284 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bbe9bc9f43b68eea7645b1e3ff58fdbc.pdf 9230e0e8d2430c9e2429beb5e4542fc3 PDF Text Text Implementation of a Computer-Based Course on Moodle Özcan Asilkan, Ph.D. Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University, Tirana, Albania oasilkan@epoka.edu.al Igli Hakrama Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University, Tirana, Albania, ihakrama@epoka.edu.al Abdurrahman Çelebi Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University, Tirana, Albania, acelebi@epoka.edu.al Abstract: Increasing popularity of Internet led to expectation of course materials and activities to be distributed and collected online. Many universities have already started to support the courses with the technology. But most of them are still lack of a structured, well designed Learning Management System. Therefore, instructors in these universities are still distributing course materials (like presentation files) to students at the end of their lectures and collecting assignments by email. This approach is open to many problems. Being aware of these problems, Epoka University started a pilot implementation of Moodle in 2010. This study presents experience of this implementation on a computer-based course (C Programming) which is aimed to be useful to the other education institutions. Introduction The recent advancements in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), especially Internet, generated a need and an expectation of presenting courses online. It is becoming evident that on-line education will become an integral part of higher education in the foreseeable future (Nakos et al., 2002). Many universities have already started to offer on-line education, or simply “e-learning” which aims to eliminate the dependency to the traditional classrooms and/or improve the learning environment (Eastman & Swift, 2001). But most of them are still lack of a structured, well designed online Learning Management System (LMS). Therefore, instructors in these universities are still distributing course materials (like presentation files) to students at the end of their lectures and collecting assignments by email. This approach is open to many problems. For example, some students complain for not being supplied with the course materials and some claim that they have emailed the assignments which are not received by instructor. Being aware of the mentioned problems, Epoka University started a pilot implementation of Moodle, an Open-Source Free Learning Management System, in 2010. This study presents experience of the pilot implementation of Moodle on a computer-based course (C Programming), considering that this experience may be useful to the other education institutions. Open-Source Learning Management Systems Interest in open source has grown exponentially in the recent years. In mid January, 2005 a Google search of the phrase “open source” returned approximately 28.8 million webpage hits (Kapor, 2005). That number jumped significantly to 376 million when a similar search was conducted on October 12, 2006. There seems a high increasing interest in open source software (Pan and Bonk, 2007). Wikipedia defines Learning Management System (LMS) as “a software package, usually on a large scale (that scale is decreasing rapidly), that enables the management and delivery of learning content and resources to students.” The LMS allows students to register for online courses, delivering and tracking e-based 366 �learning courses, testing and much more. The tools used in LMS include email, chat groups, grade books and interactive quizzes. It is designed to manage the educational courses online to help the teachers and students with course administration (Cheung, 2006). Moodle LMS MOODLE (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is an open source Learning Management System (LMS) created by Michael Dougiamas (http://dougiamas.com) to serve as an online interactive environment between educators and students. Sometimes it is referred to as a course management software or virtual learning environment. Moodle is defined on its official website as: “A course management system (CMS) – a free open source software system designed using sound pedagogical principles to help educators create effective online learning communities” (Moodle, 2010). Moodle is widespread all over the world in more than 200 countries with 50,000 registered installations according to the project website. Among them are the public educational institutions as universities and schools as well as private institutions (Wikipedia, 2010). Moodle presents the following advantages for acquiring as a learning management system (Goba, 2004). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Being free of charge without any advertisement. It allows full control of settings and editing. Its extensibility enables adding new functionalities by installing plug-ins called modules. Using as a content based web management leads to a modular object oriented dynamic learning environment. Online courses can be easily integrated and files may be archived and saved online. Providing collaborative medium where everybody can meet and communicate. Getting support and help easily. By clicking on the help symbol a pop up window opens offering help. Other advantages include easy installation on any platform, interfaces in more than 50 languages and extensibility by adding new modules created in PHP script. Moodle can run on any platform like Windows, Unix, Linux, Mac OS X which supports PHP. In order to implement Moodle some software requirement must be fulfilled. First a web server with PHP is needed. As a web server IIS (included in windows) or Apache (http://httpd.apache.org) can be used. The platform on which Moodle will run must support many types of database systems like mySQL or Oracle. The whole free Moodle software package (Moodle, PHP, MySQL and Apache) can be downloaded from the official website of Moodle. Implementation 1.8 version of Moodle was downloaded from the vendor’s official web site (http://download.moodle.org) and installed on a Windows server which runs MySQL Database Management System and Apache Web Server. After some server settings had been done, course categories were defined and some courses were created under these categories. We preferred to create the main categories as the name of the Faculties. Then under each faculty category, we created subcategories as the name of the Departments. The current faculties and departments of the Epoka University (the main and subcategories in Moodle) are as follows: 1. 2. Faculty Of Engineering And Architecture 3. Computer Engineering 4. Civil Engineering 5. Architecture Faculty Of Economics And Administrative Sciences 3. Economics 4. Banking and Finance 5. Business Administration 6. Political Science and International Relations Courses were created under related Faculty/Department categories. This approach led both instructors and students access their courses rapidly. To start using the Moodle, firstly, the accounts of course instructors (teachers) and all the student accounts in Epoka University were created by using a batch file. Thanks to its practicality, Moodle allows to create user accounts from a batch CVS file including some essential account information like username, 367 �password, email, first name, last name, etc. Then related system roles have been assigned to course creators and teachers using Site Administration panel which is only visible to Administrators. The related screen is shown in Figure 1. The other accounts are assigned “Student” role by default, eliminating to bother for assigning this role to a lot of users. Figure 1: Site Administration Panel of Moodle: Assigning roles in System Instructors started to customize their courses by editing the contents online. After they had informed the students during the classes about how to access the course by using their accounts, students started to benefit from accessing their course contents online. Figure 2 displays the main welcome page of the Epoka University Learning Management System, http://moodle.epoka.edu.al which was customized to display the categories, courses, latest news, calendar and online users, considering that these are the most useful items that should exist on the welcome page. Main page also includes a combo button on the upper right side to change the language. It includes a rich set of different languages. 368 �Figure 2: Main welcome page of Epoka University Learning Management System Both instructors and students can access their courses simply by clicking the related course name link. It will take them to the login screen as shown in Figure 3 (It is also possible to click on the login link on the upper right side of the page). Figure 3: Login screen This page allows users to login the course site with the owned account or as a guest. Moodle allows instructors to distribute a unique “enrollment key” of the course to all the class without the need to create accounts of all the students. This key has two benefits: First, anyone without an account can enroll the course as guest. Guest users can access all the course contents except interacting with activities like participating quizzes, submitting assignment, etc. The instructors that do not use such activities and just need to distribute online course materials to their students can highly benefit from enrollment key. They do not need to bother with the accounts of their students. Second, enrollment key prevents other users (including those who have the account in the system, like students of other classes), to access the course materials if they are not supplied with this key. Enrollment key functionality can be customized by the instructors in the Course Settings section in their administration panels. 369 �On the login page, there’s one more option allowing users (like students) to create their accounts by clicking “Create a new account” button on the page. After users create account, a confirmation mail is sent to the administrators to approve the new account. For some technical reasons, we didn’t prefer to allow this option for now and hid that button. In order to give an idea about the implementation of Moodle, we will enroll to a sample course, “CEN112 / C Programming”, with a test student user account (student000) and present the course contents with the perspective of a student. After entering username and password and login the first time, students will be asked for the enrollment key that their instructor has given for this course. After entering the correct enrollment key, the students will face the contents of the course as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4: Course Content Site Main page of the course includes major three parts. On the left side, there exist some panels like People (participant list), Activities (assignments, chats, forums, quizzes, resources, etc), Search, Administration and enrolled Courses. On the right side, there exist Latest News, Calendar, Upcoming events, Online Users and Messages specific to logged user. In the middle, the Course Outline is shown. Actually, almost all these parts can be customized by the instructor of the course, as the sample course page was already done. Throughout the following parts, we will have a more detailed look into some of the parts that we have implemented so far. We will skip items whose functions can easily be understood (like Search Forums) Left Part Left part of the course page includes several links that display different lists or events. Participants link displays the list of students enrolled the course. Assignments and Quizzes links display all the assignments (homework, project, etc.) or quizzes prepared by the instructor. Chats section display chat sessions defined by the instructor. Forums section allows students to discuss and cooperate during their studies and is an effective tool for the instructors to monitor their students’ work. Resources section allows students to upload files to in order to share with the others. Grades section allows students to see their grades earned from the evaluation of online quizzes and assignments. Profile section allows students to update their profiles like adding birth date, picture, etc. 370 �Right Part Latest News section serves like an information board containing the recent news entered by the instructor, for example the announcements of class hour change, new assignment, exam date, etc. Items in this section are located starting from the most recent one to the oldest one. By clicking, “more” under each news, full explanation can be accessed. Upcoming Events section displays future events (like scheduled chat sessions, quizzes, etc). The message section displays a list of new messages that logged user has received, with a link to detailed messages window. Middle Part In the middle of the main page, a description of the course was entered. Following the description, a link to all the files (ALL_FILES) was inserted to allow the students to see easily and to access directly the course materials. All the files used in the course have been saved under folders in a structured manner. After some experiments we have decided to use the following folder names: • • • • • • • • Assignments: Stores the files explaining the homeworks, projects, etc. Class_lists: Stores various lists of students, like attendance list, grade list, project list, etc. Lectures: Instructor’ s class presentation files Notes: Instructor’s class notes, Syllabus, Policy, etc.. Student_Files: Files uploaded by the students. Teacher_Files_Private: Private files of the teacher like exam questions. Videos: Video files eBooks: Electronic books Links to Syllabus and Policy of the course were also put on the front (main) page. Actually these files already exist inside some categories under ALL_FILES, but displaying the shortcuts to these critical files on the main page was considered to be useful so that students can easily see them. The major section of the middle part is Course Format. Moodle allows different course formats like topics format, weekly format, etc. We preferred to use weekly format and organized the course in 16 weeks with a clear start date and a finish date in each week. The course outline was distributed to related weeks including links to related lecture files and activities. Some activities are shown in figure 5. Figure 5: Sample activities in the week format In week 12 (26 April – 2 May), a Homework activity has been entered. Students can click this link to see the detailed explanation of the homework. After preparing their homework, they can upload the related files 371 �and input some explanation here. Hence, instructor can easily collect all the homeworks in this section and even evaluate them online. In week 13, a Quiz activity has been entered. Quiz becomes active on the date and time specified by the instructor, mostly during the practice hour in the computer laboratory. Students are expected to answer the questions in a limited time. If allowed by the instructor, they can also see correct answers, their grades, and instructor’s evaluation notes later by clicking the same activity. In week 14, a video resource has been entered. Student can watch the video uploaded by the teacher. In the last week, final exam date and an instructor note have been entered. Conclusion This study presented the implementation of an online course in Epoka University by using Moodle LMS. The great features of Moodle led to successful implementation of a web based course. The course allowed the students downloading course materials easily, being informed by the recent news, taking online quizzes, uploading assignments and sources, participating in forums, etc. On the other hand, it allowed instructors to easily distribute course materials, announcing assignments and collecting them, applying quizzes and evaluating them in an online environment without burdening the hassle of email traffic. This collaborative learning experience has been found very user friendly and efficient by the students and instructors. It encouraged collaboration among students and contributed much to the increasing participation of the students. As the interest in Moodle is rapidly growing within e-learning community, we highly suggest education institutions to use Moodle LMS in order to improve the total satisfaction of their students and instructors. References Cheung, B., Stewart, B., & McGreal, R. (2006, July) Going Mobile with MOODLE: First steps. IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning 2006. Dublin: International Association for the Development of the Information Society. Eastman, J. & Swift, C. (2001). New horizons in distance education: The online learner centered marketing class. Journal of Marketing Education, 23, (1), 25-34. Goba, Nimrod, Gareth (2004). Course Management Systems. Retrieved April, 2010 from http://www.edutools.info/static.jsp?pj=8&page=HOME Kapor, M. (2005). How is open source special? EDUCAUSE Review,40(2), 72-73. Moodle, (2010). Course Management System. Retrieved April, 2010 from http://moodle.org Nakos, G. E., Deis, M.H., & Jourdan, L. (2002). Students’ Perceptions of On-line Courses: An Exploratory Study. Turkish Journal of Online Distance Education (TOJDE), 3 (1). Pan, G. & Bonk, C.J, (2007). The Emergence of Open-Source Software in North America. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, Volume 8, Number 3. Wikipedia. (2010). Moodle. Retrieved April, 2010 from http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodle. 372 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 530 Title A name given to the resource Implementation of a Computer-Based Course on Moodle Author Author ASILKAN, Özcan Hakrama, Igli Çelebi, Abdurrahman Abstract A summary of the resource. Increasing popularity of Internet led to expectation of course materials and activities to be distributed and collected online. Many universities have already started to support the courses with the technology. But most of them are still lack of a structured, well designed Learning Management System. Therefore, instructors in these universities are still distributing course materials (like presentation files) to students at the end of their lectures and collecting assignments by email. This approach is open to many problems. Being aware of these problems, Epoka University started a pilot implementation of Moodle in 2010. This study presents experience of this implementation on a computer-based course (C Programming) which is aimed to be useful to the other education institutions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5507980b194d510cd69827dc5c5c4b05.pdf 1024e56f946c873ff6d183d7a7ef0b08 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Strategic Sustainable Development and Creating Strategies from TOWS Matrix at KipaĢ Group Ġmran ASLAN The University of Erzincan, Turkey Business Administration Department imranaslan@gmail.com, iaslan@erzincan.edu.tr Ramazan BOZKURT The University of Erzincan, Turkey Business Administration Department rbozkurt@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this study is to develop new strategies for sustainable development of a group and to establish a holding from several companies by considering the regulations in the World Trade, recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders. In this study, internal analysis of the group was carried out with interviews and surveys. To prepare external analysis, the economical situation of Turkey and the World was researched and categorized under standard PEST categories. Important problems were identified and then the purposes and objectives of the firm were determined by focusing on opportunities. Later, SWOT analysis of the group was prepared and most significant factors were chosen. In the light of these factors, TOWS matrix was prepared to combine external and internal factors of the enterprise in order to deploy strategies. New organization structure of the group was determined and presented based on these strategies. Introduction KipaĢ Group founded 26 years ago when the Turkish textile and apparel sector initiated continuing progress by joint-venture of two families and now employs more than 4000 workers in different sectors. KipaĢ Group, a leading institution within its sector and renown due to its professionalism, its expertise and its high quality standards, is a precious member of Turkish Textile Industry whereby it transformed a mere cotton yarn manufacturing plant over years into a fully-integrated textile manufacturing giant. The companies of the group which have benefited from incentives of Turkish Textile and apparel sector have been growing very rapidly. KipaĢ Group has been formalized by including numerous subsidiary companies through the reorganization of the group companies since 2005. It decided to change their management structure considering the recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders due to the management system of the company. The removal of quotas and Chinese effects to world textile were the focus point of researches. The effects of removal of quotas to Turkish textile were assessed with the premature indicators of Turkey's total export and import. By taking account of enormity of the group and economical situation, the group was proposed to establish a holding. Theoretical Background The regulations in World Trade oblige the national wide companies to develop new strategies for their sustainability in the market. However, companies must be aware of their internal and external environments to identify their advantages and disadvantages in order to develop strategies. Self assessment, which is a structured internal process to identify strengths and weakness for improvement is used by companies for years. (Higgins, J. M. and Vincze, J. W., 1991, p.3) Strategies for sustainable development are used to initiate change by learning and continuous adaption rather than by challenging the existent institutions. Such approach has been named as step-by-step procedure. (Volkery, 2006, p.2048) Interaction between culture, structure and technology, the approaches optimization– improvement–renewal and the parties involved are three relevant dimensions of sustainable development.( L. Jansen, 2003, p.233) The change is unavoidable to keep competitiveness in today's global market. It is important to use right 120 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo methods to collect data against resistance and misunderstandings while doing changes. ( McLean, G. N. P., 2006) Deep changes occur in this era with unexpected results. (Diskienė D., et al., 2008, p.376 ) Each organization has a capability or ability initiating, managing and implementing large-scale changes in organization structure to improve organization ability for a quick adaptation, flexibility and innovation. There should be a trade-off between available assets of the firm and its continuous development requirements for firm-specific capabilities. (Yan, Y. , et al., 2009, p.53) Management systems of the firm use internal and external information to gain a better strategically competitive position in the market by providing outstanding services and products. (Phelan, Steven E., 2005) Many approaches and techniques are used for strategic management processes. It is not directed just a single functional area of group. All efforts are directed toward the mission and vision of the firm to find the best for the whole group. (Houben G.,et al., 1999, p.130; Dincer O., 2004; Ketelhohn W., 2006, p.307) Strategic management requires including both short-term and long-term perspective. Both a vision for the future of the organization and a focus on its present operating needs must be taken into account. (Gregory G., et al., 2005) Strategy defines ‗Where do you want to go?‘ and ‗How do you want to get there? Strategy manages the correlation between organization and changing environment. Internal and external factors effecting company are identified to form strategies. There should be a relationship between internal competences and values to firm‘s external environment. (Viljoen, J. and Dann, S., 2003, p.68) There is a challenge for the firms to find the ‗fit‘ what the firm does and what the environment requires. Moreover, it should be ready for the new environment that future may bring. This environment can be totally different and firm should evolve its capabilities and culture to tackle with new environment. ( Porter, et al., 2001, p.615) Managers may scan their environment and decide that there are major changes occurring in their business world to which they have to adapt. Or they might decide, through internal analysis, that they have the ability to develop a new way of doing business that will redefine the nature of the business they are in. If change is the order of the day, then two issues need to be addressed: external analysis and internal analysis. For a change of strategy to work, there must be alignment between internal capability and external opportunity. This is described as ‗strategic fit‘. (Tiwana, Amrit, 1999, p.126) SWOT (Strengths-Weaknesses-Opportunities-Threats) Analysis SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization and commonly used for analysing internal and external environments in order to attain a systematic approach and support for decision making. If it is used correctly, it can provide a good basis for successful strategy formulation (Hsu-Hsi C. and Wen-Chih H. , 2006). It involves the design of the organizational structure and control systems necessary to implement the chosen strategy. SWOT analysis can be conducted before mission and goal statement. (Hax, A.C. and Majluf, N.S., 1991) SWOT identifies Strengths and Weakness and examines the Opportunities and Threats of an organization. SWOT analysis suggests that firms that use their internal strengths in exploiting environmental opportunities and neutralizing environmental threats, while avoiding internal weakness, are more likely to gain competitive advantages than other kinds of firms (Jay B and William H., 2007). SWOT analysis is drawn from external and internal environments of the organization to determine the strategic vision of the firm based on the analysis of shareholders. One can think of a well developed strategic vision in terms of probing opponents‘ weaknesses; withdrawing to consider how to act, given the knowledge of the opposition generated by such a probing; forcing opponents to stretch their resources; concentrating one‘s own resources to attack an opponent‘s exposed position; overwhelming selected markets or market segments; establishing a leadership position of dominance in certain markets; then regrouping one‘s resources, deciding where to make the next thrust; then expanding from the base thus created to dominate a broader area. The leading strategy is the best strategy geared towards radical change and creating a new vision in which the firm is a leader rather than a follower of trends set by others to help managers improve organizational effectiveness and corporate profitability. (El Sawy, et al., 1988, p.455-460) The coverage of the SWOT Analysis is determined by the firm‘s and competitors‘ resources. Major types of resources are financial, organizational, intellectual, informational, relational, legal, human resources and resources related with reputation. The coverage can be extended for management information, supply of raw materials and production process. However, these are more specific titles. In this study, we had also the opportunity to assess the management information, however, couldn‘t examined supply of raw materials and production process. The technicians of the organization could assess raw materials and production process in the project. There are several tools such as TOWS Matrix and PEST Analysis that are used in strategic management. Some of them are used as complementary to SWOT. 121 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo TOWS Matrix TOWS matrix is the essential completing tool. It enhances deploying strategies systemically considering the relations between Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats. The consequences of the internal and external factors can be replaced in a matrix called TOWS Matrix is shown in Figure 1. TOWS matrix helps to systematically identify relationships between threats, opportunities, weaknesses and strengths, and offers a structure for generating strategies on the basis of these relationships. (Weihrich, H., 1982, p-45-66) External Opportunities (O) 1. 2. 3. SO Strategies that use strengths to maximize opportunities. TOWS Matrix Internal Strengths(S) 1. 2. 3. Internal Weaknesses (W) 1. 2. 3. 4. External Threats (T) 1. 2. 3. ST Strategies that use strengths to minimize threats. WO WT Strategies that minimize weaknesses by taking advantage of opportunities. Strategies that minimize weaknesses and avoid threats Figure 1: TOWS Matrix (Weihrich, H., 1982) PEST PEST analysis, which stands for Political-Economical-Social-Technological, is another complementary tool. Social environment is another concept that must be evaluated by PEST Analysis. The external environment of any organization can be analyzed by conducting a PEST analysis. External factors usually are beyond the firm's control and sometimes present themselves as threats. For this reason, some say that "PEST" is an appropriate term for these factors. However, changes in the external environment also create new opportunities and the letters sometimes are rearranged to construct the more optimistic term of STEP analysis. The organization‘s environment is made up from three factors known:  The internal environment: staff (or internal customers), office technology, wages, finance etc.  The micro - environment: the external customers, agents, distributors, suppliers, competitors etc.  The macro - environment: Social-cultural forces, Economic forces, Environmental forces, and Political (legal) forces. Macro-environment‘s components are known as STEP factors. (Dyson, Robert G., 2004, p.630-641) Strategic Development and SWOT Analysis The reorganization of the group was done after internal and external analyses of the firms and observations from surveys and interviews. From internal and external analysis, SWOT Analysis of the group was carried out. The details of project were explained to every person from top management during interviews. Everything must be planned well otherwise desired changes may be resisted and not accepted by persons. It was expected from them that they evaluate the firm objectively for such a critical project. Moreover, their political considerations were also taken into account. They were employed by both families. Thus, they support the family that employed them. Every family desired to get more control over the group. SWOT Analysis of KipaĢ In this part, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of KipaĢ group are presented in the light of the internal analysis and external analysis. The strengths and weaknesses stem from the interviews, observations and results of questionnaire, however, the opportunities and threats are drawn out from external analysis, especially from 122 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo SWOT analysis of Turkish textile & apparel industry and removal of quotas. The summary of SWOT Analysis of the group is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: SWOT Analysis of KipaĢ Group Case Study- Application of the TOWS Matrix to KIPAĢ KipaĢ is a successful company having experienced in great difficulties, but then it has developed strategies that resulted in an excellent market position in the late 2010s. The TOWS Matrix shown in Figure 3 is focusing on the crucial period from late 2005 to 2010. The external threats and opportunities pertain mostly to the situation KipaĢ faced in textile sector. Weaknesses and Threats (WT) A company with great weaknesses often has to resort to a survival strategy. KipaĢ could have seriously considered the option of a joint operation with Asian firms. Another alternative would have been to make investments in Asian countries. Although in difficulties KipaĢ did not have to resort to a survival strategy because the company still had much strength. Consequently, a more appropriate strategy was to attempt to overcome the weaknesses and develop them into strengths. In other words, the direction was toward the strength-opportunity position (SO) in the matrix shown as Figure 3. Specifically, the strategy is to reduce the competitive threat by developing a more flexible new R&D department to products individualized textile products . Weaknesses and Opportunities (WO) The growing affluence of customers has resulted in customized products. Yet, KipaĢ have not had a special brand. Especially when considering big brands in EU such as Nike or Adidas, in long run kipaĢ should create a brand name for aimed markets. KipaĢ has many problems with its management system due to two families desires to get more control over the group, improvements in management systems and human resource department were enable them to establish a new management style in order to take more favorable decisions more quickly. In order to minimize the additional costs of logistics, E-business and Logistics departments were opened to decrease the inventors and increase their selling capabilities. Another weakness at KipaĢ was the increasing labor costs in Turkey when compared low labor cost countries in Asia. KipaĢ can increase the effectiveness of production or make production in low labor cities in Turkey. 