2.8 Teach.-Learning (X= 3.22) Tablo III. Comparisons of Means by Dimensions of School Effectiveness The differences can be seen according to the dimensions of the effectiveness and gender in Table III. There is a significant difference in the five dimensions of effectiveness, learning-teaching process, output, input and climate according to the results of t-tests. P value is found as .024 in conditions dimension between males and females. This results shows that there is a significant difference in this dimension. There is a significant 305 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo difference between the male and female effectiveness levels in conditions, which shows that the performances of the females are higher in this dimension. Gender N Input Đklim Learning-Teaching Conditions Output X Ss F P Female 234 2.85 .61 .96 ..326 Male 232 2.86 .64 Female 232 2.88 .52 2.74 .098 Male 230 2.86 .58 Female 235 3.25 .58 Male 232 3.18 .59 Female 232 3.35 .58 Male 231 3.24 .67 Female 233 2.77 .58 Male 232 2.86 .58 .18 .743 5.14 .024 .31 .574 Tablo IV. T-test of Dimensions of School Effectiveness by Gender Table V shows whether or not there is a relation between the teachers’ job experiences and effectiveness dimensions. There is not a significant difference between conditions and job experience in the five effectiveness dimensions. However, a significant relation is found between the other effectiveness dimensions and job experience. P value in the process of experience and learning-teaching process is .047, in output process P: .000, in input process P: .012, in climate process P: .003. The reasons for the differences result from the variations of 16 and above age group as to the others. In other words, the effectiveness levels of 16 and above experienced teachers are higher than the others. N X Ss F P 1-5 171 2.85 .62 3.67 .012 6-10 144 2.75 .58 11-15 56 2.85 .68 16-+ 95 3.03 .64 169 2.84 .56 4.66 .003 6-10 142 2.79 .48 11-15 56 2.83 .62 16-+ 95 3.05 .54 171 3.21 .59 2.67 .047 145 3.14 .53 Experience Input Đklim 1-5 Learn-teach 1-5 6-10 306 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Cond. Output 11-15 56 3.22 .59 16-+ 95 3.36 .63 1-5 168 3.31 .63 6-10 145 3.25 .57 11-15 56 3.22 .64 16-+ 94 3.37 .70 1-5 170 2.79 .57 6-10 144 2.71 .55 11-15 56 2.77 .65 16-+ 95 3.05 .54 .99 .394 7.39 .000 Tablo V. Anova Test of School Effectiveness by Experience Pearson Correlation analysis aiming at measuring the relations between effectiveness of the dimensions generally indicates that there is a strong and average relation in the level of P 0.01 in all dimensions. A higher strong relation determined between input and climate (0.750), climate and conditions (0.750), teaching and climate (0.720). There is a relation in the direction of positive at normal level between the dimensions. As seen in Pearson Correlation analysis, a positive relation expected between the effectiveness levels (Table. VII). Correlations CONDITIO TEACHING OUTPUT CLIMATE OK.ıNPUT Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N CONDITIO TEACHING OUTPUT CLIMATE OK.ıNPUT 1 ,693** ,383** ,758** ,624** , ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 463 463 461 459 461 ,693** 1 ,509** ,720** ,596** ,000 , ,000 ,000 ,000 463 467 464 463 465 ,383** ,509** 1 ,448** ,442** ,000 ,000 , ,000 ,000 461 464 465 461 465 ,758** ,720** ,448** 1 ,750** ,000 ,000 ,000 , ,000 459 463 461 464 462 ,624** ,596** ,442** ,750** 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 , 461 465 465 462 466 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Tablo VII. Pearson Correlation of Dimensions of School Effectiveness Conclusion The studies related with school effectiveness must gradually increase to meet the requirements of society, to provide and implement more functional educational policies and to run the positive dynamic within 307 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo the schools. The studies up to now supplied knowledge and culture accumulation. The national and international studies in developing and developed countries obtained better self-recognizing for schools and revealed that the reality of authentic identity for each school. Every new research contributes to this subject about the accumulation of knowledge and culture. This research shows that the relations between the effectiveness dimensions and demographic indicators are perceived different. The findings of the research differentiate on the contrary with the literature about the positive correlation of “experience and age” and “organizational commitment and performance”. The effectiveness of the primary schools is held on five dimensions. These dimensions are; school inputs, school climate, conditions, learning-teaching process and student outputs. As in the means of dimensions, the highest mean is 3.29 on 5 in conditions dimension. Following the condition dimension, the second highest mean 3.22 is in teaching-learning process. Following these conditions, the mean of school climate is 2.87 and the mean of student outputs is 2.86. The lowest mean is 2.81 of student outputs with the cumulative effect of the other dimensions. These means show us the effectiveness levels in primary schools group between lower of medium and top of the medium limits. In other words, the effectiveness levels of primary schools are definitely insufficient. As to the relations between the independent variables and effectiveness dimensions, significant relations are found between some variables. The relation between conditions and gender is significant in respect of the gender variable. The effectiveness of the females is significantly higher in the conditions dimension. Besides that, significant differences are not found between the gender and the dimension of inputs, school climate, school outputs, teaching-learning process. ANOVA test shows that there is a significant relation between the age of independent variables and effectiveness dimensions in the level of P 0.05. The level of effectiveness of 46 and above age group is significantly higher in all dimensions found by Tukey test showing the effecting factor of age and effectiveness dimensions. A similar result in the relations between the age groups and the dimensions is found like the relation between the experience and the dimensions. Contrary of the literature about the negative correlation between age and performance or effectiveness, in this research a significant relation is found between forward ages and effectiveness as to the other age intervals. A positive relation is seen between all of the dimensions. There is a strong relation between “climate and conditions”, “climate and teaching”, and “climate and outputs”. The relation among the other dimensions is found positively in medium level. According to the research findings, school climate can be admitted more effective than the other dimensions. It is beyond doubt the studies related to the school effectiveness going from general to the particular in knowledge and culture accumulation will increase the students’ success by activating the internal dynamics of the schools. Furthermore, the studies assist to meet the demands of the society and contribute to the adaptation of the educational policies into the school systems functionally. References Arslan, H. (2004). School Effectiveness in Primary Schools. Unpublished Research. 308 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Balcı, A. (2002). Efective Schools: school improvement. Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık. Bedi, A, and Garg, A. (2000). The Effectiveness of Private versus Public Schools: the case of Indonesia. Journal of Development Economics,61, 463-494. Bergin, M. and Solman, R. (1995). Coping with Restructuring: a study of senior educational administrators. Journal of Educational Administration, 33,2, 52-68. Bernharth, V. (2002). The School Portfolio Toolkit: A Planning, Implementation, and Evaluation Guide for Continuous School Improvement. CA: Eye On Education. Cheng, K, and Wong, K. (1996). School Effectiveness in East Asia. Journal of Educational Administration, vol.34, 5, 32-49. Cheng, Y.C. (1996). A School-based Management Mechanism for School Effectiveness and Development, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 7,1, 35-61. Cohen, M. (1982). Effective Schools: Accumulating Research Findings. American Education, Jan-Feb., 13-16. Coleman, J.S. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington:D.C.: Government Printing House. Cooley,W.W. ( 1983). Improving the Performance of an educational system. Educational Researcher, 12,6, 412. Creemes, B.P. (1996). School Level Conditions affecting the Effectiveness of Instruction. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 7,3, 197-228. Cuban, L, (1993). Schools Make a Difference: Lessons Learned from 10-year Study of School Effectiveness. In Teddie, C. and Stringfield, S. (Eds). Preface, New York. Teachers College Press. Davies, B. (1997). Teachers’ Perceptions of School Quality and Effectiveness: improving schools using staff attitude surveys. Educational Management, 11/5, 222-228. Davis, G.A., Thomas, M.D. (1989). Effective Schools and Effective Teachers, Boston: MA: Allyn and Bacon. Fitz-Gibbon , C.T. (1996). Monitoring Education: Indicators, Quality and Effectiveness. London: New York:Casse. Gamage, Sipple, and Partridge (2002). Research on School-based Management in Victoria. Journal of Educational Administration. 34,1, 24,52. Henevelt, W. and Craig, H. (1996). Schools Count: World Bank Project Designsand the Quality of Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank Technical Paper. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Holdaway, E. and Johnson, N. (1993). School Effectiveness and Effectiveness Indicators. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. 4,3, 165-188. Hopkins, D., Ain, M. and West, M. (1994). School Improvement in an Era of Change. London: Cassel. Hopkins,D. (2003). School Improvement for Real. Journal of Education Change, 4, 195-208. Kreft, G.G. (1991). Model-based Ranking of Schools. International Journal of Educational Research, 15,45-61. MacBeath , J. and Mortimore, P. (2001).Improving School Effectiveness.In by J. Macbeath and P. Mortimore (Eds.), School Effectiveness and Improvement: the story so far. Buckingham: Open University Press. MacBeath, J. and MacCall , J. (2001). Improving School Effectiveness.In by J. Macbeath and P. Mortimore (Eds.), The Policy Context. Buckingham: Open University Press. MacBeath, J. Mortimore, P. (2001). Improving School Effectiveness. Buckingham:Open University Press. 309 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo McBeath, J., and Stoll, L. (2001). A Profile of Change. Edited by J. Macbeath and P. Mortimore in Improving School Effectiveness. Buckingham: Open University Press. Murphy , J.and others. (1985). Supervising and Evaluating Principals: Lessons from Effective School Districts. Educational Leadership, 43, 2, 78-82. Reeves, J., MacCall, J. and MacGilchrist, B. (2001). Improving School Effectiveness.In by J. Macbeath and P. Mortimore (Eds.),Change Leadership: planning, conceptualization and perception. Reynold, D., Creemers, B.P. and Stoll, L. (1990). Making Good Schools. London: Routledge. Reynolds, D. Teddlie, C. 8 (2000). The Processes of School Effevtiveness. Edited by C.Teddlie and D. Reynolds. London: Falmer Press. Reynolds, D. and Muijs, D. (2000). Effective Teaching: international research. Cambridge: Pearson Publishing. Reynolds, D., Creemers, B.P.M. and Peters, T. (1989a). School Effectiveness and Improvement: Procedings of the First International Congress, London 1988, Cardiff, University of Wales College of Cardiff and Groningen, RION. Rowen, B. (1984). Shamanistic Rituals in Effective Schools, Issues in Education, 2, pp.76-87. Rutter, M. and Maughan, B. ( 2002). School Effectiveness Findings 1979-2002. Journal of School Psychology , 40, 6, 451-475. Scheerens, J. (1999). School Effectiveness in Developed and Developing Countries. Unpublished Report for the World Bank. Scheerens, J. and Bosker, R.J.(1997). The Foundations of School Effectiveness. Oxford: Elsevier Science Publication. Schiefelbein, P. (2000). The Effectiveness of Private versus Public Schools: the case of Indonesia. Journal of Development Economics, 61, 463-494. 310 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 711 Title A name given to the resource How to Improve Effectiveness in Public Schools Author Author Arslan, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to search effectiveness level of the primary schools, to examine the relationships between the levels of effectiveness and to study whether there is a meaningful relationship between independent factors and level of effectiveness or not. Inputs, climate, teaching, conditions and outputs are taken into consideration as the factors of the effectiveness. While the level of the effectiveness in the primary schools is found in medium level in the sample of 25 primary schools but mean levels are different. Meaningful differences are observed in some of the independent factors. The relationships between some factors are determined as strong positive in coefficient Pearson Correlation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/03884403535bf7041eb4007bc0e5584b.pdf cfa28b515d85e7a7db99ec8c456316c2 PDF Text Text Determination of Biological Effect of Entomopathogen Fungus on Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Ş. Evrim Arıcı University of Suleyman Demirel, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY evrima@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr Mehmet Sedat Sevinç University of Suleyman Demirel, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY medantinc@mynet.com.tr Đsmail Karaca University of Suleyman Demirel, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY ikaraca@sdu.edu.tr Ozan Demirözer University of Suleyman Demirel, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY ozand@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, Entomopathogenic fungi Perlomyces chlamidosporia, Fusarium subglutinans, Fusarium solani, Baveria bassiana were investigated to the effect of larvae great wax moth Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). P. chlamidosporia, F. solani, two isolates of F subglutinans (8, 12), and B. bassiana were cultured for 10 days potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated in dark conditions at 25 ± 1 ºC. 1x107 spor / ml suspension for each isolates was used for each isolates and Tween 20 was added in. By dipping method suspensions of spore were experimented on Larvae of G. mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Larvae of G. mellonella were cultured in 12-cm plastic petrie dishes at 25 ± 1 0C. 1, 24, 48 hours and 8, 13 days after the applications were eveluated the death larvae of G. mellonella. The mortality rate of G. mellonella was observed between 50-70% but statistical difference between isolates was not determined. The results obtained in the application used the types of Entomopathogenic fungus can be used biological control for G. mellonella. Introduction Great wax moth (Galeria mellonella) is economical pest of honey bees (A. mellifera) and they are widespread in particularly low altitude and temperate reason region which beekeeping land (Allan, 2000), and they known that an important pest which beekeepers fall into trouble to protect their honeycombs all over the world (Sanford, 2003). Great Wax Moth’s mature individuals, pupae, and egg stages don’t damage to effervesced honeycombs but their larvaes do different levels of damage to honeycombs in the appropriate environtenmal conditions (temperature, humidity, food). Great wax moth develops at above 4 °C' temperature and %70 humidity, commonly eliminates possibility of re-use of honeycomb by opening the tunnels in stored effervesced honeycombs. (HaeWoon et al. 1995, Ritter et al., 1992). Such as chemical (aluminum phosphide, methyl bromide, ethylene dibromide, paradichlorobenzene (naphthalene), sulfur), physical applications (cold-hot) and biological insecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis) control methods used in different ways to protect effervesced honeycombs from great wax moth in some countries (Tutkun et al. 1987; Ritter et al. 1992; Ahmad, 1994; Yacobson et al. 1997; Delaware, 2000; Kumova &Korkmaz 2002). 19 �Many chemical substances which using to Great wax moth reduce the chance of marketing or eliminate it because of residue on honey or wax. Today from this perspective, residue and ease of application of insecticide to pest has taken into consideration and lead to new ways is inevitable (Allan, 2000). Biological control is one of the most suitable alternative method for chemical control in different ecosystems and an environmentally friendly alternative that involve the use of natural enemies and pathogens to control pests. A number of entomopathogenic fungi have been identified biological control agents to control insects. These fungal agents are virulent, infect insect by contact persist in the environment for a long time and have one of the largest host list. Recently it was studied on safety of entomopathogenic fungi (Goettel & Jaronski 1997; Goettel & Hajek 2000; Goettel et al. 2001; AliShtayeh1 et al. 2002, Shah & Pill 2003, Copping, 2004, Tuininga et al 2009¸ Zeinat et al. 2009). The aim of the present study was to determine of possible effects of entomopathogenic Fusarium subglutinans, Fusarium solani, Beauveria bassiana and Pochonia clamydosporia on the Galeria mellonella’s larvae Materials and Methods Galeria mellonella and entomopathogenic fungi two isolates of Fusarium subglutinans (8, 12), Fusarium solani, Beauveria bassiana and Pochonia clamydosporia were used in this study. Galeria mellonella were taken to climate room in 25±1 ºC temperature and % 65±5 humidity for reproduction of their number. Food from mix of honey, glycerin, dry wax and wheat bran were taken into the jar which closed with tulle for air circulation and G. mellonella’s larvaes were taken into this jars to be mature individuals. The adults from pupaes were taken into the jars which prepared by same way to laying egg. The larvaes from egg were removed from food environment before the pupal period for application. The fungi were cultured on PDA medium and incubated at 25ºC under dark conditions for 10 days. Suspensions of spore from each isolate were prepared and spore concentrations (1X107) were prepared in distilled sterillized water with the help of haemocytometer. By dipping method suspensions of spore were experimented on last instar stage larvae and newly hatched G. mellonella’s larvaes (3-5 sn), after Tween 20 was added in suspensions. For the control experiment, sterillized water was applied to the test insects. The G. mellonella’s larvaes were put in plastic petri dishes (12 cm) under controlled conditions (25ºC) and the plastic petri dishes were supplied with honey for nutrition purposes. Petri dishes containing G. mellonella’s larvaes were sealed with Parafilm to reduce moisture loss. Samples were then incubated at 25 0C and a photoperiod of 16 hours light for 13 days. For each petri dish had five larvae of G. mellonella five replicants and experiment for each entomopathogenic fungi consisted of five replicate according to completely randomized design. For each experiment daily mortality had been recorded for 13 days. Obtained data from bioassays were analyzed by SPSS version 16.0.1. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and treatment means separated by TUKEY test (P <0:05) to select isolates for a new assay with several cultivars Results and Discussion In this study G. mellonella larvae found to be infected by entomopathogenic fungi and was observed mortality of G. mellonella’s larvae (Table 1). Although a statistical difference was found between the isolates and the control group, no statistical difference was determined between the isolates. Entomophage pathogen Pochonia clamydosporia Fusarium solani Fusarium subglutinans (12) Fusarium Mortality of G. mellonella 24 h 0,2±0,2 48 h 0,6±0,4 8d 1±0,3 13 d 1,4±0,5 0,6±0,4 0,2±0,2 0,6±0,4 0,2±0,2 1,2±0,7 1±0,3 3±0,8 2,8±07 0,6±0,2 1±0,4 1,6±0,7 2,8±0,5 20 �subglutinans (8) Beauveria bassiana 0,4±0,2 0,6±0,6 1,6±0,5 2,8 ±0,6 Table 1: Mortality of G. mellonella larvae It was observed 4% mortality of the larvae of G. mellonella infected with F. subglutinans 12 , 20% with F. subglutinans 8, while was determinated 12% mortality of larvae of G. mellonella infected with Fusarium solani, B.bassiana, and P. clamidosporium in 48 h (Table 2). It was recorded in 13 d 28% mortality of larvae of G. mellonella infected with P. clamidosporium, 60% with F.solani, while was observed 56% mortality of G. mellonella larvae with F. subglutinans 12, F. subglutinans 8 and with B.bassiana. Some researcher indicated similarly results (James & Elzen 2001; Shah & Pill 2003; Mohammed et al. 2009). In addition same researcher used larvae of G. mellonella to determine the relative abundance of entomopathogenic nematodes, and fungi (Chadler et al. 1997; Ali-Shtayeh et al. 2001; Tuininga et al. 2009). Entomophage pathogene Mortality % 48h 13 d 12 12 4 20 28 60 56 56 12 56 Pochonia clamydosporia Fusarium solani Fusarium subglutinans (12) Fusarium subglutinans (8) Beauveria bassiana Table 2: Mortality percentage of G. mellonella ‘s larvae In conclusion; fungal mycel of entomopathogens used in this study had grown on death larvae of G. mellonella. Entomopathogenic fungi can used for biological control and in pest management. References Ahmad, M. (1994). Biological Control of Greater Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella L. Journal of Apicultural Research (Pakistan). Vol. 32(3), 319-323. Allan, L. (2000). Wax Moth and its Control. Departmen of Agriculture Western Australia. http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/agency/pubns/farmnote/2000/f00697.htm. Chandler, D., Hay, D., &Reid, A.P. (1997). Sampling and occurrence of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes in UK soils Applied Soil Ecology 5 133-141 Copping, L.G. (2004). The Manual of Biocontrol Agents.British Crop Protection Council, Alton, 702 pp Delaware, M. (2000). New Jersey, Pensylvania, Westiginia and the USDA Cooperating. MAAREC Publication, 4.5. Goettel, M.S., & Jaronsky, S.T. (1997). Safety and registration of microbial agents for control of grasshoppers and locust. Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can., 171: 83-99. Goettel, M.S., & Hajek A.E. (2000). Evaluation of non-target effects of pathogens used for management of arthropods. In: Wajnberg E,Scott JK, Quimby PC (eds) Evaluating indirect ecological effects of biological control. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, pp 81–97 Goettel, M.S., Hajek, A.E., Siegel, J.P., & Evans, H.C. (2001). Safety of fungal biocontrol agents. 21 �HaeWoon, O., ManYoung, L., Young Duck, & Chang (1995). Developing Periods and Damage Patterns of Combs by The Greater Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella. Korean Journal of Apiculture 10: 1, 5-10. James, R.R., & Elzen, G.W. (2001). Antagonism between Beauveria bassiana and imidacloprid when combined for Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) control. J. Econ. Entomol., 94: 357–61 Kumova, U., & Korkmaz, A. (2002). Peteklerin Büyük Bal Mumu Güvesi (Galleria mellonella L.) ‘ ne Karşı Korunması Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Türkiye 3. Arıcılık Kongresi, Adana. Mohammed S. Ali-Shtayeh1, Abdel-Basit B.M, & Mara’i Rana M. J. (2002). Distribution, occurrence and characterization of entomopathogenic fungi in agricultural soil in the Palestinian area Mycopathologia 156: 235–244, 2002. Ritter, W., Perschill, F., Vogel R. 1992. Comparision of the effect of various methods fort he control of wax moths. Allgemeine Deutsche Imkerzeitung. 26: 1, 11-13. CAB Abstracts 1993-1994, AN:930234018 Sanfort, M.T. (2003). Controlling Wax moth, one of a series of the Entomology and nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. EDIS Web Site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu Shah, P. A., & Pell, J. K. (2003). Entomopathogenic fungi as biological control agents. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 61:413–423 Tuınınga, A. R., Mıller J. L., Morath S. U., Danıels T. J., Falco R. C., Marchese M., Sahabı, S., Rosa, D., & Stafford K. C. (2009). Isolation of Entomopathogenic Fungi From Soils and Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) Ticks: Prevalence and Methods. J. Med. Entomol. 46(3): 557-565 Tutkun E., Çakmakçı, L., & Boşgelmez A. (1987). Bal Arısı Kolonilerinde Bacillus thrugiensis Preparatlarının Büyük Mum Güvesi (G. mellonella) Larvalarına Karşı Kullanım Olanakları Üzerinde Araştırmalar. TÜBĐTAK, Tarım ve Ormancılık Araştırma Grubu, Tarımsal Mikrobiyoloji Ünitesi Proje no: Tarmik-8-34 s. Yacobson, B., Navarro, S., Donahaye, E. J., Azrielli, A., Sloyevsky, Y., & Ephrati, H. (1997). Control of Beeswax moths using carbondioxide in flexible plastic and metal structure. In: Proc. Int. Conf. Controlled atmosphere and fumigation in grain storages 21-26 April 1996, Nicosia Cyprus pp: 169-174. Zeinat K.M., S.A. El-Sayed, Radwan T.E.E., & Ghada, S. Abd El-Wahab (2009). Potency Evaluation of Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas fluorescens as Biocontrol Agents for Root-knot Nematodes in Egypt. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 4(1): 93-102 22 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 324 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Biological Effect of Entomopathogen Fungus on Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Author Author Arıcı, S. Evrim Sevinç, Mehmet Sedat Karaca, İsmail Demirözer, Ozan Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, Entomopathogenic fungi Perlomyces chlamidosporia, Fusarium subglutinans, Fusarium solani, Baveria bassiana were investigated to the effect of larvae great wax moth Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). P. chlamidosporia, F. solani, two isolates of F subglutinans (8, 12), and B. bassiana were cultured for 10 days potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated in dark conditions at 25 ± 1 ºC. 1x107 spor / ml suspension for each isolates was used for each isolates and Tween 20 was added in. By dipping method suspensions of spore were experimented on Larvae of G. mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Larvae of G. mellonella were cultured in 12-cm plastic petrie dishes at 25 ± 1 0C. 1, 24, 48 hours and 8, 13 days after the applications were eveluated the death larvae of G. mellonella. The mortality rate of G. mellonella was observed between 50-70% but statistical difference between isolates was not determined. The results obtained in the application used the types of Entomopathogenic fungus can be used biological control for G. mellonella. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8536b7484e04592a6fa7055e89574eb1.pdf 2c1ddfc9107e0d52c6a3bec676500b64 PDF Text Text Disabled People in Sakarya and the Problems With Public Transport: What has been done, What should be done. Hakan Aslan Department of Civil Engineering Division of Transportation Sakarya University Turkey haslan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Disability comes in many shapes and forms, but where it affects mobility there are problems. The use of taxis or a car seems to be most convinient way of travelling for the disabled people. It is a very demanding and difficult, even sometimes impossible, job to get to a bus route, then getting on the bus for those having disability problem. Once you manage this part of the journey, there comes another problem: Will you be able to go whereever you want without multiple changes? Most city buses in Sakarya do not have wheelchair lifts – and the ones that do- are not used efffectively due to routine repair problems. This paper is based on a research among the disabled people from Sakarya, those with audial, visual or physical problems that prevent them from having freedom of movement. The outcome of this research is shared with the Transportation Department of Sakarya Municipality. Introduction Disability is defined by the World Health Organisation as: “ Disability is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations.” As can be seen from this definition, the disability is a quite complex phenomenon reflecting different aspects of the real life situations for those having difficulty to live in a society according to a standard or norm. Disability may be in one`s life since his/her birth or it may occur at any part of his/her life time. In transportation engineering context, disability may be regarded as any sort of impairment limiting the mobility. A person carrying a couple of bags after shopping, or a mother pushing a push-chair with a child in it could be seen as disabled person with this regard although he or she may not have any physical or mental problem what so ever. Falkmer (2001) states that the children with disabilities are prone to a higher degree of accident risk compared with children in general. Đt has also been stated that the wheel-chair related injuries of disabled people are mainly due to tips and falls to get on or off the buses (Kirby et al., 1994 ). Shaw ( 2000 ) expresses that as long as abrupt maneuvers are prevented, the majority of wheel-chair users` injuries can be eliminated. From another perspective, concessionary fares and policies designed to include older people in both public and private transport enhance the mobility of these people (Metz, 2003 ) . The aim of this study is to analyse the perception of the disabled people regarding transportation infrastructure currently available in Sakarya. A questionare, for this purpose, has been prepared and completed by 207 respondents. The safety issues, such as the possibility of an injury risk in an accident as a passenger when travelling on a public bus or in a taxi just like other passengers do, have not been considered in this research simply because the main issues were uniquely regarded as those disabled people experienced while using transportation system in Sakarya. However, the safety issues directly related to being disabled are included in the paper. 338 �The Structure of the Questionnaire and Scope of the Study The first part of the paper describes the general structure of the questionaire. The second part uses and analyses the findings and data to see the whole picture in order to investigate the mobility problems of the people. The last section suggests the proper and necessary actions to be taken to make sure that Sakarya is a city of zero difficulty in performing daily travel activities for so-called disabled people. The questionnaire consists of fourteen sections. The first one seeks the respondents` information about their name, age, sex, educational level and disability problem, i.e., visual, audial, orthopaedic, etc. The second section deals with the issues of the way that respondents travel. The questions have been prepared to collect the information about the public transportation modes and vehicles that they use along with the information about the average travel time and distance in a day both on weekdays and weekends. The third part asks questions regarding if any other way of travel is used apart from public transportation. The following sections are designed to get information about whether a private vehicle is used, the purpose of travel, Origin and Destination ( O-D ) points including links, if they can travel between O-D points within planned travel time. The coming two parts are basically about the traffic rules and fines to investigate the attitude of disabled people towards present law. The following part is related to the concerns of the people regarding the general transportation system of Sakarya. The sub-questions are about the planning system, enforcement level, paratransit systems and road users including pedestrians. The next one questions the least safe points and states that disabled people perceive in the road network, such as zebra crossings, intersection points or when getting off a public vehicle, etc. The effect of parked vehicles are investigated in the next section. The last question is about the general impression of the disabled people if they feel safe when travelling at any point in Sakarya. The answers of these questionnaire were acquired through one-by-one interviews with the members of The Disabled People`s Association of Turkey, Division of Sakarya. A total of four sub-social authorities in Sakarya were contacted for investigation. The willingness of these authorities enabled us to get as broad a picture as possible. The participants are; • • • • Six Dots Foundation for the Blinds, Division of Sakarya Association for the Physically Disabled, Division of Sakarya Association of Audial Impairments, Division of Sakarya Autism Association of Sakarya The selection of respondents ( interviewees ) was grounded on the ambition to obtain as broad a range of perception categories. As a result, the organisations above were contacted and the interviews were made at the centre of associations rather than the homes of the participants due to privacy concerns. As the main motivation of this research is to reveal the transportation related perception of the disabled people in Sakarya, deep statistical analysis has not been done. Đt is believed that the presentation of the findings of this study would give a clear picture of the strong and weak points of the transportation system in Sakarya from the points of the disabled people. Findings The quantitative data collected through the questionnaire were grouped to clarify the answers. Đn this way, the obtained information is believed to be useful to comprehend and highlight the respondents` perspective. Figure1 below indicates the range of the age of the people in this study. 339 �Figure1: The age groups of the study As can be seen from this figure, 68,11% of the respondents is quite young people, below 30 years old.. Đt is believed that this figure illustrates the fact that the obtained results should be seriosly taken into account in order to plan the future as far as disabled people are concerned. The current situation could have been more precise for the middle age and elderly people if the number of people of this group had had a higher proportion. Nevertheless, it is stil believed that the 31,89% can be seen a good proportion to see the general perspective of these people`s perception. Figure2: Educational levels of the study group Figure 2 above clearly states that majority of the respondents, 54.59%, has only the basic educational level. This is another point to be mentioned for expressing the lack of opportunities for disabled people in terms of the quality of the education that they get. Đt should be mentioned here that 55,5% of those graduated from the university has visually disabled people. Those attending special schools are mainly autistic children constituting 17,39 per cent of all respondents. 340 �Figure 3 below illustrates the group of people according to the disability that they have. Figure 3: Disability type of the respondents The proportion of the physically disabled people is the highest one, 46,37%. The classified other portion gives the number of those having autism problem. The interviewees of this type were the parents or gurdians of the disabled people. The following figure, Figure 4, denotes the choice of the respondents interms of transportation mode. Figure 4: The choice of transportation mode for mobility As some respondents use more than one mode of travelling, total number of people seems to be higher than the total number of interviewees. The group of own-vehicle mainly consists of battery power-wheelchair owners. The disabled people travelling with their own cars is only 10 per cent of the group. Special services seems to perform a very important role for those having autism problem to have a reasonable mobility. There should not be a reasaon to mention that the autistic people normally travel with their parents or guardians. Đf we look at the usage, travel time, travel distance and travel speed of the related transportation modes, Figure 5 below is obtained. 341 �Figure 5: Travel characteristics of transportation modes The numerical values from Figure 5 presents the fact that disabled people are essentially dependent on the public transportation vehicles. Buses operated privately or publicly play an important function for the mobility of the disabled people. Services, operating on scheduled time-tables, also seem to be very important transportation option. The average travel time with own-vehicle (mainly battery-power wheelchairs ) is 20.5 minutes per day along an average distance of 2.4km corresponding 7.02km/h average travelling speed. The highest travel speed is offered by taxis, 45,4km/h. The shared cap and minibus services travel more or less at the same average speed, 42,62km/h and 41,3km/h, respectively. The figures also indicate that considering all the modes, the avreage daily travel distance is 56,6 km. Đt is intresting to note that the total distance travelled by disabled people travelling on the vehicles driven by other person rather than himself corresponds 95.75% of total daily average distance. This clearly means that disabled people heavily dependent on the other people for their mobility. The public service to respond this structure,hence, must be organised and operated very efficiently for giving a good transportation opportunity for those in need. The average travel time for own-vehicle transportation corresponds to the 19.44% of the average total. This high proportion stems from the fact that the speed of this type of vehicle is quite low ( 7.02 km/h ) causing to spend more time to travel the unit distance. The following figure categorizes the critical locations perceived as the least safe points by the respondents. 342 �Figure 6: Perceived locations of least safe points Figure 6 exhibits that 28.85% of the participants do not feel safe even on the pavements. Đn addition, 19.54% of the people perceive that all these three locations are not safe enough for them to perform their daily mobility activities. As expected, conflict points for road crossings, signalised junctions and zebra crossings, represent the most critical points of safety perception. Results and Discussion The outcomes and related suggestions of this study may be summarised as below. • • • • • • • • • • The disabled people in Sakarya require a well established, regular, safe and frequent public transportation system for having a good opportunity whenever and wherever they want to travel, just like the other people do. They deserve more respect and recognition from the other road users. Signalised intersections, especially the city centre, must be designed and operated by considering the needs of the disabled people. This could be done by giving extra time for blind people, or presenting police officer to make sure that road users obey the traffic rules for giving a safe traffic environment for the others. Parking on the pavements is a very important problem. It becomes even more problematic when drivers park their vehicles on the ramps, access points for the disabled people to get on or off the pavements. Enforcement measures should be taken more seriously to lessen the danger for the disabled people. The unauthorised usage of allocated disabled parkings by drivers creates another significant problem for those wishing to travel with their own cars to central parts of the city. The main concerns of the participants are related to the planning and paratransit transportation system of the road retworks in Sakarya. The roads are thought to be not wide enough to walk or use the wheelchair on them safely and there are not sufficient designated road sections for the people. The transfer opprtunities for long journeys are neither suffucient in number nor frequent enough. There is also a demand that the long journey routes should be combined and a single route is obtained. The traffic fines could be categorized to increase the ones related violating disabled people`s right. The usage of the seat-belt is reasonably acceptable , 87.75 % , among the disabled people even for relatively short journeys. The violance of the traffic rules among disabled people in Sakarya resulting in fines is very low to mention. Just one person fined for improper parking. The reliability of bus services is not satisfactory enough. Some technical, such as bus-lanes, and operational measures should be taken. The main destination point seems to be the city centre, although there is a wide range of origin points. 343 �• • • The purpose of the journeys can be classified as 35.6% for education, 27.5% for health, 28.17% for social activities, 4.2% for job and %4.53 for the others. The question of whether the participants feel safe in general when using the transportation network system ( including walking ) was answered as 71.45% no, 28.55% yes. This should urge all the authorities to take all the required and necessary measures to provide safe mobility environment for the disabled people. When the respondents asked to answer if they travel between their origin-destination points within the expected travel time, 84.52% of the people said, interestingly, yes and 15.48% said no. This means that although people do not feel safe when using the road network, their anticipation level of travel time reliability is quite high. References Falkmar,T. (2001). Transport mobility for children and adolescents with Cerebral Palsy (CP). Thesis, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Linköping,Sweden. Kirkby, R.L., Ackroyd-Stolarz, S.A., Brown, M.G., Kirkland, S.A., and MacLeod, D.A. ( 1994 ). Wheelchairrelated accidents caused by tips and falls among noninstitutionalized users of manually propelled wheelchairs in Nova Scotia. Am.J.Phys.Med.Rehabil. 73, (pp. 319-330) Metz, D. ( 2003 ) Transport policy for an ageing population. Transportation Reviews, Vol. 23, No:4, (pp. 375386) Shaw, G. (2000) Wheelchair rider risk in motor vehicles: a technical note. J.rehabil.Res.Dev 37 (1) 344 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 450 Title A name given to the resource Disabled People in Sakarya and the Problems With Public Transport: What has been done, What should be done. Author Author Aslan, Hakan Abstract A summary of the resource. Disability comes in many shapes and forms, but where it affects mobility there are problems. The use of taxis or a car seems to be most convinient way of travelling for the disabled people. It is a very demanding and difficult, even sometimes impossible, job to get to a bus route, then getting on the bus for those having disability problem. Once you manage this part of the journey, there comes another problem: Will you be able to go whereever you want without multiple changes? Most city buses in Sakarya do not have wheelchair lifts – and the ones that do- are not used efffectively due to routine repair problems. This paper is based on a research among the disabled people from Sakarya, those with audial, visual or physical problems that prevent them from having freedom of movement. The outcome of this research is shared with the Transportation Department of Sakarya Municipality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/be95e0f57de58b08cf09aea79fd76f4d.pdf b7378ebed8c215e0d6237537a3bc5670 PDF Text Text Strategic Sustainable Development and Creating Strategies from TOWS Matrix at Kipaş Group Imran Aslan The University of Erzincan, Turkey Business Administration Department imranaslan@gmail.com, iaslan@erzincan.edu.tr Ramazan Bozkurt The University of Erzincan, Turkey Business Administration Department rbozkurt@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this study is to develop new strategies for sustainable development of a group and to establish a holding from several companies by considering the regulations in the World Trade, recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders. In this study, internal analysis of the group was carried out with interviews and surveys. To prepare external analysis, the economical situation of Turkey and the World was researched and categorized under standard PEST categories. Important problems were identified and then the purposes and objectives of the firm were determined by focusing on opportunities. Later, SWOT analysis of the group was prepared and most significant factors were chosen. In the light of these factors, TOWS matrix was prepared to combine external and internal factors of the enterprise in order to deploy strategies. New organization structure of the group was determined and presented based on these strategies. Introduction Kipaş Group founded 26 years ago when the Turkish textile and apparel sector initiated continuing progress by joint-venture of two families and now employs more than 4000 workers in different sectors. Kipaş Group, a leading institution within its sector and renown due to its professionalism, its expertise and its high quality standards, is a precious member of Turkish Textile Industry whereby it transformed a mere cotton yarn manufacturing plant over years into a fully-integrated textile manufacturing giant. The companies of the group which have benefited from incentives of Turkish Textile and apparel sector have been growing very rapidly. Kipaş Group has been formalized by including numerous subsidiary companies through the reorganization of the group companies since 2005. It decided to change their management structure considering the recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders due to the management system of the company. The removal of quotas and Chinese effects to world textile were the focus point of researches. The effects of removal of quotas to Turkish textile were assessed with the premature indicators of Turkey's total export and import. By taking account of enormity of the group and economical situation, the group was proposed to establish a holding. Theoretical Background The regulations in World Trade oblige the national wide companies to develop new strategies for their sustainability in the market. However, companies must be aware of their internal and external environments to identify their advantages and disadvantages in order to develop strategies. Self assessment, which is a structured internal process to identify strengths and weakness for improvement is used by companies for years. (Higgins, J. M. and Vincze, J. W., 1991, p.3) Strategies for sustainable development are used to initiate change by learning and continuous adaption rather than by challenging the existent institutions. Such approach has been named as step-by-step procedure. (Volkery, 2006, p.2048) Interaction between culture, structure and technology, the approaches optimization–improvement–renewal and the parties involved are three relevant dimensions of sustainable development.( L. Jansen, 2003, p.233) The change is unavoidable to keep competitiveness in today's global market. It is important to use right methods to collect data against resistance and misunderstandings while 769 �doing changes. ( McLean, G. N. P., 2006) Deep changes occur in this era with unexpected results. (Diskienė D., et al., 2008, p.376 ) Each organization has a capability or ability initiating, managing and implementing largescale changes in organization structure to improve organization ability for a quick adaptation, flexibility and innovation. There should be a trade-off between available assets of the firm and its continuous development requirements for firm-specific capabilities. (Yan, Y. , et al., 2009, p.53) Management systems of the firm use internal and external information to gain a better strategically competitive position in the market by providing outstanding services and products. (Phelan, Steven E., 2005) Many approaches and techniques are used for strategic management processes. It is not directed just a single functional area of group. All efforts are directed toward the mission and vision of the firm to find the best for the whole group. (Houben G.,et al., 1999, p.130; Dincer O., 2004; Ketelhohn W., 2006, p.307) Strategic management requires including both short-term and long-term perspective. Both a vision for the future of the organization and a focus on its present operating needs must be taken into account. (Gregory G., et al., 2005) Strategy defines ‘Where do you want to go?’ and ‘How do you want to get there? Strategy manages the correlation between organization and changing environment. Internal and external factors effecting company are identified to form strategies. There should be a relationship between internal competences and values to firm’s external environment. (Viljoen, J. and Dann, S., 2003, p.68) There is a challenge for the firms to find the ‘fit’ what the firm does and what the environment requires. Moreover, it should be ready for the new environment that future may bring. This environment can be totally different and firm should evolve its capabilities and culture to tackle with new environment. ( Porter, et al., 2001, p.615) Managers may scan their environment and decide that there are major changes occurring in their business world to which they have to adapt. Or they might decide, through internal analysis, that they have the ability to develop a new way of doing business that will redefine the nature of the business they are in. If change is the order of the day, then two issues need to be addressed: external analysis and internal analysis. For a change of strategy to work, there must be alignment between internal capability and external opportunity. This is described as ‘strategic fit’. (Tiwana, Amrit, 1999, p.126) SWOT (Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats) Analysis SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization and commonly used for analysing internal and external environments in order to attain a systematic approach and support for decision making. If it is used correctly, it can provide a good basis for successful strategy formulation (Hsu-Hsi C. and Wen-Chih H. , 2006). It involves the design of the organizational structure and control systems necessary to implement the chosen strategy. SWOT analysis can be conducted before mission and goal statement. (Hax, A.C. and Majluf, N.S., 1991) SWOT identifies Strengths and Weakness and examines the Opportunities and Threats of an organization. SWOT analysis suggests that firms that use their internal strengths in exploiting environmental opportunities and neutralizing environmental threats, while avoiding internal weakness, are more likely to gain competitive advantages than other kinds of firms (Jay B and William H., 2007). SWOT analysis is drawn from external and internal environments of the organization to determine the strategic vision of the firm based on the analysis of shareholders. One can think of a well developed strategic vision in terms of probing opponents’ weaknesses; withdrawing to consider how to act, given the knowledge of the opposition generated by such a probing; forcing opponents to stretch their resources; concentrating one’s own resources to attack an opponent’s exposed position; overwhelming selected markets or market segments; establishing a leadership position of dominance in certain markets; then regrouping one’s resources, deciding where to make the next thrust; then expanding from the base thus created to dominate a broader area. The leading strategy is the best strategy geared towards radical change and creating a new vision in which the firm is a leader rather than a follower of trends set by others to help managers improve organizational effectiveness and corporate profitability. (El Sawy, et al., 1988, p.455-460) The coverage of the SWOT Analysis is determined by the firm’s and competitors’ resources. Major types of resources are financial, organizational, intellectual, informational, relational, legal, human resources and resources related with reputation. The coverage can be extended for management information, supply of raw materials and production process. However, these are more specific titles. In this study, we had also the opportunity to assess the management information, however, couldn’t examined supply of raw materials and production process. The technicians of the organization could assess raw materials and production process in the project. 770 �There are several tools such as TOWS Matrix and PEST Analysis that are used in strategic management. Some of them are used as complementary to SWOT. TOWS Matrix TOWS matrix is the essential completing tool. It enhances deploying strategies systemically considering the relations between Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats. The consequences of the internal and external factors can be replaced in a matrix called TOWS Matrix is shown in Figure 1. TOWS matrix helps to systematically identify relationships between threats, opportunities, weaknesses and strengths, and offers a structure for generating strategies on the basis of these relationships. (Weihrich, H., 1982, p-45-66) TOWS Matrix Internal Strengths(S) 1. 