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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Forward and Backward Linkage Effects of the Energy Sector in Turkey
Mehmet MERCAN
mmercan48@hotmail.com
Abdullah ÖZDEMIR
abdullahozdemir@hotmail.com
Abstract: Energy sector has a great importance for producers and consumers. Energy sector has
been found as a leading sector as a result at the input-output analysis. This analysis has been done
by using input-output tables which are constructed by goverment Statistical Institude. Turkey is
dependent to other countries as energy. To satisfy the development in Turkish economy is only
available by reducing the depandencies to the other countries by the energy. Also it should be
continued as the leading sector.
Key Words: Input-Output Analysis, Energy Sector.
Introduction
Energy constitutes the most important causes of wealth through a variety of manifestations. Besides water,
coal. Petroleum and other valuable resources, the existence of wind and sun are sources of wealth as well.
Energy resources are used as inputs by other sectors in manufacturing industries. Therefore, it is important
to know the forward and backward linkages of this sector for the general situation of the economy.
The importance of energy resources has doubled in Turkey because of the energy crises experienced in
recent years. In this context, this study aims to find and interpret the forward and backward linkage effects of the
energy sector.
The purpose in this study is to observe the direct and indirect effects of input exchange between sectors and
their change over the years. The main data set used in the study is the Input-Output Flow Tables about Turkish
economy that is prepared by the Turkish Statistical Association (TUIK). The data for 1996, 1998 and 2002 are used
in the study.
The Importance of the Energy Sector
An increase in energy prices also increases the costs of inputs and product prices. Energy prices that are not
fixed influence inflation and increase the pressure for economic stagnation through affecting total demand. The more
important the use of energy resources in an economy the higher the inflationist pressure against the increases in oil
prices (LeBlanc and Chinn, 2004: 8).
Increases in the prices of energy resources raise the costs of airways, transportation and the costs of the
companies that produce chemical products and therefore, lead to inflation. For this reason, any change in energy
prices is watched very closely (Bennet, 2003: 1).
Plants in the energy sector should be planned long before the demand for energy exists. Otherwise, delays in
planning and investments raise the cost of energy and adversely affect economic activities and societal wealth. It is
imperative to determine the potential needs in the energy sector at least ten years in advance, decide the projects to
cover the increasing demand, and make necessary political decisions (Gerek, 1998: 370-371).
In developing countries like Turkey, the sectors that produce energy have important structural ties with
other sectors. Especially electricity sector in Turkey positively affect economic growth because of its backward
linkage. In today‘s modern societies, electrical energy used increasingly ignite other sectors of the economy by
providing considerable amounts of inputs. The insufficiency of electric energy supply that should increase parallel to
economic growth adversely affects economic growth as well as prevents the stimulatory effect on the economy
(Terzi, 1998: 63).
Input-Output Analysis
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The input-output model is a model that considers the relationship between the level of activities in the all
sectors of economy (Akkaya and Pazarlioglu, 2000: 14).
The input-output models are simple mathematical equilibrium models that quantitatively analysis the
mutual linkages between production and consumption units on the whole economy scale in a multi-sectoral way.
Different from micro economical analysis that focuses on the behaviors of firms and households and macroeconomic analysis that analyzes the whole economy, the input-output analysis‘ focus is on sectors and good
exchanges between sectors. The input-output models provide an opportunity to quantitatively analyze the production
and use of outputs of productive sectors on whole economical and sectoral basis and fulfill and important gap
between partial and total analyses especially in the analysis of empirical problems (Aydogus, 1999: 1-2).
In the input-output model, under the assumption that the share of technology or inputs in production costs is
constant, the equilibrium prices of goods and services produced in every sector can be obtained as the prices of main
inputs (Aydogus, 1993: 36).
According to Hirschman, the effects of forward and backward linkages that reflect sectors‘ ―feeding‖ and
―stimulating‖ powers on other sectors must be considered (Hirschman, 1958: 9). In Hirschman‘s unbalanced growth
model, one of the most important factors that restricts economic growth is the ability of decision making, especially
the ability to take an investment decision.
Inferring from Hirschman‘s ideas, a quadruple grouping can be developed. The categories of this grouping
that considers forward and backward linkages together can be summarized as follows:
Category 1: Sectors that have high forward and backward linkage effects.
Category 2: Sectors that have high backward but low forward linkage effects.
Category 3: Sectors that have high forward but low backward linkage effects.
Category 4: Sectors that have low backward and forward linkage effects.
The above arrangement shows sectoral investment priorities from the lowest to the highest. According to
this, the sectors in the first category constitute the key sectors in the economy and have the highest investment
priority. The scarce resources should primarily be devoted to these sectors. If there are still unused resources, then,
they should be devoted to the sectors in the second category. Sectors in the III. and IV. categories come last in terms
of investment priorities, that is, these sectors are expected to be stimulated by the key sectors (Aydogus, 1999: 100101).
The Forward and Backward Linkage Effects for 1996, 1998, and 2002
The 1996 and 1998 input-output tables prepared by TUIK consist of total 97 sectors and the 2002 table
consists of 59 sectors. The forward and backward linkage effects are as follows in terms of sectoral arrangement. The
Table consists of 97 sectors but to observe it more clearly it is divided. In Table 1, there are Forward Linkage Effects
(FLE) and Backward Linkage Effects (BLE) of 24 sectors.
686
�Sectors
1-Growing of cereals and other crops n.e.c.
2-Growing of vege- tables, horticultural specialities
and nursery products
3-Growing of fruit, nuts, beverage and spice crops
4- Farming of animals
5-Agricultural and animal husbandry service activities
(excl. veterinary act.)
6-Forestry, logging and related service activities
7- Fishing
8- Mining of coal and lignite
9-Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas
10- Mining of metal ores
11- Quarrying of stone, sand and clay
12- Mining and Quarrying n.e.c.
13- Production, proces- sing and preserving of meat and
meat products
14-Processing and preserving of fish and fish products
15- Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables
16- Manufacture of vegetable and animal oils and fats
17-Manufacture of dairy products
18-Manufacture of grain mill produtcs, starches and
starch products
19-Manufacture of preparad animal feeds
20-Manufacture of bakery products
1996
ĠBE GBE
5,89 1,66
1998
ĠBE GBE
5,07 1,42
1,21
1,54
2,53
1,50
1,20
1,93
1,23
1,89
2,00
1,31
1,14
1,74
1,92
1,87
1,16
1,65
4,31
1,26
1,33
1,23
2,13
1,22
1,41
1,33
1,23
1,61
1,40
1,31
1,42
1,72
1,15
1,50
1,32
1,16
1,38
1,24
1,78
1,17
1,26
1,44
1,25
1,45
1,27
1,23
1,72
2,49
1,55
2,07
1,11
1,13
1,54
1,10
1,86
1,96
2,33
2,19
1,02
1,37
1,53
1,21
1,74
1,70
2,06
1,87
1,57
1,33
1,02
2,14
2,32
2,16
1,55
1,27
1,03
1,81
2,04
2,03
Sectors
Agriculture, hunting and related service activities
Forestry, logging and related service activities
Fishing, operating of fish hatcheries and fish farms; service activities incidental to fishing
Mining of coal and lignite; extraction of peat
Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas; service activities incidental to oil and gas
extraction excluding surveying
Mining of uranium and thorium ores
Mining of metal ores
Other mining and quarrying
Manufacture of food products and beverages
Manufacture of tobacco products
Manufacture of textiles
Manufacture of wearing apparel; dressing and dyeing of fur
Tanning and dressing of leather; manufacture of luggage, handbags, saddlery, harness and
footwear
Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except furniture; manufacture of
articles of straw and plaiting materials
Manufacture of pulp, paper and paper products
Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media
Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuels
Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products
Manufacture of rubber and plastic products
Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products
Table 1: 1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of First Twenty Sector (Direct+Indirect)
(Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 ve 2002 Years)
IBE :Forward linkage effect
GBE:Backward linkage effect
2002
ĠBE GBE
1,86 3,66
1,35
1,64
1,60
1,45
1,06
1,37
1,05
1,00
1,92
2,14
2,95
2,79
2,98
3,21
3,24
1,00
1,16
1,82
2,52
1,14
3,81
1,32
2,94
1,69
2,88
2,59
2,65
2,30
1,68
3,99
1,65
2,81
2,06
2,69
2,66
5,82
2,63
2,39
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
21- Manufacture of sugar
22-Manufacture of cocoa, chocolate, sugar confertionery and other
food products n.e.c.
23-Manufacture of alcoholic beverages
24- Manufacture of soft drinks; production of mineral waters
25- Manufacture of tobacco products
26-Manufacture of textiles
27- Manufacture of other textiles
28-Manufacture of knitted and fabrics and articles
29- Manufacture of wearing apperel, except fur apparel
30-Dressing and dyeing of fur; manufacture of articles of fur
31- Tanning and dressing of leather; manufac.of luggage, handbags
& harness
32-Manufacture of footwear
33-Sawmilling and planing of wood
34- Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork
1,37
2,18
1,33
1,94
1,43
1,24
1,27
1,08
2,96
1,26
1,13
1,13
1,39
2,02
1,56
2,24
2,00
2,45
2,13
2,49
2,37
2,45
1,34
1,16
1,08
1,08
2,67
1,22
1,07
1,53
1,01
1,88
1,51
2,10
1,83
1,76
1,68
1,76
1,88
1,86
1,91
1,14
2,19
1,43
2,46
2,55
2,42
2,17
1,69
1,07
2,06
1,45
1,96
2,00
2,08
1,98
35- Manufacture of paper and paper products
36-Publishing
3,41
1,09
2,10
1,86
2,39
1,09
1,69
1,53
37- Printing and service activities related to printing
38- Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum produtcs
39- Manufacture of basic chemicals, plastics in primary & synthetics
rubber
40- Manufacture of fertilizers and nitrogen compounds
1,51
5,79
2,10
1,55
1,52
3,92
1,62
1,13
4,89
1,77
2,16
2,16
1,79
1,30
1,58
1,66
Manufacture of basic metals
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment
Manufacture of machinery and equipment n.e.c.
Manufacture of office machinery and computers
Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus n.e.c.
Manufacture of radio, television and communication equipment and apparatus
Manufacture of medical, precision and optical instruments, watches and clocks
Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers
Manufacture of other transport equipment
Manufacture of furniture; manufacturing n.e.c.
Recycling
Electricity, gas, steam and hot water supply
Collection, purification and distribution of water
Construction
Sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles; retail sale
services of automotive fuel
Wholesale trade and commission trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles
Retail trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles; repair of personal and
household goods
Hotels and restaurants
Land transport; transport via pipelines
Water transport
Table 2: 1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of Second Twenty Sector (Direct+Indirect)
(Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 ve 2002 Years)
688
2,35
5,74
2,60
1,94
1,17
2,40
2,21
1,57
2,52
1,73
2,85
2,17
2,27
1,21
1,96
1,98
1,20
1,92
1,37
1,26
3,25
2,98
1,55
2,56
1,02
4,98
1,38
1,54
2,24
2,13
2,62
4,59
1,86
2,53
3,14
1,57
2,10
1,80
4,76
1,89
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Sectors
41-Manufacture of pesticides, other agro-chemicals and paints, varnishes
42-Manufacture of pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals & botanical
products
43-Manufacture of cleaning materials, cosmatics and other chemicals &
fibres
44- Manufacture of rubber products
45- Manufacture of plastic products
46-Manufacture of glass and glass products
47-Manufacture of ceramic products
48-Manufacture of cement, lime and plaster related articles these items
49- Cutting and finishing of stone and man. of other non-metallic
mineral products n.e.c.
50-Manufacture of basic iron and steel
51-Manufacture of basic precious and non- ferrous metals
52- Casting of metals
53-Manufacture of fabricated metal products, tanks, reser.&steam gen.
54- Manufacture of other fabricated metal products; metal working
services
55-Manufacture of general purpose machinery
56- Manufacture of special purpose machinery
57- Manufacture of domestic appliances n.e.c.
58-Manufacture of office, accounting and computing machinery
59-Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus n.e.c.
60-Manufacture of radio, television and communication equip- ment &
apparatus
1996
ĠBE GBE
1,49 2,01
1998
ĠBE GBE
1,32 1,59
1,68
1,84
1,27
1,54
2,19
1,47
1,64
1,32
1,08
2,06
2,09
2,31
1,83
1,79
1,67
1,39
1,56
1,28
1,10
1,72
1,72
1,69
1,61
1,58
1,24
1,83
1,44
1,60
1,06
4,61
3,05
1,13
1,16
1,54
2,26
2,13
2,18
2,24
1,04
3,28
1,80
1,28
1,50
1,68
1,81
1,74
1,67
1,69
2,40
1,51
2,85
1,10
1,59
1,73
2,10
2,01
2,02
2,04
1,61
2,15
1,81
1,15
1,37
1,06
1,05
1,26
1,73
1,68
1,76
1,57
1,49
1,66
1,82
1,81
1,20
1,44
Sectors
Air transport
Supporting and auxiliary transport activities; activities of travel agencies
Post and telecommunications
Financial intermediation, except insurance and pension funding
Insurance and pension funding, except compulsory social security
Activities auxiliary to financial intermediation
Real estate activities
Renting of machinery and equipment without operator and of personal and
household goods
Computer and related activities
Research and development
Other business activities
Public administration and defence; compulsory social security
Education
Health and social work
Sewage and refuse disposal, sanitation and similar activities
Activities of membership organisation n.e.c.
Recreational, cultural and sporting activities
Other service activities
Private households with employed persons
Table 3: 1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of Third Twenty Sector (Direct+Indirect)
(Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 ve 2002 Years)
689
2002
ĠBE GBE
2,68 1,36
2,41
3,38
2,20
1,91
1,64
2,54
1,59
2,17
4,47
1,26
1,38
2,33
2,20
1,18
1,95
2,90
1,98
2,06
1,60
1,27
1,33
4,64
1,02
1,14
2,32
2,37
2,23
2,14
2,23
1,00
1,12
1,43
1,46
1,70
1,11
1,00
�Sectors
61-Manufacture of medical, precision &optical instruments, watches and
clocks
62- Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers
63- Building and repairing of ships, pleasure &sporting boats
64-Manufacture of railway and &tramvay lokomo- tives & rolling stock
65-Manufacture of aircraft and spacecraft
66-Manufacture of transport equipment n.e.c.
67-Manufacture of furniture
68- Manufacturing n.e.c.
69-Production, collection and distribution of electricity
70-Manufacture of gas; distribution of gaseous fuels
71-Collection, purification and distribution of water
72-Construction
73-Sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles; retail sale
of fuel
74-Wholesale trade and commission trade, except of motor vehicles &
motorcyles
75-Retail trade, repair of personal and household materials
76-Hotels; camping sites and other provision of short-stay accommodatin
77-Restaurants, bars and canteens
78-Transport via railways
79-Land transport; transport via pipelines
80-Water transport
81- Air transport
82-Supporting and auxiliary transport activities; activities of travel agencies
83-Post and telecom- nications
84-Financial intermedediation, except insurance and pension funding
85- Insurance
86-Real estate activities
87-Renting of machinery and equipment without operator & of personal and
household goods
88-Computer and related activities
89- Research and development
90- Other business activities
91-Education
92-Health and social work services
93-Activities of membership organizations n.e.c
94- Recreational, cultural and and sporting activities
95-Other service activities
96- Public services
97-Ownership of dwelling
1996
ĠBE
1,29
GBE
1,82
1998
ĠBE
1,04
GBE
1,56
1,60
1,10
1,30
1,18
1,39
1,07
1,21
4,38
1,16
1,53
1,06
2,40
2,15
1,48
1,93
1,16
2,25
2,24
1,96
1,45
1,77
1,25
2,02
1,45
1,21
1,01
1,02
1,02
1,08
1,08
1,05
3,69
1,18
1,38
1,16
2,17
1,72
1,54
1,48
1,23
1,66
2,01
1,27
1,35
1,18
1,19
1,67
1,29
5,87
1,39
3,54
1,26
2,65
1,61
1,40
1,24
6,05
2,12
1,17
1,15
2,19
5,34
1,34
1,51
1,08
1,46
1,81
1,91
2,20
1,54
1,80
1,97
2,28
1,38
1,48
1,74
1,51
1,60
2,97
1,23
1,80
1,07
5,11
1,70
1,20
1,03
2,22
5,23
1,20
1,55
1,18
1,25
1,69
1,70
1,58
1,35
1,48
1,55
1,86
1,15
1,43
1,44
1,52
1,62
1,11
1,28
3,42
1,02
1,04
1,00
1,38
1,21
1,00
1,00
1,95
1,14
1,75
1,74
1,59
1,47
1,53
1,63
1,00
1,31
1,13
1,30
2,92
1,05
1,03
1,04
1,47
1,10
1,00
1,00
1,53
1,61
1,48
1,53
1,29
1,48
1,48
1,46
1,00
1,25
Table 4:1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of Third Twenty Sector
(Direct+Indirect)
(Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 Years)
.
If the total increase in production caused by the increase in demand by one unit in a sector can be defined as
that sector‘s backward linkage effect and the increase in a certain sector‘s production by one unit increase in last
demand can be defined as that sector‘s forward linkage effect.
In this context, the study includes calculations of both forward and backward linkage effects for
1996, 1998 and 2002.
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
When the tables 1,2,3, and 4 above are analyzed, it is seen that sectors with high forward linkage effects
have an important place for creating supply to other sectors. Below are the sectors with high forward linkage effects.
As can be seen in Tables 1,2,3, and 4 for the year 1996, the sectors with the highest forward linkage effects
are the 79th sector highway transportation (6,05), 1 st sector grain and vegetable plantation (5,89), 74 th sector
wholesale and trade brokering (5,87), 38 th sector coke furnace and refined petroleum product manufacturing (5,78),
84th sector intermediary financial institutions (5,34), 39 th sector main chemical materials, synthetic rubber and plastic
raw material production (4,88), 50th sector iron-steel industry (4,61), 69th sector production and distribution of
electricity (4,38), 9th sector crude oil and natural gas production (4,31), 35 th sector paper and paper product
production (3,40), 51st sector main metal industry other than iron and steel (3,04), and 26th sector textile threads and
weaving (2,96). As can be seen the other sectors of the economy used the most input from highway transportation
and agricultural sector. The energy sub-sectors such as refined petroleum products and electricity production and
distribution are among the first five sectors in terms of providing inputs to other sectors.
As can be observed in Tables 1,2,3, and 4, the highest forward linkage effect sectors for 1998 total (direct
and indirect) are; 84th sector intermediary financial institutions and auxiliary activities (5,22), 79 th sector highway
transportation (5,11), 1st sector grain and vegetable plantation (5,07), 38 th sector coke furnace and refined petroleum
product production (3,92), 69th sector electricity production and distribution (3,69), 74 th sector wholesale and
brokering (3,53), 50th sector iron and steel industry (3,27), 75 th sector retail, and the repair of personal and home
equipment (2,96), 26th sector textile thread and weaving (2,67), and 35th sector paper and paper product
manufacturing (2,39).
The sectors with highest forward linkage effects for 2002, as can be seen in Tables 1,2,3, and 4, are;
clothing manufacturing (3,21), electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution (2,97), textile
manufacturing (2,97), food and drink manufacturing (2,95), leather tanning and processing; suitcase, handbag,
saddler, harness and shoe manufacturing ((2,93), research and development services (2,90), wood and cork products
manufacturing (2,88), furniture production (2,84), tobacco products manufacturing (2,79), plastic and rubber
production (2,69), airway transportation (2,68).
When direct forward linkage effects for 1996 are analyzed, highway transportation, grain and other plants
plantation, wholesale and trade brokering coke furnace, refined petroleum products and intermediary financial
institutions are the five sectors with highest sector linkage effects.
The highest forward linkage effects for 1998 includes the first five sectors including the production of grain
and other plants, highway transportation, intermediary financial institutions, wholesale trade and trade brokering,
electricity production and distribution.
The two sub-sectors of the energy sector are among the first five sectors with the highest forward linkage
effects in 1996 and 1998.
In 2002, food and drink production, clothing manufacturing, fur processing and dying, wood and cork
products production, electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution and research and development
services are the first five sectors with highest direct forward linkage effects.
The sectors with the highest forward linkage effects are important for reducing dependency on foreigners
since they can be used as inputs in other sectors. In terms of their use as inputs in 1996 and 1998 highway
transportation, agriculture and electricity production and distribution, petroleum refinery, iron and steel industry,
textile, paper products manufacturing, wholesale trade and trade brokering sectors are remarkable. In 2002, clothing
manufacturing, electricity production and distribution, petroleum, textile, leather tanning and processing, shoe
manufacturing, tobacco, research and development services, wood and cork products manufacturing, plastic and
paper products production, and airway transportation rather than highway transportation came forward.
When we look at the years 1996, 1998, and 2002 together, the sub-sectors of the energy sector such as
petroleum refinery, electricity production and distribution,, cruse oil production, coal and nuclear energy production,
and natural gas production are among the first sectors that provide inputs to other sectors.
The sectors with the highest backward linkage effects are the sectors which have influence for stimulating
the level of production in other sectors. That is, since these sectors demand inputs from other sectors, they stimulate
the economy.
When the backward linkage effects for 1996, 1998, and 2002 are analyzed, the high linkage effects of the
sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry stand out. It is well known that the manufacturing industry is very
important in stimulating the level of production in other sectors in developing countries.
When 1996 backward linkage effects are examined, meat processing and keeping, clothing, leather tanningsuitcase, handbag production, textile threads-weaving sectors are the first five sectors.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
In terms of backward linkage effects for 1998, metal industry, chemical materials production, wholesale
trade and trade brokering, the activities of financial institutions and highway and pipeline transportation are the first
five sectors.
The sectors with the highest backward linkage effects in 1996 are shoe manufacturing, meat processing and
keeping, clothing manufacturing, leather tanning-suitcase, handbag manufacturing, and textile thread and weaving
and finishing. The sectors with the highest backward linkage effects in 1998 are non-alcoholic beverage and spring
water production, timber and hardwood industry, meat processing and keeping, vegetative-bestial oil, animal food
production. As seen, the sectors that are the sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry are the sectors with the highest
backward linkage effects in 1996 and 1998.
The five sectors with the highest backward linkage effects in 2002 (direct and indirect) are chemical
material production, main metal industry, electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution, highway
and pipeline transportation, and wholesale trading and trade brokering.
The sectors with high backward and forward linkage effects are described as the locomotives of an
economy. When the similar studies are reviewed, it was concluded that the manufacturing industry in the 1980s and
1990s is the locomotive (pioneer) sector. The locomotive sectors in 1996 are plastic products production and iron
and steel industries. In 1998, the locomotive sectors are chemical products, synthetic rubber and plastic material
manufacturing, iron and steel industry and metal industry.
The locomotive sectors in 2002 are electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution, textile
products manufacturing, plastic and rubber products manufacturing, coke coal, refined petroleum products and
nuclear fuel production and food and beverage production.
Even though the manufacturing sector was the locomotive sector in the previous years, in 2002, the energy
sector became a locomotive sector and contributed to economic revival.
Conclusion
In the years analyzed, the sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry in 1996 and 1998 are the sectors with
high direct and total backward linkage effects. In 2002, it is seen that the energy sector has both high backward and
forward linkage effects. When the Tables above are analyzed in detail, the sub-sectors of the energy sector score high
in terms of both backward and forward linkage effects. According to Hirschman‘s categorization, the sectors with
high backward and forward linkage effects at the same time are described as the locomotive sectors. Therefore, the
sub-sectors of the energy sector in 2002 fit in this category.
As a result, investment in the energy sector in Turkey should be increased. In this context, studies aiming to
reduce dependency on foreign powers in energy should be done. Especially, the industrial model based on the fossil
fuel increases dependency. Turkey can support the other sectors only if can it use resources such as wind, solar and
hydrologic energy.
References
AKKAYA, ġ., PAZARLIOĞLU, M. V., (2000). Ekonometri I, Berk Masa Üstü Yayıncılık, Ġzmir, 581 s.
AYDOĞUġ, O., (1993). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Maliyet-Fiyat ĠliĢkileri Sektörel Fiyat OluĢumu ve Enflasyon, 3. Ġzmir Ġktisat
Kongresi, Sektörel GeliĢme Stratejileri, Ġzmir, 35-48 ss.
AYDOĞUġ, O., (1999). Girdi-Çıktı Modellerine GiriĢ, Gazi Kitabevi, Ankara, 121 s.
BENNETT, R. F., (2003). 10 Facts About Oil Prices, Joint Economic Committee, Economic Update, 4 p.
TÜĠK, (1985). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1985, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 87 s.
TÜĠK, (1994). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1990, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 89 s.
TÜĠK, (2001). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1996, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 141 s.
TÜĠK, (2004). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1998, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 127 s.
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LEBLANC, M.; and CHINN, M., (2004). Do High Oil Prices Presage Inflation? The Evidence from G-5 Countries, UC Santa
Cruz Economics Department 2000-05 Working Paper Series, 25 p.
TERZĠ, Ġ., (1998). Türkiye‘de Elektrik Tüketimi ve Ekonomik Büyüme ĠliĢkisi: Sektörel Bir KarĢılaĢtırma, Ġktisat-ĠĢletme ve
Finans Dergisi, Ġstanbul, ss. 62-71.