123 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 3: TOWS Matrix of KipaĢ Group 124 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Strengths and Threats (ST) One of the greatest threats to KipaĢ was removal of quotas. To overcome this threat, the qualities of the products have been improved against cheap and unqualified Chinas‘ products. To reduce the threats of removal of quotas, domestic market against china and others should be protected by decreasing textile production costs and governments should subsidize that. Moreover, Research and Development Department in domestic and foreign markets can avoid Chinese effects by producing more individualized products. Labor costs are so low in china. To meet this threat, Kipas has used its capital not only to make investments in Turkey, but also in low labor countries. This tactic which was congruent with its general strategy helped to improve the firm‘s market position. Strengths and Opportunities (SO) In general, successful firms build on their strengths to take advantage of opportunities. KipaĢ is no exception. Throughout this discussion KipaĢ 's strengths are shown in Figure 2. These strengths have enabled the company to open a new Opening Business Development and Planning Department. Eventually the same company's strengths enabled the firm to investments in GAP region and in energy sector providing many employment opportunities. In another tactical move, KipaĢ is expected to increase its market share in EU by using its experience in these markets and proximity of Turkey to EU. Organization Structure of KipaĢ After wide analysis, it showed that there was a need for change and this change must be started from top. Thus, the old organization structure of the Group was changed by taking into consideration the current needs and future expectations. The SWOT Analysis and TOWS Matrix were very helpful while designing the structure. It was not only the decision of project team to change the structure but the decision of two families. Both families must agree on new structure otherwise conflicts would start again. The main characteristic of the old organization of KipaĢ Group illustrated at Figure 4 was its dual headed structure. Every department and company was directly responsible to this structure and every decision must be made or approved by chairmen of the board. These decisions vary from very simple ones such as an official procurement to very extensive ones. Moreover, the single approve of a chairman was not enough to execute; both of the chairmen had to approve and sign any decision or document. There were many conflicts between families. There were two individuals, fiscal coordinator and an internal auditor, who was also directly related to chairmen. The major duty of fiscal coordinator was to assist in budget preparation and accounting support. The internal auditor was responsible for finding out any factors which conflict to benefits of the organization. These factors can be action, such as a theft, or worker, such as an insider. There were 6 functional departments in KipaĢ: Finance, Procurement, IT (Information Technology), Accounting, Sales and Personal Department as shown in Figure 4. ASSEMBLY Fiscal Coordinat or st OF PARTNERS nd 1 CHAIRMAN 2 CHAIRMAN FINANCE BOARD Internal Auditor BOARD ACCOUNTING PROCUREMEN T IT SALES Coordinat or PERSONNEL Coordinat or DEPARTMENT Kipaş Bozkurt Pera Apparel U.K. BOZ Denim Mills Kipaş Mipsan Erdem Teksan KEAŞ Text. Figure 4: The old organization structure 125 KAREN Kipaş Kipaş Ginning Insu- Agri. rance TOYMAR �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this part, the proposed organization structure shown in Figure 5 and the factors of SWOT analysis in Figure 2 how they affected new design is explained. New organization structure of new holding is designed regarding the outputs of assessment studies. Strategies deployed from TOWS Matrix analysis in Figure 3 of KipaĢ is directly used in this process. Figure 5: New Proposed Organization Structure of Holding Considering the financial and consequently political power of company, it is not so tough to venture in new sectors. Business Development and Planning is a critical directory that aims to integrate the strategic planning of the current business as well as evaluating the opportunities for the whole group to assure the sustainability of the Holding Group in international environment. Duties and responsibilities of each function were prepared. Each company has his own planning unit that deals with the operational planning which feeds the Holding with information. Yet, integrating all the operational plans is a necessity not only to improve the effectiveness of the tactical plans but also to prepare the basis for long-term strategic business plans. For example, denim production plans and Kipas textile production plans are separately prepared but exportation is handled by Vice President of External Business. Integration gives the possibility for using the spot or durable opportunities in exportation besides domestic sales. To perform business development, there is one planning engineer tracing the global business opportunities in all fields concerning Kipas Holding and informing the decision makers (President and 2 Vice Presidents). He prepares the feasibility reports before presentation. Once an opportunity is found realistic in the Board, the case is taken as a particular project to be run. Then, the Project Team is established to include the experts from the field to analyze the business in detail. This department handles the project until the project is started as: a) a new function of one of the companies b) a new company After that state, it is handled to the General Manager of the Company concerned (existing or new) to continue the operations. In fact, this function is performed by 1st Chairmen of Board. Business Development and Planning Department have significant responsibilities for enlargement in energy sector to value the new regulations and possible demand rise in this sector. 126 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The lack of human resources was considered one of the most important problems of KipaĢ. Additionally, our observations resulted in a consensus on the majority of the inappropriate managers in company, especially, at the KahramanmaraĢ. To compensate this drawback, a robust human resources department is proposed for company. By this department, the company can also measure the performances of the workers, this was absent at that time. Creating a brand requires hard, intensive and lots of efforts. However, if the image of brand is set down, then the company can reach very high yield. The profit margin of the company can increase with creation of this high value added product. Firstly, the creation of brand requires a vigorous marketing department that would firstly decide the appropriate promotion process and then keep the sustainability of this brand. Moreover, to improve the attributes of product and use new technologies in an innovative way, the presence of Research and Development Department is fundamental. The quality concept of brand is developed by quality departments. Being at the right point at the right time would be run by E-business and Logistics departments. EU is an important market for KipaĢ and the foreign structure of KipaĢ would enhance the activities in this market. Moreover, with dismiss of quotas, new markets are emerging and the new players would place to these virgin markets. The shares created in this process would be very easy but after a while, when the markets reach steady state, to penetrate these markets would not be easy. On the other, the low labor cost countries are threats in this foggy weather. However, this structure enables KipaĢ differ from the companies of these countries by their service level and product quality. To evaluate these opportunities and eliminate this threat, the foreign part is strictly proposed The other threats for KipaĢ are increasing customer demands and improvements in competitors. The R&D (Research and Development) and Quality Departments could be effective to eliminate these threats. The R&D department focuses on not only the products but also the process and by developing processes of production the company increases its competitiveness. Quality department works with R&D concurrently for continuous improvement. This would enable to value KipaĢ‘s experience in the sector and turn its knowledge assets to added value. Conclusion Noticing the reactions and rapid increasing portion of China‘s in the market after removing 40 years quotas since 2005, the developed countries have been taking precautions and China respond to reactions with a little increase in tax of these sectors. Despite of these recent developments, it is impossible to turn to conditions before 2005 and the revolution in the sector initiated with new rules. Countries and companies have developed new strategies for the new game. SWOT analysis of KipaĢ Group mainly focused on textile and apparel sector. TOWS Matrix helps to deploy strategies while preparing new organization chart. A new organization structure was prepared to respond to highly competitive markets. It is clear that, China and other low labor cost Asian Countries, such as India, have been gained advantage in the market. However, these regulations would undisputedly increase the competitiveness and in this environment companies would attempt to differentiate by design. Particularly in clothing, the importance of time to market would ascend dramatically. Consequently, the importance of proximity to markets such as EU and North America would intensify, which is an important advantage for both Turkey and KipaĢ considering proximity to E.U. However, Turkish companies and KipaĢ are obliged to concentrate on quality and supply chain activities and establish robust R&D structures to create innovative products and design in short periods to turn over these opportunities to yield. The yields of vertical growth are uncontroversial and KipaĢ is a good instance of this. KipaĢ had all steps of supply chain of textile from cotton apparel. However, just last step of general supply chain was neglected by Kipas that was retailing. KipaĢ must concentrate on last and most value added part of chain. Creation of own brand is the most important step in this essence. In the light of the developments in EU journey of Turkey, as a strategy, KipaĢ can start its retailing activities in Western Europe, more value-added markets rather than domestic market. The company has the knowledge, culture and values to implement the aforementioned strategies and proposed organizing structure. References Dincer O. (2004). Strategy Management and Organization Policy, Beta Publication, Istanbul, Turkey. Diskienė D., Galinienė, B., Marčinskas, A. (2008), A strategic management model for economic development, Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 14, pp.375–387. 127 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Dyson, Robert G.( (2004)), Strategic development and SWOT analysis at the University of Warwick, European Journal of Operational Research, pp. 631–640. El Sawy, O.A. and Pauchant, T.C. (1988), Triggers, templates, and twitches in the tracking of emerging strategic issues, Strategic Management Journal, 7(2), pp. 455-474. Gregory G., G.T. Lumpkin and Marilyn L. Taylor (2005). Strategic Management, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York, USA. Houben G., Lenie K., Vanhoof K. (1999). A knowledge-based SWOT-analysis system as an instrument for strategic planning in small and medium sized enterprises, Decision Support Systems, 26, pp.125–135. Hsu-Hsi Chang (2006), Wen-Chih Huang, Application of a quantification SWOT analytical method, Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 4, pp.158-169. Hax, A.C. and Majluf, N.S. (1991). The Strategy Concept and Process: A Pragmatic Approach, Prentice-Hall, London. Jay B Barney, William Hesterly (2007), Strategic Management and Competitive Advantage: Concepts Book Description, Prentice Hall, Texas, USA. Ketelhohn W. (2006), Strategic management practice in Latin America, Journal of Business Research, 59, pp.305-309 Jansen L.(2003). The challenge of sustainable development, Journal of Cleaner Production, 11, pp.231–245 McLean, G. N. P.(2006), Organizational Development: Principles, processes performance, Berrett- Koehler Publishers, Inc., . San Francisco, USA. M. Higgins, James and W. Vincze, Julian (2001). Strategic Management, The Dryden Press International Edition,Chicago,pp.347. Porter, Michael E. (1981) The Contributions of Industrial Organization to Strategic Management, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 6, No. 4., pp. 609-620. Phelan S. E (2005). Strategic Management & Policy. Available from: ttp://faculty.unlv.edu/phelan/ [Accessed 10 April 2010] Tiwana, Amrit (1999). The Knowledge Management Toolkit, Prentice Hall, First Edition, USA pp.126. Viljoen, J. & Dann, S. (2003). Strategic Management, Prentice Hall, USA, pp.68. Volkery A., Swanson D., Bregha F. and Pinter L.(2006). Coordination, Challenges, and Innovations in 19 National Sustainable Development Strategies, World Development, Vol. 34, No. 12, pp. 2047–2063 Yan, Y. , Ding, Daniel and Mak, Simon(2009), The Impact of Business Investment on Capability Exploitation and Organizational Control in International Strategic Alliances, Journal of Change Management, 9: 1, pp. 49 -65. Weihrich, H. (1982), The TOWS Matrix: A tool for situational analysis, Long Range Planning, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp.45-66. 128 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 197 Title A name given to the resource Strategic Sustainable Development and Creating Strategies from TOWS Matrix at KipaĢ Group Author Author ASLAN, İmran BOZKURT, Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to develop new strategies for sustainable development of a group and to establish a holding from several companies by considering the regulations in the World Trade, recent developments in textile sector and raising conflicts among stakeholders. In this study, internal analysis of the group was carried out with interviews and surveys. To prepare external analysis, the economical situation of Turkey and the World was researched and categorized under standard PEST categories. Important problems were identified and then the purposes and objectives of the firm were determined by focusing on opportunities. Later, SWOT analysis of the group was prepared and most significant factors were chosen. In the light of these factors, TOWS matrix was prepared to combine external and internal factors of the enterprise in order to deploy strategies. New organization structure of the group was determined and presented based on these strategies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3bbdc798e02681ee59eda1555251159e.pdf da08e04612bd4e3aa8f94a5116534d3a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Relationship between the Religiosity and the Ethical Attitudes of Managers: An Empirical Study Muzaffer AYDEMĠR Associate Prof. Dr., Bilecik University, FEAS, Department of Business Administration muzaffer.aydemir@bilecik.edu.tr Özüm EĞĠLMEZ Research Assistant, Bilecik University, FEAS, Department of Business Administration Abstract: In this study, we aimed to explore the relationship between religiosity and business ethics. Two dimensions of religiosity – intrinsic an extrinsic- were studied. We mainly tested one hypothesis: whether ethical attitudes are affected by religiosity. However, we also explored the relationship between ethical attitudes, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity and various demographic measures of the participants.In our study, we surveyed 510 managers and white-collar workers from 6 different organizations in Turkey. Our survey instruments have three parts. First part included 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994). Second part included 14-item religiosity scale of Allport and Ross (1967). Third part contained various demographic measures. Findings of the study show that intrinsic religiosity is partly and negatively correlated with ethical attitudes and extrinsic religiosity is positively related to the ethical attitudes. In other words, intrinsically motivated people are more prone to behave ethically than extrinsically motivated people are. Key Words: Religiosity, ethical attitudes, business ethics. Introduction Ethics has been one of the principal issues confronting businesses for many years. While they are responsible for maximizing long-term value for the shareholders, they are also expected to adequately monitor their employees‘ performance, and to enforce and adhere to certain ethical standards. Business ethics have been the subject of controversy and debate for many years among researchers and practitioners. Not surprisingly, frequent scandals have fostered considerable interest and scholarly work in the business ethics area. Recently, interest in this area was intensified due to widespread media accounts of outbreaks of ethical failing and questionable practices by corporations and corporate executives. Events such as the collapse of Enron, the destruction of documents at Arthur Andersen, questionable CEO compensation packages and other practices at Tyco, and charges of fraud at WorldCom have shaken public confidence in business world. In accordance with these ongoing discussions, scholars and practitioners are wondering what has to be done to assure ethical behaviors in the business environment. Some scholars debate whether religious belief should be an appropriate grounding for business ethics. Madigan (2005) criticizes the popular assumption that ―religion and morality are synonymous‖ and then he claims that this assumption is incomplete because religion is not the sole determinant of our morality. Calkins (2000) states that business ethic has recently neglected its religious traditions and become construed more narrowly as an applied philosophy and social science. Fort (1997) claims that rather than excluding religion from business ethics, business ethics ought to consider religion as a healthy ground. He claims that there is no good reason for us to restrict people from relying upon religion in making and justifying economic judgments. This means that theology ought to be a participant in debates about public matters, including business ethics. Theology‘s contributions will be as varied as the philosophical alternatives for business ethics. McMahon (1986) argues that religions make valuable contributions to business ethics. Religions‘ values, principles, and practices give sense of responsibility, and guidance to the people of business world. This current paper presents the results of a study that explored the roles of the managers‘ and the whitecollar workers‘ religiosity play in determining their ethical attitudes regarding questionable business practices. 247 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Literature Review Religion and Religiosity The impact of religion on our social and economic lives is an historical debate. Nowadays, some scholars pay closer attention to the subject and aim to explore the relationship between religious beliefs and business ethics. Meanwhile we should clarify what we mean by ―religion‖. As Bernardin (2006) noted that definition of religion should include God and/or supernatural, otherwise when we remove God, the supernatural, and specific beliefs from religion, what we have got but a secular activity by another name. Cornwall et al. (1986) examined the dimensions of religiosity and found six core and seven peripheral dimensions. Core dimensions of religiosity are traditional orthodoxy, spiritual commitment, religious behavior, particularistic orthodoxy, church commitment, religious participation. Peripheral dimensions are religious knowledge, religious experience, personal community relations, personal well-being, marital happiness, physical health, and spiritual well-being. Clark and Dawson (1996) highlighted the importance of the religiousness construct as an influence on ethical judgments and, possibly, on behavioral intentions. They stress that personal religiousness is a potential source of ethical norms, and consequently, an influence in ethical evaluations. Allport (1950) perceived religious motivation as differentiated by intrinsic religiosity and extrinsic religiosity. The ‗‗extrinsically motivated person ‗uses‘ his religion whereas the intrinsically motivated person ‗lives‘ his religion‘‘ (Allport and Ross, 1967: p. 434). In this study, we preferred and used Allport‘s classification. The Relationship between Religiosity and Ethical Attitudes Findings of the scientific researches about the relationship between religiosity and ethical attitudes generally show positive relationship. Some of researches and their findings can be summarized as follow: Religiosity is one of the factors that significantly influence values and ethical judgments (Huffman, 1988; Hunt and Vitell, 1993). For example, religiosity influences people‘s ethical and social responsibilities (Ibrahim et al., 2008). People who have high level of religiosity consider tax fraud less acceptable than who have low level of religiosity (Stack and Kposowa, 2006). In other words, religiosity has an influence both on human attitudes and behavior (Weaver and Agle, 2002). Religiosity is an important determinant of the ethical behavior. Religious beliefs provide an important basis for social integration and the prevention of deviant behavior (Stack and Kposowa, 2006). Nevertheless, other factors or the circumstances are also important. Therefore, affects of religiosity on people‘s ethical attitudes are situational (Saat et al., 2009) or high religiosity does not always mean high ethical values (Rashid and Ibrahim, 2008). Practicing religious beliefs or attending religious activities are positively related to the ethical attitudes. People who practiced their religion tend to consider themselves more ethically minded (Pahu and Kea, 2007); are less likely to cheat (Bloodgood et al., 2008), and are more likely to be honest (Perrin, 2000) than those who do not practice their religion. Some studies support the idea that religiosity in general has a positive impact on ethical attitudes. (Kennedy and Lawton, 1998; Singhapakdi et al., 2000; Siu et al., 2000; Conroy and Emerson, 2004). Some other studies focus on the relationship between dimensions of religiosity and ethical attitudes. These studies show that generally there are positive correlations between intrinsic religiosity and ethical attitudes. In other words, people who have higher intrinsic religiosity have more positive ethical attitudes than participants who have lower intrinsic religiosity. For example, Aydemir et al. (2009) found a statistically significant relationship between intrinsic religiosity and ethical attitudes of the participants. In several scientific studies, Vitell and his colleagues found that intrinsic religiosity was a determinant of ethical beliefs. In other words, an intrinsic religious orientation significantly explains one‘s ethical beliefs for the questionable business activities. As expected, the stronger a respondent‘s sense of intrinsic religiosity, the more likely he/she was to find various ‗‗questionable‘‘ business activities as wrong. (Vitell et al. 2005; Vitell and Muncy, 2005; Vitel et al. 2006; Vitell et al. 2007) As previous researches showed that there is a statistically significant relationship between religiosity and business ethics in general. Based upon the previously cited theoretical and empirical literature, we proposed the following hypotheses involving religiosity to test here: H1: There is a negative correlation between intrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar employees and their ethical attitudes towards questionable marketing practices. H2: There is a negative correlation between intrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar employees and their ethical attitudes towards questionable management practices. H3: There is a negative correlation between intrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar employees and their ethical attitudes towards questionable management directives. 248 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo H4: There is a negative correlation between intrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar and their ethical attitudes towards questionable independent actions in the workplace. H5: There is a positive correlation between extrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar and their ethical attitudes towards questionable marketing practices. H6: There is a positive correlation between extrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar and their ethical attitudes towards questionable management practices. H7: There is a positive correlation between extrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar and their ethical attitudes towards questionable management directives. H8: There is a positive correlation between extrinsic religiosity of managers/white-collar and their ethical attitudes towards questionable independent actions in the workplace. employees employees employees employees employees Methodology This paper presents the results of a study that investigated the roles that managers / white-collar employees‘ religiosity play in determining their ethical attitudes regarding questionable business practices. Two dimensions of religiosity – intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity – were studied. Sample The data is collected from six organizations which are located in northwestern part of Turkey. Approximately 1000 questionnaire sent to the managers and white-collar workers in these organizations and 550 questionnaires returned. 510 of these questionnaires are used. Participants distribution is as follow: %25,3 employed by a state organization, %24,7 employed by a private education company, %16,1 employed by SMEs, %13,7 employed by a utility company, %10,6 employed by a manufacturing company, and %9,6 employed by a bank. 34.7% of the participants are in managerial position and 65.3% are in professional white-collar workers position. 45.9% of the sample was female and 54.1% of the sample was male. About 2.4% of the sample were younger than 20, 17.5% were between 21 and 25 years of age, 24.7% were between 26 and 30 years of age, 18.8% were in between 31 and 35, 13.3% were in between 36 and 40, 13.1% were between 41 and 45, 7.3% were between the ages of 46 and 50 and 2.9% were older 50; 3.1% had a high school degree, 25.1% had twoyear college degree, 17.1% had a university degree, 45.5% had MBA or PhD and 9.2% mentioned as other. 16.1% were working in a company with less than 10 employees, 24.7% were working in between 151 and 200 employees, 9.6% were in between 201 and 250 employees and a major as 49.6% were working in companies over 250 employees. As last demographic variable as marital status, 57.8% were married, 38.4% were single and 3.7% were divorced or widowed. Measures The survey consists of three parts. The first part included 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994), included employee theft, lying to customers, taking advantage of customers, using company services and whistleblowing among others. The second part included 14-item religiosity scale of Allport and Ross (1967). We used the adopted version of the scale by Vitell et al. (2007). The third part contained various demographic measures such as age, sex, marital status, educational level, occupational category and employed sector. The dependent construct in the analysis was managers‘/ white-collar employees‘ ethical attitudes as measured by the 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994). The respondents were asked to rate each vignette on a five-point scale from – strongly believe that it is unethical (1) to strongly believe that this is ethical (5). It is important for the readers to note that a low score on this scale indicates that managers / white-collar employees have stronger belief that these behaviors are wrong or more unacceptable. Overall reliability score of the ethics scale is 0.833. Extrinsic and intrinsic religiosities were measured by using the adopted version of Allport and Ross (1967), using a five-point Likert type scale anchored by ―1 = I strongly disagree‖ and 5 = I strongly agree‖. In the response format, higher scores indicate higher degree of religiousness. Overall reliability score of religiosity scale is 0.741. The intrinsic dimension has 8 items and is exemplified by items such as, ‗‗I try hard to live my life according to my religious beliefs.‘‘ This dimension exhibited a reliability of 0.771. The extrinsic dimension includes 6 items and has a reliability of 0.698. It is exemplified by items such as, ‗‗I go to religious services because it helps me make friends.‘‘ 249 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Results Religiosity scale has two dimensions; intrinsic religiosity and extrinsic religiosity. Reliability of coefficient (Cronbach‘s Alpha) of religiosity scale is 0,741. Ethics scale has four dimensions; marketing, management, employee following management directives and employees independent actions. Reliability coefficient (Cronbach‘s Alpha) of ethics scale is 0,833. Descriptive statistics of these dimensions are given in Table 1. Factors Intrinsic Religiosity Extrinsic Religiosity Mean 3,43 2,70 Std. Deviation C. Alpha 0,75 0,77 0,74 0,70 Factors Marketing Scenario Management Scenario Employee Following Management Directions Employees' Independent Actions Mean 2,20 1,70 1,97 1,76 Std. Deviation 0,54 0,66 0,72 0,67 C. Alpha 0,73 0,57 0,49 0,72 Table 1: Descriptive Statistics Correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to test the hypothesis. There is negative and statistically significant relationship between ―intrinsic religiosity‖ dimension and ―management‖ dimension and ―employee following management directives‖ dimension of ethics scale. These correlations mean that people who have high intrinsic religiosity consider questionable business practices more unethical than people who have low intrinsic religiosity. There is positive and statically significant relationship between extrinsic religiosity and all the dimensions of the ethics scale. These correlations mean that people who have high extrinsic religiosity consider questionable business practices more ethical than people who have low extrinsic religiosity. Results of the correlation analyses are given in Table 2. Marketing Scenario Management Scenario Employee Following Employees' Management Independent Directives Actions -0,034 (p = 0,440) -,090* (0,042) -,094* (0,034) -0,058 (0,191) ,160** ,246** ,130** (0,000) (0,000) (0,003) *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2- tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2- tailed). ,295** (0,000) Intrinsic Religiosity Extrinsic Religiosity Table 2: Correlation Results For Factors Multiple regression analysis was also used to analyze the data and test the hypothesis with intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity as the independent variables and the four dimensions of the ethics scale as the dependent variables. In order to examine the relation between the independent variable and each of the four dependent variables, four separate multiple regression analyses were conducted. The results of these multiple regression analyses appear in Table 3. According to the regression analysis, extrinsic religiosity positively explains the questionable marketing practices (beta 0,170), the questionable management practices (beta 0,266), the questionable management directives (beta 0,148), and the questionable independent actions (beta 0,311). Regression analysis show that intrinsic religiosity negatively explains the questionable management practices (beta -0,132) and questionable management directives (beta -0,117), and questionable independent actions (beta -0,106). It can be easily seen from the correlations and regressions tables that (although statistically significant) correlation coefficients, beta values and R2 values are low. This means that there are more important factors that affect ethical attitudes of the participants other than religiosity. This is the subject of another study. We can speculate that these factors might be personal such as personality, and personal motivations etc.; organizational factors such as culture, climate etc., and social, economical, and political factors etc. 250 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo According to the t-test and ANOVA, there are no statistically significant differences among participants‘ religiosity and ethical attitudes in terms of demographic measures, such as age, education, position etc.. Model (a) Dependent variable: marketing dimension Constant Intrinsic Religiosity Extrinsic Religiosity R² = 0,029 Adjusted R² = 0,025 Standardized beta -0,061 0,170 F- value = 7,640 Significance = 0,001 (b) Dependent variable: management d imension Constant Intrinsic Religiosity -0,132 Extrinsic Religiosity 0,266 R² = 0,077 F- value = 21,265 Adjusted R² = 0,074 Significance = 0,000 (c)D ependent variable: following directives Constant Intrinsic Religiosity Extrinsic Religiosity R² = 0,030 Adjusted R² = 0,026 -0,117 0,148 F- value = 7,857 Significance = 0,000 (d) Dependent variable: independent actions Constant Intrinsic Religiosity Extrinsic Religiosity R² = 0,098 Adjusted R² = 0,094 -0,106 0,311 F- value = 27,550 Significance = 0,000 t - value Significance 15,356 -1,369 3,830 0,000 0,172 0,000 9,280 -3,047 6,169 0,000 0,002 0,000 11,277 -2,636 3,335 0,000 0,009 0,001 8,363 -2,493 7,294 0,000 0,013 0,000 Table 3: Regression Analyses According to the correlation and regression analysis, we rejected hypothesis H1, and accepted hypothesis H2, H3, H5, H6, H7, H8, and partly accepted H4 (because, results of the regression analysis support this hypothesis). Conclusion In this study, we explored the relationship between religiosity and ethical attitudes of the managers / white-collar employees. The findings of the study show that there are significant and meaningful correlations between the dimensions of religiosity and attitudes towards questionable business practices. That is, an intrinsic religious orientation appears to explain, in part, one‘s attitude toward questionable business practices. People who have a stronger intrinsic religious orientation tend to be more likely to believe that questionable business activities were wrong or unethical. Furthermore, people who have stronger extrinsic religious orientation tend to be more likely to believe that questionable business activities were less unethical. It is perhaps not surprising that someone who has high extrinsic religious orientation might be inclined to support these kinds of activities. Our findings related to the intrinsic religiosity are consisted with the findings of Vitell et al. As expected, the stronger a respondent‘s sense of intrinsic religiosity, the more likely he/she was to find various ‗‗questionable‘‘ business activities as wrong. (Vitell et al. 2005; Vitell and Muncy, 2005; Vitel et al. 2006; Vitell et al. 2007) It is interesting to note that people who have high extrinsic religious orientation consider questionable business practices more acceptable than people who have low extrinsic religious orientation. As Allport (1967) put the word ―uses‖ to differentiate the intrinsic religiosity and extrinsic religiosity, extrinsically motivated 251 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo people approach religion as a tool or instrument to reach some personal goals, such as making friends etc. In other words, they are not sincere enough. 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An Investigation on Malaysian Future Accountants, Malaysian Accounting Review, Vol. 8, No. 2, 17-41. 252 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Singhapakdi, A.; Marta, J. K.; Rallapalli, K. C. and Rao, C. P. (2000). Toward and Understanding of Religiousness and Marketing Ethics: An Empirical Study. Journal of Business Ethics, 27: 305-319. Siu, N. Y. M; Dickinson, J. R. and Lee, B. Y. Y. (2000). Ethical Evaluations of Business Activities and Personal Religiousness. Teaching Business Ethics, 4: 239-256. Stack, Steven and Kposowa, Augustine (2006). The Effect of Religiosity on Tax Fraud Acceptability: A Cross-National Analysis, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45(3) : 325-351. Vitell, Scott J., Paolillo, Joseph G. P., and Singh, Jatinger J. (2005). Religiosity and Consumer Ethics, Journal of Business Ethics, 57: 175-181. Vitell, S. J. and Muncy, J. (2005). The Muncy–Vitell Consumer Ethics Scale: A Modification and Application. Journal of Business Ethics 62(3), 267–275. Vitell, S. J.; Paolillo, J. G. P. and Singh, J. J. (2006). The Role of Money and Religiosity in Determining Consumers‘ Ethical Beliefs. Journal of Business Ethics, 64: 117-124. Vitell, S. J.; Singh, J. J. and Paolillo, J. (2007). Consumers‘ Ethical Beliefs: The Roles of Money, Religiosity and Attitude toward Business. Journal of Business Ethics, 73: 369-379. Weaver, G. R. and Agle, B. R. (2002). Religiosity and Ethical Behavior in Organizations: A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 77–98. 