2. 3. Internal Weaknesses (W) 1. 2. 3. 4. External Opportunities (O) 1. 2. 3. SO External Threats (T) 1. 2. 3. ST Strategies that use strengths to maximize opportunities. WO Strategies that use strengths to minimize threats. WT Strategies that minimize weaknesses by taking advantage of opportunities. Strategies that minimize weaknesses and avoid threats Figure 1: TOWS Matrix (Weihrich, H., 1982) PEST PEST analysis, which stands for Political-Economical-Social-Technological, is another complementary tool. Social environment is another concept that must be evaluated by PEST Analysis. The external environment of any organization can be analyzed by conducting a PEST analysis. External factors usually are beyond the firm's control and sometimes present themselves as threats. For this reason, some say that "PEST" is an appropriate term for these factors. However, changes in the external environment also create new opportunities and the letters sometimes are rearranged to construct the more optimistic term of STEP analysis. The organization’s environment is made up from three factors known: � The internal environment: staff (or internal customers), office technology, wages, finance etc. � The micro - environment: the external customers, agents, distributors, suppliers, competitors etc. � The macro - environment: Social-cultural forces, Economic forces, Environmental forces, and Political (legal) forces. Macro-environment’s components are known as STEP factors. (Dyson, Robert G., 2004, p.630-641) 771 �Strategic Development and SWOT Analysis The reorganization of the group was done after internal and external analyses of the firms and observations from surveys and interviews. From internal and external analysis, SWOT Analysis of the group was carried out. The details of project were explained to every person from top management during interviews. Everything must be planned well otherwise desired changes may be resisted and not accepted by persons. It was expected from them that they evaluate the firm objectively for such a critical project. Moreover, their political considerations were also taken into account. They were employed by both families. Thus, they support the family that employed them. Every family desired to get more control over the group. SWOT Analysis of Kipaş In this part, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Kipaş group are presented in the light of the internal analysis and external analysis. The strengths and weaknesses stem from the interviews, observations and results of questionnaire, however, the opportunities and threats are drawn out from external analysis, especially from SWOT analysis of Turkish textile & apparel industry and removal of quotas. The summary of SWOT Analysis of the group is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: SWOT Analysis of Kipaş Group Case Study- Application of the TOWS Matrix to KIPAş Kipaş is a successful company having experienced in great difficulties, but then it has developed strategies that resulted in an excellent market position in the late 2010s. The TOWS Matrix shown in Figure 3 is focusing on the crucial period from late 2005 to 2010. The external threats and opportunities pertain mostly to the situation Kipaş faced in textile sector. Weaknesses and Threats (WT) A company with great weaknesses often has to resort to a survival strategy. Kipaş could have seriously considered the option of a joint operation with Asian firms. Another alternative would have been to make investments in Asian countries. Although in difficulties Kipaş did not have to resort to a survival strategy because the company still had much strength. Consequently, a more appropriate strategy was to attempt to overcome the weaknesses and develop them into strengths. In other words, the direction was toward the strength-opportunity position (SO) 772 �in the matrix shown as Figure 3. Specifically, the strategy is to reduce the competitive threat by developing a more flexible new R&D department to products individualized textile products . Weaknesses and Opportunities (WO) The growing affluence of customers has resulted in customized products. Yet, Kipaş have not had a special brand. Especially when considering big brands in EU such as Nike or Adidas, in long run kipaş should create a brand name for aimed markets. Kipaş has many problems with its management system due to two families desires to get more control over the group, improvements in management systems and human resource department were enable them to establish a new management style in order to take more favorable decisions more quickly. In order to minimize the additional costs of logistics, E-business and Logistics departments were opened to decrease the inventors and increase their selling capabilities. Another weakness at Kipaş was the increasing labor costs in Turkey when compared low labor cost countries in Asia. Kipaş can increase the effectiveness of production or make production in low labor cities in Turkey. 773 �Figure 3: TOWS Matrix of Kipaş Group Strengths and Threats (ST) 774 �One of the greatest threats to Kipaş was removal of quotas. To overcome this threat, the qualities of the products have been improved against cheap and unqualified Chinas’ products. To reduce the threats of removal of quotas, domestic market against china and others should be protected by decreasing textile production costs and governments should subsidize that. Moreover, Research and Development Department in domestic and foreign markets can avoid Chinese effects by producing more individualized products. Labor costs are so low in china. To meet this threat, Kipas has used its capital not only to make investments in Turkey, but also in low labor countries. This tactic which was congruent with its general strategy helped to improve the firm’s market position. Strengths and Opportunities (SO) In general, successful firms build on their strengths to take advantage of opportunities. Kipaş is no exception. Throughout this discussion Kipaş 's strengths are shown in Figure 2. These strengths have enabled the company to open a new Opening Business Development and Planning Department. Eventually the same company's strengths enabled the firm to investments in GAP region and in energy sector providing many employment opportunities. In another tactical move, Kipaş is expected to increase its market share in EU by using its experience in these markets and proximity of Turkey to EU. Organization Structure of Kipaş After wide analysis, it showed that there was a need for change and this change must be started from top. Thus, the old organization structure of the Group was changed by taking into consideration the current needs and future expectations. The SWOT Analysis and TOWS Matrix were very helpful while designing the structure. It was not only the decision of project team to change the structure but the decision of two families. Both families must agree on new structure otherwise conflicts would start again. The main characteristic of the old organization of Kipaş Group illustrated at Figure 4 was its dual headed structure. Every department and company was directly responsible to this structure and every decision must be made or approved by chairmen of the board. These decisions vary from very simple ones such as an official procurement to very extensive ones. Moreover, the single approve of a chairman was not enough to execute; both of the chairmen had to approve and sign any decision or document. There were many conflicts between families. There were two individuals, fiscal coordinator and an internal auditor, who was also directly related to chairmen. The major duty of fiscal coordinator was to assist in budget preparation and accounting support. The internal auditor was responsible for finding out any factors which conflict to benefits of the organization. These factors can be action, such as a theft, or worker, such as an insider. There were 6 functional departments in Kipaş: Finance, Procurement, IT (Information Technology), Accounting, Sales and Personal Department as shown in Figure 4. 775 �ASSEMBLY OF PARTNERS Fiscal Coordinat or Coordinat 1st CHAIRMAN CHAIRMAN BOARD 2nd BOARD FINANCE ACCOUNTING PROCUREMEN T SALES IT PERSONNEL Internal Auditor Coordina tor DEPARTMENT Bozkurt Kipaş Denim Mills Kipaş Mipsan Erdem Text. Teksan KEAŞ Pera App arel KAREN Kipaş Ginning Agri. Kipaş Insurance TOYMAR Figure 4: The old organization structure In this part, the proposed organization structure shown in Figure 5 and the factors of SWOT analysis in Figure 2 how they affected new design is explained. New organization structure of new holding is designed regarding the outputs of assessment studies. Strategies deployed from TOWS Matrix analysis in Figure 3 of Kipaş is directly used in this process. 776 �Figure 5: New Proposed Organization Structure of Holding Considering the financial and consequently political power of company, it is not so tough to venture in new sectors. Business Development and Planning is a critical directory that aims to integrate the strategic planning of the current business as well as evaluating the opportunities for the whole group to assure the sustainability of the Holding Group in international environment. Duties and responsibilities of each function were prepared. Each company has his own planning unit that deals with the operational planning which feeds the Holding with information. Yet, integrating all the operational plans is a necessity not only to improve the effectiveness of the tactical plans but also to prepare the basis for long-term strategic business plans. For example, denim production plans and Kipas textile production plans are separately prepared but exportation is handled by Vice President of External Business. Integration gives the possibility for using the spot or durable opportunities in exportation besides domestic sales. To perform business development, there is one planning engineer tracing the global business opportunities in all fields concerning Kipas Holding and informing the decision makers (President and 2 Vice Presidents). He prepares the feasibility reports before presentation. Once an opportunity is found realistic in the Board, the case is taken as a particular project to be run. Then, the Project Team is established to include the experts from the field to analyze the business in detail. This department handles the project until the project is started as: a) a new function of one of the companies b) a new company After that state, it is handled to the General Manager of the Company concerned (existing or new) to continue the operations. In fact, this function is performed by 1st Chairmen of Board. Business Development and Planning Department have significant responsibilities for enlargement in energy sector to value the new regulations and possible demand rise in this sector. The lack of human resources was considered one of the most important problems of Kipaş. Additionally, our observations resulted in a consensus on the majority of the inappropriate managers in company, especially, at the Kahramanmaraş. To compensate this drawback, a robust human resources department is proposed for company. By this department, the company can also measure the performances of the workers, this was absent at that time. 777 �Creating a brand requires hard, intensive and lots of efforts. However, if the image of brand is set down, then the company can reach very high yield. The profit margin of the company can increase with creation of this high value added product. Firstly, the creation of brand requires a vigorous marketing department that would firstly decide the appropriate promotion process and then keep the sustainability of this brand. Moreover, to improve the attributes of product and use new technologies in an innovative way, the presence of Research and Development Department is fundamental. The quality concept of brand is developed by quality departments. Being at the right point at the right time would be run by E-business and Logistics departments. EU is an important market for Kipaş and the foreign structure of Kipaş would enhance the activities in this market. Moreover, with dismiss of quotas, new markets are emerging and the new players would place to these virgin markets. The shares created in this process would be very easy but after a while, when the markets reach steady state, to penetrate these markets would not be easy. On the other, the low labor cost countries are threats in this foggy weather. However, this structure enables Kipaş differ from the companies of these countries by their service level and product quality. To evaluate these opportunities and eliminate this threat, the foreign part is strictly proposed The other threats for Kipaş are increasing customer demands and improvements in competitors. The R&D (Research and Development) and Quality Departments could be effective to eliminate these threats. The R&D department focuses on not only the products but also the process and by developing processes of production the company increases its competitiveness. Quality department works with R&D concurrently for continuous improvement. This would enable to value Kipaş’s experience in the sector and turn its knowledge assets to added value. Conclusion Noticing the reactions and rapid increasing portion of China’s in the market after removing 40 years quotas since 2005, the developed countries have been taking precautions and China respond to reactions with a little increase in tax of these sectors. Despite of these recent developments, it is impossible to turn to conditions before 2005 and the revolution in the sector initiated with new rules. Countries and companies have developed new strategies for the new game. SWOT analysis of Kipaş Group mainly focused on textile and apparel sector. TOWS Matrix helps to deploy strategies while preparing new organization chart. A new organization structure was prepared to respond to highly competitive markets. It is clear that, China and other low labor cost Asian Countries, such as India, have been gained advantage in the market. However, these regulations would undisputedly increase the competitiveness and in this environment companies would attempt to differentiate by design. Particularly in clothing, the importance of time to market would ascend dramatically. Consequently, the importance of proximity to markets such as EU and North America would intensify, which is an important advantage for both Turkey and Kipaş considering proximity to E.U. However, Turkish companies and Kipaş are obliged to concentrate on quality and supply chain activities and establish robust R&D structures to create innovative products and design in short periods to turn over these opportunities to yield. The yields of vertical growth are uncontroversial and Kipaş is a good instance of this. Kipaş had all steps of supply chain of textile from cotton apparel. However, just last step of general supply chain was neglected by Kipas that was retailing. Kipaş must concentrate on last and most value added part of chain. Creation of own brand is the most important step in this essence. In the light of the developments in EU journey of Turkey, as a strategy, Kipaş can start its retailing activities in Western Europe, more value-added markets rather than domestic market. The company has the knowledge, culture and values to implement the aforementioned strategies and proposed organizing structure. References Dincer O. (2004). Strategy Management and Organization Policy, Beta Publication, Istanbul, Turkey. Diskienė D., Galinienė, B., Marčinskas, A. (2008), A strategic management model for economic development, Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 14, pp.375–387. Dyson, Robert G.( (2004)), Strategic development and SWOT analysis at the University of Warwick, European Journal of Operational Research, pp. 631–640. 778 �El Sawy, O.A. and Pauchant, T.C. (1988), Triggers, templates, and twitches in the tracking of emerging strategic issues, Strategic Management Journal, 7(2), pp. 455-474. Gregory G., G.T. Lumpkin and Marilyn L. Taylor (2005). Strategic Management, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York, USA. Houben G., Lenie K., Vanhoof K. (1999). A knowledge-based SWOT-analysis system as an instrument for strategic planning in small and medium sized enterprises, Decision Support Systems, 26, pp.125–135. Hsu-Hsi Chang (2006), Wen-Chih Huang, Application of a quantification SWOT analytical method, Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 4, pp.158-169. Hax, A.C. and Majluf, N.S. (1991). The Strategy Concept and Process: A Pragmatic Approach, Prentice-Hall, London. Jay B Barney, William Hesterly (2007), Strategic Management and Competitive Advantage: Concepts Book Description, Prentice Hall, Texas, USA. Ketelhohn W. (2006), Strategic management practice in Latin America, Journal of Business Research, 59, pp.305-309. Jansen L.(2003). The challenge of sustainable development, Journal of Cleaner Production, 11, pp.231–245 McLean, G. N. P.(2006), Organizational Development: Principles, processes performance, Berrett- Koehler Publishers, Inc., . San Francisco, USA. M. Higgins, James and W. Vincze, Julian (2001). Strategic Management, The Dryden Press International Edition,Chicago,pp.3-47. Porter, Michael E. (1981) The Contributions of Industrial Organization to Strategic Management, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 6, No. 4., pp. 609-620. Phelan S. E (2005). Strategic Management & Policy. Available from: ttp://faculty.unlv.edu/phelan/ [Accessed 10 April 2010] Tiwana, Amrit (1999). The Knowledge Management Toolkit, Prentice Hall, First Edition, USA pp.126. Viljoen, J. & Dann, S. (2003). Strategic Management, Prentice Hall, USA, pp.68. Volkery A., Swanson D., Bregha F. and Pinter L.(2006). Coordination, Challenges, and Innovations in 19 National Sustainable Development Strategies, World Development, Vol. 34, No. 12, pp. 2047–2063 Yan, Y. , Ding, Daniel and Mak, Simon(2009), The Impact of Business Investment on Capability Exploitation and Organizational Control in International Strategic Alliances, Journal of Change Management, 9: 1, pp. 49 -65. Weihrich, H. (1982), The TOWS Matrix: A tool for situational analysis, Long Range Planning, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp.45-66. 779 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 627 Title A name given to the resource Strategic Sustainable Development and Creating Strategies from TOWS Matrix at Kipas Group Author Author Aslan, Imran Bozkurt, Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to develop new strategies for sustainable development of a group and to establish a holding from several companies by considering the regulations in the World Trade, recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders. In this study, internal analysis of the group was carried out with interviews and surveys. To prepare external analysis, the economical situation of Turkey and the World was researched and categorized under standard PEST categories. Important problems were identified and then the purposes and objectives of the firm were determined by focusing on opportunities. Later, SWOT analysis of the group was prepared and most significant factors were chosen. In the light of these factors, TOWS matrix was prepared to combine external and internal factors of the enterprise in order to deploy strategies. New organization structure of the group was determined and presented based on these strategies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e3a7406b76028941d656b5afb2a04442.pdf dbb30bf2f3c85bfab9f7b96b7295ed0b PDF Text Text Effects of Chicken Manure Application on Olive (Olea europaea) Growth Sabriye Atmaca Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture Antalya / Turkey Sara Demiral Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture Antalya / Turkey Salih Ülger Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture Antalya / Turkey Abstract: In this research, the possibilities of use of chicken wastes which have significant potential in Turkey were investigated in olive orchards. Different doses of solid and liquid chicken manure wastes were applied to high density planted olive trees to determine their effects on plant growth and developing. Trunk diameter development and plant height were measured 3 month cycles during the experiment. Introduction The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) originated from Upper Mesopotamia and Southwest Asia, including a part of South East Anatolia Region of Turkey (Özkaya et al., 2004). Archaeological studies showed that olive cultivation was started in 4000 BC (Ülger, 2010). Olive cultivation in the worldwide is made in Mediterranean Basin with 90% and the rest part in the Latin American countries. Approximately 17 million ton olive is produced from 900 million trees in 9 million hectares of land in the world (Ülger, 2010). In Turkey, according to 2006 data, approximately 1.8 million tons of olive produced from 650.000 hectares of land (Table 2) and 550.000 tones table olives and 170.000 tons olive oil were obtained from this production (Ülger, 2010). High density olive growing, a growing system is made to obtain high-efficiency oil. The system has also significant advantage in terms of early fruiting of trees (usually in 3 years), reduction of trend of alternate-bearing, allowing to mechanical harvest, collecting of fruits untouched by hand and quick processing (Anonymous, 2008). Fertilization is one of the important factors for fruit growing. Fertilization is essential to obtain enough growing and yield. Fruit trees remove nutrients from the soil in significant amounts in yearly. If these removed nutrients can not be substituted the trees show some nutrient deficiency and yield reductions occur. Necessary nutrient supplements should be made to soil to prevent this situation (Anonymous, 2009). In the poultry business, juicy chicken manure is an important environment problem due to its bad smell and overflows of sewage to the environment. Therefore, juicy chicken manure, polluting the environment should be turned organic fertilizer to use in agriculture. U.S. and European developed countries solved this problem by the processing of poultry waste to animal feed and fertilizer in years ago (Dogan, 2003). Many researches have determined nutrient content of chicken manure. Fresh chicken manure contents as 51.9% water and 30.8% organic matter, 1.78% N, 1.78% P, 1% K, 1% Na, 0.07% Ca and 1.6% Mg (Şeker, 2005). Inal et al., (1996) found that the chicken manure had high plant nutrient and they recommend the chicken manure to be used as fertilizer in agriculture. In this study, the effects of different doses of solid and liquid forms of processed chicken manure on tree height and trunk diameter growth in olive (Olea europaea L.) trees were investigated. 150 �Materials and Methods This study was conducted on 3 years old and 4x1.5 m planted “Gemlik” olive trees in Application and Research Field of Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University in 2009-2010. Processed solid chicken manure (PSCM, trade name ORG-M-VIT) and processed liquid commercial manure (PLCM, trade name KAL) were applied to the trees in the experiment. First 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 kg/tree PSCM (Table 1) were applied to the olive trees in March and then 150 mL PLCM were applied to these olive trees in March, April, May, June, July and August (Table 1). Trunk diameter and plant height were measured three months intervals after application. Tree height was determined from ground level by tape measure and trunk diameter was measured from 30 cm above the ground level by calliper. The experiment was designed as randomized block and three replications, and each block has 3 trees. Applications Control 2. application 3. application 4. application 5. application 6. application Application dosages and application dates 0 kg/tree PSCM + 0 PLCM 1 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August) 2 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August) 4 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August) 6 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August) 8 kg/tree PSCM (March) + 150 mL PLCM (March, April, May, June, July, August) Table 1. Used dosages and application time of PSCM and PLCM. Results and Discussion The best average tree height developing was obtained from application of 4 kg/tree PSCM in March +150 mL PLCM in March, April, May, June, July, August. The average height of tree was 121 cm at first measuring time, and then the average height was reached 186 cm at the fourth measuring time in the fourth application group trees. The differentiation between the first and fourth measurement was 75 cm. The average smallest tree height developing was determined in sixth application groups with 24 cm differentiation (Figure 1). 200 190 Tree height (cm) 180 1. application 170 2. application 160 3. application 150 4. application 140 5. application 130 6. application 120 110 100 1 2 3 4 Time Figure 1. Average plant height after application of different dosages and application time of PSCM+PLCM 151 �Average trunk diameter and thickness increased depending on time after PSCM+PLCM application. The strongest and weakest body diameter development were observed with 43.70 and 8.25 mm respectively in number 4 applications (4 kg/tree PSCM in March + 150 mL PLCM in March, April, May, June, July, August) and in number 6 applications (8 kg/tree PSCM inMarch+150 mL PLCM in March, April, May, June, July, August) (Figure 2). PSCM+PLCM application positively affected trunk and height development of “Gemlik” olive cultivars. Similarly, positive results were obtained by Polat (2001) in organic lettuce growing, Dogan (2003) in tomato and cucumber seedlings growing and Şeker (2005) in maize development after chicken manure application. Since olive is a perennial plant, the effects of chicken manure may not be seen with one year results. But one year results showed that some dosages of chicken manure had positive effect in terms of plant height and trunk development in olive trees. 