693
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The Forward and Backward Linkage Effects of the Energy Sector in Turkey
Author
Author
MERCAN, Mehmet
ÖZDEMIR, Abdullah
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Energy sector has a great importance for producers and consumers. Energy sector has been found as a leading sector as a result at the input-output analysis. This analysis has been done by using input-output tables which are constructed by goverment Statistical Institude. Turkey is dependent to other countries as energy. To satisfy the development in Turkish economy is only available by reducing the depandencies to the other countries by the energy. Also it should be continued as the leading sector.
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2010-06
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
The Foundations of Intercultural Education
Helena Maria Sabo
Faculty of Psychology and Science of Education
UBB, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
helena-maria.sabo@gmx.net
Abstract: At present, when within the same society, contacts between different
cultures become more and more numerous, the space of the individual existence
surpasses the traditional limits of the original forming, and socializing background,
the intercultural approach to education becomes a disconcerting necessity for the
present and the future. Within the contemporary education, together with the ―new
types of education‖, the intercultural education represents an infusion of new
elements on the traditional contents by advancing an active and participative
pedagogy, centered on the educated person and aiming at cooperation between
groups and equal educational chances.
Key Words: intercultural education, identity, attitude
Introduction
As an important matter to all those who follow the evolution of humanity in general and/or of the
human rational being in particular, education represents that process oriented towards the spiritual fulfillment of
the person and of the community, which proposes, during its development, involvement, living, communication
between actual individuals within the multiple and complex changes, mutations in all compartments of existence.
Over the last two decades issues like the continual deterioration of the environment or the atmosphere, the
limited nature of natural resources, the rate of demographic growth etc. have led to the idea of an
interdependence between them and to the conclusion that development can‘t take place without peace, that peace
can‘t be authentic without respecting human rights and ensuring fundamental freedoms, that in their turn these
freedoms and rights are illusory when there still are people so poor that surviving is their only ideal. All these
problems have led to stating a new concept – the problems of the contemporary world. (Adler, M.J.1971)
The educational systems have tried to find solutions to the challenges raised by the development of the
contemporary world, despite the skeptics who maintain that education cannot play an important part in preparing
the tomorrow‘s world and in ensuring a better future. The specialists who believe in the transforming power of
the education and in its capacity to contribute with specific resources to the development of the future are aware
of the fact that education can‘t solve all the problems of the contemporary world on its own, but in the same time
a strong and durable solution can‘t be conceived without of the educational systems. Thus, we believe that the
intercultural education constitutes an answer to the development requirements and the dynamics of the
contemporaneity.
The philosophy of the cultural pluralism, which is discussed in the occidental media, constitutes an
action background in many democratic states of the world. ―The pluralist ideology advances numerous
presumptions upon the nature of pluralist-democratic societies and the function of ethnic groups in the
individual‘s socializing skills and the responsibility of their members towards safeguarding their own cultural
values. […] The cultural pluralism promotes the hypothesis that ethnic minorities have a unique learning style;
thus the analytical program‘s in schools and the educational curriculum should be revised in order to suit the
cognitive style and the spiritual profile of students who belong to different ethnic groups‖. (Cozma, Teodor,
2001) It is necessary to promote attachment and ethnic understanding and the students must be helped to acquire
skills, thus allowing the ethnic group to gain the signification power of the large culture of the world. According
to some analysts nowadays we need a self-critical of the occidental monocentrism, a critical distancing from its
ethical and scientific dogmatism; we need to state new principles of living together and reorganizing our
existence based on new points of view, on resymbolising our life, on new ways of analyzing and codifying our
experiences.
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Method of the Study
The intercultural education oscillates between the problem of the objective contents of knowledge and the
one that aims at intersubjective relationships. The intercultural approach is an intellectual adventure, with its
restless aspects for teachers and students because it moves away from the norm, but it opens channels towards
stating liberties, individualities, open and multiple identities, by developing the knowledge exchange between
partners, a forming demand and offer. The intercultural orientation of education refers to putting into practice
several ―types‖ of pedagogies, for example:
a pedagogy centered on the person being educated;
an active and interactive pedagogy;(Allport, G. W. 1991)
a pedagogy that takes into account the learning of decentring and develops an intercultural
communication skill;
a pedagogy of the project that favors interdependency among the group members and promotes
cooperation;
a pedagogy of the partnership within the educational system (among the teachers of a school, among
teachers of different origins, researchers, trainers) but also in connection to the other elements of the social,
economic and cultural environment (parents, economic agents, representatives of local authorities, etc.);
a pedagogy of the exchange and interdisciplinarity based on all kinds of school correspondence,
traveling abroad, making connections between several sets of knowledge and values that were initially
acquired separately.
The intercultural education urges us to face and respect alterity by promoting mutual tolerance and
understanding. At the beginning of this millennium the space of the individual existence overcomes the
traditional limits of the original environment (of initial forming and socializing). The meeting and dialogue of
cultures, despite the distances that separate them in time and space, are inevitable and often difficult; thus the
matter of cultures coexisting within the same society seems to be, as stated before, a rather disconcerting
defiance of the present and the future. The intercultural education represents a strategy for preparing future
democratic societies so that people take into account the cultures they represent when they interact (Jackson, T.
1995)
According to McLeon, the analysis of the multicultural education typology leads to three specificities,
the last one defining the intercultural approach:
1. The ethnic specificity approach – that is the approach or planning of the multicultural education based
on ethnic-cultural perspectives. This approach tends to put the accent on culture preserving or on developing
multicultural policies;
2. The problem-oriented approach – includes those people and groups whose fundamental orientation
towards multiculturalism answers certain problems. Immigrants and their integration are considered to be
problems that need solutions for reception centers, interpreting programs and immigration services. Also
racism could be considered a critical matter which makes many people think that antiracism is an aspect of
multiculturalism. Others consider relations between groups an extremely important matter and consequently
they develop intercultural or inter-groups programs;
3. The Cultural\Intercultural approach – it is a more general approach of the intercultural education; it
takes place where multiculturalism is an ethic which constitutes the basis of education and of the entire
school curriculum and includes preoccupations for ensuring continuity, cultural and linguistic development,
matters related to the ethnic and racial relationships, integrating emigrants, bilingualism or human rights.
This approach is a comprehensive social and cultural engagement and it is based on defining
multiculturalism as including or incorporating culture in general as well as in an ethnic cultural way, paying
special attention to diversity and ethnic, racial, linguistic and religious pluralism.
The intercultural education originates in the social, economic and cultural relationships, which
characterize society in general; in order to apply the intercultural education the teacher must be trained not only
for managing strictly didactical situations but also for facilitating the spiritual and cultural permeability of the
students. On the other hand, training doesn‘t only mean knowing, but also practicing intercultural because only
the theoretical knowledge of the cultural characteristics or differences doesn‘t necessarily give cultural skills to
the person who possesses it, as well as knowing the other doesn‘t favors intercultural behavior( Bruner, J. 1970).
The intercultural training steps are difficult and face mainly two problems:
1. each person‘s inherent difficulty to perceive cultural differences and especially minority ones. The
perceptions are selective, ethnically centered, affected by fear of the other, preconceived ideas, tendencies to
reduce things to schemes, attitudes of devaluation and discrimination;(Dewey, J. 1972)
2. our social and cultural identity ―colors‖ the process of knowing the others. The value decoding
concerning foreign cultures are made trough value paradigms already fixed that influence the quality of
perceiving the other.
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We believe that, for any teacher, learning to receive alterity and diversity is a moral obligation in the
present conditions. Thus we need a methodical and structured training, as ―the foreigner‖, ―the foreign‖ and ―the
straneity‖ occupy a more and more important position in our lives. ―We must learn how to read the present day
with ―broadness‖, to permanently question the habitual and the habits, to distance ourselves from familiar things,
to approach more boldly what is unfamiliar to us‖ (CucoĢ, Constantin, 2000).
According to Micheline Rey, the intercultural training involves at least two dimensions that are
permanently linked to each other: a dimension of ―knowledge‖ (as objective as possible and built from multiple
angles) and a dimension of ―experience‖ (subjective and relational), but we only mention them here as we
already discussed them in detail. The intercultural training must concisely endow the teacher with
methodological or conceptual instruments but also with suitable attitudes or behaviors in order to distance
him/her from the didactic position. As highlighted by Ct. CucoĢ, recognizing plurality forces us to reorganize the
teacher training systems, and this new formula will turn variation from a negative thing into a norm and a stable
reference point. C. Camilleri shortly describes a few basic procedural rules for intercultural training:
Understanding the logic of each culture. Cultures must not be valued trough hierarchy and each
individual will understand that he/she is part of a cultured endowed with all the attributes of dignity and
value. The pejorative judgments of any culture must disappear, proving the indestructible ties between
realities, environment of origin and their cultural specificities;
Educating from the perspective of relativism. Cultural systems must be judged in a detached,
decentralized manner in order to overcome ethnically centered judgments. The first level of this position
consists of presenting your cultural model without imposing it. The second level consists of understanding
that we have no reason to consider our own culture superior. Not only must we be tolerant to others, but also
it is only fair to admit that we cannot legitimize a hierarchical value judgment upon two or more cultures;
Do not consider cultures to be sacred. By recognizing certain cultures as acceptable practices, we must
not consider them sacred or believe they are larger than others. The intercultural helps moving away from a
culture imposed or dictated by a group, imposed as transcendence, towards understanding culture as a
dialogue with others, thus moving from the ―product culture‖ to the ―process culture‖, from a static to a
dynamic perspective;
To take heterogeneity seriously. Heterogeneity should not be blamed when it appears naturally, without
being imposed. We live in more and more multiform and different cultural spaces. To be against racism, to
know the mechanisms of exclusion and to fight artificial barriers between individuals or communities is an
attitude that must be acquired by the person designated to educate for diversity;
To recognize misunderstandings and conflicts. To grasp reality as it is, even if there are certain deficits
from an intercultural point of view, is an exam of honesty and professionalism. The conflicts between
cultures or people with different cultural backgrounds are obvious, and admitting their existence constitutes
a first step towards solving them. The social sometimes facilitates intercultural conflicts; the economic
insecurity, unemployment, the competition on the work market, social changes, pride also has a cultural
component that leads to conflict, including from an intercultural point of view. To all these we can add the
differences of opinion between members of different cultures regarding delicate matters like: polygamy,
abortion, the death penalty, euthanasia etc.
In our country, the initial training of teachers for intercultural education is almost inexistent. Teacher
must be trained not only for managing strictly didactic situations but also for facilitating the spiritual and cultural
permeability of their students. To be against racism, to know the mechanisms of exclusion and to fight artificial
barriers between individuals or communities is an attitude that must be acquired by the person designated to
educate for diversity . That‘s why we should pay attention to forming trainers for intercultural education by
using research of intercultural psycho pedagogy, and also from the domains of cultural anthropology, social
psychology, development psychology, conflict solving management etc. A virtual curriculum for intercultural
training should include themes like:
3. Tendencies of the contemporary society: the multicultural-intercultural dynamics;
4. The phenomenon of transmitting and diffusing culture;
5. Cultural identity and difference-consequences in the school system;
6. Cultural relativism;
7. Filtering social reality trough images (categorization, stereotypes, prejudice);
8. Strategies of relating to others;
9. Discrimination;
10. Intolerance;
11. Xenophobia;
12. Ethnocentrism;
13. Racism;
14. Sexism;
15. Objectives and values of the intercultural education;
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16. Intercultural exigencies and family education;
17. Strategies for experimenting the diversity of values;
18. Formal and informal, curricular and extracurricular in intercultural training etc.
As it can be noticed, there are generous themes and multiple possibilities in the field of training for
intercultural education. Where there is intuition, pedagogical skills, will to self improve and where the teacher
understands the evolution of life and of the contemporary world, he/she will know what method to choose so that
the result of his/her transformation –and why not?- his/her accomplishment to raise positive feelings within their
own community or school environment.
Learning in heterogeneous schools and classes (multicultural) is more an advantage than a handicap and
it requires openness and cooperation instead of selection and rejection. We know that identity is built within a
relationship of difference \ likeness with the others, and in a pluralist society, the relationship identity-alterity
must be approached in a plural manner. As stated by C. Camilleri, we are what we are as individuals also by the
―lack‖ that we are looking for or finding in alterity. Within this projection in/towards the other we can become
accomplished or understand our plenitude or real limits. The intercultural education urges us to welcome and
respect alterity by promoting tolerance and mutual understanding.
Conclusions and Discussion
We believe that within the Romanian school system the reform should be given a more intercultural
dimension because such an articulation of our school system could constitute a solid basis for creating a
democratic, open and permissive society, pluralist as well as united. The intercultural approach to curriculum
could enrich the relational aspect of the inhabitants of our country by giving a new dimension to daily human
interactions and by considerably reducing phenomena of intolerance, egocentric tendencies, extreme
pragmatism, as well as psychological and social marginalization phenomena.
The intercultural education teaches us one essential thing: pejorative judgments of any culture must
disappear thus proving the indestructible ties between their realities, background and cultural specificities. Due
to the major changes that took place recently and that endanger the world‘s ecosystem, larger and more diverse
media have realized that the ideological fundaments of our egocentric society are inadequate and have claimed
new paradigms of behavior and action.
A new challenge has been launched for education: to contribute to promoting human rights in a way that
overcomes ethnic centrism. If it succeeds in determining new generations to admit the complex role of
interdependencies and interactions and to actively, acquire constructive and dynamic skills of using individual
rights and liberties in an intercultural way. Education will prepare them to better understand the new stakes
within our societies in the 21st century and will ensure, by admitting the collective identity and the common
future, a solid and durable economic, social and cultural development.
After all, as Micheline Rey noticed, this challenge is aimed at the completely social community because
the ability of education to respond to its expectations depends on its adhesion to the principles of solidarity and
the actual choices.
Because of the perspective of building a unitary European space, of the international character of
economy, of globalizing information the objectives of an enlarged intercultural practice in education are:
admitting the diversity of the cultural codes, communicating in an intercultural context, being aware of your own
cultural identity, overcoming stereotypes and prejudice, knowing the institutions and living conditions in various
European countries, cooperation with representatives of any culture. We believe that all these will bring about
profound mutations in a more or less near future related to the system of thinking, feeling and acting of each of
us. The question that still stands is the following: in what measure are we willing to change our mentalities, even
if we see that it is necessary?
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References
Adler, M. J. (1971). Defending the Philosophy of Education, in an Anthology of the Contemporary American
Pedagogy, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest.
Allport, G. W. (1991). The Structure and Development of Personality, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing
House, Bucharest.
Bruner, J. (1970), For a Theory of Training, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House , Bucharest.
Cozma, T. (coordinator) (2001). A New Challenge for Education: Interculturality, Polirom Publishing, IaĢi.
CucoĢ, C. (2000). Education / Cultural and Intercultural Dimensions, Polirom Publishing House, IaĢi.
Dewey, J. (1972), Democracy and Education, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest.
Jackson, T. (1995). Cross-Cultural Management, Butterworth-Heineman, Oxford.
610
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The Foundations of Intercultural Education
Author
Author
Sabo, Helena Maria
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
At present, when within the same society, contacts between different cultures become more and more numerous, the space of the individual existence surpasses the traditional limits of the original forming, and socializing background, the intercultural approach to education becomes a disconcerting necessity for the present and the future. Within the contemporary education, together with the ―new types of education‖, the intercultural education represents an infusion of new elements on the traditional contents by advancing an active and participative pedagogy, centered on the educated person and aiming at cooperation between groups and equal educational chances.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
The founding myth of the Schola Salerni:
the importance of contact among languages and the activity of translation
for interreligious and intercultural dialogue and the development of
knowledge.
Davide Astori
Department of Classical and Medieval Philology
Parma University, Italy
davide.astori@unipr.it
davide.astori@gmail.com
Abstract: According to the legend, the Schola salernitana was born by the casual
meeting of four physicians, symbolic characters, whose dynamics and values aim to
underline the confluence (in the civitas Hippocratica, cosmopolitan Mediterranean port,
‗open‘ and ‗syncretic‘ as its nascent School) of different medical, and cultural more in
general, traditions: disembodied from their legendary traits, the four figures show how
peculiar, in that intercultural and interreligious dialogue (among the Jewish, Arabic,
Greek and Latin ones), is the role of languages and the importance of the work of
translation, in its first, and primary, etymological meaning of tra(ns)-ducere, ‗transport
from coast to coast‘.
The proposed contribution intends to frame the founding myth of the Schola Salerni in
the wider cultural background which was its host, contributor and supporter, highlighting
the modern, meaningful value of its everlasting message also for the contemporary world,
which is risking to lose sight of the main way of meeting, contact, exchange, dialogue for
welfare and peace.
The exemplum of the Schola medica Salernitana, a litmus test of a wider cultural and
linguitic debate (from the quite medieval research of the ‗language of God‘ to the
experiments of Frederick II), is emblematic of the absolute necessity of comparison in the
construction of civilization and knowledge, comparison primarily passing through
communication, and then, ultimately, on the linguistic field and activity of translation: the
figure and work of Constantine Africanus are perhaps, in the specific case, the most
significant examples.
Key Words: traductology, intercultural education, cultural studies, languages and cultures
in contact, multilingualism
Introduction
The legend of the foundation of the Schola Salerni has it that48:
Quidam magister fuit qui primitus legit medicinam in Civitate Salerni. Nomen ejus vocabatur magister
Helinus et habuit quendam Sotium qui vocabatur Sarach, qui legebat phisicam prudens hebreus lingua hebrea
unde magister Helinus cum Jone moratus fuit in castello lufoni. Unde lufonus vocatur cum dicitur apud
Gramaticos funus Iovis, quia magister Helinus et Iuppiter cum magistro Sarach ubic defunti fuerunt unde illi tre
magistri, sive Magister Pontus, magister Salernus et magister Primus ex ipso magistro Helino commemplati
fuerunt in ipsa Civitate Salerni in loco qui nunc dicitur porta nova et prius illa porta dicebatur porta Helina,
quia ibi moratus fuit magister Helinus et tres ipsi magistri invenerunt predictam istoriam, quae inferius hunc
narratur.
The story, later modified, is to be found in De antiquitate Scholae Salernitanae:
Origo Scholae Salernitanae ex Cronico Civitatis reperto apud Cassinenses asserit quod cum adesset in
civitate celeberrimus medicinae professor nominatus magister Salernus, qui medicinam Latinis de litera latina
docebat in loco dicto bonae diei, et peregrinarent per orbem experiendi causa Rabinus Elinus haebreus, et
Magister Adala Saracenus, tracti a fama magistri Salerni in hanc civitatem successive se contulerunt, et tam ob
loci amoenitatem quam ob doctrinale commercium, et diversarum nationum affluentiam, pedes hic sistere
deliberarunt, adeoque Helinus medicinam haebrais de litera haebraica at Adala Saracenis de litera Saracenica
publice legere coeperunt. Cumque temporis progressa e Graecia advenisset magister Pontus quaedam
48
From the Cronica di Elino, quoted by De Renzi (1857: xxvi). This passage, like the following ones, is quoted verbatim.
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Hippocraticis conscripta secum ferens, eaque communicaverit dictis tribus magistris, in eorum societate fuit
receptus, et Hippocratica medicina, vivente adhuc Hippocrate, coli coepit, unde Civitas denominata fuit
Hippocratica, ut hinc orta fuerit primae medicinae universitas eaque in Italia post centum fere annos a quo
tempore Pythagoras Samnius Cotrone Philosophiam docebat, nempe circa annum ab Urbe condita 350, ante
Christi Domini nativitatem annis 100 circiter.49
Also in Dell’origine di Longobardi e di Normandi. Di Matteo Geronimo Maza Patricio Salernitano
1608:
Ma più d‘ogni altra cosa ha fiorito, e fiorisce in essa Città la filosofia et medicina, et hoggi più che mai
ne tiene il grido, essendosi il suo antiquissimo Collegio, quale per la sua antichità non si sa il tempo della sua
fondatione, pur si uede una Historia antichissima uersata assai in Salerno, et in altre Città d‘Italia, et
specialmente in Siena, della quale appresso a compimento si parlerà, et tra le molte cose dice, che il Primo che
leggesse Medicina in la Città di Salerno, fu Maestro Helino Hebreo, del quale si scriue, che insieme con Gioue
habitato hauesse, et in Gefone dopo moresse, onde Giuffone altro non risuona in lingua latina che Jovis funus,
per le cenere di Giove che iui furono sepolte con l‘ossa del sopradetto Helino. Doppo costui lesse filosofia
naturale il Maestro Dottor Sarra di Natione Hebrea in la lingua sua natia, et questo insieme con Helino
predetto facevano stanza nel Borgo di Salerno, in quel luogo stesso, doue si disse per un tempo dal nome di
costui Porta Helimana; ma dopo allargatosi l‘accinto della Città si lasciò quel nome, et fu detto Portanoua.
Laciorno scritto tra le molte cose quel che segue.
Maestro Helino, et Maestro Pontio Greco, et Maestro Salerno mediante il fauor di colui, che a gli uomini diede
il senso furono i primi, che a gli Hebrei, et a Saraceni leggessero medicina in lingua Arabica. Ma poiché i
predetti Dottori hebbero i libri, che si tovarono in Arpaio gran tempo dopo la sua desolatione, ne andarono a
Salerno, et tradussero quelli in lingua greca, et latina […]50
Mutatis nominibus, the story appears again in the abridged version by Piscitello (2002):
Il medioevo fu tempo di pellegrini. Uno di questi - tale Antonio, discendente dalla nobile famiglia
romana dei Flavi - fu sorpreso una notte da un violento temporale: trovato riparo sotto un arco dell‘acquedotto
romano nei pressi della città di Salerno vi incontrò un tale Areteo, proveniente da Alessandria, e gli tese
amichevolmente la mano. Areteo si avvide di una ferita nel braccio di Antonio e voleva trattarla con un empiastro
di melissa. Il ferito si oppose: preferiva coprirla con carne di gallo nero.
Presto la discussione si allargò ad altri due uomini, sopraggiunti nel frattempo: Isacco, un ebreo proveniente da
Betania, e Abdul, un arabo di Aleppo. Isacco proponeva, in luogo della melissa di Areteo e della carne di gallo di
Antonio, issopo e nepitella, mentre Abdul avrebbe preferito della ruta.
La discussione fece sí che i quattro si riconoscessero come medici: e poiché nessuno di loro aveva una meta
definita, decisero di fermarsi e di mettere in comune le loro conoscenze a beneficio dei malati e di farne parte a
chi volesse apprenderle: era nata la Scuola medica di Salerno.
Findings and discussion
The cultural humus
This ―insulsa favoletta‖ (―silly tale‖), unfairly discarded by De Renzi (1857: xxxi), can be read through
the sources, the dynamics and the importance of its symbol-characters, in order to emphasize the converging, in
Salerno, of different medical traditions and of their cultures, summed up in the following diagram (the value of
number 4 is only hinted at since, in this case, it can be reinterpreted as an accent on the totality of knowledge
convergence, from the four corners of the orbis terrarum:
Adela (‘Abdullah)
49
50
As quoted by De Renzi (1857: xxix).
As quoted by De Renzi (1857: xxx-xxxii).
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Abdul (from Aleppo)
Helinus (Eliseo)
Isacco
Alexandria)
Pontus
Areteo
(from
Salernus
Antonio (Romano,
of the Flavians)
The variant richness testifies the existence of a humus, of a wider cultural background where the
symbolic reflection on which the ―istoria‖ (‗history‘) is based can be inserted.
―Discussion among three medical doctors‖, Bagdad 1224.
Some unavoidable analogies have become necessary, almost a fil rouge still present today.
From the Dialogus inter Philosophum, Judaeum et Christianum by Pietro Abelardo51, who, with these
words, introduced the comparison (between disputatio and altercatio) among different religions, which are
cultures, visions of the world:
Aspiciebam in visu noctis et ecce: viri tres diverso tramite venientes coram me astiterunt, quos ego
statim iuxta visionis modum, cuius sint professionis vel cur ad me venerint, interrogo.
―Homines‖, inquiunt, ―sumus diversis fidei sectis innitentes. Unius quippe Dei cultores esse nos omnes pariter
profitemur diversa tamen fide et vita ipsi famulantes. Unus quippe nostrum gentilis ex his, quos philosophos
appellant, naturali lege contentus est. Alii vero duo Scripturas habent, quorum alter Iudaeus, alter dicitur
Christianus. Diu autem de diversis fidei nostrae sectis invicem conferentes atque contendentes tuo tandem
iudicio cessimus‖.
to Nathan der Weise by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, who condensed Daja‘s disillusioned hope at
Nathan‘s smile about her dreams in the tragic stanza (I, 1, 151-153):
Laßt lächelnd wenigstens ihr einen Wahn,
In dem sich Jud‘ und Christ und Muselmann
Vereinigen; - so einen süßen Wahn!
The famous Ringparabel (the source of his Nathan, acknowledged by Lessing himself)52 was told by
Boccaccio in this way:
51
One of the many examples belonging to the same genre, such as Disputatio judei et cristiani by Gilberto Crispino or De
Pace Fidei by Nicola Cusano, or the Llibre del gentil e dels tres savis by Ramon Llull (Raymond Lully).