253 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 169 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship between the Religiosity and the Ethical Attitudes of Managers: An Empirical Study Author Author AYDEMİR, Muzaffer EĞİLMEZ, Özüm Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, we aimed to explore the relationship between religiosity and business ethics. Two dimensions of religiosity – intrinsic an extrinsic- were studied. We mainly tested one hypothesis: whether ethical attitudes are affected by religiosity. However, we also explored the relationship between ethical attitudes, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity and various demographic measures of the participants.In our study, we surveyed 510 managers and white-collar workers from 6 different organizations in Turkey. Our survey instruments have three parts. First part included 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994). Second part included 14-item religiosity scale of Allport and Ross (1967). Third part contained various demographic measures. Findings of the study show that intrinsic religiosity is partly and negatively correlated with ethical attitudes and extrinsic religiosity is positively related to the ethical attitudes. In other words, intrinsically motivated people are more prone to behave ethically than extrinsically motivated people are. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44fc3f272eacf27b209ae9c1190823c6.pdf 60c88906d75418cc7c2f914f87783d98 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Intrapreneurship in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Mehmet AYGÜN Assoc. Prof.,Yüzüncü Yıl University, Van, Turkey maygun@yyu.edu.tr Süleyman ĠÇ Dr. , Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey icsuleyman@yahoo.com Mehmet KIZILOĞLU Res. Assist., Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey kiziloglu20@hotmail.com Abstract: Begining from the second half of the 1980s the concept of intrapreneurship found an intense interest in the academic and business fields. It is seen that numerous academic studies which are related with intrapreneurship have been done during that time. Although intraprenurship is attempted to be defined in different ways, the most general sense of intrapreneurship is considered to be entrepreneurship within an existing organization. In this sense, intrapreneurship is regarded as individuals‘ being involved in the form of entrepreneurial activities within an existing organization. In this study, firstly we defined the concept of intrapreneurship then information about the requirements and dimensions of intrapreneurship, process of creating intrapreneursship, comparison of executives and intrapreneurship, motivation of intrapreneurship, differences of domestic and foreign entrepreneurs and intrapreneurship in SMEs. Finally we were measure intrapreneurship in SMEs by questionnaire at our last part of study. Key words : Intrapreneurship, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise (SMEs) Introduction While the socio-economic development is realized, there takes place periods when societies alter themselves from top to bottom. The first period out of these having left its traces in the history of mankind is that connected prople to the domestic life and during which soil was accepted as the most valuable factor for production. This period marks the beginning of agricultural communities. The second of them is the transmission from agricultural community to industrial community, where mass production and consumption gained value and the concept of colonialism was dominant. The third one is information community marked by the transmission from industrial community to what is experienced today, when, besides classic production methods, information is conceptualized as the most essential factor for production and the capital of human is given more importance (Aygün, 2004). Together with the process of transmission to information community, the rising competition has made people working in organizations even more important. The businesses that want to get advantages in competition have started to allow their workers the oportunuties to elicit their creative features. The concept of Intrapreneurship has been given great interest since the second half of 1980‘s in academic and business fields. During the period, numerous academic studies have been carried out regarding the topic. In these studies having been carried out, the fact that intrapreneurship activity is a very important factor for the businesses to maintain their existence, grow and make profit was brought out (Jarna and Kaisu, 2003 : 1). In our study, primarily, intrapreneurship is theoretically discussed in detail. After mentioning about intrapreneurship in SMEs the methodology, data and versions are defined in practice part. In result part, the results of the survey are evaluated. Entrepreneurship, Administration And Intrapreneurship The concepts of entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship are used today to a great extent in the literature and discussions of administration (Luchsinger and Bagby 1987 : 10). The eminence of entrepreneurship and intrepreneurship began to increase in USA wih the interest in productivity. 217 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The entrepreneur is defined as somebody who has an independent capacity and who can take over the risk of starting a fruitful activity and maintaining it (Luchsinger and Bagby 1987 : 10). Intrapreneurs are the creative individuals who have the entrepreneur soul within an instutition, who see the opportunities for innovation and catch it, and who not only innovate but also can turn their ideas and models into increase for their instutition‘s profits and competitive power. Pinchott defines entrepreneur as the dreamer who takes over the responsibility for each kind of creativity within an organization. An intrapreneur is a person who moves with a entrepreneural spirit in a big organization. Intrapreneurs are leaders in converting new ideas to realities (Parboteeah, 2000 : 48). They are action – focussed and goal – oriented. Whatever happens, they are ready to achieve their aims. They are not only good thinkers, but also planners. When face to face with a success, they present an optimist attitude. They regard unsuccess as a latency that is temporary. They do not blame people for their failure, but instead, they focus on how they can do better (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2000 : 213). Pinchott states that intrapreneurs have their peculiar principles and puts forward 10 conditions related to an intrapreneur. These are (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2000 : 14): 1- Coming to work in high excitement and willingness everyday, 2- Nobady‘s preventing their dreams, 3- Preparing projects for work despite their not being necessary, 4- Creating networks to help people, 5- Constructing team – spirit, 6- Curiosity for inventions, 7- Dedicatedness to work and honesty, 8- Being forgiving, 9- Being realists regarding goals, and 10- Having a strong vision. Although the concepts of entrepreneur and intrepreneur have similar qualities, there are nuances between them. The most important difference is that, the intrapreneur acts in an environment in an already present organization whereas the entrepreneur prepares his/ her environment for him/ herself. Another difference is that the entrepreneur takes over more risk than the intrapreneur. Failure might cause an entrepreneur to go bankrupt while the intrapreneur is an employee (Luchsinger and Bagby, 1987 : 12). The studies having been carried out put forward that the entrepreneurs foster a style that is more apt for entrepreneural administration than conventional administration. Actually, investigating the entrepreneur and conventional administrator profiles, the intrapreneur profile shows so many peculiarities that it might be considered as a third type. As an instance of such studies might be shown that of Gifford Pinchot III, which is very inclusive. The narrowed version of this wide analysis investigating the similarities and differences between conventional administration, entrepreneur and intrapreneur is presented in Table 2 (Berber, 2000 : 34-35). 218 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Main motivation factors Activity Conventional Administors Promotion and other conventional company rewards (buro general staff, power, etc.) Assigning rather than direct participation Careful Entrepreneurs Intrapreneurs Freedom, opportunity to be created and money Freedom and the ability to develop in terms of the company rewards Direct participation Direct participation instead of assigning Taking over reasonable risk Not focussed on the conventional company status symbols, willing freedom The tendency not to consider risky projects until being ready May persuade others to reach a dream Satisfies him/herself, customers and sponsors Generally family members that are entrepreneurs, small business owners Based on reciprocal relations in a hierarchy Both inner and outer conditions Solving problems within a system Status Focussed on status symbols Taking over reasonable risk Has no relationwith status symbols Mistake and failures The exertion to run away from mistake and failure Tackling mistakes and failures Decisions Generally in accord with his/her superiors Satisfies others Follows his/her dreams with his/her dreams Satisfies him/herself and customers Generally family members that are entrepreneurs, small business owners Mostly based reciprocal relation and respect Priorly technology and market Running away from the solution of huge problems by leaving them or restarting the solution Risk situation For whom Family background Relations with others Focussing Style to solve a problem Generally family members having worked in tremendous organizations Mostly hierarchical Intraorganizational relations Solving problems within a system Table 1: The Comparision of Conventional Administrator, Entrepreneur and Intrapreneur Profiles Source: Berber (2000 : 34) Intrapreneurs might, above all, be said to have a profile between entrepreneur and conventional administrator. As examples to this might be given; in terms of main motivation factors, intrapreneur‘s desire to pick up instutition‘s rewards as in conventional administrator within the frame of entrepreneur‘s freedom conception; intrapreneur‘s absorbing the direct participation in his/her entrepreneural identity instead of assigning people like a conventional administrator; intrapreneur‘s not running away from mistakes an failures contrary to entrereneur, but at the same time, his/her exertions not to let his/her company see them; intrapreneur‘s peference of reciprocal relations within conventional order of hierarchy. Moreover, while the intrapreneur has the tendency to present conventional administrator features like solving problems within the business system, contrary to a conventional administrator who considers opportunities carefully, acts like an entrepreneur by prefering the way of taking over reasonable risks (Berber, 2000). Intrapreneurship It is known that the concept of entrepreneurship was used for the first time by Richard Cantillon in the midst of the 16th century as an economical term. Contrary to this, we can say that the term, intrapreneurship is a new concept in the literature. Because, it has been put forward that the concept was first used by Ginford Pinchott in 1985. Although the concept is new, we may come across different concepts that corresponds to the same sense in the literature of enterpreneurship. The mostly used among these are Corporate Entrepreneurship, Internal Entrepreneurship, Corporate Venturing‘tir. Corporate Venturing is defined as creating new positions in an already existing organization while Corporate Venturing is defined as the creation of new jobs in an already existing organization for the purpose of taking competitive advantages out of new opportunities (Parboteeah, 2000 : 26). 219 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Even though it has been tried to be defined different ways (Parboteeah, 2000 : 26), Pinchott‘s definition is accepted as the default one in the literature (Kuratko; Hodgetts, 2000; Antoncic; Hisrich, 2000, 2001). To this definition, entrepreneurship is accepted as entepreneurship in an already existing organization. In this sense, entrepreneurship is referred to as the entreprising activities of the workers working in an already existing organization. After this definition by Pinchott, some other writers expanded the definition considering the occuring needs (Kuratko et al. 1990 : 49). Kuratko and Hodgetts (2000 : 95) expanded Pincott‘s definition as the process of starting a new organization or a reform by an individual or a group working in an already existing organization. Zahra (1991 : 260) defines the term as all the official or non-official activities carried our for the purpose of creating new jobs through renewing the products or processes; or developing market in an already existing organization. The Need for Intrepreneurship The concept of intraentrepreneurship became popular through the end of 1980, and since then, it has become a field that has attracted practitioners. Many factors have played roles for the development and expansion of the concept. Kuratko and Hodgetts (2000 : 96) connt some of them as follows: Rapid increase in the number of the existing and new competitors, Serious increases in the amount of ar-ge spendings, Some intelligent and bright people‘s leaving their organizations and becoming entrepreneurs of small businesses. International competition, The shrinking of fundamental organizations, Rapid changes in technology, The desire to make better effectiveness and production. Hisrich et al. (2005) put forward that the actions in the social, cultural and working levels raise the interest to the concept dramatically. It was mentioned that at the social level, the rise of the conception of ―doing what we have‖ was very effective. Hisrich et al. attract the attention towards the people having the heart for intrapreneurship and report that they they trust their abilities supposing that they have the tendency to create new things with what they have. These people want responsibility and need to get the feeling of freedom in their working environments. Unless there exists this freedom in the environment where they are, these people are disappointed. This might lead to their being less efficient and leaving the organization. Intrapreneurship is one of the measures to prevent these from occuring. The Dimensions of Intrapreneurship For the concept of Intrapreneurship to be perceived better, its dimensions must be defined well. Chang (1998 : 187) defines intrapreneurship as the innovations produced internally within the organization. Antoncic, (2000) carrying out researches in the field of intrapreneurship has summarized the literature in the table below. 220 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Authors Name of the concept Miller and Friesen (1983) Innovation Characteristic Dimensions New products Risk taking Proactivitivity Covin and Slevin (1986, 1991) Entrepreuneurial posture Risk taking Innovationism Guth and Ginsberg (1990) Corporate Entrepreneurship Proactivity Internal innovation or venturing Strategic renewal Zahra (1991, 1993a) Corporate Entrepreneurship Innovation and venturing Strategic renewal Lumpkin and Dess (1996) Entrepreneurship Orientation Authonomy Innovationism Risk taking Proacivity Knight (1997) Entrepreneurship Orientation Innovationism Proactivity Definitions The introduction of new products and productionservice technologies Being above the opponents Risk-taking via considering investment decisions and strategic actions Expanding the production renewal frequency and technological leadership Pioneering, aggression The birth of new jobs in an already existing organization The cycling of the key ideas in the organization The creation of new jobs via the market developments The re-defining of job concept and reorganization The independence of an individual or a team for acting Firm‘s supporting and maintaining new ideas Perception of unpredictability… The prospects of harm or negation out of the outcomes Joining new markets and seizing new opportunities The following of the new or creative problems with which the firm faces Anti-reactivity and being more agressive compared with the opponents Table 2 : The Classification of Intrapreneurship At The Organizational Level Source: Antoncic (2000) Given the studies that were carried out in the last years, the concept can be classified under seven dimensions. These are; (New Business Venturing), (2) Product and Service Innovativeness, (3) Process Innovativeness, (4) Self-Renewal, (5) Risk Taking, (6) Proactiveness and (7) Competitive Aggressiveness. New business enterprises or new business partnerships means the firm new jobs and its gains related to its already existing products and markets. New business enterprises are regarded as the most essential dimension of intrapreneurship due to the fact that they might result from the creation of new jobs in an organization by reason of the products and services of the organization being re-defined and new markets being improved. Rather than the new bbusiness enterprises, product/service innovativeness dimension means the business‘ innovation of their products and services due to technological change and development. Intrapreneurship consists of the methods and procedures of new product development, product improvement and new production. 221 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo What is meant by self-renewal is the transformation of the organization and the renewal of the key ideas that are a part of the organization that constitute it. This concept means strategic and organized change and it involves activities such as the redefining the concept of work and its reorganization (Antoncic and Hisrich 2000 : 498). In the broadest sense, risk- taking is defined as the chasing of the opportunities in a fast way and taking brave steps. Since Cantillon, who defines enterpreneurs as the people who take over the risks of profit and loss; risktaking has been regarded as the most essential concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship (by such scholars as Knight, Schumpeter and Mc Clelland). Risk- taking is a concept which takes place in the nature of all all the other dimensions. It is argued that risk- taking has a strong relation to the other dimensions. Furthermore, in recent studies, risk- taking has been spotted as a dimension of entrepreneurship or a peculiar characteristic of it in an organization (Anontic, 2000). Proactiveness expresses the presentation of a more aggressive attitude compared with other businesses. A proactive business shows tendency to take risks, and is brage and aggressive in terms of finding opportunities. The tendenct to compete with opponents is expressed within the dimension of competitive aggression. The two terms, proactiveness and competitive aggression are generally assigned the same meaning. Although it is regarded as partly true, while proactiveness refers to responding to the opportunities whereas competitive aggression refers to responding to treats. Stages of Creating Intraentrepreneurship The organizations that wish to sat up an intrapeneural environment must develop a procedure to realize this (Hisrich et al., 2005). Intrapreneurship, which is defined as an entrepreneurship activity in an already existing organization is composed of a 4-stage process. These stages are, in order, job idea, job plan, finding sponsor and team creation (Arıkan, 2003 : 188). Job Idea In order to start an intrapreneurship activity, constituting the job idea is prerequisite. The job idea does not always have to be an idea that the entrepreneur has him/herself developed. The job ideas that are gathered from variable sources like customers and colleagues might be turned into intrapreneurship activities. While, under some circumstances, a job idea might create the willingness to constitute an intrapreneurship, it might also be the willingness of a person for enterprise that directs him/her to look for a job idea. To construct a job idea, one of the essential sources of the entrepreneur is his/her colleagues. Meetings with the colleagues and idea developing methods such as brain storming are the means that might be taken advantage of in the search of the intrapreneurship idea. Job ideas might also pop up during the investigation of the organization‘s present functioning or with the decection of its deficencies. The researches that the firm has not carried out or practiced might give out new job ideas with teir new perspectives. Another important source is the technology the firm has. The technological fields where the firm is superior to the others might bring new and untried alternatives. Job Plan The entrepreneur that has made his/her mind to apply the job idea in the firm should act in a certain job plan for a successful intrapreneurship. He/she should clearly put forward the strategies and the aim of the job plan trial. The obstacles that might occur inside or outside the firm with regard to the implementation of the work plan should be detected and ways to overcome them should be improved. The existance of a good job plan is necessary in terms of defining the budget and the strategies of the intrapreneurship and to follow them during the practice stage. The budget and goals which have been constructed have great importance for the firm administratives to foster the intrapreneurship. The intrapreneurship goals, its structure, its risks and appropriateness for the structure of the firm which have been proposed raise the intrapreneurship proposal‘s chance to be accepted within the firm by being put forward together with the job plan. Finding Sponsor Choosing the right sponsor is one of the most eminent factors for the success of the enterprise. The intrapreneur should not take the full responsibility of the job idea that he/she is going to practice. Sponsors are needed within the firm to solve the problems if sources are to be created for the project. These sponsors might be less superior administrators that might help with the daily problems as well as the high- rank administrators who 222 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo may protect the firm from the main dangers. At this point, the function of the superior administration is essential. The commitment of the administration is one of the compulsory conditions for an entrepreneural activity‘s success. Team Creation and Administrating The idea for enterprise might be one‘s idea, but it is, most of the times, impossible. For this reason, the intrapreneur should construct the best team and direct, administrate his/ her team mates. SMEs in Turkey SMEs play a particularly important role in the Turkish economy, because of their number and because of the large share of the workforce involved. There is no universal definition of SME and the term covers a wide variety of definitions and measures. The most common definition in OECD countries is based on employment figures; correspondingly, an SME has less than 500 employees. The Eurostat definition used in 19 European countries refers to fewer than 250 employees, and it is currently the most widely accepted definition. Some countries use different definitions for manufacturing and services SMEs, with the latter usually defined to be smaller. Some countries distinguish between autonomous SMEs and those connected to a larger enterprise or group, or identify an SME in terms of management structure. In Turkey, the widely accepted definition points to those with 1 to 50 employees as ‗small‘ and those companies with 50 to 100 employees as ‗medium‘. In financial terms, an SME would have less than 15 million USD as revenue. Another criteria for an SME has been accepted as ―an SME should not be owned by a nonSME firm (or ownership should not exceed more than 25%.)‖. Other non-numeric, rather qualitative traits of an SME are adopted as: the owners are usually the managers, the management style is not hierarchic, usually it is a family business, not quoted on stock markets and most of the time they have financing constraints and find it difficult to trade abroad. (Gungen, 2010 ) SMEs constitute 99.6% of all the enterprises in the manufacturing industry, and accounts for 55.6% of the employment and contribute about 40 % to the GDP. Very large shares of SMEs are in the trade, crafts and industry sectors. The basic targets of SME policies are to increase the productivity of the sector, its share in total value added and its international competitiveness. (Country Partnership Strategy -Turkey: 2009-2010) SMEs are generally regarded as providing a friendlier environment where structures and process are and must remain simple, flexible and adaptable (Marchesnay, 1992; Gasse and Carrier, 1992; d‘Amboise and Muldowney, 1988) In SMEs, decision-making is highly centralised (Deeks, 1976; Charan, Hofer and Mahon, 1980; Welsh and White, 1981, MacMillan, 1975). The resulting structural flexibility is reinforced by the small number of hierarchical levels usually found in smaller organizations (Schöllhammer and Kuriloff, 1979; Robinson and Pearce II, 1984; MacMillan, 1975; Van Kirk and Noonan, 1982; Pearce II, Chapman and David, 1982) Potential intrapreneurs are usually very easy identified. In most cases, intrapreneurs quickly make themselves known by bringing their ambitions, idea or projects to the attention of their owner-managers. As a result, the logic governing their emergence tends to be one of matching or convergence rather than detection. This type of complementarity could even be regarded as a critical success factor for intrapreneurship in SMEs. While in large business the structures and systems often constitute important barriers to intrapreneurship, in SMEs the owner-managers themselves may become the main inhibitors or, conversely, the best catalysts in the process. In SMEs employees have easier Access to the entrepreneur or top management. Generally speaking, the intrapreneur-entrepreneur coupling seems at first glance to function more naturally and harmoniously, provided, however, that the intraprenur‘s compartmentalisation is not significant and where functions are rarely overspecialised. Therefore, in their view, promotion often provides an opportunity to extend their field of action, increase their autonomy and more closer to the owner-managers with whom they would like to share the innovative function in the firm. Result In this study, firstly the concept of entrepreneurship, management and intrapreneurship were defined and described the need of intrapreneurship. Then dimension of intrapreneurship explained. And also try to understand the position of the Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in Turkey and defined the intrapreneurship in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises. 223 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In the part of application, we used a scale which done by Heoimonen and Korvela. We translated that scale to Turkish and applied this questionaire to 120 manager who work in the Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in Turkey. Questionaire include 7 factors which are Encouragement by management and organization, Individual Motivation, Transparency, openness and community, Individual Competence, Enabling working environment, Encouragement to innovations, Development. The result is that the level of intrapreneurship in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in Turkey are so high and which is a consistent result at the literature. References Antoncic, B. and R. D. Hisrich (2000) ‗‘Intraprenurship Modeling in Transition Economies: A Comparision of Slovenia and United States‘‘, Jouranl of Developmental Enterpreneurship, 5, 1 , 21 Antoncic, Bostjan (2000). ‗‘Intraprenurship: Construct Refinement and An Integrative Model Development‘‘ , Doctoral Theses, Case Western Reserve University. Antontic, B. and R. D. Hisrich (2001). ‗‘Intraprenurship: Construct Refinement and Cross-Cultural Validation‘‘ , Journal of Business Venturing, 16, 495-527. Arıkan, Semra (2004). GiriĢimcilik, Siyasal Kitabevi Chang, Jane (1998). ‗‘Model of Corporate Entrepreneurship: Intrapreneurship and Exopreneurship‘‘, Borneo Review, 9, 2, 187-213 Güngen, Tulay (2010) ―E-Fınance for SMEs in Turkey‖ http://r0.unctad.org/ecommerce/event_docs/xmefinoct2001/gungen.pdf Hisrich ve diğerleri (2005). Entrepreneurship, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Jarna, H. and K. Kaisu (2003). ‗‘How about measuring Intraprenurship‘‘. Kuratko D. F. And R. M. Hodgetts (2000) Entrepreneurship: A Contemorary Approach, Fifth Editon, South-Western Thomsan Learning. Kuratko ve diğerleri (19909. ‗‘Developing an Intrapreneurial Assetsment Instrument for an Effective Corporate Entrepreneurial Environment‘‘ Strategic Management Journal, 11, 5, 49-58 Lunchsinger V. and D. Ray Bagby (1987) ‗‘Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship: Behaviors, Comparisions, and Contrasts‘‘. Advanced Management Journal, 52, 3, 10-13 Porboteeah, K. Praveen (2000) ‗‘Choice of Type of Corporate Entrepreneurship: A Process Model‘‘, Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, 6, 1, 28-46 Berber, Aykut (2000). ‗‘GiriĢimci ile Yönetici Profilinin KarĢılaĢtırılması ve GiriĢimcilikten Yöneticiliğe GeçiĢ Süreci‘‘, Ġ.Ü ĠĢletme Fakültesi Dergisi, C:29, 23-46. Country Partnership Strategy -Turkey: 2009-2010 www.tukkk.fi/pki/julkaisut/konferenssit/EISB2003/Heinonen_Korvela_EISB2003.pdf http://www.pinchot.com/MainPages/BooksArticles/Innovation 224 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 161 Title A name given to the resource Intrapreneurship in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Author Author AYGÜN, Mehmet İÇ, Süleyman KIZILOĞLU, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Begining from the second half of the 1980s the concept of intrapreneurship found an intense interest in the academic and business fields. It is seen that numerous academic studies which are related with intrapreneurship have been done during that time. Although intraprenurship is attempted to be defined in different ways, the most general sense of intrapreneurship is considered to be entrepreneurship within an existing organization. In this sense, intrapreneurship is regarded as individuals‘ being involved in the form of entrepreneurial activities within an existing organization. In this study, firstly we defined the concept of intrapreneurship then information about the requirements and dimensions of intrapreneurship, process of creating intrapreneursship, comparison of executives and intrapreneurship, motivation of intrapreneurship, differences of domestic and foreign entrepreneurs and intrapreneurship in SMEs. Finally we were measure intrapreneurship in SMEs by questionnaire at our last part of study. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/702adb1865d3d24d23df85bd35694b0d.pdf 3e08db733cbcb28f09f735a3e90de4ff PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Corporate Governance and Earning Management: An Investigation on Turkish Capital Market Mehmet AYGÜN Assoc. Prof., Yüzüncü Yıl University, Van, TURKEY maygun@yyu.edu.tr Süleyman ĠÇ Dr., Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, TURKEY icsuleyman@yahoo.com M. Akif ARVAS Res. Assist., Hacettepe University, Ankara, TURKEY akif_arvas@hotmail.com Abstract: The main purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between corporate governance and earning management. The data set covers 107 firms‘data listed on Istanbul Stock Exchange for the period 2006–2007. In the study, accrual is used as an earning management indicator. Publicly offering rate, board of directors and duality are used alternative proxies for corporate governance indicators. Regression and correlation analysis are used. According to the results, there is a negative relationship between earning management and corporate governance indicators. This negative relationship is statistically significant for duality variables. An important finding from the study is that corporate management has extensively been adopted accordingly in large firms and in firms with low leverage rate. 1. Introduction The increasing number of corporate scandals in the last five years have stained corporate governance reputation and questioned the effectiveness of its current structure. As a result, corporate governance has received attention from policymakers, investors, corporate boards (Donker ve Zahir, 2008). Corporate governance has become a popular topic in the international academic and business debate (Bebchuk and Cohen 2009). Corporate governance is of critical importance not only to the companies‘ directors who are interested in knowing the level of their companies governance structure and compliance with best practices and regulations, but to market participants who are keenly interested in the governance risks associated with companies. Corporate governance is a set of mechanisms that affect how a corporation is operated. It deals with the welfares and goals of all the stakeholders, including shareholders, management, board of directors, lenders, regulators, and the economy as a whole. La Porta, et al. (2000) Defined, ―Corporate governance is, to a certain extent, a set of mechanisms through which outside investors protect themselves against expropriation by the insiders.