280 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7d1a7dc04c2b6ce5ef9ef7de2f8ab3cd.pdf 2847d62263f1c74d7df342b73cf396cc PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Investigation of Development Indicators in the Balkan Countries for the Post-Socialist Period Fatih ÇELEBİOĞLU Dumlupınar University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Kütahya, TURKEY fcelebi@dumlupinar.edu.tr ABSTRACT Since the collapse of central economic planning in the world, former Iron Curtain Countries have been changing as social, economic and political structures. Some former socialist countries (such as Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full members of the EU. Some Balkan countries (such as Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia) lived through difficult war years. After the wars, they have started to struggle for the economic, social and political reconstruction process. Each country in the Balkan Peninsula wants bigger real per capita income, a better welfare level, and generally to become a developed country. But these countries have some political, economic and social problems in the development process. The aim of this paper is to analyze Balkan countries in terms of development indicators such as per capita GDP, population growth, life expectancy, consumption potential, education, national income and income distribution in the period of the 2000’s. In addition, new suggestions for accelerating the development process will be discussed at the end of the study. Keywords: Balkan Countries, Development, Development Indicators Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 111 �Fatih ÇELEBİOĞLU Introduction The Balkan Peninsula is an important area, having witnessed important historical and political experiences and incidents for ages. But it has been living through a historical alteration in recent decades. Although some Balkan countries (such as Turkey and Greece) were relatively stable in the 1990’s, there was war in Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia. Some former socialist countries (Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full members of the EU. The others have been struggling toward this goal. Although Kosovo declared independence in 2008, many countries have not accepted this situation. Nevertheless the Balkan Peninsula is in a relatively stable condition nowadays, compared with the last ten years. All the Balkan Countries, especially those which have gained independence in recent decades, want to become rapidly developed. But all Balkan countries have some political, economic and social problems in this process. After a long war and an unstable political period, the Balkans has now seized the opportunity for their development process. This region has been gaining stable structures over time and this stable period has been supporting development indicators. In this paper, the Balkan countries will be analyzed in terms of development indicators such as education, population, national income and income distribution in the 2000’s. Conceptual Analysis of Development1 Since World War II, one of the important discussion subjects has been development. However, generally the development concept is accepted as a problem of underdeveloped countries. Underdeveloped countries which have not gone through the industrial revolution do not experience the evolution process that it brings, and do not fulfill the necessities of the development process. Development is used sometimes instead of concepts such as improvement, modernization, structural changing, and industrialization. This semantic shift complicates the definition of the development concept. According to Peet and Hartwick (2009:1), development as a better life for most people means, essentially, meeting basic needs: sufficient food to maintain good health; a safe, healthy place in which to live; affordable services available to everyone; and being treated with dignity and respect. Anther definition of development is innovative changes resultant in the socio-economic structure of a country. It can be understood from these definitions that development is related not only to economic paradigms but also social life, health systems, educational and vocational structures, democracy, freedoms, human rights etc. For this reason, it is multidimensional and it extends over a very long time. Development is also related to economic growth. A stable economic growth process is very important for development. Unstable economic conditions negatively affect this process. On this point, a stable economic structure comes into question. When there is a stable economic structure, economic growth supports the development process. This concept is more important for developing countries. For example, Turkey had big problems with unstable economic and political structures in the 1970’s and 1990’s. Also, almost all the Balkans experienced unstable political and economic periods in the 1990’s. 112 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Investigation of Development Indicators in the Balkan Countries for the Post-Socialist Period There are also new approaches to the development concept. The most important of these belongs to Amartya Sen, who won the Nobel Economics Prize in 1998. Amartya Sen (1993:3) defines development “as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy”. Again according to SEN, development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states (Sen, 1993:3). The approach of Sen combines two important concepts: freedoms and development. Also he recommends developing freedoms before other indicators. Main Development Indicators For years, many indicators have been used by economists in order to explain different levels of development among countries. However, which indicators are the best explanatory indicators of development levels? We need to investigate indicators that are being used to explain the development process by international institutions such as the World Bank (especially World Development Indicators-WDI Online Database) and the UN (United Nations, especially UNDP-United Nations Development Programme, 2010a). The World Bank uses more than 331 indicators from the World Development Indicators (WDI) covering 209 countries. These indicators fall under 16 headings such as Agriculture & Rural Development, Infrastructure, Aid Effectiveness, Labor & Social Protection, Economic Policy and External Debt, Poverty, Education, Private Sector, Energy & Mining, Public Sector, Environment, Science & Technology, Financial Sector, Social Development, Health, and Urban Development (for details look at The World Bank, WDI Online Database). UNDP calculates the Human Development Index (HDI). HDI includes some special data such as life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rates, gross primary-secondary and tertiary enrolment, and GDP (gross domestic product) per capita (PPP - Purchasing Power Parity). HDI distinguishes three subgroups as developed (high development), developing (middle development), and underdeveloped (low development) countries. According to Map 1, Africa, Middle East, South Asia and some South American countries have big problems in terms of the level of human development. Especially in Africa, the level of human development is lower than other regions of the world. Map 1. World Map Indicating the Human Development Index Based On 2007 Data, Published On October 2009 Source: http://hdr.undp.org/en/, 25.04.2010 Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 113 �Fatih ÇELEBİOĞLU Again UNDP (United Nations Development Programme, 2010b) uses eight topics to determine the development level of each country (particularly developing countries): eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality and empower, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and develop a global partnership for development in scope of Millennium Development Goals (for details look at UN - Millennium Development Goals 2009 Report). Also, each country collects some data on development by using international standards. Hundreds of variables are used by official statistical institutions for this purpose. Some of these variables are per capita GDP, literacy rate, tertiary education, unemployment rate, urban population, population growth rate, public expenditure on education, number of doctor, electric power consumption, number of computer and internet users, final consumption expenditure, daily newspaper, fertility rate, foreign direct investment, life expectancy at birth, etc. Also the Human Development Index and Democracy Index2 are used to determine the level of development in a country. The next section offers an analysis of development indicators in the Balkan countries by using some of these variables. Analysis of Development Indicators for Balkan Countries In this section, the situation of Balkan countries in terms of some indicators of development will be investigated. But due to the wars and unstable political period in the Balkans, not all Balkan countries reached full independence in the same year. For this reason, we have data that has a different initial year for each country (especially in the 1990’s). This problem has been almost solved in the 2000’s. But Kosovo’s independence is not accepted by many countries. This situation complicates the comparison all Balkan countries. According to UNDP statistics, all Balkan counties (excluding Slovenia and Greece) are within the High Human Development classification. Slovenia and Greece are within the Very High Human Development classification (UN, 2009). According to current economic development literature, the best indicator of development is value of per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in a country. Mostly Balkan countries have low per capita GDP. For example Albania had $1677 per capita GDP in 2007; Bosnia and Herzegovina had $2044; Bulgaria had $2401; Macedonia had $2061; Montenegro had $2269; Romania had $2595 and Serbia had $1780. Exclusively Greece ($15052), Croatia ($5794), Slovenia ($13333) and Turkey ($5053) had relatively bigger per capita GDP than the aforementioned countries’ (see Chart 1). It is possible that the global crisis in 2008-2009 and the financial crisis in Greece have changed these figures. The other important indicator of development is final consumption expenditure (% of GDP). High levels of final consumption expenditure (% of GDP) refer low level or intermediate product expenditure, capital goods (% of GDP) in a country. According to Chart 2, we can say that especially Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia and partially Albania have high level final consumption expenditures. These countries also have low level saving rates. For this reason the investment amount 114 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Investigation of Development Indicators in the Balkan Countries for the Post-Socialist Period in these countries is lower than in the other Balkan countries. Education3 level is a very effective indicator of development. Literacy rates are very close to percent 100% (excluding Turkey). Turkey has 88.66%. This figure shows that Turkey is the worst country in terms of literacy rate in the Balkans (see Chart 3). Another important variable is life expectancy at birth. According to Chart 4, Greece has the best figures with 79.7 years. Turkey has the lowest number with 71.8 years. Life expectancy level in the Balkans is on average lower than in the Euro area (80.4 years) and higher than the world average (68.7 years). Population growth rate is very slow in the Balkans. Especially Bosnia & Herzegovina (-0.14), Bulgaria (-0.48), Croatia (-0.04), Romania (-0.16) and Serbia (-0.43) have negative level population growth figures (see Chart 5). Others (excluding Turkey and Slovenia) have figures very close to zero. This situation is dangerous for the coming years. The demographic structure will be very old in the next decades. This can bring social security problems similar to those of Germany and the other Western European countries. Nowadays foreign direct investment (FDI)4 has been accepted by many countries as a fact of the development process. When Chart 6 is investigated, we can see that Serbia (3.95) and Slovenia (3.34) have the best figures of foreign direct investment (FDI). Macedonia has the lowest FDI with (-0.01). The lowest value of per capita electric power consumption is in Albania with 976.1 kWh. The highest value is in Slovenia (7123.5 kWh). Greece has the second highest value of per capita electricity power consumption with 5372.1 kWh (see Chart 7). In order to comprehend the relation between electric consumption and development, Yuan et al. (2007) can be consulted. Unemployment5, as a percentage of the total labor force, is an important indicator of economic development. Macedonia (36.02%) and Bosnia & Herzegovina (31.09%) had very high unemployment figures in 2006. The third highest unemployment figure is in Serbia with 20.84%. But the global crisis may have changed these figures in the Balkan countries as it has in the world generally. For example, the unemployment figure is 14% in Turkey in 2009 (see Chart 8). Income distribution6 is another considerable variable of development. The highest value of the GINI index is in Turkey with 43.2. Macedonia (39.0), Bosnia & Herzegovina (35.8) and Greece (34.3) respectively follow Turkey. Croatia has the lowest value of the GINI Index with (29.0). The share of the poorest 10% of population in the GDP is in Turkey with 1.9%. Again Turkey has the highest value in terms of the share of the richest 10% of the population in the GDP with 33.2%. The highest share of income in the poorest 10% is in Croatia (3.6%) and the lowest share of income in the richest 10% is also in Croatia with (23.1%). We can say that Croatia has the best figures in the Balkans in terms of income equality (see Table 1). Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 115 �Fatih ÇELEBİOĞLU Table 1. Share of Income or Expenditure (%) and Inequality Measures in Balkan Countries in 2007 Share of income or Inequality measures expenditure (%) Poorest 10% Richest 10% Richest 10% to poorest 10% Gini Index Greece 2.5 26.0 10.2 34.3 Slovenia 3.4 24.6 7.3 31.2 Croatia 3.6 23.1 6.4 29.0 Bulgaria 3.5 23.8 6.9 29.2 Romania 3.3 25.3 7.6 31.5 Albania 3.2 25.9 8.0 33.0 Macedonia 2.4 29.5 12.4 39.0 Bosnia & Herz. 2.8 27.4 9.9 35.8 Turkey 1.9 33.2 17.4 43.2 Note 1: The GINI index lies between 0 and 100. A value of 0 represents absolute equality and 100 absolute inequalities. Note 2: Data was compiled from UNDP Human Development Index Industrial production index is frequently used an indicator of development. When the industrial production index values of Balkan countries are investigated, Romania (120.6) has the highest value of industrial production index and Greece (101.1) has the lowest value (see Table 2). It is interesting that Serbia has lost industrial production capacity, because Serbia had 113.1 index values in 1998, but Serbia had a 108.6 score in 2007. Also Greece has lost production capacity. Besides, we haven’t got Albania’s index value. Table 2. Industrial Production index (2005=100) in Balkan countries 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Albania 97.0 111.5 124.8 100.0 110.7 86.6 81.9 .. .. .. Bosnia & Herz. 53.7 59.3 64.8 72.8 79.6 83.3 94.4 100.0 107.4 117.3 Bulgaria .. .. 68.6 70.0 73.3 82.9 93.5 100.0 106.0 116.2 Croatia 80.5 79.5 80.7 85.5 89.7 92.7 95.6 100.0 104.1 109.3 Greece 95.1 95.1 100.8 98.7 99.3 99.8 100.8 100.0 100.8 103.4 Montenegro 91.4 84.4 87.6 87.0 87.5 89.6 101.9 100.0 101.0 101.1 Romania 76.3 74.4 97.0 100.8 100.9 100.5 102.9 100.0 109.3 120.6 Serbia 113.1 84.1 93.7 93.8 95.5 92.6 99.2 100.0 104.7 108.6 Slovenia 81.6 81.1 86.2 88.7 90.9 92.1 96.6 100.0 105.7 113.3 Turkey 77.8 74.9 79.4 72.5 79.4 86.3 94.7 100.0 105.8 110.6 Explanation: Data comes from UNECE Statistical Division Database, compiled from national and international (CIS, EUROSTAT, IMF, OECD) official sources. 116 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Investigation of Development Indicators in the Balkan Countries for the Post-Socialist Period Economic indicators are necessary, but not by themselves sufficient for the comparison of all the Balkan countries. For this reason we need other pointers. We investigate Human Development Index values and Democracy Index values for Balkan countries. Table 3 shows HDI ranks and values for Balkan countries in 2003 and 2009. The highest value belongs to Greece with 0.892 and its rank in HDI was 24 in 2003. Again Greece has the highest values of human development index with 0.942 and its rank is 25 in the world in 2009. Turkey (0.806) has the lowest value of HDI in 2009 and its HDI rank was 79. When 2009 ranks are compared with 2003, Greece, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia & Herzegovina lost their former positions. But Croatia, Romania, Albania and Turkey obtained better positions. Table 3. Situation of Balkan countries in Human Development Index Values Greece 24 Human development index value 2003 0.892 Slovenia 29 0.881 29 0.929 Croatia 47 0.818 45 0.871 Bulgaria 57 0.795 61 0.840 Romania 72 0.773 63 0.837 Montenegro - - 65 0.834 Serbia - - 67 0.826 Albania 95 0.735 70 0.818 Macedonia 60 0.784 72 0.817 Bosnia & Herz. 66 0.777 76 0.812 Turkey 96 0.734 79 0.806 Country Name HDI rank in 2003 HDI rank in 2009 Human development index value 2009 25 0.942 Explanation: Data was compiled from UNDP Human Development Report 2009 (calculating with 2007 values) and UNDP Human Development Report 2003 (calculating with 2001 values) Another important subject for development is the democracy level in country. We can investigate the democracy index to understand this relation. The Democracy Index is calculated by The Economist Intelligence Unit based on the answers to 60 questions for 167 countries (EIU, 2008). According to Table 4, Greece is the strongest democracy in the Balkans. According to Table 4, the weakest democracy in the Balkans belongs to Turkey. While Greece and Slovenia have full democracy; Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina and Turkey have hybrid regimes. This situation is generally parallel to economic development levels. Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 117 �Fatih ÇELEBİOĞLU Table 4. Democracy Index (2008) Country Name Rank in the Index Kind of Democracy Greece 22 Full Democracy Slovenia 30 Full Democracy Romania 50 Flawed Democracy Croatia 51 Flawed Democracy Bulgaria 52 Flawed Democracy Serbia 63 Flawed Democracy Montenegro 65 Flawed Democracy Macedonia 72 Flawed Democracy Albania 81 Hybrid Regime Bosnia & Herz. 86 Hybrid Regime Turkey 87 Hybrid Regime Explanation: Data comes from The Economist, Economist Intelligence Unit Score 8.13 7.96 7.06 7.04 7.02 6.49 6.43 6.21 5.91 5.70 5.69 When Democracy Index (2008) values are accommodated in the Map 2 for each country, lighter colors show more democratic countries and darker areas represent authoritarian countries. Especially North America and West Europe have lighter colors. Africa, the Middle East, and Asian countries have mostly darker colors. Balkan countries have average values. After analysis of indicators in Balkan countries, we discuss how can accelerate the development process of Balkan countries in the next section. Map 2. World Map Indicating the Democracy Index (2008). Look at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index, 01.05.2010 118 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Investigation of Development Indicators in the Balkan Countries for the Post-Socialist Period Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 119 �Fatih ÇELEBİOĞLU Discussion of the Development Process in Balkan Countries When the special position of the Balkans (multicultural, multi-religious and multi-ethnic) is considered, it is quite difficult to offer new suggestions. Even so, we explain some ideas for the Balkan countries below. The Balkans has had important problems throughout its history. Especially after the Ottoman Empire, an unstable politic and economic life began in all the Balkan Peninsula. With socialism, there came a relatively stable political and economic life. However, after the collapse of socialism, war, blood, tears, and unstable politic and economic life came back to the Balkans. Nowadays the Balkans has been living more stable days. We know that development is closely related to stable politic and economic structures. For this reason, the first and the most important stage are strengthening of the stabilization process. To strengthen the stabilization process, first of all, the European Union’s full membership process should be accelerated for Balkan countries that are not members of the EU. Secondly, by considering the ethnic, religious and cultural structures of the region, bilateral goodwill (bona fides) agreements should be signed among countries. Thirdly, some countries in the region should play a part in this process as mediators. For example, Turkey invited the presidents of Bosnia & Herzegovina and Serbia to talk about the problems between the two countries last April. After that, all Balkan countries should be invited to international institutions. For example, Bosnia & Herzegovina was invited to NATO last April, 2010. The invitation of Bosnia & Herzegovina is necessary, but it is not enough by itself. For this reason, all Balkan countries that are not members of NATO should be invited. And by protecting cultural, ethnic and religion diversity, an interior peace law agreeable to different parts of society should be composed. EU trade policy should be accepted by all Balkan countries. Free trade should also be improved in the Balkans. Tariffs and other arrangements should be reciprocally dropped. Visa applications should be facilitated to improve trade among Balkan countries, especially for businessman and scientists. Bilateral trade agreements should be improved. Collective science, education and R&D agreements should be signed. A Balkan Commonwealth that includes all Balkan countries should be established in the near future. A substructure of information and communication technologies should be developed. Manufacture and service sectors should be supported by governments. Productivity levels of industry should be accrued. To support industrial production, transfer of technology should be allowed. Barriers to foreign direct investment should be decreased. A tax system with progressive rates should be established to decreasing GINI Index and social benefits for poor populations should be improved. A banking system should be developed and its trustworthiness level should be boosted. Barriers to touristic travel should be diminished. Especially visa application should be facilitated. Countries that have insufficient capital for investment need foreign direct investment to accelerate economic development. For this, foreign direct investment for whole sectors should be allowed. Democratic reforms such as human rights, constitutional state, economic freedoms, and freedom of thought should be carried out, particularly in Turkey, Albania, and Bosnia & Herzegovina. A bigger part of budgets should go to education and productive investment. 120 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Investigation of Development Indicators in the Balkan Countries for the Post-Socialist Period When compared with developed countries, Balkan countries (excluding some full members of the EU such as Greece and Slovenia) have important problems in economic development. Many countries in this region have less level GDP figures. Also human development and democratic levels are not sufficient. Nowadays, the Balkan Peninsula has some opportunities related to the development process after the war and an unstable politic and economic life. These opportunities can be realized in the forthcoming periods. But this is depends on better orientation and management of economic, politic and social processes. Also, protecting and improving the stabilization process will be important in the next decades. It is a reality that war and unstable politic and economic conditions encourage backwardness, poverty and anti-democratic applications of governments. Conversely, peace, trade, and stable politic and economic life will cause better conditions for all nations in the Balkans. References Chen C, Chang L., Zhang Y. (1995) The Role of Foreign Direct Investment in China’s Post-1978 Economic Development. World Development. Volume 23. Issue 4. April. pp 691-703. Foster J. and Sen A. (1997) On Economic Inequality. Oxford University Press. New York. Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=develop&searchmod e=none, 08.04.2010. Özay M. (1995) Employment Creation and Green Development Strategy. Ecological Economics. Volume 15. Issue 1. October. pp. 11-19 Peet R. and Hartwick E. (2009) Theories of Development: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives, 2nd edition, The Guilford Press, New York. Przeworski A. & Alvarez M.E. & Cheibub J.A. & Limongi F. (2000). Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. CambridgeUniversity Press. Saviotti P.P. and Pyka A. (2004) Economic Development, Qualitative Change and Employment Creation. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics. Volume 15. Issue 3. September. pp. 265-287. Self S. and Grabowski R. (2003) Education and Long-run Development in Japan. Journal of Asian Economics. Volume 14. Issue 4. August. pp. 565-580. Sen A. (1999) Development as Freedom, Oxford University Press, New York. The Economist Intelligence Unit –EIU (2008), Democracy Index, http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy%20 Index%202008.pdf, 01.05.2010 The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Statistical Division Database, http://www.unece.org/stats/stats_h.htm, 24.04.2010 Volume 1 Number 1 January 2011 121 �The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator, 22.04.2010 The World Bank, WDI (World Development Indicators) Online Database UN (2009), The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009, New York. UNDP (2003), Human Development Report 2003, Oxford University Press, New York. UNDP (2009), Human Development Report 2009, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. UNDP (2010a). Human Development Reports, http://hdr.undp.org/en/, 25.04.2010 UNDP (2010b). Human Development Statistics, http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/, 18.04.2010 Yuan J., Zhao C., Yu S. and Hu Z. (2007) Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth in China: Cointegration and Co-Feature Analysis. Energy Economics. Volume 29. Issue 6. November. pp. 1179-1191. Endnotes Note 1: According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, Development concept was used for the first time in 1756, “an unfolding, from develop + -ment). Of property, with the sense “bringing out the latent possibilities” is from 1885. The meaning “state of economic advancement” is from 1902. The meaning “advancement through progressive stages” is from 1836. Note 2: See Przeworski et al. (2000). They investigate relations between democracy and development. Note 3: Self and Grabowski (2003) examine the relationship between education and long-term development. Note 4: See Chen C, Chang L., Zhang Y. (1995). They examine the role of FDI in China’s economic development process. Note 5: Özay (1995) analyzes the job-creating development concept. Also Saviotti and Pyka (2004) investigate the relationship between employment and development. Note 6: For detailed information about income inequality, see Foster and Sen (1997). In this study, Foster and Sen investigate measures of inequality. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1061 Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Development Indicators in the Balkan Countries for the Post-Socialist Period Author Author ÇELEBİOĞLU, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the collapse of central economic planning in the world, former Iron Curtain Countries have been changing as social, economic and political structures. Some former socialist countries (such as Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full members of the EU. Some Balkan countries (such as Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia) lived through difficult war years. After the wars, they have started to struggle for the economic, social and political reconstruction process. Each country in the Balkan Peninsula wants bigger real per capita income, a better welfare level, and generally to become a developed country. But these countries have some political, economic and social problems in the development process. The aim of this paper is to analyze Balkan countries in terms of development indicators such as per capita GDP, population growth, life expectancy, consumption potential, education, national income and income distribution in the period of the 2000’s. In addition, new suggestions for accelerating the development process will be discussed at the end of the study. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/41d0a502e24a19a2cd68ed7eaef7064e.pdf 8846493f05bd69b639bdcc80bd600f68 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic Organization Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS Management Faculty, Management Department Sakarya University, Esentepe Campus, Sakarya, Turkey rkutanis@sakarya.edu.tr Muammer MESCİ Akçakoca School of Tourism and Hotel Management Dogancılar Campus, Düzce University, Akçakoca, Duzce, Turkey muammermesci@duzce.edu.tr Zeynep ÖVDÜR Foreign Languages Department Preparatory School, Düzce University, Konuralp, DUZCE zeynepovdur@duzce.edu.tr Abstr ct learning performance of students. In order to reach this goal, the study’s theoretical frame has been designed including the issues of the locus of control (internal-external) under the framework of organizational behaviour and learning performance. In this research, quantitative research method is used by keeping in mind the scope and qualities of the topic. The scope of research is identified as all the students who continue to higher education. As the population of the research is adequate to study, it is not needed to identify extra sampling. The data of the research are gathered by the help of standardized survey technique. The locus of control levels of the subjects, who are going to take part in the research, are measured with The Scale of Internal-External Locus of Control developed by Rotter (1966) and Learning Scale developed by Güngör (2006). The gathered data are checked by the help of descriptive statistics techniques and multiple regression analysis by using SPSS program. At the end of the research it is concluded that learning performances of the students with internal locus of control are high, and they are more proactive and effective during the learning process. On the other hand, the ones with external locus of control are more passive and reactive during this period. Apart from these, it is revealed that there are some differences among students’ demographic groups and their learning factors. Key words: Locus of control; Learning performance; Academic organization Jel odes: D23, L2, L25 Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 113 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR Introduction In the globalizing and changing world, organizations need to adapt to new environmental conditions. To be successful in these new conditions, organizations need to create value for their customers. In our case that would be the students. It is important for the organizations to appreciate their students to have better position than rivals. In order to acquire the information, produce and distinguish it in the organizations, information is required to be organized according to the needs of the students, adopted, and evaluated by the organization. At this point, organizational learning has a considerable effect on increasing the success of the organizations. Rotter (1966) defines the locus of control, in his Social Learning Theory, as the reinforcements which are basic markers of individual’s attitudes in the long term. The concept of locus of control has an essential place in literature in helping students who have difficulty in learning and attitude. Locus of control is one of the vital concepts in the context of learning difficulty and attitude change. This concept covers the idea that individuals, throughout their lives, analyse the events as their attitudes or they believe that those events result from chance, fate or outside forces (Erdogan, 2003). Rotter (1966), in his study regarding Social Learning Theory, ascertains that some students display the prizes or reinforcements gained as a result of their knowledge and abilities while some other students display the forces out of their control. Rotter (1966), basing on his study, expresses the situations in which reinforcements occur according to the attitudes of the individuals as individuals’ locus of control. Whereas he assesses the situations, after which reinforcements occur out of the individuals’ attitudes, as the individuals’ external locus of control. Internal or external locus of control plays an important role for students to sustain the efficacy and usefulness of learning performance. The knowledge and experiences gained by the students by means of organizational learning are a vital factor in increasing student performance. In this context, it is necessary for organizations to fulfil learning function in an arrangement and to use this function oriented to the improvement of the students. This study determines whether University students have the internal or external locus of control; furthermore, which locus of control they possess in the learning period. To sum up, it will be observed what kind of an effect locus of control has on learning performance. For these reasons, the issues of locus of control (internal-external) and learning performance have been given place in this study. 114 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic In this research, it is tried to answer the research questions as stated below. These questions have been designed to describe the relationships between locus of control and learning performance. These questions are as in the following; Research Question 1: What are the factors of participants’ learning processes? Research Question 2: Is there any difference between demographic groups and learning factors’ means? Research Question 3: Is there any relationship between learning factors’ means and locus of control (internal and external factors)? Literature Review Locus of control refers to one’s belief in his or her abilities to control life events (Strauser, 2002). In other words, locus of control is defined as one’s thoughts of his/her belief that his/her own power or forces out of his/her control are influential in any positive or negative situation occurring during his/her life (Sardogan, 2006). The belief of locus of control is related to what reinforcements have happened throughout the individuals’ lives, namely the results, prizes, their success or failures, refer to. These attributions refer not only to chance, fate, and powerful people out of one’s control, but also to the results of his/her own attitudes (Basım and Sesen, 2006). While one’s control on his/her own life dependent on chance, fate and powerful people is explained as external control; maintaining the individual control over one’s life on his/her own is described as the internal control (Rotter, 1966). When environmental conditions are not sufficient to explain individuals’ success or failures, locus of control can facilitate in making these situations clear. For instance, individuals may sometimes perceive good and bad events in different ways. To mention that these different ways are based on external and internal forces (Taylor, 2006). The individuals, who have the internal locus of control, think that they have a big role on affecting the events which influence their lives. Furthermore, they assess themselves as possessing the power for the attitude they want to display by having the positive ego concept, and they believe that they can direct their lives whatever way they desire (Gülveren, 2008). Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 115 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR The individuals with external locus of control relate the events affecting their lives to perceptions such as chance, fate, and fortune which are out of their control. Additionally, they believe that the events affecting their lives cannot be predicted and controlled (Kücükkaragöz, 1998). Individuals with internal locus of control are careful, alert, dominant, focused on success, self-confident, and ingenious. On the other hand, the individuals with external locus of control are less careful, affected by the group members, easily influenced by external forces, less self-confident, and they display unsteady performances (Rotter, 1975). Individuals lay out two control attitudes as internal and external by considering that the reinforcements they have from their previous experiences result from their own attitudes or external forces (Cetin, 2008). The differences between internal and external locus of control according to the qualities of an individual are shown in Table 1 below. Table 1. The differences among the individuals with external and internal locus of control Variables Internal Locus of Control External Locus of Control Abilities he individuals with internal locus he individuals with external locus of control have a tendency to of control prefer the activities in choose the activities in which they which they can show the role of can display their abilities. chance on their lives. hey feel that they are responsible for their own decisions, and they Responsibility perceive that their fate is not affected by the factors out of their control, but by their own decisions. They try to increase good conditions in their life; on the other hand they make an effort to reduce the level of bad conditions. heir belief that they have the control over their fate prevents them from getting suspicious of the changing period since they feel responsible for their own actions. hey usually view change as a danger as they do not feel the control of the forces affecting their lives. hey prefer to be at a status where they can be passive in case of a change. Change 116 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic Environment hey use more control in their environment and they display a better learning performance. When the information is about their own hey display fewer compliance conditions, they actively search for attitudes than individuals with new information. Also, they use internal locus of control. the information better if they are in need of solving a complicated problem. Stress t can be concluded that possessing he employees with external locus internal locus of control can help of control cannot cope with the employees cope with the stress and stress and difficulties in a proper other difficulties in business. way. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction of individuals with internal locus of control is higher than a person with external locus of control. They can do better business and they benefit or get prizes in return. hey tend to improve or progress faster and get more wages. xternal locus of control has a negative correlation with job satisfaction; however it is in a positive correlation with mental and physical health. Work Motivation They mostly believe that their efforts will end with a good performance. They are more self confident and they trust their abilities. They have more expectation that their good performances will be awarded and they tend to perceive that their status in business is more proper and fair. f there is no prize for performance, they do not have a different performance-prize expectation from the individuals with internal locus of control. Source: Demirkan, Selcan (2006:36). Table 1 presents the attitudes displayed by internal and external locus of control according to the behavioural qualities. In addition to Table 1, the external locus of control has two types. The first one is the proper locus of control. The individuals with proper locus of control have a more real rational for assessing their worlds, which are controlled externally. To illustrate, they make a little effort to make socioeconomic conditions better. The second locus of control is the defender locus of control. It has been seen that the individuals with this locus attempt to use external beliefs as a defence for the expected inadequacies. Additionally, one of the differ- Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 117 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR ences between the individuals with internal and external locus of control is the issue of looking for information about their environment. The people with internal locus of control have been observed to feel the need to acquire more information about their environment, and be more active to seek and achieve justice in social activities when compared with the ones with external locus of control (Demirkan, 2006). It is seen that the first empirical studies on locus of control in literature (Phares, 1957; James and Rotter, 1958) appeared to find an answer to the question of whether individuals’ expectations are related to their abilities or chance (Sardogan, 2006). In present literature there have been many studies on locus of control. Some of these studies have been presented in Table 2 below. Table 2. Studies conducted on locus of control Author(s) Year The Purpose of the Study The Method of the study Chen and Silverthorne o observe the effects of locus of control, work 2008 performance, job satisfaction, and stress scale on attitude Aube et. al. To test the effects of the perceived organizational support, work 2007 autonomy, the facets Quantitative of organizational participation (active, normative, etc.), and locus of control 118 Quantitative The Findings and the Results of the Research n scales of locus of control it has come out that performance, job satisfaction, and stress are effective in people’s responsibilities. Moreover, individuals with high internal control have high work performance, content and low stress. t has come out that there is a positive correlation between organizational support, and normative participation, and activities. lso, it has been concluded that locus of control and work autonomy have a considerable effect on organizational support and active participation. Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic Quantitative t the end of the research, it has come to a conclusion that the individuals with internal locus of control mostly use logical decision making strategy. t has been found that there is a negative and low correlation between logical decision making strategy and locus of control. t has also been revealed that the individuals with internal locus of control use logical decision making strategies more than ones with external locus of control and they encounter less hesitation. Basım and Sesen o analyse the tendency of the 2006 locus of control to Quantitative display assisting and courtesy attitudes It has been identified that most of the participants who have been subjects of the study have the internal locus of control; they also have more tendencies to show help and courtesy attitudes when compared to the ones with external locus of control. Sardogan et. al. To observe the effect of 10-session Human Relations Skills 2006 Education Program Quantitative on University students’ levels of locus of control t the end of the study, it has been concluded that 10-session Human Relations Skills Program is effective on the locus of control levels of the university students. o examine the decision making strategies used by 2006 the individuals with different locus of control. Coban and Hamamcı Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 119 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR Selart Chiu et. al. 120 o research whether locus of control has 2005 an effect on decision Quantitative making periods of the organizations t has been determined that the managers with low internal locus of control have more tendencies to consult to group decision than the ones with high locus of control do. Additionally, the managers with external locus of control take the role of participant in decision making more than the ones with low internal locus of control. To assess the effect of internal and 2005 external locus of control on the locus of control t has been concluded that the individuals with internal locus of control are affected by the labour turnover rate and work content in the organization more than the ones with external locus of control. urthermore, people with external locus of control rather than the ones with internal locus of control are influenced by the stress on organizational participation and work content. Quantitative Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic Patten o look into the difference and correlation between internal control and work content, 2005 Quantitative also between work performance and the locus of control variable on an individual t has been ascertained that internal locus of control has a close relation with the internal facet of locus of control. considerable difference between individuals with internal control and the ones with external control in terms of the level of work content has hardly been seen. part from these, internal controls have been in a clear contradiction between the locus of control and the structure of control they perceive, and this leads to significantly lower work content. Klein and Warnet o observe whether locus of control affects the 2000 experiences of individuals in their lives he results of the study have shown that the internal facet of locus of control plays an important role in influencing the experiences in people’s lives. Quantitative In Table 2, the studies of literature related to locus of control are presented. The effects of the internal and external facets of locus of control on individuals’ attitudes have been observed in the studies. At the end of the study, it has been ascertained that internal locus of control has a much bigger impact on individuals than the external locus of control. Moreover, it has been emphasized that the individuals with internal locus of control have more active work motivation and portray more effective work performance; they have also more control on the environment. Additionally, the individuals with external locus of control have been determined to have higher work content about their colleagues than the ones with internal locus of control. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 121 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR Learning Performance in the Context of Locus of Control Learning is a process during which information repository is processed, acquired, and emerged in a short time to make new information (Morales, 2009). It is necessary to give importance to learning levels in order to perform the learning period actively (Tajeddini, 2009). Learning levels are essential in that they can contribute to the effective and useful flow of the learning period. Mentioning about learning, apart from behavioural and cognitive changes, one or more of these situations are accepted to be sufficient (Ogütveren, 2000, cited in. Avcı, 2005); • The person knows or understands an idea or a concept which he/she didn’t know before. • The person can conduct the attitudes that he/she couldn’t do before or he/she possesses the abilities and skills which he/she didn’t have. • The person combines different information, ability, concept, and attitude which he/she had before with a new point of view. • The person can understand new information, concepts and ways of attitudes. Organizational learning is necessary for creating and developing value in organizations (Pham and Swierczek, 2006). Organizational learning is a period during which the information, aiming at developing skills and resources to contribute to the performance of organization, is united, acquired, and put forward. For this reason, it is crucial for organization learning to occur in order to achieve organizational performance (Perez et. al., 2005). In learning how to learn, the members of the organization consider the previous examples of the learning or learning failures and try to question and investigate them. In this period, what makes learning easy or prevents it is by focusing on learning. To be brief, new learning strategies are struggled to be produced (Yazıcı, 2001). The organizations which learn in an atmosphere full of indefiniteness, play an essential role on using the information in the most effective way, extending this information to the whole organization, practicing it, and taking place again in learning process by acquiring required results (Kutanis, 2002). In the last decade learning performance has become a crucial concept owing that to the importance of factors such as the qualities of leaders, the impact of global environment, information, labour, and technology in Organizations (Molina and Callahan, 2009). In literature, so many studies determined that there is a positive correlation between learning and performance (Michna, 2009). Learning brings benefits for the organization if it is performed by all members. It is required to develop a culture of 122 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic continuous learning, taking responsibility, gaining value constantly, focusing on flexibility and adapting to increase the effectiveness of the organizational learning. The purpose of organizational learning is to increase performance of the organization in the future and to produce new information which is going to change the attitudes of the employees of the organization (Kuru, 2007). Organizational learning includes the period of learning during which they continuously develop their abilities, new and detailed idea patterns, free totalitarian desires and discover how to learn cooperatively (Senge, 1990, cited in. Weldy, 2009). Limpibunterng and Johri (2009) emphasize that improving organization’s performance is considerably dependent on improving learning skills in organizations. As explained by “Social Learning Theory”, learning is completely resulted from neither internal forces emerging psychologically in individuals nor the changes coming of external forces. “Learning” is a period coming out mainly as a consequence of interaction of personal and environmental factors (Gür, 2008). Teaching can be described as a series of learning experiences. In this context, teaching is the collection of activities conducted for students to learn. All the planned learning periods are prepared for students to learn. Learning may sometimes be only a transfer of information and in the manner that contributes to the student’s emotional and social development (Güngör, 2006). It is necessary to assess to what extent learning has occurred. By the help of assessment method, students’ communication skills, behavioural skills, conceptual learning, affective characteristics can be measured. The qualities of a good assessment can be ranged as below (Günay, 2008); • The data collected at the end of the assessment should be used to identify, understand and solve the problems of the student and learning process, • The teacher should be given the chance to evaluate student’s academic success, • Students should be given self-assessment by using the data collected for the assessment, • Many assessment activities should assist in planning and applying the education. Although the first studies on organizational learning have been directed to explain what organizational learning is, later studies have generally been aimed at giving light to how organizations can turn into learning organizations (Avcı, 2010). For instance; Bayraktaroğlu and Kutanis (2003) have pointed out that factors such as change of mentality among managers, supporting new information, creation throughout the organization, developing a shared vision and producing proper learning conditions are highly important to create the climate of learning organizations in hotels which can be categorize as big. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 123 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR Data and Methodology The purpose of this study is to identify what kind of effect locus of control has on students’ learning performance. In addition to this, it has been investigated whether students’ demographic qualities create a difference between their attitude proposals about locus of control and learning performance. Quantitative research method was used to reach the goals of the research. The research included all the students educating at the School of Tourism and Hotel Management which received the bachelor’s degree. The number of students educated in the academic year 2009-2010 at School of Tourism and Hotel Management who were subjects of the study was 450. As the population was at an accessible level, full inventory method was used. For this reason, an additional sampling method was not used. In order to collect data, the survey technique was used. After having analyzed the literature in this context, a questionnaire was prepared to assess the participants’ locus of control levels by referring to Internal-External Locus of Control Scale developed by Rotter (1966) and Learning Scale by Güngör (2006). This new questionnaire was finalized by considering the ideas of two specialists in the field (one is an academician, and the other is the supervisor). The questionnaire consists of three parts. The first part is the statements which were designed to identify the students’ attitudes towards learning performance. The second part is the statements aimed at determining the students’ agreement about the considerations on students’ learning performances were ranked in the second part including a five-point Likert scale. Finally, there are some questions to analyse the participants’ demographic situations. After the preparation of the questionnaire, the next step was a pilot-study. In the pilot-study survey was conducted among 30 students in the period from 25th February 2010 to 28th February 2010. At the end of the pilot-study, the reliability of the data was measured and Cronbach alpha value of the gathered data was calculated as 0,74. At the end of the study, the general Cronbach alpha value of the data was found above 0,7 level mentioned by Nunnally (1967). Then, questionnaire was checked again by the academicians of related field and their ideas were taken into account. These means provided the content validity of the questionnaire. After this process, the survey was conducted among all students. While analysing the collected data, SPSS (Statistics Program for Social Sciences) 16.0 statistics program was used. Statistical terms such as percentage and frequency were 124 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic used to analyse the demographic data. Statistical analyses with Kruskal-Wallis and Mann Whitney U analysis methods were conducted in order to understand whether there were differences between participants’ demographic qualities and statements of attitudes. The reason why these analysis techniques were used is that data do not come from the normal distribution. Moreover, correlation criteria (crosstabs) were used to identify the relation between locus of control levels and factors of learning performance Empirical Results 302 of the total 450 distributed questionnaires were surely returned. This number builds up 67% of the population. The data of the participants about demographic questions were assessed by using frequency and percentage analysis. The findings about the assessment are presented in Table 3. Table 3. The results about demographic pattern Variable emale Gender Male otal 17-19 20-22 23–25 ge 26 and up otal Year irst Year econd Year hird Year ourth Year Repeat 151 151 302 34 200 61 7 % 50 50 100 11,3 66,2 20,2 2,3 302 100 76 124 57 37 7 25,2 41,1 18,9 12,3 2,3 Variable Regular High school he high natolian H. school ourism H. student graduated oreign Lang. . H. from otal Marmara Region entral natolia R. egean Region astern natolia R. Mediterranean R. he region where lack ea R. student lives outh- astern . R. 172 43 25 62 302 103 57 20 13 26 75 7 % 57 14,2 8,3 20,5 100 34,1 18,9 6,6 4,3 8,6 24,8 2,3 otal 301 99,7 When Table 3 is observed, it is understood that 50% of the students who have taken part in the study were female (151), and 50% were male. If we take students’ age group into consideration, one can see that 34 students (11,3%) are in the age of 17- Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 125 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR 19 and 200 students (66,2%) are between 20-22. When the grades of the students are analysed, it is comprehended that 124 students are (41,1%) at second grade, 37 students (12,3%) are at fourth grade and 7 students who are not able to graduate in four years. When we look at the high school that students had graduated from, we can notice that 172 students (57%) were regular high school students, 25 students (8,3%) graduated from tourism high school. Finally, when the regions where students live are analysed, it is confirmed that 103 students (34,1%) live in Marmara Region, 13 students (4,3%) live in Eastern Anatolia Region and 7 students (2,3%) live in South-Eastern Anatolia Region. As it can be seen in Table 4, the factors which are effective on participants’ learning processes are collected under seven titles, which are activity, perception, listening, abilities, imitation, reading and noticing. Variance (%) Average Secular Value Factors Factor Load Table 4. The table of factors about learning analysis results (n=302) The Dimension of Concentration 4,456 2,92 13,504 While I am studying, I often stop and do something else. ,778 I like sport activities at school and attend them. ,735 do what can for every event that can act and take part in them ,727 in class eachers think that move a lot in the classroom. ,718 talk too much in class. ,636 The Dimension of Perception and Understanding 3,052 4,13 9,247 hold every new thing in my hands and observe them. ,700 I learn by doing and practicing. ,625 I can understand better when I see things. ,619 I like the activities which I participate actively. ,612 quickly perceive things showed in maps, posters and diagrams. ,562 126 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic The dimension of listening 2,014 I like listening to book cassettes. ,750 like school songs very much and learn them quickly. ,657 like reading aloud. ,594 The dimensions of abilities 1,661 I like making practical jokes to my friends. ,756 I like music and rhythm to learn better. ,617 like doing things by using my hands. ,546 The Dimension of Method 1,631 I prefer telling to writing. ,768 like my teacher to correct my mistakes by explaining them to me. ,879 ’d rather listen to the teacher than study by myself. ,582 I understand a subject better if somebody tells or reads it, rather ,506 than reading it on my own. The Dimension of Reading 1,519 like reading novels. ,796 like to read silently. ,749 The Dimension of Noticing 1,243 always want to clean the board, opening/closing the windows or ,689 the door. I understand better if events and subjects are dramatized. ,599 My teachers and parents often tell me not to touch the objects. ,513 2,12 6,102 3,25 5,034 3,33 4,944 3,74 4,603 2,22 3,766 Notes: Varimax Basic Components Factor Analysis. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Sampling Efficiency: 70,7% For Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity X²: 1852,359; s.d: 528; p‹0000 for the whole scale Alpha; , 739; Total variance: 43,040%; The likert scale : 1:I totally disagree 5:I totally agree When the internal pattern of the activity factor is observed, it can be understood that the activities that have become prominent are stopping and doing something else while studying, liking and attending (the) sport activities, moving in the classroom and (involving) participating in every event and talking a lot in classes. When the internal pattern of perception factor is analyzed, factors that draw attention are: holding new things in hands and observing them, learning by doing and applying, making better sense of the things one sees, enjoying activities actively, perceiving things with maps, posters, and diagrams. When the internal pattern of listening factor is examined, it is perceived that the factors that are taken into account are: liking to listen to book cassettes, enjoying school songs and learning them quickly, and liking to read aloud. When the internal structure of ability factors is looked through, factors that become prominent are: love to make practical jokes to friends, enjoy music and rhythm to learn better, and liking to do something with hands. After the internal pattern of Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 127 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR imitating is studied, it has come out that elements that can be distinguished are: preferred telling to writing, wanting the teacher to correct(ing) mistakes by explaining, listening to the teacher instead of studying by himself/herself, favoring somebody else to tell or read something rather than reading it on his/her own. When the internal pattern of the reading factor is viewed, liking to read novels and silent reading takes the attention. Eventually, when the internal pattern of the noticing factor is looked into, the elements that stand out are: cleaning the board in the classroom, wanting to open/close the windows or the door, understanding better with dramatized events or subjects, and warning of the teachers and the parents. In this part it will be observed whether there are any differences between students’ demographic groups in terms of mean factor. In this context, in Table 5, KruskalWallis’s analysis was conducted whether there is a difference between classroom groups and factor means. Table 5. Kruskal-Wallis analysis was conducted with regard to whether there is a difference between students’ classroom groups and factor means Concentration hi- quare 17,736 df 4 symp. ig. ,001 Perception 6,152 4 ,188 Listening 7,352 4 ,118 Abilities 11,949 4 ,018 Method 1,641 4 ,801 Reading 3,988 4 ,408 Noticing 14,950 4 ,005 According to Table 5, regarding whether there are any differences between students’ classroom groups and factor means, the sign values which are lower than 0,05 show that the students have different opinion about learning dimensions. At the end of the analysis, it has been identified that there is a difference between concentration factor (,001), competence factor (,018), noticing dimensions (,005) and students’ continuing classroom group. Table 6. Kruskal-Wallis analysis concerning whether there are any differences between one of the students’ age groups and factor means Concentration hi- quare 5,457 df 3 symp. ig. ,141 128 Perception 1,169 3 ,760 Listening 6,089 3 ,107 Abilities 7,103 3 ,069 Method 1,877 3 ,598 Reading 3,336 3 ,343 Noticing 8,492 3 ,037 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic According to Table 6, regarding whether there are any differences between students’ age and factor means, the sign values which are lower than 0,05 show that the students have different opinion about learning dimensions. At the end of the analysis, it has been identified that there is a difference between student concentration dimensions (,037) and age groups. Table 7. Mann Whitney U analysis related to whether there is any difference between students’ sex groups and factors means. Concentration Perception Listening MannWhitney U Wilcoxon W symp. ig. (2-tailed) 9207,500 Abilities Method Reading 10441,000 11334,500 10526,500 10689,500 7794,500 Noticing 9635,500 20683,500 21917,000 22810,500 22002,500 22165,500 19270,500 21111,500 -3,051 -1,379 -,092 -1,231 -1,007 -4,977 -2,496 ,002 ,168 ,926 ,218 ,314 ,000 ,013 According to Table 7, whether there are difference between students’ sex and factor means, the sign values which are lower than 0,05 show that the students have different opinions about their learning dimensions. At the end of the analysis, it has been identified that there is a difference between concentration dimension (,002), reading dimension (,000), noticing dimension (,005) and student sex groups. In the research whether two of the factors of locus of control, internal and external locus of control, affect on learning factors, correlation coefficients (crosstabs) have been used to conduct the analysis. In this analysis affecting variable is independent and affected variable is dependent. In this study, internal locus of control and external locus of control are accepted as dependent variables; further, learning factors are defined as independent variables. Some correlation criteria were used while measuring the correlation among ordinal scale variables. Some of these criteria are Somer d, Kendall Tau b, Gamma and Spearman correlation coefficients. These ordinal scales are generally used to measure the linear relationship among variables. The coefficient gathered at the end of the analysis take a value between -1 and 1. If coefficient is 1, there is positive full relation. When it is -1, there is negative full relation (Ozdamar, 2003). While conducting work analysis in this context, correlation scales were used to make it clear whether internal and external locus of control has an impact on learning factors. Analysis has been done with the 5% relevance level. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 129 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR For this reason, assessments are: if the sign value is lower than 0,05 “differences exist (effect, correlations exist)”, if the sign value is higher than 0,05, “no difference (no effect, correlation)”. Table 8. The Correlation between locus of control and abilities factor Correlation Scale omer d endall au b endall au c Gamma Spearman correlation coefficient Geometrical verage (G. ) Coefficients ,115 ,116 ,134 ,201 ,125 ,130 Relevance ,028 ,028 ,028 ,028 ,030 According to Table 8, it has been concluded that the ability factor is not independent from locus of control (locus of control affects ability factor) as sign values of the correlation scales are lower than 0,05 (p=0,028‹0,05). Correlations coefficients also show that there is a positive and low degree correlation between locus of control and ability dimension. Table 9. The Correlation between locus of control and method factor Correlation Scales omer d endall au b endall au c Gamma Spearman correlation coefficient Geometrical verage (G. ) Coefficients -,103 -,104 -,119 -,183 -,111 -,112 Relevance ,049 ,049 ,049 ,049 ,049 According to Table 9, it has been concluded that method factor is not independent from locus of control (locus of control affects method factor) as sign values of the correlation scales are lower than 0,05 (p=0,049‹0,05). Correlations coefficients also show that there is negative and low degree correlation between locus of control and method dimension. 130 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic Table 10. The Correlation between locus of control and noticing factor Correlation Scales omer d endall au b endall au c Gamma Spearman correlation coefficient Geometrical verage (G. ) Coefficients -,105 -,106 -,122 -,185 -,114 -,123 Relevance ,043 ,043 ,043 ,043 ,043 According to Table 10, it has been concluded that noticing factor is not independent from locus of control (locus of control affects method factor) as sign values of the correlation scales are lower than 0,05 (p=0,043‹0,05). Correlations coefficients also display that there is negative and low degree correlation between locus of control and noticing dimension. Conclusion Locus of control focuses on ability to cope with uncertainty. While the individuals who have less tolerance resist to the change, the ones with high tolerance can adapt to the change more easily. Therefore, locus of control tries to identify the reaction given to change according to its status. If an individual can make self-control and has the belief that he/she is the dominant of his/her fate, he/she can give positive reactions to the change. Individuals are classified in two groups according to locus of control. The first group is internals, and the other is externals. The individuals with internal locus of control have the belief that they can monitor the events or situations with their own fate and they have a strong belief in themselves and their abilities in life. They believe that the reactions that they take from environment are the causes of their attitudes. On the other hand, the individuals with external locus of control relate the events and situations, success or failures to the factors not related to them. For example, they attribute success to backing; however, they base failure upon environmental factors (Kutanis, 2010; Sargut, 2001). Sargut (2001) states that there are some indicators illustrating in general that Turkish people have a tendency to be highly external. He highly relates these indicators avoiding uncertainty and the grade of being external in the examinations applied between students and the administration. At the end of our research, it Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 131 �Rana ÖZEN KUTANİS & Muammer MESCİ & Zeynep ÖVDÜR is understood that students generally have internal locus of control. Additionally, it has drawn a conclusion that the students with internal locus of control agree upon the ability, method, and noticing factors of the learning dimensions more when compared to the students with external locus of control. In the cultures where being internal is prevailing, individuals struggle to acquire the information about their work. These efforts greatly contribute to the settlement of the culture and increase of the efficacy. In the study conducted by Basım and Sesen (2006), it has been determined that most of the subjects had internal locus of control and individuals with internal locus of control had more tendencies to help and perform courteous attitudes when compared with the ones with external locus of control. Chen and Silverthorne (2008) have also mentioned that these qualities of the individuals with internal locus of control have considerable impact upon work performance and content levels. In our research, in the light of analysis regarding the effect of locus of control on students’ learning processes, it has been ascertained that locus of control has a vital influence on method, ability, and noticing factors of the learning dimensions. The findings of the research show similarities with the studies conducted by Basım and Sesen (2006) and Chen and Silverthrone (2008). Some analyses have been applied regarding whether there is any difference between students’ demographic groups and learning. At the end of the analysis of questioning whether there is any difference between, one of the students’ demographic groups, year and learning dimensions, it has come out that the students have different ideas between grade and the concentration, abilities, and noticing factors of learning. It has been researched why there is a difference between the students’ grades and concentration factors; also, it has been determined that first-year students and second-year students, and first grade students and repeaters do not share the same idea. When we observe where the difference between grades and abilities factors arise from it has been identified that second and first graders, third and first graders, and first and second graders think in different ways. It has been questioned where the difference between grade and noticing factors emerges from; and the result is that second graders and repeaters have different opinions. The analysis conducted on the difference among the students’ demographic groups, age and learning has shown that they think differently among students’ age and noticing factors. In which group this difference exists is analysed and it has been revealed that the students in the age group of 23-25 own various ideas. According to the analysis conducted on the difference between one of the students’ demographic groups, sex and learning, it has been ascertained that students have various ideas between their sex, concentration, reading, and noticing factors. Besides, it has been understood that the female students having taken part in the study have external locus of control while their male peers have internal locus of control. 132 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic In this study, the collected findings and the scales used are important contributions. The scales used in this study can be suitable for other organizations operating in different sectors. By means of those scales organizations will get the chance to make assessments and identify the fields where they will face a problem. Identification of the problematic fields and resolving them will help the successful application of locus of control and learning implementation. The second important contribution of the research is that the students with internal locus of control have got a bigger ratio than the ones with external locus of control. There are some constraints of the study. While assessing the finding of the study, these constraints should be considered. First of all, this study is conducted in a tourism college which gives bachelor’s degree. Some different findings may be reached in various Universities which give education in different regions and branches faculties/departments. Another constraint of the study is that it considers only University students. It can be suggested for researchers who are going to conduct studies that they can perform in-depth studies taking other Universities in different regions and fields into account. Moreover, it may be useful to compare the findings by conducting research studies about other Universities in different regions and fields. Finally, a study including the lecturers giving education to the students at University can be done. References Aube, C., Rousseau, V. and Morin, M. E. (2007). Perceived Organizational Support and Organizational Commitment The Moderating Effect of Locus of Control and Work Autonomy. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22 (5), 479-495. Avcı, U. (2005). The Relation Between Organizational Learning and Organizational Performance: An Investigation About The Relation Between Organizatıonal Learning and Organizational Performance In The Hospitality Industry. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Suleyman Demirel University, Social Sciences Institute, Isparta. 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Differentiation Between Cultures and Management (2th ed.). Ankara: Imge Publised. Sardogan E. M., Kaygusuz, C. ve Karahan, T. F. (2006). A Human Relations Skills Training Program, University Students’ Locus of Control Levels, Mersin University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 2 (2), 184-194. Selart, M. (2005). Understanding The Role Of Locus Of Control In Consultative Decision-Making: A Case Study. Management Decision, 43 (3), 397-412. Strauser, D. R., Ketz, K. and Keim, J. (2002). The Relationship Between SelfEfficacy, Locus of Control and Work Personality. Journal of Rehabilitation, 68, 20-26. Tajeddini, K. (2009). Perceptions of Learning Among Swiss Watch Managers. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21 (7), 525-537. Taylor, S. E., Peplau, A. L., and Sears, D. O. (2006). Social Psychology (12th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Weldy, G. T. (2009). Learning Organization and Transfer: Strategies for Improving Performance. The Learning Organization, 16 (1), 58-68. Yazıcı, S. (2001). Learning Organization. Istanbul: Alfa Publishing. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1072 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic Organization Author Author ÖZEN KUTANİS, Rana MESCİ, Muammer ÖVDÜR, Zeynep Abstract A summary of the resource. the purpose of this study is is to research what influences the locus of control has on the learning performance of students. In order to reach this goal, the study’s theoretical frame has been designed including the issues of the locus of control (internal-external) under the framework of organizational behaviour and learning performance. In this research, quantitative research method is used by keeping in mind the scope and qualities of the topic. The scope of research is identified as all the students who continue to higher education. As the population of the research is adequate to study, it is not needed to identify extra sampling. The data of the research are gathered by the help of standardized survey technique. The locus of control levels of the subjects, who are going to take part in the research, are measured with The Scale of Internal-External Locus of Control developed by Rotter (1966) and Learning Scale developed by Güngör (2006). The gathered data are checked by the help of descriptive statistics techniques and multiple regression analysis by using SPSS program. At the end of the research it is concluded that learning performances of the students with internal locus of control are high, and they are more proactive and effective during the learning process. On the other hand, the ones with external locus of control are more passive and reactive during this period. Apart from these, it is revealed that there are some differences among students’ demographic groups and their learning factors. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f730bf952af2ec4e74eb117e9fb4f38.pdf ceda907d0337ecba2c6d17a98c12bbe5 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses Fazıl ŞENOL Department of Accounting and Finance Gaziosmanpaşa Üniversitesi, Erbaa Meslek Yüksekokulu, Tokat, Turkey fazilsenol@yahoo.com Abstr ct Hotel guests’ satisfaction with service and product depends largely on employees’ doing their job willingly and readily because of the direct relationship between employee motivation and quality of products. Therefore some internal or external means of interference are needed throughout management processes in order to motivate employees. In this study external motivation levels of employees working in hotel businesses and as an independent variable, job security factor’s effect on the perception of external motivational tools are investigated. Population of the study consists of hotel employees working in 4 and 5 star hotels in Turkey. A sample of 24 hotels was chosen from cities with dense tourism activities. The study was conducted in the months of July and August of 2009 and 414 employees participated in the survey. Regression Analysis Methods are used in analyzing the data. The results of the study have shown that there is a meaningful relationship between job security and external motivational tools and existence of job security is effective on the perception levels of all other external motivational tools. Based on the analysis results obtained it has been concluded that job security is most effective on factor variables related to ‘Hierarchical Structure’ among other external motivational tools. Key words: Job Security, External Motivational Tools, Hotel Organization Jel odes: M12, J63 Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 33 �Fazıl ŞENOL Introduction In today’s world, targets of organizations can be reached only if the employees brought together for a certain purpose do their job willingly and voluntarily. Unless a process which retains employees from doing their job or makes them unwilling for their job occurs, organizational targets can be reached without a deviation. On the other hand, it is not right to expect the employees to realize the same job performance like a programmed machine all the time. Since individuals are social beings, their needs and expectations change in course of time and when these expectations are not met, negative attitudes can also be reflected in their job performance. Therefore organizations need some internal and external means of interference in order to change the attitudes of the employees according to their targets. Determining the right means requires analyzing employees well and identifying the primary needs correctly. Because there is a direct relationship between the effect of selected tools of motivation and employee expectations, and only a correctly selected means of motivation can satisfy employees, and eventually satisfied employees willing to do their jobs will use their talents in their workplaces, which will pave the way for realizing organizational targets. This study, which has been done on the employees of 4 and 5-star hotels in Turkey, aims at measuring the effect of job security on the perception levels of external motivational tools effective on the job motivation of employees. It is out of the question that employees’ anxiety of losing their jobs will increase at the times of economic instability business world encounters. In this kind of a situation, it is thought that job security is one of the most effective factors on job motivation due to its eliminating employee’s future anxiety. Job motivation and job security are issues both of which are related to working. This suggests that there is a meaningful relationship between employees’ perception level of job security and effectiveness of other motivational tools on the employee. This study analyzes validity of this hypothesis by considering a certain number of external factors of motivation involved in the research. Relationship between Job Security and Motivation Today unemployment is an important problem almost every country suffers from. Although the reasons may show variety, job security seems to be in decrease in 34 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses every part of the world. The most prominent reasons for decreasing job security can be cited as technology, internationalization of capital, demographic change and government policies (Smith, 1999, p. 196-198). From this aspect, today’s business world is experiencing a difficult period in terms of both employees and employers. Job security, which is crucial for an employee in terms of keeping his or her job or finding a new job, is also important for the employers since it enables them to keep their employees or find new ones. Therefore, employers should be sensitive about the motivation of their employees under any circumstances for the interest of their organizations (Çeltek, 2004, p. 8). Because employees are not machines running on physical power but social beings thinking, feeling and being affected by their environment. For this reason, trying to understand employees can make them feel valued and inspire them to work harder on the quality of their work. Factors motivating employees can occur in various forms. In fact, job security is one of the most influential means of motivating employees particularly in times of economic downturn. Employees’ belief that they will not lose their jobs or they will be employed in the same organization as long as they want is a significant reason for motivation. Therefore, job security is one of the most significant variables of employee satisfaction which expresses the general attitude of the employee towards his/her job (Bakan and Büyükbeşe, 2004, p. 35). Job security plays an important role in both social and working life because it helps individuals do not worry about their future, contributes to maintaining labor peace, increasing organizations’ productivity and protecting social balance and values. For this very reason, in order not to cause employee’s prestige loss in society, employees should not be dismissed from the organizations without reasonable grounds, because job security has political and social dimensions. Therefore, if in a country employees are dismissed without showing a reason, it is difficult to talk about social order, peace and stability (Güzel, 2001, p. 19; Taşkent, 1992, p. 38). Today, job security is perceived as an indispensable right of an employee which guarantees that the employee and his/her family will not be deprived of their income and maintains an honorable life¹. Thus, employees consider the condition of job security just at the beginning of their careers so as to feel confident about the future. They oppose governments’ privatization policies in order not to lose this warranty or prefer to work in public sector though they may earn less as compared to those working in the private sector due to public sector’s offering job security. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 35 �Fazıl ŞENOL Technological progress provides labor saving, which results in technological unemployment. On the other hand, it is difficult to state that technological unemployment is influential on hotel staff. Because product has a labor-intensive character and labor substitution by technology is limited. For this reason, the most important capital of hotel organizations is the human factor. In fact, this character of the sector suggests that lodging industry is one of those sectors which provide the most job security. Nevertheless, the limitations such as job security of the hotel employees being dependent on the occupancy rate of the hotels, seasonal character of the employment in this sector, high unemployment rates in the country or the flexibility of touristic demand unfortunately prevents individuals working in this sector from feeling confident about the future. Besides, employee turnover in the sector validates the rightness of the employees’ worries about the future. On the other hand, when job security is perceived negatively, employees cannot be expected to transfer their knowledge and experience into their work. For this reason, even if hotel organizations adopt the thesis that job security leads employees to laziness, they should provide lifelong job security to their employees and adopt management policies which offer promotions in order to motivate them. External Motivational Tools Motivation, being an administrative process, tries to find correct tools of motivation which can change employees’ behaviors to bring them in line with the organization’s targets. A number of internal and external factors are needed in order to motivate employees during the motivation processes. External factors are most of the time determined depending on organization’s policies and external factors. According to Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory, external motivation methods do not motivate employees but provide employees with conditions appropriate for being motivated (Brislin et al., 2005, p. 89). On the other hand, Murphy & Alexander (2000, p . 28) state that when motivated by external motivational tools, employees act with the aim of obtaining some privileged results. For example, if employees do their jobs in order to obtain a result like wage, job security or promotion, this means that they are influenced by external motivational tools. Numerous theoretical and applied researches done with the purpose of measuring the effect of motivational tools on employees offer different solutions to problems related to this issue. 