52
In the third short story of the first day (cat III, scene 7, ll. 1911-2054), to the Saladin who asked him ―quale delle tre leggi
tu reputi la verace, o la giudaica o la saracina o la cristiana‖ (―Which of the three great religions is the truly authentic one?
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Un grande uomo e ricco fu già, il quale, intra l‘altre gioie più care che nel suo tesoro avesse, era uno
anello bellissimo e prezioso; al quale per lo suo valore e per la sua bellezza volendo fare onore e in perpetuo
lasciarlo né suoi discendenti, ordinò che colui de‘ suoi figliuoli appo il quale, sí come lasciatogli da lui, fosse
questo anello trovato, che colui s‘intendesse essere il suo erede e dovesse da tutti gli altri essere come maggiore
onorato e reverito. E colui al quale da costui fu lasciato il simigliante ordinò né suoi discendenti e cosí fece
come fatto avea il suo predecessore; e in brieve andò questo anello di mano in mano a molti successori; e
ultimamente pervenne alle mani ad uno, il quale avea tre figliuoli belli e virtuosi e molto al padre loro obedienti,
per la qual cosa tutti e tre parimente gli amava. E i giovani, li quali la consuetudine dello anello sapevano, sí
come vaghi d‘essere ciascuno il più onorato tra‘ suoi ciascuno per sé, come meglio sapeva, pregava il padre, il
quale era già vecchio, che, quando a morte venisse, a lui quello anello lasciasse. Il valente uomo, che parimente
tutti gli amava, né sapeva esso medesimo eleggere a qual più tosto lasciar lo dovesse, pensò, avendolo a ciascun
promesso, di volergli tutti e tre sodisfare; e segretamente ad uno buono maestro ne fece fare due altri, li quali sí
furono simiglianti al primiero, che esso medesimo che fatti gli avea fare appena conosceva qual si fosse il vero.
E venendo a morte, segretamente diede il suo a ciascun de‘ figliuoli. Li quali, dopo la morte del padre, volendo
ciascuno la eredità e l‘onore occupare, e l‘uno negandolo all‘altro, in testimonianza di dover ciò
ragionevolmente fare ciascuno produsse fuori il suo anello. E trovatisi gli anelli sí simili l‘uno all‘altro che qual
di costoro fosse il vero non si sapeva conoscere, si rimase la quistione, qual fosse il vero erede del padre, in
pendente, e ancor pende. E cosí vi dico, signor mio, delle tre leggi alli tre popoli date da Dio padre, delle quali
la quistion proponeste: ciascuno la sua eredità, la sua vera legge e i suoi comandamenti dirittamente si crede
avere e fare; ma chi se l‘abbia, come degli anelli, ancora ne pende la quistione.
Like in a karstic river, this Weltanschauung, in its sensitivity, has saturated and permeated the whole
Europe since the Enlightenment, showing, among the many possible reflections, that scientia, knowledge,
derives from dialogue (―mettere in comune‖, ―put together‖, as brilliantly underlined by Piscitello), which is
respect and appreciation of diversity, whose peculiarities (different points of views of the same Reality) give rise
to a preliminary complementarity, ancillary to that reductio ad unum that moves towards the process and leads to
one shareable and shared truth.
Languages and translations
Let‘s get back to the founding myth of the Schola Salerni, setting it in its linguistic point of view.
Mazza, (quoted by De Renzi, 1857: 121) underlining the use of many languages due to the variegated listeners,
summed up:
HELINUS primum Salerni Medicinam Hebraicis de litera Hebraica legit. Magister PONTUS graecus de
litera graeca Graecis. ADELA Saracenus Saracenis de litera Saracenica. Magister SALERNUS Latinis Medicinam
de litera latina legit.
Now, the diagram can be re-written in the following way:
Arabic
Adela (‘Abdullah) - Abdul (from Aleppo)
Hebrew
Helinus (Eliseo)
Isacco
Alexandria)
Greek
Pontus - Areteo
(from
Latin
Salernus - Antonio (Romano,
of the Flavians)
Judaism, Christianity, or Islam?‖), Melchisedec the Jew, ―il quale veramente era savio uomo‖ (―who was really a man of
wisdom‖), in order to get out of that predicament and face the ―quistione‖ (―question‖), replied with what was, according to
his words, a ―novelletta‖ (―short story‖).
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Hence the importance and the meaning of tra(ns)-duzione (―translation‖) that characterized the Schola
Salerni, in primis, since its beginning. To translate means to mingle, to let people know each other, to
impregnate thoughts making them create cross-breeds: it is the strength of the races that have mixed and won
biologically in their most powerful ability to adapt. To translate means to pass through and criss-cross different
ways of seeing things, hoping for sharing, for a germ of dialogue. The following passage, taken from the
founding myth in the Cronica di Elino is particularly meaningful:
isti tres magistri sive magister Primus, magister Pontus, et magister Salernus, mediante gratia illius qui
dedit et tribuit memoriam et sensum eis. Ipsi fuerunt primi qui legerunt medicinam hebreis atque Saracenis de
litera Saracenica et qui invenerunt praedictam istam istoriam quatenus ipsorum magistrorum, qui fuit Magis.
Pontus qui legit graecis medicinam, omnes isti magistri traslaverunt libros medicinales qui inventi fuerunt in
civitate Arpae quae destructa fuit, predictos libros translaverunt in civitate Salerni
and tra(n)slaverunt underlines, as a whole and polysemously, ‗to transport‘ and ‗to translate‘.
Knowledge occurs primarily in communication, in that ‗communicating‘ which is so pregnant in its
etymologic value. We can‘t help thinking of the Tower of Babel myth: if taking the Universal language away
from Mankind resulted in tragedy and destruction, restoring communication leads to the re-establishment of the
primary perfection. The value of contact, of pouring off, of osmosis, in all its richness and diversity appreciation,
translation, in short, (both linguistic and cultural), become a sublime medicamentum: in the endless exchange,
even under a merely linguistic point of view, life is perpetuated and its quality improved.
Costantinus Africanus
Hippocratic medical doctor who studied Chaldean, Arab, Persian, Indian and the Ethiop science and
contributed with his translations from Greek (Aphorismata and Prognostica by Hippocrates and some works by
Galen), from Hebrew (Liber dietorum, Liber urinarium and Liber febrium by Isacco Giudeo) and from Arabic
(Kitāb-al-malikī – Liber Regalis by ‗Alī ibn ‗Abbās and Viaticum peregrinorum – Zād al-Musāfir by Ibn alJazzār, Liber divisionum and Liber experimentorum by al-Razi) Costantinus Africanus is an emblematic figure:
the ‗ifrīqiyy who, as an ante litteram popularizer, contributed to spread Ars Medica from the East to the West,
till his death, in 1087, in Monte Cassino.
Let‘s re-write the diagram according to his translations:
Arabic
‗Alī ibn ‗Abbās – etc. etc.
Hebrew
Isacco from Toledo
Greek
Hippocrates Galen
Latin
The West
Schola Salerni
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Salerno, civitas Hippocratica, new Andalusia53, meeting place of different cultures, on the
Mediterranean seashore, was to host and support a school, as ‗open‘ and ‗syncretic‘ as the town itself, a harbour
and a great trade area in the middle of mare nostrum. In a definite socio-cultural unity in Eurasia, that was to lay
the foundations of its nature on the concepts of emigration and trade, the new Europe secundo millennio ineunte
was reborn in contacts, pollinations, trade, mingling and interpenetrations.
People from all over Europe used to go there, as underlined by Matteo Geronimo Maza:
Non erano dimorati appena due anni in Salerno questi ualenti Dottori che ebbero concorso grande di
Ualent‘huomini, et gran filosofi, Ui ferno uenire da 150 maestri semplicisti, et furonui portati dalle parti di
Fenicia, et di Arabia più di cento sorte di spetie, et all‘hora giudicarno delle cinque maniere di mirabolani, et
delle tra sorte et maniere di sarali ciò è bianco rosso et cedrigno. Questa radice è da pochissimi conosciuta,
unirno tutti i libri composti da Hippocrate, et altri dotti, et ui ferno un collegio.
It was among the members of that ‗college‘ (in the etymological sense of cum + lego ‗gather together‘),
and only at that juncture that the possibility of a sound discussion with the Other emerged.
The―Devil‘s bridge‖ and its pointed arch.
Frederick II
It was not by chance that Frederick II, with the Constitution of Melfi in 1231, ratified the auctoritas of
the Schola, the Frederick whose ―mentalità indagatrice e sperimentale‖ (‗inquiring and experimental
mentality‘)54 along with his proverbial curiositas, led him to that meaningful experimentation (superstitio, in the
anti Hohenstaufen propaganda perspective of the time55) into the linguistic path that was taking shape, as
Salimbene said:
Secunda eius superstitio fuit quia voluit experiri cuiusmodi linguam et loquelam haberent pueri, cum
adolevissent, si cum nemine loqueretur. Et ideo precepit bauli et nutrici bus ut lac infanti bus darent, un
mammas sugerent, et balnearent et mundificarent eos, sed nullo modo blandirentur eis nec loquerentur.
Volebat enim conoscere utrum Hebream linguam haberent, que prima fuerat, an Grecam vel Latinam vel
Arabicam aut certe linguam parentum suorum ex quibus nati fuissent. Sed laborabat incassum, quia pueri sive
infantes moriebantur omnes. Non enim vivere possent sine aplausu et gestu et letitia faciei et blanditiis
baiularum et nutricum suarum
Without entering into the question of the primeval language research, it is interesting to point out that
even in this passage the sensitivity being inquired about is emerging. To the ones that in the past were considered
the three sacred languages56, among which Hebrew was chosen as God‘s language57, Frederick added Arabic,
53
Where the religiuos tolerance and the linguistic-cultural synergy of the Arab period were proverbial, to such an
extent that Maimonide, among the greatest Hebrew philosophers, knew the name in its double form: רבי משה בן
( מיימוןRabbi Moshe ben Maymon, from whose vocal acronym comes the name Rambam) and موسى به میمون به عبد
( هللا القرطبي اإلسرائیليMūsā ibn Maymūn ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Qurtubī al-Isrāʾīlī), pace the many modern
misunderstandings.
54
Definition given by De Stefano (1990: 89).
55
Salimbene is the best example: about that ―Federicus <qui> fuit homo pestifer et maledictus, scismaticus,
hereticus et epycurus, currumpens universam terram, quia in civitatibus Italie semen divisioni et discordie
seminavit‖ (Scalia 1998: 45), Salimbene denounced superstitiones et curiositates et maledictiones et
incredulitates et perversitates et abusiones.
56
Isidoro is a good example, when he said (Etymologiae, libro IX, 1, 3): Tres sunt autem linguae sacrae:
Hebreaea, Graeca, Latina, quae toto orbe maxime excellunt. His enim tribus linguis super crucem Domini a
Pilato fuit causa eius scripta.
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thus re-establishing that kind of ―linguistic τετρακτύς‖ illustrated supra: it must be stressed that such a choice,
made by Frederick, was not taken on a religious basis, but on secular considerations connected with the growing
importance of Arabic in a cultural, scientific, trade and, more in general, ‗circulation‘s environment‘.
Onomastics
A short note, of onomastic character, as a conclusion: from Arechi II, who chose Salerno as his
residence in the second half of the VIII century, till the last magister who witnessed the dissolution of the
institution, on 29th November 1811, decreed by Joachim Murat, the selfsame list of the names of the medical
doctors would be enough to testify the variety of the origin of the different people who founded the school and to
emphasize the importance, never to be ignored, of meetings, dialogues and discussions among the diversities
which were the basis of the richness and the novelty of the Salerno experience. A simple parade, even without
any unrealistic aim at completeness, impossible to quote here because of evident lack of space, would prove to
be results that speak for themselves.
Conclusions
If we take for granted the universal and eternal principle that ―truth is symphonic‖, the complex and
rich linguistic-cultural dialogue that the Schola Salerni has been able to epitomize is its sublime exemplum:
talking to the heart and the conscience of Mankind, it offers itself to contemporaneity as an ever present occasion
of reflection, an emblematic beacon, a happy event in History, too often fragmented and dumb, unable to deal
with itself, to grow and improve. Acknowledging meeting and dialogue as the ultimate purpose, the Salerno
School still keeps its message of modernity, offering itself as a possible model, in a whirling globalization
climate, where diversities might sooner or later crash against each other: the present magistri must create a
dialogue basis on common, neutral grounds, in a neo-humanistic perspective that gathers together the basics of
the different visions on man and on the world in order to support a constructive cooperation and a true
integration within a healthy and real evolution. All this passes also, not to say primarily, through communication
and, in the ultimate analysis, through language(s). *
57
Cfr. at least Augustin., De civ. Dei, xvi, xi, 2: Et ideo credenda est ipsa [scil. lingua Hebraea] fuisse prima illa communis..
I am thankful to Corinna Galeazzi for helping me out with the english version of the text. As always, all mistakes that
undoubtedly crept in are all my own.
*
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References
Scalia, G. (1998), ed. critica a cura di. Salimbene De Adam, Cronica, Brepols, Turhout 1998.
De Renzi, S. (1857). Storia documentata della Scuola medica di Salerno, Stabilimento tipografico di Gaetano
Nobile, Napoli 1857.
De Stefano, A. (1990). La cultura alla corte di Federico II Imperatore, Edizioni all‘insegna del Veltro, Parma
1990.
Piscitello, F. (2002). ―Storia della medicina. La scuola medica di Salerno‖, Eos a. 1, n. 1 (2002) [electronic
version: http://www.eosrivista.com/503.asp?ID_Rivista=6
349
�
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51
Title
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The founding myth of the Schola Salerni: the importance of contact among languages and the activity of translation for interreligious and intercultural dialogue and the development of knowledge.
Author
Author
Astori, Davide
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
According to the legend, the Schola salernitana was born by the casual meeting of four physicians, symbolic characters, whose dynamics and values aim to underline the confluence (in the civitas Hippocratica, cosmopolitan Mediterranean port, ‗open‘ and ‗syncretic‘ as its nascent School) of different medical, and cultural more in general, traditions: disembodied from their legendary traits, the four figures show how peculiar, in that intercultural and interreligious dialogue (among the Jewish, Arabic, Greek and Latin ones), is the role of languages and the importance of the work of translation, in its first, and primary, etymological meaning of tra(ns)-ducere, ‗transport from coast to coast‘. The proposed contribution intends to frame the founding myth of the Schola Salerni in the wider cultural background which was its host, contributor and supporter, highlighting the modern, meaningful value of its everlasting message also for the contemporary world, which is risking to lose sight of the main way of meeting, contact, exchange, dialogue for welfare and peace. The exemplum of the Schola medica Salernitana, a litmus test of a wider cultural and linguitic debate (from the quite medieval research of the ‗language of God‘ to the experiments of Frederick II), is emblematic of the absolute necessity of comparison in the construction of civilization and knowledge, comparison primarily passing through communication, and then, ultimately, on the linguistic field and activity of translation: the figure and work of Constantine Africanus are perhaps, in the specific case, the most significant examples.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2b37a2af3b6a4591ab15ac606d0596d8.pdf
3e7579bf26330cecd89a29614e025a99
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Text
STRUČNI ČLANAK
Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan
Žak Rusoa na političko djelovanje francuskih revolucionara
(1789-1795)
The French Revolution and Rousseauism - Review of the
Impact of Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Teaching to the Political
Activities of French Revolutionaries (1789-1795)
Mr.sc. Emina Huseinspahić
Viši asistent, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici
e.huseinspahic@gmail.com
Sažetak: Francuskoj revoluciji prethodila je duža intelektualna i
ideološka priprema koju su u značajnoj mjeri obilježila djela Žan
Žak Rusoa, posebice njegov Drušveni ugovor. Otuda je Ruso jedan
od brojnih francuskih mislilaca čija su učenja uticala na ovaj
epohalni događaj i koja su nadahnjivala francuske revolucionare u
toku čitavog revolucionarnog perioda. Često se smatralo da je
upravo Ruso najavio Francusku revoluciju i poslužio joj kao vodič.
Od Berka, preko Kinea, pa do Tena, mnogi su u Francuskoj
revoluciji prepoznali upravo njegov pretežan uticaj. I bili su u
pravu, posebice ako se ima u vidu i široko prihvaćeno mišljenje
Fransoa Firea o tome kako se upravo Revolucija proglasila
Rusoovim baštinikom, te kako je Rusoov princip sukladno kojemu
niko ne može da vlada ukoliko nije ovlašten od strane naroda,
okupljao, bez razlike, sve revolucionarne struje. Uzimajući u obzir
Rusoov nesumnjiv doprinos kao i činjenicu da je njegova politička
teorija u cjelini, a posebice njegova koncepcija nedjeljive i neotuđive
narodne suverenosti, uprkos pojedinim unutrašnjim suprotnostima,
vrhunac i krajnja konsekvencija predrevolucionarne građanske
političke misli, namjera je autorice da u radu prikaže uticaj
rusoizma na Francusku revoluciju i na političko djelovanje
revolucionarnih vođa.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1
Ključne riječi:
Francuska revolucija,
rusoizam, opća volja,
narodna suverenost
Historija članka
Dostavljen: 25.08.2013.
Revidiran: 22.01.2014.
Prihvaćen: 23.01.2014.
167
�Emina Huseinspahić
Abstract: The French Revolution was preceded by a long
intellectual and ideological preparation that was significantly
marked by works of Jean Jacques Rousseau, especially by his Social
contract. Hence, the Rousseau is one of many french thinkers whose
teachings influenced this epochal event and inspired french
revolutionaries during the whole revolutionary period. It is
considered that Rousseau announced the French revolution and was
its guide. From Burke to Quinet and Taine, many in the French
revolution recognized precisely his dominant influence. And they
were right, especially if we take into consideration the widely
accepted Francois Furet's opinion on how exactly the Revolution
proclaimed itself the heir of Rousseau and that Rousseau's principle
according to which no one can rule unless authorized by the people,
gathered without differences, all the revolutionary currents. Taking
into account his undoubted contribution and the fact that his
political theory in general, and especially his concept of indivisible
and inalienable popular sovereignty, despite certain internal
contradictions, is the culmination and ultimate logical consequence
of the pre-revolutionary bourgeois political thought, the author's
intention in this work is to show how Rousseauism influenced the
French revolution and the political activities of the revolutionary
leaders.
168
Keywords: French
revolution, Rousseauism,
General Will, National
Sovereignty
JEL Classification: K10,
K19
Article History
Submitted: 25.08.2013.
Resubmitted:
22.01.2014.
Accepted: 23.01.2014.
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
UVOD
Među brojnim francuskim misliocima čija su učenja uticala na Francusku
revoluciju i djelovanje francuskih revolucionara, posebice jakobinaca 1, bio je i Žan
Žak Ruso. I premda postoje različiti stavovi i odnosi tumača ovog svjetskohistorijskog događaja spram istog, te unatoč činjenici da je Ruso bio istovremeno i
hvaljen i okrivljivan, posebice od strane pravnih historičara, valja istaći da
„historijsko djelovanje“ njegovog učenja, baš kao i revolucionarne posljedice njegove
misli, nikada nisu dovedeni u pitanje. 2
Često se smatralo da je upravo Ruso najavio Francusku revoluciju i poslužio
joj kao vodič. Od Berka 3, preko Kinea 4 pa do Tena, 5 mnogi su u Francuskoj
revoluciji prepoznali pretežan uticaj Rusoa. Tako je Kine Rusoa smatrao
Jakobinci, u toku Revolucije, zastupnici revolucionarnih i demokratskih ideja; naziv dobili
po sjedištu njihovog jakobinskog kluba u pariškom samostanu jakobinaca (dominikanaca).
Najznačajniji predstavnici jakobinaca u toku Revolucije bili su: Robespjer, Sen-Žist i Kuton.
(Vidi u: A. Soboul, Francuska revolucija, Naprijed, Zagreb 1989, 469.)
2
S. Nikolić, „O Rusoovoj radikalnosti: sloboda, jednakost, događaj politike“, Filozofija i
društvo, 3/ 2012, 120.
3
Edmund Burke (1729-1797), engleski političar i politički teoretičar. Žestoki protivnik
Francuske revolucije. Poznat po svom djelu Razmišljanja o Francuskoj revoluciji. (A. Soboul,
463.)
4
Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), francuski pisac, historičar i politički teoretičar. Poznat po
značajnom doprinosu razvoju tradicije liberalizma u Francuskoj. Takođe, poznat po svom
učenju kontra religije i crkve, te po veličanju Francuske revolucije. Autor je brojnih radova
među kojima su najpoznatiji: Stvaranje, Novi duh, Moderna Grčka i Revolucije u Italiji.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487409/Edgar-Quinet, 05. august 2013.
5
Hippolyte Taine (1828-1893), francuski mislilac, kritičar i historičar. Jedan od
najznačajnijih predstavnika pozitivizma u 19. stoljeću. Autor brojnih radova među kojima su
posebno značajni Francuski filozofi 19. stoljeća, Povijest engleske književnosti i Filozofija
umjetnosti u Italiji. Djelo koje mu je priskrbilo slavu i epitet svjetski poznatog mislioca i
historičara je djelo pod nazivom: Porijeklo savremene Francuske uz osvrt na Stari režim,
Revoluciju i moderno doba, u kojemu je Ipolit Ten, nakon Francusko-pruskog rata i Pariške
komune, nastojao da otkrije uzroke ovih događanja kao i uzroke ekstremne centralizacije
političke moći u Francuskoj za koje je vjerovao da su doveli do „moderne“ političke
nestabilnosti u Francuskoj. Godine 1878. Ipolit je postao član Francuske akademije
(Académie Française). http://www.dictionaryofarthistorians.org/taineh.htm, 05. August 2013.
1
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zakonodavcem Revolucije, ističući da „Revolucija iz njega niče baš kao što drvo klija
iz sjemena“ i tvrdeći da je Rusoov Društveni ugovor „zakonik“ Revolucije. 6
Tvorcu Društvenog ugovora najprije se pripisivalo da je nadahnuo načela
sprovedena u djelo nakon 10. augusta 1792. godine, a potom i da je inspirisao
revolucionarnu politiku vođenu u periodu od poraza žirondinaca 7 do uspostavljanja
Termidora. 8 Uopćeno govoreći, smatra se da je ovaj rusoistički uticaj dostigao
vrhunac u periodu jakobinske diktature. Opće pravo glasa i uzdizanje neposredne
demokracije kao da su slijedili pouke iz Društvenog ugovora. Politika dirigovane
privrede izgledala je kao da stoji u skladu sa filozofijom sukladno kojoj pojedinci,
prilikom zaključivanja društvenog ugovora, otuđuju ne samo svoje osobe, nego i
dobra, potčinjavajući ih pritom općoj volji. Može se tako vrlo lako učiniti da mjere
koje su preduzete u prilog siromašnih, baštine stavove sadržane u Drugoj raspravi kao
i njenu glasnu kritiku nejednakosti bogatstva. Ako je vjerovati Luj Blanu, ali i nakon
njega, socijalističkoj tradiciji u historiji Revolucije, u drugoj fazi Revolucije
prevladavala je Rusoova misao. 9 Pisac Rasprave o nejednakosti i Društvenog ugovora
bio bi izvor ideje da pravičan politički i društveni poredak mora, ne samo da štiti
pojednice i društvo od samovolje vlasti, nego i da podrazumijeva pozitivnu akciju
jedne starateljske vlastu u prilog najširomašnijih.
Najzad, neki su mislili da su upravo u Društvenom ugovoru pronašli
intelektualni korijen autoritarnog i diktatorskog aspekta jakobinske politike vođene
od juna 1793. do jula 1794. godine. Prema mišljenju Benžamena Konstana,
jakobinske vođe su upravo kod Rusoa i Mablija, crpili ideju da građani treba da
budu potpuno potčinjeni da bi nacija bila suverena. Ipolit Ten je ukazivao na
srodnost između demokratskog samostana koji je Ruso izgradio po uzoru na Spartu
i Rim, s jedne strane, i autoritarne, isposničke i kreposne republike jakobinaca, s
druge strane. 10
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, Kritički rečnik Francuske revolucije, Izdavačka knjižarnica Zorana
Stojanovića, Sremski Karlovci/Novi Sad, 1996, 884.
7
Žirondinci (girondins), vodeća politička grupacija u Zakonodavnoj skupštini, potom
desnica u Konventu; često nazivani i smutljivci. Nakon „beskrvne“ revolucije od 5. Maja
1793. godine većina vodećih žirondinaca je pogubljena. (A. Soboul, 475.)
8
Termidor (le thermidor), 9. Termidor, tj. 27. 07. 1794., dan kada je Konvent zbacio
Robespjera i njegove pristalice s vlasti. Bio je to kraj jakobinske diktature i početak perioda
Termidorske konventske vladavine. (A. Soboul, 475)
9
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 884.
10
Ibid.
6
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�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
U novije doba, Ruso je pak predstavljen kao jedan od začetnika totalitarne
dimenzije Francuske revolucije. Tvrdeći da postoji jedan apsolutan, logičan i jedini
valjan društveni poredak, te da politička volja može i mora pokušati da ga ostvari
uprkos brojnim otporima koje pruža stvarnost, Ruso je, prema mišljenju mnogih
mislilaca, predstavljao izvor vjerovanja u svemoć volje koje je pokretalo
revolucionarni apsolutizam, posebice između 1792. i 1794. godine.