‖ They define ―the insiders‖ as both managers and controlling shareholders. The purpose of corporate governance is to achieve the best overall welfare of all stakeholders and promote economic efficiency both internally and externally. Empirical research on corporate governance is based on the theoretical framework of agency theory advanced by Jensen and Meckling (1976), Fama (1980) and Fama and Jensen (1983), with a focus on the principalagent problem. In corporations, principal-agent problem occurs when the interest of managers (the agent) is not in line with the interest of owners (the principal). Firms with good governance are assumed to provide transparent disclosures of the allocation of decision and control rights between the firm and its investors thereby making them more investor-friendly than firms that do not. Therefore, because ‗‗better governance enables firms to access capital markets on better terms‖ (Doidge et al., 2007), good governance practices should positively impact a firm‘s valuation and market performance. The concept of corporate governance evokes the question of corporate performance and higher returns in the case of companies complying with certain rules. The research on these relations constitute a substantial proportion of papers in modern management, finance as well as law and economics. Researchers have investigated 26 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo relationships between company performance and corporate governance variables such as ownership structure (concentration, shareholder identity), board structure (composition, turnover, proportion of independent, insider/outside or affiliated members), structure and functioning of board committees, structure and size of executing compensation (fixed salary vs. incentives programs and stock options), structure and size of debt (long vs. short term, private vs. public). Although, the research findings remain relatively mixed, many results do reveal clear relations between governance characteristics and performance (Aluchna, 2009). One of the most important functions of corporate governance is to ensure the quality of the financial reporting process. The issue of corporate governance has become more important due to the highly publicized financial reporting frauds at Enron, WorldCom, Adelphia and Parmalat, in particular, and a very high level of earnings restatements. While there is an extensive literature on opportunistic earnings management in response to specific incentives to achieve one result or another, research looking at the impact of corporate governance on earnings management is quite limited. The few papers that address these issues (e.g., Klein (2002)) focus more on the magnitude than the direction of earnings management, and thus shed little light on the ability of these variables to offset the one-sided incentive of management to increase reported earnings that results from stock and option-based compensation. More recently, Cornett et al. (2008) examine the impact of incentive-based compensation and corporate governance on firm performance in light of potential earnings management. They find that incentive-based compensation has a significant impact on financial performance as measured by reported earnings. However, once earnings are adjusted for discretionary accruals the link between compensation and performance disappears. In contrast, the estimated impact of corporate governance variables on performance more than doubles when discretionary accruals are removed from measured profitability. Shah et all (2009) examines the relationship between quality of Corporate Governance and Earnings Management for Pakistani companies. As the result of their analysis they found that indicates the presence of Positive relationship between corporate governance and earnings management. Cornett et all, (2006) examines whether corporate governance mechanisms affect earnings management at the largest publicly traded bank holding companies in the United States. They found that the use of discretionary accruals is positively related to a bank‘s unmanaged operating performance, capital ratios, and asset size. In contrast, the use of discretionary accruals is negatively related to a bank‘s non-discretionary accruals and market-to-book ratios. Prencipe and Bar-Yosef (2009) examines the effectiveness of board independence on earnings management in family-controlled companies. Their empirical results provide evidence that the impact of board independence on earnings management is indeed weaker in family-controlled companies. The same result also holds for the lack of CEO/board chairman duality function. Such effects become stronger in cases where the CEO is a member of the controlling family. Liu and Lu (2007) examine the relation between earnings management and corporate governance in China by introducing a tunneling perspective. They empirically demonstrate that firms with higher corporate governance levels have lower levels of earnings management. Ahmed et all (2008) examining whether monitoring mechanisms play a role in constraining earnings management resulting from equity incentives. They show that equity incentives are not positively associated with abnormal accruals suggesting that they seem to align manager interests with shareholder interests rather than motivate opportunistic earnings manipulation. Corporate governance models can vary according to the system of corporate ownership and management control mechanisms prevailing in a country. In Turkey, a market-oriented corporate governance and control system cannot be said to exist, since the flotation ratios of listed companies and share dispersion levels are low. According to a corporate governance study conducted in 2003,18 the flotation ratio of listed companies in Turkey is approximately 15–20 per cent, while only 15 per cent of the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) 100 Index companies have a flotation ratio of more than 50 per cent. In practice, Turkish companies are characterized by the existence of one or more majority shareholders owning controlling blocks of shares. Furthermore, unlike in some other European countries, the system is not bank-based, as a domination of banks over companies does not seem to exist either through ownership of shares.19 or through the exercise of voting rights for shares held in custody.20 Instead, most large corporations are held by families or individuals.21 Hence, the Turkish corporate ownership and management control system can be generally classified as insider controlled (Nilsson, 2007). The main purpose of this study examines how corporate governance mechanisms affect earnings management. Public offerinf rate, size of executive board and duality are used as alternative indicators for the corporate governance. For Turkey, an indicator has not been defined yet. In the study two control variables are included in the model. According to the results, there is a negative relationship between earnings management and corporate management. Another findings indicates that the earning management has extensively been adopted in large firms and firms with low leverage rates. 27 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents our research design choices and their rationale. The results are presented in Section 3 and the conclusion in Section 4. 2. Research Design The purpose of this paper examines relationship between corporate governance and earnings management. In this paper, we examine companies listed on Istanbul Stock Exchange during the period of 2006 to 2007. Because of the difference in their asset structures, banks and participation banks, insurance firms, leasing and factoring firms, real estate investment trust and security investment trusts are not taken to the sample. Hence 107 firms covered in the study. Measuring corporate governance is difficult because it cannot be directly observed and it usually involves multiple dimensions. While there is no consensus on how corporate governance can be measured, prior literature suggests several different ways to proxy for corporate governance. For instance, Bai et al. (2004) use both internal single dimensions, such as ownership structure, executive compensation, board of directors and financial disclosure, and external single dimensions, such as external takeover market, legal infrastructure, and product market competition. Gompers et al. (2003) create a 24-factor G-index to measure corporate governance and Brown and Caylor (2006) use 51 corporate governance provisions to create a broader measure. Other empirical studies examine the impact of a single dimension of corporate governance, such as ownership concentration and the separation of CEO and the chairman of the board. In this study, we use to measure corporate governance three variables: Publicly Offering Rate (POR), Board of Directors (BSIZE) and Duality. The variables used are defined as; POR, firms‘ public offering rate. BSIZE, The number of board members. Jensen (1993) and Yermack (1996) argue that small boards are more effective in monitoring managerial behavior as the smaller group forces members to be more engaged. Larger boards can also result in a free-rider problem where the addition of directors causes the overall monitoring to decrease as directors may rely on other directors to monitor managers. This is also consistent with Beasley (1996) who finds that companies with larger board sizes are more prone to fraud compared to those with smaller boards. However, Klein (2002) argues that large boards allow for directors to specialize in monitoring and have greater diversity among the committees of the board resulting in greater monitoring. Additionally, the larger the board, the greater the likelihood different perspectives on opportunities facing the corporation may be heard. DUALITY a binary variable is used as a proxy for duality. This binary variable takes the value of one if the CEO also served as chairman of the board and zero otherwise. Separating the position of the CEO from the position of Chairman of the Board helps delineate the decision making authority of the CEO from the monitoring and oversight activities of the board of directors (Fama and Jensen, 1983). If a single person simultaneously holds both positions the likelihood of material misstatement increases as important decisions may not be reviewed by the board and actions inconsistent with the corporation‘s controls may be taken. Consistent with previous research, discretionary accruals are used to identify earnings management. We use a modified version of the Jones model (Dechow, 1996). Discretionary accruals from regressions of total accruals on changes in sales and on property, plant, and equipment within industries. TACC = NI − OCF (1) Where; TACC: Total accrual NI: Net Income OCF: Operating Cash Flow NDCA it = α1 (1/ TA i, t-1) + α2 [(ΔREV it –ΔARit)/TA i, t-1] (2) Where; NDCAit: is nondiscretionary accrual in year t scaled by lagged total assets TAi, t-1: is a total asset at the end of year t -1 ΔREV it = is revenues in year t ΔARit = is net receivables in year t Our control variables include leverage and firm size. We have used a logarithmic transformation of the 2006–2007 total assets to use our size variable (SIZE). Leverage provides a mechanism to curb agency costs, so the use of leverage as a control variable is warranted in this study. Our leverage variable is calculated as a ratio by dividing the firm‘s total debt by its total assets for each calendar year. 28 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Considering theoretical discussions and empirical studies (Shah et all, 2009; Cornett et all, 200/) the model has been set in order to test the relationship between corporate governance and earning management as is below. ACC it = β0 + β1 (POR) + β2 (BSIZE) + β3 (DUALITY) + β4 (SIZE) + β5 (LEVERAGE) + εit 3. Results Regression and correlation analyses are used. Table 1 shows the results of descriptive statistics to variables. The results of descriptive statistics indicates that mean return on assets (ACC) is about 3 % while mean POR is 33 % and BSIZE is 6, 6636. On the other hand the mean SIZE is 8.4554 and the mean LEV is 41 %. DEĞĠġKENLER ACC POR BSIZE DUALITY SIZE LEV N 214 214 214 214 214 214 Mean ,0302 ,3325 6,6636 ,5888 8,4554 ,4172 Minimum -,40 ,01 3 ,00 7,05 ,05 Maximum ,50 ,86 13 1 9,94 ,90 St. Dev. ,1241 ,1879 1,9807 ,4943 ,6735 ,2067 Table 1: Descriptive Statistics Table 2 shows the results of correlation coefficients of variables used at the analysis. As it can be seen from the table negative and statistically significant results have been obtained between DUALITY and ACC. There is a very significantly negative relationship (5%) between duality and ACC. There exits a significantly (5%) negative relationship between duality and ROE and also significantly negative relationship (5%) between ACC and LEV. There is a positive relationship between ACC and SIZE. The correlation among the independent variables is low and less than 0.50, thus there is no multicollinearity problem in the model. DEĞĠġKENLER ACC POR BSIZE DUALITY SIZE LEV ACC POR BSIZE DUALITY SIZE 1 -,103 1 ,167 -,174 1 -,269** ,055 -,066 1 ,235* -,231* ,433** -,019 1 -,303** -,029 -,131 ,033 ,136 **, * significant at 5 % and 10 %, respectively. LEV 1 Table-2: Correlation Table Table 3 shows the results of regression analysis about financial performance. Model 1 searches the relationship between POR and ACC. When the results are examined it can be seen that there is a negative but statistically insignificant relationship between ACC and POR. According to the results of Model 2 which searches the relationship between ACC and BSIZE positive but still insignificant relationship can be observed. Model 3 searches the relationship between DUALITY and ACC. When the results are examined it can be seen that there is a statistically significant negative relationship at 1% level between DUALITY and ACC. Dependence variables of two models have also negative relations with LEV and positive relations with SIZE. F-statistics values are significant at 1% level for three of the models. But adjusted R2 values are low for three of the models. Model 4 presents the regression of earning management on all variables. When the results are examined it can be seen that there is a statistically negative relationship between ACC and corporate governance variables. This negative relationship statistically significant at % 1 level between ACC and DUALITY. We do not find a significant between ACC and POR and BSIZE. 29 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Variables and Parameters CONSTANT POR BSIZE DUALITY SIZE LEV F-Statistic Adj. R2 Observation Model 1: Dependent Variable: ACC -,294 (-1,958)** -,034 (-,553) Model 2: Dependent Variable: ACC -,323 (-2,265)** Model 3: Dependent Variable: ACC ,000 (,003) ,050 (2,904)*** -,205 (-3,770)*** 7,138*** ,148 214 ,052 (2,760)*** -,205 (-3,679)*** 7,016*** ,145 214 -,063 (-2,928)*** , 051 (3,164)*** -,199 (-3,810)*** 10,456*** ,211 214 Model 4: Dependent Variable: ACC -,261 (-1,771)* -,026 (-,434) -,001 (-,198) -,063 (-2,883)*** ,051 (2,748)*** -,202 (-3,733)*** 16,208*** ,297 214 ***, ** and * significant at 1 %, 5 % and 10 % , respectively. Table 3: Regression Analysis 4. Conclusion In this study, the relationship between corporate governance and earnings management in Turkish Financial market. Data set covers 107 firms‘ data for 2006-2007 period. Public offering rate, the size of executive board and duality are used alternative indicators for corporate management. Corporate management is proxied by discretionary accruals. According to the results, a negative relationship is found significant at 1% level for duality variable. Another finding states that earnings management is extensively used in large firms and in firms with low leverage rate. In the literature, corporate governance index itself is used in econometric models. But due to a lack of this index, for Turkey, apart from the literature, the alternative indicators mentioned above are used as proxies for corporate governance. But the attempts are in process to estimate such an index for Turkey. Another difficulty arises from the insufficient number of the years used in the regression. As it can been seen that the larger is the period, the healthier might be the results. These two issues should be kept in mind for the future studies on Turkey. References Ahmet, Answer, S., S.Duellman and A.Abdel-Meguid, 2008. ―Equity Incentives, Corporate Governance, and Earnings Management, Working Paper Aluchna, Maria, 2009. ―Does good corporate governance matter? Best practice in Poland‖ Management Research News Vol. 32 No. 2, pp. 185-198 Bai, C., Liu, Q., Lu, J., Song, F., Zhang, J., 2004. Corporate governance and market valuation in China. Journal of Comparative Economics 32 (4), 519–616. Beasley, M. S. 1996. ―An empirical analysis of the relation between the board of director composition and financial statement fraud‖. The Accounting Review 71: 443-65. Bebchuck, Cohen, Ferell, 2009, ―What Matters in Corporate Governance,‖ Review of Financial Studies, Vol.22, 783-827 Brown, L. D. and Caylor, M. L. 2006 ―Corporate Governance and Firm Performance.‖ Journal of Accounting and Policy, vol. 25, 409-434. Cornett, M. M., J.J. McNutt and H.Tehranian 2006 ―Corporate governance and earning management at large U.S. bank holding companies, Working Paper 30 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Cornett, M., Marcus, A., Tehranian, H., 2007. ―Corporate governance and pay-for-performance: the impact of earnings management‖. Journal of Financial Economics 86, 279-305. Dechow, P., R. Sloan and A. Sweeney, 1996, ―Causes and Consequences of Earnings Manipulation: An Analysis of Firms Subject to Enforcement Action by the SEC,‖ Contemporary Accounting Research, Vol. 13, 1-36 Doidge, C., Karolyi, G. A and Stulz, R. M., 2007. ―Why do countries matter so much for corporate governance?‖, Journal of financial economics, 86, 1-39. Donker, Han and Saif Zahir, 2008. ―Towards an impartial and effective corporate governance rating system‖, Corporate Governance, VOL. 8 NO. 1 pp. 83-93, Fama, E., and M. Jensen. 1983. ―Separation of ownership and control.‖ Journal of Law and Economics 26, 301-26. Gompers, P., Ishii, J. and Metrick, A., 2003, ―Corporate governance and equity prices‖, Quarterly Journal of Economics 118, 107–155. Jensen Michael and William Meckling,1976, ―Theory of the firm: managerial behaviour, agency costs and capital structure‖, Journal of Financial Economics 3, 305-360. Jensen, M., 1993, ―The modern industrial revolution, exit, and the failure of internal control systems‖, Journal of Finance 48, 831880. Klein, A. 2002 ―Audit Committee, Board of Director Characteristics, And Earning Management‖ Journal of Accounting and Economics 33, 375-400 La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A., Vishny, R., 2000. ―Investor protection and corporate governance‖. Journal of Financial Economics 58, 3–28. Liu, Q. and Lu, Z., 2007, ―Corporate governance and earnings management in the Chinese listed companies: A tunneling perspective‖, Journal of Corporate Finance13, 881-906. Nilsson, Gül Okutan, 2007. ―Corporate Governance in Turkey‖ European Business Organization Law Review 8: 195-236 Prencipe, A., and S. Bar-Yosef, 2009. ―Corporate Governance and Earnings Management in family controlled firms‖ Working Paper Shah, Syed Zulfiqar Ali and Safdar Ali Butt, 2009 ―The Impact of Corporate Governance on the Cost of Equity: Empirical Evidence from Pakistani Listed Companies‖ The Lahore Journal of Economics 14 : 1 pp. 139-171 Yermack, D., 1996, ―Higher market valuation of companies with a small board of directors‖, Journal of Financial Economics 40, 185–211. 31 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 134 Title A name given to the resource Corporate Governance and Earning Management: An Investigation on Turkish Capital Market Author Author AYGÜN, Mehmet İÇ, Süleyman ARVAS, M. Akif Abstract A summary of the resource. The main purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between corporate governance and earning management. The data set covers 107 firms‘data listed on Istanbul Stock Exchange for the period 2006–2007. In the study, accrual is used as an earning management indicator. Publicly offering rate, board of directors and duality are used alternative proxies for corporate governance indicators. Regression and correlation analysis are used. According to the results, there is a negative relationship between earning management and corporate governance indicators. This negative relationship is statistically significant for duality variables. An important finding from the study is that corporate management has extensively been adopted accordingly in large firms and in firms with low leverage rate. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/507316735252cd347d4a728342ca9dd5.pdf 837043626adc3d76bbd96b12c31d7fdc PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Trends toward Grammar Instruction in the Context of Second Language Acquisition Azamat Akbarov English Department, International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina aakbarov@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The purpose of this study is to review the historical background of grammar instruction in ESL/EFL to find out its present status, and to suggest how to approach grammar instruction. Language teaching methodologists have not presented consistent advices to teachers about the role of grammar in language teaching and learning over the past some decades. Even today the situation is not clear because of the many conflicting positions taken in the methodological literature. The status of grammar in second or foreign language teaching and learning has shifted to a considerable degree. The shift of grammatical status has been from a position of central importance to disregardful status, and back to a position of renewed importance. Some focus on form is necessary for many learners to achieve accuracy and fluency in their acquisition of a second or foreign language. Grammar interacts with words, and it is resources to create and negotiate meaning and communication between speaker/writer and listener/reader. Structures are not learned in isolation, and language learning is an organic process characterized by backsliding, leaps in competence, and grammatical elements. 1. Introduction Language teaching is not easily categorized into methods and trends. So far, the field of second or foreign language teaching has undergone many changes. The major methodological approaches to language teaching have differed from each other with regard to grammar instruction. In the last few decades of the 20th century lots of developments began to take place in grammar instruction and research. There was renewed interest in an explicit focus on form in the classroom. Especially, publications argued that learners benefit from grammar instruction (Celce-Murcia, 1991; Celce-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurell, 1997; Ellis, 1998) and suggested new approaches to grammar instruction, such as teaching grammar in a discourse context and designing grammatical consciousness-raising (Ellis, 1995). In the 1940’s the Audiolingual Approach appeared in foreign language teaching as a reaction to Direct Method and Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP). And the method enjoyed many years of popularity (Brown, 2001) and dominated language teaching for over twenty years. In the Audiolingual Approach, it was held that the learners learn their target language largely through habit formation. However, this view came to be challenged by proponents of the cognitive code approach whose basic assumption was that language learning was rule-governed behavior. The decade of the 1970’s was innovative era in second and foreign language research, and major changes have taken place with respect to content, curriculum, and the implications for teaching grammar. This led to a movement toward integrating grammar into a communicative curriculum. As a result, in the 1990’s grammar in language teaching began to draw a new attention of applied linguists to the revised name, form-focused instruction (Spada, 1997). Even though the questions of when, how, and how much focus grammar has not been settled, recent works on grammar pedagogy show new ideas and new approaches. 2. Methodological Background In the history of second or foreign language teaching, the teaching of grammar was a central concern. In fact, the teaching of grammar had often been considered to be most important part of language teaching until the era of Direct Method. However, currently the place of grammar in the language classroom is rather uncertain. Traditionally, it was hoped that, through the study of the grammar of the target language in the GrammarTranslation Method, the meaning of the target language would be made clear by translating it into students’ native language (Larsen-Freeman, 1986.p.12). In the method, grammar provided the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focused on the from and inflection of words (Brown, 2000). However, this method couldn’t satisfy the learners’ needs of developing communicative competence. Since then, many language teaching approaches have appeared in the field of foreign language teaching, especially in the 1970s. 7 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Among many approaches, I will survey four methodological approaches in this paper – (a) Grammar Translation Method, (b) Audiolingual Approach, (c) Cognitive Approach, and (d) Communicative Approach. Grammar Translation Method has the longest history in the teaching of foreign language. Until recently, this method has been very stalwart among many competing methods or approaches. In this method, classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Long and elaborate grammatical explanations are given. Students study grammar deductively: that is, they are given the grammar rules and examples, are told the memorize them, and then asked to apply the rules the examples. Reading or difficult classical texts is begun in the early state. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, and the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from target language into the mother tongue. As a result, it does nothing to enhance students communicative ability in the target language. During the World War II. the Audiolingual Approach was developed in the United States as an attempt by structural linguists to have an influence on the teaching of modern foreign languages. This approach was firmly grounded not only in linguistic theory but also in psychological theory. In the 1940s and the 1950s, structural linguists were engaged in a scientific and descriptive analysis of languages. Applied linguists came to apply such analysis to teaching linguistic patterns. At the time, behavioristic psychologists advocated conditioning and habit-formation models of learning that were perfectly married with the mimicry drills and pattern practices of audiolingual methodology (Brown, 2001, p. 23). In this approach, grammatical structures were sequenced, rules were taught inductively and vocabulary was severely limited in the early stage of learning (Celce-Murcia, 1991a,p. 6). Moreover, it was important to prevent learns from making errors which lead to the formation of bad habits. In the Audiolingual Approach, according to Larsen-Freeman (1986), new vocabulary and structures were presented through the dialogues which were learned through imitation and repetition. At the time, teachers wanted their students to be able to use the target language communicatively, and the structures of the language were emphasized over all the other areas. The focus was largely sentence-oriented. The Cognitive Approach, a reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audilingual Approach, was influenced by generative transformational linguists, such as Chomsky and his followers. In the approach, language learning was viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation. This led some language-teaching programs to promote the deductive approach rather than the inductive approach in the Audiolingual Approach. Arguing that children acquire a system of rules subconsciously, the proponents of the Cognitive Approach injected more deductive rule learning into language classes (Brown 2001). However, they did not ignore inductive rule learning entirely. In developing students’ language ability, the teaching tried to proceed from linguistic competence to linguistic performance. Language learners must know the rules of the language before being asked to apply those rules. This base was believed to be made up of the grammar of the language. In cognitive teaching, the major emphasis is placed on meaningful learning , meaningful practice, and expression of meaning (Chastain, 1976, p. 149). Errors were viewed as inevitable in language learning. However, the focus of instruction still rarely moved beyond the sentence level. In the 1970s, some anthropological linguists and functional linguists had an interest in an idea of viewing language as an instrument of communication. Thus, the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) grew out of a theory of language as communication, originated in the works of Hymes (1972) and Halliday (1973). The late 1980s and 1990s saw the development of the approach that highlighted the fundamentally communicative properties of language. It has no monolithic identity. No single model of CLT is universally accepted as authoritative. Canale and Swain’s (1980) definition of communicative competence is probably the best known. They identified four dimensions grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. Under this influence, the syllabus of a second\foreign language course should not be organized around grammar but around subject matter, tasks, semantic notions and pragmatic functions. Language classrooms were increasingly characterized by authenticity, real-world simulation, and meaningful tasks. The goal of language teaching was to develop learners’ ability to communicate in the target language. Fluency and accuracy were seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques. The role of the teacher was primarily to facilitate language use and communication. It was only secondarily to provide feedback and correct learner errors. Students were given opportunities to focus on their own learning process. Students were encouraged to construct meaning through genuine linguistic interaction other people. The communicative language subsumed under various functional categories. In the Communicative Approach, less attention was paid to the overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules then in other approaches. Currently, there is some debate on the nature, extent, and the type of grammar instruction among the proponents of the communicative approach. 3. The Instruction of Grammar There was the communicative revolution in language teaching in the 1970s. Since then, it has become apparent that grammar is an instrument for the comprehension and production of spoken and written language 8 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo and that grammar itself is not be goal of learning. In many face-to-face communications, sociolinguistic appropriacy and discourse competence are more important than grammatical accuracy. However, there are situations in which a reasonable degree of accuracy is also critical. Celse-Murcia and Hilles (1988) suggest that ESL\EFL teacher should never teach grammar as an end in itself but always with reference to meaning, social factors, discourse, or a combination of these factors. Similarly, Larsen-Freeman (1991) sees form meaning, and function as three interacting dimensions of language. Thus, grammar is not merely a collection of forms but rather involves the three dimensions of what linguists refer to as syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, (Celse-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p. 4). Therefore, we cannot think of language learning and teaching without grammar. 3.1. Teaching Grammar as Meaning Meaning cannot be separated from forms in language learning and teaching and teaching. As an example, teaching the different aspects, like simple present tense and present progressive, is best viewed as grammar in the service of meaning. Simple aspect refers to events that are conceptualized as complete wholes. The events are not presented as allowing for further development. This aspect stands in contrast to progressive aspect, which is incomplete or imperfective – where the event or state is viewed as some portion of a whole and where there is room for further development or change (Celse-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999). If students are presented with many well-demonstrated examples as in (1) below, they have a basis for understanding and practicing the correct use of these two aspects: (1). a. Lejla and Aldin live in Sarajevo. b. Lejla and Aldin are living in Sarajevo. The simple present in (1.a) presents the fact that Lejla and Aldin live in Sarajevo as a whole events, not allowing for further development. There is no suggestion of change. The present progressive in (1.b) suggest that their living in Sarajevo may be temporary, thus allowing for the possibility of change. In (1.b) Lejla and Aldin’s living in Sarajevo is in some position of the whole. In the sense that we understand that they may have lived elsewhere before moving to Sarajevo and will likely in the future move again. Like this, form and meaning are interrelated. 3.2. Teaching Grammar as Social Function Grammar is often used as a means of expressing socially appropriate messages. As an example, we use certain modal auxiliaries for polite expressions when requesting a favor. Would and could are more polite than will and can. (2 ) a. Will you open the door? b. Would you open the door? With regard the politeness, Carrel and Conneker (1981) found considerable agreement among native speakers and learners of English as to which forms were considered the most polite in making requests as in the following examples: (3) a. A glass of water b. Give me a glass of water c. I want a glass of water d. I’II have a glass of water e. I’d like a glass of water f. Do you have a glass of water? g. Can you give me a glass of water? h. Could you give me a glass of water? 9 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo In (3), there is a hierarchy of politeness. According to Celse-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999), sentence mood contributes the most to the order of the politeness: interrogative-most polite: declarative – next most polite: imperative –least polite. Presence of modals contributes next to politeness. However, learners must become aware of the possible consequences of using the wrong modal forms when requesting a favor. So, in order to establish the link between grammar and socially appropriate behavior. ESL/EFL learners need sufficient-meaningful practice with intended social messages in dialogues, role plays, and simulations. 3.3. Teaching Grammar as Discourse Language has often been defined as a system of arbitrary symbols used for human communication. With respect to human communication, there is a set of universal conventions on all communication. As the conventions are universal, they appear in almost all types of spoken and written discourse. To master the conventions of discourse that cross sentence boundaries is almost as important as to develop a sense of when to use certain structures in discourse depending on topics or genres. Halliday and Hasan (1976) refer to these features of text structure as cohesion. According to them, cohesion involves the principled use of referential forms such as pronouns, demonstratives, definite articles: substitute expressions such as do and so; ellipsis; conjunction; and lexical chaining to create texture in discourse. With regard to ellipsis, students are invited to expand a conversation as in (4) into a complete one. (4) A. Coming? B. Where? A. Ayers Rock. B. Why? A. Holiday. B. When? A. Next week. B. Sorry. A. Why? B.Work. (Nunan, 1995, p. 150) (5) A: …..coming…? B: Where….? A:…..Ayers Rock. B: Why? A:….holiday. B:When…? A: Next week B: ….sorry…. A: Why? B:….work. Like this, students should have the ability to fill in the blanks using conversational context and grammatical knowledge. In the following written test, what do the italicized referents refer to? 10 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo (6 ) After they saved a little money. However and Ellen wanted to buy a house. So they did. The floor plan was almost exactly the same as that of Ellen’s parents home where she was reared. Buying it was not easy for the young couple, but Ellen was determined to go to through with it. (Rutherford, 1987, p. 161) In the above written test, coherence is accomplished by using reference, substitution, and other noun phrase. The link between grammar and discourse is crucial for learning and teaching a second or foreign language. 