45 Trunk diameter (mm) 40 1. application 35 2. application 3. application 30 4. application 5. application 25 6. application 20 15 1 2 3 4 Time Figure 2. Average plant trunk diameter developing after application of different dosages and application time of PSCM+PLCM References Anonymous, 2008. http://www.provedo.com/html/eng/olivo_superintensivo.htm Anonymous, 2009. Meyve Ağaçlarında Gübreleme, Eğirdir Bahçe Kültürleri Araştırma Enstitüsü, www. 3. Ulusal Gübre Sempozyumu. Doğan, D., 2003. Domates ve Hıyar Fidesi Üretiminde Yetiştirme Ortamlarına Katılan Tavuk Gübresinin Fide Gelişimi ve Kalitesine Etkileri. Ankara Universitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Seker, C., Gümüş, I. and Zengin, M., 2005. Mısır Bitkisinin Ilk gelişimine Kompostlaştırılmış Tuzlu Tavuk Gübresinin Etkisi. S.U. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 19 (37): 113-117. Inal, A., Sözüdoğru, S. and Erden, D., 1996. Tavuk Gübresinin Içeriği ve Gübre Değeri. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, 2 (3): 45-50. 152 �Ozkaya, M.T., Ergülen, E., Ulger, S. and Ozilbey, N. 2004. Genetic And Biologic Characterization Of Some Olive (Olea Europaea L.) Cultivars Grown in Turkey. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, 10(2):231-236. Polat, E., Sönmez, S., Demir, H. and Kaplan, M. 2001. Farklı Organik Gübre Uygulamalarının Marulda Verim, Kalite ve Bitki Besin Maddeleri Alımına Etkileri. Türkiye 2. Ekolojik Tarım Sempozyumu, Antalya, 69-77. Ulger, S. 2010. Subtropik Iklim Meyveleri (Zeytin) Ders Notu. Yayın no:16, Akd. Univ. Zir. Fak. Basım Unitesi. 153 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 345 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Chicken Manure Application on Olive (Olea europaea) Growth Author Author Atmaca, Sabriye Demiral, Sara Ülger, Salih Abstract A summary of the resource. In this research, the possibilities of use of chicken wastes which have significant potential in Turkey were investigated in olive orchards. Different doses of solid and liquid chicken manure wastes were applied to high density planted olive trees to determine their effects on plant growth and developing. Trunk diameter development and plant height were measured 3 month cycles during the experiment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2fac7945c69ca89330241346ffaad8e6.pdf a3f53a99691521c0f0d9d5adeb843a4c PDF Text Text Compressive and Flexural Behavior of Hybrid Use of GFRP Profile with Concrete Ferhat Aydın Technology Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey ferhata@sakarya.edu.tr Mehmet Sarıbıyık Technology Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Research activities have been taking on place for new construction materials in order to produce more effective constructions. One of the new technological materials is Pultruded Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) materials. High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Having resolved fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass adaptation of GFRP sections as primary load bearing elements have been used in a number of civil engineering applications. In this study; compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles to demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in civil engineering applications. Keywords: Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic, Concrete, Hybrid structure, Compressive properties, Flexural properties Introduction The investigations on the technical development have been continuous on the new methodology and construction materials following to the technological development in the world. The limitation of classical construction materials can be overcome by using new technological materials. In the continuing quest for improved performance of structural materials, scientists and engineers strive to improve the traditional natures or produce completely new one. Composite materials are an example of the latter category. Within the past five decades there has been a rapid increase in the development of advanced composites incorporating fine fibres, termed fibre reinforced composites. Due to the high cost of metal and ceramic matrix composite materials, the majority of composites used in the construction industry are based on polymeric matrix materials. Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are formed by embedding continuous fibres in a resin matrix which binds the fibres together. Common fibres include carbon, glass, and aramid fibres while common resins are epoxy, polyester, and vinyl ester resins. The most widely used FRP composite is glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) composite which is a new generation of structural materials for civil engineering structures. The GFRP materials have been manufactured using Pultrusion method. In the Pultrusion method, a continuous E-glass fibre reinforcement in the form of alternate layers of randomly oriented mat and layers of unidirectional roving bundles are pulled through a resin impregnator and then on through a heated die to form continuous prismatic members similar in geometry to those produced by the steel industry as seen Figure 1. 44 �Figure 1. Examples of Pultruded GFRP profiles (www.strongwell.com. 2005) Pultruded GFRP profiles have great potential as construction materials, presenting several advantages when compared with traditional materials, related to the higher strength to weight ratio, the lower self-weight, the electromagnetic transparency, the possibility of being produced with any crosssection geometry, the easier installation, the lower maintenance requirements and the improved durability under aggressive environments (Karbhari and Seible, 1999, Keller, 2002). The construction industry appears to be gradually recognizing the additional benefits offered by these materials. Having resolved fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass adaptation of GFRP sections as secondary and primary load bearing elements have been used in a number of civil engineering applications (see Figure 2). Figure 2. Examples of structure constructed using pultruded GFRP profiles (www.strongwell.com. 2005) GFRP profiles have been used in the buildings that exposed to the negative effect of the sea and chemicals. GFRP materials also used in hybrid bridges and soil improvement systems. GFRP–concrete hybrid elements have also been developed for new structural systems, combining the directional behaviour, the lightness and the high mechanical performance of GFRP pultruded profiles with the concrete 45 �compressive strength. The use of concrete-filled fibre reinforced tubes has been used in piles for maritime structures. The concept of hybrid system was first introduced for bridge systems (Seible, 1996). Preliminary studies, however, have shown that the design of concrete filled FRP tube bridge girders is stiffness driven, and that material strength may not be fully utilized. While concrete resists compression and prevents the failure of the tube due to instability phenomena, the FRP element confines the concrete, contributing to a strength and ductility increase, and protection from aggressive environment (Snow, 1999). The results from the tests showed that it is possible to manufacture a fibre reinforced plastic hybrid beam with concrete that can have excellent stiffness and be able to bear heavy loads (Nordin and Taljstena, 2004). The alternative use of GFRP pultruded profiles in GFRP–concrete hybrid structural elements has a very interesting potential. Compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated to use in construction system to demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in engineering applications. The study focused on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles. Compressive Tests Three different groups (C20, C30 and C40) of concrete using Ordinary Portland Cement washed river sand and crashed aggregate were used in manufacturing the specimens. All specimens were made from the same delivery of materials (sand, aggregate and cement) and similar manufacturing and curing procedures were adopted throughout the test program. Concrete and concrete filled GFRP cube specimens in three groups with six specimens in each groups, concrete classes were prepared according to the Turkish Standard (TSE 802, 1985). Wall thickness of 4 mm and cross-section of 100x100 mm GFRP box profile were used to produce concrete filled specimens (see Figure 3). Portions of fresh mixed concrete were filled in cube mould and the remainder was filled in GFRP profiles. The specimens were kept in the water for 28 days and then tested to determine compressive strength according to the Turkish Standard (TS EN 12390-3, 2002). Average compressive strength and unit weight values are presented in Table 1. Figure 3: Samples of Compressive Tests 46 �Sample Concrete Class Unit Weight (gr/cm3) Ultimate Load (N) Plain Concrete C 20 2.33 272383 Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 27 Concrete filled GFRP Profiles C 20 2.21 328450 33 Plain Concrete C 30 2.37 393250 39 Concrete filled GFRP Profiles C 30 2.27 430480 43 Plain Concrete C 40 2.41 479816 48 Concrete filled GFRP Profiles C 40 2.19 532817 53 Table 1: Results of Compression Tests Compressive tests outcomes of C20 class specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 22% higher strength when compared with plain concrete. Comparisons between plain concrete and concrete- filled GFRP profiles average values are given in Figure 4. However; compressive tests outcomes of C30 and C40 class’s specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 10% higher strength when compared with plain concrete as seen in Figures 5 and 6. Unit weight of concrete was reduced about 10% as seen in Table 1. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the compressive strength in three different concrete classes. The outcomes showed that increases of concrete quality reduce the effect of GFRP profiles. In addition; failure patterns of concrete filled GFRP profile were examined. Test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner as seen in Figure 7. Figure 4: Compression results of C20 concrete samples 47 �Figure 5: Compression results of C30 concrete samples Figure 6: Compression results of C40 concrete samples 48 �Figure 7: Concrete filled GFRP samples failure pattern Flexure Tests Concrete and concrete filled GFRP bending specimens in three groups (C20, C30 and C40) concrete classes were prepared according to the Turkish Standard (TSE 802, 1985). Wall thickness of 4 mm and cross-section of 74x74 mm length of 500 mm (beam’s span 400 mm) GFRP box profile were used to produce concrete filled bending specimens (see Figure 8). Portions of fresh mixed concrete were filled in GFRP box section and remainder was filled in same size of mould. The specimens were kept in the water for 28 days and then tested to determine bending strength according to the Turkish Standard (TS EN 12390-5, 2002). Three point bending tests were performed using universal tensile test machine as shown in Figure 9. Deflection of plain concrete, plain GFRP box section and concrete filled GFRP profile were recorded to determine the relative bending of the specimens. The load cell and LVDTs were connected to a PC via a signal conditioning unit. Measurements were taken at five intervals giving approximately 150 sets of measurements per test. Figure 8: Samples of Flexure Tests 49 �Figure 9: Flexure Test with Concrete Filled GFRP Box Profile After experiments in the load-deflection graphs are formed and the bending strength values of all samples were calculated by the equation 1. The obtained results have been compared to each with others. Average bending load and bending strength values are presented in Table 2. M×y (1) I Where; σ is bending strength, M is bending moment, I is moment of inertia and y is neutral axis distance. σ= Bending Strength (N/mm2) Plain Concrete Ultimate Load (kN) 4.84 Box Profile 11.70 47.17 Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 20) 19.45 28.79 Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 30) 19.07 28.23 Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 40) 21.15 31.31 Sample 7.17 Table 2: Results of Flexure Tests Tests outcomes of specimens showed that the bending load of concrete-filled GFRP has about four times and two times higher values when compared with plain concrete and plain GFRP box section respectively. Comparisons between plain concrete, plain GFRP and concrete- filled GFRP profiles loaddeflection graphs are given in Figure 10-12. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the bending load capacity in three different concrete classes. In addition; the GFRP box section protects the concrete and the filled concrete defends the local failure of GFRP profile. Test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner as similar as compressive samples as seen in Figure 13. 50 �Figure 10: Comparison between beam samples in C20 compressive strength Figure 11: Comparison between beam samples in C30 compressive strength 51 �Figure 12: Comparison between beam samples in C40 compressive strength Figure 13: Beam Sample after Flexure Test Conclusions High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Research activities have been taken in order to produce more effective constructions materials using hybrid use of pultruded GFRP and concrete. Compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles. The outcomes demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles will be used engineering applications. With respect to the experimental behaviour, the following conclusions have been drawn: • Compressive tests outcomes of C20 class specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 22% higher strength when compared with plain concrete. The tests outcomes of C30 and 52 �• C40 class’s specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 10% higher when compared with plain concrete. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the compressive strength. Bending tests outcomes of specimens showed that the bending load of concrete-filled GFRP has about four times higher values when compared with plain concrete and two times higher than plain GFRP box section. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the bending load capacity in all concrete classes. GFRP box section protects the concrete and the filled concrete protects the local failure of GFRP profile. • Compressive and bending test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner of pultruded GFRP box profiles. • There are several structural advantages of hybrid use of pultruded GFRP profiles with concrete, including the increase of the flexural stiffness, reducing the structures deformability, and the increase of the structures strength capacity, and preventing the local failure of the GFRP profiles. References Nordin H.& Taljstena B. (2004). Testing of hybrid FRP composite beams in bending. Composites: Part B 35 (27–33) Karbhari VM. & Seible F. (1999). Fiber-reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in the USA. Struct Eng Int, IABSE 1999;9(4):274–7. Keller T. (2002). Fibre reinforced polymer materials in bridge construction. In: Towards a better built environment— innovation, sustainability, information technology, IABSE Symposium, Melbourne (CD-Rom). Snow RK. (1999). Encapsulation: protecting concrete piles in marine environments. Concr Int, ACI 21(12):33–8. TS EN 12390-3. (2003). Testing hardened concrete - Part 3 : Compressive strength of test specimens, Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara TS EN 12390-5. (2002). Testing hardened concrete - Part 5: Flexural strength of test specimens, Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara TS 802. (1985). Design Concrete Mixes, Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara www.strongwell.com. (2005). web page of Strongwell Company 53 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 328 Title A name given to the resource Compressive and Flexural Behavior of Hybrid Use of GFRP Profile with Concrete Author Author Aydın, Ferhat Sarıbıyık, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Research activities have been taking on place for new construction materials in order to produce more effective constructions. One of the new technological materials is Pultruded Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) materials. High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Having resolved fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass adaptation of GFRP sections as primary load bearing elements have been used in a number of civil engineering applications. In this study; compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles to demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in civil engineering applications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8061bc4924bce1217bad9a33f92c6f4c.pdf eb156b79af7d80ce6b042fa6064ce2f2 PDF Text Text Determination of Genetic Polymorphism within Güney Karaman Sheep-Breed via RAPD-PCR Method Đbrahim Aytekin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey aytekin@selcuk.edu.tr Saim Boztepe Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey sboztepe@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Analysis of individual genotypes aims to provide information for understanding within population genetic parameters such as genetic similarity, polymorphism and heterozygosity. The aims of this research were to determine the genetic parameters within Güney Karaman sheep involved in a protection programme of gene resources by using randomly oligonucleotide primers via Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method. Among the primers tested, 10 most suitable ones, in terms of repeatability and scorability, were used and 1451 DNA fragments were scored. All the RAPD fragments were determined to be between 600 - 3000 bp in size. From 147 fragments, 133 were polymorphic (90.48%) and 14 fragments were monomorphic (9.52%). Within population average genetic similarity (Fragment Sharing Frequency, Fxy) and genetic distance were calculated as 0.7001 and 0.2991, respectively. The average expected heterozygosity was estimated as 0.3273 ± 0.1697. Keywords: Güney Karaman sheep-breed, polymorphism, RAPD-PCR Introduction It is of great importance to determine, at DNA level through molecular techniques, the variations of farm animals that have a huge genetic potential in number and variety, to define them, to prepare schemes to preserve and develop them to this end. The majority of the sheep in Turkey are composed of domestic breeds and types that haven’t been refined. Also known as Black sheep, the Güney Karaman sheep breed is raised in South and south-eastern cities, notably on the Taurus Mountains and looks very much like Karagül with its fat-tail. Its proportion is rather low in the Turkish sheep population (Öztürk, 2000). In sheep breeding, genotype confusion has emerged in domestic sheep breeds, which constitute the gene resources, through a gradual genetic change as a result of selection on the economically important yields in certain breeds. Consequently, the present gene resources are getting lost, and the continuation of offspring is put in jeopardy with the risk of these genotypes disappearing. The disappearance of the domestic breeds means the disappearance of the distinctive traits that they bear. At this stage, it is hard or impossible to say which of these traits will be required in the future. Also, the possible traits of these gene resources, which haven’t been identified yet, can be kept available with the survival of these breeds (Ertuğrul et al., 2005). One of the Turkish domestic breeds, the Güney Karaman sheep is a breed in danger of extinction. For this reason, the breed involved is brought under protection within the context of protecting gene resources with the declaration of guidelines for subsidizing animal farming (Rescript No: 2006/9) by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (Anonymous, 2006). Genetic evaluation has usually started by analysing phenotypes to identify genetic influences, whereas molecular genetics often begins with known alleles or DNA sequences and then examines their influence on phenotypes. Eukaryotic genomes show considerable DNA sequence variations 183 �(polymorphisms) between species and among individuals within a species (Beuzen et al., 2000). Studies of molecular genetics and molecular biology at DNA level have recently come to the fore so as to determine these variations in individuals and populations. Molecular techniques are utilized for determination of the genetic makeup of farm animals at DNA level and for selection studies based on a marker in amelioration studies. It is rather difficult especially in stock raising to detect the genotypes that carry the best alleles by examining the phenotypes of animals which have an economical value, and that have expensive- and difficult-to measure quantitative characteristics. In such cases, so as to determine the individuals that carry the related alleles with DNA markers, intense studies have been conducted in recent years on such quantitative characters as milk yield, resistance to diseases and fecundity (Schnabel et al., 2005). In the QTL analysis concerning quantitative characters, quantitative characters are identified in cattle, sheep and swine for commercial and experimental purposes. The markers that are connected with milk and milk components yields in dairy cattle, birth weights, horn development and preweaning growth in beef cattle, fecundity and muscle hypertrophy in sheep have been identified (Davis and DeNise, 1998). One of the molecular techniques, the RAPD technique (Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA) is based on the amplification of PCR and DNA fragments of randomly spread areas in the genome by using random primers (9-10 bp). Unlike the other PCR applications, only one primer is used for DNA production both in the pattern DNA chain and in the complementary chain. It is required that the ratio of G + C primers used in RAPD techniques be 50–80% , that they not contain any palindromes and that they shouldn’t be complementary to each other (Williams et al., 1990; Williams et al., 1993). Compared with other PCR applications, RAPD method is easy to apply, and more preferable because of its low cost and high and quick efficiency. Among its advantages are the sufficiency of a minimum and low quality DNA in nanogram levels and also no prerequisite information regarding DNA sequence. Moreover, the rate of polymorphism is high (Bowditch et al., 1993; Kantanen et al., 1995; Öz Aydın, 2004). It is reported that the disadvantages of this technique are low repeatability with different equipment and chemical material, and low reliability as a result of diverse results in diverse laboratories by diverse researchers. Nevertheless, RAPD technique is fit for automation under laboratory conditions (Tingey and Tufo., 1993). Along with its widespread use in molecular biology and in many various areas, the RAPD-PCR technique is successfully used in many fields, such as the identification of genetic similarity and difference in livestock, prediction of the genetic relationship between different breeds and ecotypes, identification of wild species (Lee and Chang, 1994), study of evolution (Stepniak et al., 2002), genetic mapping (Cushwa et al., 1996), pedigre determination (Cerit, 2001), determining the sex of ovine embryos (Gutiérrea-Adán at al., 1997), and developing species-related markers. RAPD method have found application in various animal species, such as cattle and sheep (Kantanen et al., 1995; Cushwa et al., 1996; Tahmoorespur et al., 2003; Ahmed Ali, 2003; Paiva et al., 2005), goat (Li et al.,2002; Şahin, 2005), turkeys (Smith et al., 1996), chickens (Smith et al., 1996; Sharma et al., 2001), quails (Sharma et al., 2000), fish (Akhan and Canyurt, 2005), bees (Suazo et al., 1998), horses (Apostolidis, 2001) and pigs (Yen et al., 2001). This has demonstrated the efficiency RAPD as a potential genetic marker. The studies conducted with the RAPDPCR technique have shown that this method can be successfully used in predicting genetic makeup of species and intra- and inter-population genetic parameters. This study aims to demonstrate both the applicability of RAPD-PCR method and to reveal the DNA fingerprints belonging to the population involved with the aim of identifying, at DNA level, genetic variation of Güney Karaman sheep breed, which constitutes the recent gene resources. Material and Method Animal Material and DNA Isolation In the context of preservation and protection of gene resources, the blood samples that were taken from 8 male and 8 female Güney Karaman sheep, which were kept in Bahri Dağdaş International Agricultural Research and Application Center, were used. For DNA isolation, the blood samples that were taken from Vena jugularis of the animals by using vacuum blood tubes with sodium citrate were preserved in cold chain (+4°C), taken to the Molecular Genetic and Biotechnology Laboratory of Faculty of Agriculture in Selcuk University in the shortest possible time, and were kept at -20°C until DNA isolation were achieved. DNA isolation kit (Bio Basic Inc., Canada) was used for the purpose of pursuing a method that wouldn’t yield different results between different blood samples and that consisted of as few 184 �components as possible in DNA isolation. In the study, the DNA concentrations that dissolved in the 100 ul 1xTE buffer solution were read through spectrophotometer, and the concentrations were equalized with sterile pure water so as to get 20 ng/ul. PCR Amplification In the RAPD technique, 10-base primers, some of which had been tried before, were utilized and 10 best efficient primers (18, 19, Op15, Opm10, Opp15, Opq04, Opq06, Ra03, Ra35, Ra59) were chosen in connection with their monomorphic/polymorphic characteristics and with their productivity of sufficient number of strips and then used in RAPD analyses. The PCR protocol was optimized as Şahin (2005) and Ahmed Ali (2003) reported, and PCR application was carried out. The DNA samples of 1 ul that were obtained as a result of DNA isolation and that were balanced so as to be 20 ng/ul each were put in PCR tubes. Reactions were triggered in thin-walled PCR tubes with a volume of 25 ul in total with 1 ul DNA+24 ul mix. The mix for PCR reaction was prepared with 14.0 ul sterile distilled water, 2.5 ul 10x Buffer pH: 8.5 (48.4 g Tris base, 10.22 ml Glacial Acetic Acid, 20 ml EDTA pH: 8.0), 2.5 ul 25 mM MgCI2, 4.0 ul dNTPs, (2.5 mM from each), 0.5 ul primer (50 pmol/ul) and 0.5 ul Taq Polymerase (Taq Bioron 5 U/ul). The PCR applications conducted in Thermal Cycler (Eppendorf Master Gradient) were exposed to 40 cycles in total- hot start at 94°C for 2 min., at denaturation level at 94°C for 50 sec., at annealing stage at 32-34°C for 55 sec. and at extension stage at 72°C for 50 sec and final extension at 72°C for 5 min. Some optimizations were made in the heat and duration units connected to the primers that were used. The RAPD fragments were separated on a 1.5% agarose gel by electrophoresis. Then it was taken out of the gel solution containing 0.5 µg/ml Ethidium Bromide, RAPD fragments were viewed in gel documentation system under UV light with the help of transilluminator. The resulting data were stored in an electronic setting. DNA Moleculer Weight Marker (100 bp Ladder, AMRESCO) was used as standard to determine the size range of amplified bands (bp) on which RAPD fragments moved in gel according to their molecule sizes. Scoring and Statistical Analysis The photographs related to RAPD fragments were scored on the basis of present/absent (1=present, 0=absent), and data matrix was formed. By using this obtained data matrix, genetic similarity between individuals, the ratio of polymorphism, the values of heterozygosity were obtained through POPGEN-1.32 pc program, and the dendogram that showed genotypical relation between individuals and PCoA (Principle Coordinates Analysis) were obtained according to the UPGMA method through NTSYS-2.1 pc (Numerical Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis System) program. The genetic similarity between individuals (Fxy) was calculated using the formula below as defined by Nei (1987). Fxy = 2 Mxy / (Mx + My) Fxy: Genetic similarity; Mxy: The number of common RAPD fragments between sheep X and Y, Mx: The total RAPD fragment number of sheep X, My: The total RAPD fragment number of sheep Y In calculating the average value of heterozygosity (H), the formula given below was used (Nei, 1987). H=Σh/r; In the formula; r: The number of locus, h: The expected single locus heterozygosity, which was calculated as; h=1- ΣXi2; In the formula; Xi2: This is the ratio of homozygot genotypes Where the ratio of polymorphism was calculated with a comparison of the number of observed polymorphic fragments with the total fragment number. Results and Discussion The RAPD-PCR fragments of 16 animals were obtained, using 10 primers. The primers used in the study and the sequences, melting temperatures (Tm), the size range of fragments (bp), the total fragment numbers (TFN), fragment numbers (FN), polymorphic fragment numbers (PFN), polymorphism (P%), the ratios of heterozygosity and standard devision (H±SD), obtained from 16 Güney Karaman breed sheep are given in Table 1. 