Rusoizam i Francuska revolucija
I uistinu, Francuska revolucija je nosila pečat susreta između jedne velike
misli i jednog historijskog pokreta. I ukoliko bi za to bio potreban makar i jedan
dokaz, isti bismo našli u hvalospjevima kojima su različiti revolucionarni skupštinski
sazivi obasipali Rusoa sve do 1795. godine. Već u oktobru mjesecu 1790. godine
Rusoova bista sa jednim primjerkom Društvenog ugovora postavljena je u salu
Skupštine. U decembru iste godine Skupština je izglasala odluku kojom su Rusoou
odate javne počasti, a u augustu 1791. godine skupštinski zastupnici su nanovo
zahtijevali da se Rusou dodijele „časti koje zahvalna otadžbina podjeljuje velikim
ljudima“. 11 Godine 1793., Robespjer 12, koji je bio oličenje i otjelovljenje Francuske
revolucije, njenih temeljnih ideja i iskustava, „od oduševljenog liberalizma 1789,
Ibid.
Maximilien Robespierre (Maksimilian Robespjer), 1758-1794, advokat iz Arrasa, zastupnik
Trećeg staleža u Državnim staležima (1789), član Pariške komune, Konventa i drugog
Komiteta javnog spasa; jedan od prvih ideologa Jakobinskog kluba, vođa jakobinaca i uz Sen
Žista i Kutona, glavni organizator jakobinske diktature. Čuven po svojoj nepotkupljivosti, a
kasnije i po nemilosrdnosti spram političkih protivnika, te po osobnoj askezi zbog čega je
smatran prototipom idealnog revolucionara. Još u vrijeme rasprava o suđenju kralju
Robespjer je, pozivajući se na vrlinu, zahtijevao da manjina, po moralnom pravu, nametne
svoju volju većini koja nije imala ni snage ni vizije da se uzdigne u najviše sfere političkog,
revolucionarnog idealizma. On je smatrao da karakter i osobno poštenje više utiču na
opredjeljivanje mase, nego talenat i sposobnost, te se pariškoj sankiloteriji uspio nametnuti
upravo kao „nepotkupljivi“. Uloga Robespjera u toku revolucije bila je najviše naglašena u
periodu jakobinske diktature (montanjarske konventske vladavine) koji je bio obilježen
terorom. Robespjer je teror, koji je provodila francuska revolucionarna vlada, pravdao
logikom teške situacije naglašavajući da vrlina kao obilježje ustavne vladavine, u revoluciji
mora biti praćena i terorom. Robespjer je optužen za krvoprolića i diktatorske ambicije,
uhapšen i osuđen na smrt 28. jula 1794. godine. (Vidi u: C. Brachvogel, Robespierre i
Francuska revolucija, Nolit, Beograd 1937, 228.)
11
12
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preko demokratskih težnji 1792, do disciplinovanog razočarenja 1794“ 13 nerijetko je
koristio skupštinsku govornicu da oda priznanje Rusou. Iz ovog perioda naročito je
značajan njegov govor posvećen kultu Vrhovnog bića u kojemu Robespjer odaje
hvalu Rusou i zaziva njegov autoritet. 1794. godine Konvent 14 je usvojio odluku o
premještanju Rusoovih posmrtnih ostataka u pariški Panteon, dok je 1795. godina
takođe obilovala pohvalnim govorima skupštinskih zastupnika o liku i djelu Žan Žak
Rusoa.
Dakle, sve do 1795. godine revolucionarne vođe su prepoznavale sebe u
Rusou čvrsto slijedeći učenja ovog francuskog mislioca. Pa ipak, to nije bilo dovoljno
da bi se tvrdilo kako je Društveni ugovor zakonik Francuske revolucije. Ovo iz razloga
što shvatanje da je Revolucija u klici sadržana u ovom Rusoovom djelu, te da samo
razvija njegove posljedice, znači, između ostalog, i zanemarivanje bitne i neosporne
činjenice da su se sve do 1792. godine, i sami protivnici Francuske revolucije pozivali
na Rusoa i njegova učenja. Oni su nerijetko isticali Rusoovu tvrdnju da se nijedan
razuman čovjek neće upustiti u mijenjanje maksima i ustanova francuske monarhije
koje su učvrćene njenim tristogodišnjim trajanjem. 15 Ovdje valja istaći da se Ruso
užasavao nasilja, te je isticao da bi „sloboda bila odveć skupo plaćena krvlju čak i
jednog jedinog čovjeka“. Građanima Ženeve je poručivao: „ako možete, oslobodite
se, ali budite radije robovi nego oceubojice“. Isticao je i to da je sve legitimno i u
skladu sa vrlinom u odbrani javnog spasa, ali i to da javni spas ne znači ništa ako
pojedinci ne žive u sigurnosti. 16
Neprijatelji Revolucije i Skupštine su isticali da je Ruso prihvatao ideju
predstavništva, ali pod uvjetom da predstavnici budu vezani imperativnim
mandatima. Pozivajući se na Rusoova Razmatranja o vladavini u Poljskoj, oni su
nastojali ukazati na to da je Skupština prekoračila i iznevjerila mandate koji su bili
sadržani u knjigama žalbi. Bez sumnje, u ovom pozivanju na Rusoa i njegova
Razmatranja o vladavini u Poljskoj, da se primjetiti argumentovana strategija čiji je
prevashodni cilj bio da se protivnik dovede u proturječnost sa samim sobom,
odnosno, da se pokaže kako Skupština koja se poziva na Rusoa svojim postupcima
I. Vejvoda, „Robespierre i revolucija“, Filozofska istraživanja, 30/ 1989, 831.
Konvent, revolucionarna skupština koja je djelovala od 21.09.1792. do 26.10.1795.
godine. Najveći značaj ove skupštine ogleda se u činjenici da je ista ukinula monarhiju,
proglasila rebubliku i osudila na smrt kralja Luja XVI, (A. Soboul, 469.)
15
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 886.
16
S. Sokol, Politička i ustavna povijest jakobinskog razdoblja Francuske revolucije, Globus,
Zagreb 1989, 31.
13
14
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�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
ustvari iznevjerava djelo čijim se baštinikom proglašava. 17 Ovakav manevar, koji nije
nužno podrazumijevao stvarno pristajanje uz rusoističke principe, pokazivao je da
bar u očima brojnih protivnika Revolucije, poistovjećivanje rusoizma i rada
Skupštine nije bilo u toj mjeri izvjesno da bi pokušaj njihovog razdvajanja bio
uzaludan. Otuda, počev od 1792. godine, svi oni koji su osuđivali Revoluciju,
prestaju se pozivati na Rusoa.
S druge pak strane, sama činjenica da su se vođe Revolucije sve do 1795.
godine proglašavali Rusoovim nasljednicima, stvarala je isto onoliko problema koliko
ih je i rješavala. Ovo iz razloga što su među različitim političkim frakcijama koje su
se u revolucionarnom periodu smjenjivale na vlasti, postojale duboke, gotovo
nepremostive razlike. 18 I ako su se članovi Ustavotvorne skupštine, potom Robespjer
i jakobinci, te na koncu termidorci, jedni za drugima prepoznavali u Rusou i pozivali
na njegova učenja, postavlja se pitanje u čemu se sastoji rusoističko naslijeđe u
Revoluciji, koje je politike Ruso začetnik, te šta su tačno revolucionarne vođe u
njemu pronalazili?
Da li je, kako se često tvrdilo, riječ o načelima na kojima su revolucionari
temeljili novi poredak? Naime, u peticiji u kojoj se zahtijevalo prenošenje Rusoovih
posmrtnih ostataka u pariški Panteon, za Rusoa se tvrdilo da je jedan od tvoraca
prvog francuskog pisanog ustava iz 1791. godine obzirom da je upravo on u sistem
pretočio načela slobode, jednakosti i suverenost naroda. Međutim, Ustavom iz 1791.
godine uspostavljen je predstavnički sistem. I premda je odlučno osuđivao
predstavništvo, Ruso je ipak bio proglašen utemeljiteljem jednog ustava koji je
predviđao uspostavljanje predstavništva. Istina, Ruso je u svojim Razmatranjima o
vladavini u Poljskoj dopuštao izvjestan oblik predstavništva, ali pod uvjetom da isto
bude utemeljeno na imperativnom mandatu.
S druge pak strane, Ustavotvorna skupština već u ljeto 1789. godine
odbacuje načelo imperativnog mandata i ova prvotna odluka tokom cijele Revolucije
nikada nije dovedena u pitanje. Tako je predstavnička skupština, ta centralna
ustanova koju je uspostavila Francuska revolucija, bila tuđa rusoizmu. Ovo iz razloga
V. Stanovčić, „Montesquieu, Rousseau i Francuska revolucija“, Zbornik radova Francuska
revolucija – ljudska prava i politička demokracija nakon dvjesto godina,1991, 49.
18
Detaljnije o razlikama među političkim frakcijama, te njihovom djelovanju u toku
revolucionarnog perioda vidi: E. Dimitrov, „Ustavi i politički režimi Francuske građanske
revolucije“, Zbornik radova Francuska revolucija – ljudska prava i politička demokracija
nakon dvjesto godina, 1991, 127-143.
17
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što je cjelokupna teorija o općoj volji kod Rusoa pretpostavljala ili odsustvo
predstavništva ili pak imperativni mandat. Sukladno istoj, zakon su morali donositi
svi, jer su samo u tom slučaju podanici bili ujedno i tvorci zakona, te je svaki čovjek
bio slobodan. U onom pak momentu, kada počnu da odlučuju i zakone donose
predstavnici naroda, a ne sam narod, više se ne uvažava središnji princip rusoističke
političke teorije. 19
Opća volja i predstavništvo - izražavanje opće volje kroz predstavničko
tijelo
Već prilikom okupljanja Skupštine državnih staleža, a posebice nakon
njenog konstituisanja u Nacionalnu skupštinu, nameće se ideja da skupštinski
zastupnici izražavaju opću volju. Tako u ogledu koji izraz opća volja uživa, treba
zacijelo primjetiti naslijeđe rusoizma.
Sukladno tradicionalnom gledištu, Skupština državnih staleža prenosila je
„glas“ naroda i kraljevine. S jednim glasom moglo se slagati, on se mogao slušati, ali
mu se nije moralo u cjelosti udovoljavati. Međutim, ukoliko narod odluči umjesto
„glasa“ da formuliše „volju“, jedini zadatak koji preostaje jeste da se ista izvrši. U tom
smislu, može se reći da revolucionarno gledište, koje za razliku od tradicionalnog,
podrazumijeva strogu podređenost izvršne vlasti zakonodavnoj, izražava rusoistički
uticaj. Pa ipak, valja istaći da se ovdje taj uticaj sprovodi posredstvom formulacija i
šematskih pojmova (opća volja, suveren), a ne preciznom artikulacijom Rusoovih
zamisli. To se najbolje da primjetiti u nastojanju skupštinskog zastupnika Sen Žista 20 da pokaže kako je Ustav iz 1791. godine legitiman premda je nailazio na
protivljenje naroda, pa otuda nije niti predstavljao izraz opće volje. 21
Sen – Žist je isticao da je Ruso ostao nedorečen kada je općoj volji pripisao
svojstva neprenosivosti i nezastarivosti. On je smatrao da je istu trebalo odrediti i kao
pravičnu i razumnu, ističući da nije manji zločin kada narod tiraniše samog sebe od
onog kada ga tiraniše neko drugi. Sen-Žist je, dakle, zamjerao Rusou što nije istakao,
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 887.
Saint-Just Louis (Sen-Žist Luj), 1767-1794, jedan od vodećih političkih lidera u toku
Francuske revolucije. Bio je najmlađi član Konventa i Komiteta javnog spasa. Isticao se kao
žestoki protivnik kralja i monarhije. Bio je jedan od najvjernijih Robespjerovih saboraca. (A.
Soboul, 474.)
21
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 889.
19
20
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�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
da volja naroda, da bi uistinu obavezivala, mora da bude pravična i razumna. 22
Međutim, ovdje valja istaći da je ovaj revolucionarni vođa gotovo u potpunosti
previdio čitavo jedno poglavlje Društvenog ugovora koje je Ruso posvetio objašnjenju
zašto opća volja ne može da bude nepravična i u kojemu njegova cjelokupna
argumentacija teži da pokaže kako nije moguće da narod sam sebe tiraniše. 23 Shodno
tome, nesporazum u pogledu Rusoa je potpun obzirom da Sen – Žist nije uočio
jednu od ključnih tačaka Rusoove teorije o općoj volji.
Njegovo pisanje o Rusoovoj teoriji o općoj volji zanimljivo je i zbog toga što
budući montanjarski vođa kod Rusoa nije pronašao ideju da se ne mora voditi
računa o voljama „koje su sklone odstupanju“. Pomenuta ideja poslužiće kasnije
pravdanju jakobinske diktature, pa bi se otuda moglo pomisliti da je ona u izvjesnom
pogledu sadržana u Rusoovom učenju. Međutim, Sen – Žist je ne uočava, pa čak i
kritikuje Rusoa da ju nije niti formulisao. I upravo ovo je dokaz da ne treba
precjenjivati uticaj preciznog sadržaja rusoističke političke teorije na francuske
revolucionare. Jer upravo oni su najčešće u predmetnoj teoriji čitali i razumijevali
princip da je opća volja izvor svekolike vlasti.
Treba li onda u zahtjevima za neposrednom demokracijom i u pretočavanju
iste u praksu između 1792. i 1794. godine, gledati i prepoznati pravu primjenu
rusoističke teorije? Neosporno je da je Rusoova misao odigrala u tom pogledu
značajnu ulogu. Već su se koncem 1789. i početkom 1790. godine brojni francuski
novinari, među kojima i poznati Lustalo, ali i rado slušani govornici poput opata
Fošea, koristili tekstovima iz Društvenog ugovora da bi pokazali kako se, budući da je
suverenost naroda neotuđiva, uloga građanina ne može i ne smije svesti na biranje
predstavnika i prepuštanje njima da upravljaju i odlučuju onako kako im je volja.
No, da bi se na pravi način procijenila priroda Rusoovog doprinosa, treba razmotriti
zahtjeve i praksu kroz koje se izražava princip neotuđive narodne suverenosti.
Kod pobornika narodne stvari neotuđivost suverenosti se izražava, prije
svega, u zahtjevu da zakoni koje priređuju i predlažu predstavnici budu potvrđeni od
strane naroda pri čemu su predstavnici tek priređivači zakona, a narod je taj koji ih
svojim odobravanjem, usvaja. Često se pritom navodi formulacija iz Društvenog
ugovora koja glasi: „Svaki zakon koji narod sam ne potvrdi je ništavan i ne smatra se
S. Just, Esprit de la rèvolution et de la constitution de France, Chez Beuvin, Libraire, rue
de Rohan, Paris, 1791, 164, http://books.google.ba, 7. august 2013.
23
Ž.Ž.Ruso, Društveni ugovor, Školska knjiga, Zagreb, 1978, 109-113.
22
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zakonom“. 24 Ovo načelo ratifikacije, odnosno, potvrđivanja zakona od strane naroda
sadržano je i u Ustavu iz 1793. godine i takva jedna ustanova, bez sumnje potiče iz
Rusoove misli. 25
I premda bi se na prvi pogled moglo učiniti teško spojivim sa načelom
striktne autonomije naroda, Ruso precizira da prijedlozi zakona ne dolaze od strane
samih građana, nego inicijativa po tom pitanju pripada jedino vladi. Godine 1793.
francuski revolucionari se ograničavaju da na predstavnike prenesu pravo koje je
Ruso dodijelio vladi, odnosno izvršnoj vlasti, ali princip i dalje ostaje isti. Treba se
stoga složiti da je rusoizam pružio Revoluciji ideju o jednoj konkretnoj i jasno
definisanoj instituciji; ratifikaciji, odnosno potvrđivanju zakona od strane naroda.
Međutim, jednako tako treba istaći i činjenicu da Ustav iz 1793. godine nikada nije
stupio na snagu, pa tako ovo autentično naslijeđe rusoizma nije nikada niti
primjenjeno.
Osim prava potvrđivanja zakona, za narodne aktiviste suverenost naroda
podrazumijeva i pravo stalnog nadzora nad predstavnicima, te njihovog opozivanja
svaki čas, pa otuda i značaj koji su sankiloti 26 pridavali trajnom radu sekcija kao
stalnih radnih skupštinskih tijela. Kada je u septembru 1793. godine takav rad
ukinut, sankiloti su širom Francuske organizovali sekcijska udruženja čiji je zadatak
bio da se svakodnevno okupljaju i raspravljaju o odlukama Skupštine. Ovaj zahtjev
za stalnom kontrolom nad izabranim predstavnicima vođe sankilota su potkrepljivali
Ibid, 149.
Detaljnije vidi: čl. 56-60. Ustava iz 1793. godine, O izradi zakona, u: Š. Kurtović,
Hrestomatija opće povijesti prava i države, Novi vijek, Zagreb, 2000, 149.
26
Sankiloti (les sans-culottes), rodoljubi, revolucionari, “bezgaćnici“, naziv za građane
Francuske koji su u doba revolucije nosili duge hlače, a ne kao plemići hlače do koljena.
Njihova krilatica je bila: „Kruha i slobode“. A. Soboul, 474. U Kritičkom rečniku Francuske
revolucije, autora Fransoa Firea i Mone Ozuf, sankilot je opisan kao neko ko teži zajedništvu
i ko se bratski obraća svakom građaninu i svakoj građanki. On želi da bude jednostavan, sa
malim zadovoljan, ljubazan i pristupačan. Obraćanje na ti za sankilota je politički gest.
Bratski usmjeren, sankilot smatra da je potpuno opravdana njegova nemilosrdna mržnja
spram aristokrate koji je samoživ i gord. Obzirom da je odlučio da se postavi izvan
društvenog ugovora, o čemu svjedoči i njegovo napuštanje otadžbine, aristokrata zaslužuje da
ga mrze i proganjaju. Za sankilota, društvo je cjelina koju predstavlja jedna jedina i nedjeljiva
republikanska država. Sankilot društveni svijet vidi kao dopunjavanje i bratstvo. S tim u vezi,
on ne teži toliko preobražaju društvenog poretka, koliko tome da isto postane pravičnije. (F.
Fire, M.Ozuf, 419-421. )
24
25
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�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
pozivanjem na Rusoa i njegovu čuvenu formulaciju po kojoj se „volja ne
predstavlja“. 27 Za sankilote, predstavnici su tek opunomoćenici naroda. Pa ipak valja
istaći da nas ovakav njihov stav i pomenuta formulacija ne bi smjeli navesti na
zaključak da oblici i procedure narodne kontrole koje su oni zahtijevali, potiču od
Rusoa.
U Razmatranjima o vladavini u Poljskoj hvalom je obasuta kontrola
izabranih predstavnika koja se u cjelosti temelji na imperativnom mandatu. No,
sankiloti, ne samo da nisu preuzeli ideju o imperativnom mandatu, nego su se i
precizni zahtjevi koje su formulisali, temeljili na posve drugačijoj viziji
predstavništva. I ako nadzor treba da bude trajan, a opozivost diskreciona, to je iz
razloga što se izabrani predstavnici ne smatraju nosiocima jedne precizne, unaprijed
formulisane volje. Narodna volja ne prethodi predstavništvu, pa se narod svaki put
mora uvjeriti da mu donesene odluke odgovaraju. Procedure koje se predlažu su na
izvjestan način protivteža diskrecionoj vlasti koja je predstavnicima prešutno
priznata. Pa, imajući u vidu sve rečeno, ne može se tvrditi, kao što to čini određen
broj historičara Revolucije, među kojima posebno Albert Sobul, da sankiloti, premda
formalno ne preuzimaju teoriju o imperativnom mandatu, predlažu procedure koje
znače i izlaze na isto. Ovo posebice iz razloga što nadzor i stalni pritisak naroda na
njegove predstavnike proizilaze iz shvatanja predstavništva koje je posve različito od
onog koje brani Ruso. 28
Rusoizam i Jakobinci
Da li su jakobinske vođe svojim shvatanjima bili bliži Rusoovim poukama
nego što su to bili žirondinci i sankiloti? U svojim govorima za skupštinskom
govornicom Robespjer se nerijetko pozivao na Rusoa. Istina, ni on ne preuzima
teoriju o imperativnom mandatu, ali koristi Rusoa sa ciljem da ukaže predstavnicima
da oni ne smiju imati drugačiju volju negoli je volja naroda. Ustvari su stavovi
Robespjera i njegovo pozivanje na Rusoa uveliko zavisili od političkog oportuniteta. I
on je, poput Sjejesa, 29 u raspravi o kraljevskom vetu koja je vođena s jeseni 1789.
Ž.Ž. Ruso, 149.
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 890.
29
Sieyes Emmanuel (1748-1836), opat, član Ustavotvorne skupštine i Konventa, jedan od
direktora u vrijeme vladavine Direktorija, Drugi konzul za Konzulata, poznat po glasovitoj
brošuri Šta je treći stalež? (A. Soboul, 474.)
27
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godine, pobijao ideju o prizivu na narod mimo volje njegovih predstavnika
smatrajući da bi ista, u tom trenutku, ojačala kraljevsku vlast. 30
U augustu mjesecu 1791. godine kada se u Skupštini raspravljalo o reviziji
ustavnih odredbi, on se pozivao na Rusoa i njegov Društveni ugovor, a sve u cilju
suprotstavljanja skupštinskom zastupniku Tureu koji je insistirao na činjenici da
narod svoju vlast može vršiti samo putem delegacije odnosno predstavništva.
Pozivanje na Rusoa u ovom je slučaju poslužilo Robespjeru u borbi protiv fejana. 31
Dvije godine poslije, u proljeće 1793. godine, u jeku političkog sukoba između
žirondinaca i montanjara, Robespjer se nanovo poziva na Rusoa,ovaj put na njegovu
teoriju predstavništva. Tada on nastoji da se osloni na narodnu vlast koja mu je bila
potrebna kako bi što lakše srušio Žirondu. S druge pak strane, samo nekoliko
sedmica nakon uklanjanja žirondinaca iz Skupštine, on brani prava predstavništva
ističući da „sve što narod može zahtijevati od Konventa jeste da se isti drži pravca u
kojemu se odvija Revolucija, što ovaj u datom trenutku i čini“. U februaru mjesecu
1794. godine, nakon što je ugušio narodni pokret, Robespjer je izjavio da
„demokracija nije nipošto stanje u kojemu narod neprekidno okupljen, sam rješava
sve javne poslove“. Shodno navedenom, da se primjetiti da Robespjer zaziva Rusoovo
podozrenje u prestavništvo svaki put kada mu se učini da se „Skupština ne drži
pravca u kojemu se Revolucija razvija“. Kada se pak kreće u dobrom pravcu i kada su
na „komandnim položajima“ dobri upravljači, pritom se misli na političke
istomišljenike, rusoizam iščezava, a naglasak se stavlja na nužnost predstavništva. 32
Ovdje valja istaći i to da jakobinci, koji su „diktaturu javnog spasa“ odnosno
„revolucionarnu vladavinu“ 33 potajno smatrali posljedicom rusoističke političke
teorije, nikada pred Skupštinom nisu opravdavali ovaj oblik vladavine pozivanjem na
Rusoa i njegovo shvatanje društvenog ugovora. Čak naprotiv. U decembru mjesecu
1793. godine Robespjer je za skupštinskom govornicom izjavio da je teorija o
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 890.
Fejani (Fejantinci), ustavni rojalisti i umjereni demokrati; svoj klub su osnovali u bivšem
samostanu fejantinaca, cistercitskog reda. Na početku Francuske revolucije veoma uticajna
politička frakcija; kasnije, posebice u vrijeme montanjarske konventske vladavine, fejantinac pogrdan naziv za sve neprijatelje Revolucije. (A. Soboul, 467.)
32
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 890.
33
Detaljnije o uspostavljanju privremene revolucionarne vlasti, njenoj organizaciji i trajanju
vidi u: F. Maloy Anderson, The constitutions and the other selected documents illustrative of
the history of France 1789-1907, The B. W. Wilson Company, Minneapolis, 1908, 194204.
30
31
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�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
revolucionarnoj vladavini nova koliko i Revolucija koja ju je donijela na svjetlo dana,
pritom ističući da za njom ne treba tragati u knjigama političkih mislilaca koji
Francusku revoluciju nisu niti predvidjeli. 34 Ustvari se revolucionarna vladavina i
apsolutno podređivanje individualnih prava volji koja je proglašena za opću mogla
ponajbolje opravdati upravo pozivanjem na Rusoa i njegov Društveni ugovor. Pa
ipak, to se nije desilo.