4. Grammatical Consciousness-raising Current views of language teaching are almost universally agreed on the importance of some form-focused instruction within the communicative framework, ranging from explicit treatment of rules to noticing and consciousness-raising (Fotos, 1994) techniques for structuring input to learners. The forms of language include the organizational components of language and the systematic rules that govern their structure (Brown, 2001). With respect to the forms, there are three formal categories phonological, grammatical, and lexical forms. In this paper, the main focus is on grammatical form. According to Spada (1997), form-focused instruction (FFI) is pedagogical effort which is used to draw the learner’s attention to language form either implicitly or explicitly (p. 73). A range of approaches to form is implied in this definition. On one end of the continuum, there are explicit explanations and discussions of rules and exceptions. On the other end, there are (a) implicit, peripheral references to form; (b) learners paying attention to specific linguistic features in input; and (c) the incorporation of form into communicative tasks or grammar consciousness raising. It is clear that grammar is needed in a communicative language teaching framework. However, the questions of when, how, and how much focus to place on grammar has not been settled so far. In the question of whether particular students benefit more from FFI. Brown (2000,p.235) suggests as following: The wide-ranging research on learner characteristics, style, and strategies supports the conclusion that certain learners clearly benefit more than others from FFI. Analytic, field-independent, left-brain-oriented learners internalize explicit FFI better than relational, field-dependent, right-brain-oriented learners. Students who are judging and thinking students on the Myers-Brigg’s scale will more readily be able to focus on form (Ehrman, 1989). In the current research, there is a general agreement on the importance of FFI. But there are some different points of view on how instruction should be given to learners. Brown (2001. pp. 365-8) gives several issues about this: (a) Should grammar be presented inductively or deductively (b) Should we use grammatical explanations and technical terminology in a CLT classroom? (c) Should teachers correct grammatical errors? Though both inductive and deductive approaches are applied to grammar instruction, an inductive approach is more appropriate in most contexts and it is more suitable in keeping with natural language acquisition. It can confirm more easily the concept of interlanguage development and build more intrinsic motivation by allowing learners to discover language rules. According to the situations and contexts, however, there are times when grammar is presented deductively. In the use of grammatical explanation and terminology, different approaches were applied in language teaching. In Grammar-Translation Method, there was a strong emphasis on grammatical explanations and on the terminology necessary to perform those explanations. But in recent Communicative Language Teaching, grammatical explanation and terminology must be used carefully. Language learners need to gain linguistic form by seeking situational meaning. The linguistic form is learned incidentally rather than as a result of focusing directly on linguistic form. But adults can benefit from occasional explanation. If necessary, the teacher needs to keep his explanations brief and simple. And he can use students mother tongue if students cannot follow the explanation in the target language. Grammatical consciousness-raising contrasts with traditional grammar instruction. In grammatical consciousness-raising, a great attention is paid to form-function relationships. It also attempts to relate the grammatical structures in question to a broader discourse context. And it takes an organic view rather than linear view of learning. Rutherford (1987) rejects the traditional beliefs that language is constructed out of discrete entities and language learning is the gradual accumulation of these entities. Thus, classroom activities should be basically inductive rather than deductive. Some of grammatical consciousness-raising exercises bear a superficial resemblance to traditional grammar exercises. According to Nunan (1995), however, they have quite a different purpose. Above all, they are derived 11 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo from genuine interactions and authentic texts. Their context is basically communicative in nature. The exercises recycle language points over several units. They inductively invite learners to develop hypotheses about the feature of the target language. 5. Integration of Grammar Instruction into a Communicative Curriculum For more than half a century, language teaching profession has identified the four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing – as important. They tend to focus on one or two of the four skills. They tend to treat the four skills in separate segments of a curriculum. However, in recent research there is a trend toward skill integration in language teaching (Brown.2001), for an example, when teaching reading, the course will deal with related listening speaking and reading skills. Before the advent of Communicative Language Teaching, the focus on the forms of language almost predisposed curriculum designers to segment courses into the separate language skills. At that time, a syllabus dealt with pronunciation of the phonemes of the target language, stress and intonation, structural patterns which were sequenced according to grammatical difficulty, and variations in those patterns. Moreover, a preoccupation with language rules and paradigms taught students a lot about language at the expense of teaching language itself. However, we cannot deny that recent proficient teachers who follow principles of CLT would never conduct a reading class without use of speaking, listening, and writing in the class. Such a course might encompass phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical sematic, and discourse elements. Grammar is an essential component in language learning and teaching. In the verbal communication, a speaker cannot express his or her idea properly and a listener cannot receive the speaker’s messages properly without the knowledge of grammar. But the knowledge of grammar itself is also of no use. Grammar interacts with other aspects of language, content, and culture In an attempt to integrate grammar with content-based and task-based language teaching, teachers and students need to deal with both bottom-up and top-down language skills. Both bottom-up and top-down skills are applied to four skills of language – listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The bottom-up skills represent the accurate use of words and structures needed to perform the suitable tasks . On the other hand, the top-down skills involve the understanding of the content and tasks, especially how meaningful components are organized and sequenced. In case of listening comprehension, some listeners segment the stream of speech into constituent sounds, link them together to form words, chain the words together to form clauses and sentences, and so on (Nunan, 1995). In this bottom-up approach, it is unlikely that the listeners would be able to comprehend the aural messages by listening to the text. However, if listeners are provided with a context for making sense of text, the listening task becomes relatively easy. Meaning doesn’t reside exclusively within the words on the tape recorder or on the page. Nunan (1995) stated successful listeners and readers can utilize both inside the head knowledge to interprete what they hear and see. The use of inside the head knowledge, that is, knowledge which is not directly encoded in words, is known as the top-down view of listening even though grammar instruction often comes in when bottom-up approach is not adequate, successful learners use both bottom-up and to-down strategies in language learning. Grammar exists to enable us to mean. Without the knowledge of grammar, it is impossible to communicate beyond a very elementary level. Acquiring the grammatical system of the target language is often of central importance because an inadequate knowledge of grammar would limit linguistic creativity and the capacity for communication. The notion that the learning of grammar is a linear, step-by-step process has largely been replaced by an organic view in which the development of grammatical competence is seen in terms of process as well as product. In the current language teaching, the greatest potential lies in integrating focus on form with content-based and task-based language teaching. Both language teachers and learners need to appreciate that dealing with such content and tasks requires both top-down and bottom-up language skills and both deductive and inductive learning if necessary. The top-down skills refer to understanding the content and tasks. On the other hand the bottom-up skills represent the accurate use of the words and structures needed to carry out the tasks in relation to content. Thus, grammar without regard to intercommunication-spoken or written-does not contribute to language learning and teaching. Relevant discourse structures might be helpful. We need integrate grammar instruction into a communicative curriculum. 6. Conclusion Consistent advices have not been presented to teachers about the role grammar in language teaching over the past some decades. Even today the situation is not clear because of the many conflicting positions taken in the 12 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo methodological literature. Many, not all researchers suggested that some focus on form be necessary for many learners to achieve accuracy and fluency in their acquisition of a second or foreign language. There is an evidence (Higgs & Clifford 1982) that a grammarless approaches can lead to the development of a broken ungrammatical pidginize form of the target language. And there is no convincing evidence that grammarless instruction would ultimately be beneficial to second or foreign language learners especially those who want achieve a high level of accuracy and proficiency. During the past four decades the status of grammar in second or foreign language teaching has shifted to a considerable degree. The status of grammar has been from a position of central importance to disregardful status and back to a position of renewed importance. For a few decades language teaching profession saw grammar as a essential part independent of meaning social function and discourse structure. However now we can see grammar as one of important components in communicative competence. It is inadequate that grammar is a system that simply emerges on its given input and practice without meanings function and discoursal context. Grammar interacts with words and it is resources to create and negotiate meaning and communication between speaker/writer and listener/reader. Grammar needs to be learned and it sometimes needs to be taught inductively or deductively according to situations. In addition, we always need to think of its new in the organic view of language learning and to integrate grammar into a communicative instruction. References: Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56, 9-49. Brown, G. (1995). Speakers listeners and communication: Explorations in discourse analysis. New York, NY: Combridge University Press Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th Ed.) White Plains, NY. Pearson education. Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd Ed.) White Plains, NY: Pearson Eucation) Canale, M. & Swain, M (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics. 1(1). 1-47 Celce-Murcia, M (1991a). Language teaching approaches: an overview. In M. Celce- Murcis (ed) Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.) New York, NY: Newbury House Ellis, R (1995). Interpretation tasks for grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly 29 87-105 Ellis, R (1998). Teachings and research: Options in grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly 32 87-105 Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Halliday, M.A.K (1973). Explorations in the function of language. London: Edward Arnold. Larsen Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Long, M. (1983). Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of research. TESOL Quarterly, 17(3) . 359-82 Nunan, D. (1995). Language Teaching Methodology: A textbook for teachers. New York NY: Prentice-Hall Rutherford, W. (1987). Second Language Grammar: Learning and teaching. London: Longman Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10 (3), 209-231. Spada, N. (1997). Form-Focused instruction and second language learning acquisition: A review of classroom and laboratory research. Language Teaching , 30. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 353 Title A name given to the resource Trends toward Grammar Instruction in the Context of Second Language Acquisition Author Author Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to review the historical background of grammar instruction in ESL/EFL to find out its present status, and to suggest how to approach grammar instruction. Language teaching methodologists have not presented consistent advices to teachers about the role of grammar in language teaching and learning over the past some decades. Even today the situation is not clear because of the many conflicting positions taken in the methodological literature. The status of grammar in second or foreign language teaching and learning has shifted to a considerable degree. The shift of grammatical status has been from a position of central importance to disregardful status, and back to a position of renewed importance. Some focus on form is necessary for many learners to achieve accuracy and fluency in their acquisition of a second or foreign language. Grammar interacts with words, and it is resources to create and negotiate meaning and communication between speaker/writer and listener/reader. Structures are not learned in isolation, and language learning is an organic process characterized by backsliding, leaps in competence, and grammatical elements. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/60c511c1666bed50f9dc34c36078a3e8.pdf 26b44e77f76ab0137497b8fa75bbd563 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo SLA Implications to Language Learning Strategies and Pedagogy Azamat Akbarov Faculty of Education, International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina aakbarov@ibu.edu.ba Mustafa Arslan Faculty of Education, International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina marslan@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The topic of language learning has been one of the most prolific areas of research in ESL education in recent years. With the advent of the communicative approach in ESL education, greater responsibility has been placed on ESL learners for their own learning then under the previous teaching methods used in ESL classrooms. Therefore, the learners under the communicative approach often need to employ various and specific language learning strategies in order to carry out their tasks or to facilitate their language learning. The purpose of this paper is to provide ESL teachers with a broad picture for the area of language learning strategies. In addition, it aims to offer ESL teachers some applications for their own classrooms. There have been there major domains related to research on language learning strategies: 1) identification and classification of language learning strategies; 2) factors influencing the use of language learning strategies; and 3) language learning strategy training. Several implications and applications are discussed based on the findings from the three domains. 1. Introduction Learning strategies have been defined as specific behaviours and thought processes employed by the learner to facilitate acquisition, storage, retrieval, or use of information (Chamot, 1993). In line with this definition, language learning strategies can be defined as conscious and semi-conscious thoughts and behaviours that learners use to make language learning more succesful, self-directed, and enjoyable (Cohen, 2002). After perceiving the failure of the Grammar translation Method and the Audio-Lingual Method in terms of fostering real communication skills, ESL/EFL educators have begun to search for more affective language teaching methods. This quest caused the advent of the communication approach in language teaching (Oxford, 1989). As the communicative approach has been utilized in ESL/EFL classrooms, learners have become more autonomous and taken greater responsibility for their own learning compared to those educated under the AudioLingual Method. Under this circumstance, the communicative approach encourages learners to use language learning or to carry out their language learning tasks. The area of language learning strategies has been one of the popular ones in ESL/EFL research and pedagogy since the 1970's. This paper synthesizes research conducted on language learning strategies to this date and aims to provide ESL/EFL teacher with a broad picture of language learning strategies and offer some ways to apply them to their classrooms. Existing research on language learning strategies generally falls into the following three categories: 1) identification and classification of language learning strategies; 2) factors influencing the use of language learning strategies; and 3) language learning strategy training. After examinig each area based on finding from previous work, several implications and applications will be discussed. 2. Identification and Classification of Language Learning Strategies Interest in the identification of language learning strategies emerged in the 1970s when several researchers explored “good language learning” studies (Naiman, Frchlich, &Todesco, 1975; Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975). During this time, it was assumed that good language learners use better learning strategies than poor language learners (Oxford, 1989), and that these strategies could be detected by concentrating on what good language learners did as they learned a language. Rubin (1975) identified the good language learner's characteristics as follows: 1) being a willing and accurate guesser, 2) having a strong, persevering drive to communicate, 3) often being uninhibited and willing to make mistakes in order to learn or communicate, 4) focusing on form by 14 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo looking for patterns, 5) taking advantage of all practice opportunities, 6) monitoring his or her own speech as well as that of others, and 7) paying attention to meaning. Stern (1975) presented the following ten strategies of good language learners: 1) a personal learning style or positive learning strategies, 2) an active approach to the learning task, 3) a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and empathy with its speakers, 4) technical know-how about how to tackle a language, 5) strategies of experimantation and planning with the object of developing the new language learning into an ordered system, and revising this system progressively, 6) constantly searching for meaning, 7) willingness to practice, 8) willingness to use the language in real communication, 9) self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to language use, and 10) developing the target language more and more as a separate references system and learning to think in it (p. 316). Finally, Naimen et al, (1975) suggested that good language learners: 1) select language situations that allow one's preferences to be used, 2) be actively involved in language learning, 3) see language as both a rule system and a communication tool, 4) extend and revise one's understanding of the language, 5) learn to think in the language, and 6) address the affective demands of language learning. During the 1980s, a number of researchers presented various classifications of članguage learning strategies. First, Rubin (1987) classified strategies as direct and indirect strategies depending on their contribution to the language learning process. Examples of the former categories are clasification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and practice. The latter categories include learners' behaviors such as creating practice opportunities and using production tracks such as communication strategies. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) offered a comprehensive summary and evaluation of strategy research to 1990 in their volume entitled Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. In this volume, they classified language learning strategies into the three categories: 1) metacognitive strategies, 2) cognitive strategies, and 3) social/affective strategies. Detailed strategies of the three strategy categories are shown in table 1. TABLE 1. Classification of Language Learning Strategies (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990) Major Strategies Metacognitive strategies Cognitive strategies Social/Affective Strategies Specific Strategies Advance organization Advance preparation Organizational planning Selective attention Self-monitoring Self-evalution Self-management Rescurcing Grouping Note taking Summarizing Deducation Imagery Auditory representation Elaboration Transfer Inferencing Questioning for clarification Cooperation Self-talk Oxford (1990) classified language learning strategies based on the synthesis of previous work on good language learning strategies in general (Naiman et al, 1975; Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975) and in relation to each of the four language skills (Tyache & Mendelsohn, 1986). As in Rubin's classification, Oxford (1990) classified language learning strategies as direct and indirect strategies; however, Oxford's subcategories of direct and indirect strategies were quite different from Rubin's classification. Oxford classified them in terms of four language skills rather than Rubin's idea of their contribution to language learning processes. Direct strategies in Oxford's classification involve memory , cognitive, and compensation strategies, and indirect strategies include metacognitive, affective, and social strategies, Detailed descriptions of the six categories of strategies (Oxford & Crookall, 1989) are as follows: 15 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1. Memory strategies: techniques especially tailored to help the learner store new information in memory and receive it later 2. Cognitive strategies: skills that involve manipulation and transformation of the language in same direct way (e.g., through reasoning analysis, note taking, functional practice in naturalistic settings, formal practice with structures and sounds, etc.) 3. Compensation strategies: behaviors used to compensate for missing knowledge of some kind (e.g., inferencing while listening or reading or using synonyms or circumlocution while speaking or writing) 4. Metacognitive strategies: behaviors used for centering arranging, planning, and evaluating one's learning. These “beyond-the-cognitive” strategies are used to provide “executive control” over the learning process. 5. Affective strategies: techniques like self-reinforcement and positive self-talk which help learners gain better control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivations related to language learning 6. Social strategies: behaviors involving other people in the language learning process (e.g., questioning, cooperating with peers, and developing enpathy) 3. Factors Influencing Use of Language Learning Strategies An enormous number of studies have been conducted in recent years in order to explore factors affecting the use og language learning strategies. These factors include 1) L2 proficiency level, 2) affect, 3)ethnicity, 4) age, 5) gender, and 6) learning style. a. L2 Proficiency Level A number of studies demonstrated that students use somewhat different language learning strategies as they progress to higher course levels. Chamot and Kapper (1989), using think-aloud protocols, investigated upper and lower thirds of L2 learners' strategies in their longitudinal study. According to the results of the study, more proficient learners were more purposeful in performing tasks than less proficient learners. In addition, more proficient, leatners made greated use of learning strategies such as elaboration, inferencing, selective affention, and self-monitoring than less proficient learners. Politzer (1983) found that higher-course level students employed more positive language learning strategies than did lower-course level students. In the study of Chamot et al. (1987), as the course level rose, metacognitive strategy use increased and cognitive strategy use decreased. However, the course level did not affect social/affective strategy use in that the use of social/affective strategies remained very low across all course levels. O'Mally et al. (1985b) reported that intermediate level students used proportionately more metacognitive strategies than students with beginning level proficiency. Nyikos (1987) discovered developmental trends in strategy use, with decreasing and increasing uses of various strategies as student's language learning progressed. b. Affect The affect variable L2 includes L2 learner's attitudes toward ESL/EFL learning, motivation, anxiety, etc. According to Gardner and Lambert (1972), attitudes and motivation have playes significant roles in successful language learning. Oxford (1989) also noted that the existing literature on attitudes has shown its significant role in language learning in general. It is therefore likely to be influential in strategy use. In the study of Blalystok and Frchlich (1978), learners' attitude was found to be highly influential in the choince of language learning strategies- more influential than language aptitude. Little other empirical research has been done on the influence of attitudes on strategy use. Gardner (1985) found that motivation, closely related to attitudes, was the most influential factor in second language learning. In the study by Oxford and Nyikos (1989), motivation was found to be the most powerful factor influencing use of language learning strategies out of all other variables measured. 16 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo c. Ethnicity A number of studies have reported the significant influence of ethnicity on leaener's choice of strategies. According to these studies, Asian students tended to employ strategies involving rote memorization and language rules more than communication strategies, in addition, they responded less positively to strategy training than did Hispanic students (O'Malley). Table 2 offers comparisons among the studies that adopted Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (1990) in several ethnic groups. According to Table 2, metacognitive strategies were found to be the more frequently used strategies, and memory strategies were revealed to be the less frequently used strategies in most of the studies. Cognitive, social, and affective strategies were found to be diverse in terms of frequency in use across all the studies. TABLE 2. Comparisons among the Studies Using the SILL. Researchers Subjects' ethnicity Dougles (1992) American Yang (1992) Taiwanese Mullins (1992) Thailand Jung (1996) Korean More frequently used strategies Metacognitive S. Social S. Cognitive S. Compensation S. Affective S. Metacognitive S. Compensation S. Metacognitive S. Cognitive S. Metacognitive S. Affective S. Compensation S. Less frequently used strategies Compensation S. Memory S. Affective S. Social S. Cognitive S. Memory S. Social S. Affective S. Memory S. Cognitive S. Memory S. Social S. d. Age According to the results of several studies, adult language learners use more diverse and sophisticated language learning strategies then did younger learners. However, Oxford (1989) indicated that the motivational orientation of the adult learners, who were learning a language for immediate career purpose, might have been a greater factor than age in the above studies. Using a think-allowed procedure, Leaver (1989) also investigated the relationship between age and strategie choice by comparing the strategies used by two children and 15 adults learning foreign languages. According to the results of the study, there were significant differences between the two groups use of strategies. The adults used bottow-up processing strategies, whereas the children employed top-down processing strategies. Leaver, however, realized that age was not a factor affecting their differences and strategies. e. Gender The gender variable has been also explored by a number of ASL/AFL researchers. Politzer (1983) found that women used social learning strategies significantly more often than men. In the late 1980s and 1990s, Oxford and her colleagues reported the effects of gender on strategy use. According to a study by Ehrman and Oxford (1989), adult female language learners, in contrast to males, showed significantly greater use of language learning strategies in four categories: general study strategies, functional practice strategies, strategies for searching for and communicating meaning, and self-management strategies. Oxford and Nyikos (1989) also discovered that female learners, as compared to male learners, used language learning strategies significantly more often in three or five possible strategy categories: formal rule-based practice strategies, general study strategies, and converstional/input elicitation strategies. However, Oxford (1989) noted that the sex differences in the above studies above mights have been associated with women's greater social orientation, strong verbal skills, and greater conformity to norms, both linguistic and academic, as demonstrated by earlier research. 17 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo f. Learning Style Learning style can be defined as a person's “general approach to learning and problem solving” (Nam & Oxford, 1998, p. 52). By contrast, learning strategies refer to a person's “specifc methods of approaching a problem or task” (Brown. 1987, p. 79). Little research has been conducted to determine the relationship between learning style and learning strategies. Gallin (1999) found that those who were more intuitive in cognitive style preference were more likely to use inferencing strategy while reading than the less intuitive in cognitive style preference. 4. Language Learning Strategy Training The purpopse of research on EFL/ESL learning strategies was to provide unseccssful language learns with the effective learning strategies used by successful ones. A number of studies have investigated the effects of language learning strategy instruction on ESL/EFL leaeners achievements. Cohen and Aphek (1980) explored the effects of vocabulary learning training on students learning Hebrew. An experimental group was trained to use word association startegies in vocabulary learning tasks. Results indicated that the experimental group employed the association strategies in subsequent vocabulary learning tasks and showed better perfomance on vocabulary test that did the control groups. Hosenfeld (1984) investigated the effect of startegy training on reading comprehension. She trained two unsuccessful readers with the strategies of successful readers. After the tretment, she found that the two unsuccessful readers began to employ the language learning strategies used by succesful readers in subsequent reading tasks. The study by Oxford et al, (1990) expored the effects of strategy training in various international settings. Oxford and her five collegues investigaed the effects of strategy training on students learning Hebrew in Insreal (Cohen), students learning Danish in Denmark (Sutter), students learning Spanish in U.S. (Lavine), student learning Russian in the U.S. (Oxford), students learning German in the U.S. (Nyikos) and students learning English in France (Crookall). The six researchers reported that their strategy training generally yielded positive results and consluded that “strategy training – if designed carefully and sensitively with the learners needs in mind – can becom a key element in creative, self – directed langauge leraning” (p. 211). Park (1996) investigated the effects of self-regulated strategy training on the four variables in reading performance of ESL students. The experiment lasted for eight weeks and the four variables were reading comprehension, strategy use, reading attitudes, and learning styles. During the experiment, an experimental group received both cognitive and metacognitive strategies. According to the results of the study, there were significant positive effects in reading proficiency. The experiment group showed significant better performances in the posttest compared to the protest. The control group also demonstrated some improvements during the experimental period, but it failed to reach the level of significance. However, there were no significant differences in the use of strategies between the two groups after the treatment. In addition, no significant differences in the overall attitudes toward reading and learning styles were observed during the treatment period. Reflecting on the results of the above studies, the effects of strategy training on language learning seems to be inconclusive. 