185 �Primers 18 19 Op15 Opm10 Opp15 Opq04 Opq06 Ra03 Ra35 Ra59 Sequence (50-30) Tm Size range of fragments (bp) GGG CTA GGG T ACC GGG AAC G GAC GGA TCA G TCT GGC GCA C GGA AGC CAA C AGT GCG CTG A GAG CGC CTT G CGA TCG AGG A AAG CTC CCC G CGG GCA ACG T Total Average 34 34 32 34 32 32 34 32 34 34 700 - 3000 700 - 3000 600 - 3000 800 - 3000 600 - 3000 700 - 3000 600 - 3000 800 - 3000 900 - 3000 900 - 3000 TFN FN PFN 116 155 148 124 160 217 160 154 96 121 1451 10 16 17 12 15 18 19 16 8 16 147 9 12 15 12 15 14 19 14 8 15 133 P (%) 90 75 88.23 100 100 77.77 100 87.50 100 93.75 90.48 H±SD 0.3452 ± 0.1405 0.2304 ± 0.1956 0.3158 ± 0.1914 0.4006 ± 0.1527 0.4055 ± 0.1166 0.3104 ± 0.1960 0.3301 ± 0.1440 0.3013 ± 0.1790 0.4121 ± 0.1422 0.2946 ± 0.1571 0.3273 ± 0.1697 Table 1. Some information obtained from 16 Güney Karaman breed sheep with the 10 primers As can be seen in Table 1, the fragments obtained with the 10-mer primers generally ranged from 600 to 3000 bp. In total 1451 fragments were obtained, of them 673 being in male individuals, 778 being in females. When the number of fragments obtained from each individual, Opq04 primer is the one which yielded the highest number of fragments, with 217, and Ra35 is the one that yielded the lowest number of primers, with 96. Of the 147 fragments that were obtained with all the primers, 133 were determined to be polymorphic, and 14 monomorphic. The average polymorphism ratio obtained in the study was found as 90.48%. When all the fragments that could be scored were examined, the Opm10, Opp15, Opq06 and Ra35 primers proved to be the primers with the highest ratio of polymorphism (100%). The lowest polymorphism ratio (75%) was obtained from the primer 19. The 10 primers that were used and the locus of the individuals that we studied had a high level of polymorphism, which made it unnecessary to scan more diverse locus. Cushwa et al. (1996) identified the polymorphism ratio, with RAPD method, to be between 65% and 96% with a mean 85%, using 53 primers in total from 5 sheep breeds (Coopworth, Merino, Perendale, Romney and Texel) and from their crossbreds. In a study made with 17 RAPD primers on 5 Iranian sheep breeds (Arman, Balouchi, Iranblack, Kordi and Karakol), Tahmoorespur et al. (2003) reported that they obtained 10 polymorphic fragments from only three of these primers (Moh-4, Moh-13 and Moh-21) and that they found the variation within and between the markers used and the 5 Iranian sheep breeds to be rather low, and that more studies were required with more primers so as to determine, in more details, the relations within and between sheep breeds. In this study, enough polymorphic fragments (133 pcs.) to exhaustively evaluate individual genotypes of the RAPD primers that were used in Güney Karaman sheep breed. In other words, when compared with the Güney Karaman sheep breed (90.48%), the ratio of polymorphism was seen to be lower in their studies. Paiva et al. (2005) stated that polymorphism ratios in 5 Brasilian hairsheep breeds (Santa Đnes, Rabo Largo, Somali, Morada Nova and Bergamasca) were found as (%) 100, 98.15, 98.15, 94.44 and 90.74, respectively. When compared with these breeds in terms of polymorphism ratio, it displayed a rate relatively closer to Bargamasca hair sheep, but had a lower value than all the Brazilian hair sheep. As to primers, in the study made by Ahmed Ali (2003) with 19 RAPD primers in total for the identification of genetic similarity in Barki, Rahmani, Baladi and Suffolk sheep breeds raised in Egypt, though the primers no. 18 and 19 yielded no polymorphic fragments, it appeared that they could be effectively used for the identification of individual genotypes in this study. Similarly, Sharma et al. (2001) used the Opm10 and Opp15 primers, which were also used in this study, to determine the genetic variation between White Leghorn, Rhodes Island Red, Red Cornish, White Plymouth Rock and Kadaknath chicken strains. However, they reported that they couldn’t obtain any polymorphic fragments with Opp15 primers. In this study, it has appeared that both Opm10 and Opp15 primers could be effectively used for identifying individual genotypes. The heterozygosity values in polymorphic locus calculated according to Nei (1987) generally varied between 0.0615 and 0.5000, and the rate of heterozygosity on the basis of primers was changed to be between 0.2304 and 0.4121. In general, the average heterozygosity was calculated to be 0.3273 ± 0.1697. As defined by Stephen et al. (2001), in a study they made with 4 RAPD primers so as to identify the genetic 186 �relations between 5 Tanzanian sheep ecotype, reported that the highest average heterozygosity value was the Arusha ecotype (0.203) and that the lowest heterozygosity value was in the Dodoma ecotype (0.137). When compared with these sheep ecotypes in terms of the average heterozygosity value, Güney Karaman sheep (0.3273) can be said to have a higher value. For this reason, since the higher the heterozygosity value is in a population, the wider the genetic variety of the population will be, it is understood that Güney Karaman sheep have a higher genetic variation than 5 Tanzanian sheep ecotypes. Paiva et al. (2005) stated that heterozygosity values in Snata Ines, Rabo Largo, Somali, Morada Nova and Bergamasca hair sheep by using 19 RAPD primers were found as 0.3881, 0.3857, 0.4050, 0.3929 and 0.3229, respectively. When compared with Bergamasca hair-sheep in terms of heterozygosity, Güney Karaman sheep has a little higher heterozygosity value, but a lower value when compared with other breeds. As seen in Table 2, K9 and K10 sheep were the individuals genetically closest to each other (0.8844). The sheep, genetically the most distant from each other were K5 - K7 (0.5646), K5 - K9 (0.5646), and K5 - K15 (0.5646). In this respect, the sheep no K5 can be said to be genetically different from the rest. The genetic similarity between individuals is estimated to be 0.7009 on average; the genetic distance 0.2991 on average (Table 2). In the study made by Ahmed Ali (2003), genetic similarities between Barki, Rahmani, Baladi and Suffolk sheep breeds raised in Egypt were found to be between the values 0.8190 and 0.9570. When compared with Güney Karaman sheep breed, the genetic similarity in this study was determined to be higher between 4 Egypth sheep breeds In Table 2, the genetic similarity values of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds were given in terms of 10 RAPD markers. K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 K12 K13 K14 K15 K16 K1 0.6599 0.6803 0.7959 0.6599 0.7687 0.7687 0.6463 0.7551 0.7483 0.8299 0.7415 0.7211 0.8027 0.7007 0.7347 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 0.7347 0.6871 0.7415 0.6735 0.6054 0.6327 0.6327 0.6395 0.6395 0.6463 0.5986 0.6667 0.6054 0.6259 0.7483 0.5850 0.6531 0.6259 0.6259 0.7211 0.6871 0.7007 0.7075 0.5918 0.7415 0.6395 0.6190 0.6054 0.8503 0.7687 0.6463 0.8231 0.8299 0.7755 0.7687 0.6395 0.7347 0.7551 0.6939 0.6599 0.5646 0.6735 0.5646 0.5986 0.6939 0.5918 0.7075 0.6531 0.5646 0.6259 0.7687 0.6735 0.7687 0.8027 0.7619 0.7687 0.6803 0.7211 0.7415 0.6531 0.6599 0.7823 0.7347 0.7619 0.8095 0.6803 0.6531 0.7143 0.7211 0.6327 0.6395 0.6667 0.7007 0.8163 0.6395 0.6054 0.6939 0.8844 0.7483 0.7959 0.6122 0.7075 0.7415 0.6667 0.7415 0.7347 0.6190 0.7279 0.7347 0.6735 0.7619 0.7959 0.7687 0.6939 0.7823 K12 K13 K15 0.6803 0.6803 0.7143 0.7415 0.6531 0.6939 0.7075 0.7959 0.7143 0.7075 Table 2. The genetic similarity values of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds 187 K14 K16 - �Figure 1. The UPGMA dendogram of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds At the final stage of the study, the NTSYS-pc out of the RAPD fragments that could be scored and the genetic relation dendogram on which genotypic variation was displayed were formed through UPGMA method. As seen in Figure 1, 16 sheep were divided into two main groups, one with K2 and K5 individuals, and the other with all the other individuals. The individuals that made up the other group apart from K2 and K5 again were sub-grouped with K8, K13 and K16 out of them and with the remaining individuals. Again these sub-groups had their own sub-groups within themselves. From the dendogram, it can be seen that the individuals no K9 and K10 are genetically the closest genotypes. As seen in Table 2 and in Figure 1, the individuals no K2 and K5, particularly the individual no K5, can be said to be genetically different from other sheep. Figure 2. PCoA analysis of Güney Karaman sheep breed in terms of RAPD markers It can be seen in the PCoA, the three dimensional vectorial analysis, the individuals no K9 and K10, which are closest to each other in genetic makeup on the dendogram are genetically related. Genetically the most distant individuals were the individuals no K2 and K5. Again during PCoA analysis, K8, K13 and K16 individuals as well as the individual no K3 are seen, on the dendogram and in PCoA analysis, to form a different group, unlike the individuals that constituted the other group outside K2 and K5. Conclusion As a result, it can be said that these 16 individuals, which are representative of Güney Karaman sheep, has a heterogenous nature and that this genetic variation has the potential use for purposes of improvement. In this study, the genetic similarity/distance values identified between individuals and the genetic relation dendogram on which genotypic variation is shown and PCoA analysis have shown that genotypic variation on individual basis can be obtained through RAPD-PCR method. However, with a more comprehensive study that will include all Turkish domestic sheep breeds, determination of certain 188 �genetic parameters within and between all sheep breeds that make up the population would be more informative. Moreover, by making use of the available endemic gene resources, creating populations that have such characteristics as resistance to diseases and adverse weather conditions would be of great importance. Acknowledgments This research was supported by a master research project from the Coordinatory of Scientific Research Projects of Selcuk University, Turkey (Project No: 06101029). 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A master thesis. Antalya. Tahmoorespur, M., Nassiry, M.R. & Mohammady, A. (2003). The use of 17 RAPD primers in some of Iranian sheep breeds. Proceeding of British Society of Animal Science, 144. Tingey, S.V. & Tufo, J. P. (1993). Genetic Analysis with Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Markers. Plant Physiol. 1001: 349–352. Williams, J.G.K., Kubelik, A.R., Livak, K.J., Rafalski, J.A. & Tingey, S.V.(1990). DNA Polymorphisms Amlified by Arbitrary Primers are Useful as Genetic Markers. Nucleic Acids Research, 18: (22) 6531–6535. Williams, J.G., Hanafey, M.K., Rafalski, J.A. & Tingey, S.V. (1993). Genetic analysis using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. Method Enzymol. 218: 704–740. Yen, N. T., Huang, M. C. & Taı, C. (2001). Genetic Variations of Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA Polymorphisms in Taoyuan and Duroc Pigs. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 118: 111–118. 190 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 374 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Genetic Polymorphism within Güney Karaman Sheep-Breed via RAPD-PCR Method Author Author Aytekin, İbrahim Boztepe, Saim Abstract A summary of the resource. Analysis of individual genotypes aims to provide information for understanding within population genetic parameters such as genetic similarity, polymorphism and heterozygosity. The aims of this research were to determine the genetic parameters within Güney Karaman sheep involved in a protection programme of gene resources by using randomly oligonucleotide primers via Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method. Among the primers tested, 10 most suitable ones, in terms of repeatability and scorability, were used and 1451 DNA fragments were scored. All the RAPD fragments were determined to be between 600 - 3000 bp in size. From 147 fragments, 133 were polymorphic (90.48%) and 14 fragments were monomorphic (9.52%). Within population average genetic similarity (Fragment Sharing Frequency, Fxy) and genetic distance were calculated as 0.7001 and 0.2991, respectively. The average expected heterozygosity was estimated as 0.3273 ± 0.1697. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ca6917a24bb6fde01291a1e907a23af2.pdf f8d8f499f75a231793e07646d1ef62e0 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Legal and Financial Regulations to Create New Investment Opportunities in Macedonia Fehmi AĞCA Dr., International Balkan University, International Relations and Law, Scopje, Macedonia. fagca2001@yahoo.com Engin DEMĠREL Dr., International Balkan University, International Economic Relations, Scopje, Macedonia. edemirel@mail.com Abstract: As a small, open economy, Macedonia continues to take active steps to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). The country has enacted legislation that not only ensures an equal footing for foreign investor‘s vis-à-vis their domestic counterparts, but also provides numerous incentives to attract such investment. The legal system in Macedonia is undergoing substantial reforms. However, it is still slow, inefficient, lacking the adequate resources, and sometimes subject to political pressures and corruption. Enforcement of the law and upholding of contracts is inconsistent and not always impartial. This paper examines the legal changes in Macedonia and its effect on FDI from the historical perspectives and forecast on strategic management changes simplifying the administrative decisions on investment. New legal and administrative regulations on investment incentives for FDI and business regulations will provide a new momentum for the economic development of this EU candidate state. Keywords: FDI, financial and legal regulations, institutional capacity Introduction Strategic priorities and goals of the Government of the Republic of Macedonia are follows; increasing competitiveness on a constant basis, higher employment rate, fostering foreign and domestic investments, strengthening the Public-Private Partnership and empowering the administrative capacities. The maintenance of macroeconomic balance and stability of the national economy, based on sustainable economic growth, mainly by encouraging the domestic investments and attracting foreign investments, as well as the increased level of the public investments. (2009 - 2011 Public Investment Program) The Government of the Republic of Macedonia emphasizes the priority of creating conditions and prerequisites for successful implementation of Stabilization and Association Agreement with the European Union, the Agreement with the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). These agreements, together with the concluded contracts, i.e. free trade agreements with other countries in the region and in wider frames, are solid grounds for increasing the economic cooperation abroad, restructuring the economy and thus the total development. Understanding the role and function of law in the international business environment is a critical skill for the international manager. Only by understanding the range of issues and the elements and characteristics of the legal system, and by developing a clear knowledge of who will be the key decision-maker in the legal environment, the international manager can avoid the traps and being of unknowledgeable in a globalized economy. (Hunter and Shapiro, 2008) Official reports confirm that Macedonia has made important progress in the economic stability and its macro economic system. The inflation and budgetary deficit have reached comparative level with EU. However, the base for product growth has not been ensured. The budget is dependant from foreign investments; the private sector is weak and the foreign investments level is low.(Sela, 2008) During the last crisis, IMF and World Bank arrangements partially substituted the lack of broad based consensus for the transition reforms. Due to falling output and increasing unemployment and poverty, the authorities 42 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo were not able to create compensating mechanisms for the transition period losers. A major weakness exists because of the weak institutional framework and especially the lack of the firm rule of law. Despite considerable support of the reforms by the international financial institutions, the inflows of private capital and foreign direct investment were low, while export growth was stagnant. Due to the delayed transition and high social costs there is widespread public feeling of ―reform fatigue‖. (Petkovski, Bishev, 2004) According to evaluation of the legal system in Macedonia done by IMF in 2003, the country does not have an adequate legal system to effectively enforce contracts. Consequently, big part of the economic decline in Macedonia is due to improper and corrupt privatization and limiting liberalization reforms, which increase the amount of rent-seeking activities and create a vicious cycle of politically powerful elite.(IMF, 2003) Continuous institution building, reforms in the financial and real sectors and the continuation of sound macroeconomic policies are the only ways for bringing more dynamism into the Macedonian economy. In this regard, the entrance of the reputable foreign banks has increased the industry‘s efficiency and represented a solid background for promotion of other sectors‘ restructuring and for acceleration of the economic growth. The process of EU accession could give additional impetus for accelerating and finalizing the transformation into the modern market economy. The most important way for unemployment reduction is economic growth. In principal, lowering transactional costs and removing barriers to business are crucial for creation of favorable investment climate and attracting FDI and enhancing exports and investments, as the sources of growth of the gross domestic product and the employment, Strengthening the efficiency of public institutions and regulatory agencies. Market economy depends on functional and efficient institutions. In Macedonia market regulating institutions are new, understaffed, with moderate experience. The lack of tradition in the regulation by the state and the inexperience of the Macedonian institutions in this area is a potential serious handicap. The nature of the privatization process and the inefficient banking system limited the interest of foreign investors in Macedonian companies and the capital market. It is necessary to accelerate the reforms in the area of the market legitimizing institutions. In order to create new investment opportunities the following reforms are required;(Macedonia National Action Plan for employment 2004-2005, 2003)  Improvement of entrepreneurship at all levels, legal protection of private investment, improvement of business culture, banking sector development, finalize privatization,  Improvement of corporate governance, as a precondition for the development of the private sector and growth of the entire economy,  The comprehensive policy of Small and Medium Size Enterprises (SMEs) growth, as an instrument for employment creation.  Reforms at all levels of the educational system, as the investment in human capital is a precondition for poverty reduction,  Reform of public administration, to increase transparency and reduce corruption,  Reforms in the local self-government, to support the local economic development, through capacity enhancement of municipalities and by creating local development institutions. SMEs in Macedonia Almost all of the companies in Macedonia are registered as small enterprises, employing about 55% of the employees in the private sector. According to the main activity registered, the majority of businesses are in the wholesale and retail trade sector (47%), manufacturing sector (13.1%), and the transportation, storage, and communications sectors (approximately 10%). The largest employer is the manufacturing sector, with 35.6% of the total number of employees in the private sector. The Macedonian Government puts a high priority on the development of the SME sector, focusing on measures and activities to support the development and competitiveness of SMEs, and to improve the business environment in general.  The strategic framework for support of SME development is defined by the following documents: The Small Business Development Strategy, 43 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo     Program on Measures and Activities for the Promotion of Entrepreneurship and Creation of Competitiveness of the SMEs in the Republic of Macedonia, The European Charter for Small Enterprises, The Law on Realization of Handicraft Activities, The Law on the Agency for Promotion of Entrepreneurship of the Republic of Macedonia. In order to achieve a higher degree of coordination among the relevant factors, the National Council for Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship was established as an advisory body to the Government, linking the private and public sector to improve the climate for entrepreneurship development. The Agency for Promotion of Entrepreneurship of the Republic of Macedonia is the major player on the national level for the implementation and coordination of national and international support to the small businesses. The Agency works in cooperation with various foundations, development centers, centers for technology transfer, Euro Info centers, as well as private consultants. Legal aspects for Investment in Macedonia An increase of FDI inflows is crucial for the catching-up process and international competitiveness of Macedonia and consequently for the acceleration of the EU integration process. The positive effects on growth and welfare are being obtained from trade through the liberalization of markets for goods and capital. Positive effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) for the host country are transfer of technological know-how, implementation of advanced management structures and modernization of the manufacturing sector to raise the competitiveness of the economy, facilitating access to western markets and stimulating growth.