Zašto su se jakobinske vođe, Robespjer i Sen – Žist, lišili pozivanja na Rusoa
kojega su navodili u svim drugim prilikama, ako su već vjerovali da je i u ovoj stvari
bilo moguće založiti njegov autoritet? Tu šutnju moguće je razumjeti jedino
ispitujući sadržaj njihovih govora o revolucionarnoj vladavini iz kojeg je vidljivo da
se za njenim opravdanjem nije tragalo u složenoj i obimnoj teoriji o potpunom
otuđivanju individualnih prava u korist opće volje, nego u jednostavnoj, pa čak i
banalnoj šemi o neprijateljima Revolucije protiv kojih se, posebice temeljem Zakona
o sumnjivim licima, vodio rat, uz sve prijeteće slike i strasti koje ona
podrazumijeva. 35
To zasigurno ne znači da je teror 36 objektivan proizvod rata i
revolucionarnih okolnosti, jer ovdje predstave i revolucionarni mentalitet igraju
odlučujuću ulogu. Stoga, ukoliko se želi razumjeti šta je ustvari omogućilo diktaturu
javnog spasa i učinilo istu prihvatljivom u očima njenih poklonika, treba se obratiti
mentalnim šemama rata i neprijatelja, a ne Društvenom ugovoru. Tek tada postaje
jasno da se teror kao sistem temelji na dvostrukom principu; tretiranju političkog
protivnika kao neprijatelja i odsustvu čvrste definicije ovog potonjeg, kao i to da je
upravo vlast ta koja svaki put zacrtava liniju između građana koji, budući da
pripadaju narodu, imaju pravo na zakonsku zaštitu i neprijatelja Revolucije koji ne
pripadaju narodu i „od kojih se dobija, ali i kojima se istovremeno upućuje samo
olovo“, pri čemu se ne pravi razlika u tome da li je neprijatelj oličen u rojalistima,
bijesnima, hebertistima, zelenašima, jer svi su oni „nevaljalci“ za jakobince. Imajući
sve ovo u vidu može se reći da je teror u svojoj suštini zapravo sistem isključivanja u
kojemu je linija podjele postala posve fluidna i podložna manipulaciji od strane
upravljača - jakobinaca. Međutim, valja istaći da isti nije bio dio rusoističkog
C. Brachvogel, 62.
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 892.
36
Teror (la terreur – strah, užas, strahovlada), naziv za revolucionarnu jakobinsku vladavinu
koja je započela padom Žironde 31. maja 1793. godine, i trajala do obaranja Robespjera i
jakobinaca, 27. .7. 1794. godine. (A. Soboul, 475.)
34
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naslijeđa. I zapravo, treba vjerovati Robespjeru kada izjavljuje da revolucionarna
vladavina ne potiče iz knjiga filozofa, pa tako niti iz Rusoovog Društvenog ugovora. 37
Znači li to onda da rusoizam nije imao uticaja na Francusku revoluciju? Teško,
obzirom da se Revolucija nije svodila na protuplemićku strast i redefinisanje granice
između naroda i njegovih, te neprijatelja Revolucije. Osim toga, drugi značajni
elementi revolucionarnog mentaliteta nosili su pečat rusoizma. I premda ne pruža
određene političke tehnike i procedure, Rusoovo djelo je doprinijelo obrazovanju
jednog stanja duha. Treba istaći i to da Ruso nije bio „zakonodavac“ Revolucije,
kako to navodi Kine, međutim, na nju vrši ono što se može nazvati autoritativnim
duhovnim uticajem.
Na koncu valja istaći da su se, uprkos uspostavljanju predstavničke vladavine
u toku Francuske revolucije i kršenju preciznih Rusoovih uputstava sadržanih u
Društvenom ugovoru, brojni pobornici predstavničkog sistema prepoznali u Rusou i
odali mu hvalu za uspostavljanje principa novog sistema vladavine. Otuda se ne
može zadržati na tvrdnji da su francuski revolucionari pogrešno pročitali i razumjeli
Rusoa, nego treba pokušati pronaći razloge koji su doveli do takvog razumijevanja.
Naime, oni su u predstavničkoj vladavini, prije svega, vidjeli posljedicu jednakosti
voljâ. Obzirom da su individualne volje supstancijalno iste, niti jedan pojedinac
nema, po prirodi, pravo svoju volju nametati drugima, odnosno vladati, ukoliko ga
za to nisu ovlastile volje njemu jednakih i ravnih. 38 Ovakvim se zaključivanjem
predstavništvo najčešće opravdavalo u spisima i govorima njegovih pobornika.
Dakako, predstavnička vladavina je uvela razliku između onih koji upravljaju i onih
kojima se upravlja, ali valja istaći da to nije bila prirodna razlika. Jer, oni koji
upravljaju ne zauzimaju svoja mjesta temeljem svoje naročite prirode ili pak svojih
posebnih svojstava, nego samo zato što su ih za to ovlastili pojedinci koji su im
supstancijalno jednaki i istovjetni. Shodno tome, predstavništvo se, u krajnjoj liniji,
temelji na supstancijalnoj jednakosti i istovjetnosti upravljača i onih kojima se
upravlja, čak i onda kada isto zadržava međusobnu razliku u ulogama ili pak
položaju. Rusoov Društveni ugovor ocrtava strukturu u kojoj su podanici zapravo
upravljači, pa su ta dva izraza gotovo istovjetna. Razumljivo je stoga zašto je, počev
od Ustavotvorne skupštine, pa do Konventa, Revolucija sebe proglašavala Russoovim
baštinikom i zašto je princip sukladno kojemu niko ne može da vlada ako nije
ovlašten od strane naroda, okupljao, bez razlike, sve revolucionarne struje. 39
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 892.
Detaljnije vidi: S. Sokol, 23-25.
39
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 894.
37
38
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�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
Isto se može reći i o ideji da je suverena vlast nedjeljiva. „Volja je opća ili to
nije; ona je volja naroda u cjelini ili samo jednog njegovog dijela“, ističe Ruso. 40
Uticaj ovog principa na francuske revolucionare bio je jedan od razloga zbog kojih su
oni u svim uzastopnim revolucionaarnim skupštinama odbacivali bilo kakav oblik
ravnoteže među vlastima, odnosno, bilo kakav sistem teže i protivteže. Ali ovdje
treba precizno razaznati u čemu se tačno sastoji doprinos rusoizma. Ovo iz razloga
što ideja da je suverena vlast nedjeljiva nije Rusoov izum. Naime, cjelokupna
teorijska i praktična tradicija francuskog monarhijskog apsolutizma prožeta je
načelom sukladno kojemu postoji samo jedna najviša vlast, i to kraljevska, kojoj su
sve ostale podređene. Shodno tome, upravo je apsolutistička monarhija nametnula u
Francuskoj ideju i činjenicu da postoji samo jedno mjesto za suverenu vlast, pa se
otuda Rusoovo zavještanje Revoluciji ne sastoji baš sasvim u ideji da je suverenost
nedjeljiva. 41 Prije bi se moglo reći da je ono mnogo više sadržano u njegovoj ideji da
je narod jedan, te da kao pojedinac ima jednu volju. Međutim, i ovakvo shvatanje
nije neosporno niti općeprihvaćeno, posebice ako se uzme u obzir da su brojni drugi
mislioci upravo u narodu vidjeli nesređeno mnoštvo pojedinaca u sukobu ili pak
skup podijeljen različitim mišljenjima i interesima. Pa ipak, valja istaći da je upravo
Ruso, insistirajući više nego drugi mislioci na tome da je narod u suštini jedno,
odnosno, da može biti objedinjen, pritom ga definišući kao subjekta lišenog volje,
doprinio da odlučna operacija koju je sprovodila Revolucija, postane intelektualno
moguća i prihvatljiva, te da se oni koji izražavaju volju naroda postave na mjesto koje
je nekada zauzimao kralj. 42
Osim Rusoove teorije o organizaciji vlasti čiju osnovu čine opća volja i
načelo narodne suverenosti, snažan uticaj na francuske revolucionare, a posebice na
jakobinske vođe, izvršile su i njegove ideje o dobroti naroda i ljubavi koju mu treba
ukazivati, te o vrlini. Vezano prve ideje, Robespjer je nerijetko isticao da mu je ista
pomogla da razumije veliku moralnu i političku istinu koju je Ruso najavio još
mnogo prije Revolucije, a to je da ljudi uvijek iskreno vole samo one koji i njih vole;
da je samo narod dobar, pravičan i uzvišen, a da su, s druge strane, korupcija i
tiranija isključiva svojstva onih koji narod preziru, potcrtavajući na koncu, da niko o
Ž. Ž. Ruso, 107.
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 894.
42
Ibid.
40
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narodu nije pružio ispravniju ideju od Rusoa, jer niko narod nije više ni volio. 43
Ruso je bio opsjednut idejom o dobroti čovjeka, te idejom o značaju i vrijednosti
osobnih osjećanja. Zlo je posmatrao kao spoljašnjost; kao ogledalo u odnosu čovjeka
sa drugim, pritom čvrsto vjerujući da zlo ne može postojati u samoj ljudskoj prirodi.
Slijedom navedenog, preporučivao je povratak prirodi u svakom smislu. Takođe valja
istaći da je Ruso civilizaciji pretpostavljao prirodno stanje u kojemu je svaki čovjek
dobar, pritom naglašavajući da je to prirodno stanje narušeno porocima koji se stiču
putem nauka i umjetnosti, uz konstataciju da je osnovni izvor poroka nejednakost
koja vlada među ljudima. 44
Široko prihvaćena među francuskim revolucionarima bila je i Rusoova ideja
o vrlini. Konkretizovana kroz ideju da republika zahtijeva vrlinu i žrtvovanje
pojedinačnih interesa javnom dobru, ona je zauzimala centralno mjesto u okviru
političke misli 18. stoljeća. Istina, Robespjer je, poput ostalih revolucionarnih vođa,
ovu ideju više vezivao za Monteskjea i Mablija. Pa ipak, nikada nije propustio istaći
da se Rusoov doprinos po pitanju iste sastojao u posebnom načinu na koji ovaj
upotrebljava izraz vrlina, povezujući klasičnu republikansku vrlinu sa dobrotom.
Naime, slika spartanske ili pak rimske vrline podrazumijeva strogu odlučnost, pa čak
i krutost u predanosti javnoj stvari. Za Rusoa pak, vrlina, iznad svega, označava i
dobrotu, osjećajnost i blagost u privatnom ponašanju. I premda Ruso ne komentariše
izričito odnos između ova dva aspekta vrline, valja istaći da njihovo difuzno spajanje
podaruje spartanskoj vrlini čari subjektivnosti i osjećajnosti što je, bez sumnje,
odigralo odlučujuću ulogu u naklonosti koju je ideal kreposne republike uživao
koncem 18. stoljeća. Takođe, valja istaći i to da je godine 1793/1794, upravo ovaj
spoj blagosti ponašanja u privatnom životu i nepopustljivosti u borbi za javni spas,
obilježio mentalitet kako jakobinskih vođa, tako i sankilota. O tome svjedoči i
tvrdnja jednog od najpoznatijih revolucionarnih vođa, Sen – Žista, da su oba ova
svojstva vezana za „revolucionarnog“ čovjeka koji je, prema njegovom mišljenju,
neumoljiv prema nevaljalcima i neprijateljima Revolucije, ali je osjećajan i toliko
ponosan na slavu svoje otadžbine koju ljubomorno čuva na način da ništa ne radi
nepromišljeno. Ovo odsustvo razlike između privatne moralnosti i javne vrline koje
je obilježilo jedan dio revolucionarnog mentaliteta, svakako je proizvod rusoizma. 45
D. P. Jordan, The Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1989, 32-35.
44
V. Radaković, „Autoportret filozofa u kontekstu prosvjetiteljstva“ Filozofija i društvo, 3/
2012, 201.
45
F. Fire, M. Ozuf, 894.
43
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�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
ZAKLJUČAK
I premda Ruso nije bio zakonodavac Francuske revolucije, kako je to tvrdio
Kine, ipak je neosporan uticaj njegovog učenja na ovaj epohalni događaj i djelovanje
revolucionarnih vođa. Istina, njegov Društveni ugovor nije bio program Revolucije
obzirom da revolucionari nisu u potpunosti slijedili njegova precizna uputstva, pa
ipak su u istom pronašli opća načela o prirodi čovjeka, društvu i državi, koja su
primjenjivali u toku revolucionarnih previranja. U konačnici, i nije nužno da odnos
između jednog misaonog djela i akcije bude shvaćen na način na koji bi, sukladno
linearnoj teporalnoj šemi, jedan prethodno smišljen projekat bio potom u potpunosti
i primjenjen. Uočili su to dobro svi teoretičari Francuske revolucije koji su isticali da
Društveni ugovor nije doveo do Revolucije, nego da je naprotiv, upravo Revolucija
mnogima objasnila Društveni ugovor. Pa ipak, valja istaći da je ovo Rusoovo djelo
pružilo akterima Revolucije sredstvo koje im je omogućilo da imenima označe i
ispravno pojme nove realnosti u koje ih je historija bacila, te da se u njima snađu i
osmisle svoje djelovanje.
Uticaj Rusoa bio je vidljiv i kod zasjedanja Skupštine državnih staleža, a
potom i njenog pretvaranja u Nacionalnu skupštinu. Njegov pojam opće volje, ma
koliko u duhovima neodređen, omogućio je skupštinskim zastupnicima koje
revolucionarna događanja uvlače u dotad neviđenu situaciju, da promišljaju i
imenuju entitet koji zasniva njihovu legitimnost. Takođe, Ruso je revolucionarima
koji su godine 1792/1793, preuzeli formulaciju „volja se ne predstavlja“, pružio
sredstvo da promisle i opravdaju činjeničnu situaciju pritiska naroda na Skupštinu
kao predstavničko tijelo. Osim pojma opće volje, revolucionarne vođe su preuzele i
Rusoovo načelo nedjeljive i neotuđive narodne suverenosti. Ovo načelo korišteno je
svaki put kada se željelo ukazati na to da se uloga građanina u postupku odlučivanja
ne može i ne smije svesti na biranje predstavnika i prepuštanje njima da upravljaju i
odlučuju shodno vlastitoj volji. Iz Rusoove misli potiče i ustanova ratifikacije
odnosno potvrđivanje zakona od strane naroda koju su prihvatili revolucionari,
nerijetko se pozivajući na formulaciju iz Društvenog ugovora koja glasi:“Svaki zakon
koji narod sam ne potvrdi je ništavan i ne smatra se zakonom“.
Ruso je uticao i na revolucionarni mentalitet tokom 1793 i 1794. godine, a
njegova ideja o vrlini koju je vezivao za strogu odlučnost u predanosti javnoj stvari, s
jedne strane, i dobrotu, osjećajnost i blagost u privatnom životu, s druge strane,
gradila je revolucionarnog čovjeka. Imajući u vidu sve navedeno, na koncu se može
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1
183
�Emina Huseinspahić
istaći da je Rusoov uticaj na revolucionarni mentalitet i djelovanje revolucionarnih
vođa provođen posredstvom izvjesnog broja općih ideja i principa koji su, osim opće
volje i neotuđive narodne suverenosti, obuhvatali preporod, autonomiju i jedinstvo
naroda, jednakost i slobodu, te dobrotu naroda i ideal vrline. Njihova relativna
neodređenost na odlučujući način je doprinijela njihovoj privlačnosti, pa otuda ne
čudi što su isti spajani sa konkretnim političkim rješenjima u toku Revolucije. Otuda
se, bez sumnje, može reći da su francuski revolucionari kod Rusoa našli nadahnuće
za izvjesna politička rješenja, ali ne i konkretne političke i ustavne tehnike. No, to ne
umanjuje značaj njegovog učenja i uticaj istog na revolucionarne vođe, niti umanjuje
činjenicu da je njegova politička teorija u cjelini, a posebice njegova koncepcija
nedjeljive i neotuđive narodne suverenosti, uprkos pojedinim unutrašnjim
suprotnostima, vrhunac i krajnja konsekvencija predrevolucionarne građanske
političke misli.
LITERATURA
Knjige:
Anderson, Maloy, Frank, The constitutions and the other selected documents
illustrative of the history of France 1789-1907, The B. W. Wilson Company,
Minneapolis, 1908.
Brachvogel, Carry, Robespierre i Francuska revolucija, Nolit, Beograd, 1937.
Fire, Fransoa, Ozuf, Mona, Kritički rečnik Francuske revolucije, Izdavačka
knjižarnica Zorana Stojanovića, Sremski Karlovci/Novi Sad, 1996.
Jordan, David, The Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre, University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1989.
Just, Saint, Esprit de la rèvolution et de la constitution de France, Chez Beuvin,
Libraire, rue de Rohan, Paris, 1791.
Kurtović, Šefko, Hrestomatija opće povijesti prava i države, Novi vijek, Zagreb,
2000.
184
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko
djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
Članci:
Dimitrov, Evgeni, „Ustavi i politički režimi Francuske građanske revolucije“,
Zbornik radova Francuska revolucija – ljudska prava i politička demokracija nakon
dvjesto godina, JAZU, Zagreb 1991.
Nikolić, Srđan „O Rusoovoj radikalnosti: sloboda, jednakost, događaj politike“,
Filozofija i društvo, 3/2012.
Stanovčić, Vojislav, „Montesquieu, Rousseau i Francuska revolucija“, Zbornik
radova Francuska revolucija – ljudska prava i politička demokracija nakon dvjesto
godina, JAZU, Zagreb 1991.
Vejvoda, Ivan, „Robespierre i revolucija“, Filozofska istraživanja, 30/1989, 831.
Radaković, Vanja, „Autoportret filozofa u kontekstu prosvjetiteljstva“ Filozofija i
društvo, 3/ 2012.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1
185
�
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The French Revolution and Rousseauism - Review of the Impact of Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Teaching to the Political Activities of French Revolutionaries (1789-1795) Francuska revolucija i Rusoizam – osvrt na uticaj učenja Žan Žak Rusoa na političko djelovanje francuskih revolucionara (1789-1795)
Author
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HUSEINSPAHIĆ, Emina
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The French Revolution was preceded by a long intellectual and ideological preparation that was significantly marked by works of Jean Jacques Rousseau, especially by his Social contract. Hence, the Rousseau is one of many french thinkers whose teachings influenced this epochal event and inspired french revolutionaries during the whole revolutionary period. It is considered that Rousseau announced the French revolution and was its guide. From Burke to Quinet and Taine, many in the French revolution recognized precisely his dominant influence. And they were right, especially if we take into consideration the widely accepted Francois Furet's opinion on how exactly the Revolution proclaimed itself the heir of Rousseau and that Rousseau's principle according to which no one can rule unless authorized by the people, gathered without differences, all the revolutionary currents. Taking into account his undoubted contribution and the fact that his political theory in general, and especially his concept of indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty, despite certain internal contradictions, is the culmination and ultimate logical consequence of the pre-revolutionary bourgeois political thought, the author's intention in this work is to show how Rousseauism influenced the French revolution and the political activities of the revolutionary leaders. Sažetak: Francuskoj revoluciji prethodila je duža intelektualna i ideološka priprema koju su u značajnoj mjeri obilježila djela Žan Žak Rusoa, posebice njegov Drušveni ugovor. Otuda je Ruso jedan od brojnih francuskih mislilaca čija su učenja uticala na ovaj epohalni događaj i koja su nadahnjivala francuske revolucionare u toku čitavog revolucionarnog perioda. Često se smatralo da je upravo Ruso najavio Francusku revoluciju i poslužio joj kao vodič. Od Berka, preko Kinea, pa do Tena, mnogi su u Francuskoj revoluciji prepoznali upravo njegov pretežan uticaj. I bili su u pravu, posebice ako se ima u vidu i široko prihvaćeno mišljenje Fransoa Firea o tome kako se upravo Revolucija proglasila Rusoovim baštinikom, te kako je Rusoov princip sukladno kojemu niko ne može da vlada ukoliko nije ovlašten od strane naroda, okupljao, bez razlike, sve revolucionarne struje. Uzimajući u obzir Rusoov nesumnjiv doprinos kao i činjenicu da je njegova politička teorija u cjelini, a posebice njegova koncepcija nedjeljive i neotuđive narodne suverenosti, uprkos pojedinim unutrašnjim suprotnostima, vrhunac i krajnja konsekvencija predrevolucionarne građanske političke misli, namjera je autorice da u radu prikaže uticaj rusoizma na Francusku revoluciju i na političko djelovanje revolucionarnih vođa.
Publisher
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Social Sciences Research Center of International Burch University
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2014-04
Keywords
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ISSN 2303-5706
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a8a62856385b28c2b4d17506dcbdbfaa.docx
8b417d3a93463a4284ca7297f19192a5
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0844bf376209e6feef75c742aa3199cb.pdf
39e8d1943a37d5085c78257c085deebb
PDF Text
Text
The Fulfillment of the Maastricht criteria by Macedonia and Albania: a
Challenging Journey towards the EU
RufiOsmani
South East European University
Macedonia
rufi.osmani@seeu.edu.mk
JetonMazllami
South East European University
Macedonia
j.mazllami@seeu.edu.mk
Abstract: The integration process of Macedonia and Albania in the European Union
continues to be a strategic priority of the country's political and economic goals, around
which there is full unity of political, economic and civil aspects in the countries that are the
subject of this analysis. This process in the current period of economic and political transition
in countries analyzed has gone through asymmetric trends recognized as a result of many
factors which partially addressed these national economic policy-making and asymmetric
economic shocks and political of internal and external factors.
The Maastricht Treaty on EU integration defined five basic criteria that countries must meet
in the claiming process of full integration into the EU. From the requirements there are three
criteria focus on monetary convergence and are associated with price stability, exchange rate
stability and convergence of long-term interest rate. The other two criteria address the real
convergence and fiscal deficit and public debt in relation to GDP.
The paper aims to provide answers to the question on which level are met the integration
criteria in monetary and fiscal sphere of the aspirant countries Macedonia and Albania.
Keywords: European Union, Macedonia and Albania – candidate countries, Maastricht
criteria, economic integration, monetary and fiscal convergence
21
�
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Title
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The Fulfillment of the Maastricht criteria by Macedonia and Albania: a Challenging Journey towards the EU
Author
Author
OSMANI, Rufi
MAZLLAMI, Jeton
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The integration process of Macedonia and Albania in the European Union continues to be a strategic priority of the country's political and economic goals, around which there is full unity of political, economic and civil aspects in the countries that are the subject of this analysis. This process in the current period of economic and political transition in countries analyzed has gone through asymmetric trends recognized as a result of many factors which partially addressed these national economic policy-making and asymmetric economic shocks and political of internal and external factors. The Maastricht Treaty on EU integration defined five basic criteria that countries must meet in the claiming process of full integration into the EU. From the requirements there are three criteria focus on monetary convergence and are associated with price stability, exchange rate stability and convergence of long-term interest rate. The other two criteria address the real convergence and fiscal deficit and public debt in relation to GDP. The paper aims to provide answers to the question on which level are met the integration criteria in monetary and fiscal sphere of the aspirant countries Macedonia and Albania. Keywords: European Union, Macedonia and Albania – candidate countries, Maastricht criteria, economic integration, monetary and fiscal convergence
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2014-04-24
Keywords
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Article
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ISSN 2303-4564
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/023b6d63ed10c4da4e1cee18f178689a.pdf
08f7bfb3eea33293d9b0872040e10acd
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of Regional Cooperation
Tufan BAL and Metin ÇAKMAK
Department of Agricultural Economics, The Faculty of Agriculture,
Suleyman Demirel University
32260, ISPARTA
Mesut ALBENĠ
Department of Economics, The Faculty of Economics and Management,
Suleyman Demirel University
32260, ISPARTA
Ali BERK
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
Strategy Development Board
Department of Strategic Management
ANKARA
Abstract: The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, formerly known as the Barcelona Process,
was re-launched in 2008 as the Union for the Mediterranean at the Paris Summit for the
Mediterranean in July. The Partnership now includes all 27 member states of the European
Union, along with 16 partners across the Southern Mediterranean and the Middle East.
A Union for European with countries in the Mediterranean region seeks to promote
accelerated economic growth. The aim of re-launching is to infuse a new vitality and to raise
the political level of the strategic relationship between the EU and its southern neighbors. In
this context, six priority projects are also identified in this meeting. Main focus of the Union
for the Mediterranean is to deal with energy, security, counter-terrorism, immigration and
trade. Creation of a Euro-Mediterranean free-trade area will also impact on the environment
and agriculture in the region. This paper reviews the literature and statistically evaluates the
future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of regional cooperation.
Introduction
The Mediterranean has experienced significant improvement in its economic situation since the start of the
Barcelona Process. The main components are sustained growth, beginnings of structural differentiation in trade and
more FDI. Moreover, MPCs have introduced many reforms, in particular with respect to social policies. This has
paved the way for real progress in terms of education, health, life expectancy and quality of life.
However, having spread across the world, the crisis represents an unprecedented challenge. In fact, since the
end of the Cold War, the initiatives for the Mediterranean have been numerous but none has reached its objectives so
far. It is worth assessing the value of the Mediterranean Union proposal and examining the reactions it provoked in
key countries. We have selected several of them. On the European side, Southern European countries (other than
France) and Germany seem particularly concerned. Of the nonmembers, we have decided, on the one hand, to
concentrate on Tunisia and its North African neighbors, and on the other, on Israel. The various EC, and later on, EU
initiatives, such as the Global Mediterranean Policy of 1972, the Renovated Mediterranean Policy of 1990, the EuroMediterranean Partnership within the framework of the Barcelona Process in 1995, and the New European
Neighborhood Policy of 2003, have sought to make the Mediterranean region an area of peace, stability and
prosperity.
All these policies were supposed to promote the stabilization of the region through the virtues of free trade.