5. Implications and Applications So far, we have examined research in the area of language learning strategies in terms of three categories: 1) identification and classification of language learning strategies; 2) factors influencing the use of language learning strategies; and 3) language learning strategy training. Several implication can be explored for future research directions in ESL/EFL language learning strategies. First, the language strategy indentification and classification research has aimed to identify the most effective foreign language learning strategies and to offer ways in which those effective strategies can be taught to less proficient foreign language learners. As we have observed, good ESL/EFL learners use a larger variety of language learning strategies whereas poor ESL/EFL learners have a smaller repertoire of strategies. They also use them more consciously and more frequently than do poor ESL/EFL learners. Bacon (1992) indicated that when EFL learners are aware of the variety of strategies that are available to them, thay can better choose, use, evaluate, and modify those that work best for them as individuals. Therefore, we shoul provide our students with various and numerous language learning strategies to the greatest extent possible. Especially, we should introduce the characteristics of good learners and the good learners language learning strategies to our students and try to develop their awareness and use of those strategies. Second, the findings drown from the previous research have indicated that a number of factors were interrelated with learners use of language learning strategies. Therefore, as ESL/EFL researchers, we should try to explore the relationship between each variable and the use of language learning strategies using diverse methods. While conducting various experiments, we should also carefully examine how these variables affect 18 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo our students language learning strategies and what other variables could be influential in their use of language learning strategies. Based on the results of these procedures, we could identify and classify some benrficial language learning strategies for our students and make well-designed strategy instruction plan. Third, although the effects of strategy training on language learning is not yet fully conclusive, a number of studies have confirmed the positive effects of language learning strategies. These results suggest the necessity of offering strategy training to ESL/EFL learners. However, the majority of ESL/EFL students do not perceive the usefulness of language learning strategies for facillitating their English language. We thus should develop their awareness of language learning strategies and how to employ those strategies by providing them with strategies training. Existing research indicates that enormous time and effort is needed on the part of ESL/EFL teachers to produce the positive effects of strategy learning. Therefor, we should be patient in implementing strategy learning, and the strategy training should be designed and conducted in a systematical way over the long term. Some practical applications to ESL/EFL education can be also considered. From the research in the area of learning strategies, we can consider a learning strategy instructional framework as following four steps: 1) identifying the students present strategies, 2) assessing their strategy needs, 3) offering strategy instrucion, and 4) helping students transfer strategies to new tasks. The final step would be helping students transfer strategies to new tasks. Transfering strategies that students have learned to new task might not be easy for the students to do on their own. After offering strategy instructions, we should give them opportunities to discuss the new strategies on some other similar types of language tasks and to practice using yhem on these tasks. When the students are involved in the new language tasks, we should reduce the reminders to use the strategies by degrees in order to make them utilize the strategies automatically and independently on other tasks. In summary, as ESL/EFL teachers, we sholud give some guidelines to our students on how they can learn language more easily and more effevtively. Offering them strategy training would be one effective way to meet that goal. In conducting strategy training, we should first identify what strategies our students employ in language learning tasks, and then assess the efficacy of the strategies in a systematic way, using diverse measurements. Then, instruction could be focused on those strategies that appear to be effective and beneficial, especially for those students who have poor language skills. Finally, strategy training by ESL/EFL teachers should be offered in a very explicit way. If not, it would be hard for students to realize the necessity and usefulness of certain strategies. Strategy training with a explicit manner will make students perceive those more easily and use the strategies more independently and automously in their other communication situations. References: Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56, 9-49. Cohen, A. (2002). Learning style and language strategy preferences: The role of the teacher and the learner in English language teaching. English Teaching, 57 (4), 41-55 Ehrman, M. & Oxford, R. Effects of sex differences, career choice, and psychological type on adult language strategies. Modern Language Journal, 73, 1-13 Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. Green, J. & Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 261-297. Margolis, D. (2003). Teaching implications of Korean tertiary student use of compensation strategies. English Teaching, 58 (1), 177-199 O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House. Park, Y. (2006). Self-regulated strategy training in second language reading: its effects on reading comprehension, strategy use, reading attitudes, and learning styles of university ESL students. Foreign Language Education, 2 (1), 59-80. 19 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10 (3), 209-231. Song, M. (1999). Reading strategies and second language reading ability: The magnitude of the relationship. English Teaching. 54. 73-95 Thompson, I. & Rutin, J. (1995). Can strategy instruction improve listening comprehension? Foreign Language Annuals, 29, 331-3 Vandergrift, L. (1997). The comprehension strategies of second language (French) listeners: A descriptive study, Foreign Language Annuals, 30, 387-409 20 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 354 Title A name given to the resource SLA Implications to Language Learning Strategies and Pedagogy Author Author Akbarov, Azamat Arslan, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. The topic of language learning has been one of the most prolific areas of research in ESL education in recent years. With the advent of the communicative approach in ESL education, greater responsibility has been placed on ESL learners for their own learning then under the previous teaching methods used in ESL classrooms. Therefore, the learners under the communicative approach often need to employ various and specific language learning strategies in order to carry out their tasks or to facilitate their language learning. The purpose of this paper is to provide ESL teachers with a broad picture for the area of language learning strategies. In addition, it aims to offer ESL teachers some applications for their own classrooms. There have been there major domains related to research on language learning strategies: 1) identification and classification of language learning strategies; 2) factors influencing the use of language learning strategies; and 3) language learning strategy training. Several implications and applications are discussed based on the findings from the three domains. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d1677ff2a0116682ea9d38fa82f46bb8.pdf 5b68aa346ab569f15b76607ea3291351 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Attitudes of Pupils to TV Show Based Vocabulary Teaching in EFL Classes Mehmet Akdoğan International School of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia makdoga@gmail.com Melih Karakuzu Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey mkarakuzu@yahoo.com Harun Baştuğ Sarajevo College, Sarajevo, Bosnia harunbastug@yahoo.com Abstract: This paper argues how current popular TV Shows can increase motivation and help the pupils learn vocabulary in a fast and an effective way. They can serve as great time savers and more memorable activities for the benefit of them. The use of vocabulary in a meaningful context adds up to its invaluable outcome in terms of student participation and attitudes towards the lessons. Moreover, an ELT teacher may construct his/her own teaching material out of these shows and plans the vocabulary teaching lessons according to the needs of the pupils. It is also believed that all of the pupils would like to have and enjoy these shows as their vocabulary lessons regardless of their gender. Seven sample lessons taken from a comedy show called "My Name is Earl" are used in the study to illustrate the case. The study was applied to 50 students in International School of Sarajevo. Introduction The use of technology, specifically multimedia, for foreign language instruction has expanded rapidly in the world especially during the last few decades. Studies of the effect of technology-enhanced instruction on achievement and studies of student attitudes regarding learning with technology have also increasingly been reported. Moreover, a student's attitude and motivation has frequently been reported to be the most critical factor for success within computer-assisted language learning environments (Brandl, 2002; Desmarais, 2002; Doherty, 2002; Gilbert, 2001; Murday & Ushida, 2002; Warschauer, 1996a, 1996b). Motivation, according to Winne and Marx (1989), is both a condition for, and a result of, effective instruction. Hence, it is plausible to speculate that students' motivation plays an important role in successful CALL implementation and that, if used effectively, the CALL environment can enhance students' motivation to learn a second language (L2). Thus, especially in the recent years, language teachers have made use of different videos to enhance teaching vocabulary in their classroom settings. Traditionally, two main uses of video have been distinguished: instructional video, specifically created to teach foreign languages, and authentic video materials, such as films, TV series, commercials, etc., originally created for native speakers of the language. The great value of these video comes from its combination of sounds, images, and sometimes text (as subtitles), together with the socio-cultural information about habits, traditions, culture, etc. All this makes it a very comprehensible tool for teaching vocabulary to foreign language students. Based on these, this study investigated the role of TV Shows on student L2 vocabulary learning and how this, in turn, affected students' attitudes. The present study reports data from an investigation of the attitudes of students’ own vocabulary learning, based on the TV show called My Name is Earl. It also sought to determine whether students have positive or negative attitudes towards the use of TV Shows while studying vocabulary. A comparison was also made between the scores of the male and female participants. 145 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo L2 Vocabulary Acquisition There is considerable evidence that L1 learners acquire a large amount of their vocabulary through guessing from context (Sternberg, 1987). The frequency at which the L1 learner encounters words, and the variety of contexts in which words are encountered, ensure that the learner will eventually come across most new words in a context where the word is guessable. It is suggested however that foreign language students do not undergo the same rich and varied exposure to vocabulary (Singleton, 1999). As a result, although EFL students quickly learn many of the high frequency words that occur in teaching materials, they experience a breakdown in their ability to guess from context when faced with the much lower frequency words found in unsimplified texts. This is because the low-frequency words found in unsimplified texts make up too large a proportion of those texts. In other words, since there are not enough familiar words in the text for the learner to use as clues, guessing unfamiliar words from context becomes extremely difficult or impossible. Moreover, these low frequency words as well as high frequency ones are not easily and comfortably used in meaningful contexts by the EFL students. Thus, most of the students have difficulty in using their vocabulary knowledge in real life. One of the most effective ways to overcome this problem is to find appropriate authentic materials to provide sample cases to illustrate the usage of these words/phrases. The Study Each individual has his/her own beliefs about the materials introduced and these perceptions play a great role in their learning process. According to Krashen (1987), "comprehensible input" and the affective state are the true causes of language acquisition. On this hypothesis, production exercises would be relevant to language acquisition only insofar as they lower affective barriers or provide additional comprehensible input. In our study, the words/phrases in glossary parts have been chosen based on the teacher’s observations about the students and frequent use and difficulty level of the target vocabulary has been taken into consideration. In the study, the vocabulary lessons are based on the TV show called “My Name is Earl (Season 1)” and they have been used once a 146 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo week for 7 weeks in a row from March 8 to April 23 2010. During the lessons, firstly the glossary parts with between 15 to 20 words are studied/reviewed. Then, the students are asked to take a look at the gap fill questions. The pupils are supposed to fill in the gaps while watching the TV show with subtitles. After the seventh episode, questionnaires with 20 questions were delivered personally to respondents. The questionnaire contained five graded Likert Scale questions, which measured the interest, effectiveness and usefulness of the course elements. The approach used for developing the instrument was practical: questions were formulated in order to evaluate student attitudes and feelings towards these lessons (see Table 1). A total of 50 questionnaires were distributed and all were received during the same class period, resulting in response rate of 100 percent. Respondents’ anonymity was ensured by asking them not to identify themselves in any way other than circling their gender. The sample for this study was selected conveniently from three different classes of International School of Sarajevo, BIH. The sample included teenagers aged from 14 to 15 only. Gender was represented by 50 percent males and 50 percent females. Findings All the results are statistically analyzed in our study. Firstly, we take 3 as our medium point as we use a five graded Likert Scale. When we look at table 2, it shows us how different the averages are from our average point, 147 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo which is 3 according to our scale. The study suggests that the higher our t value and the lower our p value (the authors have based their study on 0.05 p value), the more difference we have. The values lower than 0.05 are considered to be significantly different from 3; on the other hand, the ones over 0.05 are considered to be same with 3. In other words, the respondents think positively on the values with a p value of lower than 0.05; however, they are indecisive about the questions whose values are over 0.05. In our study, all of the p values in this case are 0, which means that all of the students think positively on these vocabulary lessons based on TV shows. Especially, they want most to have more vocabulary lessons based on TV Shows and then secondly, they agree that these lessons are their favorite vocabulary lessons and these lessons are interesting and they enjoy them a lot. On the other hand, in spite of thinking still positively on having a chance to review the target vocabulary by watching the related episode at home, they seem to be least decisive about this item. 148 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo As for Table 3, it is used to find out if there is significance in the attitudes of males and females towards the vocabulary lessons. Again, we should keep in mind that, we have based our study on 0.05 p value. As suggested in statistical analysis researches, the higher the t value and the lower the p value, the more difference we have between the respondents’ attitudes. According to the study, in 18 of the items there are no significant differences but in only question 16 and 8, males and females think significantly different. That is to say, in all other cases, there is no big difference in the beliefs, perceptions and attitudes between the male and female pupils, both of the groups have similar attitudes towards the lessons, they think more or less the same; however, the males think that they come to the lessons with greater motivation thanks to these lessons compared to the females. Moreover, again the male pupils believe more than the female ones do that these lessons help them with their speaking skills. 149 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Suggestions for Further Research All in all, both girls and boys have positive attitudes towards all of the questions and the lessons in return. In item 16 and 8, the boys seem to think more positively compared to the girls and find the lessons more enjoyable and fun but it may be because of many reasons including the main characters’ being men and these men’s being better natured than the female characters. These all are topics for further research with TV shows whose main characters are good females. Then, we can have a better and healthier analysis on this gender difference issue...etc. Moreover, all of the participants are 14-15 year old teenagers in our case and the research could be applied to younger children, late teenagers and even adults to see their attitudes and compare them with the findings of this research. As stated earlier, in this study the same comedy show has been used in the classroom in this study; however, different kinds of TV Shows should also be used and compared and contrasted to have a better understanding of the situation. Limitations of the Research The participants chosen are all from the author’s present classes. Therefore, their response to the author’s questions may not be 100% reliable. The reliability may not be guaranteed because they are the author’s students and they may have certain worries when replying the questions. And they may have their own preferences and they have different levels of learning English, from B2 to C2. And still they may like or dislike answering some of the questions, thus the answers may be not completely accurate. And what is more, the author’s knowledge of computer may not be sufficient. In addition, the questions may not cover all the essential aspects of these vocabulary lessons. Conclusion By and large, student evaluation of TV show based courses showed that the participants had a highly positive attitude towards implementations especially with respect to enjoying these lessons and asking for more of this kind of vocabulary lessons. Eliciting ideas on course improvements showed that students would like to watch TV shows during the classes as much as possible for different reasons mentioned. Some significant benefits for students related to the use of TV shows in classrooms include increased motivation, improvement in student involvement and great help with basic skills, as well as more student-centered learning and motivation to coming to the lessons, and more active processing with better recall. It is observed that students appear to gain confidence assessing their own learning too. All things considered, foreign language words are learned better when directly associated with appropriate nonverbal referents; this efficient association can only be found in real life or in authentic video. In the type of activities advocated in this paper, authentic video as TV shows is not there to overload learners with unknown language (as the detractors of the use of authentic input could claim); thanks to a series of activities that surround a previously selected clip from beginning to end, the viewing is controlled and directly addressed to the teacher’s goals for a particular lesson. Therefore, just as vocabulary teaching and learning should not be divorced from the classroom setting, vocabulary teaching and learning should not be separated from the use of authentic video in class because students learn the vocabulary best in meaningful contexts and the TV shows are of great significance in this manner that they contain lots of real life cases and speech patterns…etc. for the benefit of the EFL learners. Thereore, the positive effects of the shows should not be ignored but stressed and encouraged through different approaches and techniques. The encouraging impact of the TV show based course has been estimated as highly positive in regard to student attitudes both towards the course and vocabulary learning and as expected, this study confirmed many presumptions including the one about gender differences. Finally, it has been seen that the pupils would like to have more and more TV shows and they feel the positive atmosphere of these lessons not only during but also before and after the lessons. 150 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References My Name Is Earl Season 1 DVD (2005) created by Greg Garcia, NBC television Network Danan, M. (1992) Reversed subtitling and dual coding theory: New directions for foreign language instruction. Language Learning, 42, 497-527. Eiko Ushida, “The Role of Students’ Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning in Online Language Courses” University of California, San Diego Calico Journal, Vol 23, No. 1 (September 2005) Ghadirin, S. (2001) Providing controlled exposure to target vocabulary through the screening and arranging of texts. Language Learning and Technology, 6(1): 147-164. J. Stepp-Greany, “Student Perceptions on Language Learning in a Technological Environment: Implications for the New Millennium” Language Learning & Technology, Vol. 6, No.1, pp. 165-180, January 2002. Krashen, S. D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. Singleton D. (1999) Exploring the second language mental lexicon . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R.J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In M.G. McKeown & M.E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89-105). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Winne, P. H. & Marx, R. W. (1989). A cognitive processing analysis of motivation within classroom tasks. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds. ),Research on motivation in education (Vol. 3, pp. 223-257). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. 151 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 416 Title A name given to the resource Attitudes of Pupils to TV Show Based Vocabulary Teaching in EFL Classes Author Author Akdoğan, Mehmet Karakuzu, Melih Bastuğ, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper argues how current popular TV Shows can increase motivation and help the pupils learn vocabulary in a fast and an effective way. They can serve as great time savers and more memorable activities for the benefit of them. The use of vocabulary in a meaningful context adds up to its invaluable outcome in terms of student participation and attitudes towards the lessons. Moreover, an ELT teacher may construct his/her own teaching material out of these shows and plans the vocabulary teaching lessons according to the needs of the pupils. It is also believed that all of the pupils would like to have and enjoy these shows as their vocabulary lessons regardless of their gender. Seven sample lessons taken from a comedy show called "My Name is Earl" are used in the study to illustrate the case. The study was applied to 50 students in International School of Sarajevo. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/153fd4504d226d7e4e134dafb2ca4ed4.pdf 93782fecbd08bb0f7a52d20b9a6d467e PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Evliya Çelebi in Bosnia Münteha Gül Akmaz Çankırı Karatekin University/Turkiye muntehagul@karatekin.edu.tr Abstract: Famous Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi, who lived in 17th century, travelled Ottoman territory from west to east, at the same time he went around neigbourhood. At the end of these travels lasted approximately fifty years, his work Seyahatnâme, which is composed of ten volumes, has come out. Seyahatnâme is not only unique resource for Turkish culture, history, language and literature but also a rich treasure for folks lived in the Ottoman territory. One of these folks is the Bosnians. Evliya Çelebi travelled in Bosnia, one of the provinces of Ottoman Empire, entirely in the 17th century and gave important information about its history, geography, political, economical and cultural structures of the region. Evliya, who had outstanding powers of observation, told about Bosnia, from its castles to mosques, foods to clothes eleborately. Moreover it is possible to find information about Bosnians in Seyahatnâme. Not only Bosnians in Bosnia but also Bosnians who had been settled down different parts of Europa because of their success in battles were told. In addition, Evliya Çelebi focused on Bosnian language and gave samples of this language. In the frame of this presentation, information about Bosnia, Bosnians and their language mentioned by Evliya Çelebi in the Seyahatnâme are going to be studied. Key Words: Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme, Bosnia, Bosnians, Bosnian language. Introduction Famous Ottoman Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi, lived in the 17th century, travelled various places in Asia, Europe and Africa. Evliya, during his travels lasted more than forty years, described sightseeing places, and places even he did not see but heard or read about, from mosques to fountains, languages to clothes eleborately in his ten-volume work Seyahatnâme§§§§§§§. One of the places that Evliya Çelebi had visited is Bosnia which was a province of Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. His advanture in Bosnia starts with the attendance of Melek Ahmed Pasha as the governor the province.******** Although Evliya departed in order to go to Bosnia with Melek Ahmed Pasha in March 1659, as a result of his struggle with the treasurer, he enters Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha’s service. After joining the campaign for the Celâlîs in Anatolia (March/April 1659), Boğdan campaign (November 1659) and the conquest of Varat Castle in Erdel (April 1660). After the conquest of the castle Evliya Çelebi was sent to Bosnia with the Bosnia Province Fetihnâme. Evliya passes Fektebatur Castle, Yanova Castle, Tımışvâr Castle, Dente Redoubt††††††††, Pancova Redoubt, Belgrad City, Village Ruzay, Valiva County and arrives Dıragoda. Here he crosses the Drin River by ship and reaches Sirebreniçse Castle. Finally, he is in Bosnia (5, p.132-221 [77b127b]). During his stay in Bosnia, Evliya Çelebi had the opportunity to travel around the province, and wrote the information about what he saw in his SN. As the information that the author provided will be over the borders of this paper, so that Sarajevo‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡, specifically, the center of the province in that period and todays capital of Bosnia Herzegovina will be on focus. Evliya told the Bosnian travel in the 5th book of SN, however with many reasons he refers to Bosnia, Bosnians, Bosnian language in other books of SN many times. For instance while mentioning the uplands under the contol of Ottomans, one of his examples is Köprez in Bosnia (3, p. 29 [18b]). There were “famous, strong, brave” men coming from Bosnia among the Grand Vizier Kara Murâd Pasha’s soldiers who won the struggle with Celâlîs in Üsküdar (3, p. 51 [32a]). §§§§§§§ In the rest of the text the abbreviation SN is used for Seyahatnâme. Melek Ahmed Pasha was appointed to this duty as a result of a painful event. His beloved wife died after giving birth his daughter. In order to lighten his sadness Sultan Mehmed IV sent him to Bosnia province (5, p. 133-135 [77b-78b]). †††††††† Evliya Çelebi defines redubt which is a kind of castle specific to that region as follows: “Small square shaped wooden castle is called here as redubt.” (5, s. 189 [110a]). ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ The name of Sarajevo is often called as Sarây, Sarây city, Bosnasarây in SN. However Sarajevo is the first center of Bosna, Travnik and Banyaluka became the center of province from time to time (Öztuna 1998: 279). ******** 385 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Evliya Çelebi refers to Bosnia in similes and comparisons while talking about different places. The author expresses the suburbs of Belgrad which are as big as the suburbs in Sarajevo (5, p. 195 [113b]), some ironworks in Belgrad can only be done by the firemen in Sarajevo (5, p. 199 [115b]). 1. Evliya Çelebi in Bosnia The first stop of Evliya Çelebi in Bosnia is Srebrenica Castle (5, p. 222 [127b]). Srebrenica Castle This castle was built by Serbian King Despotic King. The castle was conquered by Mehmed the Conqueror and became an Ottoman land. Evliya Çelebi, as he did in many land names, does the etymology and says that the name of the castle comes from serebne which means “silver” in Latin, Serbian, Bulgarian and Crotian languages. Because there is silver in the mountains of this castle.§§§§§§§§ After giving some information about the castle and suburb, the author mentions about a disease among the people of this city. The people who drink water from the Sirib River that rises from the silver mines have knobs on their throats, these knobs are called kuşka********* (5, p. 222 [127b]). While passing through the Ravna Upland huge trees takes the intention of Evliya Çelebi. Evliya measures the length of a tree which was tumbled by a strong wind as four hundred and sevety feet and says that eighteen people can only embrace this tree with difficulty. Moreover this upland is very popular with the timbers in Rumelia, Arabic and Persia (5, p. 222 [128a]). Later Evliya Çelebi, passes through a Bosnian village Poçepye and arrives at Şahin Paşa Palace. Maçkosa or in other words Kedi Inn is very close to here. Evliya passes Kalasinça and Mokra Inns and reaches Sarajevo (5, p. 222-223 [128a]). Traveller gives the most detailed information about Sarajevo among other places in Bosnia. The City of Sarajevo Evliya Çelebi uses a consistent system††††††††† to tell the cities where he finds enough materials. The given information about Sarajevo is also more or less within this system. Evliya starts to tell the city with its history. According to historian Latin Yanvan‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ the settlement of this city starts with the construction of five or ten houses by Dubrovnic King in order to control the mountain pass. When this place with the good weather and water becomes a district, the king constructs a castle. And the district becomes a city. During the Mehmed the Conqueror period in (...)§§§§§§§§§ the castle was conquered and he constructed a huge palace (sarây) and as the time passes, the city was called as Sarây. The word Sarây and the river in the city of Bosnia form the name Bosnasarây. The name of the castle before the conquest is Mokrahâ (5, p. 223 [128a]). After giving this information about the establishment of the city, Evliya Çelebi mentions about some features of the castle. The unit of length given by Evliya is feet. As he did many times previously, he measures the surrounding of the castle as four hundred feet by pacing it off. He calls this castle as a unique white pearl which was restored by Melek Ahmed Pasha (5, p. 223 [128a]). §§§§§§§§ According to Evliya Çelebi one of the mints in Rumelia is in Srebrenica [1, p. 258 [176b]). Dankoff calls kuşka as “Adam’s apple, goiter” (2004: 186). Here probably Evliya Çelebi means the goiter caused by the mixture of silver mine to the water. ††††††††† For the details of this system, please see Tezcan 2002: 232. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ This resource is directly addressed by Evliya Çelebi as a resource book. Evliya Çelebi says that a non-Muslim Simyon who was a jewelry master read the Yanvan History and he listened to Simyon and bore in mind. Moreover he knows Simyon from his childhood and as he was a wise man, he learnt fluent Grek and Latin (1, p. 33 [23a]). This not understood history was discovered by Stephâne Yerasimos. This book called Kitab’ül-Unvan written in Arabic and is the work of North Syria, Menbic bishop Agaphios who tries to adjust “Jewish, Christian Greek, Rome history calendars”; later “unvan” deformed and converted to Yanvan.” (Açık 2009: 28). §§§§§§§§§ Evliya Çelebi gave a blank on the date of the conquest of Sarajevo. Sarajevo was conquered in 1463 by Fatih Sultan Mehmed Khan (Kaşıkçı-Yılmaz 2001: 224). ********* 386 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo According to the observations of Evliya, the buildings of the city lie on the hills of right and left side of the Milaçka River. Most of them are covered with tiles but some are covered with wood and have smooth chimneys (5, p. 223 [128b]). When talking about the governors of the city, Evliya Çelebi informs 7 counties in Bosnia according to the Law (Qanunnameh) of the Suleyman the Lawgiver: Kilis, Hersek, Đzvornik, Pojega, Rahoviçse, Zaçne, Kırka. Sarây City is the governing center. The number of zeamet is 59, that of tımar is 1792. The has is 650 thousand coins********** (5, p. 223 [128b]). After mentioning the governmental structure of Bosnia and Sarajevo, Evliya records that there are 104 districts in Sarajevo††††††††††. Ten of them are Serbian, Bulgarian, Wallachian and Latin, two of them are Jewish districts. All remaining districts belong to the Muslims. Greek, Armeian and other Europeans have no districts but they come to the city (5, p. 223-224 [128b]). In the later section Evliya Çelebi gives information about the palaces of notables and notes that 77 mihrabs of 170 are mosques that are open for Friday praying and lists the names of the mosques in which he had the chance to pray: Sultân Mehmed Mosque, Ferhâd Pasha Mosque, Hüsrev Pasha Mosque, Gâzî Alî Pasha Mosque, Đsâ Pasha Mosque and Hünkâr Mosque.‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Among them Hüsrev Pasha Mosque§§§§§§§§§§ is in the center of city and has the most crowded prayers. One of the most important features of this mosque is providing hot water to the taps despite the heavy winter in Bosnia. A few mosques have this feature as well (5, p. 224-225 [128b-129a]). Evliya Çelebi indicates that in addition to these mosques there are 100 small mosques and lodges in the city, but he gives a blank for the number of madrasahs probably to write later. However according to the SN there are 8 darü’l-kurra (the school for learning Quran), 10 darü’l-hadis (school for hadith education), 180 mekteb-i sıbyan (primary school) in that period. Some of the 47 tekkes in the city are: Celâleddîn-i Rûmî Tekke, Müsâfir Şeyh Tekke, Abdülkâdir-i Geylânî Tekke, Halvetî Tekke, Şerîfî Đbrâhîm Efendi Tekke (5, p. 224-225 [129a]). There is also some information about the places of worships of non-Muslim in Sarajevo in SN. Evliya Çelebi says that although there are churches here, they have no monasteries with bells. Evliya adds that the churches of Serbian and Latin are in good condition where other Europeans and Greek pray there and the Jewish have only one synagogue (5, p. 228 [131a]). As the Ottomans gave great importance to the water which is a strategic factor (Bruinessen 2003: 37) Evliya Çelebi reserve a few sections for the water resources. Evliya says related to water culture of Sarajevo that there are more than 100 fountains without spout, public fountains in 300 points, and mentions about Milaçka River, Sarây River and Sava River. The traveller says about Sarajevo which has rich water resources that “In short city Saray is simply water”. (5, p. 225 [129b]). 700 wells, 176 water mills, 5 Turkish baths, 670 dynasty baths, 3 caravansarays, 23 inns, 8 single houses, 1080 shops, 7 bridges, 7 soup kitchens where teachers and travellers eat food are the other architectural structures related to Sarajevo recorded by Evliya Çelebi.