36 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses The first of researches on motivation was done in 1946 (Hersey and Blanchard, 1969, p. 35). This research, including employees of the industrial sector, was conducted by New York Institute of Labor Relations and published as a report in ‘Foreman Facts’. Employees were asked to put 10 motivational tools in order which they considered as ‘a job reward’ and the results were as shown in Table 1 below. Table 1. Universally Accepted Main Motivational Tools 1 o be appreciated for a good job 2 o be perceived as an important (useful) person 3 Positive approach to personal problems 4 Job security 5 air wage 6 Interesting (attractive) job 7 Promotion possibility 8 Personal or organizational commitment 9 Good working conditions (work safety) 10 Discipline in the workplace Source: (Wiley, 1997:14) The research results show that ‘being appreciated for a good job’ takes the first place in the list, whereas ‘discipline’ is at the bottom of it. Long-term researches done by Kovach (1987) also contributed a lot to management science in terms of motivation. In all his researches Kovach asked participants to put in order the 10 motivational tools in Table 1, which first appeared in 1946 and were universally accepted, according to their priorities (Wiley, 1997, pp. 5-6). These motivational tools provided basis for later researches, too. But most of the time they were reshaped according to field of study and personal preferences. For the current study also the motivational tools seen in Table 1 were used while external motivational factors were being formed. External factors used in this research as study variables are briefly explained below. Wage: It is a fixed amount of money paid by the business organization to the employee in return for work performed for a month. On the other hand Adams’s Equity Theory defines wage as an output which should be in a fair balance with employee’s inputs like labor, effort, education, experience and so on (Leung et al., 1996, p. 948). For the employees, the amount of production is an important fac- Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 37 �Fazıl ŞENOL tor effecting motivation. According to Taylor, it is enough to pay more in order to motivate employees to work more efficiently (İncir, 2002, p. 73). According to an employee survey conducted in USA, 95% of employees see monetary (cash) rewards as favorable and perceive them as an important tool of motivation (Nelson, 1999, p. 59). Kovach, known as one the leading figures of studies on the perception of motivational tools, (1995) aimed at measuring private sector employees’ levels of perception of factors that motivate. He found out that employees working at managerial positions put pay rise at the top of the list of motivational factors, whereas other employees ordered it as the fifth priority. In a contemporary research, Pfeffer also concluded that par rise is the most important external motivational tool that motivates employees to work more efficiently (1995:7). The first research aiming at understanding employee expectations and the effect of motivational tools was done on 12 hotel employees in USA and Canada in 1946. Later on, a lot of researchers, particularly the one Kovach did, researches investigating which motivational tools were considered as most effective by the employees. The results of all these researches show that the best tools to motivate hotel employees are: 1. Fair wage 2. Job security 3. Promotion and Advancement Opportunity (Simons & Enz, 1995, p. 24). The results of the research on managers by Hanks also show that high wage expectation is at the top of the list (1999: 114). The common point of the studies on this subject is the conclusion that wage motivates. Researches done in Turkey support these results as well. For example results of the researches by Öktem (1991), Ay (1995), Ölçer (2005) and Birdir (2001) show that a fair wage is an important tool of motivation. The research conducted by A&G Research Company on nearly 3000 employees showed that employees listed high wage as the best motivational tool with a rate of 82.2% (Ölçer, 2005, p. 6). In Birdir’s study on hotel employees throughout Turkey wage factor took the first place as well (Abay, 2004, p. 94). On the other hand employees’ earning much does not mean that they will be motivated to work harder. Because, even if the policy of equal pay for equal work is applied within the organization, this time employees can compare their wages with other people doing the same job in other organizations and find a reason to lower their motivations. Therefore, in order to keep their employees, organizations should be loyal to the principle of equality by establishing a fair wage system (Lam et al., 2002, p. 1). 38 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses Status or Promotion: Status is the place of the individual in an organization or a group when compared to others within the hierarchy. Being an abstract concept, status is characterized with esteem and respect shown by other people (Huberman and Onculer, 2004:103). Whatever the position is being appreciated for a good job, or being accepted as a qualified employee and being respected for his/her knowledge, status is a cause of motivation for every employee. On the other hand, promotion is the advancement of an employee to a higher rank with more responsibilities. Having a fair promotion policy in the organization is an important factor increasing motivation. Because in a working place promotion means rewarding success. A promoted employee obtains both a higher status and a higher wage. A promotion obtained due to knowledge and skill can help individuals improve their other talents; On the other hand, if a promotion is not deserved, it can cause anxiety and stress about increasing responsibilities. In this study, variables believed to measure the factor of ‘status and promotion’ are grouped under this factor. Hierarchical Structure: There is an important relationship between employee motivation and organizational structure. For example, employees’ ability to reach top management without an agent and the awareness that top management is accessible to all employees strengthens the commitment to the organization. On the contrary, when a strict normative or hierarchical ladder makes top management inaccessible, this situation affects employees in an undesired way (Pfeffer, 1994,p. 145). Employee Relations: Good employee relations are an important factor in overcoming negativity in the workplace. Superior-subordinate relationships and relationships between members of the organization and customers are effective on the job motivations of employees. Employees pleased with warm and sincere treatment from the superiors would carry out the orders more voluntarily. For this reason, managements should play a constructive role in creating a harmonious atmosphere. They can create such an atmosphere by arranging events like tea breaks, birthday or wedding anniversary parties and trips (Erdoğan, 1996, pp. 301-302; Sabuncuoğlu and Tüz, 1998, p. 149). Job Safety: In terms of physical working conditions, working atmosphere and social rights, a safe environment should be supplied. Particularly in organizations related to production, the purpose of the safety regulations is to minimize work accidents. Physical, biological and chemical risks in the workplace, work speed, working hours, employee empowerment, communication networks, job definitions, information sharing and technological facilities are all important elements determining working conditions of a workplace (Pailhe, 2002, p. 96). Having a secure job and being Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 39 �Fazıl ŞENOL protected against income loss, physical dangers, crime and risky duties are parts of employee’s safety need. And within the concept of job safety, job security which guarantees the continuity of employment is also an important safety expectation. The assurance that they will work at the same job for long years eliminates questions and worries about future, which is perceived as a part of job safety (Telman and Ünsal, 2004, p. 47). Fear of being dismissed from the organization is an element of oppression for the employee. The behavioral change caused by this fear is felt more obviously particularly in economies with limited employment opportunities. For example results of the research by Probst & Brubaker (2001) show that motivation of employees lowers when they perceive job security negatively, their attitudes change towards not obeying the rules and this leads to an increase in job accidents. Profit Participation: It is a motivational tool which rewards the employee with a certain percentage of profit. Organizations deliver a part of their untaxed profits to employees on a basis of percentage proportional with base pay. Another mode of administration is business partnership provided by equity participation. The purpose of organizations’ preference for motivating employees this way is to gather them around a common cause and create commitment to organizational targets. Since another purpose of this system, in which employees working harder earn more, is to increase the income of the employee, it is out of question (look above) that any practice providing employees with higher wages will affect the motivation of the employee positively. Profit participation is a very important argument to use particularly in case of tourism employees who have very long working hours and most of the time cannot use even their weekly leave days during high seasons. Because Şenol’s study on hotel employees in Turkey (2010, p. 264) showed that employees believe although they work too much, it doesn’t lead to an increase in their wages. In the same study income rise is seen as one of the most important motivational factors for hotel employees although in some subcategories (age, job experience, education level and field, department etc.) its grading may differ. Therefore, a practice like profit participation will both increase employee commitment and effect their motivation. Organizational Culture and Climate: Organizational culture is a system of values, beliefs and habits which shapes behavioral norms designed to realize the same goals and activates mutual perception between members of the organization (Mandy & Noe, 1987, p. 132). From this aspect, organizational culture is shaped by the organizational experiences of the employees (Telman and Ünsal, 2004, pp. 49-51). Another important factor affecting job motivation is organizational climate which is closely related to organizational culture. Organizational climate is the atmosphere resulting 40 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses from employees’ expectations about their employment in the organization and their perception of how much these expectations are met (Schwartz & Davis, 1981, p. 15). Organizational climate is also perceived as a tie between members of the organization because behaviors of the individual change in parallel with organization’s demands. Since employees’ coworkers, superiors (supervisors) and their own individual characteristics are effective in the perception of climate, the concept of organizational climate is also seen as the psychological atmosphere of the organization. Therefore, organizational climate is related to motivation (Efil, 1993, pp. 109-110). These two concepts were discussed under the same factor, regarding the possibility that they may be considered as the same, and variables measuring the factor were formed accordingly. Talent: Talent can bring different points of view to problems. People like their thoughts’ being accepted or their thoughts’ being realized. If employees in an organization can express their thoughts and suggestions freely and see that they are taken seriously and even realized, this means there is a good communicational process in this environment (Ünlüönen and Atınç, 2007:14). For this reason, managements should encourage employees to use self initiative and show that they trust them (İncir, 1985, p. 74). For example, regarding the suggestions of employees to problems or these suggestions being discussed in the meetings would honor them. Besides, rewarding these kinds of behaviors with pay increase or promotion would increase employees’ commitment to the organization and their motivations. Image-Attractive Job: Employees with high pay expectations are more willing to work at full capacity (Filiz, 2002, p. 94). Their identification with the organization and behaving in a manner consistent with the organizational goals are directly proportional to their organization’s reputation in the outside world. The researches have indicated that employees working for a well-known organization with a positive public image are proud of this and more inclined to take the ownership of their organizations (Smitis et al., 2001:1051). Therefore, by building credibility with suppliers, customers and shareholders in order to have a good image, organizations also increase the motivation of their employees. In this respect, it is more attractive for an employee to work for a hotel chain despite a lower salary. Finally, since factors motivating employees differ from each other, motivational tools also show variety. On the other hand, although theories aiming at categorizing motivational tools appear under different titles, in fact they adhere to the ideas of making the job more attractive and meeting the needs of the employee. So the important thing is to determine which motivational tool to use for which employee. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 41 �Fazıl ŞENOL When considering the effect of motivational tools, it is also necessary to keep in mind that in addition to organization’s attitude, employee’s him/herself is the most essential source of motivation. Because it is difficult to understand expectations of an employee who does not express his/her purposes clearly, it is hard determine the most effective motivational tool to motivate him/her. Researches on Job Security and Motivation The concept of job security has emerged with the aim of assuring continuity of employment and preventing arbitrary terminations. Employees’ confidence in future and their not being deprived of earning a livelihood are among the most essential rights of them (Koç, 2005, p. 20; Ulucan, 1982, p. 184). One of the main purposes of modern labor law is also to secure these rights of employees and prevent them from losing their job without a valid reason (Süzek, 2006, p. 430). In this respect, job security provides social benefits and it also functions as an important motivational tool enhancing employees’ positive feelings towards their jobs. All around the world, job security is protected by labor laws. On the other hand, due to some constraints like weaknesses in enforcement of laws, employer pressure on the governments or distinctive structure of some businesses, it is difficult to maintain job security in the real sense. Particularly, in tourism sector, implementation of job security laws is quite problematic because some hotels are seasonal and the ones open all year round tend to employ temporary staff. For this reason, in this branch of business psychological security provided by employers is more effective on overcoming employee’s work anxiety than job security enforced by laws. Therefore, dimension of relationship between employee and management in hotels becomes more important in the positive or negative perception of job security. This aspect of the sector has always attracted the attention of the researchers and various studies have investigated the subject. An environment of economic uncertainty leaves employees more defenseless because in such an atmosphere, organizations tend to protect themselves or resist protective regulations, which increases employees’ work stress and affects their psychology deeply. (Önder and Wasti, 2002, p. 639). A study done in the USA showed that fear of being fired can affect employees’ psychological and physical health seriously. Results of the national survey conducted by University of Michigan Institute for Social Research with more than 1000 male and female employees under the age of 42 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses 60, who were interviewed twice, three years apart, revealed that 25% of employees worry about losing their jobs. ² Although it is commonly believed that the best reward is pay rise, as a motivational tool, it is a costly reward for organizations and there is no guarantee that it will have a long-lasting effect. For this reason, organizations can make use of job security as a motivational tool which is symbolically cost-efficient and has a huge effect on employee motivation. Thus, researches on this subject (ŞenoL, 2010; Poyraz and Kama, 2008; Özyaman, 2007, p. 13) suggest that job security provides employee with high motivation and it also affects other motivation levels. For example in Şenol’s research (Şenol, 2010, pp. 246-264) job security was rated as one of the three most important motivational tools in all subcategories. Poyraz and Kama’s study on hotel staff also showed that job security functions as an important motivational tool since it changes negative work behaviors and the thought of leaving the job (2008:2). It is only natural for employees to fear job loss and to have a job or not and it means different things to different people (Özyaman, 2007, p. 13). For this reason it is difficult to estimate the impact of job loss on the employee. Researches investigating effects of job loss and having a job indicate that employee behaviors start going bad as soon as they start worrying about job loss (Domenighett, 2000; Özyaman, 2007). For example according to a research by Cambridge University, when job security is perceived as low employees’ health complaints are five times as much as when it is perceived as high (Worklife Report, 1999). Therefore, considering possible effects of job loss fear, it is concluded that job security is crucial for organizations and there is an important relationship and an interaction between job security and motivational tools. Therefore in this study, as distinct from above mentioned researches on the relationship between job security and motivation, job security has been considered as an independent variable with the purpose of understanding whether it changes employees’ perception levels of motivational tools, or in other words, whether it is effective on motivational tools’ strength of effect or not. The results obtained are described below. Field Study The Importance and Aim of the Study Due to demand elasticity hotels, a sub sector of tourism, are easily affected by outside factors (i.e. weather conditions, counter propaganda, political tension and polemics Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 43 �Fazıl ŞENOL and terror). Therefore maintaining continuity of hotels is dependent on the continuity of tourism demand. One third of hotel income goes to employee wages (Usal and Kurgun, 2003, p. 13). Therefore as demand shrinks, it is a common practice for hotel managements to dismiss employees with the aim of reducing expenses. Researches done in Turkey (Birdir, 2001; Abay, 2004; Bakan and Büyükbeşe, 2004; Ölçer, 2005; Ertan, 2008; Şenol, 2010) show that employee turnover in hotel sector is higher than other sectors, which is a valid reason for the employees’ feeling anxiety about future of their jobs. Therefore, hotels need to accomplish an effective motivational process in order to keep their employees, the most important capital of them, and change employee behaviors toward organizational goals. There is also a relationship between high employee motivation and customer satisfaction. This relationship between the quality of product offered and guest satisfaction is more apparent particularly in departments where a direct contact with guests is necessary (i.e. service, front desk). Therefore any study on hotel employees, who are considerably effective on guests’ staying at a hotel or visiting a country for the first time, has a particular importance. There is no doubt that in times of economic crisis employees are more concerned about job loss. For this reason it is expected that findings of this study will contribute to literature by being effective on determining motivational tools necessary to manage this difficult situation in which employees suffer from low motivation. This study is different from other researches on motivation as it aims at investigating if there is a relationship between levels of employee confidence in the future and levels of motivation, and if there is such a relationship, determining its direction and measuring its significance level. It is expected that findings obtained will explain how important the perception of job security is in terms of employee motivation. Because it is believed that external motivational tools like pay rise, good relationships, image or promotion will not affect an employee’s anxious about losing his/ her job in the same way as it affects the one who is much more positive about job security. Researches on hotel employees generally focus on job security’s degree of priority among other motivational tools. On the other hand this research differentiates from similar researches in that it does not analyze the place of job security among motivational tools believed to meet expectations, but its relationship with external 44 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses motivational tools included in the research as independent variables. Turkish employees’ future anxiety level is rising justifiably on the grounds that effects of 2008 global economic crisis are still felt in tourism, demand for tourism is elastic and employee turnover in hotels is high in Turkey. Analyzing dimension of the relationship between job security and motivational tools with the aim of reducing this anxiety seems to be distinct from other studies. Research Model Considering the fact that developed models would increase visual of the abstract concepts used in the research, following model shown in Figure 1 was developed in the light of the research hypothesis. Figure 1. Research Model External Motivational actors - Wage - Status-Promotion - Hierarchical tructure - Employee Relations - Job afety - Profit Participation -Organizational Cluture and limate - alent - Image-attractive job Independent Variable J UR Y (9)* External Motivation Level Dependent Variables *Variable number measuring job security in the questionnaire According to the model, job security is independent variable, external motivational tools are dependent variables. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 45 �Fazıl ŞENOL Research Hypotheses In accordance with the purpose of the study, main hypotheses to be validated are set as below; H0: There is no meaningful relationship between job security and external motivational factors. H1: There is a meaningful relationship between job security and external motivational factors. H2: Existence of job security increases effectiveness of external motivational tools. If H1 is accepted, the following results are expected to be obtained by further analysis; - Employees’ external motivation level, - Direction of the relationship between job security and effect of external motivational tools, - Motivational factors on which job security is the most influential. Research Population and Sample Selection Population of this study consists of employees working for 4 and 5 star accommodation businesses (i.e. hotel, springs resort, holiday resort). Questionnaire includes paid managers and employees working in all departments of starred hotels, excluding owners of them. Names of the mentioned businesses, thought to represent the whole of the population sufficiently, remaining hidden, the situation related to delivered questionnaire forms is shown in Table 2. 46 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses Table 2. Businesses Questionnaires Delivered and Distribution of the Forms Collected Business Type City Number of Businesses Number of Respondents Percentage of Distribution 5* Hotel dana, nkara, ntalya Aydın, Bursa, İstanbul, İzmir, Muğla 9 150 %36 4*Hotel Ankara, Balıkesir, Bolu, İstanbul, Rize, Sakarya 8 128 %31 5*Holiday Resort Aydın, İzmir 2 47 %12 4* Holiday Resort ntalya 1 25 %6 5* prings Hotel Bursa, İzmir 3 51 %12 4* prings Hotel Balıkesir 1 13 %3 24 414 100 L Accommodation businesses are chosen from regions in Turkey where tourists’ accommodate densely based on the data provided by the Ministry of Tourism so as to represent the whole of the population. Questionnaire forms were sent by e-mail to the managers of accommodation businesses following a face to face or telephone conversation with them. In order to assure the participation of employees from all departments, questionnaire delivery was made within superior managers’ knowledge. An important point to be considered during researches is determining the number of sample representing population. Number of sample of this study was found by calculations based on population. When determining number of sample, Sekaran’s (1992, p. 253) table ‘Acceptable Sample Sizes for Specific Populations’ was used. According to this, total number of employees working for 4 and 5 star businesses in Turkey is 200.000*1 (www.turizm.gov.tr). When error rate is accepted 5%, sufficient number of questionnaires for this study must be 383 according to both of the tables. Since number of employees participating in this study is 414, sufficient number of sample was obtained. *According to official statistics there are 105.489 rooms in 4 star hotels and 147.167 rooms in 5 star hotels by 2008 year-end. Therefore total number of rooms being 252.656, necessary number of employees per room is ½ in 4 star hotels and 1/1 in 5 star hotels. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 47 �Fazıl ŞENOL When constituting job security perception scale used in the study, ‘Job Security Index’, validity and reliability analyses of which done by Önder and Wasti (2002) in Turkey was used. In determining motivation variables used for measurement of job security, motivation scales developed by Mottaz (1985) and Lindner (1998) were used. When adapting survey questions about motivational tools to hotel employees, Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, Porter’s Need Satisfaction Questionnaire and expressions related to motivation used by Keenan (1996) and Kovach (1984-1987) in their study. Variables used in relation with motivation were also used in previous similar studies done in Turkey [Birdir, (2001), Ünlüönen, (2007), Taşpınar, (2006),Toker, (2008), Batman vd., (2007), Ertan, (2009), Şenol, (2010). As in the similar study Cronbach’s Alpha reliability test is also used in this study. According to Kalaycı (2009; p. 405) if reliability coefficient is between (α) 0,60≤ α<0,80, scale is quite reliable. Reliability of “job security” scale is determined as 0,709 and reliability coefficient is 0,939 for this study. Findings of the Study In the analyses investigating different aspects of job security’s relation with variables measuring external motivation, how dependent variables (external motivational tools) believed to be affected by independent variable (job security) change employee motivation is being observed. Regression analyses were used in order to reveal the relationships between scales taking place in the questionnaire forms. According to Likert scale used in the questionnaire, distribution of answers about job security is in the range of 1.5 and 4.5. Therefore it can be accepted that data related to job security displays an approximately normal distribution. When the number of variables used in the research questionnaires is too high, in order to decrease the number of variables and explain them with fewer factors, researchers usually refer to factor analyses or determine the factors themselves. For this study the latter option was preferred. It was thought that handling nine external motivational tools explained in the theory part of the study as also factor groups would provide research integrity. So variables taking place in the questionnaire form with the aim of measuring external motivation and shown in Appendix 48 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses 1. are grouped under related factor and mean values were constituted after reliability tests were performed. Data obtained in relation to the factors are shown in Table 3. Table 3. Reliability Values of Scales Used and Perception Levels of the Factors umber of Variables Measuring ach actor EXTERNAL MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS L H X* * Wage 5 0.727 3.315 0.836 Status and Promotion 5 0.811 3.707 0.829 Hierarchical tructure 6 0.790 3.731 0.742 Relationships between Employees 7 0.699 3.827 0.651 Job afety 5 0.791 3.969 0.780 Profit Participation 5 0.673 3.308 0.855 Organizational Culture and Climate 8 0.771 3.777 0.692 4 0.668 3.468 0.825 7 0.797 3.881 0.714 General verage - - 3,665 0.769 External Motivation Scale 40 0.935 - - Job Security Scale 9 0.709 - - alent Image-Attractive Job 4,21 – 5,00 Very High ; dium; 1,81 – 2,60 (Yemane, 2001; Ertan, 2009) * X =Mean; SS=Standard Deviation 3,41 Low; – 4,20 1,00 High; 2,61 – 1,80 – 3,40 Very MeLow Alpha values in Table 3. are in the range of 0.66 and 0.96, validity value of the questionnaire form is at a sufficient level and no factor was excluded from evaluation in the analyses. Some of the variables used to measure factors were used in more than one factor groups. From Table 3. we can also see that employees’ external motivation is not very high with an average level of 3.665. When motivation levels of employees are considered for each factor, the answers given to questions of measuring job safety reveal that employee opinions about hotel employees’ life safety, physical conditions of work environment, sufficient equipment to do their jobs, proper architectural design enabling service flow, safety of places to stay provided by the hotel, occupational hazard, social rights and future of their employment are at more positive levels. In the study, “Image and attractive job” factor was ranked as number two, that is perceived closest to number one factor, which also shows that hotel employees love their jobs and believe that they are doing an important job. From the answers given Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 49 �Fazıl ŞENOL to variable measuring the same factor, it also appears that employees benefit from educational opportunities offered by the workplace; they expect to earn more in the future, they are pleased with their hotels’ image in the outside world and would be happy when guests leave the hotel satisfied with the service. Hotel managers’ having good relationships with their subordinates causes a positive atmosphere among employees. Thus answers to variables measuring the factor of “Relationships between enployees” show that there is a good communication between hotel departments; and employees are pleased with friendly relationships with managers and co-workers, also with cooperation and positive dialogue between them. It is particularly observed that employees give importance to celebrating their birthdays at workplace and managers’ allowing them to exchange shifts among themselves. These findings of the study support findings of Orpen’s (1997) study results of which showed that “quality communication between employees and good relationships particularly with managers have a positive impact on employee motivation” (Chiu 2004, p. 34). Answers to questions measuring the factor of “Organizational Culture and Climate” also indicate that there is a good relationship between superiors-subordinates and among coworkers; employees can share some of their problems and managers and coworkers help them with the solution of these problems. On the other hand, as it is explained before, these results represent only the average. An average level of 3.77 obtained for “Organizational Culture and Climate” does not mean that motivation levels of all the participants are at the same level. With the questions related to the factor of “Hierarchical Structure”, ranked as number five in terms of perception of external motivation, it was aimed to investigate whether hotel management is helpful or accessible to employees. It can be concluded from the answers that there is a good communication between management and employees. One of the reasons for being a part of an organization and enduring current situation is the expectation of gaining status in the organization or being promoted. Answers given to questions related to this factor reveal the fact that employees rank these statements in the sixth order: Employers evaluate their performance rightfully; they will be able to promote due to their success; and the ones who deserve will reach the top management. Therefore, this factor is not perceived at a good level. In other words, hotel employees believe that they don’t have a high chance of being promoted. On the other hand this belief may show differences according to control variables like department, gender, age or status. It appears that the factor of “Talent” is perceived at a low level in terms of perception levels. Results related to the factor of talent and suggestion, which is explained 50 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses as ability of bringing different point of views to problems, can be interpreted as employee performances are not evaluated sufficiently and their suggestions are not taken for granted. Whereas referring to employees’ thoughts and their witnessing these suggestions’ being evaluated are important in terms of motivation. Considering the fact that a factor’s positive impact increases in parallel with an increase in employees’ external motivational perception level, based on the analysis results of the research, it can be stated that hotel employees are pleased neither with their wages nor management policies which they expect to provide extra income for them, and They are not positive about the future of their employment,either. When the obtained data evaluated, it appears that the most important motivational factors the necessity of which employees feel the most are “profit participation” and “wage”. Therefore this result, also reached through the data in Appendix. 1, support the employee expectation expressed as “we can work hard, but this should be reflected in our wages”. Particularly when the factor of “profit participation” is considered as parallel with income raise, it can be stated that the most important external motivational tool to motivate employees to perform better is “wage increase”. One of the purposes of the research is to investigate whether there is a relationship between job security and employees’ external motivation. In order to validate this hypothesis, the relationship between job security and external motivational tools was analyzed through tests based on Pearson Correlation Analysis. The results obtained are shown in Table 4. below. Table 4. Relationship between Job Security and External Motivational Tools (self assessment) Correlation Coefficient* Wage 0.581* Status and Promotion 0.614* Hierarchical tructure 0.635* Employee Relations 0.523* Job afety 0.501* Profit Participation 0.562* Organizational Culture and Climate 0.539* alent 0.556* Image-attractive job 0.563* Correlation Coefficients: None=0.00-0.09;Low=0.1-03;Medium=0.3-0.5;High=0.5-1.0 * Correlation is significant at 1% level. Probability values showing correlation coefficients’ level of significance (“Prob”) are smaller than 1%. Therefore all correlation coefficients are significant statistically. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 51 �Fazıl ŞENOL Since interpretations and explanations related to the perception of factors are made above, here we will only deal with statistical dimensions of this relationship. When data in Table 4. is considered, reliability range being 99%, correlation coefficient is positive (r=0.581) between hotel employees’ perception of “job security” and “wage”, and being closer to 1, it is in a range of high level value. This value is also significant at 1% level. Null hypothesis is defined as two reliable being independent of each other, whereas alternative hypothesis shows that these two reliable are not independent. As seen in Table 4. variable of perception of “job security” and variable of “wage” are not independent of each other. Because their coefficient values (0.581) are significant at 1% level. Therefore there is a relationship at a statistically meaningful level between these two variables. For this reason null hypothesis will be refused. Data in the table also shows that there is a meaningful, positive and high level (r=0.614) relationship between statistical job security and “Status and Promotion”. This value is significant at 1% level. Findings indicate that variables of perception of “job security” and “status and promotion” are not independent of each other. Therefore there is a relationship at a statistically significant level between these two variables, and null hypothesis will be refused here, as well. Again when relation of job security with each of the external factors included in the research is evaluated separately, it appears that; 52 - There is a significant positive and high (r=0.365) correlation between job security and “Hierarchical Structure”, - There is a significant positive and high (r=0.523) correlation between job security and “Employee Relations”, - There is a significant positive and high (r=0.501) correlation between job security and “Job Safety”, - There is a significant positive and high (r=0.562) correlation between job security and “Profit Participation”, - There is a significant positive and high (r=0.539) correlation between job security and “Organizational Culture and Climate”, - There is a significant positive and high (r=0.556) correlation between job security and “Talent”, Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses - There is a significant positive and high (r=0.563) correlation between job security and “Image-attractive job”. Therefore due to the existence of a statistically significant correlation for all factors, null hypothesis (Ho) was refused. Based on the data obtained, (H1) Hypothesis of the research which claims that “There is a meaningful relationship between job security and external motivational factors” was accepted. Considering levels of correlation between job security and external motivational factors given in Table 4., it is seen that the most important relationship is with “Hierarchical Structure” due its value’s (0.365) being closest to 1. In fact there is an important relationship between employee motivation and organizational structure. Top management’s being accessible to all employees and their showing a democratic attitude to solution of problems not only affect motivation of employees but also play an important role in shaping employee opinions about future of their employment. The think which makes a hotel employment long-term is managers’ own initiatives (with the exception of employees owing their indispensability to their knowledge and equipment) rather than job security laws in the country. Particularly in hotels where employee turnover is high, future of the current employment is most of the time at the mercy of managers. For this reason, employers’ attitudes towards employees are extremely influential on employees’ positive or negative perception of job security. In this study, dependent variables are measured on 5-point Likert scale. For this reason, average values of variables range from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 5. Although independent variable in the regression equation seem to be in the range of values 1-5, an average of more than one variables in the questionnaire form measuring the same variable is used when constituting them. In other words dependent variables in the range of values 1-5 actually have tens of further different values. In accordance with the purpose of the study, regression analysis is used in order to measure the effect of job security, independent variable of the research, on external motivational tools through Pearson Correlation Analysis. Tests obtained for each of the models established are shown in Table 5. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 53 �Fazıl ŞENOL Table 5. Job security and External Motivational Tools: Results of Regression Analysis Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Wage Status-Promotion Hierarchical Structure Employee Relations Job Safety Job ecurity 0.838 0.843 0.801 0.573 0.677 t 12.324*** 12.969*** 13.810*** 10.232*** 8.792*** ixed 0.460 0.835 1.019 1.827 1.686 t 1.811* 3.494*** 4.674*** 8.869*** 5.958*** R- quared 0.362 0.395 0.414 0.281 0.242 25.476 29.246 30.568 17.135 12.207 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 External Motivational Tools External Motivational Tools Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9 Profit Participation Organizational Culture and Climate Talent Image-attractive job Job ecurity 0.832 0.593 0.767 0.661 t 11.718*** 11.189*** 12.175*** 12.018*** ixed 0.499 1.816 0.918 1.665 t 1.897* 9.035*** 3.825*** 7.967*** R- quared 0.348 0.317 0.336 0.316 24.009 22.875 25.386 23.181 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 * significance level of 10%, ** significance level of 5%; ***significance level of 1% As interpretations and explanations related to perception of factors are made above, following statements consider only statistical dimensions of these models. Model 1: Wage =Fixed+ β*Job Security Wage=0.460+0.838*job Security R-squared=0.362 explains 36.2% of change in “wage” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. As P<0.05 Model 1 is significant. Therefore there is a significant positive correlation between job security and perception of “wage” factor. Impact of pay rise on employee satisfaction increases in parallel with an increase in employee’s sense of security about the future of his/her employment. 54 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses Considering all the models in Table 1, it can be affirmed that explanation for Model 1 is also valid for the other models. Model 2: Status and Promotion=Fixed+ β*Job Security Status and Promtion=0.835+0.843 *Job Security R-squared=0.395 explains 39.5% of change in “status and promotion” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Model 3: Hierarchical Structure=Fixed+ β*Job Security Hierarchical Structure= 1.019+ 0.801*job security R-squared=0.414 explains 41.4% of change in “hierarchical structure” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Employee Relations= 1.827+ 0.573*job security Model 4: Employee Relations=Fixed+β*Job security R-squared=0.281 explains 28.1% of change in “employee relations” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Job safety=1.686+ 0.677*job security Model 5: Job security=Fixed+β*Job security R-squared=0.242 explains 24.2% of change in “job safety” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Model 6: Profit Participation =Fixed+ β*Job security Profit Participation = 0.499+0.832*job security R-squared=0.348 explains 34.8% of change in “profit participation” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Model 7: Org. Cult. and Climate=Fixed+β*Job security Org. Cult. and Climate =1.816+0.593*job security R-squared=0.317 explains 31.7% of change in “Organizational Culture and Climate” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Model 8: Talent =Fixed+ β*Job security Talent = 0.918+ 0.767 * job security R-squared=0.336 explains 36.2% of change in “talent” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Model 9: Image-attractive job =Fixed+ β*Job security Image-attractive job=1.665+0.661* Job security R-squared=0.316 explains 31.6% of change in “image-attractive job” factor, one of the internal motivational tools for job security. Therefore since P<0.05, all of the models are significant and existence of job security has a positive impact on the perception level of each of these factors. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 55 �Fazıl ŞENOL Model 9: If H0 and H1 hypotheses are expressed as; H0 Job security is not effective on the perception of ‘image-attractive job’. H1 Job security is effective on the perception of ‘image-attractive job’. Then t-test is done in order to validate alternative hypothesis. Findings indicate that variable of “job security” effects study’s dependent variable, “image-attractive job”, significantly and positively. Stating it more clearly, in case job security is perceived positively, perception level of “image-attractive job” also changes in a positive way. Furthermore fixed value in the model represents the value of our dependent variable, “image-attractive job”, when the values of “job security” variable and control variables are zero, and this value is also significant and positive. As already stated, R-squared value represents explanatory power of the model and this value was found to be 31.6% for this model. Therefore it can be interpreted as this finding explains 31.6% of change in job security and one of the external motivational tools, “imageattractive job”*.2 As mentioned before, if a model is significant in the general sense or not is tested by F-test. F-statistical value for this model was found to be 23.181 and probability of acceptance of null hypothesis as “0”. Therefore since null hypothesis is refused, our model is significant in the general sense. Data in Table 5. indicate that there is a significant (P<0.05) and positive correlation between job security and all of the external motivational tools selected for this study, and existence of job security has an impact on the perception of all the other motivational factors. On other words, if an employee perceives that he/she is provided with job security, he/she perceives other motivational tools more positively. The result obtained supports findings of the research done by Bakan and Büyükbeşe (2004) with the purpose of measuring the dimension of relationship between job security and motivation. They had asserted that “ones who perceive job security positively perceive other motivational variables in the same way, too”. Findings of this study also support Taşpınar’s (2006) conclusion that “in case employees perceive that they are under the risk of being dismissed, they perceive other motivational tools negatively, too; on the other hand the ones who believe that their employment in the organization will be long-term perceive motivational tools more positively. The findings of this study and also findings of two other studies mentioned above show that “job security factor alone is an important motivational tool for increasing employee motivation, and *R-squared value is generally found to be high in time series applications and if this value is higher than 0.7, it is suggested that the model has a high explanatory power. Whereas cross sectional data (questionnaire data) is used for this study, and R-squared values can be low in cross sectional data even if the model is proper (Tarı, 2005;81) 56 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses besides that it increases the effect of each other motivational tool offered in order to motivate employees. Therefore in accordance with the results obtained through analyses done, the hypothesis H2 asserting that “Existence of job security increases the effect of external motivational tools” was accepted. In Herzberg’s model concept of job security is defined as one of the Hygiene Factors and lack of job security is claimed to be one of the reasons for a motivation (Eren, 2000, p. 488). In fact it is not expectable for an employee worrying about the results of losing his/her job to be satisfied with any motivational tool other than job security. Taking the data in Table 5. into consideration, one of the important points to be discussed appears to be statistical results related to on which motivational tool job security is the most effective. Data obtained reveals that job security is the most effective on variables of “Hierarchical Structure” (R-squared=0.414) and “Status-Promotion” (R-squared=0.395) and the least effective on “Job safety”. The reason for this result can be explained with termination of employment’s being only at the initiative of managers. Since employees are hired on personal hiring decisions, they believe that the future of their employment will be determined by the opinions of the managers about themselves, not by the laws. When is it considered that laws protect only registered employees, hotel employees are quite right in their opinion. Therefore employees perceive managers’ having good relationships with them as a kind of job security and this tie between hierarchical structure and job security reveals the existence of a highly significant relationship. “status and promotion”, second most effected factor by job security, appears to be an expectation of only the ones believing that they would have a long-term employment in the organization. It is unexpected for an employee to be in need of gaining status or promotion unless he/she has job security. Therefore only if employees are provided with long-term job security, a need of gaining status or promotion will be intensified. Even it can be assumed that having a long-term job security would be most effective on “status and promotion” factor. Whereas since long-term job security is dependent on good relationships with top management, “hierarchical structure’ factor moves ahead of “status and promotion”. It is impossible for an employee who does not have a positive relationship with management to gain job security. Otherwise it would be natural for an employee with long-term job security (i.e. public servants) to have perception levels of job security most effective on positive perception of “status and promotion” factor. Also according to the results of the research done by Parity, a job placement company, effect of motivational tools on employee motivation is higher when job security Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 57 �Fazıl ŞENOL is perceived positively (Keser, 2006, p. 95). The findings of this study also support results of Parity’s research. In fact relationship between job security and motivation will always stand as an important research subject due to their revealing possible effects of this relationship on employees. Conclusion Continuity of employment is essential for the existence of job security. In this regard it is impossible to say that an employee who constantly worries about the future of his/her employment would be motivated to work by any motivational tools. For this reason, it can be affirmed that job security alone can function as an important motivational tool in work atmospheres with high anxiety levels of job loss. Findings of the study show that effect of motivational tools on employees is related to their perception of job security in terms of future of their employment. This result also supports previous researches suggesting that people working in the public service have a more positive approach towards job security and thus in this sector job security factor stays in the background when compared to other motivational factors. For instance in Ağırbaş and Büyükkayıkçı’s study (2005) it has been found that chief physician assistants in Turkey rank job security 16th among 19 variables. Results of Sapancalı’s study (1993) on employees in the banking sector have revealed that job security is ranked only 7th among 14 motivational tools. Job security has always been ranked among three most important motivational factors. On the other hand job security’s place in the priority ranking may show differences according to control variables. For instance in Kovach’s (1995) study normal employees perceived job security as a more prior motivational factor than managers did. Priority of job security can also change in times of economic recession. Adak and Hançer’s (2002) study on motivational factors and organizational needs of 5 star hotel employees can be cited as an example of this situation. Their findings showed that job security took the first place among perceived motivational tools, due to the reason that the study was done in a period of economic regression caused by 1999 Marmara Earthquake. According to the findings obtained, priority of motivational tools are exposed to change due to different reasons and the hypothesis claiming that motivation power of motivational tools is related to employee’s perception level of job security has been validated by the results of this study. 58 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses Negative perception of job security in an organization is a cause of a motivation and an employee expectation. Therefore taking precautions enabling positive perception of job security means this expectation is met. Since job security alone can also increase the effect of other motivational tools, by providing it employers will also lower the cost of external motivational tools to the organization. All other motivational tools can be effective only if existence of job security is provided. It is not expectable for an employee with a fear of job loss to be motivated by pay rise or other rewarding methods. According to the findings of this study, relationships with management play a prominent role rather than characteristics of the job. For this reason managers should prefer to focus on external motivational tools in order to lead their employees to success. This study indicates that external motivation level of employees in Turkey (3.66) is lower than their internal motivation level (4.04)*. Therefore, managers in the sector should put more emphasis on external motivation applications. Findings explained by models constituted have shown that job security changes perception dimension of all the other external motivational tools. As P (Probability) value, which shows the probability of rejecting the model, is (0) for all external motivational factors, models of the study are found to be significant. The study has also revealed that job security is most effective on variables related to “hierarchical structure” (R²=414). One of the findings of the study indicates that there is an important correlation between employee motivation and organizational structure, which suggests that managers’ treating all employees equally, bringing fair approaches to the solution of problems and showing interest to their problems would play a crucial role in motivating employees. Managements’ attitudes towards employees and the dimension of employee-management relationships are also very influential on employee opinions regarding future of their employment in the organization. If an employee perceives management’s attitude towards him/her positively, he/she may have grounds to believe that he/she will not be dismissed. As the findings of this study also confirm, in order to achieve an effective motivational process, it is more important to eliminate hotel employees’ anxiety about job security than determining which motivational tools to be used. Analysis results regarding perception levels of external motivational tools have shown that two least perceived factors are “profit participation” (3.31) and “wage” (3.32). Answers given to variables grouped under this factor indicate that hotel employees are * In Şenol’s (2010:225) study on the employees of the same sector, internal motivation levels were determined as 4.04, where external motivation level is 3.66. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 59 �Fazıl ŞENOL not pleased with the fact that although they work hard, their performance does not provide an extra income rise. For this reason it can be concluded that income rise is one of the leading motivational tools to increase hotel employees’ motivation. In fact “the person who works harder earns more” is one of the basic principles of classical organization theories, and increasing income in an organization is accepted as a reason for motivation increase. For instance in the study of Goldsmith & Darity testing the validity of the hypothesis “Organizations can increase labor productivity by paying employees wage premiums proportional to their performances”, it was observed that job motivation of employees, who started to get higher wages due to productivity, increased (Chiu, 2004, p. 38). And the analysis results obtained in this study show those hotel employees in Turkey consent working hard as long as it is reflected in their wages. Therefore, managers are supposed to try motivational applications providing income increase, as employees perceive not being rewarded for good performance as a lack of very important external motivation. In fact during the high season employees’ social life almost comes to an end due to workload. For this reason managements should support high performance in the season with extra premiums or meet employee expectations by giving holiday opportunities to them with their families during low season. It is possible to increase employees’ commitment to the organization and their mood and motivation by supportive applications like these kinds of gifts. Employers can hardly achieve labor productivity by having employees work under the thread of job loss. On the contrary this thread would lead to negative effects on employee health and to employee misbehavior like tardiness, evasion, damaging equipment for revenge or misuse of them, the invisible costs of which would be much higher than mentioned rewards. Limitations of the Study The research was intended to include participation of 500 employees working in 4 and 5 star hotels randomly chosen from regions in Turkey with dense accommodation. Whereas number of questionnaires fell below the target because questionnaire forms did not return from some of the hotels in estimated time. Obtained 414 questionnaire forms constitute 82% of the total number of forms, which can be considered as a high percentage. It was difficult to persuade hotel managements to deliver the forms on the grounds that employees were asked to fill in them in the months of July and August, regarded as high season, and forms would take their time and make them busy. 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Gürbüzsel çev.), İstanbul: Literatür Yayıncılık. �Appendix 1 Definitive Statistics About External Motivational Variables Used in the Questionnaire STATEMENTS RELATED TO EXTERNAL MOTIVATION X 1. Facilities like meetings, seminars and conferences are provided 3.741 by professionals. 