More recently, Europe requested its Mediterranean partners to adhere to its system of values, particularly to
democracy and the rule of law; in exchange for which Europe proposed to share the prosperity of its liberal
economy. It also promised to those countries that most rapidly implemented the new Neighborhood policy that they
could benefit, at least partly, from the ―four liberties‖. However, these diverse propositions have convinced neither
the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries, which were reluctant to undertake rapid political and social
change (except the singular case of Israel), nor the European countries that did not tend to boost direct investments
372
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
and technological transfers. Furthermore, the on-going Israeli-Palestinian conflict has complicated attempts at
cooperation, finally leading the process of partnership towards a political deadlock
Finally, in the European Council of March 13-14, 2008 held in Brussels, the initiative (which the ―Appel de
Rome‖ had apparently construed as a Franco-Spanish-Italian demarche) was brought to the attention of the other EU
members as a common Franco-German endeavour, in view of the final decisions on content and shape that are to be
taken in the Euro-Med summit that France will hold in Paris on July13-14, 2008. Although the EU members took
good note of the Franco-German initiative, it has not been officially approved.5 The Presidency Conclusions of the
Brussels Council are very general and refer to the issue in extremely broad terms in a very brief annex, inviting ―the
Commission to present to the Council the necessary proposals for defining the modalities of what will be called
‗Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean‘ ‖.6
The Marseille ministerial conference of 2000 should still be seen as a turning point in the Barcelona
Process. After four years of negotiations, the Partners admitted at this conference that they had been unable to
establish a common ground. The Northern Partners had called upon the Southern countries, in particular the Arab
Partners, to promote political reforms on the assumption that such reforms would strengthen long-term security in the
area. This demand was, however, perceived by the Southern Partners as a threat to their domestic stability.
Furthermore, the EMP, despite its declaratory policy in favour of a solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, was unable
to do anything substantial to address a conflict that the Southern Partners regard as a major threat to their security. In
the Arab view, the EMP was intended to meet the EU‘s security requirements, while neglecting their own. This is
why the Arabs considered the EMP unsuited for security cooperation and requested an EMP essentially aimed at codevelopment within the context of a broad diplomatic dialogue.
In Marseille, the Partners proved unable to reconcile these opposing views, but nonetheless decided to retain
the EMP as a broad framework for diplomatic dialogue and cooperation and to continue to work together in this
partnership. Since the turn of the century, the EMP has been affected by three strategic changes, namely: (a) the
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, and the ensuing global war on terrorism launched by the
US administration; (b) the enlargement of the EU into Eastern Europe in 2004; (c) the increase in immigration
towards the EU from the Mediterranean shores and of migrants travelling across the Mediterranean from more
distant areas. With the latest enlargement, the EU decided to pursue one single policy towards all its neighbours,
whether in the east or the south – the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). This decision largely amputated the
second pillar of the Barcelona Process and has focused the Commission‘s efforts on the ENP. Consequently, there
have been a number of changes in the EMP profile: the relative weight of the political dialogue within the
Partnership has become far more significant; the role of EU governments has become more important than that of the
Commission, the regional dimension has substantially weakened to the advantage of bilateral relations; important
economic goals, such as the free trade area, remain part of the EMP, but their implementation depends to a large
extent on the ENP as well; the network of Association Agreements are de facto more functional to the ENP than the
EMP. Despite the assumption that the EMP and the ENP will be complementary and mutually supportive, the EMP
looks seriously diminished and somehow depleted. Today, the EMP is essentially an intergovernmental forum.
Ironically, it focuses on the field – political and security dialogue – in which it proved least effective and cohesive.
As a result, the early EMP agenda lost itself and something new is urgently needed.
Members of the European Union
373
Other members
Observer members
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, formerly known as the Barcelona Process, was re-launched in 2008 as
the Union for the Mediterranean at the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean in July, with the new network of relations
endorsed at the Marseille Meeting of the Euro-Mediterranean Ministers of Foreign Affairs in November. The
Partnership now includes all 27 member states of the European Union, along with 16 partners across the Southern
Mediterranean and the Middle East.
This re-launching aimed to infuse a new vitality into the Partnership and to raise the political level of the
strategic relationship between the EU and its southern neighbours. While maintaining the acquis of its predecessor,
the Barcelona Process, the Union for the Mediterranean offers more balanced governance, increased visibility to its
citizens and a commitment to tangible, regional and trans-national projects.
Some of the most important innovations of the Union for the Mediterranean include the rotating copresidency with one EU president and one president representing the Mediterranean partners, and a Secretariat based
in Barcelona that is responsible for identifying and promoting projects of regional, sub-regional and transnational
value across different sectors.
The Union for the Mediterranean has also identified six priority projects which are at the heart of the of
Partnership‘s efforts, including projects for:
the de-pollution of the Mediterranean Sea;
the establishment of maritime and land highways;
civil protection initiatives to combat natural and man-made disasters;
a Mediterranean solar energy plan;
the inauguration of the Euro-Mediterranean University in Slovenia;
and the Mediterranean Business Development Initiative focusing on micro, small and medium-sized
enterprises. (http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/euromed/index_en.htm)
The EuroMed Partnership
In November 1995, following a European Council decision, a Euro-Mediterranean Conference of Foreign
Affairs Ministers was held in the Spanish city of Barcelona. It marked the launch of the Euro-Mediterranean
Partnership, also known as the Barcelona Process for short, after the name of the city in which the decision was
taken. It was the EU's first comprehensive policy for the region.
The Barcelona Declaration agreed at this meeting laid down the foundations of a new regional relationship,
aiming at achieving peace, stability and growth in the Mediterranean Partner Countries. It covers political, economic
and social cooperation and represents a turning point in Euro-Mediterranean collaboration. Another key aspect of the
process is to achieve a Free Trade Area by 2010.
The Partner Countries participating in the Barcelona Process are now part of the European Neighbourhood
Policy (ENP) developed in 2004, following the enlargement of the EU, in order to avoid the emergence of new
dividing lines in Europe. The ENP complements and reinforces the Barcelona Process on a bilateral basis, through
Action Plans agreed with the Partner Countries that take into account their specific needs and characteristics.
The policy is financed through the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), managed
by EuropeAid that is charged with turning policies taken on a political level into actions on the ground.
A new impetus was given to the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership in 2008 through the Union for the
Mediterranean launched in Paris on July 13th.
The Main Players
The 27 EU Member States and 9 Mediterranean Partners (Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco,
Occupied Palestinian Territory, Syria and Tunisia) participate in the Euro-Med process.
Libya maintains an observer status since 1999, while at a meeting in Lisbon in November 2007 the EuroMed Foreign Affairs Ministers welcomed Albania and Mauritania to the Partnership. The European Council held in
December of the same year also welcomed these two countries, in its Conclusions.
Cyprus, Malta and Turkey are three countries that were part of the Barcelona Process at its launch.
However, Cyprus and Malta joined the EU in 2004, while in December 1999 at the Helsinki European Council,
Turkey became a candidate country for EU accession and is now in accession talks.
The Foreign Affairs Ministers oversee the development of the Partnership. They meet periodically to
monitor the application of the Barcelona Declaration and define actions. More lately, and particularly in 2007 and
374
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
2008, there has been an increase in the number of meetings of ministers in other priority fields, including
Employment and Labour, Trade, Culture, Information Society, Economy and Finance and Education.
Trade
Increased trade is another key resource. The EU is the main trading partner of the Mediterranean countries
in both goods and in services. More than 50% of trade in the region is with the EU and for some countries the EU is
the destination for 70% of exports. The EU is the largest direct foreign investor, the first source of tourists, and the
biggest aid donor.
The EU gives duty free access to all industrial goods originating in the Mediterranean countries while these
countries are progressively dismantling their tariffs on imports of EU industrial goods.
Euro-Mediterranean trade relations are healthy and growing, according to DG Trade figures. Total exports
to the EU have grown by an average 10% a year since 2000, imports from the EU have increased by 4% since 2000
and total trade with the EU was €127bn in 2007 – some 5% of total EU external trade.
One important objective of the Partnership is the creation of a Mediterranean Free Trade Area by 2010, with
substantially liberalised trade both between the EU and the Mediterranean region, and between the Southern
Mediterranean countries themselves. (http://www.enpi-info.eu/mainmed.php?id=340&id_type=2)
References
Barbé Esther, Mestres i Camps Laia, Soler i Lecha Eduard, ―La politica mediterránea de Espaða: entre el Proceso de Barcelona y
la Politica Europea de Vecindad‖, Revista CIDOB d‘Afers Internacionals, No. 79-80. December 2007.
Bauchard Denis, L‘Union Méditerranéenne : un défi européen, Politique étrangère, No.1, 2008, pp.51-64.
Brauch Hans-Günther, ―From Confidence to Partnership-Building Measures in Europe and the Mediterranean: Conceptual and
Political Efforts Revisited,‖ in: Hans-Günther Brauch, Antonio Marquina, Abdelwahab Biad (eds.), Euro-Mediterranean
Partnership for the 21st
Century, Houndmills: Macmillan 2000.
Brussels European Council, Presidency conclusions. March 13-14 2008. Collinson Sarah, Security or Securitisation? Migration
and the Pursuit of Freedom, Security and Justice in the Euro-Mediterranean Area, EuroMeSCo, No. 19, November 2007,
www.euromesco.net Commission Non-Paper on the Barcelona Process: Union for the Mediterranean, no date indicated.
Conférence de presse conjointe de Mme Angela Merkel, Chancelier de la République
Fédérale d‘Allemagne et de M. Nicolas Sarkozy, Président de la République, March 3, 2008,
on the web site of the French Republic Presidency. Conférence de presse de M. Nicolas Sarkozy, Président de la République, lors
du Conseil Européen de Bruxelles, Jeudi 13 mars 2008, on the French Repuclic Presidency web site.
Conférence organisée par l‘IFRI, Paris le 11 mars 2008 : les interventions de Nouira Chékib, président de l‘Institut Arabe des
Chefs d‘Entreprises, Tunis et Abouyoub Hassan, ambassadeur itinérant du Maroc.
Daguzan Jean-François et autres, « Quelle Union Méditerranéenne ? » Géoéconomie, n°42, été 2007, Choiseul, Paris.
Déclaration finale du sommet européen, Bruxelles 13 et 14 mars 2008. Deutschlandradio Kultur, „Brok lehnt Sarkozy Vorstoss
zur Türkei ab―, 8 June 2007.
El Pais, La nueva paradoja francesa, Que pretende Sarkozy con su Union Mediterranea?, July 15 2007.
Emerson, Michael, Making Sense of Sarkozy‘s Union for the Mediterranean, CEPS Policy Brief, No.155, March 7 2008. Emerson
Michael, et Tocci Nathalie, ―A little clarification, please, on the Union of the Mediterranean‖, CEPS, 8 June 2007.
Escribano Gonzalo, y Lorca Alejandro, La Uniñn Mediterránea: una uniñn en busca de proyecto, Real Istituto Elcano, Working
Paper No. 13, Madrid, March 3, 2008, www.realinstitutoelcano.org Eurostat/European Commission, Euro-Mediterranean
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Florensa Senén, ―Limites del proyecto de Uniñn Mediterránea:hacia una nueva fase del Proceso de Barcelona‖, Afkar/Ideas,
IEMed, Fall, 2007.
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The Role of Regional Development Agencies in Turkey on Sustainable
Development: Ġzmir Development Agency (IZKA) Case
Ergüder CAN
Dr., Ġzmir Development Agency, Secretary General
erguder.can@izka.org.tr
Filiz MOROVA ĠNELER
Ġzmir Development Agency
Planning, Programming and Coordination Unit, Expert
filiz.morova@izka.org.tr
Abstract: Regional Development Agencies in Turkey have been established in accordance with
the Law on the Establishment, Coordination, and Duties of Development Agencies enacted on
25.01.2006. Objectives of the Agencies can be listed as; improvement of the cooperation among
public, private sector and NGO‘S, ensuring effective usage of resources, stimulating the local
potential, fostering the regional development and ensuring its sustainability, and decreasing the
inter-regional development disparities. While preparing Regional Development Plan of Region,
managing financial and technical support for projects, promoting Region‘s business and
investment opportunities, the agencies have an active role in the sustainable development of the
region. In their objectives, vision, mission and all of its actions, the Agencies works are based on
the eco-planning principles. The purpose of this paper is to focus on the experience of ĠZKA,
which has been established in accordance with the Cabinet Decision (No. 2006/10550 and dated 6
June 2006)based on the Law on the Establishment, Coordination and Tasks of the Development
Agencies. The vision of the Agency is ―A forerunner and effective agency in sustainable local
development, with international reputation.‖, and the mission of the Agency is ―To develop and
implement participative tools which will activate local potential via an overall approach for
Ġzmir‘s sustainable development.‖ This paper will cover the case of activities of the Ġzmir
Development Agency in the scope of Ġzmir Regional Development Plan which has the
―sustainable development‖ as major principle. Renewable energy, resource conservation, cleaner
production and eco-efficiency are some of the objectives for Ġzmir Region‘s strategic priorities. As
well as the related objectives of the regional plan, the estimated project based impacts will be
mentioned as a result of the SME Grant Scheme Program which has the priority ―Providing the
increase of usage the environmental friendly techniques and technologies and also in ecoefficiency practices in SMEs‖. The paper will cover best practices about the energy-efficiency and
cleaner-production applications, which are implemented by means of the grant scheme program of
Ġzmir Development Agency.
Introduction
Regional development disparities have been one of the major problems in many countries. Many policies
and tools have been developed and implemented in regions to decrease these development disparities and to achieve
regional development. Various economic, institutional, social and cultural tools including the principles of
sustainable development were used to develop regions. Unlike the policy in the 1950s and 1960s which is to
decrease the regional disparities through government initiatives, today regional development objectives are based on
to gain the global competitiveness and development of all regions. As well as the regional disparities, sustainability
of development is another important issue which regional development agencies have taken into consideration. The
reason is that sustainable development is increasingly accepted as a fundamental objective for public policy and
decision-making in different types of economy and at different levels of intervention such as aggregate, sectoral and
project.
To achieve elimination of the regional development disparities until the EU candidacy process, there are
three major tools directed at the economic development process aimed at eliminating regional disparities in Turkey:
(i) policies and incentives towards the public sector, (ii) incentives to enhance the private sector (iii) regional and
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rural development projects. Implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Regional Development Project (GAP), the
Zonguldak-Bartın-Karabük Regional Development Project (ZBK), the Eastern Black Sea Regional Development
Plan (DOKAP) and the Eastern Anatolia Project Master Plan (DAP), which were prepared during the past periods,
and the activities for the YeĢilırmak Basin Development Project (YHGP) are continuing. However, excluding the
South East Anatolia Project (GAP), these projects were provided with limited financing opportunities only within the
scope of sectoral allocations.
In addition, a law, ‗The Law on the Establishment, Coordination and Duties of Development Agencies‘,
passed on January 25, 2006 to facilitate and regulate the establishment of Development Agencies (DAs) in NUTS II
regions. Along with the establishment of two new RDAs in Adana-Mersin and Ġzmir NUTS II regions on July 6,
2006 (The Official Gazette, 6/7/2006), the new ones have followed in other regions of the country to decrease the
disparities and to assure development.
As well as being a tool for regional development, the agencies have an important effect on sustainability of
development. As forceful institutions for regional development, RDAs can place the principle of sustainable
development at the hearth of their regional plans. In this way the operational programs based on the regional plan are
implemented by the regional authorities to achieve a sustainable development for the region. To be successful on
managing to provide sustainable development, an integrated approach is the main principle. Therefore regional
development agencies are good tools for this, because of their cooperation and coordination role in region.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the benefits and contribution of the newly established agencies in
Turkey, to regional development. The paper first discusses the regional development agencies as institutional tools
for regional sustainable development. Subsequently it explicates Ġzmir Development Agency and evaluates the
potential contribution to sustainable development of region.
Development Agencies in Turkey
Until 2006, in Turkey, there are not any functional DAs. There is a need for the management of regional
development polices at the local level for many years. The intention for the DAs has been come up in the National
Development and various Regional Development Plans previously. Especially after the 1990s and 2000s State
Planning Organization, National Development Bank along with the Chambers of Commerce and Industry has some
central and local initiatives to establish DAs in Turkey. The main factor, however, that fastens the process for the
establishment of DAs is that Turkey had gone through institutional and legal regulations to achieve harmonization
with EUs regional policy. During EU accession process it has been envisaged that DAs tool has been necessary like
Central and Eastern European Countries.
In accordance with the law (number 5449) DAs are planned to establish in NUTS 2 regions. In this respect
DAs would be strategic and operational institutions for regional development. According to the formulization of the
law, DAs would be supported by central government. ‗The Law on the Establishment, Coordination and Duties of
Development Agencies‖ aims to institute cooperation between the public and private sectors and civil society
organizations in order to mobilize local resources and to institutionalize a regional development mentality.
For achieving this aim, some general activities have been determined for DAs. Parallel to these activities,
DAs provide technical support to the planning studies of local authorities; improve cooperation in between public
sector, private sector and non-governmental organizations. As well as the technical supports and coordination
activities, to achieve regional development objectives, DAs support the activities and projects ensuring the
implementation of regional plan and programmes. Furthermore working for contribution into the improvement of the
capacity of the region concerning the rural and local development in accordance with the regional plans and
programmes and support the projects within this extent is the another activity field for DAs. Before doing these
activities, carrying out researches, or to have them carried out, concerning the determination of resources and
opportunities of the region, acceleration of economic and social development and enhancement of competitiveness,
and to support other researches carried out by other persons, organizations and institutions are the initial steps for
being able to prepare applicable development plans and programs for development of region. According to the
defined strategic plans and programs; to promote, or have them promoted, business and investment facilities of the
region at national and international level, in close cooperation with other related institutions are one of the other
activities of the DAs. Among other activities to support small and medium-size enterprises and new entrepreneurs in
the fields such as management, production, promotion, marketing, technology, financing, organization and labor
force training, by ensuring cooperation with other related institutions.
By covering all these activities, the statutory objectives can be emphasized in five main topics. One of these
is to further economic development and regeneration. Promoting regional business efficiency and competitiveness
and employment is the other main objective for DAs. To enhance the development and application of skills relevant
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to employment is the other objective of DAs where the last main objective is to contribute to sustainable
development (Çuhadar, T., M., 2009)
The most powerful tool of DAs for the development of regions will be a grant scheme managed by them. The
fund for these grant schemes and the budget of the DAs are based on both central and local funds. The budget
composition of DAs is as follows:
Appropriation to be determined by High Planning Council according to the population, development level
and performance measures of each Agency from the residual fund after the shares transferred to local
administrations and funds by tax refunds are deducted from the general budget and tax revenue of the
previous year, and from the transfer allowance to be allocated five per thousand each year,
European Union and other international funds,
Activity revenues,
Over the budget revenues of the previous year, appropriation to be transferred from the current year budget
at the rate of 1 percent for special provincial administrations excluding getting into debt, allocated revenues
and aid items received from the organizations having general, additional and private budgets; for
municipalities; appropriation to be transferred from current year budget at the rate of 1 percent excluding
getting into debt and allocated revenue items.
Appropriation transferred from the current year budget at the rate of 1 percent of previous year final budget
revenues of the chambers of industry and commerce in the region.
Aids and grants provided by national and international institutions and organizations.
Besides the information of budget composition of DAs, it‘s necessary to mention four main components in
organizational structure. The first one is the Development Board. The law tries to improve partnership between the
public and private sectors and the civil society through the Development Board, which has an advisory role. It is
composed of representatives from the public and private sectors, civil society organizations, universities and local
administrations. The composition of the Development Board changes depending on the institutional and
organizational structure and the capacity of regions.
The second main structure is the Executive Board. Chairman of the Executive Board is one of the governors of
the provinces in the region for those NUTS 2 regions that consists of more than one province. Annually the position
shifts to one of the other provinces‘ governor. In NUTS 2 metropolitan regions, Istanbul, Ankara and Ġzmir, the
decision-making organ or the Executive Council of the DA is composed of the governor, the metropolitan mayor, the
president of the Council of the Special Provincial Administration, the president of the Chamber of Industry and the
president of the Chamber of Commerce, as well as three representatives of the private sector and/or civil society
elected by the Development Board.
Secretariat General is responsible for the execution of activities. Secretary General is the superior Chief of
Secretariat General and investment support offices. Secretary General is responsible to the Executive Board.
Investment Support Office that is a part of the Secretariat is mainly designed to be a One Stop Shop for investors.
For each province a Support Office will be established. The working principles of the DAs are defined in regulations
whereas the organizational structure is flexible and can change from one agency to another.
State Planning Organization is defined as the coordinator organization of DAs at central level. It has the
responsibility for defining the regional policy at the central level and coordination evaluation and monitoring of DAs
activities as well as the allocation of grants to DAs.
The establishment process of ĠZKA as the forerunner agency began in July 2006 and ended in December 2006,
recruitment of its personnel. The reason of selecting Ġzmir is the previous initiatives for the establishment of DAs in
those regions.
Development Agencies and Sustainable Development
As mentioned before, the DAs in Turkey has an active role in regional development, thanks to their budget
and strong administrative competence. Being effective in regional development incurs some liabilities; that is DAs
should correspond to national and international development strategies. Recent years have seen a growth in interest
in integrating environmental, social and economic policy through policies for sustainable development (Bond, R.,
Kirkpatrick, C., Lee, N., Curran, J., Francis, P., 2000)
The concept of sustainable development has been incorporated into policy statements at a variety of spatial
scales with a view towards ensuring compatibility between economic development and the environment (Gibbs, D.,
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1998). From a regional perspective there have been moves to make sustainability a central theme of regional
development policy. At the international and national level the policies inspired by United Nation‘s agenda 21,
European Union‘s Renewed Sustainable Development Strategy (2006) and National Climate Change Strategy (20102020) and National Development Plan (2007-2013) influence also regional strategies.
When we look at the main functions of DAs one of the most important function is to make regional
development plans and strategies for their regions. After conducting the socio-economic need analysis for the region,
DAs coordinate and operate the preparation of the regional development plan considering the needs of region and
national strategies.
To be compatible with the strategies, to be able to protect the cultural and natural sources and rationalize the
use of the resources in regions, the principles of sustainable development are adopted to the regional plans. Also
according to Gibbs (1999) this approach helps the regions to provide theirs economy to attain a competitive edge and
a stronger market position in long term. Overall it also accords with Pepper‘s opinion (1999) which claims that ―the
impression is that environmental protection is relevant to development because high quality natural environments are
a prerequisite to attract inward investment, high value employment and tourist activity‖.
Ġzmir Development Agency
The historical, cultural, geographical, social and economic advantages of Ġzmir all together constitute a
perfect environment for investors. The city is a welcoming region in all aspects, considering its physical, social and
economic advantages.
As of 2008, Ġzmir is the 3rd largest city in Turkey with its population of 3,795,978 following Ġstanbul and
Ankara. It reflects higher levels of population density and urban population compared to national average but at the
same time, the city is also a region of vast and fertile green fields, river basins and mountains, coastal lands which
provide a wide range of social, cultural and economic dynamism for the city.
According to several studies held by public and private institutions such as State Planning Organization or
International Competitiveness Research Institute, Ġzmir is the 3rd most developed and competitive city in Turkey.
The developed and competitive nature rises not only from the city‘s physical and historical advantages but also from
its highly skilled human capital.
Among these properties of the region, the initiatives and the capacity for institutionalization, partnership
and cooperation affected the decision of selecting Ġzmir as the pilot region for DA development at the central level.
ĠZKA officially started its actions in July 2006. The coordination activities were held by State Planning
Organization. Firstly Executive Board was called to meet to start the activities. The Executive Board Members are
Governor of Ġzmir, Ġzmir Metropolitan Municipality Mayor, The President of the Special Provincial Administration
Board, The Executive Board Presidents of Ġzmir Chamber of Commerce and Aegean Region Chamber of Industry.
The organizations represented in the Development Board were chosen by the Executive Board Members of ĠZKA.
Out of 100 total members, from Public Organizations composition of the Development Board is 30 members and 70
members from NGO‘s, private sector and Universities. The three other Board Members were selected among the
Development Board Members by voting procedure. Aegean Region Development Foundation Executive Board
President, Aegean Young Businessman Association Executive Board President and Chambers of Craftsmen and
Tradesmen Association Executive Board President were the elected members.
The Secretary General was chosen in September 2006 and all recruitment process was completed in December
2006. The corporate identity of ĠZKA was prepared. The organization structure of ĠZKA was determined after three
months. A functional organizational structure was accepted which matches better with grant scheme mechanism. The
departments are (Figure 1):
Planning, Programming and Coordination,
Program Implementation
Monitoring and Evaluation
Investment Support Office
Administrative Office
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Investment
Support Office
Administration
Office
Figure 1: The Organizational Structure of ĠZKA
There are 28 experts in different areas and seven support staff was recruited. The 3.5 year-old-IZKA has defined
the following as its core values and operational codes in all of its activities:
Participation
Innovation
Impartiality
Transparency
Reliability
Efficiency
The vision of ĠZKA is ―A forerunner and effective Agency in sustainable local development with an
international reputation‖ where the mission is ―to develop and implement participative tools which will mobilize
local potentials within an overall approach for İzmir’s sustainable development”.