*********** (5, p. 227-228 [130b-131a]). And also there ********** In the first book of SN, Evliya Çelebi gives us this general information about Bosnia Province according to the Law (Qanunnameh) of the Suleyman the Lawgiver: 7 counties, zeamet 150, tımar 1792 (p. 71 [49a]), has 650.000 coins (p. 72 [49b]). In the same book Evliya says that there are 8 counties in Bosnia: Hersek, Kilis, Đzvornik, Pojega, Zaçina, Karaka, Rahoviçe and Banaluka (Banyaluka). Sarây City is the governing center (p. 73 [50b]). The Suleyman’s Law used by Evliya Çelebi is thought to be the Manor and Provincial Organization Law prepared during Suleyman the Lawgiver period. Evliya made some changes on this law in order to adjust it to his text and added the changes upto his time, then used it (Akgündüz 1992: 455, 528). According to the Manor and Provincial Organization Law, Bosnia has 7 counties and the zuama and tımar are 2280 swords. Its counties are Bosna, Hersek, Kilis, Đzvornik, Zacasna , Kırka, Varçoviç (Akgündüz 1992: 463). †††††††††† Evliya Çelebi did not provide any information about the number of houses in Sarajevo. The number of houses in this city was recorded as 4270 in the end of 16th century. As there was not a census at that time, the estimated population of the city is 4270 x 5 = 21 350 (Orhonlu 2002: 528). The visitator of Papacy, Petros Masarechi gave the population of Bosnia as 900.000 Muslims (66%), 300.000 Catholic (22%) and 150.000 Orthodox (11%) during his visit in 1624 (T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü Osmanlı Arşivi Daire Başkanlığı 1992: 4). ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Among the others the mosques like Sultân Mehmed Mosque, Hüsrev Pasha Mosque, Alî Pasha Mosque are still existing (Kaşıkçı-Yılmaz 2001: 226, Car-Drinda 1999). §§§§§§§§§§ Hüsrev Pasha Mosque with shrines (Gâzî Hüsrev Bey ve Murad Bey shrines) around it, is a charity complex that contains fountain, madrasah, library, soup kitchen, guesthouse, school, inn, tekke, Turkish bath, clock tower and market. This complex, built after Ottoman period and the symbol of Sarajevo, helped the city to grow and develop where it was a small city before the conquest (Öztürk 2002: 436-437) and sarajevo became a new culture and science center (Kaçar 2002:156). With the help of such complexes which carry all characteristics of Turkish-Islam culture, cities like Mostar, Travnik, Zıvornik became big cities (Öztürk 2002: 436). *********** For detailed information about worship houses, tekkes, madrasahs, Turkish baths, inns and caravansarays, bridges totally built within the concept of charity system after 1604 in Bosnia, please see Car-Drinda 1999. 387 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo are 26 thousand gardens with water and pools in it, Mevlevîhâne Parade, Tekyecik Grove, parades by the Sarây River are the recreational areas (5, p. 229 [131b]). Hüsrev Pasha Visit, Gâzî Murâd Pasha Vizit, Oğlan Mustafâ Efendi Vizit are the visiting places in Sarajevo recorded by Evliya Çelebi (5, p. 229 [132b]). In the section that is about the fortune of the city, Evliya Çelebi says that the founder of city Dubrovnik King established the city in the Sagittarius period where Jupiter is the source for prosperious according to the fortune tellers advises, and adds that the city is still developing and making profit as a result of this event. However he indicates that as Sagittarius is in fire group, the city sometimes burns (5, p. 228 [131a]). Moreover he tells that he witnessed a fire when he was in the city (5, p. 228 [131a]). The grains and plants that are grown in Sarajevo also found a place in SN. According to SN; millet, peas, barley, beans, lentils, chickpeas, oats, rye and heldine††††††††††† are grown in Sarajevo. As Sarajevo is mountainous and covered with rocks, the wheat comes from Ishtar Vlach and Herzegovina. In this land some fruit trees are not available but in Herzegovina, Mostar and sea shores all fruits except date is available. Sarajevo is famous for the grape, cherry, sour cherry, pear, apple and plum (5, p. 228 [131a]).‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Food is one of the topics that Evliya Çelebi used in city descriptions. Evliya tasted the food and drink of Sarajevo City. He tastes a bread§§§§§§§§§§§ made of heldine, and writes it as tasty as honey. Besides, Latin salmon, Ruçka bun************, chicken patty, cream baklava, soups with various herbs, stew of bacon, kapusta††††††††††††, surutka cheese are desirable food in the city. The regional drinks are surutka or cheese juice made of goat’s milk, cherry juice, hardaliyye‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡, honey juice and ramazanniye§§§§§§§§§§§§. It comes strange for Evliya Çelebi that Sarajevans keep ice and snow in hay into the cellars and use them in their cherry compotes in summer time (5, p. 226 [130a]). Bosnia land is also rich in terms of mines. ************* Evliya Çelebi says that there are nine mines in this province and three of them are not available in any other location. Some of the mines the author mentions about are silver, nora††††††††††††† stone, blue stone, lead, copper, iron. There is gold mine in Bosnia but it costs more than its benefit so it is not operated (5, p. 229 [131b]). Copper goods in Sarajevo and manufacture of iron weapons in Foniçsa (5, p. 229, [131b]) are related with the mines in this region. In front of the beauty and wealth of Sarajevo, Evliya Çelebi comments that this city is the most prosperous, the most ornate, and the most developed city among the other cities that have the word of sarây such as Aksarây, Tabesarây, Vize Sarâyı (5, p. 230 [132a]). After visiting Sarajevo, Evliya Çelebi departs for Hilevne Castle where Melek Ahmet Pasha stays (5, p. 231 [132b]). Later the traveller had the chance to see many places in Bosnia territory sometimes alone or with Melek Ahmed Pasha thanks to some administrative works such as rescuing the hostages, collecting the grain charges. Evliya finished his Bosnian travel by going to Rumelia in November 1660 with Melek Ahmed Pasha (5, p. 288 [165a]). However he had some more visits to Bosnia on several occasions. 2. Bosnian There are rumors on the origin of the Bosnians. It is written in the 3rd book of the SN that the roots of Bosnians reaches to Noah. According to the Christian historians Bosnians come from the race of Bosnian, the son of Sırfâyil who Rumalia is given to him as a homeland after the Flood (p. 220-221 [136b-137a]). According Kiel said that most of the buildings recorded by Evliya Çelebi in the Balkans were demeloshid while Ottomans were retreating (2003: 115). ††††††††††† “a type of cereal” (Dankoff 2004: 144). ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Evliya Çelebi, records that the salep which is a very rare plant, is also grown in Köprez Uplands in Bosnia and Çimene Uplands in Herzegovina (1, p. 251 [172a]). §§§§§§§§§§§ Evliya, passes on that this bread is a gift to the giants who helped Belkıs Hatun to recover from feather problems by Suleyman (6, p. 284 [163a]). ************ “a kind of buttery bun eaten at breakfast” (5, p. 228 [131a]). Breakfast is also called as ruçka in this region (5, p. 229 [131b]). †††††††††††† “pickled cabbage” (5, p. 228 [131a]). ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ “a type of arrack” (Dankoff 2004: 143). §§§§§§§§§§§§ “a kind of drink made of grape” (5, p. 229 [131a]). ************* After the conquest of Bosnia, the mines are awarded to tax farmers from Dubrovnik. Silver in Fojnica and Kreşevo, lead in Olovo, silver and lead in Srebrenica were mined. There were iron mines in some villages of Hersek and Pavlovici, on the right side of Drina River and in Praca River. The most important iron manufacturing center was Çagnice (Đnalcık 2009: 97). ††††††††††††† This word is transcripted as nora in the text (5, p. 229 [131b]) however the original of the word is probably ‫( هرون‬nûre (Mütercim Âsım Efendi 2000: 570) / nûra (Kestelli 2004: 367)) which means “a powder used to get the useless feathers from body ”. Moreover it is written in The Dehkhoda Dictionary that this powder is called as nûre/nûra which related to nur (light) that brightens the body (please see www.loghatnaameh.com ). 388 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo to the Latin historians the ancestor of the Bosnians is Posnak dev (giant)‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. The people of this land is called “Boşnak” which is derivated from Posnak. These historians write that there were huge people in the mountains as their ancestor was Posnak giant (5, p. 229 [131b]). Before becoming muslims the Bosnians were Bogomil, so they are also called as “sons of Potur derivated from Pateren which is the other name of Bogomils.” (Uzunçarşılı 1975: II 84). Bosnians like calling them as “Bosnevî”, because the word bosgak or bosñak written as ‫ بسکق‬means “giant unbelievers” in Bosnian language (5, p. 229 [131b]). While Evliya Çelebi is mentioning about Sarajevo, he gives features of the people of the city. According to the information in SN, the people of the city are healthy and fit because the wheather and water of the city is quite pleasant. As they have strong belief they go the mosque when they hear the ezan. People of Sarajevo do not like lazy and untalented people (5, p. 227 [130a]). Evliya, explains how the people in the city earn their life as follows: some of them are border veterans, some of them are in service section, some of them are artisans and some of them are traders. Some of them works for aga or pasha as a soldier (sekban) (5, p. 228 [131a]). While telling the beauties of the city, Evliya Çelebi says that this city is called source of ladies as the features of ladies have a good reputation among other places (5, p. 227 [130a]). The traveller says that most of the ladies in this city have beautiful faces but use scarves. The ladies are beautiful, pleasant, know how to speak and have teeth like pearl. They speak pleasantly. The young ladies are so polite and religious that they have never seen or heard the voice of any other male except their fathers or grandfathers (5, p. 227 [130b]). The author also mentions about the sufis in Sarajevo in SN. One of them is Abdî Çelebi. He has lots of wonders, once Evliya Çelebi witnessed one of them as Abdî Çelebi knew the fire in Kazancılar Çarşı before it occured. The other sufi mentioned by Evliya is Deli Nisâ Kadın (5, p. 228 [131a]). The clothes of the Bosnians are also mentioned in SN. Of course there is a difference with the notables and the public. The notables wear broadcloth and kontos and sable fur, in winter fox fur and satin robe. Their shoes are yellow and their turban clothes are hunkari. They wear glittering fine muslins. The middle class wears murex broadcloth and shoes and lamb fur. The subclass wears broadclothes, most of them wears green calpac. According to SN the ladies, rarely walking around, wear green, red and mixed colored broadclothes, yellow shoes, skullcaps and wear white muslin and black veils (5, p. 227-228 [130b]). Evliya tells that the soldiers of 760 castles such as Budin, Egri, Kanija, Bosnia in the borders are brave Bosnians (5, p. 230 [132a]). Moreover some of the soldiers of Van Castle (4, p. 120, [256a]), Erciş Castle in Van (4, p.101 [245a]), Yanova Castle in Tımışvâr (5, p. 212 [122b]) are Bosnians. Evliya, through the travels in Ottoman territory, praises the Bosnian saying that the soldiers of Eğri, Budin and Bosnia castles are so brave that he has never seen such brave soldiers in another place. (4, p. 120, [256a]; 5, p. 255 [146a]). And also the inhabitants of Belgrad (5, p. 199 [115b]), people of Budin (6, p. 153 [88a]) are Bosnians. According to the information provided by the author clues related to the distribution of Bosnian population in the Ottoman territory in the 17th century can be caught. It can be seen that the Bosnian hold important positions in the state. When Mehmed II conquered Bosnia, he showed tolerance to Bosnian Christians and gave them the opportunity to work for state. With the respect of Turkish to belief and the Bogomil Bosnians which is close to Islam, and as a result of cruelty of kings and Hungarians, they converted to Islam very fast§§§§§§§§§§§§§ and according to a rumour, Conqueror asked them their wish when they all become Muslims, they asked employment in state so they had important roles in the army, in the palace and in the state (Uzunçarşılı 1975: 64-85). Some of the Bosnian statesmen mentioned in SN are: Sokullu Mehmed Pasha (1, p. 68 [47b]), Recep Pasha (1, p. 97 [67a]), Gâzî Hüsrev-i Şîr Pasha (5, p. 42 [25b]), Kethudâ Boşnak Đbrâhîm Pasha (8, p. 192 [295b]), Serdâr Boşnak Süleymân Beğ (10, p. 520 [Q 351a] [P 345a]). Besides these statesmen, sometimes a sheikh, sometimes a musician can be in front of the reader in SN with the Bosnian idetity. According to the records of Evliya the owner of the Boşnakbağı Resort in Kasımpasa is a Bosnian sheikh that belongs to Uşşaki tariqah**************. Again the sheikh of the Koyun Baba Tekke in Adalya Castle in Teke County is Boşnak Zülfikâr Dede (9, p. 147 [Y 136a]). Boşnak Mahmûd Ağa is one of the ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Evliya Çelebi tells a story related to Posnak giant. According to the story, as Belkis Hatun has too many feathers this Posnak Giant brought and taught how to use nure mine. Belkis Hatun recovers from feather problem with this mine and Süleyman prays for the posnak giant (5, p. 229 [131b]. Evliya tells the story in details in 6th book (p. 284 [163a]). §§§§§§§§§§§§§ According to Moačanın the most important reason for the Bosnians to accept Islam as a mass action is that the heavy taxes that non-muslims have to pay (2002). Đnalcık also says that the reason for the massive religion conversion is heavy taxes (2009: 108). ************** The gardener of the Boşnakbağı resort is Sheikh himself (1, p. 179 [126b]). Moreover the popular “Bosnian Dede rose” in Kasımpaşa should be grown in this garden (1, p. 180 [127a]). 389 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo master of kopuz (a musical instrument) that is typical for Bosnia, Budin, Kanlıca, Eğri and Tımışvâr (1, p. 304 [207a]). The names of Bosnians can be seen in some architectural constructions. Kelemser Boşnak Đsmail Efendi Mansion (1, p. 195 [137b]), Boşnak Mustafa Efendi Inn (9, p. 35 [Q 16b] [P 16b]), Boşnak Mustafa Pasha Mosque (10, p. 465 [Y 438a]) are samples for these constructions. The only negative thing related to Bosnian told by Evliya Çelebi is their attitude towards cats. According to a talisman from ancient ages, the number of mice in the city is so low and the number of cats is low, in turn. Feeding cat whose main task of is catching mouse so the people do not feed any cats. In this topic which is an indication of stinginess, people of Banyaluka condemn Sarajevo people. However Evliya Çelebi expresses that the people of Sarajevo are very generous and friendly (5, p. 226 [130a]). 3. Bosnian Language One of the features that make SN an indispensable source is that it contains materials related to many earth languages besides the Turkish. Evliya Çelebi has theories, or rather notions, on the origins and relations of the languages (Dankoff 2004: 58). The author explains the formation of many languages with Bosnian language: There was a bishop who informed the birth of Jesus, invited Rumelian people to Christianism in Köstence. This bishop was very sophisticated and he formed Bulgarian, Serbian, Voynik, Cakona, Crotian, Bosnian, Polish, Russian, Czech, Swedish languages in three hundred years and taught them to monks under his service. These monks had been distributed to various regions so the languages they had learnt were distributed as well (3, p. 234 [146a-146b]). Evliya Çelebi, who provides various information about the origins of languages, behaved like a linguist where he had been and recorded language features of the region and gave samples of word, phrase and sentences. The author did not forget the Bosnian language which is one of the Slavic languages which he mentioned as familiar to Latin language during his travel to Bosnia. First the numbers are written in Bosnian language: “yedno dıva tıri 1 2 3 çetri 4 pet 5 şes sedem osem 6 7 8 devet 9 deset 10” (5, p. 229 [132a]). Later the traveller gives some passages from Makbûl-i Ârif (Potur Şâhidî), a Turkish-Bosnian poetic dictionary†††††††††††††† written by Muhammed Hevâî instead of giving a list of his recorded words or short sentences as he did in many other languages‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Two of them are: Boğ tanrı yedno birdir hem yedino vahdetî Duşe cândır çoyik âdem dirligidir jiveti Hem ferişte angil oldu göklere de nebesa Ray cennet ray-niki oldu demek cennetî Moma kızdır prah tozdur tırağ izdir put yol Viseko yüksek hizeko alçak u hem nizeti (God, one, unity) (soul, man, life) (angel, sky) (heaven, deserving of heaven) (girl, dust, footstep, road) (high, low) Vodüna sulı çamura kalu çamura batan ana de baltan (watery, mud, who sinks in mud) Kazın adı hem dahi ördeğün biri patkadır biri guskadır (goose, duck) Arı ijderal adı turnanın dahi çapladır balığı yudan (bee, crane) Golup de hem gügercine girlo kanat ve mehr mecat (pigeon, wing, seal) Gemi lagadır ve more deniz unont olan boğulup batan (boat, sea, who has drowned) Neke bat yunak tğodi peji tserav pijre isterce meke§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Olımaz yiğit kalıcı kişi geriye bakan yüregi atan (5, p. 230 [132a]). Evliya Çelebi gives the most common words used in Budin in which all the people are Bosnian. Muhassal-ı çelam “in short”, demişüm “I have said.”, şâyed gelmeyesün “if you don’t come”, sağ mısun “Are you alive?” (6, p. 153 [88a]) are some of them. Besides, Evliya Çelebi sometimes mentioned some Bosnian words in the whole SN. For instance, while Evliya was talking about Maçkosa Inn, he explains that maçkosa means “cat” (5, p. 222 [128a]). Again while talking about Mokra Inn, he explains that mokra means “precipitous stony place” in Bosnian (5, p. 223 [128a]). †††††††††††††† ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ §§§§§§§§§§§§§§ For further information please see Okumuş 2009. The Bosnian words in verse are written in Italic and the English equivalents of them are in parenthesis. “He can not be a brave who holds back, looks behind, whose heart palpitates.” 390 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Ruçka is the name of “breakfast” (5, p. 229 [131b]). Virbaza, a name of a water in Travnik means “willow” *************** (5, p. 232 [133a]). “Daugher of king and wife of king” is called queen in Bosnian (6, p. 134 [77b]). Ustolni is “stool”, bograd is “white” (7, p. 20 [12b]), kobila is “horse castle” (7, p. 140 [80a]). While the author is giving the equivalent of “hot spring” word in other languages, he says that this word is called bana in Bosnia and Rumelia††††††††††††††† (2, p. 204 [345b]). Evliya Çelebi records that the people of this region shorten the names such as Muhammed as Maho, Ahmed as Ahmo, Şabân as Şabo, Đbrâhîm as Đbro, Zülfikâr as Zuko, Hasan as Haso, Hüseyin as Hüso, Cafer as Cafo, Süleymân as Sülo, Ramazân as Ramo and Ali as Alo‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. The names of their slaves are Hûrem or Hürrem, Behlûle, Yoro, Safo, Hoyrad, Fehrâd, Kînân or Kenan. Evliya gives as examples of women names: Sâliha, Sâbiha, Râziye, Marzıye, Meryem, Hümâ, Havvâ, Ümmühân and Nâdire. The nicknames transfered by the author are Lübzâde, Filibzâde, Koskızâde, Lâfîzâde, Çovozâde, Yunakzâde and Döşözâde (5, p. 227 [130b]). Various conversations can be added to the information related to Bosnian language given by Evliya Çelebi. The traveller presents the sentences of Idris Baba who lived in Peçoy, Kanije in about 1590 in Bosnian dialect from the inhabitants: “Bire biz kırduyuz, bire şimden gerü kâfiri bağlıyor durmuyor esîr ediyor.”§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ (6, p. 120 [69b]). Evliya also presented the conversations he witnessed. He presents the conversation directly among the border veterans in a vineyard. One of these veterans says “Bire cele cânum, hoço çelo Allâhı seversen kazı yiğit bir manca yeyelüz.”**************** in Bosnian dialect (5, p. 255 [146a]). “Belî, biz ol köyleri ve ol yolları biliriz. Niçe bin kerre varmışuz ve gelmişüz. Yüriye durmayaluz, varalum ve vilâyetleri vuralum, yakalum ve yıkalum. Varaluz kâfirleri kıraluz, esîrler alaluz.”†††††††††††††††† These sentences are said by border veterans in a battle in Bosnian (6, p. 323 [185b]). Evliya Çelebi, who ran away from enemy during the siege of Şebenik Castle one of the castles of Venedik, witnessed a dialogue in Bosnian between a muslim father and son who came to chop wood: “Bre Meho”‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡, “Đşto veliş?”§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§, “Hodamu sinko, hodamu”***************** The father talked to Evliya in Bosnian dialect: “Ya sen safâ celdun. Ya sağ misun? Ya sen bu dağlarda nişlerisun?”††††††††††††††††† (10, p. 148 [Y 124]). Thus it is possible to find sample Bosnian words and sentences and Turkish samples formed in Bosnian dialect. Of course Bosnian language is not the only spoken language in the territority of Bosnia Province. Evliya Çelebi recordeds the regions who speak Bosnian outside Bosnia in the 17th century in his SN. Vidin City and Banya Town in Rumelia Province (6, p. 99 [58a]), Mitroviçse City (6, p. 103 [59b]) and Şemetorna Castle (7, p. 20 [12a]), Rodnik Castle (6, p. 239 [137b]), Öziçe City (6, p. 247 [141a]), Ustolni Belgrad (7, p. 27 [16a]) and Đhram castle (7, p. 167 [93b]) in Semendire County in Budin, Sonlok Castle in Eğri Province (7, p. 136 [78a]) and Baç Castle in Segedin County (7, p. 139 [79b]) are the some examples to this. Of course Bosnian population in these regions has a big impact for Bosnian language‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ to be spoken. The people of Sarajevo speak Turkish, Serbian, Latin, Crotian and Bulgarian beside Bosnian. (5, p. 227 [130a]). *************** While Evliya Çelebi was mentioning about Virba wood, he declares that virba means “willow” (5, p. 251 [144a]). ††††††††††††††† While he was mentioning about Banya town in Vidin, he declares that “hot spring” is called banya or bana in Bosnian in this region (6, p. 100 [58b]). ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Evliya declairs the same feature while mentioning about Banyaluka and he writes that the names of the people in this region are Haso {Hasan}, Huso {Hüseyin}, Muso {Musa}, Memo {Memi}, Cafo {Cafer}, Ahmo {Ahmed}, Mahmo {Mehemmed}, Zuko {Zülfikar}, Đbro {Đbrahim} in Bosnian language (5, p. 268 [153b]. These words could be formed by added affix ‘o’ at the end of them. This affix is added instead of either a vocal or a sound group or one syllable or two syllables. It isn’t known that to which language this affix belongs but it can be estimated that it comes from Serbian as it is used as vokatif affix in Serbian (Hafız 1999: 520). §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ “We killed, now then he is tying the enemy, he does not stop, he is capturing them.” “Please come dear, lets eat meal for the love of God.” †††††††††††††††† “Yes, we know those villages and all ways. We have gone there and turned back several times. Let’s walk, Let’s not stop. Let’s go there and shoot, destroy the villages. Let’s go and kill the enemies and capture them.” ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ “Meho!” §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ According to Evliya Çelebi’s translate it means “What do you say?” (10, p. 148 [Y 124]). ***************** According to Evliya Çelebi’s translate it means “Come here my lovely son, come!” (10, p. 148 [Y 124]). ††††††††††††††††† “Welcome. Are you alive? What are you doing in theese mountains?” ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Today Bosnian is spoken initially in Bosna Herzegovina, Serbia, Sancak, Montenegro, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia and Turkey (Gökdağ-Dinçer 2007: 205). **************** 391 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 4. Conclusion Evliya Çelebi, who travelled around the Bosnia province, gives detailed imformation on many issues such as historical, geographical, administrative and political, architectural, economic, philological, folklore, social, cultural characteristics of the province. Evliya draws a colorful picture of Bosnia in the 17th century. When SN is considered a basic resource in many issues for that period (Faroqhi 2006:712) the value of this picture will be better understood. SN is quite important for the researchers who work on the history of urbanism and architecture in the Ottoman Balkans and has resource problems (Kiel 2003: 116). The information on the Ottoman monuments, city life and lay out provided by the author are important documents which are neglected to record of a civilazation (Shaw 2008:348). However the information in SN in which sometimes reality and fiction are confused should be used by comparing with other resources. References Açık, Tansu. (2009). “Evliyâ Çelebi’de Yunan-Roma Dünyası”, Çağının Sıradışı Yazarı Evliyâ Çelebi, Hazırlayan: Nuran Tezcan, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 23-33. Akgündüz, Ahmed. (1992). Osmanlı Kanunnâmeleri ve Hukukî Tahlilleri, 4. Kitap Kanunî Devri Kanunnâmeleri I. Kısım Merkezî ve Umumî Kanunnâmeler, FEY Vakfı Yayınları, Đstanbul. Bruinessen, Martin van. (2003). “Evliya Çelebi Ve Seyahatnamesi”, Evliya Çelebi Diyarbekir’de, Derleyenler: Martin van Bruinessen-Hendrik Boeschoten, Çeviren Tansel Güney, Đletişim Yayınları, Đstanbul, 25-38. Car-Drinda. (1999). “XVII. Yüzyıl Bosna Sancağında Vakıf Müesseseleri”, Osmanlı, C V (Toplum), Ankara, 63-74. Dankoff, Robert. (2004). Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi Okuma Sözlüğü, Katkılarla Đngilizceden Çeviren: Semih Tezcan, Türk Dilleri Araştırmaları Dizisi: 37, Đstanbul. Evliyâ Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi 1. Kitap, Hazırlayan: Orhan Şaik Gökyay, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 1996. __________ 2. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Zekeriya Kurşun-Seyit Ali Kahraman-Yücel Dağlı, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 1999. __________ 3. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Seyit Ali Kahraman-Yücel Dağlı, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 1999. __________ 4. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Yücel Dağlı-Seyit Ali Kahraman, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2001. __________ 5. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Yücel Dağlı-Seyit Ali Kahraman-Đbrahim Sezgin, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2001. __________ 6. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Seyit Ali Kahraman-Yücel Dağlı, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2002. __________ 7. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Yücel Dağlı-Seyit Ali Kahraman-Robert Dankoff, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2003. __________ 8. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Seyit Ali Kahraman-Yücel Dağlı-Robert Dankoff, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2003. __________ 9. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Yücel Dağlı-Seyit Ali Kahraman-Robert Dankoff, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2005. 392 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo __________ 10. Kitap, Hazırlayanlar: Seyit Ali Kahraman-Yücel Dağlı-Robert Dankoff, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2007. Faraqhı, Suraiya. (2006). “Kentlerde Toplumsal Yaşam”, Osmanlı Đmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, Türkçeye çevirenler: Ayşe Berktay, Süphan Andıç, Serdar Alper, C 2, Eren Yayıncılık, (2. Baskı), Đstanbul, 699-729. Gökdağ, Bilgehan Atsız-Dinçer, Aslıhan. (2007). “Balkanlarda Dil Ve Kimlik”, Balkanlar El Kitabı, C 3 Dil ve Edebiyat, Balkan Kaynakçası, Derleyenler: Osman Karatay-Bilgehan A. Gökdağ-Melahat Pars, Karam & Vadi, 191-222. Hafız, Nimetullah. (1999). “Kosova Türk Ağızlarında Sırp ve Arnavut Dilinin Etkisi”, 3. Uluslararası Türk Dil Kurultayı 1996, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara, s. 517-522. Đnalcık, Halil. (2009). Osmanlı Đmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, Türkçeye çeviren: Halil Berktay, C I, Eren Yayıncılık, (3. Baskı), Đstanbul. Kaçar, Mustafa. (2002). “Osmanlı Đmparatorluğu’nda Klasik Bilim Geleneğinin Tarihçesi”, Türkler, C 10, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, Ankara, 155-174. Kaşıkçı, Nihat-Yılmaz, Hasan. (2001). Mora’dan Viyana’ya Osmanlı’nın Avrupası (Ülkeler-Şehirler-Đz Bırakanlar), Türk Metal Sendikası Araştırma Bürosu, Ankara. Kestelli, Raif Necdet. (2004). Resimli Türkçe Kamus, Hazırlayanlar: Recep Toparlı, Belgin Tezcan Aksu, Canan Selvi Kanoğlu, Seyfullah Türkmen, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara. Kiel, Machiel. (2003). “Şehrin Fiziksel Özellikleri”, Evliya Çelebi Diyarbekir’de, Derleyenler: Martin van Bruinessn-Hendrik Boeschoten, Çeviren: Tansel Güney, Đletişim Yayınları, Đstanbul, 101-116. Moačanın, Nenad. (2002). “Osmanlı Bosnası”, Türkler, C 10, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, Ankara, 399-405. Mütercim Âsım Efendi. (2000). Burhân-ı Katı, Hazırlayanlar: Mürsel Öztürk, Derya Örs, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara. Öztuna, Yılmaz. (1998). Osmanlı Devleti Tarihi -2- “Medeniyet Tarihi”, T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara. Öztürk, Nazif. (2002). “Osmanlı Döneminde Vakıflar”, Türkler, C 10, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, Ankara, 433-446. Okumuş, Sait. (2009). “Muhammed Hevâî Üsküfî ve Türkçe-Boşnakça Manzum Sözlüğü Makbûl-i Ârif (Potur Şâhidî)”, Turkish Studies, Volume 4/4, Summer, 823-844. Orhonlu, Cengiz. (2002). “Şehir Mimarları”, Türkler, C 10, Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, Ankara, s. 528-539. Shaw, Stanford (2008). Osmanlı Đmparatorluğu Ve Modern Türkiye, Çeviren: Mehmet Harmancı, C 1, E Yayınları, Đstanbul. T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü Osmanlı Arşivi Daire Başkanlığı. (1992). Bosna-Hersek Đle Đlgili Arşiv Belgeleri (1516-1919), Ankara. Tezcan, Nuran. (2002). “Bir Üslup Ustası Olarak Evliya Çelebi”, Evliya Çelebi ve Seyahatname, Yayına Hazırlayanlar: Nuran Tezcan-Kadir Atlansoy, Doğu Akdeniz Üniversitesi Yayınları, Gazimağusa, Mersin, 231243. Uzunçarşılı, Đsmail Hakkı. (1975). Osmanlı Tarihi, C II, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara. www.loghatnaameh.com 393 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 723 Title A name given to the resource Evliya Çelebi in Bosnia Author Author Akmaz, Münteha Gül Abstract A summary of the resource. Famous Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi, who lived in 17th century, travelled Ottoman territory from west to east, at the same time he went around neigbourhood. At the end of these travels lasted approximately fifty years, his work Seyahatnâme, which is composed of ten volumes, has come out. Seyahatnâme is not only unique resource for Turkish culture, history, language and literature but also a rich treasure for folks lived in the Ottoman territory. One of these folks is the Bosnians. Evliya Çelebi travelled in Bosnia, one of the provinces of Ottoman Empire, entirely in the 17th century and gave important information about its history, geography, political, economical and cultural structures of the region. Evliya, who had outstanding powers of observation, told about Bosnia, from its castles to mosques, foods to clothes eleborately. Moreover it is possible to find information about Bosnians in Seyahatnâme. Not only Bosnians in Bosnia but also Bosnians who had been settled down different parts of Europa because of their success in battles were told. In addition, Evliya Çelebi focused on Bosnian language and gave samples of this language. In the frame of this presentation, information about Bosnia, Bosnians and their language mentioned by Evliya Çelebi in the Seyahatnâme are going to be studied. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2557eb6d66c6a8c7caf6ee2045460317.pdf 51457cf19c30dbb1de67aad04ee17d2b PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Relations among Individual and Organization by Method of the MyersBriggs Personality Indicator Assist. Prof. Dr. Amel Alić University of Zenica Pedagogical Faculty Zenica aalic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract Personality type is a concept which, in the field of research of the organizational culture, could be related to the Briggs & Myers model of personality development. Briggs and Myers were the authors of the world’s most extensive database of the MBTI or the Myers-Briggs personality type indicators. Today, the appliance of the MBTI model is supported by the observation of typological code for 16 types of personalities, while dichotomy of these four preferences results in 16 types of personality that form the base of the Myers model and the MBTI indicator. Based on the observation of a typological code for 16 personality types and by permutation of dichotomies of these four preferences, 16 personality types which form the base of the Myer’s model and the MBTI indicator were defined. Nowadays, it is well-known, that dominance of personality types among individuals, as well as among personality types of organizations, could vary from culture to culture. On the basis of these researches it was confirmed that specific quality of a culture and characteristics of the climate in which the culture has been developing (specific beliefs, system of values and patterns of behavior) determine the way in which the organizational culture will develop and the directions which it will follow. They also define the relations between an individual and an organization, among individuals, especially in the sense of defining freedoms, rights and power relations. The aim of this research is to investigate the possibility of appliance of the MBTI personality indicators, to both, individuals and school organizations. Using the results of this widespread and cross-culturally applied indicator, it is possible to establish a unique profile of schools and individuals employed there. It is also possible to establish characteristic strengths and weaknesses, work environment, communication styles, management types, and by recognizing a dominant profile, it is possible to influence the improvement of the work quality of an individual and of the whole school organization. Key words: personality type, organization personality type, organizational culture 243 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Introduction Personality type or psychological type is a concept most frequently related to the model of personality development created by Katharine Brigg and her daughter Isabel Myers (Briggs & Myers), the authors of the most extensive database about personality typology, known as the MBTI or Myers-Briggs personality type indicators. Myers and her mum Katharine Briggs developed a model and a database on the grounds of the ideas and theories of the psychologist Carl Jung, Freud’s contemporary and a leading representative of the Gestalt theory of personality. During the early 1940s Myers and Briggs expanded Jung’s model through the initial development of the MBTI by adapting Jung’s concept to a language understandable to common people. The book “Gifts Differing” by Isabel Myers which was published in 1980, after she had died, gives a comprehensive introduction to Jung/Myers theory (Berens, Nardi, 1999). The MBTI is a registered trademark of the Myers-Briggs Indicator Trust board, published by CPP, Inc (previously Consulting Psychologist Press) which also distributes the database and together with the authorized publishers make the MBTI available in about 20 different languages. Besides, the alternative versions of the database have been professionally adjusted and verified for other languages as the literal translations from the English language would have been inadequate. After almost twenty-years-long research of the Jung’s theory (from 1923 until 1941), these authors managed to develop an empiric way of establishing personality typology by adding two more types. After the MBTI “personality indicator” had been tested and updated by Educational Testing Service (1956) and Typology Laboratory (University of Florida, 1971), Consulting Psychologists Press (1975) published one of their most famous editions of the MBTI personality indicators (Fakete, Keith, 2003; Kaluzniacky, 2004). Today, this typology has been widely applied and approved of by various associations. One of the most recent versions is the one suggested by David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates (Please, Understand Me, 1978). According to Berens and Nardi (1999, p. 46.), it is also possible to divide group 16 types in 4 central quadrants of temperaments: NT (rational), NF (idealist), SJ (guardian) and SP (artisan): INFJ Foreseer Developer INFP Harmonizer Clarifier ISTJ Planner Inspector ISFJ Protector Supporter ENFJ Envisioner Mentor ENFP Discoverer Advocate ESTJ Implementor Supervisor ESFJ Facilitator Caretaker INTJ Conceptualizer Director INTP Designer Theorizer ISTP Analyzer 0perator ISFP Composer Producer ENTJ Strategist Mobilizer ENTP Explorer Inventor ESTP Promoter Executor ESFP Motivator Presenter Table 1. Myers-Briggs personality types (adapted from: Berens & Nardi, 1999., p.8.