2. Management encourages us to do our best. 4.057 3. The hotel I am working in has proper physical conditions (e.g. 4.167 light, heat) 4. believe that work performance is evaluated fairly. 3.868 5. I believe that the hotel will provide better financial opportunities. 3.641 6. There is an efficient communication between departments. 4.000 7. ur complaints and suggestions are taken for granted by the 3.794 management. 8. We have sufficient tools and equipment affecting performance 3.891 positively. 9. I have education and self-training opportunities in workplace. 3.866 10. Working hours are obeyed on in this workplace. 4.000 11.I believe that my wage is a sufficient compensation for my 3.367 performance. 12. My managers are helpful in settling disputes with my coworkers 3.955 and customers. 13. Holidays and leave days are effective on my motivation. 4.320 14. I have good relationships with my co-workers. 4.227 15. I have promotional opportunities at work. 3.754 16. I have good relationships with my managers. 4.120 17. Managers here rightfully earned their status. 3.768 18. ips are distributed fairly in this workplace. 3.567 19. Here exists discrimination among employees. 2.548 20. I can involuntarily be assigned to a different position. 2.851 21. I believe that this hotel has rightfully earned its star. 4.127 22. can share my personal and family problems with managers. 3.265 23. Customer leaves the hotel satisfied. 4.150 24. Management reacts positively to my leave request. 3.901 25. Emloyees are informed about financial condition of the 3.437 business. 26. I spend time with my managers outside work. 3.162 27. I spend time with my co-workers outside work. 4.005 28. My co-workers help me with the solution of my problems. 3.553 29. Managers help me with the solution of my personal problems. 3.263 30. am asked for advice on a subject related to my work. 3.599 31. am rewarded for success. 3.366 32. am granted leave when need. 3.967 33. My birthday is celebrated in the workplace. 3.563 34. Working hours are strictly controlled in the workplace. 3.916 SS 1 % 2 % 3 % 4 % 5 % 1.180 7.48 8.73 14.71 40.40 28.68 0.932 2.48 4.71 11.66 46.90 34.24 0.889 2.46 2.71 9.61 46.06 39.16 1.007 2.73 7.44 19.35 41.19 29.28 1.073 4.48 9.95 25.12 37.81 22.64 1.015 4.19 4.43 13.05 43.84 34.48 1.098 4.70 8.66 18.07 39.85 28.47 1.047 5.19 5.19 14.07 46.42 29.14 1.102 4.96 7.94 14.64 40.45 32.01 1.118 5.74 5.99 9.98 39.15 39.15 1.241 10.86 13.09 23.95 32.59 19.51 0.986 2.48 7.69 12.90 45.66 31.27 0.930 0.877 1.074 0.873 1.141 1.186 1.375 1.315 0.946 1.297 0.889 0.942 3.2 2.74 3.92 2.24 5.12 8.35 31.71 20.54 2.21 12.75 2.72 2.20 2.46 2.47 9.07 2.80 10.00 10.57 21.22 21.53 4.18 17.25 2.47 6.04 5.67 5.75 22.06 10.92 18.54 19.41 18.29 21.78 13.27 19.50 9.38 18.41 36.45 47.40 37.50 48.74 35.61 39.31 18.05 24.50 39.31 31.75 47.90 46.15 52.22 41.64 27.45 35.29 30.73 22.36 10.73 11.63 41.03 18.75 37.53 27.20 1.215 6.6 20.05 17.85 33.99 21.52 1.343 1.048 1.224 1.289 1.158 1.250 0.983 1.336 1.116 15.71 3.99 9.38 12.66 5.97 9.17 3.21 10.47 5.93 18.70 6.98 11.60 17.62 14.18 18.61 5.19 15.21 7.16 16.71 9.73 16.05 18.11 16.67 18.89 15.06 11.97 9.63 31.42 43.14 40.25 34.00 40.30 33.06 44.69 32.17 43.95 17.46 36.16 22.72 17.62 22.89 20.28 31.85 30.17 33.33 �35. Employees are provided with free food and tea or coffee by the hotel. 36. am extra paid for good performance. 37. I can change my shifts with other co-workers. 38. Meals provided for personnel are pleasing. 39. Hotel’s architectural design is appropriate to service flow. 40. The place I stay has proper hygiene and health conditions. External Motivation Level 4.229 1.027 3.45 5.42 6.65 33.99 50.25 2.644 3.657 3.867 4.000 3.960 3.665 1.374 1.228 1.016 0.986 0.994 29.32 9.32 3.79 2.49 3.95 20.05 9.57 6.62 5.47 3.62 17.79 13.60 16.40 15.42 16.78 22.56 41.06 45.43 43.03 43.75 10.28 26.45 27.76 33.33 31.91 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1066 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of Job Security on the Perception of External Motivational Tools: A Study in Hotel Businesses Author Author ŞENOL, Fazıl Abstract A summary of the resource. Hotel guests’ satisfaction with service and product depends largely on employees’ doing their job willingly and readily because of the direct relationship between employee motivation and quality of products. Therefore some internal or external means of interference are needed throughout management processes in order to motivate employees. In this study external motivation levels of employees working in hotel businesses and as an independent variable, job security factor’s effect on the perception of external motivational tools are investigated. Population of the study consists of hotel employees working in 4 and 5 star hotels in Turkey. A sample of 24 hotels was chosen from cities with dense tourism activities. The study was conducted in the months of July and August of 2009 and 414 employees participated in the survey. Regression Analysis Methods are used in analyzing the data. The results of the study have shown that there is a meaningful relationship between job security and external motivational tools and existence of job security is effective on the perception levels of all other external motivational tools. Based on the analysis results obtained it has been concluded that job security is most effective on factor variables related to ‘Hierarchical Structure’ among other external motivational tools. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3773b94c01c3810bca1a27b3e4ab725.pdf 982967f3446dd2516fa6d6e22747d848 PDF Text Text Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi / 2011 Cilt: VI Sayı: II STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF IT SUPPORTED LEARNING Meliha HANDZIC* Merdžana OBRALIC** Emir CICKUSIC*** Abstract: The objective of this study was to examine the university students’ perceptions and intentions towards IT supported learning. Eighty-eight undergraduate students from the engineering and management departments of a young private university in Bosnia and Herzegovina participated in the survey. In responding to the questionnaire, the participants gave their opinions about IT medium richness, self-efficacy, and usefulness, ease of use, social norms and intentions to use IT in their day-to-day learning. The results revealed significant differences in perceptions and intentions between junior and senior students. Juniors had significantly higher regard for IT medium richness and felt higher social norms pressure, but expressed lesser intentions to use IT tools due to their poorer self-efficacy beliefs. The findings suggest the need for more and earlier students’ IT exposure and practice in order to gain better skills and form more favorable usage intentions sooner. All rights reserved by the JKEM � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1552 Title A name given to the resource Students’ Perceptions Of It Supported Learning Author Author HANDZIC, Meliha OBRALIĆ, Merdžana CICKUSIC, Emir Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study was to examine the university students’ perceptions and intentions towards IT supported learning. Eighty-eight undergraduate students from the engineering and management departments of a young private university in Bosnia and Herzegovina participated in the survey. In responding to the questionnaire, the participants gave their opinions about IT medium richness, self-efficacy, and usefulness, ease of use, social norms and intentions to use IT in their day-to-day learning. The results revealed significant differences in perceptions and intentions between junior and senior students. Juniors had significantly higher regard for IT medium richness and felt higher social norms pressure, but expressed lesser intentions to use IT tools due to their poorer self-efficacy beliefs. The findings suggest the need for more and earlier students’ IT exposure and practice in order to gain better skills and form more favorable usage intentions sooner. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/03e8eb8c5922e186d7f91b61bc2d9063.pdf babdcaf19e0c7d3d79cd7314832944d3 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Culture-focused learning in the EFL classroom: Materials and approaches Janet M.D. Higgins Okinawa University, Japan jmdth@yahoo.com Abstract: In this presentation, I introduce approaches and materials that I have developed with university students studying English as a foreign language in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, to focus on cultural diversity and regional identity. Okinawa is the southernmost Prefecture in Japan. It has a rich cultural tradition that was at its height in the ‗Golden Age‘ of the 15th century. One of my teaching goals is to help students identify the special features of this living heritage and to be able to talk about and explain them to visitors in English. Since we clearly learn about our own culture through contrasting it with others, my materials are also multicultural. Several sets of materials are introduced: Using the vehicle of The Guided Walk to identify, research, and make presentations about local cultural artifacts. This includes students assuming the role of tour guide. Looking at what artifacts we can find on the streets in cities outside Japan. Examples from a government funded CALL project in which our team is compiling regional-focused lexical materials in a visual dictionary. Key words: culture-focused learning materials, Okinawa, visual multilingual dictionary 1. Background In this presentation, I introduce approaches and materials that I have developed with university students studying English as a foreign language in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, to focus on cultural diversity and regional identity. Okinawa is the southernmost prefecture in Japan. It has a rich cultural tradition that was at its height in the ‗Golden Age‘ of the 15th century. It was incorporated into Japan from the 17th century. Although sharing many aspects of mainstream Japanese culture, it still retains many treasures from its earlier identity. It also has a local language/dialect, but this is disappearing. One of my teaching goals is to help students identify the special features of this living heritage and to be able to talk about and explain them to visitors in English, or to introduce them to people they meet when travelling abroad. The language level of course participants is mixed. They range from 2 - 4th year students with a variety of language experience. Some have spent one year studying abroad in an English speaking country, some are overseas students, and some have limited knowledge. The activities and materials I have chosen to introduce are two closely related practical projects which involve fieldwork and student presentations, and a multilingual, multimodal CALL dictionary project being developed at Okinawa University by our 3-person team and funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education. For the first two, I will explain the activities, and give examples of students‘ work. For the third, I will give several examples of the materials. 2. Activities Of the two activities I will introduce, the second, The Guided Walk, is the most complex and was developed first. The first, Street Life, was the result of my interest in photography and travel, and specifically developed as a result of a conference trip I made in 2010. I wanted to share my impressions of the city of Granada in Spain with my students, and searched for a vehicle that would also be a teaching and learning opportunity. I subsequently found that what I had developed complemented The Guided Walk in a very useful way. 2.1 Street life Born then out of working with the photos I brought back from Granada, the Street Life activity can be conceptualized as a simple but effective way of reflecting on what cultural artifacts are, and recognizing the distinctiveness of one‘s own cultural artifacts through comparisons with those of other cultures. We grow up seeing the world around us as the way the world ‗is‘. Exposure through media to other cultures does not necessarily change our view that ‗our cultural world‘ is ‗the norm‘, and that the others are ‗strange‘, or at least not the norm. We take for granted the cultural artifacts we live among and with which we operate. By artifacts, I refer to objects, living and non-living, with which we cohabit, as well as ways of acting. It can often be difficult to recognize what these artifacts are because we are so familiar with them. It may also be 664 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the case that interpretations of them are imposed on us by authority figures, political and social institutions, and so forth. One way of stepping back and discerning the artifacts with which we are so familiar and which create our cultural world, is to look at those of other cultures. I chose Granada because of its place in the history of Christian and Muslim interactions in Spain. My students have little familiarity with European life and institutions and even less with those of the Muslim world. I chose photos of things that were unfamiliar and things that were familiar but different. While focusing on artifacts and what we can find in the streets, we might think that we are dealing with superficialities. However, what may appear superficial may have a much deeper significance, and it such a level that I hope to reach. Let me introduce examples from the PowerPoint presentation I created for this activity. It begins with photos of the narrow streets of the old Moorish town and the wide streets of the new European town developed by the Christian monarchs. We then look at what we can find on the streets, (Figures 1 and 2), and students try to work out what each photo shows. Figure 1 What is the purpose of this? ….. And this? Students recognized the function of the doorknocker in Figure 1, but several of them found the hand eerie and they were very uncomfortable with the idea of using it. Figure 2 What are these? And this? I was particularly interested in the right hand photo of the street light in Figure 2. Its shape reflects the mocarabes decorating the niches and arches of many of the rooms in the Alhambra. But what do mocarabes represent? We talked about this in class. The next stage of the activity is for the students to choose one of the photos, explain the artifact, and find an Okinawan equivalent or related example. Figure 3 shows the work of one student. He explained the significance of the design of the light, found an interesting street light in Okinawa and told us the significance of the design. Although we needed to expand this further by explaining why this traditional hat is shaped in this way and with these specific colours, this piece of work shows the type of thought, research, and skills that I am hoping to encourage and foster. 665 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 3 Street Light by E-san The street light in Granada has an interesting shape. It has a long story. Mohammed, who wrote down in the Koran the message he received from God, hid in a cave to escape his enemies. When he was hiding, a spider‘s web covered the entrance to the cave and saved him. That street light‘s motif is taken from the stalactite shapes in the interior of the cave. I found interesting street lights in Shin-toshin in Naha. The shape is the Hana-gasa which is Okinawa‘s traditional hat. In describing the objects in the photos, students have to grapple with the language used for describing physical attributes, functions, and significance. This is good training for The Guided Walk activity. 2.2 The Guided Walk The Guided Walk is a well respected and popular leisure activity. It is not only attractive to tourists, but is a regular event in many local communities. My version of the Walk consists of a progression of tasks which focus on the language used to lead a Guided Walk, and involves learning and practising how to describe and explain cultural artifacts. 2.2.1 Descriptive Language Since the language level of the course participants is often low, I provide content prompts, example expressions, and model descriptions for items such as buildings, local flora, local food, local restaurants, a local activity or job. We intersperse work on descriptive language with the other activities. Figure 4 An example of content prompts Describing a building  its name in Japanese and /or Uchinaguchi; the meaning/translation of this in English  its purpose  its age  what it is built of  other * Uchinaguchi is local Okinawan dialect 2.2.2 Fieldwork 1 Figure 5 is an excerpt from one the worksheets we use. The map delimits the area we investigate. In this case it is a small community close to the university. The students are divided into groups and asked to walk around the area searching out things that they feel are typical of Okinawa or the area, or that they think visitors will be interested in. They are asked to take photos of them, both close up and in their natural surroundings. 666 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 5 2.2.3 Post-field work 1 Each group works on descriptions of their artifacts and designs a Guided Walk round the area. 2.2.4 Guiding language We study expressions we can use for different stages of the Guided Walk. These include: explaining our tour goal, beginning the tour and getting visitors attention; pointing out features as we walk; asking questions of the group; answering questions of the group; ending the tour. 2.2.5 Field work 2 The members of each group take turns using the guiding language and escorting us round the area. Other group members are encouraged to answer questions. Figure 6 provides some examples of what the students said on one Walk. Figure 6 Scripts of the guides in action (revised) 1. This is an old house in the Okinawan style. If you look at the roof, you will see two things like lions. They are called "shisa" in the Okinawan local language. If you look carefully at the ―shisa" you will find they are different. The mouth is open for the male on the left, and the mouth is closed for the female on the right. Q: Does anyone know why they are different? A: The mouth of the male is open so that he can make evil spirits leave. The mouth of the female is closed so that she can keep the good things of the family. [X-san] 2. If you look on the right, you‘ll see an old Okinawa style roof. It is called "Akagawara" which means "red roof". Next, on the left, you'll see a big tree. It's a "Gajimaru"or banyan. It is a very famous tree in Okinawa because a fairy called "Kjimunaa" lives in this tree according to Okinawan legend. 667 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo [K-san] 3. Ladies and Gentleman, please look over here. This is ―utaki‖ in the local Okinawan language. People believe that the god of the area lives here. They come here to pray for their safety. [S-san] 2.2.6 Presentations Each group works together to create a PowerPoint presentation of their Guided Walk. It contains the photos they took during fieldwork and their descriptions. This activity simulates the actual Walks. Sometimes the weather or time does not permit us to complete field work 2. As they show their PowerPoints, group members point the route out on the area map and use guiding language. Figure 7 shows students working together on their presentations, and Figure 8 shows a moment during a presentation. Figure 7 Figure 8 668 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. A multilingual, multimodal culture-focused dictionary project For the last 5 years, two colleagues and I have been working on a Japanese Ministry of Education funded project to create multilingual and multicultural lexical resources for our students. The need was felt by the English, Chinese and Japanese language teachers at the university for lexical materials that would focus on Okinawan cultural artifacts. Our textbooks and dictionaries are sadly lacking in such materials. For instance, the English language textbooks and dictionaries available are British and American English based. They do not provide help to students who want to talk about and explain their Okinawan life experiences. Our goal was to create a series of units in which we could introduce locally appropriate lexical items. Each item is presented in English, Chinese and Japanese, in written and spoken form, and is illustrated by a photograph or short video. We have tried to use videos for actions (verbs) and photos for objects (nouns). Figure 9 is of a screen showing a dictionary entry. On the right are the languages in which students can choose to see or listen to the item. On the left is the menu for the unit. They can click to move between subsections Figure 9 In addition to an item itself, we have created a number of short example sentences that show the use of the item in a natural content. This allows us, for example in English, to show a noun being used in the indefinite, definite or plural forms, with the appropriate articles. Verbs are used in various tenses and forms. We also have a cultural note section for many items in which we explain cultural points that are specific to the different language users. These sections are therefore different for the three language versions. The organization of the units varies according to the topic. Our units on Arriving at and Departing from Naha Airport, contain both object focused sections (souvenirs, airport amenities) and process focused sections (checking in, going through immigration). Learning activities include recognizing and using the items in short conversations, and using the items in sequences. Figure 9 shows a dictation exercise. Figure 10 669 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Our unit on the Tsuboya Pottery district of Naha is more complex. The items are first introduced in related topic sets and collected in photo galleries. They are then used in various activities. One for example is learning about the pottery making process. Another is interviewing a local potter and a local architect. Another is acting as a tour guide to the district. We intend the materials to be used for self-study and in the classroom. We would like the items to be used in extended conversations, in the preparation of speeches, interviews, and guided tours. More details about this project can be found in my poster presentation at this conference. 4. Final comments The three sets of materials I have introduced in this presentation are all aimed at encouraging and enabling students to observe, explain, share, and value their local culture and identities as they challenge themselves to communicate in English In their various ways, the materials and the methodology are designed to stimulate students by providing interesting authentic and semi-authentic learning opportunities. 5. References Higgins, J.M.D. (2009) Sharing our culture with visitors: English for Tour Guides. In Eds. Dantas-Whitney, M. & Rilling, S., Authenticity in the Adult Classroom. TESOL Classroom Practice Series. p.19-27. Virginia: TESOL. Higgins, J.M.D. (2007) Developing regional culture-oriented lexical resources for language learners. In, Department of Applied English, Ming Chuan University (Ed.), The Proceedings of 2007 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL and Applied Linguistics, p. 165-173. Taiwan: Crane Publishing. 6. Acknowledgements The dictionary project is supported by MEXT research awards 18520471 and 70235802 (2006-08, 2008-11). 670 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 100 Title A name given to the resource Culture-focused learning in the EFL classroom: Materials and approaches Author Author Higgins, Janet M.D. Abstract A summary of the resource. In this presentation, I introduce approaches and materials that I have developed with university students studying English as a foreign language in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, to focus on cultural diversity and regional identity. Okinawa is the southernmost Prefecture in Japan. It has a rich cultural tradition that was at its height in the ‗Golden Age‘ of the 15th century. One of my teaching goals is to help students identify the special features of this living heritage and to be able to talk about and explain them to visitors in English. Since we clearly learn about our own culture through contrasting it with others, my materials are also multicultural. Several sets of materials are introduced: Using the vehicle of The Guided Walk to identify, research, and make presentations about local cultural artifacts. This includes students assuming the role of tour guide. Looking at what artifacts we can find on the streets in cities outside Japan. Examples from a government funded CALL project in which our team is compiling regional-focused lexical materials in a visual dictionary. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7595716c529b085d0b42506e0fe4270f.pdf 7f579d78a1203bbc02aa2a390924a923 PDF Text Text INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA GRADUATE PROJECT by Harun BAŞTUĞ Project Supervisor Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat AKBAROV SARAJEVO December, 2010 �PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Harun BAŞTUĞ MA, ELT, 2010 Submitted to the Graduate Study Unit in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in ELT INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY 2010 �1 APPROVAL PAGE Student : Harun BAŞTUĞ Faculty : Faculty of Education Department : English Language and Literature Thesis Subject : Perceptions and effectiveness of being a non-native English speaker teacher (NNEST) as a foreigner in Bosnia and Herzegovina Date of Defense : 15.12.2010 I certify that this final work satisfies all the requirements as a graduate project for the degree of Master of Arts. Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROV Head of Department This is to certify that I have read this final work and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a graduate project for the degree of Master of Arts. Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROV Supervisor Examining Committee Members Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROVInternational Burch University …………... …………... Prof. Dr. Srebren DIZDAR Sarajevo University Asst.Prof.Dr. Melih Karakuzu International Burch University …………... It is approved that this final work has been written in compliance with the formatting rules laid down by the Graduate Study Unit. Asst.Prof.Dr. Azamat AKBAROV Head of Graduate Study Unit �PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 1 Abstract In the field of English language teaching (ELT), a growing number of teachers are not native speakers of English. According to current estimates, about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide are non-native speakers of the language. The term non-native English speaking teacher (NNEST) has created a division among professionals in the ELT profession. English is taught commonly in many countries where English is spoken as a second language or spoken widely. Therefore, being a non-native English speaking teacher in your own country, where English is the target language between you and your own local learners and inevitably your mother tongue is used partly during the classes, is different from in a foreign country where English is mutual language between you and your learners. In that case, English is the only way for you and your learners in order to communicate in every part of school life, in school activities or even in your daily life. Learners feel like talking just the target language before, during, and after the classes unavoidably. We can see the differences of learning English through a local non-native English speaking teacher. Key words: English language teaching, NNEST �Acknowledgements There are many people who helped to make my years at the graduate school most valuable. First, I thank Mr. Assist. Prof. Dr. Azamat AKBAROV, my major professor and dissertation supervisor. Having the opportunity to work with him over the years was intellectually rewarding and fulfilling. I also thank Mr. Assist. Prof. Dr. Melih KARAKUZU contributing much to the development of this research starting from the early stages of my dissertation work. Many thanks to Computer Department Staff, who patiently answered my questions and problems on word processing. I would also like to thank to my graduate student colleagues who helped me all through the years full of class work and exams. The last words of thanks go to my lovely wife, Mine BAŞTUĞ who is also an English teacher for her patience, encouragement and her endless support through this long journey. �To my lovely wife, Mine BAŞTUĞ �Table of Contents 1. ....................................................................................................................... Abstrac t..................................................................................................................................... ii 2. ....................................................................................................................... Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ iii 3. ....................................................................................................................... 1. Inroduction ........................................................................................................... 1 2. Status Of The Non-Native English Teachers .................................................... 3 3. Perceptions of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT) ........................................... 5 3.1 NNS Teachers‟ Self-perceptions ................................................................... 6 3.2 NNS Teachers in The Classroom .................................................................... 6 3.3 Students‟ Perceptions of NNS Teachers ......................................................... 7 4. Effectiveness of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT) ......................................... 8 5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 10 References ................................................................................................................. 11 Curriculum Vitae ..................................................................................................... 13 4. ....................................................................................................................... �1 2 3 4 5 6 Chapter 1 Introduction Initially, we should mention the difference between Native Speaker and Non-Native Speaker in terms of Language Pedagogy. In an article on the differences between NTs and NNTs, Nayar (1994) states that non native speakers are often regarded as language deprived, unreliable speakers in terms of language competence when compared to native speakers, who have phonological, linguistic, and communicative competence as well as linguistic identity. On the other hand, it is considered that non-native speaking teachers have a „bright‟ side. It could be also pointed out that, even if non-native-speakers normally use bookish language and speak in a less confident way, they are more empathetic, attend to the students` real needs, show more commitment, have realistic expectations of the students and are more insightful. According to Medgyes (1994), we should analyze the different areas of difficulty. Vocabulary: There are some problems with the English lexicon as well as with any other language: many words have different meanings according to the context, idioms, synonyms, etc. In short, vocabulary resists mastery. Fluency: Oral fluency requires many qualities, such as readiness to speak, speech rate, etc, in which non-native-speakers are in a disadvantage. Non-native-speakers' speech tends to be redundant due to the difficulty in finding the right structures at the right time. �Pronunciation: It is obvious that non-native-speakers are marked by a foreign accent that in the worst cases interferes with other people's understanding. Grammar: Grammar is the favorite field for non-native-speakers It is said to be more concrete and more learnable than vocabulary. The increasing demand for English all over the world and the ever-increasing number of NNTs in the field -about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide- (Samimy & BruttGriffler, 1999) has led to debates regarding to whether English should be taught by native (NT) or by non-native teachers (NNT) and whether NTs or NNTs are better in terms of teaching the language. If you ask anyone to be taught by whether native teacher (NT) or nonnative teachers (NNT), most of the learners would say that by native teacher (NT) due to the fact that NTs have the advantage of having the cultural, phonetic and lexical knowledge of the target language. According to the one study aiming to present the attitudes of EFL learners towards NTs and NNTs, interview results were not surprising (Gorsev, 2008). That is, the majority of the students (13/18) in the English prep school of a private university in Istanbul in 2007-08 academic years chose natives as better English teachers when asked whether they preferred to have NTs or NNTs. The rest thought it would be more “suitable to have NNTs during the early stages of L2 learning process” as they “benefit from Turkish explanations a lot. We assume that that result would be nearly same in other countries in the same conditions. There is no doubt that there is inevitable difference between native teacher (NT) and nonnative teacher (NNT) as mentioned above. However, I will try to show the differences �between the non-native English speaking teachers who are local teachers and foreign teachers. We will also try to mention foreign teachers` effectiveness as non-native teachers. 7 8 9 10 11 Chapter 2 Status of the non-native English teachers 12 There is no doubt that native speakers of a language have a feel for its nuances, are comfortable using its idiomatic expressions, and speak it fluently. Unfortunately, native English speakers without teaching qualifications are more likely to be hired as ESL teachers than qualified and experienced NNESTs, especially outside the United States (Amin, 2000; Braine, 1999). But many in the profession argue that teaching qualifications should be required of all English teachers, regardless of their native language (Nayar, 1994; Phillipson, 1996). Phillipson also considers NNESTs to be potentially the ideal ESL teachers because they have gone through the process of acquiring English as an additional language. They have first-hand experience in learning and using a second language, and their personal experience has sensitized them to the linguistic and cultural needs of their students. The native speaker fallacy has created a number of challenges with which NNTs must contend in the workplace and in their daily lives. Although the majority of English teachers in the world are not native speakers of English (Matsuda & Matsuda, 2001), NNTs struggle for equal treatment in the ELT profession. They face a number of challenges, including those related to accent and credibility in the workplace. According to one research, it is shown that considering NS teachers ideal teachers and trying to prove themselves all the time affect the self-confidence of NNS teachers negatively as well. For example, in a study with 78 NS and 18 NNS teachers working at different universities in the United States, Moussu (2006) found that NS teachers were more confident than NNS �teachers about the strengths of their teaching and language skills. NNS teachers, on the other hand, were found to have low self esteem because of their limited knowledge of American culture and foreign accents. Although NNS teachers constitute 80% of the total ELT workforce worldwide, they are “typically treated as second class citizens in the world of language teaching”. Rajagopalan (2006) believes this is due to the fact that native speakers are usually regarded as the only reliable source of “authentic “ language and that the target language is considered to be “whatever the native speakers speak”. In the meantime NS teachers are often hired with little or no teacher education because of an “automatic extrapolation from competent speaker to competent teacher-based on linguist grounds alone” (Seidlhofer, 1999). Studies carried out in the US (Mahboob et al., 2004), UK (Clark and Paran, 2007), and Turkey (Celik, 2006) have all shown that being a native speaker is important for employers of English teachers, especially in private language schools and universities. It might be true that non-native teacher can teach better English than the native speakers. That is because they have struggled themselves to learn that language. They know exactly where learners lack and where they make mistakes often. They are also aware of many more techniques of learning to speak which is not the case with the native speakers. Most nonnative speakers have degrees in language teaching and many years of experience, whereas many native speakers either have little language teaching qualifications or little experience. According to Ulku and Derin (2010), the analyses in general revealed a similar picture regarding Turkish teachers‟ opinions on NS/NNS dichotomy when they start teaching. At first they feel hostile towards the system of admission, but they accept the superiority of NS teachers. They also realize that as English language teachers they can be as successful as NS teachers and this awareness seems to increase their self-esteem. They feel annoyed by the situation they are in, while accepting is as it is and even feel “lucky” as they are given a chance to work with NS teachers in the same institution. �13 14 15 16 17 18 Chapter 3 Perceptions of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT) Language acquisition is influenced by the complex interactions of a number of variables including materials, activities, and evaluative feedback. That is why all language teachers believe that a central characteristic of good language teaching and good language teachers is the fact that they place a great importance on students‟ needs, interests, likes and dislikes. Teachers‟ knowledge about the subject matter and pedagogy plays an important role in responding those needs, and is one of the sources of motivation for further development. Willingness and a desire for continuous improvement have been considered as some of the characteristics of autonomous teachers (McGrath, 2000). Language teachers should have a desire to learn more about their profession. They may look for ways to further develop professionally, and will be open to new ideas on how to do so on their own or with colleagues. Teacher may feel that they have to stick to the curriculum and follow the syllabus more closely. But they should find extra activities that are appropriate for students. It is better to keep in mind the aims while trying to motivate the students. Supplementing the course book by looking for materials and activities may help to respond students‟ problems and needs. Activities that activate students‟ previous knowledge enhance their learning and motivate them, and that foster the real use of the language through communication. �19 3.1 NNS Teachers’ Self-perceptions It can be claimed that due to their lower language proficiency and different teaching behavior in comparison with their NS counterparts; research on students‟ perceptions indicates that they tend to be more supportive of NNS teachers the longer they are taught by them (Enric, 2005). According to one the study done by Ulku and Atay (2010), it was mentioned that “I‟m-not-anative speaker” syndrome is common among NNS teachers and this has negative consequences on their confidence as they feel inferior and inadequate when they compare themselves to their L1 colleagues Institutions offering English language programs often promote themselves as employing NS teachers and advertisements for teaching positions often require that applicants are native speakers implying that NS teachers are preferable in some way. The reason for the commercial preference for NS teachers appears to be that despite the academic arguments and evidence there is still a broad social acceptance of the native speaker model (Pacek, 2005; Thornburry, 2006). Such institutions advertise that all of their teachers are native speakers in order to attract attention from students and parents, and increase their enrollment rates. Native speaker teachers are generally paid much more than their non-native speaker counterparts and get extra benefits, like lodging. 20 3.2 NNS Teachers in The Classroom Having the knowledge of two or more languages in one mind and using another language for any purpose have implications for language teaching. There might be pros and cons of native and NNS teachers from the students‟ perspective. NNs teachers may have some problems in lexical and phonological way. But at the first steps, learners may prefer their local teachers. Thus they should explain some grammar structures and some words may be translated into native language. �The role of the mother tongue in the second language classroom is very important. Ernesto Macaro (2005) provides answers to questions related to the reasons that make code-switching (by definition only available to the bilingual teacher) a contentious issue in the L2 classroom and the purposes and frequency of code switching. He finally advances a pedagogical proposal based on an interaction between functionally based code switching (the use of the L1 is beneficial because it facilitates classroom interaction or improves the learning of the L2 or both. 21 3.3 Students’ Perceptions of NNS Teachers Most schools do not have good facilities for second language learning. In many cases, teachers use the most convenient textbooks available on the market, without a prior and proper assessment of their suitability in terms of the very specific needs of the learners. In addition, the learners themselves are not often aware of the fact that many professions require particular linguistic skills that they must learn. In terms of language acquisition, students must be competent in order to learn second language. Because of the syllabi students have two or three English classes a week. It is not easy for both NS and NNS teachers to make students be interested in second language. As a foreigner NNS teacher may lead them use the target language before, during and after the classes. That is why Bosnian students feel themselves have to talk in English as if they were talking to NS teachers. �22 23 24 Chapter 4 Effectiveness of being a Non-native Teacher (NNT) I am a Turkish who was taught English as a foreign language by local Turkish teachers from middle to high school. Then, I graduated from one of the Turkish universities. Maybe I should confess something. While studying in university, we had no chance to use our target language out of the lessons. We were all Turkish students and we had mostly Turkish professors. Late 90s, we had no opportunity to access the Internet, as well. Thanks to the technology, there are now a lot of opportunities to reach the sources of English in order to improve your language. You can keep in touch your friends in worldwide through the Internet. I have been teaching English for ten years, and I have had the opportunity of living in a foreign country for three years. As a non-native speaking English teacher, I can clearly say that being in Bosnia as a Turkish man makes me happy in my classes and satisfies me that I am teaching English to my students. I have been working in a private school where the wealthier parents send their children to. It is similar to public schools, but since parents pay �more for their child's education, classes are smaller, more teaching resources are available, and expectations are higher. However, as a foreign teacher you must meet higher requirements to land a job here. Furthermore, in the classes the only meeting point between you and your students is the target language - English. I am not going to compare here effectiveness of native and non-native English teachers. But I can assume that there is difference between me who is a foreigner and local teacher who is from the same country, as well. As it can be seen in the study (Gorsev, 2008) that learners tend to use their mother language in order to communicate with the teacher during the lesson. It may seem unnatural to talk to a Turkish man in English. The local teachers, inevitably, response them in native language. During the class there is no way for me to use only the target language, English. In recess time, lunch time or in after school activities and field trips students feel like talking or using English to communicate with me. Thanks to the Internet I can keep in touch with them through the chat rooms, msn or facebook. There are also a lot of advantages being in this country. Learning a new language, a new culture and new customs of people in this country makes me understand how the learners feel when they are learning English. For example, in Bosnian language -učiti- means both to teach and to learn. In order to understand what kind of difficulty a Bosnian learner has while learning those words it is good to experience of learning Bosnian language. As I am foreigner, the challenges that an English teacher may face may not be so important for me, especially pronunciation and vocabulary. Somehow I figured out that cultural differences are very important to teach American or English culture to Bosnian students. For instance, the word uncle means brother of your mother or your father. On the other hand, both in Bosnian and Turkish there two different words to address them each amica and dayica, amca and dayı, respectively. �Conclusion As a foreigner, I should consider the advantages of being in this country and I should learn one more language, so that I can see the difficulties that learners may face to while learning English. When I started learning Bosnian, I figured out that learning a language wasn‟t easy. Long time ago I learned English and I had never considered that learners could have had problems. No matter I am native or non-native teacher, as long as I have interest, responsibility and willingness to help students I am a suitable teacher of a foreign language. Finally, it can be claimed that both native and non-native teachers should go through the process of learning at least one more language. �References Amin, N. (2000). Negotiating nativism: Minority immigrant women ESL teachers and the native speaker construct (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Canada, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, A 4579. Braine, G. (Ed.) (1999). Non-native educators in English language teaching. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Celik, S. (2006). A concise examination of the artificial battle between native and nonnative speaker teachers of English in Turkey J. Kastamonu Educ. Fac. 14:371-376. Clark, E, Paran, A. (2007). The employability of non native speaker teachers of EFL: A UK survey. Syst. 35 pp.407-430. Enric, L. (2005). Non-Native Language Teachers. Perceptions, Challenges and Contributions to the Profession. New York: Springer. xii + 314 p. Gorsev, I. (2008). EFL Learners’ Interaction with Native and Non-native EFL Teachers. Macaro, E. (2005) Codeswitching in the L2 classroom A communication and learning strategy. In E. Llurda (ed.) Non-Native Language Teachers: Perceptions, Challenges, and Contributions to the Profession Boston, MA: Springer. pp. 63-84 McGrath, I. (2000). Teacher Autonomy. InSinclair, B., McGrath, I., and T. Lamb (Eds.)Learner Autonomy, Teacher Autonomy: FutureDirections. Harlow, UK: Longman pp.100-110. Mahboob, A, Uhrig K, Newman, KL, Harford, BS. (2004). Children of lesser English: Status of non-native English speakers as college level English a second language teachers in the United States. In L. Kamhi-Stein (Ed.) Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press pp. 110120. Matsuda, A. & Matsuda, P. K. (2001). Autonomy and collaboration in teacher education: Journal sharing among native and nonnative English-speaking teacher. The CATESOL Journal, 13(1), pp. 109-121. �Matsuda, P. (1999). Teacher development through NS/NNS collaboration. TESOL Matters, 9(6), pp. 1-10. Moussu, L. (2006). Native and non-native English speaking English as a second language teachers. Doctoral Thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette. Medgyes, P. (1994) The Non-Native Teacher London: MacMillan Publishers, Ltd. Nayar, P.B. (1994). Whose English is it? TESL-EJ, vol.1, April. Pacek, D. (2005). Personality not nationality: Foreign students’ perceptions of a non-native speaker lecturer of English at a British University. In E Lurda (ed.), pp. 243-262. Phillipson, R. (1996). ELT: the native speaker’s burden? ELT Journal, 46(1), pp. 12-18. Rajagopalan, K. (2006). Nonnative speaker teachers of English and their anxieties. Ingredients for an experiment in action research. In E Llurda (ed.), (pp. 283-303). New York: Springer. Samimy, K, & Brutt-Griffer, J. (1999). To Be a Native or Non-Native Speaker: Perceptions of “Non-Native” Students in a Graduate TESOL Program. In Non-Native Educators in English Language Teaching, pp. 127-144. Seidlhofer, B. (1999). It is and undulating feeling. The importance of being a non-native teacher of English, VIEWS, 5, pp. 63-80. Thornburry, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Macmillan: Oxford. Ulku, O. and Derin, A. (2010). Challenges of being a non-native English teacher. Educational Research Vol. 1(5), pp. 135-139. �Curriculum Vitae Harun BAŞTUĞ was born on 21 December 1977, in Kirikkale. He received his BA degree in English Language Teaching in 2000 from Marmara University. He worked as an English teacher in Language Schools from 2000 to 2006, in International School from 2007 to 2008, and in a Private School from 2008 to 2010. Since September 2010, he has been a research assistant at a private university. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 747 Title A name given to the resource PERCEPTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF BEING A NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKER TEACHER (NNEST) AS A FOREIGNER IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Author Author BASTUG, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. In the field of English language teaching (ELT), a growing number of teachers are not native speakers of English. According to current estimates, about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide are non-native speakers of the language. The term non-native English speaking teacher (NNEST) has created a division among professionals in the ELT profession. English is taught commonly in many countries where English is spoken as a second language or spoken widely. Therefore, being a non-native English speaking teacher in your own country, where English is the target language between you and your own local learners and inevitably your mother tongue is used partly during the classes, is different from in a foreign country where English is mutual language between you and your learners. In that case, English is the only way for you and your learners in order to communicate in every part of school life, in school activities or even in your daily life. Learners feel like talking just the target language before, during, and after the classes unavoidably. We can see the differences of learning English through a local non-native English speaking teacher. Key words: English language teaching, NNEST Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-12-15 Keywords Keywords. Thesis NonPeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 745 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-12-01 Keywords Keywords. Thesis NonPeerReviewed PR English literature,PZ Childrens literature Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 360 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f5402090f096a3805e63c018d62dbbd5.pdf 34bbc28543f6eca4e5f745f0b3d3d91c PDF Text Text Architecture Constructions Which Were Established Taraklı In Sakarya, Turkey Ahmet C. APAY Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Adapazari, Turkey, aapay@sakarya.edu.tr Tahir AKGUL Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Adapazari, Turkey, takgul@sakarya.edu.tr Emine AYDIN Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Adapazari, Turkey, emineb@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Taraklı, although its history goes very back, is an Ottoman settlement place in which the Ottoman civilian architecture samples are abundant when its pattern that should be protected was taken into account. It is a fact that the mentioned architectural asset was unnoticed until the recently and the required studies should be carried out in order to reveal this our valuable heritage. It is an expected process for this 200-300-year architectural pattern to fray and extinct. It is only possible with the academic studies to stop or slow down this process. The value of the studies on this issue was stated in traditional architectural heritage regulation as follows. “Traditional architecture has a special place for the whole society and it is a reasonable source of proud. It is accepted as an attractive product that reflects the characteristics and differences of the society. It is utilitarian, attractive and pretty. It is both the focus of contemporary life and a document for the past of a society. It is an inappropriate behavior not to make an effort to maintain these traditional harmonies which create the core of the human being’s existence on the world.” There are approximately 400 historical structures, 90 of which are documented, in Taraklı that still protects its traditional pattern and features and has a rooted history. These structures are composed of inns, baths, schools, mosques and houses in great numbers with public buildings in a few numbers. In this study, the general architectural pattern and the features of this pattern of the current structures in Taraklı that witnessed to our architectural history with its architectural aesthetic and eyeful beauty was examined. Moreover, the studies to be carried out to protect our historical heritage were determined analyzing the current structures Keywords: Taraklı, historical wooden structures, architectural pattern. 1. Introduction Taraklı, a district located in the Marmara Region and in the borders of Sakarya city, is surrounded by Bolu city Göynük district in its east, Geyve district in its west, Bilecik city Gölpazarı district in its south and Akyazı district in its north. Taraklı is 70 km’s far away from Sakarya that it is situated in, 250 km’s from Ankara and 200 km’s from Istanbul (Figure 1). 328 �Figure 1: Location of Taraklı (Google Earth, 2008) Taraklı which is located in a place that Sakarya interacts with the districts of Bolu and Bilecik was established in a woody area in a valley between the mountains and hills (Figure 2). The area of this district with an altitude sea level of 485 meters is 334 km2. According to the general census of population in 2008, the population is 7.693 The economy of the district is based on agriculture, animal husbandry and tourism. Within the borders of Taraklı, there are 4 quarters and 22 villages (Table 1). Figure 2: A General View From Taraklı District Years Municipality Quarters Villages 1990 1 4 24 1997 1 4 22 2000 1 4 22 2008* 1 4 22 * According to TUIK (Turkish Statistical Institute) Total 10.906 10.436 9.220 7.693 Table 1: The Population in Taraklı between the Years 1990-2008 As mentioned in Travelbook of Evliye Çelebi, it was stated that it is named as Yenice Tarakçı as people in the district are busy with box wooden spoon and comb. This name changed as Taraklı in colloquial language. In Evliye Çelebi’s Travelbook, he summarized the architectural pattern of Taraklı stating that “Its castle is still ruined. However, it is a pretty town with vineyards and orchards in a streamed river and 500 thriving houses örtülü with wooden sticks and tiles. It includes 11 niches and 7 quarters. As all people are busy with spoon and comb making, they call the city as Taraklı…” The facts that the settlement in this region is not located on a much used trade route, the development and the population increase rates are slow and people in this region migrate helped the architectural pattern in the region maintain up to now protecting its characteristics. In the region that has an intense architectural pattern, among the structures that remain up to now are castle ruins on the hill of Hisar, reservoirs, Taraklı houses that form the Ottoman city pattern, the Ottoman streets, inns, baths, mosques, schools, handcraft workshops and the town square. 329 �2. The Place of Taraklı in the Ottoman-Turkish Architecture There are many factors in the shaping of housing architecture and these can be ordered as the family structure, geographical situation and climate, the material that can be accessed, traditions and customs, environmental conditions, cultural and social life. There are three factors that are influential in the architecture of Taraklı houses. These are the family structure, climate and cultural richness. Although the functionality seems more important than the decorative and shaping elements in the setting design tradition coming from the Ottoman culture, there a perfect harmony of functionality and aesthetic. The household, especially women, in Turkish family structure spend the most of their time (the whole time in villages and towns) at home; therefore, houses are designed as working, entertainment and relaxation places. For example, in order a woman busy with handcraft to accomplish her job at home, the weaving looms are placed in the house. On the other hand, the entertainment groups of the woman come together in these houses as well. Moreover, as the families are patriarchal, all settings are connected to the hall. Despite all this functionality, in the architecture and design of Turkish houses, the purity, respectfulness, family unity and solidarity of the Turkish people is reflected on the housing architecture clearly. The dominant house type in Taraklı is wide beginning from the west of Anatolia to Bosnia Herzegovina, Yugoslavia in the Balkans and to Crimean that is rooted in this area. Sakarya Taraklı basin houses in this wide setting are reflecting the characteristics of the Ottoman house architecture. The architectural aesthetic and eyeful beauty of Taraklı which is a pretty district of Anatolia that emerged in a historical period with its current characteristics and the architectural structures of houses that witnessed to our history and most of which are still being used were investigated by the researchers and it was managed to document this historical heritage. 