Ġzmir Development Agency and Regional Sustainable Development
By analyzing the vision and mission, it can be easily seen that sustainable development will be a key
element underpinning all activity of ĠZKA. As well as ĠZKA, which is coordinator and catalyst regional organization
all partners in region has a responsibility to ensure that economic, social and environmental development go hand in
hand. ĠZKA has an approach that economic wellbeing is concerned with growth, but not at any cost. In consequence
ĠZKA has the duty of providing sustainable development of the region by means of the regional development plan,
which defines the framework for the regional operations of other institutions. Therefore after completing the works
about institutionalization, so far ĠZKA has immediately conducted the Ġzmir Socio-Economic Needs Analysis and
completed the draft of 2009-2013 Ġzmir Regional Development Plan.
The preparatory works of Plan were started as of the beginning of 2008 based on the participation principle.
Thus, in the first place, the stakeholder analysis was made in order for the stakeholders to be defined who would take
part in the preparatory works of the regional plan and following this analysis, nearly 500 stakeholders including the
corporations represented by the members of the Development Board were determined. Afterwards, both by SWOT
analysis and by organizing various workshops and working groups based on participation as to determine sectoral
and thematic development axes, priorities and targets, the regional plan was tried to have the maximum
participation. Besides, the Current Situation Analysis, which presents the current situation of Izmir concerning
development, was maintained. All the activities in question are the preparatory works forming the bases of the plan.
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While preparing the plan there were decided to the principles of the plan. 2009 – 2013 Izmir Regional
Development Plan has three basic principles, one of which is the sustainable development. At that point it is
necessary to mention the all principles of plan to understand the nature of it.
Equality and Social Inclusion is one of the principles. Here social inclusion refers to the access of the
individuals to the education, health, culture, employment etc. areas of the social sphere and it also stands for their
condition of being active in these areas. The exercises aimed at social inclusion include policies that will eliminate
the discrimination triggered by disadvantages (disability, poverty, etc.), especially the abovementioned ones, in the
social sphere and the social exclusion. The Plan adopts the social inclusion as a general principle in all processes
within the scope of the anticipated priorities and targets.
Participation is the other principle of the plan. Participation, which refers to the condition of changing the
resolution processes by the ways of dialogue, representation and authorization, is one of the basic principles of the
Plan.
And as it‘s mentioned before Sustainable Development is the other important principle of the Plan. And it is
explained in plan document in such a way that it‘s a process in which all the economic, financial, commercial and
industrial policies are harmonized in order to make growth sustainable in terms of (i) economic, (ii) social and (iii)
environmental perspectives. In this context, when forming the priorities and targets in the plan, the sustainable
development principles are important.
Via the prepatory Works of the Plan, the vision of 2009 – 2013 Izmir Regional Development Plan has been
decided as, ―Developing and Growing, Innovative Ġzmir‖. 2009 – 2013 Izmir Regional Development Plan has
accepted the following 3 as the main objectives and these objectives is strengthening the vision
Ensuring Competitiveness by Increase of Efficiency & Capacity
Raising the Standard of Living
Realizing Protection and Effective Use of Natural & Cultural Entities
As it can be easily seen, development includes protection of nature and cultural entities where there is a will to
accelerate it by increasing efficiency.
After mentioning the vision, and main objectives of the plan, now it‘s the time to declare the strategic
development axes.
These are;
Competitiveness for Enterprises; which aims the competitiveness and growth of businesses; providing
efficiency, quality and innovation in production, thus increase in national and international market share. One of the
strategic priorities of these axes is Increasing Clean Production Applications in SMEs.
The second axes is Employment and Social Integration, which aims strengthening social integration by
expanding employment opportunities and improving employment conditions, and also by developing services aimed
towards social inclusion with education and health services at the lead.
The third ax is named as Sustainable Environment, which aims to provide the preservation of environment
and improvement of environmental quality while continuing economical activities.
And the last axes is Strengthened Infrastructure and Superstructure and has the purpose of accelerating the
economical and social development of Ġzmir by improving the transportation, urban, environmental, social, cultural
and informational infrastructures.
Among these axes and their strategic priorities it is necessary to focus the items, which are related to the
principles of sustainable development.
Ġzmir‘s population increase rate is observed to be at high levels. As a matter of fact, while in the last 82
years Turkey‘s population increased 5 times, Ġzmir‘s population increased 7 times. On the other hand, the wide range
of varieties in economical activities clearly strikes the eye. As result of all these, rapid exhaustion of natural
resources and the pollution created by the wastes caused by production and consumption bring important
environmental problems and thus render the subject of environmental sustainability critical. In the environment axis
of the National Sustainable Development Report presented at the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable
Development, the subjects of ―elimination of deficits on infrastructure and waste disposal facilities; development of
clean production technologies, environment-friendly production and consumption forms which do not harm
resources, environment management and quality safety systems; and realizing national energy saving and demand
stability‖ have been emphasized. Within the period passed, the importance of environment is highlighted with the
principle stated as ―It is essential to preserve natural and cultural assets and environment with an approach taking
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later generations into consideration‖ within the 9th National Development Plan, a growth based on sustainable
development principles is emphasized with the era of 9th Development Plan. Furthermore, the reduction of emissions
of CO2 and other greenhouse gases has become an obligation according to Kyoto Protocol, and within the 9th
Development Plan certain aims have been defined stating necessary actions shall be taken regarding reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. It is essential that the year 2014 limit values defined within the framework of the
Regulation of Air Quality Assessment and Management are realized, and precautions required by the EU Integrated
Environment Approximation Strategy and Kyoto Protocol are taken within the region. As concentrated upon by the
national approach, in the Region also the issues of; management of natural resources such as water basins and
sensitive ecosystems, climate change and energy, the necessity of handling the relationship between productionconsumption and environment in the axis of approximation and reduction, and sustainable waste management are
highlighted (ĠZKA, 2009).
As well as these issues, also the cleaner production was defined as a main tool of the plan to achieve
sustainable development. The reason is that the pollution caused by dense industrial activities and production
processes is one of the important environmental threats in Ġzmir. The water amount recycled and utilized back in
industry should be increased. As well as the water amount, because of being an industrialized region, industrial
electric consumption per capita is 133% above Turkey value in Ġzmir. Utilization of techniques and technologies that
will provide with reduction of energy usage in industry and energy saving policies will contribute to reduction of
industrial energy consumption in Region. Moreover, while the ratio of hazardous industrial waste to total industrial
waste is 6.8% throughout Turkey, this ratio is 10.2% in Ġzmir. In this subject, it is aimed to decrease the use of
hazardous chemicals by substitution.
Moreover utilization ratio of environmental management systems that reside within clean production
approach and aim to minimize industrial development‘s adverse effects on environment is significantly low in the
region. Actualizing clean production applications in enterprises will be beneficial both environmentally and
economically by increasing the efficiency in production process. Considering also the effects of environmental
management on product designs, selection of products providing input for processes, wide frame, integrating
management processes that encompass the utilization of techniques and/or technologies in production processes, and
global trends; it will contribute to increasing the competitiveness of enterprises. On the other hand, there are various
directives in this subject regarding preventing industrial pollution and chemical substance usage within European
Union‘s (EU) legislation. Although there are directives already adjusted and adopted, within the harmonization
process there will be various other regulations that shall necessitate the industrial enterprises to make some
preparations. It is important that enterprises make necessary enterprises regarding clean production applications
within this preparation period. It is essential that clean production and eco-efficiency applications towards industrial
and agricultural activities, with textile, leather, food processing and chemistry sectors coming foremost, are
embraced in region.
As well as the sustainable environment axis, there are some key sectors defined by the stakeholders in the
region. these are;
High-Tech Industries
Tourism
Renewable energy
Logistics
Agro-Industry
Here, among these sectors, high-tech industries include the environmental technologies and energy, where
renewable energy is supporting the sustainable development of the region.
Energy is one of the significant inputs of development. In our country that is at the brink of development;
meeting the energy demand increasing in parallel to the developments in technology, the requirement of providing
environmental, social and economical sustainability, the obligation of reducing CO2 and other greenhouse gas
emissions due to Kyoto Protocol increases the need towards renewable energy resources. Renewable energy policies
has gained importance on international platform; the European Union has set the goals of meeting 20% of the energy
demand from renewable energy resources and increasing energy efficiency by also 20% until 2020, and utilizing
renewable energy in all buildings until 2018. Due to EU policies being effective on our country due to harmonization
process and more importantly for the global purpose of increasing energy demand security, the goal of ―maximally
increasing the share of local and renewable energy resources within the production system‖ has en set under the title
of ―energy infrastructure‖ within the context of 9th Development Plan. In the context of this goal, utilization of the
renewable energy potential in Ġzmir carries importance at national-scale. In terms of variety of energy resources,
Ġzmir employs many opportunities and natural resources waiting to be utilized. The region has a renewable,
environment-friendly energy resource potential such as solar energy and bioenergy, and especially wind energy and
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geothermal energy. Considering wind energy potential, Ġzmir comes at the 3 rd place nationwide. 36% of the installed
power throughout Turkey including those activated at year 2008 resides at Ġzmir. However this power has been
obtained by utilizing only 1% of the theoretical potential. Ġzmir province is considerably rich in wind energy with the
theoretical capacity of 11,815 MW; the total amount of energy that can be generated via this potential is higher than
the total electricity generation of Aegean Region. On the other hand, the region has a rich potential also in terms of
geothermal energy. The variety in the temperatures of geothermal resources found at the region enables a wide range
of utilization areas. The potentials in Seferihisar (35 MWe), Dikili (30MWe), and Balçova (5MWe), has such
temperatures that enable electricity generation. Also, while regarding domestic heating there is a potential residence
equivalent of 212,000, only 11% of this potential is being utilized. On the other hand, only 3% of the 19,000 decare
greenhouse heating potential is used. Furthermore, although the potential for health tourism exists in 8 districts that
are geothermal fields, current utilization is mostly limited to Balçova, Çesme and Dikili districts. In this region of
considerable advantages regarding biomass energies, solar energy also outstands as an energy source to be used. It is
observed that the energy consumption in Ġzmir is approximately 54% above Turkey average value, and the
consumption has increased by 15% in the last two years. Renewable energy sector is important for the region for the
purposes of contributing to the increase in the country energy supply security, utilizing local potentials, and aiding
the development of Ġzmir in the direction of sustainable development principles (ĠZKA, 2009).
Experience Cases on Regional Sustainable Development
In previous part of the paper, the relation between ĠZKA, Regional Plan and principles of Sustainable
Development has been explained. Now, in this part of the paper, some activities of ĠZKA related to this relation will
be mentioned.
In brief, as a new development agency, in 2009, ĠZKA has realized three investment projects, which amount
to approximately 40 million US dollars, creating 750 new job opportunities. ĠZKA also have some grant scheme
programs. In 2008, Agency ran two different programs, one of which was for SMEs, and the other one for social
development. In the SMEs program, ĠZKA has awarded 98 projects with a total of approximately 8.5 million Euros,
where in the social development program, 71 projects were awarded a total of nearly 6 million Euros.
At the moment, ĠZKA is working on 3 strategies for Ġzmir, which are;
• City marketing
• Clustering and
• Innovation
Moreover, ĠZKA will launch 2 different grant scheme programs. One will be on agriculture and rural
development. The other one will be on tourism and environment infrastructure.
Among these basis activities, it is essential to mention the SME‘s grant scheme program. The program
mainly had the purpose to improve the competitiveness of the SMEs by increasing the efficiency and the capacity.
Related to the sustainable development principles of the plan, this program had the priority which was to provide the
increase of the use of the environmental friendly technologies and renewable energy and application of cleaner
production. The objectives of this priority are;
Optimizing the processes by reducing the use of raw materials, energy and water to increase the
environmental performance of the SMEs
Providing the energy efficiency in SMEs
Providing the production and consumption of renewable energy
In this part some cases related to the projects which have applied to the program, will be mentioned. First
one is the Project which aims the recycling the wastes of olive oil process. As a result of this Project 10 ton/year
waste olive oil can be recycled. On the other hand, one olive oil firm has completed the procedures related to the
Environmental Management System (ISO 14001). The other one is to build a wastewater treatment plant which
provides reuse of wastewater in marble production. Thanks to this Project 60% of water saving can be achieved.
Providing the reuse of polyvinyl chloride sheet particles in plastic industry is another Project sample. A success
example is a Project in metal industry. In this Project environmental friendly chrome free chemicals are substituted
with hexavalent chromium. Another Project in metal industry is recovery of metal filings. Decomposition of the
packaging waste in its source is another Project which provides sustainable waste management in industry. The
implementation of these projects lasts and after finishing the program the environmental impacts of the program can
be analyzed, but in this step it can be shown two examples related to the energy efficiency projects.
One of these is a Project implemented in food industry. There is an activity, which provides the increase in
production efficiency by means of automation in production line. Investment cost for this Project is 32,500 Euro,
where an automation system is implemented. There isn‘t any operation cost for the activity of the Project. Annual
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energy saving costs 3,500 Euro where the payback period is 11 years. The other Project is implemented in machine
industry. In the Project, production efficiency is increased via the use of environmental friendly technology instead
of conventional machine. For this Project the investment cost is 200,000 Euro, and there isn‘t any operation cost. The
cost of annual energy saving is 20,000 Euro in this Project, where the payback period is 9 years.
As can be seen, IZKA has importance on providing the sustainable development and region vision. But of
course not only the activities and budget of ĠZKA, but also other institutions‘ activities based on the regional plan
can provide an integrated sustainable regional development in the region.
Conclusion
In this paper we have argued the possible effects of regional development agencies on sustainable
development of the region. While discussing, the case was Ġzmir Development Agency with its planning and
programming experiences including the principles of sustainable development.
The experiences tell that sustainability is a renewed interest in developing, which is supported by means of
international and national strategies. Where regional planning is a new concept in Turkish National Policy, the
integration of sustainable development to this new regional planning policy requires new planning techniques from
different disciplines (Counsell, D., Haughton, G., 2006).
The paper summarizes that the principles of sustainable development has now been assimilated in to the
core of ĠZKAs regional planning processes and practices. But while doing that, it is clear that a need to a regional
sustainable development policy and frameworks appears. This framework should integrate the development axes
included in the regional plan, which also contains the sectoral objectives. In future, as well as the national sustainable
development strategy, there can be also the regional sustainable development strategies as a result of a demand for an
entire integration of it to regional development strategies. This can also standardize the approach for all regional
development agencies in Turkey.
In this time period, regional development agencies are new organizations in Turkey. As the most
experienced agency in Turkey, ĠZKA has consideration for regional sustainable development by means of its tools
such as regional development plan and grant scheme programs. The sustainable development principles have taken
place in the core of the plan. Use of renewable energy, resource conservation, cleaner production and eco-efficiency
are the key issues related to the plan that can be operated. At that point, after the end of the programs, the effects of
these operations will be evaluated. As well as the results mentioned in this paper, the results of this evaluation will
give to the policy makers an idea about the effects of regional development agencies on sustainable development.
References
Bond, R., Kirkpatrick, C., Lee, N., Curran, J., Francis, P. (2000). Impact assessment for sustainable development unit: Integrated
impact assessment for sustainable development: case studies and some preliminary conclusions. IDPM, University of Manchester;
EIA Centre, University of Manchester; School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia
Counsell, D., Haughton, G. (2006). Sustainable development in regional planning: The search for new tools and renewed
legitimacy. Journal of Geoforum, 37 (2006) 921–931.
Çuhadar, T., M., (2009). Investment Support Offices in Turkey: A Case Study on Turkish RDA‘s., First International Conference
on Management and Economics, 2008, Epoka University Center of European Studies, Tirana, Albenia, Volume 2.
Gibbs, D. (1998). Regional development agencies and sustainable development. Journal of Regional Studies, 32 (4), 365-368
Gibbs, D. (1999). Ecological modernization, regional economic development and regional development agencies. Journal of
Geoforum, 31 (1), 9-19.
ĠZKA, (2009). 2009-2013 Ġzmir Regional Development Plan Draft, Ġzmir.
Pepper, D. (1999). The integration of environmental sustainability considerations into EU development policy: A case study of
the LEADER initiative in the west of Ireland. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management , 42 (3), 167–187.
385
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The Future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of Regional Cooperation
Author
Author
BAL, Tufan
ÇAKMAK, Metin
ALBENİ, Mesut
BERK, Ali
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, formerly known as the Barcelona Process, was re-launched in 2008 as the Union for the Mediterranean at the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean in July. The Partnership now includes all 27 member states of the European Union, along with 16 partners across the Southern Mediterranean and the Middle East. A Union for European with countries in the Mediterranean region seeks to promote accelerated economic growth. The aim of re-launching is to infuse a new vitality and to raise the political level of the strategic relationship between the EU and its southern neighbors. In this context, six priority projects are also identified in this meeting. Main focus of the Union for the Mediterranean is to deal with energy, security, counter-terrorism, immigration and trade. Creation of a Euro-Mediterranean free-trade area will also impact on the environment and agriculture in the region. This paper reviews the literature and statistically evaluates the future of Union for Mediterranean in terms of regional cooperation.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b6e1a3b588ed26607b2cac97be3cbd3d.pdf
5dfe92a1c7b4b97221eae0d8b3f3293d
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Global Financial Crisis Of 2008 And Turkey
Ramazan KILIÇ
Assoc. Prof., Dumlupinar University
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences
Department of Economy, Kütahya/TURKEY
rkilic@dumlipinar.edu.tr, ramazank43@hotmail.com
Abstract: The First World Economic Crisis that started in 1929 and rapidly influenced all
the countries around the world resulted in stagnation, common unemployment, increase in
foreign trade deficits and consequent decrease in the level of welfare. The policies initiated
in order to decrease and eventually delete these effects of the crisis could only give results
many years later. However, erasing the effects of the first crisis was not enough to put an
end to the world crises. In 1970 a new crisis bringing along worse results than the
previous, began. During this period of both inflation and stagnation, the results have been
more destructive. The third major crisis that affected the world economy deeply is, of
course, the Global Financial Crisis of 2008. This crisis has affected all the countries
around the world and its effects are still visible. In this respect, the Turkish Economy was
also influenced by this crisis. In this paper, firstly, economic crises were analyzed, and
then the global crises were evaluated from the perspective of Turkey.
Introduction
After the First World Economic Crisis that emerged in 1929, a new crisis harsher than this one emerged.
The third important crisis that deeply affected world economy is the 2008 Global Financial Crisis. Economy of
Turkey was affected not only by global crises but also by peculiar structural problems and crises which emerged on
regional level.
Definition of Globalization and Its Development
The concept of globalization is one which has been intensely used beginning from theaftermath of 1980s.
Though there are many definitions for globalization, there is no concept which was agreed upon so far. The concept
of globalization is a multidimensional and a difficult to restrict issue. The most important reason for this is that
globalization is a process which is not merely economical. There are also social, political, and cultural aspects of
globalization.
Sociologists such as Anthony Giddens and John Tomlinson, by referring to its multi-respect characteristics,
appreciate it as a multidimensional procedure with economical, social, cultural and technological aspects. (Rugman,
2000, p.23)
Global Financial Crises
Crises which deeply affected world economy are 1 st World Economic Crisis of 1929, Oil Crisis of 1970 and
Financial Crisis of 2008.
Crisis of 1929
In world economy, an atmosphere fitting to theses of Classical Economists continued until 1920s. Until
then, in addition to that there was not remarkable unemployment in economies, the incomes increased in a stable way
and general level of prices kept its stability.
But, from the end of 1929 on, the existing balances started to go out of order on a serious level. While the number of
unemployed in USA was 1.5 million in 1929, this number reached to 13 millions in 4 years by increasing 10 times.
Likewise, while USA had a production of goods and services which made 103 billion dollars, this number
702
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
remarkably decreased to approximately 55 billion dollars in 1933 (ġıklar,p.249). This rate of decrease was 40 per
cent in Germany, approximately 30 per cent in France, and 10 per cent in England (Yıldırım, Karaman…,2009,
p.13).
These negative indications about USA and some European countries were observed almost all around the
world and this incident was historically recorded as First World Economic Depression.
Crisis of 1970
The second most severe crisis after the First World Economic Depression is the Crisis of 1970. The most
important reason for this crisis was that OPEC countries increased the oil prices to four times higher than before. As
a result of the over increases of oil prices, important rise in the general level of prices occurred. Along with the rise
in the general level of prices Gross National Product also decreased on a great level. This situation was historically
recorded as ―stagflation‖ (Parasız, 2006, p.313).
The Crisis of 2008
After the Crisis of 1970 which was named as Oil shock, the most important crisis that deeply affected World
economy is The Financial Crisis of 2008. This crisis was seen as problems in the payback of mortgage credits in
USA and its effect was felt all around the world in a short period of time. The most common effects of this crisis
were seen as; decreases of Gross National Products, increasing unemployment rates and common corporation
bankrupts.
Global Crises and Turkey
The Crisis of 1929 and Turkey
The first of crises that deeply affected World Economy is the World Economic Crisis of 1929. This crisis
affected both European economy and the US economy. The crisis caused result such as important decreases in
production, mass unemployment, foreign trade deficits and which emerged with stagnation, and decrease in the level
of wealth which emerged in relation with all these.
During the period of World Economic Crisis of 1929, Economy of Turkey determined an economy politics
which had started with Ġzmir Economics Congress of 1923 and had determined its objectives. In accordance with
these objectives, decisions of investment and production leaded by the state were made and started to be applied.
(Kılıçbay, 1992, p.100)
Yet, ―World Economy Depression‖, which had in early 1929 and of which the effect was felt all around the
world, restricted especially the export in Economy of Turkey that had not been opened to abroad yet (Kılıçbay, 2006,
p.101). Economy was in quite a gradual yet a determinate development stage which would make the infrastructure of
the developments of following periods (Kılıçbay, 2006., p. 101).
The Crisis of 1970 and Turkey
OPEC had increased oil prices to 4 times higher in a short time in 1972 and these price increases had
continued with interruptions in the following periods. This situation deeply affected both world and Economy of
Turkey (Kılıçbay, 2006, p.153).
Foreign Exchange reserves rapidly decreased, internal prices rose, inflation, unemployment and stagnation
were experienced simultaneously in this period. The effect of this incident, named as ―Stagflation‖, became
devastating on economies. (Karluk, 2005, p. 4040-405, Kılıçbay, 2006, 153).
Turkey was greatly affected with its inflation rate rising up to 100 per cent and 0 per cent growth rate in the
period between 1973 and 1980 (Kılıçbay, 2006, p.156).
Asian Crisis of 1998 and Economy of Turkey
After a very rapid growth, South Asian Countries went into a great depression in the last quarter of 20 th century. The
following chart clearly puts forward this situation (Parasız, 2006, p.318.).
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Countries
Indonesia
Malaysia
Korea
Thailand
Average
1970-1996
1997
1998
6.8
4.7
-15.5
7.4
7.8
-4.7
8.4
5.5
-6.5
7.5
-0.4
-7.0
7.5
4.4
-8.4
Chart: Growth Rates at Some Asian Countries
As it is seen in the chart, while Asian countries grew on average 7.5 per cent, this rate decreased to 4.4 per
cent in 1997 and to -8.4 per cent in 1998 in the period of 1970-1996.
As a result of South Asian Crisis, Indonesia Rupiah, Korea Won and Malaysia Ringgit devalued at a rate of
60 per cent. Since TL was too valuable in this period, Turkish Goods faced unfair competence with South Asian
origin goods (Parasız, 2006, p.318).
Great Economic Crises Turkey Experienced after 1980
Crises of November 2000 and February 2001 in Economy of Turkey
Turkey legislated on a foreign exchange hoe, which anticipated the approximation of pre-declared
devaluation and inflation, to be valid by 1 January 2001. But foreign trade balance-sheet deficit grew as a result of
that TL was initially too valuable, that interest rates decreased rapidly and that consumption spending and export
increased in relation with this (Parasız, 2006,p.318). Meanwhile, since the deficits of state banks grew and
Demirbank could not fulfil its undertakings Crisis of 15 November 2000 was experienced (Parasız, 2006, p.317-318).
The first banking crisis occurred in 1994 in Turkey. In this period 3 banks were cleared. Banking sector
grew 18 per cent by displaying a recovery in 1995. But the sensitivity of banking sector toward liquidity and interest
rates increased in 2000 as a result of Asia Crisis of 1998 and earthquake disaster which was experienced in 1999 in
Turkey (Karluk, 2005, p.361).
As a result of the crisis in November 2000, 9 banks were transferred to TMSF (saving deposit insurance
fund). This crisis also paved the way for the crisis in February 2001 (Yılmaz-ġen, 2006, p.325). Crisis of November
2000 in Turkey is a crisis of banking to a great extent. Such a result was inevitable when 100 per cent reassurance
provided for investments and socio-economic conditions of the period came together. Crisis of February 2001, which
is the most profound crisis ever, burst out in Turkey when the effects of this crisis and wrong policies of the period
were combined with political risks.