(Zakharov, KušiĤ, 2003) The Government of the Republic of Macedonia has introduced the flat rate tax system in 2006. This policy provided economic stimulus for the private sector in Macedonia and has been welcomed by IMF and independent experts. (Stojkov, Nikolov, Smilevski, 2008). The main driving forces behind the tax reform were the desperate need to FDI inflows to solve the problem of high unemployment. In order to provide impetus for vigorous restructuring, the Government of Macedonia decided to design competitive tax system. Positive experiences from other countries (Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia, and Slovak Republic) gave strong justifications for the tax reforms in Macedonia. The greatest benefit from the flat rate tax system is the introduction of tax simplicity, replacing the complexity of tax calculations that taxpayers have to deal with. It seemed unavoidable to envisage lower tax rate as part of the new tax reform proposals, given the fierce tax competition in the region. Cutting the tax rates and broadening the tax base hinders the incentives for tax evasion. In return, the fiscal discipline of taxpayers increases as seen by the improved collection of taxes. As a consequence, Macedonian corporate income tax revenue had been realised 60% higher than the planned one in the first half of 2008. Despite some calls for radical reforms, the rate of value added tax (VAT) was not aligned with direct tax rate, because of the substantial risk that tax revenues will fall dramatically. Despite the risk of revenue loss, the collection of tax revenues has been surprisingly good. This leads to a conclusion that Government needs a more methodical data analyses on various taxes that would help in making forecasts on tax revenues. The survey results indicate that despite the initial success of the tax reform there is still more to be done in the tax legislation and the preparation of legislative changes. The main conclusions and policy recommendations are summarized as follows: (Stojkov, Nikolov, Smilevski, 2008) a. Profitability and liquidity of the companies should not count on further fiscal stimulations, given that statutory tax rate was decreased from 15% in 2006 to 10% in 2008. Undertaking further reduction of the statutory tax rate could send a different signal to foreign investors instead of improvement of the business climate itself. b. The latest data analyses of the tax declarations submitted to the Tax Administration (August 2008) emphasises the strong performance of Macedonian companies in terms of profitability. The flat tax policy measures have obviously been justified. Therefore, the flat tax system should continue to be aggressively advertised to potential foreign investors. d. Further simplifications should be envisaged in terms of reporting made by taxpayers to the Tax Administration. Besides, tax administration procedures should be as much as possible simple, precise and with less bureaucracy involved. 44 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo e. A few months after the introduction of the flat system, a new 1.5% tax for small businesses on total income up to 3 million Denars annually has been enacted. A significant percentage of respondents in survey results attached strong resistance for such conflicting tax policy measures. Elimination or decrease of this tax rate in order to ease the tax burden for micro businesses must be considered. f. The survey indicated mixed record for the reinvestment allowance incentive. This uncertainty shows reluctance for such incentive by the companies that are favoring the previous way of investment allowance. The simplification of such reinvestment incentive and reduction of the complexity is required in administering it. Another option is to replace it with more acceptable allowance for the companies, such as the accelerated depreciation for equipment. g. Tax legislation is subject to changes too frequently. It is necessary to consider a rewording of the texts of the tax laws and preparing comprehensive texts which could contribute to more precise provisions and avoid further small and partial changes in the laws. The tax rules in Macedonia should be reconciled to those internationally recognized rules. h. The Public revenue office must improve the audit performance and build a reputation of institution subject to less political influence and less corruptive elements. The politically independent approach would contribute to more efficient administering of the tax laws and greater capacity to deal with the new challenges of taxation, communication with other countries' tax authorities and harmonization with the EU Directives. Free Trade Zones and Technological–Industrial Development Zones (TIDZs) In Macedonia, the Law on Free Economic Zones was enacted in October 1999. Companies established in Free Trade Zones, which meet necessary qualification criteria, are entitled to receive the following benefits; (Ernst & Young, 1999)  VAT exemption for products sold within the Free Trade Zone, or for products which are imported for processing and subsequent re-export;  Profits tax exemption for 10 years;  Property tax exemption for 10 years;  General tax exemption on transfers of property and rights between founding parties and companies within the Free Trade Zone;  Exemption from paying contributions, taxes and other duties for the utilization of urban land, connection to the water supply, sewerage, heating, gas and power supply network;  Land may be leased for up to 50 years, with the possibility of an additional 25 year extension. Because the EU regulations do not permit the establishment of free trade zones, Macedonian Government decided to develeop Technological–Industrial Development Zones (TIDZs). These are centers in which highly productive manufacturing activities are concentrated and new technologies are developed. Macedonia offers additional incentives for development in the TIDZs, in addition to those normally associated with free economic zones. Investors in TIDZs are entitled to personal and corporate income tax exemption for the first 10 years. Investors are exempt from payment of value added tax and customs duties for goods, raw materials, equipment and machines. Land in a TIDZ in Macedonia is available under long-term lease for a period of up to 99 years. Other benefits include completed infrastructure that enables connection to natural gas, water, electricity and access to a main international road network. Investors are also exempt from paying a fee for preparation of the construction site. Fast procedures for business activity registration are provided in TIDZ that further reduce the costs of setting up. The Government pays special attention to production activities, activities from the information technologies area, scientific research activity and new technologies with high environmental standards, for which additional benefits are envisaged in the TIDZs. Investors in TIDZs who operate in these areas are exempt from the liability of a guarantee for any customs debts. Foreign Direct Investment In Macedonia, FDI is permitted in all sectors of the economy, without any restriction. No restrictions are imposed upon the type of business in which a foreign company can invest, and no limitation is imposed upon the 45 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo amount of capital of a company in Macedonia that can be owned by a foreign person. Foreign companies can freely participate in privatization. Foreign investors may receive same business opportunities as those available to local investors, including the right to operate in the TIDZs. In addition, foreign investors enjoy the same legal and regulatory protection as domestic ones. In order to conduct business in Macedonia, foreign company can own and acquire buildings, and has limited rights over immovable property. In addition to having equal treatment as domestic investors, foreign investors in Macedonia are entitled to certain incentives, especially with regard to the payment of tax and customs duties. Profits tax reduction is available for the first three years following registration to companies with more than 20% foreign investment in their share capital. The potential profits tax reduction is calculated as proportionally to the amount invested by the foreign company in the new company. Equipment imported as foreign investment in a domestic company is also exempt from customs duties. There are also tax incentives for research and development expenditures. Since 2006, Macedonia;  Introduced a single procedure for trade licenses.  Formed a Council for Adult Education .  Established skill Needs Analysis model for short-term labour forecasts in 2006  Preparation of new law on accreditation in accordance with EC Regulation No.765/2008 is underway.  By end 2008, nearly 84% of municipalities had completed their cadastral registers-in contrast to only 46% in 2005.  Implemented a simplified regime for SMEs and made further analyses for the tax burden.  Leasing industry is well-developed.(Nolan, 2009) Since property rights and their enforcement have a big impact on economic outcomes (Yeager, 1999, 33). Formal institutions have a big impact on economic outcomes. If property rights are not clear, and not easy to enforce, which is the case in Macedonia, this is a detrimental effect to growth. According to Yeager (1999, 33), the institutional framework of a nation ultimately determines the transaction costs, and therefore the degree to which an economy reaches its production and income potential. Tackling the unemployment requires dynamic economic growth, adequate social policy, and fair distribution of income and resources. Macedonia, during the transition period has great problems with corruption. Since corruption is a rent seeking activity, which is a result from poorly defined property rights and non-efficient legal system, Macedonia needs a better enforcement ability of the laws. Investment protection and liberalisation are key to successful government strategies to attract FDI. The private sector also has an important role to play to ensure good governance. In fact, the roles of the public and private sector were complementary and reinforcing. In the private sector, the accountability of managers, leadership, business ethics and long-term profitability can all mutually aid efforts by the public sector. Public sector efforts can focus on the legal and institutional framework for business and investors. An efficient and reliable judiciary, and the integrity of public administration, are two examples of how the public sector efforts can pave the way for efficient private sector activity. All these instruments are part of a broad and comprehensive approach involving all actors in the investment process. Implementation, monitoring, and peer pressure are key tools for the effective implementation of these instruments, which can also aid in managing successful governance strategies in both the public and private sectors, in oreder to increase the investment opportunities in Macedonia. As a result of a growing interest in Macedonia‘s investment potential, a number of international companies have started operations in the country, both as agricultural projects and through different types of asset acquisition and privatization. Foreign Direct Investments Year (in USD million) 2008 598.5 2007 699.1 2006 424.2 2005 97.0 2004 323.0 2003 117.8 2002 105.6 Table1: Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) Flow in Macedonia Source: National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia 46 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 1 shows the total FDI flows in Macedonia between 2002 and 2008. FDI flows have been affected by the global economic environment and financial crises that begins in 2008. In addition to that government dept crisis on Greece 2010 will reflect on this economies with the reason of cooperation‘s and mergers between companies. Table 2 shows that the stocks of FDI in Macedonia by the country investors indicate that Netherlands, Hungary and Greece are the main portion on privatization and investment flows. Country Netherlands Hungary Greece Austria Switzerland Slovenia UK Germany Luxembourg Serbia Other % of total FDI stock on Macedonia 16.9 16.6 15.2 9.4 6.6 6.5 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.6 16.0 Table2: Stock of FDI in Macedonia by country of investors, 1997-2007 Source: National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia Table 3 indicates that manufacturing, transport and communications sectors had the main portion among the others. These two sectors cover 57 % of the total FDI in Macedonia. Activity % of total FDI stock Manufacturing 35.6 Transport and Communications 21.3 Financial Intermediation 12.6 Trade and Repair 10.4 Electricity, Gas and Water 6.4 Real Estate and Business Activities 4.2 Construction 3.4 Hotels and Restaurants 2.1 Mining and Quarrying 2.0 Other 0.9 Table 3: Stock of FDI in Macedonia by activity, 1997-2007 Source: National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia If we analyze the recent years the impact of the crisis on the financial sector has been relatively modest to date, mainly because banks rely primarily on domestic deposits to fund lending and deposit withdrawals have been limited. Strengthened banking supervision and adequate regulation have helped to maintain the stability of the sector. Overall, banks remain well capitalized, including through continued support by overseas parent banks, and the capital adequacy ratio remained stable at 16.5 per cent after the first quarter of 2009. The public credit bureau increased its coverage and at the end of 2008 the first privately owned credit bureau was established. The global financial crisis started affecting the economy in the fourth quarter of 2008, led by a decline in the output of the metal and textile sectors. The situation deteriorated in the first half of 2009 as industrial production contracted by 11 per cent compared with a year earlier, while foreign trade dropped sharply and foreign direct investment (FDI) roughly halved. The growth of GDP was -1.4 per cent in the second quarter of 2009, and unemployment remains high at about one-third of the workforce. At the same time, external imbalances increased, forcing the central bank to increase the reference interest rate from 7 to 9 per cent in March 2009 and repeatedly intervene on the foreign exchange market. In response to the crisis, in November 2008 the authorities adopted an economic stimulus plan, which includes a number of fiscal measures such as rebates and write-offs of unpaid social security contributions, a further lowering of taxes on profits and agricultural incomes and a reduction of some import tariffs. As a result, fiscal policy has become more expansionary and after being in surplus during most of 2008. In March 2009 the government 47 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo presented a €8 billion investment program for the next seven years, focusing on large infrastructure projects in energy, transport, environment protection, education and culture. The economy is likely to fall into recession this year as a result of a sharp drop in industrial output and exports. A more expansionary policy stance, reflecting the government's anti-crisis measures and the need to modernize the country's infrastructure, will result in a shift from modest fiscal deficits or surpluses of earlier years to higher deficits in the near future. The combination of lower exports, falling capital inflows (including FDI) and an expansionary fiscal policy have increased external risks, especially given the drop in reserves and relatively modest reserve coverage. These pressures, with weaker remittances, could necessitate a sharp contraction in imports, triggering a deeper and more prolonged recession. Privatisation revenues (cumulative, in per cent of GDP) Private sector share in GDP (in per cent) GDP Investment/GDP (in per cent) Government balance FDI (USD m) Annual inflation (%) Unemployment (end year) 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 13.8 14.3 20.0 20.2 20.6 2009 na 65.0 65.0 70.0 70.0 4.1 4.1 4.0 5.9 4.9 21.4 20.7 21.9 24.2 na 0.4 0.3 -0.5 0.6 -1.0 323.0 97.0 424.2 699.1 598.5 -0.4 0.5 3.2 2.3 8.3 37.2 37.3 36.0 34.9 33.8 -1.6 na 2.8 na 65.0 65.0 na Table 5: Economic indicators between years 2004-2009 Source:EBRD On the other hand the recent rise in reserve coverage, as well as the government's commitment to fiscal discipline should help to mitigate these risks. Continued progress in the EU accession process is an important condition for the realization of Macedonia's medium-term growth potential. Conclusion In order to create new investment opportunities, Macedonian government have realized substantial institutional reforms and enhanced its legal capacity with the newly adopted regulations. With the implementation of new regulations to attract more FDI, Macedonia managed to get relatively a higher portion of foreign investment in comparison with the past. The last financial crisis adversely affected the investment environment in Macedonia like the other South Eastern European states. The only way to solve the chronic problem of unemployment is to continue to implement the reforms decisively. In this sense, the implementation of legal provisions by the competent administrative bodies of this country has the crucial importance. The financial and economic integrations of the county with the global markets would also contribute to meet the conditions of the EU accession goal. References Hunter Richard J., Shapiro Robert E., (2008) ―A Primer on Important Legal Aspects of the International Business Environment‖, Journal of Money, Investment and Banking, EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. http://www.eurojournals.com/finance.htm IMF, (2003), ―Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Financial System Stability Assessment, including Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes on the following topics: Banking Supervision, Payment Systems, Monetary and Financial Policy, Transparency, and Anti-Money Laundering and Combating of Financing of Terrorism‖, IMF Staff Country Report, 03/374, Washington, DC, 2003. Macedonia National Action Plan for employment 2004-2005, (2003), Skopje. Miljovski Jane and Uzunov Vanco, ―International and Regional Economic Integration in South East Europe, The Case of Macedonia‖.http://www.wiiw.ac.at/balkan/files/Miljovski+Uzunov.pdf (03.05.2010) 48 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Nolan Alistair, (2009), ―Evaluation of business climate policies in South East Europe Selected results of Investment Reform Index 2009 and SME Policy Index 2009‖. OECD South Eastern European Corporate Governance Round Table, Ohrid, May (2004), ―Corporate Governance in Macedonia‖, Skopje, Macedonia. Petkovski Mihail, Bishev Gligor, (2004), ―Understanding Reforms in Macedonia‖, Skopje. Public Investment Program of Macedonia 2009-2011, (2009), Skopje, Macedonia. Stojkov Aleksandar, Nikolov Marjan, Smilevski Borce, (2008) ―Flat Tax Policy Assessment in Macedonia‖, Center for Economic Analyses (CEA), Scopje. Ylber, Sela (2008), ―The dinamics of reforms developement in Macedonia and its approach towards European Union‖, First International Conference on Balkans Studies‖, Editors: Ömer Eroğlu, Güngör Turan, Cemal Baltacı, Nedret Demirci, Muharrem Gürkaynak, Ferdinand Gjana, Tirana, 07-08 November 2008. Yeager, Timothy J, (1999) ―Institutions, Transitions, Economies and Economic Development‖ Boulder, CO: Westview Pres. Zakharov Vladimir, Kusicc Sinisa, (2003), ―The Role of FDI in the EU Accession Process: The Case of the Western Balkans‖, Madrid. http://www.investinmacedonia.com/Default.aspx?item=menu&itemid=719&themeid=327 49 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 158 Title A name given to the resource Legal and Financial Regulations to Create New Investment Opportunities in Macedonia Author Author AĞCA, Fehmi DEMİREL, Engin Abstract A summary of the resource. As a small, open economy, Macedonia continues to take active steps to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). The country has enacted legislation that not only ensures an equal footing for foreign investor‘s vis-à-vis their domestic counterparts, but also provides numerous incentives to attract such investment. The legal system in Macedonia is undergoing substantial reforms. However, it is still slow, inefficient, lacking the adequate resources, and sometimes subject to political pressures and corruption. Enforcement of the law and upholding of contracts is inconsistent and not always impartial. This paper examines the legal changes in Macedonia and its effect on FDI from the historical perspectives and forecast on strategic management changes simplifying the administrative decisions on investment. New legal and administrative regulations on investment incentives for FDI and business regulations will provide a new momentum for the economic development of this EU candidate state. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/023b6d63ed10c4da4e1cee18f178689a.pdf 08f7bfb3eea33293d9b0872040e10acd PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of Regional Cooperation Tufan BAL and Metin ÇAKMAK Department of Agricultural Economics, The Faculty of Agriculture, Suleyman Demirel University 32260, ISPARTA Mesut ALBENĠ Department of Economics, The Faculty of Economics and Management, Suleyman Demirel University 32260, ISPARTA Ali BERK Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Strategy Development Board Department of Strategic Management ANKARA Abstract: The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, formerly known as the Barcelona Process, was re-launched in 2008 as the Union for the Mediterranean at the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean in July. The Partnership now includes all 27 member states of the European Union, along with 16 partners across the Southern Mediterranean and the Middle East. A Union for European with countries in the Mediterranean region seeks to promote accelerated economic growth. The aim of re-launching is to infuse a new vitality and to raise the political level of the strategic relationship between the EU and its southern neighbors. In this context, six priority projects are also identified in this meeting. Main focus of the Union for the Mediterranean is to deal with energy, security, counter-terrorism, immigration and trade. Creation of a Euro-Mediterranean free-trade area will also impact on the environment and agriculture in the region. This paper reviews the literature and statistically evaluates the future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of regional cooperation. Introduction The Mediterranean has experienced significant improvement in its economic situation since the start of the Barcelona Process. The main components are sustained growth, beginnings of structural differentiation in trade and more FDI. Moreover, MPCs have introduced many reforms, in particular with respect to social policies. This has paved the way for real progress in terms of education, health, life expectancy and quality of life. However, having spread across the world, the crisis represents an unprecedented challenge. In fact, since the end of the Cold War, the initiatives for the Mediterranean have been numerous but none has reached its objectives so far. It is worth assessing the value of the Mediterranean Union proposal and examining the reactions it provoked in key countries. We have selected several of them. On the European side, Southern European countries (other than France) and Germany seem particularly concerned. Of the nonmembers, we have decided, on the one hand, to concentrate on Tunisia and its North African neighbors, and on the other, on Israel. The various EC, and later on, EU initiatives, such as the Global Mediterranean Policy of 1972, the Renovated Mediterranean Policy of 1990, the EuroMediterranean Partnership within the framework of the Barcelona Process in 1995, and the New European Neighborhood Policy of 2003, have sought to make the Mediterranean region an area of peace, stability and prosperity. All these policies were supposed to promote the stabilization of the region through the virtues of free trade. More recently, Europe requested its Mediterranean partners to adhere to its system of values, particularly to democracy and the rule of law; in exchange for which Europe proposed to share the prosperity of its liberal economy. It also promised to those countries that most rapidly implemented the new Neighborhood policy that they could benefit, at least partly, from the ―four liberties‖. However, these diverse propositions have convinced neither the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries, which were reluctant to undertake rapid political and social change (except the singular case of Israel), nor the European countries that did not tend to boost direct investments 372 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and technological transfers. Furthermore, the on-going Israeli-Palestinian conflict has complicated attempts at cooperation, finally leading the process of partnership towards a political deadlock Finally, in the European Council of March 13-14, 2008 held in Brussels, the initiative (which the ―Appel de Rome‖ had apparently construed as a Franco-Spanish-Italian demarche) was brought to the attention of the other EU members as a common Franco-German endeavour, in view of the final decisions on content and shape that are to be taken in the Euro-Med summit that France will hold in Paris on July13-14, 2008. Although the EU members took good note of the Franco-German initiative, it has not been officially approved.5 The Presidency Conclusions of the Brussels Council are very general and refer to the issue in extremely broad terms in a very brief annex, inviting ―the Commission to present to the Council the necessary proposals for defining the modalities of what will be called ‗Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean‘ ‖.6 The Marseille ministerial conference of 2000 should still be seen as a turning point in the Barcelona Process. After four years of negotiations, the Partners admitted at this conference that they had been unable to establish a common ground. The Northern Partners had called upon the Southern countries, in particular the Arab Partners, to promote political reforms on the assumption that such reforms would strengthen long-term security in the area. This demand was, however, perceived by the Southern Partners as a threat to their domestic stability. Furthermore, the EMP, despite its declaratory policy in favour of a solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, was unable to do anything substantial to address a conflict that the Southern Partners regard as a major threat to their security. In the Arab view, the EMP was intended to meet the EU‘s security requirements, while neglecting their own. This is why the Arabs considered the EMP unsuited for security cooperation and requested an EMP essentially aimed at codevelopment within the context of a broad diplomatic dialogue. In Marseille, the Partners proved unable to reconcile these opposing views, but nonetheless decided to retain the EMP as a broad framework for diplomatic dialogue and cooperation and to continue to work together in this partnership. Since the turn of the century, the EMP has been affected by three strategic changes, namely: (a) the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, and the ensuing global war on terrorism launched by the US administration; (b) the enlargement of the EU into Eastern Europe in 2004; (c) the increase in immigration towards the EU from the Mediterranean shores and of migrants travelling across the Mediterranean from more distant areas. With the latest enlargement, the EU decided to pursue one single policy towards all its neighbours, whether in the east or the south – the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). This decision largely amputated the second pillar of the Barcelona Process and has focused the Commission‘s efforts on the ENP. Consequently, there have been a number of changes in the EMP profile: the relative weight of the political dialogue within the Partnership has become far more significant; the role of EU governments has become more important than that of the Commission, the regional dimension has substantially weakened to the advantage of bilateral relations; important economic goals, such as the free trade area, remain part of the EMP, but their implementation depends to a large extent on the ENP as well; the network of Association Agreements are de facto more functional to the ENP than the EMP. Despite the assumption that the EMP and the ENP will be complementary and mutually supportive, the EMP looks seriously diminished and somehow depleted. Today, the EMP is essentially an intergovernmental forum. Ironically, it focuses on the field – political and security dialogue – in which it proved least effective and cohesive. As a result, the early EMP agenda lost itself and something new is urgently needed. Members of the European Union 373 Other members Observer members �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, formerly known as the Barcelona Process, was re-launched in 2008 as the Union for the Mediterranean at the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean in July, with the new network of relations endorsed at the Marseille Meeting of the Euro-Mediterranean Ministers of Foreign Affairs in November. The Partnership now includes all 27 member states of the European Union, along with 16 partners across the Southern Mediterranean and the Middle East. This re-launching aimed to infuse a new vitality into the Partnership and to raise the political level of the strategic relationship between the EU and its southern neighbours. While maintaining the acquis of its predecessor, the Barcelona Process, the Union for the Mediterranean offers more balanced governance, increased visibility to its citizens and a commitment to tangible, regional and trans-national projects. Some of the most important innovations of the Union for the Mediterranean include the rotating copresidency with one EU president and one president representing the Mediterranean partners, and a Secretariat based in Barcelona that is responsible for identifying and promoting projects of regional, sub-regional and transnational value across different sectors. The Union for the Mediterranean has also identified six priority projects which are at the heart of the of Partnership‘s efforts, including projects for:  the de-pollution of the Mediterranean Sea;  the establishment of maritime and land highways;  civil protection initiatives to combat natural and man-made disasters;  a Mediterranean solar energy plan;  the inauguration of the Euro-Mediterranean University in Slovenia;  and the Mediterranean Business Development Initiative focusing on micro, small and medium-sized enterprises. (http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/euromed/index_en.htm) The EuroMed Partnership In November 1995, following a European Council decision, a Euro-Mediterranean Conference of Foreign Affairs Ministers was held in the Spanish city of Barcelona. It marked the launch of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, also known as the Barcelona Process for short, after the name of the city in which the decision was taken. It was the EU's first comprehensive policy for the region. The Barcelona Declaration agreed at this meeting laid down the foundations of a new regional relationship, aiming at achieving peace, stability and growth in the Mediterranean Partner Countries. It covers political, economic and social cooperation and represents a turning point in Euro-Mediterranean collaboration. Another key aspect of the process is to achieve a Free Trade Area by 2010. The Partner Countries participating in the Barcelona Process are now part of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) developed in 2004, following the enlargement of the EU, in order to avoid the emergence of new dividing lines in Europe. The ENP complements and reinforces the Barcelona Process on a bilateral basis, through Action Plans agreed with the Partner Countries that take into account their specific needs and characteristics. The policy is financed through the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), managed by EuropeAid that is charged with turning policies taken on a political level into actions on the ground. A new impetus was given to the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership in 2008 through the Union for the Mediterranean launched in Paris on July 13th. The Main Players The 27 EU Member States and 9 Mediterranean Partners (Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Syria and Tunisia) participate in the Euro-Med process. Libya maintains an observer status since 1999, while at a meeting in Lisbon in November 2007 the EuroMed Foreign Affairs Ministers welcomed Albania and Mauritania to the Partnership. The European Council held in December of the same year also welcomed these two countries, in its Conclusions. Cyprus, Malta and Turkey are three countries that were part of the Barcelona Process at its launch. However, Cyprus and Malta joined the EU in 2004, while in December 1999 at the Helsinki European Council, Turkey became a candidate country for EU accession and is now in accession talks. The Foreign Affairs Ministers oversee the development of the Partnership. They meet periodically to monitor the application of the Barcelona Declaration and define actions. More lately, and particularly in 2007 and 374 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 2008, there has been an increase in the number of meetings of ministers in other priority fields, including Employment and Labour, Trade, Culture, Information Society, Economy and Finance and Education. Trade Increased trade is another key resource. The EU is the main trading partner of the Mediterranean countries in both goods and in services. More than 50% of trade in the region is with the EU and for some countries the EU is the destination for 70% of exports. The EU is the largest direct foreign investor, the first source of tourists, and the biggest aid donor. The EU gives duty free access to all industrial goods originating in the Mediterranean countries while these countries are progressively dismantling their tariffs on imports of EU industrial goods. Euro-Mediterranean trade relations are healthy and growing, according to DG Trade figures. Total exports to the EU have grown by an average 10% a year since 2000, imports from the EU have increased by 4% since 2000 and total trade with the EU was €127bn in 2007 – some 5% of total EU external trade. One important objective of the Partnership is the creation of a Mediterranean Free Trade Area by 2010, with substantially liberalised trade both between the EU and the Mediterranean region, and between the Southern Mediterranean countries themselves. (http://www.enpi-info.eu/mainmed.php?id=340&id_type=2) References Barbé Esther, Mestres i Camps Laia, Soler i Lecha Eduard, ―La politica mediterránea de Espaða: entre el Proceso de Barcelona y la Politica Europea de Vecindad‖, Revista CIDOB d‘Afers Internacionals, No. 79-80. December 2007. Bauchard Denis, L‘Union Méditerranéenne : un défi européen, Politique étrangère, No.1, 2008, pp.51-64. Brauch Hans-Günther, ―From Confidence to Partnership-Building Measures in Europe and the Mediterranean: Conceptual and Political Efforts Revisited,‖ in: Hans-Günther Brauch, Antonio Marquina, Abdelwahab Biad (eds.), Euro-Mediterranean Partnership for the 21st Century, Houndmills: Macmillan 2000. Brussels European Council, Presidency conclusions. March 13-14 2008. Collinson Sarah, Security or Securitisation? Migration and the Pursuit of Freedom, Security and Justice in the Euro-Mediterranean Area, EuroMeSCo, No. 19, November 2007, www.euromesco.net Commission Non-Paper on the Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean, no date indicated. Conférence de presse conjointe de Mme Angela Merkel, Chancelier de la République Fédérale d‘Allemagne et de M. Nicolas Sarkozy, Président de la République, March 3, 2008, on the web site of the French Republic Presidency. Conférence de presse de M. Nicolas Sarkozy, Président de la République, lors du Conseil Européen de Bruxelles, Jeudi 13 mars 2008, on the French Repuclic Presidency web site. Conférence organisée par l‘IFRI, Paris le 11 mars 2008 : les interventions de Nouira Chékib, président de l‘Institut Arabe des Chefs d‘Entreprises, Tunis et Abouyoub Hassan, ambassadeur itinérant du Maroc. Daguzan Jean-François et autres, « Quelle Union Méditerranéenne ? » Géoéconomie, n°42, été 2007, Choiseul, Paris. Déclaration finale du sommet européen, Bruxelles 13 et 14 mars 2008. Deutschlandradio Kultur, „Brok lehnt Sarkozy Vorstoss zur Türkei ab―, 8 June 2007. El Pais, La nueva paradoja francesa, Que pretende Sarkozy con su Union Mediterranea?, July 15 2007. Emerson, Michael, Making Sense of Sarkozy‘s Union for the Mediterranean, CEPS Policy Brief, No.155, March 7 2008. Emerson Michael, et Tocci Nathalie, ―A little clarification, please, on the Union of the Mediterranean‖, CEPS, 8 June 2007. Escribano Gonzalo, y Lorca Alejandro, La Uniñn Mediterránea: una uniñn en busca de proyecto, Real Istituto Elcano, Working Paper No. 13, Madrid, March 3, 2008, www.realinstitutoelcano.org Eurostat/European Commission, Euro-Mediterranean Statistics, Luxemburg: Office for the Publications of the EC, 2006. 375 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Florensa Senén, ―Limites del proyecto de Uniñn Mediterránea:hacia una nueva fase del Proceso de Barcelona‖, Afkar/Ideas, IEMed, Fall, 2007. 376 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Role of Regional Development Agencies in Turkey on Sustainable Development: Ġzmir Development Agency (IZKA) Case Ergüder CAN Dr., Ġzmir Development Agency, Secretary General erguder.can@izka.org.tr Filiz MOROVA ĠNELER Ġzmir Development Agency Planning, Programming and Coordination Unit, Expert filiz.morova@izka.org.tr Abstract: Regional Development Agencies in Turkey have been established in accordance with the Law on the Establishment, Coordination, and Duties of Development Agencies enacted on 25.01.2006. Objectives of the Agencies can be listed as; improvement of the cooperation among public, private sector and NGO‘S, ensuring effective usage of resources, stimulating the local potential, fostering the regional development and ensuring its sustainability, and decreasing the inter-regional development disparities. While preparing Regional Development Plan of Region, managing financial and technical support for projects, promoting Region‘s business and investment opportunities, the agencies have an active role in the sustainable development of the region. In their objectives, vision, mission and all of its actions, the Agencies works are based on the eco-planning principles. The purpose of this paper is to focus on the experience of ĠZKA, which has been established in accordance with the Cabinet Decision (No. 2006/10550 and dated 6 June 2006)based on the Law on the Establishment, Coordination and Tasks of the Development Agencies. The vision of the Agency is ―A forerunner and effective agency in sustainable local development, with international reputation.‖, and the mission of the Agency is ―To develop and implement participative tools which will activate local potential via an overall approach for Ġzmir‘s sustainable development.‖ This paper will cover the case of activities of the Ġzmir Development Agency in the scope of Ġzmir Regional Development Plan which has the ―sustainable development‖ as major principle. Renewable energy, resource conservation, cleaner production and eco-efficiency are some of the objectives for Ġzmir Region‘s strategic priorities. As well as the related objectives of the regional plan, the estimated project based impacts will be mentioned as a result of the SME Grant Scheme Program which has the priority ―Providing the increase of usage the environmental friendly techniques and technologies and also in ecoefficiency practices in SMEs‖. The paper will cover best practices about the energy-efficiency and cleaner-production applications, which are implemented by means of the grant scheme program of Ġzmir Development Agency. Introduction Regional development disparities have been one of the major problems in many countries. Many policies and tools have been developed and implemented in regions to decrease these development disparities and to achieve regional development. Various economic, institutional, social and cultural tools including the principles of sustainable development were used to develop regions. Unlike the policy in the 1950s and 1960s which is to decrease the regional disparities through government initiatives, today regional development objectives are based on to gain the global competitiveness and development of all regions. As well as the regional disparities, sustainability of development is another important issue which regional development agencies have taken into consideration. The reason is that sustainable development is increasingly accepted as a fundamental objective for public policy and decision-making in different types of economy and at different levels of intervention such as aggregate, sectoral and project. To achieve elimination of the regional development disparities until the EU candidacy process, there are three major tools directed at the economic development process aimed at eliminating regional disparities in Turkey: (i) policies and incentives towards the public sector, (ii) incentives to enhance the private sector (iii) regional and 377 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo rural development projects. Implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Regional Development Project (GAP), the Zonguldak-Bartın-Karabük Regional Development Project (ZBK), the Eastern Black Sea Regional Development Plan (DOKAP) and the Eastern Anatolia Project Master Plan (DAP), which were prepared during the past periods, and the activities for the YeĢilırmak Basin Development Project (YHGP) are continuing. However, excluding the South East Anatolia Project (GAP), these projects were provided with limited financing opportunities only within the scope of sectoral allocations. In addition, a law, ‗The Law on the Establishment, Coordination and Duties of Development Agencies‘, passed on January 25, 2006 to facilitate and regulate the establishment of Development Agencies (DAs) in NUTS II regions. Along with the establishment of two new RDAs in Adana-Mersin and Ġzmir NUTS II regions on July 6, 2006 (The Official Gazette, 6/7/2006), the new ones have followed in other regions of the country to decrease the disparities and to assure development. As well as being a tool for regional development, the agencies have an important effect on sustainability of development. As forceful institutions for regional development, RDAs can place the principle of sustainable development at the hearth of their regional plans. In this way the operational programs based on the regional plan are implemented by the regional authorities to achieve a sustainable development for the region. To be successful on managing to provide sustainable development, an integrated approach is the main principle. Therefore regional development agencies are good tools for this, because of their cooperation and coordination role in region. The aim of this paper is to analyze the benefits and contribution of the newly established agencies in Turkey, to regional development. The paper first discusses the regional development agencies as institutional tools for regional sustainable development. Subsequently it explicates Ġzmir Development Agency and evaluates the potential contribution to sustainable development of region. Development Agencies in Turkey Until 2006, in Turkey, there are not any functional DAs. There is a need for the management of regional development polices at the local level for many years. The intention for the DAs has been come up in the National Development and various Regional Development Plans previously. Especially after the 1990s and 2000s State Planning Organization, National Development Bank along with the Chambers of Commerce and Industry has some central and local initiatives to establish DAs in Turkey. The main factor, however, that fastens the process for the establishment of DAs is that Turkey had gone through institutional and legal regulations to achieve harmonization with EUs regional policy. During EU accession process it has been envisaged that DAs tool has been necessary like Central and Eastern European Countries. In accordance with the law (number 5449) DAs are planned to establish in NUTS 2 regions. In this respect DAs would be strategic and operational institutions for regional development. According to the formulization of the law, DAs would be supported by central government. ‗The Law on the Establishment, Coordination and Duties of Development Agencies‖ aims to institute cooperation between the public and private sectors and civil society organizations in order to mobilize local resources and to institutionalize a regional development mentality. For achieving this aim, some general activities have been determined for DAs. Parallel to these activities, DAs provide technical support to the planning studies of local authorities; improve cooperation in between public sector, private sector and non-governmental organizations. As well as the technical supports and coordination activities, to achieve regional development objectives, DAs support the activities and projects ensuring the implementation of regional plan and programmes. Furthermore working for contribution into the improvement of the capacity of the region concerning the rural and local development in accordance with the regional plans and programmes and support the projects within this extent is the another activity field for DAs. Before doing these activities, carrying out researches, or to have them carried out, concerning the determination of resources and opportunities of the region, acceleration of economic and social development and enhancement of competitiveness, and to support other researches carried out by other persons, organizations and institutions are the initial steps for being able to prepare applicable development plans and programs for development of region. According to the defined strategic plans and programs; to promote, or have them promoted, business and investment facilities of the region at national and international level, in close cooperation with other related institutions are one of the other activities of the DAs. Among other activities to support small and medium-size enterprises and new entrepreneurs in the fields such as management, production, promotion, marketing, technology, financing, organization and labor force training, by ensuring cooperation with other related institutions. By covering all these activities, the statutory objectives can be emphasized in five main topics. One of these is to further economic development and regeneration. Promoting regional business efficiency and competitiveness and employment is the other main objective for DAs. To enhance the development and application of skills relevant 378 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to employment is the other objective of DAs where the last main objective is to contribute to sustainable development (Çuhadar, T., M., 2009) The most powerful tool of DAs for the development of regions will be a grant scheme managed by them. The fund for these grant schemes and the budget of the DAs are based on both central and local funds. The budget composition of DAs is as follows:       Appropriation to be determined by High Planning Council according to the population, development level and performance measures of each Agency from the residual fund after the shares transferred to local administrations and funds by tax refunds are deducted from the general budget and tax revenue of the previous year, and from the transfer allowance to be allocated five per thousand each year, European Union and other international funds, Activity revenues, Over the budget revenues of the previous year, appropriation to be transferred from the current year budget at the rate of 1 percent for special provincial administrations excluding getting into debt, allocated revenues and aid items received from the organizations having general, additional and private budgets; for municipalities; appropriation to be transferred from current year budget at the rate of 1 percent excluding getting into debt and allocated revenue items. Appropriation transferred from the current year budget at the rate of 1 percent of previous year final budget revenues of the chambers of industry and commerce in the region. Aids and grants provided by national and international institutions and organizations. Besides the information of budget composition of DAs, it‘s necessary to mention four main components in organizational structure. The first one is the Development Board. The law tries to improve partnership between the public and private sectors and the civil society through the Development Board, which has an advisory role. It is composed of representatives from the public and private sectors, civil society organizations, universities and local administrations. The composition of the Development Board changes depending on the institutional and organizational structure and the capacity of regions. The second main structure is the Executive Board. Chairman of the Executive Board is one of the governors of the provinces in the region for those NUTS 2 regions that consists of more than one province. Annually the position shifts to one of the other provinces‘ governor. In NUTS 2 metropolitan regions, Istanbul, Ankara and Ġzmir, the decision-making organ or the Executive Council of the DA is composed of the governor, the metropolitan mayor, the president of the Council of the Special Provincial Administration, the president of the Chamber of Industry and the president of the Chamber of Commerce, as well as three representatives of the private sector and/or civil society elected by the Development Board. Secretariat General is responsible for the execution of activities. Secretary General is the superior Chief of Secretariat General and investment support offices. Secretary General is responsible to the Executive Board. Investment Support Office that is a part of the Secretariat is mainly designed to be a One Stop Shop for investors. For each province a Support Office will be established. The working principles of the DAs are defined in regulations whereas the organizational structure is flexible and can change from one agency to another. State Planning Organization is defined as the coordinator organization of DAs at central level. It has the responsibility for defining the regional policy at the central level and coordination evaluation and monitoring of DAs activities as well as the allocation of grants to DAs. The establishment process of ĠZKA as the forerunner agency began in July 2006 and ended in December 2006, recruitment of its personnel. The reason of selecting Ġzmir is the previous initiatives for the establishment of DAs in those regions. Development Agencies and Sustainable Development As mentioned before, the DAs in Turkey has an active role in regional development, thanks to their budget and strong administrative competence. Being effective in regional development incurs some liabilities; that is DAs should correspond to national and international development strategies. Recent years have seen a growth in interest in integrating environmental, social and economic policy through policies for sustainable development (Bond, R., Kirkpatrick, C., Lee, N., Curran, J., Francis, P., 2000) The concept of sustainable development has been incorporated into policy statements at a variety of spatial scales with a view towards ensuring compatibility between economic development and the environment (Gibbs, D., 379 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 1998). From a regional perspective there have been moves to make sustainability a central theme of regional development policy. At the international and national level the policies inspired by United Nation‘s agenda 21, European Union‘s Renewed Sustainable Development Strategy (2006) and National Climate Change Strategy (20102020) and National Development Plan (2007-2013) influence also regional strategies. When we look at the main functions of DAs one of the most important function is to make regional development plans and strategies for their regions. After conducting the socio-economic need analysis for the region, DAs coordinate and operate the preparation of the regional development plan considering the needs of region and national strategies. To be compatible with the strategies, to be able to protect the cultural and natural sources and rationalize the use of the resources in regions, the principles of sustainable development are adopted to the regional plans. Also according to Gibbs (1999) this approach helps the regions to provide theirs economy to attain a competitive edge and a stronger market position in long term. Overall it also accords with Pepper‘s opinion (1999) which claims that ―the impression is that environmental protection is relevant to development because high quality natural environments are a prerequisite to attract inward investment, high value employment and tourist activity‖. Ġzmir Development Agency The historical, cultural, geographical, social and economic advantages of Ġzmir all together constitute a perfect environment for investors. The city is a welcoming region in all aspects, considering