3.The Characteristics of Taraklı Traditional Settlement Pattern In Taraklı, as in all towns of the Ottomans, in general, the settlement that is integrated with the nature and in accordance with the naturalness of the area was taken as the basis. Dominantly, the structures seem like as if they were climbing up the hills and the areas in the middle of the towns are straight and straight settlement appears here. In Taraklı, which has a structure that the structuring and the transportation is hardly accomplished due to their topography, the elements that form the town pattern have also the function of managing required works as in other Anatolian towns. When the distribution of functions within the town is taken into account, it can be seen that religious, trade, administrative, educational and accommodation structures are found in the town center and the houses are established around Ulu Mosque and on the hills. The center that determine the social life is placed nearly in the middle and on the straightest area and Yunus Paşa Mosque, Old Bath and traditional bazaar pattern which are among the old structures are in this area. In investigations of the district center of Taraklı, it was determined how the area in the center had been used. Occupancy and emptiness analyses indicated that the areas beyond the settlement structures had been used ad greenery zone. This greenery is both the gardens that belong to the structures and the landscape arrangements in general. When taken from the structuring perspective, an abundant structuring can be seen in the “downtown” area and in the axle of Atatürk Avenue which is the main artery of Taraklı. The density of structuring in other areas can be said to be homogeneous. Almost each house has a big or small garden. Again, the functionality analysis carried out in the district center of Taraklı indicated that a great part of the structures had been used as a house. The settlement of houses and trade areas showed that these two areas had been strictly separated from each other. All trade functions were groups around the “downtown”. In addition to this, the axle of Bolu that was within the main route was the axle that most public structures were placed. Again some several public buildings (hospital, school, etc.) were placed around the upward quarter. 4. The General Architectural Characteristics of Taraklı 330 �4.1 Current Situation Analysis in Taraklı Traditional Architecture In studies aimed at determining the Taraklı architectural pattern and presenting solutions for the determined problems, the structures in Hacı Murat Quarter, Ulu Mosque Quarter and Yusuf Bey Quarter were investigated. In these investigations; • It was seen that in terms of construction system, 74% of the structures were constructed in wooden skeleton system with mud-brick and brick, 25% of them were armored concrete and 1% of them were stone structures. All of the stone structures were religious and monumental structures (Figure 4). • In terms of the number of floors, 10% of the structures were one-floored, 72% of them were twofloored, 16% of them were three-floored and 2% of them were four-floored or more than four. • When they were categorized according to the purpose of using, it was seen that 74% of them were houses, 14% of them were trading houses, 5% of them were home offices, 2% of them were public buildings, 1% of them were monumental and religious structures and 4% of them were the others (storage, etc.). Although the houses were available in all part of the district, trading houses were mostly found in Ulu Mosque Quarter (Figure 5). • When they were categorized according to their original forms, it was determined that out of 400 houses that had the characteristics of traditional structure 60% of them were in their original forms, 30% of them lost their originality on its front insignificantly, 10% of them lost their originality in terms of their body, plan and front significantly. These rates are the indicators of the fact that Taraklı architecture has preserved its originality up to now. The structures which were preserved in their original forms were gathered around Ulu Mosque, on Hisar hills, in the north of Hacı Murat Quarter and Yusuf Bey Quarter. • When it was examined according to the newly-built structures, it was seen that 17% of them were in accordance with their environment with their bodies and fronts, 60% of them were in accordance with their environment with their bodies but not in accordance with their fronts and 20% of them were not in accordance with their environment. When these rates were taken into consideration, it was determined that people behaved unconsciously and sloppy to preserve the architectural pattern. Figure 3: Construction Materials/Systems of Buildings in Taraklı Town Center 331 �Figure 4: Current Building Category of Taraklı Town Center When they are investigated in terms of their structures, it was seen that 75% of the traditional houses did not have any structural problems, 12% of them needs structural repair, 12% of them were restored and 1% of them were dangerous. 4.2 Front Appearances and Building Typologies At the end of the typological research, the traditional architectural plan type was determined. At the end of this study, it was found that the buildings in Taraklı were with overhanging in the middle, overhanging in lateral, double overhanging, a rooftop terrace with an extensive view, one-saw overhanging, saw-overhanging, wholefloor overhanging and without overhanging. There are many buildings in Taraklı with the aforementioned typological characteristics and with different appearances. The structures below are examples of these typological characteristics. These examples are presented figuratively and visually below (Figure 5) Overhanging in the middle 332 �Overhanging in lateral Double overhanging A rooftop terrace with an extensive view One-saw overhanging Saw-overhanging 333 �Whole-floor overhanging Tüm cephe çıkmalı Without overhanging Figure 5: Front Views and Building Typologies 4.3. Plan Styles In this part, the traditional architectural plan styles were determined at the end of the investigations on the houses. At the end of these investigations, it is possible to categorize the houses in general as with internal halls, with external halls, with halls in the middle. 4.3.1. Plan Style with External Halls This plan style is composed of a sequence of rooms and a hall in front of them. Hall and Iwans are the elements that enrich this simple plan. Halls and iwans were built with a closed design. There is a stair at the one corner of the hall (Figure 6). The houses with external halls were built as two-floored. It is composed of rooms sequenced towards the hall. It is the simplest and original type of the plan style with external halls. The rooms were oriented to the street while the hall was oriented to the yard. The size of the hall changes according to the number of rooms. The stair is designed at the one corner of the hall with one railing parallel to the wall. To the one edge of the hall, drum stove and two windows are placed. This part of the hall was changed into a kitchen separating with a wall or a wooden screen afterwards. 334 �Figure 6: A Sample for the Plan Style with External Halls 4.3.2. Plan Style with Internal Halls The hall is between the sequences of rooms placed in both sides of it ( Figure 7). The hall is enriched with the elements like iwan, stair hall and overhanging. In some samples, hall is reflected on the front with different types of windows according to the rooms. Figure 7: A Sample for Plan Style with Internal Halls 4.3.3. Plan Style with Halls in the Middle In the light of the principles of the plan style with halls in the middle schema, a plan type that is composed of a hall in the middle and rooms in both sides and known also as split aubergine model can be seen (Figure 8). Although the external hall is unprotected against the harsh climate, the hall in this type of plan is protected due to the rooms. The middle hall that organizes this schema is service settings like rooms, kitchen and toilet that opened into the hall. The basement floor is connected through the entrance door and it is composed of barn, haybarn and storage places that are opened to it. Figure 8: A Sample for the Plan Style with Halls in the Middle The hall is an organizer in both floors. With a bay-windohbyuwed room attached to the hall upstairs, it enables the social interaction with the environment and the integration with the nature being oriented to the garden and yard. In the samples in Taraklı, the ceiling of the hall is higher compared to the room and big iwan’s and the 335 �embroidery is done to the horizontal strip occurred as a result of the rise. In the four-iwanned styles, the entrance of the rooms is made as chamfered and this gives an octagon appearance to the hall which is not ordered. The hall is reflected on the front with different types of windows and overhanging. 5. Conclusion and Recommendations At the end of the investigation, if we are to divide the houses into three groups according their architectures and built dates which affect the architectural pattern significantly and to determine the follow-up studies according to these groups separately; a) The armored concrete structures which is against the traditional town architecture; since the beginning of 80s, armored concrete structures which are not associated with the architectural pattern of the town has started to be built in municipally protected areas as a result of both negligence of historical heritage and aesthetic and economical developments. In addition to the fact that this structuring is threatening the historical pattern of the town, it is quite far away from the traditional structure. An immediate municipally recycling project should be developed that includes these structures and these structures that threaten the historical patterns should be removed. b) The structures built between the Independence War years and 1970s; these structures were built in accordance with the traditional pattern in terms of system and architecture; however, front handworks and door and window forms were changed. As they are the structures that include original pattern on the basis, it is possible for these mentioned structures to be made a part of historical pattern by making delicate workmanship. The domestic administration should prepare a study including the cooperation with the house owners for this purpose. c) Structures that were built in the later 18th and 19th centuries and in the scope of the “Traditional Ottoman House”; these structures are the 200-year old houses that managed to maintain up to now and that create the original architectural pattern of Taraklı. These houses are composed of approximately 400 houses, 90 of which were documented by now. The precautions that should be taken in order to preserve these houses in the scope of the cultural heritage can be listed as below: • Taraklı, which looks like a miniature Ottoman town, should preserve its original form both with its civilian architecture and other works and the city development situation should be reorganized if it is required. • When the current city development plan is examined, religious, administrative, trade, accommodation, educational structures are in the town center. The houses are found mostly on the hills. Therefore, the structures to be built should be built taking this feature of the town into account. • The structures frayed in a natural process should be repaired preserving their architectural situations that are in accordance with their original and real forms. Before starting the repair, the required projects should be prepared according to their original forms and the application should be accomplished according to this project. • There are still many historical houses still being used. However, some houses are abandoned. The precautions should be taken to prevent the extinction of these abandoned houses. In this concept, life in traditional houses should be encouraged and supported by means of aids and helps; thus both these wasted structures will be reappraised and the deforming of the historical and municipal pattern will be prevented. Taraklı has a housing pattern that should be preserved; therefore, the structures that have been built recently and deforming the historical pattern of the town should be arranged according to the historical pattern if possible, if not, radical precautions should be taken by the people in charge to make this structures rebuilt. Moreover, the newly-built houses should be designed taking the plan typologies of the historical houses into consideration and the building should be appropriate to the plans. Recently, Taraklı, a topic for different urban restoration projects and scientific studies, developed dramatically in terms of preservation and restoration. However, the physical structures found in Taraklı, which is an important settlement place in which our cultural heritage is available with samples from the Ottoman architecture and has remained up to now, should be examined with their historical architectural values and appropriateness to the environment and the restoration should be accomplished taking these features into consideration. It should not be forgotten that Taraklı could become a lively Ottoman town only after these attentive studies. 336 �References [1]Akgul T., Apay A. 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Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt VII, Sayı 2, Afyon, s.165-200, 2005 [9]Özköse, A. “Ahşap Kültürü-Anadolu’nun Ahşap Evleri” T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı, ISBN 975-17-2616-6 Ankara, Turkey, 1998 [10]Günay, R. “Safran Bolu Evleri” Yapı Yayın, ISBN 975-8599-33-X, Đstanbul, Turkey, 2003 [11]Günay, R., “Geleneksel Ahşap Yapılar-Sorunları ve Çözüm Yolları” Birsen Yayınları, ISBN – 9755112863, Mart 2007 [12]ARI, A., Irmak Dergisi, Taraklı Evleri–1,2, Sayı 26-27-28, 2003 [13]Taraklı Kaymakamlığı, Tarihin Doğayla Buluştuğu Yer TARAKLI, Çizgi Ofset, Ağustos 2003 [14]Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi, Cilt 3, Üçdal Neşriyat, Đstanbul 2005 [15]http://www.kenthaber.com/marmara/sakarya/Taraklı/Rehber/genel-bilgi/Taraklı-genel-bilgi, Website [16]Turan, M., “Tarihi Taraklı Evlerinin Taşıyıcı Sistemi Ve Yapım Tekniklerinin Belirlenmesi”, Sakarya University, Sakarya/Turkey, 2004 [17]ICOMOS Traditional Architectural Heritage Regulation, p 1, 1999. 337 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 449 Title A name given to the resource Architecture Constructions Which Were Established Taraklı In Sakarya, Turkey Author Author APAY, Ahmet C. AKGUL, Tahir AYDIN, Emine Abstract A summary of the resource. Taraklı, although its history goes very back, is an Ottoman settlement place in which the Ottoman civilian architecture samples are abundant when its pattern that should be protected was taken into account. It is a fact that the mentioned architectural asset was unnoticed until the recently and the required studies should be carried out in order to reveal this our valuable heritage. It is an expected process for this 200-300-year architectural pattern to fray and extinct. It is only possible with the academic studies to stop or slow down this process. The value of the studies on this issue was stated in traditional architectural heritage regulation as follows. “Traditional architecture has a special place for the whole society and it is a reasonable source of proud. It is accepted as an attractive product that reflects the characteristics and differences of the society. It is utilitarian, attractive and pretty. It is both the focus of contemporary life and a document for the past of a society. It is an inappropriate behavior not to make an effort to maintain these traditional harmonies which create the core of the human being’s existence on the world.” There are approximately 400 historical structures, 90 of which are documented, in Taraklı that still protects its traditional pattern and features and has a rooted history. These structures are composed of inns, baths, schools, mosques and houses in great numbers with public buildings in a few numbers. In this study, the general architectural pattern and the features of this pattern of the current structures in Taraklı that witnessed to our architectural history with its architectural aesthetic and eyeful beauty was examined. Moreover, the studies to be carried out to protect our historical heritage were determined analyzing the current structures Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/99a99d901044cbf225748456c317163f.pdf 0a4f5df5dce467ff54885c5f8ac6a47c PDF Text Text Effect Of Trichoderma Harzianum And An Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Glomus Mosseae On Fusarium Crown Rot (Fusarium Culmorum) In Wheat (Cv Altay 2000) Ş.Evrim Arıcı University of Suleyman Demirel, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY evrima@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr Đlknur Eser University of Suleyman Demirel, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY evrima@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr Hulya Özgönen University of Suleyman Demirel, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Plant Protection Isparta/TURKEY hozgonen@ziraat.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: The necrotrophic fungal pathogen Fusarium culmorum causes crown rot disease (CR) in wheat. The experiments were designed to compare the effectiveness of Trichoderma harzianum and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Glomus mossea on reduction of F. culmorum in wheat (cv Altay 2000) in pots tests in this research. Three weeks after sowing, percentage of diseased emerging seedlings were evaluated. In pot trials, Trichoderma harzianum, Glomus mosseae were initially evaluated for reducing disease on wheat cultivars Altay 2000 planted in sterilized soil artificially infested with the pathogen. Wheat plants growing from T. harzianum, and G. mosseae showed the average disease severity of 82.68% for 30-40% while plants from untreated soil had the disease severity of 75% and 98%, respectively Both of them gave also a good control in wheat cultivars. The ability of these isolates to affect the infection of wheat seedlings by F. culmorum may be of potential value in field trials Introduction Fusarium culmorum (W.G.Smith ) is important soilborne pathogens that cause seedling, foot and root rot and head blight of wheat. There are no chemical means to control effectively both of fungi and resistant cultivars are not avaliable. Therefore, the use of microorganisms as a biological control for these diseases is of interest. However, there are few reports of a biocontrol agents against F. culmorum. Many studies have proved the potential of Trichoderma spp.and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus as biological agents antagonistic to several soil borne plant pathogens (Grondona et al. 1997; De Meyer et al. 1998; Altomare et al. 1999; Jacobs et al. 2000; Ahonen-Jonnart et al. 2000; Rosling et al. 2004; Kucuk & Kıvanc, 2005; Ozgonen & Erkilic, 2007; Askar & Rashad, 2010). Strains of Trichoderma can produce antifungal metabolites. They may also be competitors with fungal pathogens, which promotes plant growth. In addition, a number of Trichoderma strains are able to secrete lytic enzymes such as chitinases and β-(1,3)glucanases when grown in liquid media supplemented with either polymers such as laminarin or chitin or with fungal cell walls. The beneficial effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungion plant growth depend in part on the members of the symbiosis and their interactions with other organisms present in the rhizosphere (Ocampo, 1993). 10 �The purpose of this study was to evaluate the interaction between the pathogen and the fungal antagonist and the possibility of mycoparasitism under the biological control of F. culmorum by T. harzianum and Glomus mosseae. Material and Methods T. harzianum was isolated from soil surrounding wheat roots infected by Fusarium culmorum. The isolated culture was kept on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). F. culmorum and T .harzianum was grown at 7 days on potato dextrose agar (PDA), Growing medium (115 gr sand, 35 g corn meal) were autoclaved twice on subsequent days at 121 0C for 60 min, and then were inoculated with one 6-mm-diameter PDA plug excised from an actively growing each F. culmorum and T. harzianum culture (Sneh et al. 1998). Flasks were then placed in a growth chamber at 24 0C for 21 days. Glomus moseae was bulked up on maize and used as mycorrhizal fungal inoculum. Mycorrhizal inoculation were performed by incorporating the inoculum including soil infested with spores mixed with root fragments, 2-3 cm below the seeds (Miles & Wilcoxson, 1984). Inoculum amount was determined as 1000 spores 10 g -1 for each plant as seed treatment. Wheat seed cv cv Altay 2000 were sterilized (%5 sodium hypocloride) and sown in pots. 1 seeds/cultivar in five pots was sown for each soil sample After 11 days 2% growing medium was added in steril soil in pot Prothioconazole +Tebuconazole was used as fungucide (Table 1). Treatment Control (-) Control (+) Glomuss mosseae +F.culmorum+T.harzianum F.culmorum+T.harzianum Glomuss mosseae +F.culmorum F.culmorum+Prothioconazole +Tebuconazole Table 1:Treatments on wheat plants. After sowing each pot received 100 ml of tap water. Pots were maintained in a greenhouse at 21 C and watered daily for 21 days. After plants had been harvested and the roots were washed free of soil, disease was assessed on roots and subcrown internodes. Severity of disease was evaluated on a scale of 0–5 in which 0: no lesion evident, 1: <25% roots and subcrowns with necrosis, 2 :26–50% roots and subcrowns with necrosis, 3: 51–75% roots and subcrowns with necrosis, 4: 76–100% roots and subcrowns with necrosis, and 5: no plant emergence. Obtained data from bioassays were analyzed by SPSS version 16.0.1. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and treatment means separated by TUKEY test (P <0:05) to select isolates for a new assay with several cultivars 0 Results and Discussion In greenhouse experiments, of T. harzianum, Glomus mosseae and Lamardor initially screened for ability to suppress damping-off of wheat when applied to wheat seeds in sterilized soils. The results obtained for the pot/soil experiment are given in Table 2. Lamardor caused a decrease in the percentage of diseased plants. Lamardor provided 60% inhibition rate for F.culmorum. Treatments with T. harzianum and Glomuss mosseae significantly reduced severity of symptoms of F. culmorum damping-off as compared with the non-treated controls. Among the antagonists were significantly better than the control, but it was not statistically different from each other. The results shown that T. harzianum was found to have a wide range of inhibitory effects against Fusarium culmorum. T. harzianum provided 65-70% inhibition rate for F.culmorum. T. harzianum gave also a good behaviour and growth in soil. It was observed colonization of Trichoderma harzianum (data not shown). T. harzianum is a potential agent for the biocontrol of plant pathogens. 11 �Treatment Control (-) Control (+) Glomuss mosseae +F.culmorum+T.harzianum F.culmorum+T.harzianum Glomuss mosseae +F.culmorum F.culmorum+Prothioconazole +Tebuconazole Scala Value 0±0,0 a 4,7±0,3 c Diseases severity % 0 95 1,3±0,3 b 30 1,6±0,5 b 35 1,6±0,3 b 2±0,3 b 35 40 Table 2 Cultivar reaction to the inhibition of F.culmorum after treatment with Glomuss mosseae , T.harzianum, Prothioconazole +Tebuconazole. Means with different letters are significantly different at p<0,05 using TUKEY test. Mycorrhizal fungi reduced the percentage of diseases severity in infected wheat plants. These result is in agreement with Askar & Rashid (2010). We found that Glomuss mosseae decreased root rot by 65-70%. Many researchers have reported that colonization of mycorrhizal fungi can reduce root diseases caused several soil born pathogens (Wehner et al. 2009; Hozgonen et al. 2010). Mycorrizal colonization was observed in the root of wheat and in soil (data not shown). Wheat with Mycorrizal fungi was observed to receive protect from F.culmorum relative to control plants in our experiment. Biological control is becoming an important component of plant disease management. It was reported that Trichoderma harzianum and Glomuss mosseae are the most effective agent for the biocontrol of fungal pathogens (Kucuk & Kıvanc, 2005; Ozgonen & Erkilic, 2007). Dunlop et al. (1989) showed that an isolate of T. koningii inhibited the saprophytic growth of G. graminis (Sacc.) Arx and Oliver var. tritici Walker (Ggt). In conclusion, our study showed that T. harzianum and Glomus mosseae were superior in suppressing the disease. Fron the obtained results that both of biological agents showed an antagonistic effect on plant pathogenic fungi and Glomus mosse colonization increased plant resistance against infection with F. culmorum as well as on their biochemical and physiological features. Thus they could be used in certain biological control studies References Ahonen-Jonnart U., Van Hees, P.A.W., Lundstrom, U.S., & Finlay, R.D. (2000). Organic acids produced by mycorrhizal Pinus sylvestris exposed to elevated aluminium and heavy metal concentrations. New Phytol. 146: 557– 567. Altomare, C., Norvell, W.A., Bjorkman, G., & Harman G. (1999). Solubilization of phosphates and micronutrients by the plantgrowth- promoting and biocontrol fungus T. harzianum Rifai 1295-22. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 65, No. 7, 2926-2933. De Meyer, G., Bigirimana, J., Elad, Y. & Hofte, M. (1998). Induced system resistance in Trichoderma harzianum T39 biocontrol of Botrytis cinerea. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 104: 279–286 Dunlop, R.W., Simon, A., & Sivasithamparam, K. (1989) An Antibiotic from Trichoderma koningii Active Against Soilborne Plant Pathogens. Journal of Natural Products 52: 67-74. Grondona, I., Hermosa, R., Tejada, M., Gomis, M.D., Mateos, P.F., BrIdge, P.D., Monte, E. & Garcia-Acha I. (1997). Physiological and biochemical characterization of Trichoderma harzianum, a biological control agent against soilborne fungal plant pathogens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 3189–3198. Jacobs, H., Boswell, G.P., Ritz, K., Davidson, F.A. & Gadd, G.M. (2002). Solubilization of calcium phosphate as a consequence of carbon translocation by Rhizoctonia solani. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 40: 65–71. 12 �Kücük, K., & Kıvanc, M., (2003). Isolation of Trichoderma Spp. and Determination of Their Antifungal, Biochemical and Physiological Features .Turk J Biol 27, 247-253 Rosling, A., Lindahl, B.D., Taylor, A.F.S. & Finlay R.D. (2004). Mycelial growth and substrate acidification of ectomycorrhizal fungi in response to different minerals. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 47: 31–37. Sneh, B., Burpee, L., & Ogoshi, A. (1998). Identification of Rhizoctonia species. American Phytopathological Society Press. St Paul, 133 pp. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 321 Title A name given to the resource Effect Of Trichoderma Harzianum And An Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Glomus Mosseae On Fusarium Crown Rot (Fusarium Culmorum) In Wheat (Cv Altay 2000) Author Author Arıcı, S.Evrim Eser, İlknur Özgönen, Hulya Abstract A summary of the resource. The necrotrophic fungal pathogen Fusarium culmorum causes crown rot disease (CR) in wheat. The experiments were designed to compare the effectiveness of Trichoderma harzianum and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Glomus mossea on reduction of F. culmorum in wheat (cv Altay 2000) in pots tests in this research. Three weeks after sowing, percentage of diseased emerging seedlings were evaluated. In pot trials, Trichoderma harzianum, Glomus mosseae were initially evaluated for reducing disease on wheat cultivars Altay 2000 planted in sterilized soil artificially infested with the pathogen. Wheat plants growing from T. harzianum, and G. mosseae showed the average disease severity of 82.68% for 30-40% while plants from untreated soil had the disease severity of 75% and 98%, respectively Both of them gave also a good control in wheat cultivars. The ability of these isolates to affect the infection of wheat seedlings by F. culmorum may be of potential value in field trials Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)