-9.) Personality and organization Today, the appliance of the MBTI model is supported by the observation of typological code for 16 types of personalities, while dichotomy of these four preferences results in 16 types of personality that form the base of the Myers model and the MBTI indicator. The preference of a specific mental orientation is determined by extraverted and introverted domination. In Mayer’s personality determination this is represented by the first letter: E or I. While extraverts derive energy from the outer world as a primary energy source, introverts derive primary energy from an inner world of information, thoughts, ideas and other reflections. Rarely, almost never, extraverts need to “recharge batteries” as a result of too much interaction with the people in surrounding. They have to confront things, people, places and activities in the outer world, the source of their life strength. On the other hand, when the circumstances require a large quantity of attention focused to the “outer” world, introverts will find themselves retreating toward a private sphere in order to recover their inner energy. 244 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Two types of perceptional mental processes determine the preference of sensing or intuiting, thinking or feeling. The first group of mental preferences refers to the way of perception or gaining information. In the Myer’s personality determination, this is represented by the second letter: S or N. Those preferring sensing perception favour clear, palpable data and information which are easily incorporated into their “here and now” experiences. Unlike the first, intuiting perception gathers abstract, conceptual, more general pieces of information and projects them into the future. The second group of mental preferences explains the way people make ”judgments” and decisions – which reveals judging processes. In the Myer’s personality determination, this is represented by the third letter: T or F. Those preferring thinking judgments are naturally predisposed to make decisions in an objective, logical and analytic way with an accent on completing the tasks and achieving good results. The owners of feeling judgments make decisions in a global, harmonic way, and in accordance with the system of values. They also take into account the consequences of their decisions and actions on other people. Mental processes that determine orientation in the outer world by the MBTI model, reveal the preference of judging type to perceiving type. This last dichotomy in the Myers-Briggs typology is represented by the fourth letter: J or P. Past researches show that those who prefer judging mostly rely on T or F preference in leading the outer life. Typically, this leads to a style based on self-containment, organization, planning or in one way or another, sorting out things and/or people in the outer world. Meeting the needs require intervening in the outer world. While some people do it intrusively, others, with respecting other people, do it discreetly. On the other hand, those who prefer perception rely on S or N preference within the sorting out the outer world. Typically, this leads to an open, adjustable and flexible style of treating things and people in the outer world. (Berens, Nardi,1999) Based on the observation of a typological code for 16 personality types and by permutation of dichotomies of these four preferences, 16 personality types which form the base of the Myer’s model and the MBTI indicator were defined. In the first quadrant, matrix 4x4, there are “idealist-diplomacy types”: INFJ – foreseer developer, INFP – harmonizer clarifier, ENFJ – envisioner mentor and ENFP – discoverer advocate. Personality types in this quadrant are determined by the dominance of an intuitive-feeling profile. The following table describes personality positioned in the first quadrant: INFJ – foreseer developer Personal growth. Sustain the vision. Honouring the gifts of others. Taking a creative approach to life. Talent for foreseeing. Exploring issues. Bridge differences and connect people. Practical problem solving. Live with a sense of purpose. Living an idealistic life often presents them with a great deal of stress and a need to withdraw. ENFJ – envisioner mentor Communicate and share values. Succeeding at relationships. Realizing dreams-their own and others. Seek opportunities to grow together. Heeding the call to a life work or mission. Enjoy the creative process. Intuitive intellect. Reconcile the past and the future. Talent for seeing potential in others. 0ften find living in the present difficult. INFP – harmonizer clarifier Going with the flow Knowing what is behind what is said. Uncovering mysteries' Exploring moral questions. Talent for facilitative listening' Relate through stories and metaphors' Balancing opposites. Getting reacquainted with themselves' Struggling with structure and getting their lives in order. ENFP – discoverer advocate Inspiring and facilitating others. Exploring perceptions. Talent for seeing what's not being said and voicing unspoken meanings. Seek to have ideal relationships. Recognize happiness. Living out stories. Respond to insights in the creative process. Finding the magical situation. Restless hunger for discovering their direction. Table 1. An explanation of “idealist-diplomacy types” (Adapted from: Berens, Nardi,1999) Second quadrant describes people with a dominant intuitive-thinking profile and these types, authors (like Berens & Nardi) describe as “rational strategy types”: INTJ – conceptualizer director, INTP – designer theorizer, ENTJ – strategist mobilizer and ENTP – explorer inventor. INTJ – conceptualizer director Maximizing achievements. Drive for self-mastery. Build a vision. Very tong-range strategizing. Realizing progress toward goals' Systems thinking. Talent for seeing the reasons behind things. Being on the Leading edge. Maintaining independence. Find it difficult to let INTP – designer theorizer Becoming an expert. Seeing new patterns and elegant connections. Talent for design and redesign. Crossing the artificial boundaries of thought. Activate the imagination. Clarifying and defining. Making discoveries. Reflect on the 245 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo go in interacting with others. ENTJ – strategist mobilizer Being a leader. Maximize talents. Intuitive explorations. Forging partnerships. Mentoring and empowering. Talent for coordinating multiple projects. Balance peace and conflict. Predictive creativity. Often overwhelmed by managing all the details of time and resources. process of thinking itself. Detach to analyze. Struggle with attending to the physical world. ENTP – explorer inventor Being inventive. Talented at building prototypes and getting projects launched. Lifelong learning. Enjoy the creative process. Share their insights. Strategically formulate success. An inviting host' Like the drama of the give and take. Trying to be diplomatic. Surprised when their strategizing of relationships becomes problematic. Table 2. An explanation of “rational strategy types” (Adapted from: Berens, Nardi,1999) In the third quadrant there are people with dominant sensory-feeling/thinking profile. In the researches, these people are described as “guardian logistic types” ISTJ – planner inspector, ISFJ – protector supporter, ESTJ – implementor supervisor and ESFJ – facilitator caretaker. ISTJ – planner inspector Drawing up plans and being prepared. Take responsibility. Getting work done first. Being active in the community. Loyalty to their roles. Cultivating good quantities. Doing the right thing. Bear life's burdens and overcome adversity. Talented at planning, sequencing, and noticing what's missing. Having to learn so much in hindsight is painful at times. ESTJ – implementor supervisor Talent for bringing order to chaotic situations. Educating themselves. Industrious, work-hard attitude. Balance work with play. Having a philosophy of life. Having the steps to success. Keeping up traditions. Being well balanced. Connecting their wealth of life experiences. 0ften disappointed when perfectionist standards for economy and quality are not met. ISFJ – protector supporter Noticing what’s needed and what’s valuable. Talent for careful and supportive organization. Know the ins and outs. Enjoy traditions. Work to protect the future. Listening and remembering. Being nice and agreeable. Unselfish willingness to volunteer. Feeling a sense of accomplishment. Exasperated when people ignore rules and don't get along. ESFJ – facilitator caretaker Accepting and helping others. Managing people. Hearing people out. Voicing concerns and accommodating needs. Admire the success of others. Remember what’s important. Talented at providing others with what they need. Keep things pleasant. Maintaining a sense of continuity. Accounting for the costs. Often disappointed by entrepreneurial projects. Table 3. An explanation of “guardian logistic types” (Adapted from: Berens, Nardi,1999) The fourth part of the matrix describes people with a dominant sensory-thinking/feeling profile, and they are marked as “artisan tactics types”: ISTP – analyzer operator, ISFP – composer producer, ESTP – promoter executor, ESFP – motivator presenter. (1 and 2) ISTP – analyzer operator Actively solving problems. Observing how things work. Talent for using tools for the best approach. Need to be independent. Act on their hunches or intuitions. Understanding a situation. Taking things apart. Making discoveries. Sharing those discoveries. Unsettled by powerful emotional experiences. ESTP – promoter executor Taking charge of situations. Tactical prioritizing. Talent for negotiating. Want a measure of their success. Keep their options open. Enjoy acting as a consultant. Winning people over. Caring for family and friends. Enjoy exhilaration at the edge. Disappointed when others don't show respect. ISFP – composer producer Taking advantage of opportunities. Stick with what's important. Talent for putting together what is just right. Creative problem solving. Building relationships. Attracting the loyalties of others. Being their own true self. Have their own personal style. Play against expectations. Struggle with nurturing their own self-esteem. ESFP – motivator presenter Stimulating action. Have a sense of style. Talent for presenting things in a useful way. Natural actors-engaging others. 0pening up people to possibilities. Respect for freedom. Taking risks. A love of learning, especially about people. Genuine caring. Sometimes misperceive others' intentions. Table 4. An explanation of “artisan tactics types” (Adapted from: Berens, Nardi,1999) 246 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo According to Fakete, and Keith (2003), it is possible to observe, and investigate the companies through “personnel” or “individualistic” characteristics. Same as individual typology, the appliance of rearranged MBT indicator could provide understanding of organizations within 16 types of “personalities”, which was included in this research, as follows: ''Solid as a rock'' (ISTJ) ''You Can Count on Us'' (ISFJ) ''Vision Driven by ''Going All Out for Values'' Greatness'' (INFJ) (INTJ) ''Action, Actin – We ''Working to make a ''Quest for Meaningful ''In Pursuit of Intelectual want Action'' Difference'' Work'' Solutions'' (ISTP) (ISFP) (INFP) (INTP) ''Thriving on Risky ''We Aim to Please'' ''It's Fun to Do Good ''If We Can't Do It, No Business'' (ESFP) Work'' One Can'' (ENFP) (ENTP) (ESTP) ''Playing by the Rules'' ''Doing the Right Thing'' ''Seeing the Picture in ''Driven to Lead'' (ESTJ) (ESFJ) Human Terms (ENFJ) (ENTJ) Table 5. The matrix of 16 types of organizational personalities (Adapted from: Fakete and Keith, 2003) Each of these 16 types explains the most common advantages, weaknesses, communication skill preferences, values, strengths, challenges, and market orientation for the organizational type. According to Fakete and Keith (2003, p. 46.), it is also possible to divide group 16 types in 4 central quadrants: dominantly IS , IN , ES, and EN. Profile of the school organizational culture Most authors agree that the concept of the organizational culture could be described by a dominant pattern of common beliefs and values of employees, mutual way of seeing things, principals that determine their behaviour and by defining acceptable and unacceptable norms of behaving and acting (Hofstede, 2005). Organizational culture, definitely, has its subcultures, but also its layers, which should be observed from: individual level, inner-organizational level and inter-organizational level (Jex, 2002). Schein distinguishes three levels of the organizational culture, with material symbols on the first level, technology and patterns of behaviour on the second level and basic preconceptions that make this specific culture different from the others on the third, paradigmatic level (Schneider, Smith, 2004). A complete understanding of the functioning of the organizational culture would not have been possible without the results of the researches of national cultures from the aspects of management and the organizational culture done by Greert Hofstede, published during the period between 1967 and 1973. He later updated his researches by those done in 1990. On the basis of these researches, Hofstede defined four basic dimensions which specify national cultures: power distance (PD), uncertainty avoidance (UA), individualism/collectivism (IC) and the relation of male/female values (MA) (Hofstede, 2005). Following table explains, in a short, the main characteristics of these four cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 2001, and 2005): Low-PD Countries Parents put less value on children’s obedience. Students put high value on independence. Authoritarian attitudes in students are a matter of personality. Managers seen as making decisions after consulting with subordinates. Close supervision negatively evaluated by subordinates. High-PD Countries Parents put high value on children’s obedience. Students put high value on conformity. Students show authoritarian attitudes as a social norm. Managers seen as making decisions autocratically and paternalistically. Close supervision positively evaluated by subordinates. 247 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Low-UA Countries Lower anxiety level in population. Greater readiness to live by the day. Lower job stress. Less emotional resistance to change. Less hesitation to change employers. Loyalty to employer is not seen as a virtue. Preference for smaller organizations as employers. Smaller generation gap. Lower average age in higher-level jobs. Low-IC Countries Importance of provisions by company (training, physical conditions). Emotional dependence on company. Large company attractive. Moral involvement with company. Moral importance attached to training and use of skills in jobs. Students consider it less socially acceptable to claim pursuing their own ends without minding others. Managers aspire to conformity and orderliness. Low-MA Countries Relationship with manager, cooperation, friendly atmosphere, living in a desirable area, and employment security relatively more important to employees. Managers relatively less interested in leadership, independence, and self-realization. Belief in group decisions. Students less interested in recognition. Weaker achievement motivation. High-UA Countries Higher anxiety level in population. More worry about the future. Higher job stress. More emotional resistance to change. Tendency to stay with the same employer. Loyalty to employer is seen as a virtue. Preference for larger organizations as employers. Greater generation gap. Higher average age in higher-level jobs: gerontocracy. High-IC Countries Importance of employees’ personal life (time). Emotional independence from company. Small company attractive. Calculative involvement with company. More importance attached to freedom and challenge in jobs. Students consider it socially acceptable to claim pursuing their own ends without minding others. Managers aspire to leadership and variety. High-MA Countries Earnings, recognition, advancement, and challenge relatively more important to employees. Managers have leadership, independence, and self-realization ideal. Belief in the independent decision maker. Students aspire to recognition (admiration for the strong). Stronger achievement motivation. Table 6. Summary of Connotations of Cultural Dimension Differences Found in Survey and Related Research (Addapted from Hofstede, 2001, 2005) On the basis of these researches it was confirmed that specific quality of a culture (in all four dimensions determined by Hofstede) and characteristics of the climate in which the culture has been developing (specific beliefs, system of values and patterns of behaviour) determine the way in which the organizational culture will develop and the directions which it will follow. They also define the relations between an individual and an organization, among individuals, especially in the sense of defining freedoms, rights and power relations. Organizational cultures of schools, in this sense, could be observed in all their differences, in the field of inner and outer-group relations, features of individualism in contrast to collectivism, uniqueness in the sense of taking risks and making emotional relations among employees as well as relations between employees and the organization and whether the organizational culture has been orientated towards power, people, tasks or towards entrances (focus is on legalities, legislative, birocracy, etc…) (Schneider, Smith, 2004). Now we can certainly claim that the knowledge about functioning of the organizational culture could also be updated and enriched by the appliance of the MBTI model. The Myers-Briggs personality typology in the conditions of the organizational culture enables determination of personal profiles, prediction of behaviour of an individual in different situations, possible preferences for jobs and professional orientations but also it enables easier understanding of the profiles of people we work with on the daily basis. On the basis of the MBTI model it is also possible to determine and predict in what way will the mutual profile of the employees build its own “personality”, “individuality” and a profile of the organizational culture in which we work. Same as with individuals, organizational cultures could be expressed through dichotomies of extraverted–introverted, sensingintuiting, thinking-feeling and judging-observing profiles (Fakete, Keith, 2003). 248 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Method of the research The details were being gathered during the autumn of 2009, and it was continuation of previous research done on smaller sample within the same organization (Alić, 2009). Having in mind that the research of the personality profile in organizational conditions and an appropriate profile of an organization are most often possible to perform on a small sample, therefore, for this research we decided on an appropriate stratified sample. In this sense, we included 20 permanently employed professors (all with the vocation of full professor, associate professor or senior-lecturer) and the assistants at one of the faculties of the University of Zenica. The sample has been balanced regarding to gender and vocational levels. Participation was on voluntary basis and all the participants were guaranteed discretion. The filling of the questionnaire was preceded by getting accustomed with the instruments, filling the forms and the main goals of the research. The basic details about participants were also included in the questionnaire (OP and SES). In the research, a descriptive method was used with the elements of correlative analysis. Personality profile was operiationalized by the MBTI scale which consists of 44 items and which, after the preferences of dichotomic categories extroverted-introverted, sensory-intuitive, thinking-feeling and judging-observing, serves as a basis for the final personality profile (Berens, Nardi, 1999) For the determination of the organizational profile we used a model and instruments CAP2 which consist of 56 items also dichotomicly organized (Fakete, Keith, 2003). Individual preferences of characteristics, and also the preference of characteristics of the organization, have been operationalized by the scales which are used to discover central organizational cultures defined by four dimensions: organizational focus, type of gathering information, type of decision-making process and specific work style. Both used instruments were earlier widely applied in numerous researches, while their inner reliability (Cronbach alpha coefficient) was between 0.71 and 0.84 (by item analysis and analysis of separated factors EI, SN, TF, JP different reliability was acquired), which should be considered as an acceptable reliability (Fakete, Keith, 2003). Results The MBTI personality profile and CAP2 profile of organization were analysed in the same way: first the factor analysis of personality had been completed and then the analysis of the profile of organization. Due to a small independent sample, it was possible to apply non-parametric statistics, and in the case of possible correlations between the preferred profile of personality and valuations of the profiles of organization Spearman’s coefficient of correlation. What was of the primary relevance was related to the possible relations between profiles of personalities and evaluation of the profile of organization, or more precisely, in what way a personality of an individual could influence the shaping of the profile of an organization. Starting from this preconception, we searched the possible correlations among separated factors E-I, S-N, T-F and J-P, both among individuals and between preferred characteristics of individuals and organization. At the same time, we observed in what situations a correlation between two dominant (middle) profiles S-N and T-F occurs and according to which both individuals and organizations within typological codes for 16 personality types are being placed. Finally, it was possible to predict that certain profiles of personalities will not show capability for mutual cooperation which in the case of managing positions could be helpful to the heads of departments and higher organizational units when forming pairs and teams. An excerpt from the correlational matrix for variables for extrovert personalities and extrovert organizations shows that a correlation on the level p<0,01 was present with the participants who prefer “action and diversity” and those who “like to think while talking to people” (r = 0,707; p = .000), while the negative correlation on the level p<0,05 was present with participants who “work fast, sometimes without thinking” and those who “tell about things through the things they do” (r = -0,598; p = .040). These results leads to the conclusion that with the first two personality types it is possible to expect cooperation and moving towards the same organizational goals, while in the other case it is possible to expect certain problems if personalities with these characteristics need to cooperate. The correlation between extroverted personality and the estimation of organization’s extrovercy is noticed on the level p<0,05 between people who strive towards a direct contact with clients and an estimation of a social orientation of the organization and those who are open to meet others and an estimation of the organization’s strength (r = 0,674; p = .016). An excerpt from the correlational matrix for variables for introvert personalities and introvert organization shows that the correlation on the level p<0,01 was present with participants who prefer “quiet and time to think about everything” and those who “like to think in solitude” (r = 0,707; p = .000), while the negative 249 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo correlation on the level p<0,05 was present with participants who “think about things before they start talking about them” and those who are “slow in the attempts to understand something” (r = -0,598; p = .040). As in the case of extroverted types, it is obvious that it would not be productive to make pairs with types of personalities previously described. On the basis of obtained results it is possible to conclude that the mutual tasks will be more successfully solved if we follow the principle of complementation and not homogamy. Within the scope of observing this factor it was understandable that there was no correlation on the level p<0, 01 between the participants who “work better with others” and the estimation of a highly noticeable weakness of the organization (r = 0,674; p =.000). In the case of S factor it was noticeable that on the level p<0,05 there is a negative correlation between those who prefer experience and those who value imagination (r = -0,632; p =.014), while a positive correlation appear on the level p<0,05 between the participants who like to use all senses and are patient with details and the estimation of the profile of organization in terms of “practicality” and “being with both feet on the ground” (r = o,683; p<.014). On the basis of other results it is advisable to avoid giving same tasks to those who within S and N factor “give attention to the meaning of things and how they complement each other” and those who put imagination before “common sense” having in mind that on the level p<0, 05 appears a negative correlation between people who prefer these characteristics (r = -0,632; p = .027). At the same time, with the people who “give attention to the meaning of things and how they complement each other”, “like to use imagination” and are” impatient with details” (N factor) it is possible to expect them to estimate the organization in terms of “innovativity” and “visionary team” having in mind that on the level p<0, 05 there is a positive correlation (r =0,683; p =.014). On the other hand, people who the same organization see as “practical” and “down-to-earth” prefer characteristics of “using all senses”, “patience with details” and they appreciate experience, having in mind that on the level p<0,05 there is a positive correlation between the mentioned variables (r = 0,683; p = .014). The observed T and F factor between individuals and the estimation of the personality of organization have shown the existence of a negative correlation on the level p<0,05 between those who “think about things logically” and see the organization as “impersonal” (r = - 0,577; p =.049) while a negative correlation on the level p<0,05 with the estimation of the organization in terms of “personal” and “close” is noticeable with those who “decide on the basis of personal feelings and valuating even if it is not logical” (r = - 0,577; p = .049). These results could lead to a conclusion that in the case of people with a dominant rational preference but also of those with a noticeable sensitive preference, the expectations about organizational culture which they belong to failed to some extent. Concerning these factors, an excerpt from the correlational matrix showed a high correlation between people who “could neglect or hurt the feelings of other people, by not always being aware of that” (T factor) and the estimation of “impersonal” organization (on level p<0,01; r = 0,707; p =.000) and also the same correlation between people (F factor) who are “aware of other people’s feelings” and the estimation in terms of “personal” and “close”. Conclusion On the basis of the appliance of the MBTI model and typological code for 16 personality types, and by the permutation of dichotomies of these four preferences that form the basis of the Myers model and the MBTI indicator, it is possible to determine a personality of an individual in an organization but also a profile of the organization. Using the results obtained by the appliance of this wide-spread and cross-culturally tested indicator it is possible to define profiles of organizations and employed individuals, determine characteristic strengths and weaknesses, work climate, communication styles, types of managing and according to recognition of a dominant profile, influence the improvement of the work quality of an individual and the whole organization. Summarizing the results obtained in this research it is possible to conclude that while making pairs and teams who need to solve everyday tasks should give allowance to the implementation of the principle of complementarity and not homogamy, as the resemblance of profiles often leads to conflicts and bad results. At the same time, the preference of central characteristics: extroverted-introverted, sensory-intuitive, thinkingfeeling and judging-observing profiles (represented by the letters E-I, S-N, T-F and J-P) strongly influence the estimation of the personality of organization but also individual projections of the employees and the profile of the organizational culture. This inner and outer movement of the organizational culture does not necessary have to be determined by the nature of organization but also by individual and group influences of employees. At the same time we can draw a conclusion that it is possible to expect constantly present individual and group frustrations and dissatisfaction by the organizational climate if the individuals with the dominant extroverted characteristics on one hand or introverted characteristics on the other hand (same with the factors S-N, T-F and J-P) do not recognize the dominance of the similar characteristic in the organization they work for. 250 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Reference Alić, A. (2009). Primjena MBTI indikatora u procesu ocjenjivanja kvaliteta nastavnog osoblja i organizacione culture. Quality 2009, godina VI, broj 1. (str. 191-196) Berens, L., Nardi, D. (1999). The Sixteen Personality Types – Descriptions for Self-discovery. California: Telos Publications. Fakete, S., Keith, L. (2003). Companies Are People, Too. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J., (2005). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. McGraw-Hill books. Hofstede, G.H. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. London: Sage Publications, Imc. Jex, S.M. (2002). Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-practitioner Approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Jovanović-Božinov, M. and others (2003). Organizaciono ponašanje. Beograd: Megatrend. Kaluzniacky, E. (2004). Managing Psychological Factors in Information System Work: An Orientation to Emotional Intelligence. London: Information Science Publishing. Schneider, B., Smith, D. (2004). Personality and Organizational Culture; In: Schneider, B., Smith, D. (Eds.) (2004). Personality and Organizations. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 251 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 704 Title A name given to the resource The Relations among Individual and Organization by Method of the Myers- Briggs Personality Indicator Author Author Alić, Amel Abstract A summary of the resource. Personality type is a concept which, in the field of research of the organizational culture, could be related to the Briggs & Myers model of personality development. Briggs and Myers were the authors of the world’s most extensive database of the MBTI or the Myers-Briggs personality type indicators. Today, the appliance of the MBTI model is supported by the observation of typological code for 16 types of personalities, while dichotomy of these four preferences results in 16 types of personality that form the base of the Myers model and the MBTI indicator. Based on the observation of a typological code for 16 personality types and by permutation of dichotomies of these four preferences, 16 personality types which form the base of the Myer’s model and the MBTI indicator were defined. Nowadays, it is well-known, that dominance of personality types among individuals, as well as among personality types of organizations, could vary from culture to culture. On the basis of these researches it was confirmed that specific quality of a culture and characteristics of the climate in which the culture has been developing (specific beliefs, system of values and patterns of behavior) determine the way in which the organizational culture will develop and the directions which it will follow. They also define the relations between an individual and an organization, among individuals, especially in the sense of defining freedoms, rights and power relations. The aim of this research is to investigate the possibility of appliance of the MBTI personality indicators, to both, individuals and school organizations. Using the results of this widespread and cross-culturally applied indicator, it is possible to establish a unique profile of schools and individuals employed there. It is also possible to establish characteristic strengths and weaknesses, work environment, communication styles, management types, and by recognizing a dominant profile, it is possible to influence the improvement of the work quality of an individual and of the whole school organization. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)