In February 2001, ―flexible rate of exchange‖ was facilitated by resigning from firm money policy which
had been used for 14 months. The interests had risen to 7500 per cent in 21 February 2001, and Ġstanbul Stock
Market decreased 18.1 per cent, the worst ever. As a result of these developments, rate of exchange was left to
fluctuation and while one US dollar was 686.500 TL on 19 February, it rose to 920.000 on 23 February and to
960.000 on 28 February. So, TL lost 40 per cent value against US Dollar in 10 days
(http://www.econturk.org/Turkiyeekonomisi/krizdenkrize.pdf).
Crisis of 2008 and Turkey
Reasons for Financial Crisis of 2008
Financial crisis of 2008 was an all of a sudden event. It occurred as a result of the combination of many
negative developments in world economy. The main reasons for the developments which had deeply affected World
economy can be gathered under the following titles.
a. Current deficits of USA which had been going on since 1990s and that this deficit increased more and more
(http://blog.milliyet.com.tr/Blog.aspx?BlogNo=144073).
b. Abundance of US Dollars in world markets due to current deficit of USA.
c. Stagnation of Japanese economy due to first mortgage crisis in Japan ever in 1993 and therefore that Japanese had
to drive the reserves they had to world markets (http://www.gazeteport.com.tr/EK ONOMI/NEWS/GP_356985).
d. That the Hedge Funds started to find fund as a result of increasing Leverage rate (on record rates of 1*88)
(Eğilmez, 2008, Reasons for Global Crisis)
704
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
e. Over securitization at financial markets
f. Significant lack of auditing on major actors (Hedge Funds and Investment Banks, Morgan Stanley, Merrill Lynch
etc.) at financial markets
The combination of the reasons, which were given as main titles above, and financial balloon in the world
burst out as a result of mortgage crisis in USA. This situation was followed by the bankrupts of some investment
banks and mortgage banks of USA and England. Likewise;
(http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/quickiearticleshow/3552098.cms), as a result of the crisis, Bank of America
paid 4 billion US dollars countrywide for risky debts of mortgage debtors on 11 January. Northern Rock was
nationalised after a financial crisis on 17 February in England. Bear Stears was sold to US investment bank JP
Morgan Chase (2 dollars per share), US Treasure and Federal Reserve supported national housing market by an
effective nationalisation of Mortgage finance companies; Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac on 13 July.
Conclusion
A great liquidity urge started in world economy which started first as a result of mortgage crisis and then as
a result of explosion of huge financial balloon. This development which first burst out in financial sector, also started
to affect reel sector in a short time. The negative developments in reel sector were observed all around the world in
2009 and it is inevitable that it will go on in 2010. These negative developments, which were felt all around the
world, definitely affected Economy of Turkey and this effect will go on in the following periods. But the measures
taken so far, determinate and stable policies toward preserving macroeconomic stability minimized the degree of
effect. Loyalty to the applied stability program might minimize this degree of effect in the future.
References
Ahmet KILIÇBAY, Türk Ekonomisi, 4. Baskı, Türkiye ĠĢ Bankası Kültür Yayınları, Ankara, 1992.
Alan M. Rugman, GlobaleĢmenin Sonu, Mediacat Yayınları, Oxford, 2000.
Alan Rugman, GloballeĢmenin Sonu, Mediacat Kitapları, 2000.
Aytekin Yılmaz, KüreselleĢme, Minima Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2007.
Ġlker Parasız, Küresel Kriz, 9. Baskı, Ezgi Kitabevi, Bursa, 2009.
Ġlker Parasız, Makro Ekonomi, 9. Baskı, Ezgi Kitabevi, Bursa, 2006.
Ġlyas ġIKLAR (Editör), Ġktisada GiriĢ, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, EskiĢehir, 2009.
Kemal Yıldırım, Doğan Karaman ve Murat TaĢdemir, Makro Ekonomi, Seçkin Yayınevi, 8. Baskı, Ankara 2009, s.13.
Mahfi Eğilmez, Küresel Krizin Nedenleri, http://www.radikal.com.tr/Defaul
t.aspx?aType=YazarYazisi&ArticleID=899956&Yazar=MAHF%C4%B0%20E%C4%9E%C4%B0LMEZ&Date=23.09.2008&C
ategoryID=101
Rasim Yılmaz-Ali ġen, ―Finansal Krizler ve Finansal Krizleri Açıklayan Teoriler‖, Dünya Ekonomisinden Seçme Konular,
Editörler;Fatih Çelebioğlu-Feride Öztürk, Seçkin Yayınevi, Ankara, 2006.
S. Rıdvan Karluk, Cumhuriyetin Ġlanından Günümüze Türkiye Ekonomisinde Yapısal DönüĢüm, Gözden geçirilmiĢ 10. Baskı,
Beta Basım Yayım, Ġstanbul 2005.
http://blog.milliyet.com.tr/Blog.aspx?BlogNo=144073, Küresel Ekonomik Krizin Türkiye‘ye Etkileri ve Çözüm Yolları.
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/quickiearticleshow/3552098.cms, 2008: Year of global financial crisis
http://www.econturk.org/Turkiyeekonomisi/krizdenkrize.pdf
http://www.gazeteport.com.tr/EKONOMI/NEWS/GP_356985, Son 70 yılın en kötü yılı: 2008.
705
�
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210
Title
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The Global Financial Crisis Of 2008 And Turkey
Author
Author
KILIÇ, Ramazan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The First World Economic Crisis that started in 1929 and rapidly influenced all the countries around the world resulted in stagnation, common unemployment, increase in foreign trade deficits and consequent decrease in the level of welfare. The policies initiated in order to decrease and eventually delete these effects of the crisis could only give results many years later. However, erasing the effects of the first crisis was not enough to put an end to the world crises. In 1970 a new crisis bringing along worse results than the previous, began. During this period of both inflation and stagnation, the results have been more destructive. The third major crisis that affected the world economy deeply is, of course, the Global Financial Crisis of 2008. This crisis has affected all the countries around the world and its effects are still visible. In this respect, the Turkish Economy was also influenced by this crisis. In this paper, firstly, economic crises were analyzed, and then the global crises were evaluated from the perspective of Turkey.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/168472ae4c541ef22fe0afad692ef67e.pdf
960f51b64e4a8e44d7581572d4736553
PDF Text
Text
The Greening Desert Of Karapinar: An Example from Turkey
Ali Ihsan Yildirim
Soil and Water Resources Research Institute Laboratory
Agricultural Engineer, Meram, KONYA-Turkey
alyld@hotmail.com
Aysen Akay
Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty,
Department of Soil Science,Campus
Konya-Turkey
aakay@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract:In Turkey, there is an area of 465.913 hectares which is subject to wind
erosion. 103.000 hectares of this area is in the Karapınar district of Konya province.
The Karapınar district of Konya faced the risk of emigration in the 1960s because of
reasons such as that the region was an old lake bed and the climate of the region was
extremely hot, soil properties etc. The soils lost their yield capacity, the dunes rose,
clouds of dust and sand storms made life difficult for the people living in the area as
the result of erosion in that period. Because of these problems, the first studies started
in 1962. An area of 160.000 decares was taken under control. As the result of
approximately 47 years of improvement practice, which constitutes the topic of this
paper, today, activities aimed at research and production are also being maintained in
Karapınar.
Key Words: Desert, dune, improvement practice, sand storms, wind erosion.
Introduction
Agriculture is practiced on the 28 million hectares of the 78 million hectares total area of Turkey. The lack of the
development of a sustainable agricultural policy and the human effect have caused a decrease in organic matter,
resulted in the loss of soil aggregation and the dispersion of soil structure, and also, together with bad climatic
effects, caused the occurrence of wind erosion in cultivated areas.
Wind erosion in Turkey is commonly seen within the borders of Konya, Niğde, Kayseri province, which is
located in the southern part of Central Anatolia, and Kars province in the east, both of which are areas under the
effect of an arid and semiarid climate (Anonymous 2007).
Karapınar county of Konya is located in the most arid region of Turkey with the lowest precipitation;
consequently, it is most affected by aridity and desertification. For this reason, the first disaster related to the
problems of aridity, climatic change and desertification experienced in our country occurred in this region.
In Turkey, wind erosion is observed as a problem varying from light to severe on an inland dune area of 465.913
hectares. Approximately 70% (322.474 hectares) of this area is located within the borders of Konya province
(Anonymous 1975), and 103.000 hectares of this area are located in the Karapınar district of Konya. This area
constitutes the 22.1% of the area of wind erosion throughout the country (Yıldırım 1999).
Reasons for the Occurrence of Wind Erosion in Karapınar
In the 1960s, the people living in the Karapınar district of Konya were at risk of emigrating from the region as
the result of the wind erosion that occurred in that period. There is an inland dune in the South-Southwest of the
district which covers an area of 4000 hectares.
546
�The soils lost their yield capacity and sand dunes occurred as the result of erosion; it was observed that clouds of
dust rose and cars on the Konya-Adana Highway were dragged and the paint of the cars was totally or partially
damaged. Children could not go to school because of sand storms, machines did not work, and the incidence of
ear-nose-throat diseases increased among the people. Winds that cause erosion in this region blow from the
South-Southwest, and it was determined that the wind speed reached 110 km/h in the month of March in
1962(Anonymous 2007).
We can list the primary factors that cause wind erosion to be effective in the region as follows:
This region was an old lake bed, therefore, the lake dried and the dunes that were on the base of the lake rose to
the surface, the climate of the region is extremely hot and arid, animal husbandry was highly common and
excessive grazing was practiced in the pastures, some plants (Astragalus micracophalus,Salvia cryptantha,
Verbascum mucronatum ) which the animals did not like but supported the soil were pulled out by the people
and used as fuel, pastures were destroyed, the use of disk ploughs which overturned and broke the soil increased
erosion in the region where fallow-cereal rotation system was implemented, and the district is located in an
active wind zone.
Characteristics of the Wind Erosion Area of Karapınar
Karapınar is located on Konya-Adana Highway and is 95 km from Konya. The population of Karapınar is
31.913 according to the 2007 census. The altitude of the district is 995 m above sea level and its area is 3030
km2.
Geological Characteristics: In Central Anatolia, there are several sand beds located near Karapınar. The dune
systems were altered during the late Pleistocene and Holocene period. The main dune system located in the south
of Karapınar was formed as the result of the coastal winds that were caused by the withdrawal of the old lake.
The climate changes that occurred during the Holocene period caused the sand to move inland, afterwards, sand
movements started as the result of human activity (such as extreme pasturage, becoming poor of soil)
(Demiryürek et al. 2007).
Climate Characteristics: The climate of the region is semiarid; summers are arid and hot, and winters are cold
and snowy. The large part of the snowfall occurs in January and February. The annual average precipitation is
275 mm, and 40% of the precipitation falls in the months of winter. The average precipitation from July to
September is 15 mm. Long term climate values of the study area are given in Table 1. The annual precipitation
for 2008 is 232.1 mm (Anonymous 2009).
Months
Climate data
I
Mean Temp.
o
C
-1.8
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
-0.8
4.2
11.1
14.8
18.7
22.4
22.1
17.2
11.0
5.9
0.4
Max Temp.oC
19.6
20.5
25.5
31.4
36.0
36.8
41.2
38.4
36.2
33.2
25.3
18.4
Min. Temp. oC
-21.4
-26.8
-22.8
-8.0
-2.3
3.1
5.0
4.5
-3.3
-6.4
-15.0
-21.2
Precipitation
(mm)
29,9
27,6
28,5
39,6
38,9
25,5
4,6
2,7
7,5
22,6
27,5
39,5
Moisture (%)
78
75
69
62
62
53
48
47
51
63
75
79
Mean wind
speed (m/sec)
2.97
3.21
3.36
3.31
2.66
2.92
3.29
3.09
2.46
2.34
2.61
2.86
Wind Max
direction and
speed
( m/sec )
SSW
27.3
SW
29.0
SSW
28.8
SSW
32.7
NNW
23.1
ENE
23.0
NNW
20.2
NNE
28.0
S
32.0
NW
19.8
SSW
21.8
SSW
27.7
Table 1. Long term climate values of the study area (between 1983-2006 years) (Anonymous 2009)
547
�In the erosion area of Karapınar, the most important factor that affects erosion is the wind, and the dominant
direction of the wind is north-east and south-west. Mean wind speed is between 2.34 - 3.36 m/sec. Stormy days
are common and the wind speed reaches 20-32 m/sec on those days (Table 1).
Soil Characteristics :Although the soil belongs to the group of alluvial soils which is formed over old lake
deposits, colluvial, sierozem and regosol soil groups are also seen in Karapınar, where wind erosion studies are
conducted. The soil color of the plow layer is light gray and light brown and the lower parts are pale yellow and
white. The soil texture is generally light (loamy sand) in the top soil, and heavy (clay) in lower layers. Soils are
rich in lime and potassium and poor in organic matter and phosphorus. Some characteristics of the study area
soils are given in Table 2.
Dept
h
(cm)
San
d
(%)
0-15
68.1
15-30
57.2
30-60
31.0
60-90
16.0
90120
12.5
Silt
(%)
15.
1
22.
7
28.
0
24.
4
42.
3
Cla
y
(%)
Textur
e Class
Field
capacit
y
(mm)
Volum
e
weight
(g/cm3)
pH
(1/2.5
)
EC(mmhos/cm
) (1/2.5) 25oC
16.6
SL
23.3
1.10
8.1
20.1
SCL
32.9
1.09
43.0
C
79.6
59.6
C
45.2
SiC
(%)
Organic
matter
(%)
0.62
44.7
1.9
8.1
0.45
48.6
1.6
1.01
8.2
0.45
53.5
1.5
88.6
1.06
8.3
0.85
54.6
1.3
85.7
1.18
8.0
1.10
53.3
1.2
CaCO
3
Table 2. Some characteristics of the study area soils (Anonymous 2009)
Studies Conducted to Improve Problematic Areas
The first step taken against erosion in the district was establishing an association with the name “Association for
Saving Karapınar from Erosion” in 1959. Afterwards, studies were started by Mülga Topraksu (the Directorate
General of Agriculture) in 1962. First, a team was formed of technical personnel and an area of 160.000 decares
was taken under control by being enclosed with wire fence.Then, 30.000 decares of this area was assigned to the
Armed Forces to be used for military purposes. The remaining 130.000 decares area was divided into four
sections based on the problems observed. Soil improvement practices started on this area considering the degree
of the problem. Mülga Konya Topraksu VI. Region Management (The Directorate General of Agriculture)
maintained its studies continuously for 10 years and when the improvement studies were completed, the area was
assigned to Konya Institute of Soil and Water Research Directorate in 1973 to be used for protection control,
research and production studies.Today, 43.000 decares of this land is given back to farmers and studies are
continued in the 87.000 decares under the control of the government (Yıldırım 1999). The studies conducted on
these areas are as follows:
Sand Dunes (Dune Barkhan) Area(40.000 decares):This area is located to the south west of the district 7 km
from Karapınar. The size of the area is 40.000 decares. The severest erosion effects were observed in the area in
the 1960s. Sand dunes with heights of 41 m, widths of 50 m and lengths of 240 m, which are shaped like the
moon and completely look like a desert, have been formed in the area. These dunes are inclined at a rate of 517% to the direction of the wind and 20-48% to the other directions. The dunes in this area have the
characteristics of moving with the lightest wind. The dunes that move with the effect of the strong winds started
to threaten the district by digging up the Ketir Hill, which is covered with 15 hectares of basalt rocks. The
improvement study conducted on this area was carried out in two subsequent stages.
a.Physical measures
Construction of Bamboo Screens: First, bamboo screens were constructed on the sand dunes in order to
decrease the speed of the wind and prevent the movement of the sand. These bamboo screens were woven with
two lines of wires running perpendicular to the blowing direction of the wind leaving parts of 40 cm uncovered
at the top and bottom tips. During the fixing process, the screens were supported with wooden posts at every two
meters in order to prevent the collapse of the screens with the effect of the wind.
548
�b.Cultural measures
Grassing: After the bamboo screens were constructed and the speed of the wind and the movement of the sand
completely stopped, the process of grassing the spaces between the screens started. Weed seeds collected from
the pastures around the region were used in grassing the area and also rye (Secale sp.) and wheat grass
(Agropyron elongatum), which are known to be resistant to aridity and hot conditions, were extensively used as
crop plants.
Afforestation: After the area between the bamboo screens was grassed, afforestation studies started as a long
lasting precaution in order to completely prevent soil movements. Saplings obtained from the nursery gardens
established in the area and from other regions were planted and grown between these screens. The types of trees
selected for afforestation were oleaster(Eleagnus sp.L), acacia(Robinia pseudeaccacia), ashen(Fraxinus sp.L),
elm(Ulmus sp.L) and maple(Acer sp.L) since they are trees which are resistant to aridity peculiar to the area.
The Active Dune(Barkhan) Area(25.000 decares):There were some plants peculiar to the region which were
not eaten by animals and were resistant to aridity on this area, which was known to be a high quality pasture a
long time ago. Dunes have accumulated around these plants and formed hills with heights of 0.3-1.2 m and
widths of 0.2-2.00 m. The inclination of these hills is 30-60% to the direction of arrival of the wind, and 5-19%
to the direction of the wind. These plants are Salvia cryptantha, Astragalus micracophalus, Alhagi camalorum
and Artemisia sp. .Such areas were enclosed with wire fences during the implementation of the improvement
practices. Following the enclosing process, the existing plants were reproduced through self-pollination and
other plants were reproduced through grafting. As the result of the studies, today, the soil is completely covered
with vegetation and natural flora has been reestablished.
Flat Soils Sensitive to Erosion(26.000 decares):This area is composed of agricultural lands on which no
vegetation exists, and which was formerly used for dry farming and abandoned because of erosion. 14.000
decares of this area are privately owned lands where erosion prevention practices have been successfully
performed and the owners have resettled. Agricultural activities are still being carried out on this area under the
control of the government. Today, agriculture is performed through band seeding along paths of 40-60 m width
vertical to the prevailing wind direction on the 10.000 decares of the remaining land and fallow-cereal rotation
system is implemented, as is done under the conditions of Central Anatolia.Approximately 2.000 decares of land
has been irrigated and vineyards and orchards peculiar to the region have been planted on the land. This part of
the area is used as a demonstration site for fruit production, and there are also nursery gardens and pasture seed
production facilities in the area.
Ketir Hill (10.000 decares):Before the implementation of improvement practices, this area was covered with
basalt boulders and there were not any trees on the hill. After the erosion studies were conducted and sand
movements were stopped, plants such as blackthorn, wild almond and blackberry started to grow on the area.
Furthermore, almond seeds (700.000 pieces) were planted on the foot of the hill during the practices. Currently,
pine and cedar trees are being planted on the hill.
Current Land Use Planning
The following improvement practices are implemented on the remaining 87.000 decares of land, which is under
the government control:
The areas where the problem has reemerged are afforested, practices are performed for the trial of new irrigation
techniques, the activity areas of newly drilled wells are widened, and new orchards and sapling production
practices are established.
The current status of land use is as follows (Table 3):
549
�Status of Land Usage
Woodland area
Basaltic area
Vineyard, garden, orchards and sampling generation areas
Nature grass pasture
Band seeding(dry cultivation )
Watery cultivation
Total
Area(decares)
40.000
10.000
2.000
25.000
5.000
5.000
87.000
Table 3. The current status of land use(Anonymous 2009)
The plants that were determined in the study conducted on the approximately 30.000 decares of pasture area
which is under protection in Karapınar Station of Soil and Water Resources Research Institute are as follows:
Festuca ovina (29.8%), Centaurea virgata (17.6%), Euphorbia kotschyana (10,1%), Alhagi pseudalhagi (5,9%),
Astragalus microcephalus (5,0%), Scabiosa argentea (4,6%), Scorzonera cana (3,4%), Centaurea urvillei
(3,4%) and several other plants at smaller rates (TAGEM 2007). With these plants, the pasture area has acquired
the characteristics of a typical arid climate pasture.
Conclusion
As the result of the studies conducted to prevent the Karapınar District from being moved to another location, the
problem has been solved at a cost less than almost a quarter of the moving cost. The project is highly important
in terms of presenting the new agricultural techniques to the farmers living in the region and increasing the
agricultural value of the land by means of new irrigation wells and canals.
Previously, the project area often caused traffic jams and accidents over an 8 km part of the Karapınar Highway
when strong winds blew. All of these problems have been solved as the result of the erosion prevention
practices.
A farmer training camp was organized within the project studies and the workers of the farms were trained on
irrigated and dry farming. Groundwater surveys that were conducted at the start of the project studies were found
to be favorable and the wells drilled based on these surveys were used for sapling production and irrigated
farming. Today, the number of wells is over 5000. Beet-wheat crop rotation system has started under irrigated
conditions. Animal feed products such as clover and trefoil, vegetables, fruit, even strawberry is produced in the
area. A forestland of 4000 hectares covered with trees has been a good shelter for wild animals (such as
fox,rabbit, grouse and nightingale) .
Acknowledgment
Authors thank to Dr.Cetin Palta and Agr.Engineer Mustafa Okur from Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya
for contributions.
References
Anonymous (1975).Bulletin of Topraksu statistics , Köyişleri ve Kooperatifler Bakanlığı, Topraksu Genel Müdürlüğü.
Ankara (in Turkish).
Anonymous (2007).Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, General Directorate of Agricultural
Research, Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya ,Yeşeren Çöl Karapınar”(in Turkish).
Anonymous (2009).Republic of Turkey,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,General Directorate of Agricultural
Research, Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya -2009 data.(unpublished).
Demiryürek , M., Okur, M. and Taysun , A.(2007).Karapınar rüzgar erozyon sahasında rüzgarla hareket eden sediment
miktarı ile yüksekliğinin yıl içerisinde dağılımı ve toprak özellikleriyle kuru agregatlar arasındaki ilişki üzerine mevsim etkisi.
550
�Proje No:Tagem-BB-Topraksu-2007/30, Republic of Turkey,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,General Directorate
of Agricultural Research,Konya (in Turkish).
TAGEM (2007).Ulusal Mera Kullanım ve Yönetim Projesi(in Turkish).
Yıldırım, A.I.(1999).The Greening Desert Karapinar. in Cereal Symposium, June 8-11,1999, Konya, pp.440-448(in Turkish).
551
�
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599
Title
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The Greening Desert Of Karapinar: An Example from Turkey
Author
Author
Yildirim, Ali Ihsan
Akay, Aysen
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In Turkey, there is an area of 465.913 hectares which is subject to wind erosion. 103.000 hectares of this area is in the Karapınar district of Konya province. The Karapınar district of Konya faced the risk of emigration in the 1960s because of reasons such as that the region was an old lake bed and the climate of the region was extremely hot, soil properties etc. The soils lost their yield capacity, the dunes rose, clouds of dust and sand storms made life difficult for the people living in the area as the result of erosion in that period. Because of these problems, the first studies started in 1962. An area of 160.000 decares was taken under control. As the result of approximately 47 years of improvement practice, which constitutes the topic of this paper, today, activities aimed at research and production are also being maintained in Karapınar.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
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836
Title
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The Grouping Strategy in Metaphorical Vocabulary Comprehension
Author
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Radić-Bojanić, Biljana
Abstract
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Metaphorical vocabulary of the English language is often problematic for EFL students both in receptive and productive skills. One possible way of overcoming this difficulty is conscious development of learning strategies, which aid comprehension and production and lead to the autonomy of students. In order to ascertain the repertoire of strategies that students use when coping with metaphorical meaning a research was conducted at the Department of English at the Faculty of Philosophy in Novi Sad. The research lasted for one year and was organized as follows: at the beginning of the academic year the students who participated in the research (experimental group, N=20; control group, N=20) took the first test which comprised a variety of exercises intended to elicit metaphorical thinking. This was followed by an interview with volunteers (N=10+10). After one semester, during which both the experimental and control group attended the same classes with the same syllabus, the only difference being the structured input presented to the experimental group, both groups took the second test and participated in the interview. After the second semester, organized in the same way as the first, the students took the third test and participated in the interview. The qualitative analysis of the interviews was aimed at ascertaining the scope of strategies students use when dealing with metaphors, so this paper focuses on one of the established strategies – grouping. This strategy is based on students’ ability to see the common denominator among different lexemes and phrases, which helps them identify the metaphor behind groups of words that, in turn, enables them both to understand the metaphorical meanings and to memorize them. The paper will demonstrate how, in time, the differences between the experimental and control groups grow larger and how, consequently, the development of strategic metaphorical competence results in students’ autonomy.
Date
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2012-05-04
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c57c6b3a0910a190e8e235e17518eb70.pdf
b78f0d690c52f83da99a5a47904d0eb0
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2409
Title
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The High-Speed Rail and the Productivity of Freeway Bus Service Industry: Taiwan’s Case
Author
Author
Chen, Chih Cheng
Abstract
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This study explores the productivity of Taiwan’s freeway bus service (FBS) industry in response to competition from the Taiwan High-Speed Rail (THSR). We employ the Malmquist index to investigate the productivity of Taiwan’s FBS industry and apply the dynamic panel data (DPD) model to identify the factors influencing its productivity. The emergence of THSR initially worsened the total factor productivity of the FBS industry firstly and stimulated it in a longer time period. We also find that year 2007, sales and management expense, the total assets, and capital/asset ratio of an FBS company are the primary factors positively influencing the productivity. However, lagged 1 period Malmquist index service and service diversity reversely influence it significantly.
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International Burch University
Date
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2014-07-15
Keywords
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Article
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H Social Sciences (General)