its physical, social and economic advantages. As of 2008, Ġzmir is the 3rd largest city in Turkey with its population of 3,795,978 following Ġstanbul and Ankara. It reflects higher levels of population density and urban population compared to national average but at the same time, the city is also a region of vast and fertile green fields, river basins and mountains, coastal lands which provide a wide range of social, cultural and economic dynamism for the city. According to several studies held by public and private institutions such as State Planning Organization or International Competitiveness Research Institute, Ġzmir is the 3rd most developed and competitive city in Turkey. The developed and competitive nature rises not only from the city‘s physical and historical advantages but also from its highly skilled human capital. Among these properties of the region, the initiatives and the capacity for institutionalization, partnership and cooperation affected the decision of selecting Ġzmir as the pilot region for DA development at the central level. ĠZKA officially started its actions in July 2006. The coordination activities were held by State Planning Organization. Firstly Executive Board was called to meet to start the activities. The Executive Board Members are Governor of Ġzmir, Ġzmir Metropolitan Municipality Mayor, The President of the Special Provincial Administration Board, The Executive Board Presidents of Ġzmir Chamber of Commerce and Aegean Region Chamber of Industry. The organizations represented in the Development Board were chosen by the Executive Board Members of ĠZKA. Out of 100 total members, from Public Organizations composition of the Development Board is 30 members and 70 members from NGO‘s, private sector and Universities. The three other Board Members were selected among the Development Board Members by voting procedure. Aegean Region Development Foundation Executive Board President, Aegean Young Businessman Association Executive Board President and Chambers of Craftsmen and Tradesmen Association Executive Board President were the elected members. The Secretary General was chosen in September 2006 and all recruitment process was completed in December 2006. The corporate identity of ĠZKA was prepared. The organization structure of ĠZKA was determined after three months. A functional organizational structure was accepted which matches better with grant scheme mechanism. The departments are (Figure 1):      Planning, Programming and Coordination, Program Implementation Monitoring and Evaluation Investment Support Office Administrative Office 380 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Investment Support Office Administration Office Figure 1: The Organizational Structure of ĠZKA There are 28 experts in different areas and seven support staff was recruited. The 3.5 year-old-IZKA has defined the following as its core values and operational codes in all of its activities:       Participation Innovation Impartiality Transparency Reliability Efficiency The vision of ĠZKA is ―A forerunner and effective Agency in sustainable local development with an international reputation‖ where the mission is ―to develop and implement participative tools which will mobilize local potentials within an overall approach for İzmir’s sustainable development”. Ġzmir Development Agency and Regional Sustainable Development By analyzing the vision and mission, it can be easily seen that sustainable development will be a key element underpinning all activity of ĠZKA. As well as ĠZKA, which is coordinator and catalyst regional organization all partners in region has a responsibility to ensure that economic, social and environmental development go hand in hand. ĠZKA has an approach that economic wellbeing is concerned with growth, but not at any cost. In consequence ĠZKA has the duty of providing sustainable development of the region by means of the regional development plan, which defines the framework for the regional operations of other institutions. Therefore after completing the works about institutionalization, so far ĠZKA has immediately conducted the Ġzmir Socio-Economic Needs Analysis and completed the draft of 2009-2013 Ġzmir Regional Development Plan. The preparatory works of Plan were started as of the beginning of 2008 based on the participation principle. Thus, in the first place, the stakeholder analysis was made in order for the stakeholders to be defined who would take part in the preparatory works of the regional plan and following this analysis, nearly 500 stakeholders including the corporations represented by the members of the Development Board were determined. Afterwards, both by SWOT analysis and by organizing various workshops and working groups based on participation as to determine sectoral and thematic development axes, priorities and targets, the regional plan was tried to have the maximum participation. Besides, the Current Situation Analysis, which presents the current situation of Izmir concerning development, was maintained. All the activities in question are the preparatory works forming the bases of the plan. 381 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo While preparing the plan there were decided to the principles of the plan. 2009 – 2013 Izmir Regional Development Plan has three basic principles, one of which is the sustainable development. At that point it is necessary to mention the all principles of plan to understand the nature of it. Equality and Social Inclusion is one of the principles. Here social inclusion refers to the access of the individuals to the education, health, culture, employment etc. areas of the social sphere and it also stands for their condition of being active in these areas. The exercises aimed at social inclusion include policies that will eliminate the discrimination triggered by disadvantages (disability, poverty, etc.), especially the abovementioned ones, in the social sphere and the social exclusion. The Plan adopts the social inclusion as a general principle in all processes within the scope of the anticipated priorities and targets. Participation is the other principle of the plan. Participation, which refers to the condition of changing the resolution processes by the ways of dialogue, representation and authorization, is one of the basic principles of the Plan. And as it‘s mentioned before Sustainable Development is the other important principle of the Plan. And it is explained in plan document in such a way that it‘s a process in which all the economic, financial, commercial and industrial policies are harmonized in order to make growth sustainable in terms of (i) economic, (ii) social and (iii) environmental perspectives. In this context, when forming the priorities and targets in the plan, the sustainable development principles are important. Via the prepatory Works of the Plan, the vision of 2009 – 2013 Izmir Regional Development Plan has been decided as, ―Developing and Growing, Innovative Ġzmir‖. 2009 – 2013 Izmir Regional Development Plan has accepted the following 3 as the main objectives and these objectives is strengthening the vision    Ensuring Competitiveness by Increase of Efficiency & Capacity Raising the Standard of Living Realizing Protection and Effective Use of Natural & Cultural Entities As it can be easily seen, development includes protection of nature and cultural entities where there is a will to accelerate it by increasing efficiency. After mentioning the vision, and main objectives of the plan, now it‘s the time to declare the strategic development axes. These are; Competitiveness for Enterprises; which aims the competitiveness and growth of businesses; providing efficiency, quality and innovation in production, thus increase in national and international market share. One of the strategic priorities of these axes is Increasing Clean Production Applications in SMEs. The second axes is Employment and Social Integration, which aims strengthening social integration by expanding employment opportunities and improving employment conditions, and also by developing services aimed towards social inclusion with education and health services at the lead. The third ax is named as Sustainable Environment, which aims to provide the preservation of environment and improvement of environmental quality while continuing economical activities. And the last axes is Strengthened Infrastructure and Superstructure and has the purpose of accelerating the economical and social development of Ġzmir by improving the transportation, urban, environmental, social, cultural and informational infrastructures. Among these axes and their strategic priorities it is necessary to focus the items, which are related to the principles of sustainable development. Ġzmir‘s population increase rate is observed to be at high levels. As a matter of fact, while in the last 82 years Turkey‘s population increased 5 times, Ġzmir‘s population increased 7 times. On the other hand, the wide range of varieties in economical activities clearly strikes the eye. As result of all these, rapid exhaustion of natural resources and the pollution created by the wastes caused by production and consumption bring important environmental problems and thus render the subject of environmental sustainability critical. In the environment axis of the National Sustainable Development Report presented at the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development, the subjects of ―elimination of deficits on infrastructure and waste disposal facilities; development of clean production technologies, environment-friendly production and consumption forms which do not harm resources, environment management and quality safety systems; and realizing national energy saving and demand stability‖ have been emphasized. Within the period passed, the importance of environment is highlighted with the principle stated as ―It is essential to preserve natural and cultural assets and environment with an approach taking 382 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo later generations into consideration‖ within the 9th National Development Plan, a growth based on sustainable development principles is emphasized with the era of 9th Development Plan. Furthermore, the reduction of emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases has become an obligation according to Kyoto Protocol, and within the 9th Development Plan certain aims have been defined stating necessary actions shall be taken regarding reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It is essential that the year 2014 limit values defined within the framework of the Regulation of Air Quality Assessment and Management are realized, and precautions required by the EU Integrated Environment Approximation Strategy and Kyoto Protocol are taken within the region. As concentrated upon by the national approach, in the Region also the issues of; management of natural resources such as water basins and sensitive ecosystems, climate change and energy, the necessity of handling the relationship between productionconsumption and environment in the axis of approximation and reduction, and sustainable waste management are highlighted (ĠZKA, 2009). As well as these issues, also the cleaner production was defined as a main tool of the plan to achieve sustainable development. The reason is that the pollution caused by dense industrial activities and production processes is one of the important environmental threats in Ġzmir. The water amount recycled and utilized back in industry should be increased. As well as the water amount, because of being an industrialized region, industrial electric consumption per capita is 133% above Turkey value in Ġzmir. Utilization of techniques and technologies that will provide with reduction of energy usage in industry and energy saving policies will contribute to reduction of industrial energy consumption in Region. Moreover, while the ratio of hazardous industrial waste to total industrial waste is 6.8% throughout Turkey, this ratio is 10.2% in Ġzmir. In this subject, it is aimed to decrease the use of hazardous chemicals by substitution. Moreover utilization ratio of environmental management systems that reside within clean production approach and aim to minimize industrial development‘s adverse effects on environment is significantly low in the region. Actualizing clean production applications in enterprises will be beneficial both environmentally and economically by increasing the efficiency in production process. Considering also the effects of environmental management on product designs, selection of products providing input for processes, wide frame, integrating management processes that encompass the utilization of techniques and/or technologies in production processes, and global trends; it will contribute to increasing the competitiveness of enterprises. On the other hand, there are various directives in this subject regarding preventing industrial pollution and chemical substance usage within European Union‘s (EU) legislation. Although there are directives already adjusted and adopted, within the harmonization process there will be various other regulations that shall necessitate the industrial enterprises to make some preparations. It is important that enterprises make necessary enterprises regarding clean production applications within this preparation period. It is essential that clean production and eco-efficiency applications towards industrial and agricultural activities, with textile, leather, food processing and chemistry sectors coming foremost, are embraced in region. As well as the sustainable environment axis, there are some key sectors defined by the stakeholders in the region. these are;  High-Tech Industries  Tourism  Renewable energy  Logistics  Agro-Industry Here, among these sectors, high-tech industries include the environmental technologies and energy, where renewable energy is supporting the sustainable development of the region. Energy is one of the significant inputs of development. In our country that is at the brink of development; meeting the energy demand increasing in parallel to the developments in technology, the requirement of providing environmental, social and economical sustainability, the obligation of reducing CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions due to Kyoto Protocol increases the need towards renewable energy resources. Renewable energy policies has gained importance on international platform; the European Union has set the goals of meeting 20% of the energy demand from renewable energy resources and increasing energy efficiency by also 20% until 2020, and utilizing renewable energy in all buildings until 2018. Due to EU policies being effective on our country due to harmonization process and more importantly for the global purpose of increasing energy demand security, the goal of ―maximally increasing the share of local and renewable energy resources within the production system‖ has en set under the title of ―energy infrastructure‖ within the context of 9th Development Plan. In the context of this goal, utilization of the renewable energy potential in Ġzmir carries importance at national-scale. In terms of variety of energy resources, Ġzmir employs many opportunities and natural resources waiting to be utilized. The region has a renewable, environment-friendly energy resource potential such as solar energy and bioenergy, and especially wind energy and 383 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo geothermal energy. Considering wind energy potential, Ġzmir comes at the 3 rd place nationwide. 36% of the installed power throughout Turkey including those activated at year 2008 resides at Ġzmir. However this power has been obtained by utilizing only 1% of the theoretical potential. Ġzmir province is considerably rich in wind energy with the theoretical capacity of 11,815 MW; the total amount of energy that can be generated via this potential is higher than the total electricity generation of Aegean Region. On the other hand, the region has a rich potential also in terms of geothermal energy. The variety in the temperatures of geothermal resources found at the region enables a wide range of utilization areas. The potentials in Seferihisar (35 MWe), Dikili (30MWe), and Balçova (5MWe), has such temperatures that enable electricity generation. Also, while regarding domestic heating there is a potential residence equivalent of 212,000, only 11% of this potential is being utilized. On the other hand, only 3% of the 19,000 decare greenhouse heating potential is used. Furthermore, although the potential for health tourism exists in 8 districts that are geothermal fields, current utilization is mostly limited to Balçova, Çesme and Dikili districts. In this region of considerable advantages regarding biomass energies, solar energy also outstands as an energy source to be used. It is observed that the energy consumption in Ġzmir is approximately 54% above Turkey average value, and the consumption has increased by 15% in the last two years. Renewable energy sector is important for the region for the purposes of contributing to the increase in the country energy supply security, utilizing local potentials, and aiding the development of Ġzmir in the direction of sustainable development principles (ĠZKA, 2009). Experience Cases on Regional Sustainable Development In previous part of the paper, the relation between ĠZKA, Regional Plan and principles of Sustainable Development has been explained. Now, in this part of the paper, some activities of ĠZKA related to this relation will be mentioned. In brief, as a new development agency, in 2009, ĠZKA has realized three investment projects, which amount to approximately 40 million US dollars, creating 750 new job opportunities. ĠZKA also have some grant scheme programs. In 2008, Agency ran two different programs, one of which was for SMEs, and the other one for social development. In the SMEs program, ĠZKA has awarded 98 projects with a total of approximately 8.5 million Euros, where in the social development program, 71 projects were awarded a total of nearly 6 million Euros. At the moment, ĠZKA is working on 3 strategies for Ġzmir, which are; • City marketing • Clustering and • Innovation Moreover, ĠZKA will launch 2 different grant scheme programs. One will be on agriculture and rural development. The other one will be on tourism and environment infrastructure. Among these basis activities, it is essential to mention the SME‘s grant scheme program. The program mainly had the purpose to improve the competitiveness of the SMEs by increasing the efficiency and the capacity. Related to the sustainable development principles of the plan, this program had the priority which was to provide the increase of the use of the environmental friendly technologies and renewable energy and application of cleaner production. The objectives of this priority are;  Optimizing the processes by reducing the use of raw materials, energy and water to increase the environmental performance of the SMEs  Providing the energy efficiency in SMEs  Providing the production and consumption of renewable energy In this part some cases related to the projects which have applied to the program, will be mentioned. First one is the Project which aims the recycling the wastes of olive oil process. As a result of this Project 10 ton/year waste olive oil can be recycled. On the other hand, one olive oil firm has completed the procedures related to the Environmental Management System (ISO 14001). The other one is to build a wastewater treatment plant which provides reuse of wastewater in marble production. Thanks to this Project 60% of water saving can be achieved. Providing the reuse of polyvinyl chloride sheet particles in plastic industry is another Project sample. A success example is a Project in metal industry. In this Project environmental friendly chrome free chemicals are substituted with hexavalent chromium. Another Project in metal industry is recovery of metal filings. Decomposition of the packaging waste in its source is another Project which provides sustainable waste management in industry. The implementation of these projects lasts and after finishing the program the environmental impacts of the program can be analyzed, but in this step it can be shown two examples related to the energy efficiency projects. One of these is a Project implemented in food industry. There is an activity, which provides the increase in production efficiency by means of automation in production line. Investment cost for this Project is 32,500 Euro, where an automation system is implemented. There isn‘t any operation cost for the activity of the Project. Annual 384 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo energy saving costs 3,500 Euro where the payback period is 11 years. The other Project is implemented in machine industry. In the Project, production efficiency is increased via the use of environmental friendly technology instead of conventional machine. For this Project the investment cost is 200,000 Euro, and there isn‘t any operation cost. The cost of annual energy saving is 20,000 Euro in this Project, where the payback period is 9 years. As can be seen, IZKA has importance on providing the sustainable development and region vision. But of course not only the activities and budget of ĠZKA, but also other institutions‘ activities based on the regional plan can provide an integrated sustainable regional development in the region. Conclusion In this paper we have argued the possible effects of regional development agencies on sustainable development of the region. While discussing, the case was Ġzmir Development Agency with its planning and programming experiences including the principles of sustainable development. The experiences tell that sustainability is a renewed interest in developing, which is supported by means of international and national strategies. Where regional planning is a new concept in Turkish National Policy, the integration of sustainable development to this new regional planning policy requires new planning techniques from different disciplines (Counsell, D., Haughton, G., 2006). The paper summarizes that the principles of sustainable development has now been assimilated in to the core of ĠZKAs regional planning processes and practices. But while doing that, it is clear that a need to a regional sustainable development policy and frameworks appears. This framework should integrate the development axes included in the regional plan, which also contains the sectoral objectives. In future, as well as the national sustainable development strategy, there can be also the regional sustainable development strategies as a result of a demand for an entire integration of it to regional development strategies. This can also standardize the approach for all regional development agencies in Turkey. In this time period, regional development agencies are new organizations in Turkey. As the most experienced agency in Turkey, ĠZKA has consideration for regional sustainable development by means of its tools such as regional development plan and grant scheme programs. The sustainable development principles have taken place in the core of the plan. Use of renewable energy, resource conservation, cleaner production and eco-efficiency are the key issues related to the plan that can be operated. At that point, after the end of the programs, the effects of these operations will be evaluated. As well as the results mentioned in this paper, the results of this evaluation will give to the policy makers an idea about the effects of regional development agencies on sustainable development. References Bond, R., Kirkpatrick, C., Lee, N., Curran, J., Francis, P. (2000). Impact assessment for sustainable development unit: Integrated impact assessment for sustainable development: case studies and some preliminary conclusions. IDPM, University of Manchester; EIA Centre, University of Manchester; School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia Counsell, D., Haughton, G. (2006). Sustainable development in regional planning: The search for new tools and renewed legitimacy. Journal of Geoforum, 37 (2006) 921–931. Çuhadar, T., M., (2009). Investment Support Offices in Turkey: A Case Study on Turkish RDA‘s., First International Conference on Management and Economics, 2008, Epoka University Center of European Studies, Tirana, Albenia, Volume 2. Gibbs, D. (1998). Regional development agencies and sustainable development. Journal of Regional Studies, 32 (4), 365-368 Gibbs, D. (1999). Ecological modernization, regional economic development and regional development agencies. Journal of Geoforum, 31 (1), 9-19. ĠZKA, (2009). 2009-2013 Ġzmir Regional Development Plan Draft, Ġzmir. Pepper, D. (1999). The integration of environmental sustainability considerations into EU development policy: A case study of the LEADER initiative in the west of Ireland. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management , 42 (3), 167–187. 385 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 208 Title A name given to the resource The Future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of Regional Cooperation Author Author BAL, Tufan ÇAKMAK, Metin ALBENİ, Mesut BERK, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, formerly known as the Barcelona Process, was re-launched in 2008 as the Union for the Mediterranean at the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean in July. The Partnership now includes all 27 member states of the European Union, along with 16 partners across the Southern Mediterranean and the Middle East. A Union for European with countries in the Mediterranean region seeks to promote accelerated economic growth. The aim of re-launching is to infuse a new vitality and to raise the political level of the strategic relationship between the EU and its southern neighbors. In this context, six priority projects are also identified in this meeting. Main focus of the Union for the Mediterranean is to deal with energy, security, counter-terrorism, immigration and trade. Creation of a Euro-Mediterranean free-trade area will also impact on the environment and agriculture in the region. This paper reviews the literature and statistically evaluates the future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of regional cooperation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory