28 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/06fc59b79f4c1d24bb754082b3ca4faa.pdf 142d1412ecd7735425a8d205a0251774 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Determination Of The Economic Results And Income Distribution Of The Wheat Farms In Central Anatolia Turkey Cennet OĞUZ Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Economics coguz@selcuk.edu.tr Kemal ESENGÜN Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University Faculty of Economy and Business Administration kesengun@kmu.edu.tr Abstract: The purpose of this study is to determine the economic results and income distribution of wheat producers in Middle Anatolia Region. The data used in this study was collected from farms selected by random sampling among 20 villages of wheat producers in Konya and Ankara province. The data belongs to the 2006-2007 production years. The average size of all farms was 250.30 decare. The owned land covered the 63.55 % of the total area. The average number of fields per farm 8.03 and the average size of each field is 31.17 decare. Arable area occupied 94.25 % of total land. About 76.46 % of gross production was obtained from plant production and 23.54 % animal production. Income distribution of the farms was detailed by agricultural income, total family income and per capita family income. It was determined that per capita agricultural average income was 1 808.7 TL, and the average agricultural family income was 2 211.1 TL. Gini ratio of the agricultural income was found 0.358 . Key Words: Central Anatolia, wheat farms, gross production value, income distribution Introduction As world population increases rapidly, countries run new progress to improve the level of their feed, shelter and life quality; based on the results of which activities, remarkable changes and improvements are seen. Expectations about better feed, shelter and live have influenced both the world’s people and those of our country. In this case, our agricultural production has to be increased greatly in order to feed our growing population and animal existence better, and also provide necessary supplements to our economy and provide the required raw material to our industry. The success of these situations depends upon using our scarce natural resources more consciously and effectively and the effective transformation of our agricultural potential into production. It is a well known reality that grain production has an important role on countries’ economy as well as in Turkey. The grains have the most important portion among the agricultural production and wheat greatest. In 2010’s will be the sovereignty of agricultural producing. Moreover, wheat and other grains will have the highest priority. According to the world’s well known articles which are written by strategic experts, the strength, importance and functions of the wheat become more important. The population of the world and Turkey has increased continuously but grain stocks have decreased gradually. As a result of that, agriculture production became more important. Turkish economy depends upon mainly agriculture and 31% of population works for agriculture sector. Agriculture sector has 7,4 % of the Turkish gross domestic production (GDP) and 2,3 % of export (Anonymous,2007). The crop yield has to be increased, because of human and animal’s feed. Wheat production is very important economically and strategically. Wheat is the most important income source of agricultural farms especially in Ankara, Konya, Eskişehir, Kayseri, Sivas, Niğde, Yozgat, Kırşehir, Karaman, and Aksaray are the cities of Central Anatolia. Central Anatolia region is 162 540 km² (Bayraklı and others, 1991) and of all this agricultural area is 9 million hectare. The total more than 4 million hectare is in Konya, Ankara and Sivas. Only, Ankara and Konya have 4 521 487 hectare. This is equal to 51% of Central Anatolia Land. Even though 89% of this area is rainfed and 11% of is irrigated. The 90% of grain has been obtained from rainfed areas. In general, wheat, and barley are produced in dry whereas the sugar beet is produced in irrigated area. Grain has 50% of total product in Konya, and 46% in Ankara (Anonymous, 2004). Both Ankara and Konya’s income has 3.4% of total Turkey’s plant production value. Also Central Anatolia region has 13% of Turkey’s agricultural farming and 21.2% agricultural land. It should be given attention that Turkey population 173 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo will be more than 100 million in 2010’s years so Central Anatolia will become much more important. The aim of this study is to investigate grain farms present situation, their problems, and give some suggestions. Materials and Method The survey method was used and all questions were asked to the farmers. The research area in this study covered Ankara and Konya. The grain farmers who have 50% and more were involved to this research. The 30 farms (Akşehir, Altınekin (Oğuzeli), Beyşehir, Çumra (Đçeri Çumra), Kadınhanı (Kızılkuyu, Başkuyu), Karatay (Obruk, Yarma, Ovakavağı, Đsmil), Sarayönü (Ertuğrul), Seydişehir (Akçalar, Gevrekli, Karabudak) were selected from Konya, and two farms from Ankara (Polatlı and Evren). The research data was obtained by surveying using stratified random sampling that was well known in economy fields (Yamane, 1967, Arıkan 1985). The other statistical findings and results also were utilized. The research farms distributions were as; 12 farms for 1-15 ha land, 17 farms for 15.1-20 ha land, and 7 farms for greater they 30.1 ha. The formula used for this purpose is written by; n= N2Σ (Nh. Sh2) / N2D2 + ΣNhSh2 D2=d2 /Z2 2 n: number of farms, Nh: farms number (h) for every stratified, Sh : Variance of samples for every stratified, d: The acceptable error to take the average of population, Z: standard normal distribution value obtained from Z table in which was 1.645 according to confidence limit 90%. To measure the inequality distribution of farms, Lorenz Curve and Gini ratio were used. Lorenz Curve defines the relationship between the certain income share and population obtained this share. The share of farms can be expressed by percentage and is plotted to the vertical axes. The percentage of population is plotted horizontal axes. Thus, the curve is obtained ( Ross, 1969). The 45º line passed away from the origins is named as “Certain Equal Line”. The Certain Equal Line shows the 100% equal income distribution. If the income distribution goes away from the equal level, Lorenz Curve also goes away from the certain equal line and goes down. The Lorenz curve interests with certain equal line in 100% equality ( Dauring, 1991). Gini ratio may be calculated as; G = 1- Σni=1 ( Ni - N i-1 ) (Ai + Ai-1) Where; G = Gini ratio, Ni = Cumulative farm number ratios in total farms ( for each series), Ai = The ratio of farms or incomes to total farms or total incomes for i. farm, and n = series number . Results and Discussions Land Use by Crops Every farm had 25.03 ha of land; 63.55% of land owner, 8.95% of rental land, 27.50% of share farmer. The owner, rental, share cropped lands were found to be 63.55%, 8.99% and 27.50% respectively. The production areas of wheat, barley and sugar beet and others such as fallow were determined to be 54.59 % (13.663 ha), 39.66% (9.927 ha), 4.11%(1.030 ha) and 1.64% (4.100 ha) respectively (table 1). Table 1.The Patterns of Land Uses Farm Sizes Wheat (ha) 0.1-15 8,250 15.1-30 17,218 30.1-+ 17,357 Average 13,663 farms Rate (%) 54,59 Barley Sugar Beet Fallow Other Total 2,983 4,182 30,857 9,927 1,175 1,300 0,357 1,030 0,217 0,236 0,286 0,240 0,146 0,500 0,170 12,625 23,082 49,357 25,030 39,66 4,11 0,96 0,68 100,00 The parcel number was found to be 8.03 and average parcel size 3.117 ha. According to results of Farm Counting 1991, average farm size was 5.68 ha in Turkey. The farm size was smaller comparison to Turkey’s average. The total production wheat area was determined to be 1176656 kg/ha and was equal to 12.6% of Turkey Land. The production was 2 447 070 tons that was 13.12% of Turkey’s total production. Total land has been increased because of great automation in agriculture after 1970. The Farms number have increased and reached up to 2.5 millions in 1951, 3.7 millions in 1980 and, 4.1 millions in 1991, 4.5 millions in 1999 in Turkey. But in recent years, this number again decrease 3,1 millions. As a result of this, arable land has reduced to 5.68 ha per farms. In Turkey, most producers have had own land whereas the 59% of producers in EU have used their own land (Eurostat, 2004). 174 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Employment Potential The employment potential for farmer family is given in table 2. According to results, employment varied between 4.47-3.76 MPU (man power unit) and depended upon the farm size. The average MPU was determined as 4.16. The annual working day was found to be 280 day, depending upon climatic conditions. According to actual production patterns for present technological level, the employment hour was determined adding present employment power to family members worked hours from farms. This was compared individually and farm size and average farm size and unemployment men power were computed. Table 2.Working Patterns in Agricultural Farms Family Potential Power in Family Farm Man Man Out of Out of Sizes (ha) Power Power farms In farm agricultural Total Unit Day 0.1-15 4.47 1251.6 116.0 32.0 80.0 228.0 15.1-30 4.07 1139.6 193.0 21.0 108.0 322.0 30.1-+ 3.76 1052.9 265.0 19.0 320.0 604.0 Average 4.16 1164.8 179.0 24.9 146.3 350.2 farms Foreigner power 71.0 140.0 185.0 122.9 Total Power 299.0 462.0 789.0 473.1 The average family employment potential was found to be 1164.8 MPD (man power day) but, only 350.2 of this was used. Although there was an unemployment power in farms, 122.9 MPD was met from foreign workers (Table 2). In the research area the average family number were 5,90. In the central Anatolia region, working was very intensive during the harvesting and planting period. To use inactive capacity, it was important to enhance animals products, and change the production design. Erkuş reported that in Konya proper production sources uses resulted in reducing 15% of inactive workers and fell to 35.31%, so that income increased to be 28.64% (Erkuş, 1991). Oğuz (1992) reported that average worker was 780 MPD in agricultural farms for Konya. The 375 of it was obtained from women workers who were used animals sector. Economic Results The Value of Gross Production in Farms In production concept, the gross production value can be defined as increase of value that covers the end of economic activities produced new products value and exchanging (Woermann, 1958). In research, gross production value was determined by multiplying of unit price of product value and market price obtained from activity results plus productive increments of plant and animals capital. Table 3 shows gross production value at the end of production activities. Table 3. Gross Production Values according to crop production (TL and %) Total crop Farm sizes (ha) Wheat Barley Sugar beet Other product production value 0.1-15 1 206,00 278,00 712,00 2 196,00 15.1-30 2 744,00 475,00 928,00 54,00 4 201,00 30.1 - + 2 907,00 3 433,0 200,00 150,00 6 690,00 Average 2 166,80 1 086,40 671,7 54,8, 3 979,70 Farms Gr.Pro.Val 86,57 43,40 26,84 2,19 159,00 Per hectare Rate (%) 54.45 27.30 16.88 1.37 100.00 The total plant value was 3979, 70TL (Turkish Liras) and the 54.45% of this covered from wheat, 27.30% from barley, 16.88% from sugar beet and 1.37% from other products (melon, spinach, lettuce etc). The average gross production value per farm was 159 TL per hectare. In the Central Anatolia Region, wheat generally has been produced in dry conditions. As a result of this, average productivity has reduced up to 46.7% per ha. The producer income has gone down notably. If plant and animal production values were adding, gross total product value was calculated. The animal product value is given in table 4. In agriculture farms, total average animal production value was 1225,4 TL. That number covered 61.5% of milk, 3.53% of wool, fertilizer etc., 19.04% of fixed asset increase, 14.97% of live animal sales and 175 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0.95% of other productions such as eggs. In general, Central Anatolia Region is very appropriate for livestock in terms of natural resources and ecological conditions. However, animal husbandry has not developed enough because of plant production has been encouraged and supported relatively more than animal production. According to the results, animal husbandry was calculated to be 23.5% for research area and 25% for Turkey. The animal husbandry was more than 55% in EU for agriculture sector (Anonymous, 2004). Table 4. Animal Production Values (TL and %) Farm (ha) sizes 0.1-15 15.1-30 30.1-+ Average Farms Rate (%) 928,00 452,00 929,00 753,70 44,5 45,0 38,0 43,2 10,0 9,5 18,0 11,7 210,0 182,0 354,0 233,3 125,0 572,0 183,5 Total Animal product. Value 1 317,5 688,5 1 911,0 1 225,4 61,51 3,53 0,95 19,04 14,97 100.00 Milk Wool Other Equipment Increment Life sale Animal In this research, since agricultural farm was small and separated, poor production was occurred. Therefore, producers organization and publications service have been in a difficulty. The producers were weak against unstable market conditions. They couldn’t access to Extension services. Also producers haven’t been informed about fluctuation conditions. The soil was effective factor for production and there was no balance between work power, capital and production factors. This was a characteristic of all agricultural farms Central Anatolia. Gross Profit, Farm and Family Income Gross profit can be defined as omitting private variable costs from gross production values (Brandes and others, 1971). It was a main success criteria to use scarce production factors and to express competition power of production activities. The farmers needed to this profit for family expenditure, investment and tax payments. In research, agriculture income was calculated omitting interest and rent payment from agricultural income and adding family income which was equivalent to family works (Erkuş et all, 1995). The total family income was found by collection of income and out of income ( Table 5). Table 5. Gross Production Value, Gross Profit and Agricultural Family Incomes (TL and $) 1$=1,56TL Gross Total Out of Agricultural Gross Agricultural Farm Sizes Agricultural Family production Variable ( ha) Profit Income value Cost Income Income 0.1-15 3 513,50 1 353,90 2 159,60 1 517,10 357,00 1 874,10 15.1-30 4 889,50 1 876,00 3 013,50 1 879,00 255,00 2 134,00 30.1 - + 8 601,00 3 257,00 5 344,00 2 198,00 712,00 2 910,00 Aver. TL 5 205,10 1 989,40 3 215,70 1 808,70 402,40 2 211,10 Farms $ 3336,60 1275,26 2061,35 1159,42 257,95 1417,37 The farm had an average 5205,10 TL or $3336,60 the value of gross production. Total variable cost and gross profit were 1989,40 TL ($1275,26) and 3215,70 TL ( $20 61,35) respectively. In agricultural income and out of income were 1808,70 or $1159,42 and 402,40 TL or $257,95. As a result of this, farmer obtained an average 2211,11 TL ( $1417,37) per year. The 81.8% of family income was obtained from agriculture and, 18.2% of out of agriculture. This income was very low when it is compared with Turkey’s average of $10000 income. In this area a lot of farmers have been living under the standard of poverty. 176 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Income Distribution Of Agricultural Farms Household Ratios First %20 Second %20 Third %20 Fourth %20 Fifth %20 Total Gini ratios Table 6. Income Distributions, Family Income and Gini Ratios Total Family Income Cumulative Family Income Value (TL) Ratio(%) Value (TL) Ratios(%) 5 370,50 4,89 5 370,50 4,89 11 839,50 10,79 17 210,00 15,68 18 232,20 16,60 35 442,20 32,28 27 832,50 25,35 63 274,70 57,63 46 516,50 42,37 109 791,2 100,00 109 791,20 100,00 0,358 Figure 1. Lorenz Curve 100 Income (%) 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Househoulds (%) The research showed that 80% of the agricultural farms had 57.63% share of the total family income and rests ( 20%) was 42.37%. According to the Gini ratio value of 0.358, agricultural farms were situated in research area. The total family income was not distributed uniformly. Since certain equal line that explains exactly 100% equal distribution. As the income distribution goes away from the equal level, Lorenz Curve also will far away from the certain equal line. In conclusion, it is seen that income distribution was not balanced well. Conclusions According to the research, farms had 63.55% of own land, and every farm size was 25.03 ha. The farm size was relatively greater than Turkey’s average. According to the general farm counting in 1991, agricultural farms which covered nineth region (Afyon, Kayseri, Konya, Nevşehir, Niğde, Aksaray) varied between 10.01 and 9.9 ha land (Anonymous, 1994). Even though land was very small, it was still larger than Turkey’s average. Every plot was found to be 3.12 ha and fallow area became narrow. It can be accepted as good amendments. The farm capital was not sufficient (26.07%). The money was determined to be 1.73% of this capital due to the lower saving rate (Demirci, 1981). Thus, producers were supported by Government. The employment and land productivity especially should be increased by using business economy. Price, market and insufficient knowledge and information were the most important producer problems and currently more than 3,1 million agriculture farms, which produced products without having information and communication between them. Turkey population will be greater than 100 million in 2014’s, so cereals should be produced more in order to meet increased population needs. Agriculture products mainly depend upon the natural conditions. Therefore, there was not stable balance between demand and supply, and price and cost fluctuations. On the other hand, the problems in agricultural farms have been grown up. Their problems were derived from the small-scale activity, 177 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo organization, and insufficient integration between agriculture farms and industry. The finance problems may be more serious in the coming future. The product quality becomes more important because of internal market demand and customer, baker and miller. Although, Turkey has a great potential about product kinds, export, it may not have stable and effective world market because of poor market research. The external cereals demands have increased gradually. Even though, world population is more than 6 billion, world cereals stock speed was less than world population growth. The FAO gave pay attention this subject and called world countries to improve their product (Kün et all. 1991). Turkey’s production quality should be international standard and product costs must be minimized because of Turkey competition. The Turkey should grow macaroni wheat for international standard and external market. Therefore, producers must be encouraged to produce more qualified wheat. The Turkey is the eighth wheat producer in the world and wheat export has decreased recently. Although China is the first wheat producer in the world, wheat is still imported because of high population. The Brazil, Japan, Egypt and Italy are also other wheat importer countries whereas the Canada, USA, Argentine, and France are important wheat exporter in the world. Even though India and Russia are the biggest wheat producer, their export is limited. By producing of about 19 million tons wheat a year, wheat product will be more stable in Turkey. To be successful in this area, producers should be more organized. The public and private institutions were informed more for grain products’ quality and quantity and producers should be supported related to this subject. Support price should be explained previous year and, this rate must be equal to inflation rate. Therefore, farmers may be organized to change price in favor for them. References Anonymous, 1994. General Farm Determination in Agricultural Farms. Research Results, GSI ( Government Statistical Institution ) No: 1691, Ankara ( in Turkish). Anonymous, 1997. Agricultural Structure and Production. State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey. Anonymous, 1998. An investigation on Uses of Present Sources and Improvement of Sources Uses in Agricultural Farms for Küçük Menderes Catchment Area. Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Bornova, Đzmir (in Turkish). Anonymous, 2004. Agricultural Structure and Production. State Institute of Statistics. Anonymous, 2007. Agricultural Structure and Production. State Institute of Statistics. Arıkan, R. , 1985. The Statistics of Agricultural Economics A.Ü. Faculty of Agricultural No: 924 Ankara. Bayraklı , F. , Gür , K., Karakaplan , S., Fırat , B., Gezgin , S., 1991. The Symposium on Productivity Problems for Agriculture in Central Anatolia. Pp.: 30-39. MPM Publications, No:440, Ankara ( in Turkish). Bülbül, M., Erkan, O., Orhan, E., Budak, F., Şengül, H., Yılmaz, Đ., 1991. Capital Situations of Agricultural Farmers and Loan Uses in Turkey. p. 191 Agricultural Engineers 3 th Technical Congress, Ankara ( in Turkish). Brandes, W., Woerman, E., 1971. Landwirtschaftliche Berlin. Betriebslehre, Band2. spezieller Teil, Paul Parey, Hamburg- Dauring, F. , 1991. Inequality, The Political Economy of Income Distribution, Preager, New York. Demirci, R., 1981. Agricultural Structures and Reformation. Turkey 2nd Economics Congress, Agricultural Papers, DPT Pp.: 859-889, Ankara ( in Turkish). Erkuş, A. , 1991. Employment rates of Agricultural Farms and Productivity in Central Anatolia. The Symposium on Productivity Problems for Agriculture in Central Anatolia. MPM Publications, No: 440, Ankara ( in Turkish). Erkuş, A., Bülbül, M., Kıral, T., Açıl, F., Demirci, R., 1995. Publications of Education, Research and Development Foundation, in Ankara University, No: 5, Ankara (in Turkish). Eurostat, 2004. “ Statistics in Focus - Agriculture Forestry and Güneş, T. and Arıkan, R., 1985. Agricultural Economics in Turkish). Fisherings ”, SOEC, Luxembourg. Statistics, Ankara University Publication, 924, Ankara ( Işıklı, E., Turan, A., Tanrıvermiş, H., 1994. Capital Problems in Turkey’s Agriculture. Agricultural Week Symposium, Ankara ( in Turkish). Karagölge, C., Kızıloğlu, S., Yavuz, O., Primary Principles of University Publication, No: 801, Erzurum 1995 ( in Turkish). Agricultural Economics. p. 126, Atatürk Oğuz, C. , 1992. An Investigation on Woman Employment Capacity in Animal Husbandry of Agricultural Farms for Konya Province. Journal of Agricultural Faculty, Selçuk University, No: 4 , Vol. 2, Pp.: 21-26, Konya ( in Turkish). 178 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Oğuz, C., 1996. An Investigation on Productivity Analysis of Tomatoes Production Farms in Konya - Çumra. Turkey 2nd Agricultural Economics Congress, Vol. 1, Pp.: 118-128, 4-6 September 1996, Adana (in Turkish). Ross, M. H. , 1969. Income: Analysis and Policy, Grow - Hill Company, Second Edition, New York. Talim, M., Saner, G., Ardıç, E., 1990. Structural Problems and Improvement of Structures in Turkey Agriculture. Pp.: 9-23, Turkey Agricultural Engineers 3rd Technical Congress, Ankara ( in Turkish). Woermann, E., 1958. Landwirtschaftsbetrieb in HandwörterbuchderSocialwissenschaften, Stuttgard, Tübing en, Göttingen. Yamane, T. , 1967. Elementary Sampling Theory Prentice - Inc. Englewood Cliffs. N.S.USA. Yılmaz, B., 1991. Cereals Potential and Technical Congress, Ankara ( in Turkish). Strategies of Turkey. p. 255 Turkey Agricultural Engineers 3rd 179 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 166 Title A name given to the resource The Determination Of The Economic Results And Income Distribution Of The Wheat Farms In Central Anatolia Turkey Author Author OĞUZ, Cennet ESENGÜN, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to determine the economic results and income distribution of wheat producers in Middle Anatolia Region. The data used in this study was collected from farms selected by random sampling among 20 villages of wheat producers in Konya and Ankara province. The data belongs to the 2006-2007 production years. The average size of all farms was 250.30 decare. The owned land covered the 63.55 % of the total area. The average number of fields per farm 8.03 and the average size of each field is 31.17 decare. Arable area occupied 94.25 % of total land. About 76.46 % of gross production was obtained from plant production and 23.54 % animal production. Income distribution of the farms was detailed by agricultural income, total family income and per capita family income. It was determined that per capita agricultural average income was 1 808.7 TL, and the average agricultural family income was 2 211.1 TL. Gini ratio of the agricultural income was found 0.358 . Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/951af219d368a378dc9f8728cd3fcf59.pdf caa40ae2543fbe4661f7dc779e140672 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Organic Strategies to Sustainable Buildings and Cities Ebru Ozer Assistant Professor, Landscape Architecture Department Florida International University, U.S.A. eozer@fiu.edu Douglas T. Thompson Landscape Designer, LEED AP, EDA W | AECO M Miami Beach, FL, U.S.A. douglas.thompson @aecom.com Abstract: In the pursuit of creating sustainable buildings and cities, architectural strategies have mainly focused on approaches relying on technological efficiency and engineered systems. The focus has been such because these strategies are evolutionary in that they are solutions to the problems posed by existing building system design strategies and are thus more easily integrated into those systems. In some cases however, architectural offices have been teaming with landscape architects and other professions whose focus are more on natural systems rather than building systems. In these cases where disciplines have worked cooperatively toward the goal of sustainability, strategies have emerged which take a combined approach in which building systems utilize and integrate with natural systems. Projects and strategies that have emerged from these collaborative endeavors can provide architects and city builders with valuable lessons and insights and contribute to developing a better overall framework for approaching sustainability in the built environment. Through an examination of recent successful sustainable building projects in which architects have worked collaboratively with landscape architects, natural scientists, and similarly focused professions, this research analyzes specific strategies, methods, and construction details which integrate building systems with natural systems, providing valuable lessons for such collaborative approaches and insights for approaching sustainable buildings. I. Introduction: Landscape in Building Design In recent years,theterm landscape has become popularized inthe architecture profession. The term has creptinto the jargon of many architects and builders, appearing in prominent architectural writings in reference to new building projects which include plant materials incorporated into their structures or involve the integration of buildings and earthforms. The inclusion oflandscape withinthe structure ofarchitecture has been used to sometimes connotate a measure of environmental awareness or a closer relationship with the earth. In some cases, such uses of landscape in architecture have been deceiving or as ambiguous as the use of “green.” Despite this ambiguity,the interest by architects in incorporating nature into their buildings through the use of landscape can have positive implications for sustainability. It has led many architects to seek out cooperative efforts with landscape architects, environmental scientists, and other environment related professions as collaborators and consultants in their designs. This collaboration has the potentialto serve as a catalyst for the reevaluation of current sustainable design strategies which often rely heavily on technological solutions. It may also serve to bring about a reinterpretation of the built environment’s relationship to the natural environment. Thisinturn can lead tothe development of buildings and cities which are more cooperative with naturalsystems, are better able to adapt to changing conditions, enrich theirlocal ecology, and strengthen connections between people and natural processes. II. Approaches to Sustainable Building Design: Technologically Driven versus Integrative Modern buildings are sophisticated systems which incorporate a variety of technological subsystems to maintain conditions suitable for human uses. In large part,sustainable design, as it relates to architecture, has been the mitigation of the environmental impacts caused by the construction and operations of building 292 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo systems. In the pursuit ofthis, many building projectsfocus on strategies and methods that utilize technological improvements in the operations of the building to gain efficiencies in order to reduce their negative environmentalimpacts. They employ such strategies as: new technologicalinsulation materials and double-skin facades for building envelopes; light shelves, shading devices, and energy efficient bulbs for lighting; solar systems and cooling towers for heat gain and cooling; photovoltaic’s and wind turbines for energy needs; or phase change materials and filters for waste water treatment and reuse. While such strategies and methods produce significant results in the reduction of building related consumptions of energy and resources, and reductions in the generation of building related wastes and pollution,they often do not seek any contribution or part in the environment in which they reside (or displace). The focus of these strategies emphasizes an improvementin the efficiencies of building centric systems, whose basis of design isto circumvent or substitute natural systems while ignoring their biological purposes and functions. The result is that they still maintain many problems that exist with the technologically based systems in the first place. First, they are rigid with regard to their environmental adaptivity, producing systems in which a narrow range of operations and conditions must persist which may be counter to local environmental systems. Second, they only abstractly or distantly, or worse, superficially,reflectreal and/or underlying ecologies. Finally,they often continue to isolate people from the natural processes, producing building systems which are not as environmentally rich or connective as they might be. Thus they do not produce changes in the relationship between people and the environment, but operatein a manner of containment of negative effects. Rather than merely reducing negative environmental impacts, strategies might be employed which are positive in their approach, leading to systems that are flexible in their interactions with natural systems, responsive and adaptive to such changes, and comprehensible and didactic in their connections with nature. They might seek symbiotic relationships with ecologies, hydrology, and cultures where they exist. By approaching the building and its systems as part of a large but also very local environmental context, it is possible to develop environmentally sustainable buildings which are more genuinely sustainable and possess meaning as such. Such an approach might be considered landscape centric. It does notrequire an abandonment of technology, but it does require that technological improvement is used wisely in complement with other strategies,thatitis developed in a way that willimprove the connection of building systems to natural systems rather than replacing or simplifying them, and that it does not deceive people in its purposes and regarding its connections with natural systems. In the past an overreliance on technology in the development of solutions forthe built environment has created rifts between building systems and natural processes. Many architects have written critically about the relationship between architecture and nature. Architect Malcolm Wells in his book, Gentle Architecture, asks the question “Why isitthat almost every architect can recognize and appreciate beauty in the natural world and yet so often fail to endow his own work with it” (1981, 41). Wells asserts that architecture has greater responsibilities to the environment than it maintains and sets up standards for a better relationship to natural systems. He expresses that buildings should consume their own waste, provide animal habitat, and moderate their own climate (1981). More than two decades later, Ken Yeang, in his essay, On Green Design, is not just critical of architecture’s impact on the environment, but also its methods which may rely too much on technology for mitigating itsimpacts. He says: There is also much misperception about what is ecological design today. We must not be misled by the popular perception that if we assemble in one single building enough ecogadgetry such as solar collectors, photo-voltaics, biological recycling systems, building automation systems and double-skin facades, we will instantaneously have an ecological architecture. The other misperception is that if our building gets a high notch in a green-rating system, then all is well. Of course, nothing could be further from the truth. Worse, a selfcomplacency sets in whereupon nothing further is done to improve environmental degradation. (2007, 22) Yeang,in this quote,is also critical of building rating systems such as the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating System in the United States. A systematic approach, the LEED program awards points based on the meeting of set criteria in the measurement of environmental sustainability. Yeang seems to doubt that systems like LEED are capable of providing a lasting change in approach or even providing the right kind of change. Rather, he feels that these programs might represent the replacement of one kind of complacency for another with an overreliance on technology as a solution to all problems. Although Yeang is critical of building rating systems, they may be part of a long term solution. Such systems provide a method of measurement which clarifies standards and allows for clarity in evaluations and comparisons of sustainable buildings. Furthermore, LEED in particular has been able to produce a greater number of cooperative effortsin sustainable building projectsthrough its encouragement of collaboration among 293 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo disciplines. The US Green Building Council(USGBC),the developer of LEED, through itsliterature promotes its program as a “whole building approach” which encourages architectsto work cooperatively with other design disciplines by considering design more holistically. This is meant to encourage builders and architects to consider multiple building systems and their synergies in the achievement of sustainability goals, rather than focusing on isolated system goals. It also provides additional mechanisms in its process to encourage cooperation through delegation of authority among various design professions and by promoting collaboration in the administration of a project. This has created opportunities in which the viewpoints of various design professionals have new influence in the design process for buildings,leading to new and innovative approaches to sustainable building design. In conjunction with interests in landscape centric approaches and sustainability, such cooperative efforts have led to the development of some innovative projects and methods which may provide architects and other design professionals with insights regarding a greater integration of building systems and natural ones. By examining these projectsin their uses oftechnological solutions and the extent to which they utilize integrative strategies, the value of such collaborative efforts with regard to sustainable building practices can be evaluated. III. Projects: California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California, U.S.A. Some notable building projects exist which utilize strategies that can provide insights into the efficacy of collaborative efforts between architects and natural system linked design professionals and their value with regard to the integration of building systems and natural systems. One such cooperative effort is the recently builtand award winning California Academy of Sciences museum in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park (Fig.1). The project was developed as a replacementforthe Academy’s previous cluster of buildingsinthe same location which were damaged in the 1989 earthquake affecting San Francisco. The projectteam included lead designer, Renzo Piano Building Workshop, Chong Partners (now Stantec Architecture),landscape architects S W A Group, and biological consultant Rana Creek. Figure 1: The new building of the California Academy of Sciences. (Courtesy of Earth2tech) The project was awarded a LEED Platinum certification – (LEED’s highest award), for its design and construction by using strategies such as;the use of recycled materials (Over 90% of the demolition waste from the old academy was recycled), naturallighting (atleast 90 percent of regularly occupied spaces have access to daylight) (Stone 2008), natural ventilation (about 40 percent of the academy utilizes natural ventilation), a perimeter canopy of photovoltaic cells(providing atleast 5 percent ofthe building’s power)(Steen 2008), and a gray-water collection system (Post 2008), However, the most significant component of the building’s design, and its most significant with regard to developing a relationship between building and natural systems, is its green roof. 294 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: The front view of California Academy of Sciences showing the undulating roof against hillsin San Francisco (Courtesy of California Academy of Sciences) The roof is designed as an undulating blanket laid over the top of the building structure with the sphericalforms of a planetarium and a rainforestterrarium pushing up surface ofthe roof plane from the interior of the building below to form two large mounds that along with 5 smaller mounds are meantto evoke the 7 hills ofthe city of San Francisco’slandscape (Fig. 2). The undulating hills ofthe roof make it visiblefrom the ground level which overcomes a problem many green roofs have of being seen. The roofis 2.5 acres and is planted with 1.7 million plants of nine native species. Itis meant that the roof serves as a wildlife habitat that will attract pollinating animals,like hummingbirds, bumble-bees and butterflies (Steen 2008). The plants used for the roof were chosen fortheir adaptabilitytothe Bay Area’s seasonalrainfallcycle (SW A 2008). For San Francisco,the green roof creates the most concentrated area of native wildflowers within the city (Green Roofs for Healthy Cities 2008). The roof is also an educative component of the building, which is partially accessible and is integrated into the program of the museum. The concept ofthe roof developed from Renzo Piano’s idea for creating the building as a continuity of the park. Describing his concept he said, “The idea was to cut a piece of the park, push it up 35 feet - to the height of the old buildings - and then put whatever was needed underneath” (Steen 2008). Though the development of the roof as a diverse habitat might seem integral to the design, it was not a straightforward process. In his vision for the roof Renzo Piano preferred a plant palette that was monolithic, neat, and clean (Steen 2008). He was originally dissatisfied by the plants presented to him by botanistsfor the roof which were not necessarily chosen for their beauty, but for their ecological value. However, consultants of Rana Creek, along with the landscape architects of S W A, through experimentation, found plants which were able to satisfy Piano’s aesthetics and achieve the diversity desired. These differences of view in plant aesthetics atteststo the value that collaboration broughttothe design process. In addition to providing habitatfor plant and animal species,the roof also triesto maintain a connection with local hydrology. Most of the rain water falling onto the roof is captured for the irrigation needs of the roof’s plant materials in panelized reservoirs along the roof’s surface underneath the plant materials and their growing medium. The water quantities exceeding irrigation needs are siphoned off the roof by a crisscrossing system of gabions to an underground watertable recharge system (Fig. 3). Filtered through sand and gravel,the rainwaterinthe chamber naturally percolates back into the watertable of Golden Gate Park. Beyond its connections to natural systems, the green roof serves as an important component of the operational systems ofthe building. The steep slopes ofthe roof mounds create a naturalventilation and cooling system which reduces the use of mechanical cooling. Outdoor air cooled by the vegetated roof surface is funneled intothe entry plaza whose mechanically operable skylights open to allow the cooled airto flow into the building interior. The roof also helps to regulateindoor temperatures by creating a thermal bufferforthe spaces below. The seven inches of soil substrate on the roof, acting as naturalinsulation, are expected to maintain the building'sinterior an average of 10 degrees coolerthan a standard roof would in hot weather (Stone 2007). 295 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 3: Green roof system drainage components (left) & panel composition (right) (drawn by: Alejandro Stein) Despite the naturalized appearance and use of natural processes,the design of the California Academy of Sciences green roof employs a great deal of engineering to make it function. Overall,the building utilizes large amounts of technology and gadgetry as components of its sustainable design strategies. The green roof provides an interface between the technologically sophisticated building and the world outside (nature). Through its habitat function and its attention to site hydrology, the roof establishes a connection with natural systems which is positive and contributory. Its visibility and access as a museum exhibit also promote connections between building users and nature. The connection between the functions of the green roof and building HVAC systems and electricity usage illustrates a symbiotic relationship between the building and natural systems. One shortcoming of the design isthat access to the entire roof islimited to an observation area at one corner of the building roof. A stronger interaction between the roof and the building occupants would improve the value of the design. With regard to adaptability and responsiveness to changing conditions in natural systems,the roof has exhibited some adaptability according to botanists working forthe academy. Birds and bees have deposited foreign pollens and seeds on the site, bringing new species of plants (Steen 2008). Depending on how these species interact with the existing roof habitat, they are allowed to remain or are removed by maintenance workers. Such flexibility may seem minimal, but itis an important step forward and demonstrates how flexibilityin a building system might work. Sidwell Friends School, Washington, District of Columbia, U.S.A. Going a step further in linking people and buildings to natural systems is the Sidwell Friends School (Fig. 4) in Washington D.C. designed by Kieran Timberlake Architects with Andropogon Landscape Architects and consultants Natural Systems International. Sidwellisa schoolfounded on the Quaker philosophy of human beings as stewards ofthe Earth. The school, during an expansion in 2007, wanted to strengthen the link between this philosophy and the curriculum by integrating it into the design of its facilities. The project, like the California Academy of Sciences museum building, received LEED Platinum certification. The project’s environmental credentials are numerous with strategies that include light shelves, a green roof, operable skylights,reuse of an existing building stock, use of recycled contentin the building’s construction, use of solar chimneys for passive cooling, and use of photovoltaic cellsfor electricity. These strategies have reduced energy demand by 60% when compared to other similar sized schools (AIA 2007). The centerpiece of the project’s design, and its strongest link between natural processes and the building, is the school’s courtyard which contains terraced wetlands and a rain garden forthe reuse and recycling of water (Chen 2007). The wetlands,in combination with a biologicalfiltering system, are used to process and treat wastewater created by the schoolforreuseinthe school’stoilets and its cooling towers,and also forinfiltration. The process begins with a primary treatment of wastewaterin an underground tank. The wateristhen circulated through a series of reed bed in the school’s courtyard. Within the wetland, microorganisms attached to gravel in the planting medium, in conjunction with the roots of the plants, breakdown contaminants in the water. Trickle and sand filters provide further treatment (Fig. 5). The system receives up to 3000 gallons of wastewater per day (Margolis & Robinson 2007). During the winter time warm wastewater entering the system prevents the wetlands from freezing making the system viable year round. 296 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4: Sidwell Friends School, building and constructed wetlands (Courtesy of Green Infrastructure) Figure 5: Wastewatertreatment wetland system, Sidwell Friends School (drawn by: Alejandro Stein) Overall, the system achieves water savings of 90% (Tutterow, & Filippov & Harris 2008). Additionally, using biological processes to treat wastewater is energy efficient and produces significantly less sludge waste than conventional processes. In addition to water and energy savings and the reduction in generated waste material,theterraced wetlands have created habitatforlocalinsects, birds and small animals. It uses planting design that follows the range of plant communities that would occur along the soil within each 297 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo given moisture gradientto create habitatsreflective of what might naturally exist on the site. Using native plant species is a strategy that extends throughout the school grounds, strengthening connections between local ecology and the school. In addition to treating wastewaterthrough its wetlands,the school also captures rainwater from its roof to aid in its irrigation needs and for use within the courtyard to supply a biological education pond. During seasons of high precipitation, water directly supplies the needs of the pond. Excess rainwater is stored in an underground cistern which isthen used to supply the pond during dry seasons when itslevels arelow (Fig. 6). Figure 6: Rainwater capture and biology pond, Sidwell Friends School (drawn by: Alejandro Stein) The treatment of the school grounds is an integral component of a larger strategy within the school to foster connections between the students and their environment, both inside and outside the school. Learning aboutthe building and itssystems, and its connectionsto natural processes,is part ofthe educational curriculum. The goalisto make systems and their processes evident. Students have access to monitors which measure such things as the temperature outside and inside the building, air quality, wind speeds,rainfalllevels, and the health of their school’s wetlands. The blending of the school’s water supply and wastewater treatment systems with natural processesinthe wetland systems sit atthe center of a design which works to provide a strong connection between the building and natural processes, the building and the people inside, and also between people and natural processes. The school’s green roof, although very limited in comparison to the one on the California Academy also contributes to the connections between the building and itslandscape. Additionally,the green roof of Sidwell also functions as a rooftop vegetable and herb garden where students grow some ofthe food which is used in the school’s cafeteria, developing another connection between students and natural processes. Overall,the Sidwell Friends School represents a notable example for the integration of landscape and building systems. It provides connections between building functions and natural ones in many ways, most notably with its integration of building wastewater treatment and water use with hydrological and wetland systems. This project does very well connecting people, building systems, and natural systems. The integration of building and natural systems appears comprehensible and is didactic. The wetland system expresses flexibilityinits operations with its abilityto adjustto cold weather and the biological pond also expresses similar flexibility in its adjustments to wet and dry seasonal changes. Although the projectis mostly a successful one, some shortcomings exist. Hiding the primary treatment process facilities underground may be a somewhat questionable elementin the projectinthatitseems deceptive in illustrating the watertreatment process, possibly giving the perception thatitfunctions independently of additionaltechnology. Additionally,the adjacencies of the wastewatertreatment system,the stormwater collection system, and the biological pond also seem to imply a connection that does not really exist. Information regarding these items is not hidden in literature about the project orininstruction to students, butthe system could have been developed with greaterclarity. Although 298 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo these shortcomings hurt the project somewhat, as a whole the project seems to use technology positively to further connections between people and natural processes. It also represents a successful collaboration linking building systems and natural systems. IV. Conclusion With the increasing urgency of finding sustainable answers to the world’s problems, solutions are necessary which do not just depend on mitigation through efficiency, but include the development of new connections and symbioses between human systems and ecological ones. In his article entitled “Making the Case for Landscape Ecology,” ecologistJianguo Wu, contrasts modern human engineering systems withthose of beavers (2008). In so doing he articulates that human beings must find an alternative way of building their environment. Drawing upon the concept of human beings as “ecosystem engineers” that actively develop and maintain their own habitat,W u notes that beavers are also engineers of their own ecosystem, utilizing trees to build dams as habitation forthemselves. “However,even ifbeavers change a naturallandscape from one stateto another, their influences are usually confined within the local landscape” (Wu 2008, 47). Furthermore, as beavers do alter their systems, they do not replace them with simplified, ecologically inefficient versions as humans often do or altertheirenvironments atthe scalesthathumans do. Human beings may not be ableto live as beavers, but this illustrates the profound problems that current human systems maintain in their relationship with natural systems. Improving this relationship requires areevaluation ofitasit now exists. Architects and builders, who seek a path to sustainability in their work, should look beyond solutions to existing systems. By depending solely on strategies of containment and increased efficiencies, opportunities to develop better systems may be overlooked and left out. Strategies need to focus on developing new systems which are compatible with naturalsystems and processes. Thisrequires alandscape centric (integrative) mindset rather than a building centric (technologic) one. Through collaborative efforts with other professionals with knowledge of natural processes, and with an increased understanding of the relationship between the human environment and the natural one, architects and builders can move toward a new paradigm in which buildings and citieslook to natural systems for an example and a partner. Acknowledgements This ongoing research is being supported by a grant from the Paul Cejas Foundation of Florida International University. References AIA American Institute of Architects. (2007). Cote Top Ten Green Projects 2007. http://www.aia.org/aiaucmp/groups/aia/documents/pdf/aias077513.pdf (accessed March 1, 2009) Chen, A. (2007, July/August). Teaching Tools. Metropolis Magazine, 106-111. Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. (2008). 2008 Awards of Excellence: California Academy of Sciences. http://www.greenroofs.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1039&Itemid=136 (accessed April 3, 2009) Margolis, L., & Robinson, A. (2007). Living Systems: Innovative Materials and Technologies for Landscape Architecture. Berlin: Birkhauser Verlag AG. Post, N. M. (2008, June). San Francisco Museum’s Green Redo Keeps Team on Slippery Slopes. Engineering News Record. Steen, K. E. (2008, September). Green Architecture’s Grand Experiment. Metropolis Magazine, 109-114. Stone, S. (2008, October 8). New California Academy of Science Receives Highest Possible Rating From U.S. Green Building Council : LEED Platinum, [Press release]. San Francisco. Stone, S. (2007, June 7). Dramatic Living Roof Installed Atop New California Academy of Sciences, Making It the “Greenest” Museum Ever Constructed, [Press release]. San Francisco. SWA. (2008). Prototypical Sustainable Science Museum. http://www.swagroup.com (accessed May 2, 2009). Tutterow, V., & Filippov, A. & Harris, J. (2008). Energy-Efficient New Federal Buildings: Awareness and Implementation of Federal Building Standards &Case Studies. Alliance to Save Energy. 299 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ase.org/files/4787_file_EnergyEfficientNewFederalBuildings.pdf (accessed January 3, 2009) Wells, M. (1981). Gentle Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill. Wu, J. (2008). Making the Case for Landscape Ecology: An Effective Approach to Urban Sustainability. Landscape Journal, 27 (1), 41-50. Yeang, K. (2007). On Green Design. In Eco Skyscrapers, ed. Ivor Richards. Mulgrave, Vic.: Images Publishing Group Pty. Ltd. 300 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reuse of Waste Marble Dust in the Landfill Layer Ismail Zorluer Technical Educational Faculty, Construction Education, Geotechnical Branch Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey izorluer@aku.edu.tr Lemi Tufan Taspolat Vocational High School, Construction Department, Anadolu University Bilecik Bilecik, Turkey lltaspolat@anadolu.edu.tr Abstract: Waste materials are serious environmental problem because they have harmed to soil and ground water. Rapidly developing technology has increased production and consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. Because the waste materials increases characteristic of clay liner such as impermeability, strength, heavy metal absorption, etc. In this study, waste marble dust was used as an additive material in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. Keywords: Waste marble dust, Environment, landfill liner, freezing-thawing 1. Introduction The waste materials are serious environmental problem. Rapidly growing cities with increasing population have formed this problem. Concentration of population in cities has increased consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. However, many technologies are developed forthe recycling of wastes; many of them cannot be recycled by the economical and technological points of view. The collected wastes can be burned and/or composted by newly developed technologies; however, afinal amount oftrashes must be stored forthe lastremoval procedure. In the landfilllayers, usage of suitable materials and possibly waste mixture material are important to prevent from environmental conditions. By this way, the waste materials, such as fly ash, would be gained to economy. In recent times, waste marble dust was used as an additive material for soil stabilization. Okagbue and Onyeobi’s study (1999) showed thatthe geotechnical parameters of red tropical soils are improved substantially by the addition of marble dust, plasticity was reduced by 20 to 33% and strength and CBR increased by 30 to 46% and 27 to 55% respectively. Additionally, normal 28 day curing improved after 7 to 10 days of normal curing. The effect of waste marble dust on swelling potential of Na-bentonite and Meşelik clays was investigated by Zorluer (2003). Specimens were mixed with marble dust at different percentages of dry soil weight. Then, they were compacted atthe standard compaction effort and swelling tests were carried out with odometer apparatus. The experimentalresultsrevealthat waste marble dustis effective for controlling of swelling potentialand it can be used forthis purpose. Also marble dust affect unconfined compression strength of clay soils according to study of Zorluer (2006). Clay soil had mixed marble dust at 3, 5, 8, 10 % percentages. Then mixtures had been compacted with standard proctor compaction energy. Specimens had been sampled from compacted soils for compression test. At the end of 28 days curing time, strength increased 20.1 by N/cm2 to 57.3 N/cm2. Hassini (1992) determined that impermeable layer cycles much at landfills. In doing so, he carried out an experiment offreezing-thawing to specify soilstrength and its permeability. After 12 cycles,as suggested by 301 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Chamberlain (1981), he found that 10-15% grain loss does not have any impact on strength. This study examines the degree of deformation derived from seasonal temperature differences at impermeablelayers with marble dust. Forthisreason,three mixture of soilto waste marble dust(the proportions were 5, 10, 15% dustto dry soil by weight) have been prepared. And freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. 2. Materials 2.1 Na Bentonite Clay Bentonite is a colloidal aluminium hydro silicate. The volume of bentonite can rise 10 to 30 times by the addition of water.It has a swelling characteristictill 200ºC. This property loses completely over 600ºC. The bentonite clay used in this study is Na-Bentonite.It was supplied from the Karakaya Bentonite factory, Ankara Turkey. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of Na Bentonite clay were shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.2 Kaolinite Clay Kaolinite clay is a product of a type of rock which contains a great amount of feldspar. Kaolinite consists of silica and aluminium layers. The thickness oflayersis 7.2 Å,thelength oflayersis between 1000 and 20000 Å and the specific surface area is (SSA) 15m2/g. The clay used in this study is obtained from the Bilecik district. The clay is produced by a three step procedure;first excavation from clay ores,then cleaning from fine sand by water washing and, finally crashing below 40 µ m at the end of washing, groups of clay and shale are completely decomposed. The clay used consists of kaolinite mineral. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters ofthe kaolinite clay are shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.3 Waste Marble Dust Marble dustis minimum sized marble waste.It occurs with sawing process of marble blocks and plates. This dustis carried by waterto sedimentation pond. Sediment dustis removed from this pond to wasteland, but this condition have formed serious problem for environment. Because, waste marble dust is used in very little quantities even though it used inthe very differentindustries such as construction, ceramics and cementindustry, paintindustry, agriculture and fertilizerindustry, etc. Therefore,they have happened big mass in the waste areas (Zorluer 2003). Marble dust, used in this study, was obtained a marble processing factory in Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. Then, it is dried and sieved with #40 sieve. The marble dust grains are smaller than 300 micron. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of waste marble dust are shown in table 1,The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental Analysis are shown in the table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). W Ca GSGb U Wc Grain Size Distribution (%) (%) (g/cm3) Sand Silt clay Na-Bentonite 12.7 2.76 0.94 2 46 52 Kaolinite 0.1 2.64 0.59 11 26 63 Marble Dust 4.1 2.75 2.73 14 78 8 ( a ): Water Content, (b ): Grain Specific gravity:, (c ): Unit Weight. Additions Table 1 Some physicochemical and geotechnical propertiesof materials. Additions SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 Na-Bentonite 59.49 18.06 4.14 Kaolinite 51.52 32.00 1.75 Marble Dust 0.01 0.85 0.04 ( a ): Loss of Ignition. CaO 3.72 0.20 55.30 Mg O 2.42 0.20 0.24 P2 O3 0.11 ----- K2 O 0.91 0.50 0.20 Na2 O 2.50 0.09 0.03 Table 2 Chemical compound of materials. 302 SO3 Mn2 O3 LOIa 0.10 8.55 0.04 12.62 ----- ----- 43.51 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Experimental Study The changes in the strength at material against seasonal impact are determined by using freezingthawing test. The deformation in the material as a result ofthistestis closely related to the amount ofthe water in it given that the nature and ratio of soil water changes to a grade extent when it freezes. When the water transform in to ice,its volume increases about 9% in accordance with the development ofits hexagonal crystal texture (Penner & Ueda 1977). Test specimens were prepared by 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite mixture by dry weight for use in the impermeable clay layer. This mixture was named as control specimen - 90K+10B. Then, the waste marble dust was added to the mixture at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. These ratios were obtained from other studies in the literature. Marble dustis abbreviated as a MD. Specimens were prepared with compaction in a standard proctor mold by using optimum water contents for every mixture. Freezing-thawing strength was determined according to “Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures” indicated in AST M D560 (1985).In this experiment,samples are stored in a freezer at-20o C for 24 hours. Then,the same samples are stored atthe room temperatures at 18o C for 24 hours. This process is called as one cycle. 12 cycles are carried out for the samples in this experiment after which the surfaces of the samples are brushed gently with wire brush to remove particles. Then, they are weighted to determine the percentage of the loss compared to their previous weight. The highest loss rate accepted in the literatureis 15%. The surface crystallization and the sample deformation afterthe cycle are given in figure 1and figure 2 respectively. Fig. 1 Crystallization on surface afterthe freezing Fig. 2 Deformation afterthe cycles 4. Test results After freezing and thawing test consisting of totally 12 cycles,it was seen that grain loss has decreased with marble dustincrease.Ithas decreased from 17.6% to 12.5% atthe end of 12 cycles.It can be declared that this decreasing can make positive influence to the strength values of layers. The less the grain losses is, the 303 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo higher the soil strength is. The findings show thatthe strength of the samples increases when the amount of the added marble dustincreases.As itis seen in table 3, an additional 5% of marble dustis ineffective on freezingthawing. While an additional 15% marble dustresultsin 12,5% grain loss, an additional 10 % marble dust bring in 13,5 grain loss. Initial water Number of Grain loss contents (%) cycle (%) Control(90K10B) 25 12 17.6 90K10B +5% M D 25 12 18 90K10B +10% MD 25 12 13.5 90K10B +15% MD 25 12 12.5 Table 3 Freeze-Thaw experiment results of waste marble dust mixtures. Materials 5. Conclusions Grain Loss (%) Firstly, itis observed that the amount of grain loss in the samples with 10% and 15% of marble dust addition as a result of deformation in the freezing-thawing test are in compliance with the highest grain loss referred in the literature. Secondly, it is seen that on addition of 5 % of marble dust is ineffective since the results from this sample are close tothose ofthe control sample. Thirdly, As itisseen in figure 3,the study shows thatthelowest deformation occursinthe material with 15% of marble addition. 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Control 5% MD 10% MD 15% MD Additive Material Fig.3 Effect of waste marble dust on freezing-thawing In the light of the given findings, it can be argued that use of marble dust increases the strength of landfillliner. Trough its use in landfillliners,the recycling of marble dust will be possible. Consequently,this will not only to contribute to the protection of the environment but also to provide an economical additive materialtolandfilllayer. References Okagbue C. O., Onyeobi T. U. S., (1999), Potential of marble dust to stabilise red tropical soils for road construction, Engineering Geology, V. 53, pp 371-380. Zorluer, I., (2003). Effect of waste marble dust to swelling potential of clay soils. XI. National Clay Symposium Proceedings. Đzmir-Turkey, pp. 475-482. Zorluer, I., (2006). The Effect of waste marble dust on unconfined compression strength of clay soils. GAP V Engineering Congress Proceedings. Şanlıurfa-Turkey, pp. 1042-1046. Hassini, S., (1992). Some aspects of landfill desing environmental science and engineering, Environmental geotechnology, 137-143p Chamberlaın, E. J., (1981). Overconsolidation Effects of Ground Freezing, Engineering Geology, 18, 97-110. Koyuncu, H., (1998). Physicochemical, microstructure and geotechnical properties of petroleum boring wastes improved with stabilization/solidification method. PhD thesis, Osmangazi University. 304 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Penner, E. and Ueda, T., (1977). Proceedings, symposium on Frost Action in Soils, Universty of Lulea, Lulea, Sweden, I, 91100. ASTM D560-96 (1985). Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. 305 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 487 Title A name given to the resource Organic Strategies to Sustainable Buildings and Cities Author Author Ozer, Ebru Thompson, Douglas T. Abstract A summary of the resource. In the pursuit of creating sustainable buildings and cities, architectural strategies have mainly focused on approaches relying on technological efficiency and engineered systems. The focus has been such because these strategies are evolutionary in that they are solutions to the problems posed by existing building system design strategies and are thus more easily integrated into those systems. In some cases however, architectural offices have been teaming with landscape architects and other professions whose focus are more on natural systems rather than building systems. In these cases where disciplines have worked cooperatively toward the goal of sustainability, strategies have emerged which take a combined approach in which building systems utilize and integrate with natural systems. Projects and strategies that have emerged from these collaborative endeavors can provide architects and city builders with valuable lessons and insights and contribute to developing a better overall framework for approaching sustainability in the built environment. Through an examination of recent successful sustainable building projects in which architects have worked collaboratively with landscape architects, natural scientists, and similarly focused professions, this research analyzes specific strategies, methods, and construction details which integrate building systems with natural systems, providing valuable lessons for such collaborative approaches and insights for approaching sustainable buildings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b51c71fd48aa198a147ca5e2b8ac316d.pdf 3340fa7d58d784ecbefbf99d342de1a8 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Investigation of Cluster Analysis in Surface Water in Yesilirmak River Nurgul Ozbay Engineering Faculty, Bilecik University, Bilecik, TUR KEY nurgul.ozbay@bilecik.edu.tr Suheyla Yerel Bozuyuk Vocational School, Bilecik University, Bilecik, TUR KEY suheyla.yerel@bilecik.edu.tr Huseyin Ankara Department of Mining Engineering, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, TURKEY hankara@ogu.edu.tr Abstract: The main aim of this study is focused on surface water quality classification of the Yesilirmak River (Turkey) and evaluation of pollution dataset obtained by the monitoring stations. The study shows the application of selected statistical technique to the pollution monitoring dataset, namely, cluster analysis. Cluster analysis is an exploratory data analysis tool for solving classifications problems. Its objective is to sort cases into clusters so that degree of association is strongly members of the same cluster and weak between members of different clusters. The analysis of the monitoring stations identified two clusters. It was concluded that agricultural pollution strongly effected Stations II and Station III. Finally, it was believed to help surface water management to water quality issues and determine priorities to improve surface water quality. 1. Introduction The surface water quality is a matter of serious concern today. Rivers, due to their role in carrying off the municipal and industrial wastewater and runoff from agricultural land in their vast drainage basins, are among the most vulnerable water bodiesto pollution. The surface water qualityin a region islargely determined both by the natural process and the anthropogenicinfluence of water quality (Carpenter etal.,1998, Singh et al., 2005; Yerel, 2009). The particular problem in the case of water quality monitoring has a complexity associated with analyzing thelarge number of measured variables. The data sets contain richinformation aboutthe behavior of the water resources. The classification and interpretation of monitoring stations are the most important steps in the assessment of surface water quality.In orderto determine the data structure,to classify and modelthe data sets, to reveal time trends and to identify the contribution of pollution etc. cluster analysis should be applied. Some applications of the cluster analysis have also been carried out. Muri (2004) has investigated basic physical and chemical characteristics of water in lakes using cluster analysis. Although the water quality has deteriorated in some lakes, most of the lakes are stillin a good condition. Boyacioglu and Boyacioglu (2008) suggested that cluster analysis was applied to assess water quality. In their study, cluster analysis can be used to understand complex nature of water quality issues and determine priorities to improve water quality. The aim of this study was to examine whether or not the monitoring stations were similar by using single linkage cluster analysis. 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Dataset Surface water quality dataset covers a year and contains the values of selected pollution indicators for three monitoring stations from the Yesilirmak River in Turkey. Coordinates of the monitoring stations were 237 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo depicted in Tab. 1 and selected pollution indicators were given in Tab. 2,respectively. Station No X Y Station I 299530 4470025 Station II 287150 4468680 Station III 271125 4463355 Table 1. Coordinates ofthe monitoring stations Parameter Symbol DO Units mg/l Cl− mg / l SO −42 mg / l A m monium NH +4 − N mg / l Nitrite nitrogen NO −2 − N mg / l Nitrates NO3− − N mg / l Total phosphorus P-tot mg/l Total Dissolved Solid TDS mg/l Dissolved oxygen Chloride Sulfate Table 2. Selected pollution indicators 2.2. Cluster analysis Cluster analysisis an exploratory data analysistool for solving classification problems. Its objective is to sort cases into groups or clusters, so that the degree of association is strong between members of the same cluster and weak between members of different clusters. Each cluster thus describes, in terms of the data collected, the class to which its members belong; and this description may be abstracted through use from the particular to the general class type (Einax et al., 1998; Kowalkowski et al., 2006). Itis evident that the cluster analysisis usefulin offering reliable classification of surface waterinthe whole region and would make possible to design a future spatialsampling strategy in an optimal manner. Thus,the number of observation stationsin the monitoring network will be reduced, hence cost without loosing any significance of the outcome (Singh et al., 2005). In this case of cluster analysis,the similarities-dissimilarities are quantified through Euclidean distance measurements,the distance between two objects,iand j,is given as; d = ∑ ( zik − z jk ) m 2 ij where k =1 2 (1) d ij2 donates the Euclidean distance, z ik and z jk are the values of variable k for object i and j, respectively, and m is the number of variables (Kowalkowskiet al., 2006; Yerel, 2009). Euclidean distance and the Single linkage cluster method were used to obtain dendrograms. 238 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Application of cluster analysis to monitoring stations Cluster analysis organizes sampling entities into discrete groups, such that within-group similarity is maximized and among-group similarity is minimized according to some objective criteria (McGarial et al., 2000).Inthis study monitoring stations classification was performed by the use of single linkage cluster method. Two major clusters were formed by treating all the by clustering. The dendrogram of the monitoring stations model resulting from the single linkage cluster method of measured surface water quality datasetis presented in the fig. 2. Figure 2 Dendrogram of the single linkage cluster method The dendrogram shows that all the monitoring stations may be generally grouped into two clusters. Cluster 1 correspond to Station I. Cluster 2 corresponds to Stations II and III. The classification to those clusters varies with the significance level.Itis shows that Cluster 1 is characterized by the biggest Euclidean distance to the Cluster 2. The dataset of the surface water quality parameters were to compare the aspects of the variation in surface water samples collected from three monitoring stations as shown in fig. 3. Among the mean concentrations, all parameters were found very high at monitoring stations II and III. Figure 3 Water quality parameters mean values at Yesilirmak River 239 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion In this study, cluster analysis were applied to dataset obtain from Yesilirmak River in Turkey. This analysis is important to intercept misinterpretation of monitoring stations dataset due to uncertainties. Cluster analysis grouped three monitoring stationsinto two clusters of similar water quality characteristics. Based on the above results,it was concluded that agricultural pollution strongly affected Cluster 2. Thus,this study show that usefulness of cluster analysis in water quality assessment, determination of pollution sources with a view to get betterinformation aboutthe monitoring stations. 5. References 1. Boyacioglu, H., & Boyacioglu, H. (2008). Water Pollution Source Assessment by Multivariate Statistical Methods in the Tahtali Basin, Turkey. Environmental Geology. 54, 275-282. 2. Einax, J.W., Truckenbrodt, D., & Kampe, O. (1998). River pollution data interpreted by means of chemometric methods. Microchem. J., 58, 315-324. 3. Carpenter, S., Caraco, N. F., Correll, D. L., Howarth, R. W., Sharpley, A. N., & Smith V. H. (1998). Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl,. 8(3),559-568. 4. Kowalkowski, T., Zbytniewski, R., Szpejna, J., & Buszewski, B. (2006). Application of chemometrics in river water classification. Water Research, 40, 744-752. 5. McGarial, K., Cushman, S., & Stafford, S. (2000). Multivariate statistics for wildlife& ecology research, Springer, New York. 6. Muri, G. (2004). Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Lake Water in 14 Slovenian Mountain Lakes. Acta Chim. Slov. 51, 257-272. 7. Singh K.P., Malik A. & Sinha, S. (2005). Water quality assessment and apportionment of pollution sources of Gomti river (India) using multivariate statistical techniques—a case study. Analytica Chimica Acta, Vol. 538. 8. Yerel, S., (2009). Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical analysis techniques: A case study from Tahtali dam, Turkey, Asian Journal of Chemistry, 21, 4054- 4062. 240 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 468 Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Cluster Analysis in Surface Water in Yesilirmak River Author Author Ozbay, Nurgul Yerel, Suheyla Ankara, Huseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. The main aim of this study is focused on surface water quality classification of the Yesilirmak River (Turkey) and evaluation of pollution dataset obtained by the monitoring stations. The study shows the application of selected statistical technique to the pollution monitoring dataset, namely, cluster analysis. Cluster analysis is an exploratory data analysis tool for solving classifications problems. Its objective is to sort cases into clusters so that degree of association is strongly members of the same cluster and weak between members of different clusters. The analysis of the monitoring stations identified two clusters. It was concluded that agricultural pollution strongly effected Stations II and Station III. Finally, it was believed to help surface water management to water quality issues and determine priorities to improve surface water quality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ee030fb601943c5308f10f24558ea0c9.pdf e695db5041e67e6a934ffbe53777f9ab PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Antinutritional Factors in Food Grain Legumes M ustafa Onder Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY monder@selcuk.edu.tr Ali Kahraman Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY kahramanali@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract:The use of plants to meet the world’s food needs is vital to human survival. On a global basis, over 65 % of food protein and over 80 % of food energy is supplied by plants. In terms of gross tonnage, approximately 98 % of the total world food production is harvested from land sources and only 2 % from the ocean and inland waters. Of the total food harvest, plant products directly contribute about 82 % of the gross tonnage, whereas the other sources (animal and marine products) together contribute only 18 %. The avarage production of plant protein potentially edible by humans was estimated to be 200 million tons, compared to 50 million tones of animal protein. Their unfavorable balance of amino acid requires that complementary protein be provided for optimal nutrition. In the developed countries of the Western world, animal protein make up a substantial portion of the diet. In the developing countries, however, the animal proteins are either too expensive, so legumes serve as main sources of both protein and calories in many of these tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Dry legumes and legume products are, in fact, the richest source of food protein from plants. Keywords: Antinutritional factors, inhibitory, legume, pulses. Introduction Pulses, whose history of cultivation dates back to earlier times, are essential for human and animal nutrition as well as crop rotation. The factthattheir grains contain 18-36 % protein (Çiftçi,2004), are sufficient in carbohydrates, consist of high amounts of phosphor,iron and calcium and are rich in vitamins (A, B, C, D) further adds to their significance. Since pulses contain high amounts of amino acids, they are consumed in developing countriestogether with low-protein and high calorie foods that are staple diets ofthose areas instead of animal proteins, which are both expensive and rare. Rice and bean or bean and bulgur in Turkey, corn and cowpea or rice and cowpea in African countries and corn and bean combinations (mixtures) complement each other in terms of their nutrient contents. However,in addition to increasing consumption of pulses in diets,itis also important to know how sparing amounts of antinutrient substances that are inherent in them will be removed. It has been established that pulses contain various substances, some varieties of which can be toxic (though rare) or may cause indigestion. However,it has been observed thatthe effects of these factors disappear or decrease when legumes are properly prepared. Among appropriate techniques of preparing legumes are germination, peeling, soaking, cooking, treating with various chemicals, fermenting, adding enzymes, roasting and frying. However, heat treatment applied to remove antinutritious substances should be performed carefully because this can lead to a decrease in essential amino acids. Shimelis and Rakshit(2005) reported thatthe most important factorthat affected the amount ofthe ingredientsin a grain is genetic constitution. Pulses contain proteins, oils, vitamins, mineral substances, carbohydrates and dietary fibers, which positively affect nutritional value as well as antinutrients that negatively affect diets. The most important of these substances are the following. Enzyme inhibitors Protease (trypsin, chymotrypsin) and Amylase Inhibitors: These protein inhibitors are found in many nutrients. Found in various forms, inhibitors are present in the tissues of animals and plants as well as in microorganisms. By virtue of theirinnumerable pharmacological properties,they also enjoy medical value. The 40 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo rate of water-soluble non-glucose proteinase inhibitor in legume seeds is about 0.2-2 % of the total soluble protein (Sgarbieri and Whitaker 1982). These substances reduce protein digestion. They decompose with heat. Therefore, when legumes are eaten raw or without being cooked properly, they upset digestive functions and cause diarrhea or excessive gas. Autoclave treatment or boiling also reduces the quantity of these substances (Khalil, 2001). About 10-20 % of the total active trypsin is found in human pancreatic juice (Weder and Link 1993). They bind proteases,which are resistantto digestion in the smallintestine, and thus ensure theirremoval through excretion. This is why the availability of amino acids (methionine and cystine) consisting of sulphur in legume grains is low. Sulphur deficiency may occur in a diet thatis dependent on legume grains (Ergün et al., 2002). In addition to this information, it is also known that trypsin inhibitors also carry characteristics of an insecticide (Hilder et al. 1990). Amylase inhibitors alter reactions to blood sugar and insulin by slowing down digestion and thus can be used fortherapeutic purposes in diabetes (Lajolo et al. 1991). Lectins (Hemagglutinins) All of them are proteins or glycoproteins. Lectin activity has been determined in more than 800 varieties of the legume family, which consists of 600 genus (Liener et al. 1986). 2-10 % of the total protein legume seeds are lectins. One of their mostimportant characteristicsisthatthey prevent absorption of digestive end products in the small intestine. They enable the coagulation of red blood cells by affecting erythrocytes. Lectins possess some other interesting chemical and biological properties, some of which are as follows: they interact with specific blood groups;they perform various functions in mitotic division, demolish cancerous cells and have toxic effects in some animals. Since they bond with different sugar groups, their bonding with intestinal wall may exhibit variation depending on the type of sugar.If some types of beans are consumed raw, they may cause shock cramps (Saldamlı 1998). Besides these characteristics,lectins can easily disintegrate (ElAdawy- 2002; Mubarak, 2005). Oligosaccharides They are gas generating factors in legumes. Legume seeds, which produce digestive gases in humans and animals, contain oligosaccharides of raffinose, stachyose and verbascose (Aksar 1986). As the duration of cooking increases, a decrease is observed in oligosaccharide content. Moreover, a decrease in oligosaccharide content also occurs when soaking wateris poured, seeds are washed a second time or seeds are germinated (Table 1).Itis known thatflatulent substances,which belong to the indigestiblefibers group, reduce the risk of intestinal cancer, fortifies the immune system, increases excretion frequency and weight as well as H DL cholesterollevel. Duration of cooking (min) 0 Total Sugar Verbascose Stachyose Raffinose Percentage 78,5 40,3 7,8 - 0 10 59,3 35,7 7,6 - 8,8 20 56,6 34,8 7,5 - 10,9 30 54,9 33,9 6,8 - 14,3 40 52,6 29,6 5,8 - 25,5 Table 1. The Effect of Cooking on Total Sugar and Oligosaccharides Content of Legume Seeds (from Reddy and Salunke (1980)) Phenol Compounds They constitute plants’ protection mechanisms against external factors. It is known that there is a relationship between flower color and bollcolor and tannin compositions. They are found infruitand vegetables and in some cereals. They cause plants to have a pungent taste. They reduce bioavailability of some minerals (especially zinc). Tannins of this group are usually stable when confronted with heat, and they may negatively affect pH mechanism, reduce protein digestion, and cause nitrogen mechanism. They can be discharged with excrement. 41 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Saponins They are glycoside derivativesthat are found in many plants. Their general characteristics can be cited as follows: they give a bitter taste, foam when they are treated with various solutions and cause hemolysis in red blood cells. Sincethey reduce the surfacetension of blood in cold-blooded animals,they have an extremely toxic effect. On the other hand, due to their cholesterol-reducing effect, legumes are the most important sources of saponins. The fact that saponins can bond with cholesterol and therefore reduce absorption and that legumes contain saponins points to theirimportance for health (Sidhu and Oakenfull 1986). Studies on medical uses of saponins continue. Cyanogens Glycosides (HCN) Many members of the plant kingdom contain cyanide. The cyanide contents of some legumes have been investigated forlong years (Montgomery 1964). Cyanogen compounds of tall plants are of two types: cyanogen glycosides and cyanogen lipids. Both groups contain cyanohydrins and free carbonyl. Since glycosides, which consist of HCN (hydrocyanohydric acid), can come out as a result of hydrolysis, they are potentially toxic. Cyanide can not be disintegrated with heat and since it separates from legumes during cooking or washing, it will be beneficialto pour soaking water(Devos 1988).Itisknown that broad beans and Lima beans are potential sources of cyanide. Vicine and Convicine (Favism factors) Favism is a hemolytic disease thatisfound in sensitive individuals with consumption of broad beans.Itis more widely found in people living in the Mediterranean countries. Itis known to be of genetic source (Liener 1983). The structure of hemoglobin, which is the primary carrier of oxygen, is upset. Dizziness, vomiting, feeling oftiredness and dark orange urine, which isthe firstsymptom of blood transfusion,are symptoms ofthis disease. The disease disappears soon butincidences of death may be encountered when the disease is prolonged. This disease of hemolytic anemia is caused by favogens. Favism also causes high fever and jaundice. Phytic acid and Phytoids Phytoid phosphor accounts for almost 80 % of the total phosphor in many legume seeds (Lolas and Markakis 1975). Most of them are found on the outer layer of the aleurone or endosperm (Desphande et al. 1984). Phytic acid causes the bioavailability of essential mineralsto decrease and turn into insoluble compounds whose absorption and digestion isless in the smallintestine (Desphande and Cheryan 1984). Pulses are sources of dietary phytoid (Ergün et al., 2002). When phytoid phosphor is not made use of, it is discharged with excretion. A way of preventing this is through the hydrolysis of phytoid phosphor; for this purpose, besides methods such as soaking, germinating, using food rich in vegetable endogen phytosis enzyme and storing, methods like cooking and performing autoclave where phytoid phosphor is demolished in the presence of heat can also be used. The studies that have been conducted demonstrated that phytoids reduce cholesterollevel and protect against intestinal cancer of iron origin. Besides, phytoids exhibit characteristics of natural antioxidants thanks to their benefits such as reducing lipid peroxidation (Zhou and Erdman 1995). Moreover, pulses are important sources of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, phosphor, potassium and zinc (Geil and Anderson 1994). The content of these minerals and their bio-availability depend, to a large extent, on the degree of the processing (cooking) process and their absorption is affected by the phytoid level found in the plant (Liener 1994). 50-80 % of the endogen phytoids in broad beans can be discharged through soaking and cooking. Allergens They are substancesthat are generally found in nutrients. They cause allergic reactionsthatare specificto certain individuals. The level of harm done depends on the sensitivity level of individual’s body rather than the quantity ofthe substances taken with the food. Diarrhea and vomiting are symptoms of allergy. Itis also argued that proteins with high molecular weight cause allergies(Perlman 1980). Histamine and compounds of histamine derivatives act as antigens against allergens. 42 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Toxic Amino acids There are certain amino acids in legume plants that are not of protein nature and reduce nutritious value and cause toxic effects. These substances are commonly found in Lathyrus and broad beans. Dihydroxyphenyl alanine (DOPA) is the most common toxic amino acid found in legumes. Although these amino acids do not display a direct toxic effect,the plant firstly takes on a black color due to these substances, and then withers. Moreover, the nutritional value of plants that contain such amino acids (broad beans, Lathyrus) decreases substantially. Toxic amino acids are believed to combine causes of metabolic favism. Despite allthese,these substances can not do any kind of harm because they need to be inlarge quantitiesinthe plantto pose a risk. In addition to this group of toxic substances, some legumes may contain sparing amounts of antivitamin substances and estrogen factors. Substances of this kind may be activated with heat and cause serious harm. Extensive studies are reported in the relevantliterature on the elimination of these substances in orderto reduce their harmful effects on plants (Desphande 1984). When itis taken into account that pulses are sources of the highest quality vegetable proteins, the importance of studies on the toxicity mechanisms of toxic amino acids that have an unfavorable effect on the quality of this protein and the degree of their potential harm become obvious. Goitrogens Soybean, a kind of oil seed, contain glycosides called goitrogens. Consisting of sulphur,these glycosides cause the thyroid gland to grow by inhibiting the iodine intake of the thyroid gland. This toxic effect can be reduced with the addition ofiodine to the diet. Conclusion In addition to being perfect sources of vegetable protein, pulses contain nutrients with high-fiber content and reduce blood cholesterol levels thereby contributing favorably to human health (Eastwood and Hamilton 1968; Önder and Akçin 1996).Increased legume consumption is recommended on cold days when energy need rises (Pekşen and Artık, 2005). Nergiz and Gökgöz (2007) stated that soaking before cooking is the most traditional, economic and appropriate method. Although cooking causes a reduction in soluble quality substances, especially vitamins and minerals in legumes,they should not be consumed raw by humans because they eliminate antinutrient substances or reduce them substantially. Also called the meat and bread of the poor and having dry grains whose chemical composition resembles that of peanut and soybean, pulses are recommended to be consumed frequently asthey are highly suitable for dieting. References Aksar, A. (1986). Faba beans (Vicia faba L.) and their role in the human diet. Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 8: 15-24. Çiftçi, C. Y. (2004). Dünyada Yemeklik Tane Baklagiller Tarımı. TMMOB Ziraat Mühendisleri Odası Teknik Yayınları Dizisi No: 5, 197 s. Ankara. Desphande, S. & Cheryan, M. (1984). Effect of phytic acid, divalent cations and their interactions on alfa-amilase activity. J. Food Sci., 49: 516-519. Devos, P. (1988). Mercimek ve nohutun besin değeri ve proses sırasındaki değişiklikler, Herkes Đçin Mercimek Sempozyumu, 29-30 Eylül, Marmaris/Muğla, 174-196. Eastwood M. A. & Hamilton, D. (1968). Stıdies on the absorbtion of bile salts ton on-absorbed componenets of the diet. Biochemical Biophys. Acta 152: 165-173. El-Adawy, T. A. (2002). Nutritional composition and antinutritional factors of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) undergoing different cooking methods and germination. Plant Food for Human Nutrition, 57: 83-97. Ergün, A., Tuncer, Ş. D., Çolpan, Đ., Yalçın, S., Yıldız, G., Küçükersan, M. K., Küçükersan, S., Önol, A. G., Muğlalı, Ö. H. & Şehu, A. (2002). Yemler, Yem Hijyeni ve Teknolojisi. A. Ü. Veteriner Fakültesi, Hayvan Beslenme ve Beslenme 43 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Hastalıkları A. B. D., Ankara, 465 s. Geil, P. B. &Anderson, J. W. (1994). Nutritional and health implications of dry beans: a review. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 13: 549558. Hilder, V. A., Gatehouse, A. M. R. & Boulter, D. (1990). Genetic Engineering of Crop for Insect Genes of Plant Origin. In: eds. D. Grierson, G. Laycet, Genetic Engineering of Crop Plants. Butterworths, London, pp. 51-56. Khalil, M. M. (2001). Effect of soaking, germination, autoclaving and cooking on chemical and biological value of guar compared with faba bean. Nahrung/Food, 45: 246-250. Lajolo, F.M., Filho, F.F. & Menezes, E.W. (1991). Amylase inhibitors in Phaseolus vulgaris beans. Food Tech. 45: 119-121. LĐENER, I.E. (1983). Toksic constituens in legumes . Pages 217-257 in: Chemisrtey and Biochemistry of legumes . S.K. Arora , ed. Edward Arnold , London. LĐENER, I. E. (1976). Legume toxins in relation to protein digestibility: A rewiew. J. Food Sci. 41:1076-1081. Liener, I.E. (1994). Implications of antinutritional components in soybean foods. Critt. Rev. Fd. Sci. Nutr. 34: 31-67. LOLAS. G. M. & MARKAKĐS, P. (1975). Phytic acid and other phospohos compouds of beans Phaseolus vulgaris L. J. Agric Food Chem. 23:13-15. MORTGOMERY, R.D. (1964). Obzervations on the cynadie content and toxicity of tropical pulses . W.indian Med. j. 13:111. Mubarak, A. E. (2005). Nutritional composition and antinutritional factors of mung bean seeds (Phaseolus aureus) as affected by some home traditional processes. Food Chemistry 89: 489-495. Nergiz, C. & Gökgöz, E. (2007). Effects of traditional cooking methods on some antinutrients and in vitro protein digestibility of dry bean varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) grown in Turkey. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 42: 868–873. Önder, M. & Akçin, A. (1996). M3 Generasyonundaki Mutant Fasulye Hatlarında Verim ve Bazı Verim Öğelerinin Korelasyonu ve Path Analizi. S. Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(11) : 83–90. Pekşen, E. & Artık, C. (2005). Antibesinsel maddeler ve yemeklik tane baklagillerin besleyici değerleri. J. of Fac. of Agric, OMU. 20 (2): 110-120. Perlman, F. (1980. Allergens. Toxic constitues of plant foodstuffs. Academic Pres, New York. 295-327. REDDY,N.R. & SALUNKE, D.K. (1980). Changes in oligosaccarides durin germination and cooking of black gram and fermantation of black gram Rice blend .Creal Chem. 57:356-360. Saldamlı, Đ. (1998. Gıda kimyası. Doğal toksik maddeler ve Kontaminantlar. Acar J. ve Uygun Ü. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Gıda Mühendisliği Bölümü- Ankara. 399-433. SGARBIERI, V.C. & WHITAKER, J. R. (1982). Physical , Chemical and Nutritional properties of common bean (Phaseolus) proetins. Adv . Food Res. 28-93-166. Shimelis, E. A. & Rakshit, S. K. (2005). Antinutritional factors and in vitro protein digestibility of improved haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties grown in Ethiopia. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 56(6): 377-387. Sidhu, G. S. & Oekenfull, D. G. (1986). A mechanism for the hypocholesterolaemic activity of saponins. Br. J. Nutr. 55: 643649. Weder, J. K. P. & Link, I. (1993). Effect of treatments on legume inhibitor activity against human proteinases. In Recent advances of research in antinutritional factors in legume Seeds; van der Poel, A. F. B., Huisman, J., Saini, H. S., Eds.; Wageningen Pers: Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp: 481-485. Zhou, J. R. & Erdman, J. W. Jr. (1995). Phytic acid in health and disease. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 35 (6): 495-508. 44 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 467 Title A name given to the resource Antinutritional Factors in Food Grain Legumes Author Author Onder, Mustafa Kahraman, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. The use of plants to meet the world’s food needs is vital to human survival. On a global basis, over 65 % of food protein and over 80 % of food energy is supplied by plants. In terms of gross tonnage, approximately 98 % of the total world food production is harvested from land sources and only 2 % from the ocean and inland waters. Of the total food harvest, plant products directly contribute about 82 % of the gross tonnage, whereas the other sources (animal and marine products) together contribute only 18 %. The avarage production of plant protein potentially edible by humans was estimated to be 200 million tons, compared to 50 million tones of animal protein. Their unfavorable balance of amino acid requires that complementary protein be provided for optimal nutrition. In the developed countries of the Western world, animal protein make up a substantial portion of the diet. In the developing countries, however, the animal proteins are either too expensive, so legumes serve as main sources of both protein and calories in many of these tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Dry legumes and legume products are, in fact, the richest source of food protein from plants. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/34d2cc141fe3f25d61bfe90e4f1d6e07.pdf 8a07324e330f9bb4d84e4615b3ad9a96 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo To Take advantage of Mass Media Implementation on Agricultural Farms in Konya; The case of Altınekin District Cennet Oguz University of Selcuk Faculty of Agriculture 42031 Konya,TUR KEY coguz@selcuk.edu.tr Hüseyin Dogançukuru Agricultural Engineer Public Agricultural Extension department, TURKEY hdogancukuru@hotmail.com Abstract:This study was conducted to supply achievement of Agricultural Extension work which is being implemented in Konya region. Itis significantly important to state that which extension implements will be used in which level in order to reach this objective. The minimum usable sample offarm enterprises was determined as 55 based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from Altınekin districtin Konya. The new technologies application is quite high in the research area and the producers are open to innovation. The resultsindicate that agricultural modernization has a positive effect on farm enterprises in the certain district and the reasons behind this are that the producers are open to innovation and they have positive future expectation,the producers in an economy have the right kind of knowledge and information, they can produce economic output efficiently. Keywords: Mass media, Agriculture Extension, Konya Province Introduction The world we liveinisshrinking withthe same level of changing and developing.Inthe nearfuture,the nations which can cope with this change and development will have the chance to survive. The certain change is ongoing with a spectacular speed in all part oflife. Rational and economic production oriented towards needs is the main part of the modernization. Its centre is without doubt the human being. Modern technology which is utilized for agricultural production will be the cause of an increase in the technical agricultural production. That also means that there will be an improvement for the living conditions and a boost income of the farmers who lives in the rural areas.In the end, better quality food consumption, good nutritive and a growing work capacity will emerge. On the other hand, the growing population and the population density in urban areas because of the migration force the farmers to make a production with more quantity and a high quality. Other wise, this uncontrolled population which consist of unemployed migrants will cause nuisance and socialturmoil. For that reason the society have to take their responsibility of improving the living conditions of the rural people and create methods to provide agricultural technical information that they need. They also have to make those methods work. Itis called agricultural extension. The developed countries that are conscious about this subject already established the necessary organisations. With the 130 thousands registered farmers, Konya is the city that has the highest number of farmers in Turkey. In terms of the area,the situation is also the same and with 135.886ha registered agricultural area; Konya is the province that has the largest agricultural area. These figures signify the importance of agricultural extension work that will be implemented in Konya province. In such a broad area with such a large number of farmers, stating the usage of which agriculturalextension methods willbe utilized in which level willboostthe success of the agricultural extension work that will be implemented. The main objective of this study is contributing the success of the agricultural extension work which is being implemented in Konya region. It is significantly important to state that which extension implements will be used in which level in order to reach this objective. For the below reasons, Altinekin district was chosen as the research field; the regions is well-known by the researchers,thelevel ofthe application ofthe new farming techniquesis quite high and the producers are open to 5 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo innovation. This study was done in order to revealthe progress in the use of the means of mass communication in the certain district and the reasons behind this are that the producers are open to innovation and they have positive future expectations. Materyal ve Metot The survey technique was applied for this research. When the survey form was prepared, the research subject and the features of the agricultural enterprises are considered and we also did benefit from the other survey forms which have being used for severalresearches.The data which was used forthe research belongs to years 2006 and 2007. For the purpose of the research, Altinekin district was chosen as the research field and the reasons behind this are thatthe regions is well-known by the researchers,the level ofthe application of the new farming techniques is quite high and the producers are open to innovation. With the intention of improving the accuracy of the findings which is obtained with information gathered from the enterprises and ensuring the population’s different sections to be represented sufficiently, the stratified sampling methods was used for the research. The stratified sampling is conducted by considering the factors which affectthe examined populations’ inspected features. With the stratified sampling, the population’s parameters are better estimated because it is possibleto selectthem from allstratums.(Çiçek and at all. 1996). Farm SizeGroup(ha) Sample enterprises (unit) 1-20 13 21-40 29 41- + 13 Total 55 Table 1. The distribution of sample enterprises Research Results And Discussion Freehold Land and land use situation During the research that was carried outinthe enterprises,the case ofland use,freehold land,leasehold and share land’s width were considered. Enterprises’ ownership in land and their usage can be seen in table 2. land FarmSize Group(ha) 1-20 21-40 41- + Average (ha) 14,512 25,664 52,827 31,001 hiring partnership Total enterprise area Avrg.land (ha) ratio % ratio % (ha) ratio % area(ha) ratio % 94,61 0,82 5,39 0,00 0,00 15,33 100,00 96,62 0,89 3,38 0,00 0,00 26,56 100,00 100 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 52,82 100,00 97,08 0,57 2,92 0,00 0,00 31,57 100,00 Table 2. Land use sitiuation in investigated holdings In the Research field,the size of land is estimated as 31,57 ha. 97.08% of thisisfreehold and 2, 92 % is leasehold.In turkey,the percentage ofthe enterprises which use freehold land is 92,7. Butthe percentage ofthe enterprisesthat use leasehold and share land is 7.3 (Anonym,1997). 6 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo FarmSize Group(ha) 1-20 21-40 41- + Average (%) W heat 6,788 9,647 16,038 10,824 25,60 SugarBarley beet bean sunflower Other Totalfarm area 3,500 3,092 3,125 3,688 20,194 6,615 5,220 4,208 7,034 4,750 37,475 10,650 9,521 6,500 11,885 8,125 62,719 6,922 5,944 4,611 7,536 6,438 42,272 16,37 14,06 10,91 17,83 15,23 100,00 Table 3. Plant sowing ininvestigated holdings ( ha,%) The enterprises product proportion isfollowing as; 25,60% wheat, 16,37% barley, 14,06% sugar-beat, 10,91% dryed bean, 17,83% sunflower and 15,23% other plants. The proportion of grain (barley, wheat etc.) farming and the proportion ofdryed bean and sunflower farming is almost equal. This signifiesthatrotate cultivation system is working successfully in agriculturalfields. Substructure situation in village according to the enterprise groups W hen the villages’infrastructures, where the enterprises are situated, are observed,itis determined that 78, 60% of the enterprises have asphalt-paved road. All ofthe villages have electricity. Only 24, 31% of these have health centres, 16, 89% ofthese have canalization and 97, 44% of these have telephone. Infrastructures of the telephone and electricity are completed. Thisindicatesthat farmers easily reach the com munication sources. Farm Size Group(ha) 1-20 Asphalt road Electricity Health organization Canalization Ho me phone exist exist not exist not exist not exist not 69,23 30,77 100,00 0,00 7,69 92,31 15,38 84,62 92,31 7,69 89,66 10,34 100,00 0,00 34,48 62,07 27,59 68,97 100,00 0,00 76,92 23,08 100,00 0,00 30,77 69,23 7,69 92,31 100,00 0,00 97,44 2,56 not 21-40 41- + Average 78,60 21,40 100,00 0,00 24,31 74,54 16,89 81,96 Table 4. Substructure situation according to the enterprise groups (%) The situation of machinary equipment possessions according to the enterprise groups In the research area, when enterprises’ usage ofthe equipment-machine is obtained,itisfound that all the enterprises have tractor and plough. enterprises %97,44 Driller, %94,87 Atomizer, %67,37 Cultivator, % 8,84 Combine harvester, % 37,44 Sugar-beet harvester, % 87,44 Manure distributor, %35,10 Rotatiller, %22,55 subsoiler It can be understood that when the largeness ofthe enterprise increase ,the possession of agricultural equipment alsıincrease butin contrary to this situation we have observed thatitcan seen when the largeness ofthe enterprise increase, possession ofthe sub-soiler, used for crumbling the hard-pan, begins to decrease. 7 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Farm Size Group(ha) 1-20 SugarCo mbine beet Cultivator harvester harvester M anure distributor Driller Atomizer Rotatiller Subsoiler 92,31 84,62 76,92 0,00 30,77 76,92 30,77 7,69 100,00 100,00 48,28 3,45 27,59 93,10 20,69 13,79 100,00 100,00 76,92 23,08 53,85 92,31 53,85 46,15 97,44 94,87 67,37 8,84 37,40 87,44 35,10 Table 5. The situation of machinary possessions ininvestigated holdings (%) 22,55 21-40 41- + Average The situation of using the electrical house equipment (household utensil) The using Tv and Refrigerator according to the average enterprise groups were observed as 100 %. Using the washing machine, hoover, dish washer,tv satelitereceiver, bread dough machine were determined as 81,43%,89,12%,13,70% 91,69 % 16,89 respectively. The most noticed resultsisthe increasing of usage of electrical equipments depending increasing the enterprise largeness.Itshows thatthe results of high usage of satelite receiverin rural areas put forth the high watching rate of various tv Channels. Nevertheless,itis very noticeable that usage ofthe Bread Dough machine especially in larger farmer, most ofthe makes/bakes oftheir own bread isinthe level of 16,89 %. Farm Size Washing (TV satellite Bread dough Group(ha) machine hoover dish washer receiver) machine 1-20 69,23 84,62 7,69 92,31 7,69 21-40 82,76 82,76 10,34 82,76 27,59 41- + 92,31 100,00 23,08 100,00 15,38 Average 81,43 89,12 13,70 91,69 16,89 Table 6. The situation of using the electrical house equipmentininvestigated holdings (%) Agricultural issues needed assistance for the farmers according to the enterprise groups Agriculturalissues needed assistance forthe farmers according to the enterprise groups are listed as below 66,84% for disorder and pests, 80,02 % for growing,88,86 % for market data (prices,support amounts, credits), 87,98 % for fertiliserand fertilizing, 7,43 % for environmental protection and otherissues. These results show thatfarmers mostly wonder some issues related to marketing and finance and try to find out support amounts dealing with supporting their enterprises.itis noticeable situation that farmers needed some knowledge concerning with environmental protection. Farm Size Group(ha) 1-20 21-40 41- + Average 8 Disorder Fertilizer and Environmental and pests growing market fertilizing protection 61,54 76,92 84,62 92,31 0,00 62,07 86,21 89,66 79,31 6,90 76,92 76,92 92,31 92,31 15,38 66,84 80,02 88,86 87,98 7,43 Table 7. Agriculturalissues needed by assistance in investigated holdings (%) other 0,00 6,90 15,38 7,43 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Information centers reached by the farmers according to the enterprise groups Information centers reached by the farmers according to the average enterprise groups have been come out as follow 81,43 % from other farmers, 95,14 % from Sub-province agricultural Directorate, 24,58 % from agricultural, 8,58 % from published journals, 12,29 % from internet, 9,99 % from universities, 23,96 % from research institutes, 80,02 from vendors and 7,43 % from other knowledge sources. Sub-province agricultural Directorate, others farmers and agricultural pesticide vendors have come forward asthe mostly made connections centers. SubFrom province Farm Size other agricultural Agricultural Published Research Group(ha) farmers Directorate engineer journal Đnternet Univercity institute Vendor Other 1-20 76,92 92,31 23,08 0,00 7,69 7,69 15,38 69,23 0,00 21-40 82,76 27,59 10,34 13,79 6,90 10,34 86,21 6,90 41- + 84,62 100,00 23,08 15,38 15,38 15,38 46,15 84,62 15,38 Average 81,43 95,14 24,58 8,58 12,29 9,99 Table 8.Information centers reached by the farmers (%) 23,96 80,02 7,43 The Consideration of how accurately the agricultural practices have been done Itis determined that 1,15 % of Producersinthe enterprise areas carried out accurate activities everytime ,27,4 % ofthem accepted the correctness of practices, 62,68 % accepted some inaccuracies, 8,84 ofthem accepted thatthet made some mistakes in many times.intotal more than 70 % farmers admitted thatthey makde some mistakes in some acricultural practices. M any times, inaccurate agricultural practices are com mon Farm Size Accurate Sometime Group(ha) everytime Accurate inaccurate 1-20 0,00 38,46 61,54 0,00 21-40 3,45 27,59 65,52 3,45 41- + 0,00 15,38 61,54 23,08 Average 1,15 27,14 62,86 8,84 Table 9. The Consideration of how accurately the agricultural practices have been done(%) The situation of usage mass communication means according to the enterprise groups W hen researching the situation of usage mass communication means according to the enterprise groups in agriculturalissues,it was determined that whole farmers utilized from Tv as mass communication means . Utilization ratio is 6,28 % from the Radio, 1,15 % from VCD, 16,89 % usage internet, 7,43 % from home phone, 40,58 % from newspaper, 18,30 % from magazine and 41,1 % from leaflets. Farm Size Group(ha) 1-20 21-40 41- + Average Tv 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 Radio 7,69 3,45 7,69 6,28 VCD 0,00 3,45 0,00 1,15 internet 7,69 27,59 15,38 16,89 Ho me phone 0,00 6,90 15,38 7,43 Newspaper 38,46 44,83 38,46 40,58 Journal 0 24,14 30,77 18,30 Leaflet 30,76 31,03 61,54 41,11 9 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 10. Utilizing of Mass-Media implemention in investigated holdings (%) The State Of Attending The Group Agricultural Knowledge Connection Supplies According To Groups Of Enterprises According to the means of enterprises,the farmers have attended asthe sharing place of agriculturel knowledge to farmer meetings at arate of %73,12, panels at %22,02, conference at %14,59 and seminars at %7,16. Farm Size Group(ha) 1-20 21-40 41- + Average Farmer meetings 84,62 65,52 69,23 73,12 Panel 7,69 27,59 30,77 22,02 Conference 15,38 20,69 7,69 14,59 Seminar 0,00 13,79 7,69 7,16 Table 11. The situation of exchangeable agricultural knowledge (%) The State Of Attending Individual Agricultural Knowledge Connection Supplies According To Groups Of Enterprises In the research field,the farmers getsthe agricultural news and knowledge from coffee houses at %86,56, other farmers when atthe field at %79,13, village rooms at %44,56, stock market at %54,55, market at %39,17 and from the fairs at%39,17. Farm Size On Village meeting Stock On Group(ha) farm room market market Fair Đn cafes 1-20 84,62 84,62 30,77 38,46 23,08 7,69 21-40 82,76 75,86 41,38 48,28 24,14 48,28 41- + 92,31 76,92 61,54 76,92 30,77 61,54 Average 86,56 79,13 44,56 54,55 25,99 39,17 Table 12. The situation of sources ofindividual exchanging agricultural knowledge(%) The State Of Getting Out Of The Village According To The Enterprise Groups W hen examined the state of getting out ofthe village according to the enterprise groups,itis stated that %55,97 ofthem everyday, %41,73 once a week and %2,30 once in atwo week gets out ofthe village. Advances in transport opportunities and getting cheaper in rural areas and diversifying ofneeds increased getting out of village and according to these %97,70 ofthe farmers atleast once a week feelsto get out ofthe village. As a result,accepting the innovations level becomes high by the farmers who have strong connections with city centers. Farm Size Group(ha) 1-20 21-40 41- + Everyday One at a week One in every two weeks 61,54 38,46 0,00 44,83 48,28 6,90 61,54 38,46 0,00 Average 55,96817 41,73298 2,30 Table 13.the situation of frequency of visiting intervaltothe city (%) The State Of Mobile Communication Level According To The Enterprise Groups 10 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to the enterprise groups the state of possessing the mobile phone is at a rate of%98,85. The rate of farmers who constantly have mobile phones nearby is %96,26. The rate of farmers that agricultural knowledge comes to whose mobile phones is %14,85 and who doesn’t come is %85,15. The rate of farmers who want to get agricultural knowledges by their phones is % 95,14. The farmers have their phones atthe average of 8,4 years. The farmers have paid 36,23 TL at average for monthly speech fee. Itisimportant to evaluate this condition and using the form of SMS for farmers to reach knowledge. Farm Size Group (ha) Situation of Possession of holding the mobile phone mobile phone Co ming of agricultural knowledge from mobile phone Do yo want to get agricultural informatin from phone ? yes no no yes no yes no 100,00 0,00 92,31 7,69 7,69 92,31 100,00 0,00 8,15 20,5 96,55 3,45 96,55 0,00 13,79 82,76 93,10 6,90 8,28 23,4 100,00 0,00 100,00 0,00 23,08 76,92 92,31 7,69 8,77 26,05 yes Haw long W hat is have you the had mobile monthly phone? cost? (year) ($) 1-20 21-40 41- + Average 98,85 1,15 96,29 2,56 14,85 85,15 95,14 4,86 8,40 Table 14. The situation oflevel in mobile communication in investigated holdings (%) 23,3 Result and Suggestions There are 3.076.650 enterprises in our country and 4.2 %( 130000) of those are in Konya. The following facts prevent farmers who are disbanded in wide area from gaining accurate, solid information at the correct time; Konya province has a broad area and itis consist of 31 districts. Our farmers concerns about certain issues such as; transferring the agricultural technology to the farmers in research fields, announcing the innovations, strengthening the farmers against the market and transferring the information about agricultural support and credits. In 2007, agricultural supports was tried to be announced under 102 headings by only the Ministry of Agriculture (http://www.tugem.gov.tr). Furthermore, there are new headings that need to be announced to farmers. These are the followings; keeping records during the process of European Union, agricultural support works based on these records, changes which are made based on figures and practises each years.In the past 3 years including 2005 and 2007, 7 laws, 23 ministers council decisions, 16 com muniqués, 13 circulars and 33 legislations were published by the Ministry of agriculture with the intention of regulating the agricultural production (http://www.tugem.gov.tr). The farmers are having difficulties reaching the information and using the communication sources. The level of following up organs ofthe printed publication islow and the internet use began to increase. Despite the factthat TV isthe best-known mass communication method, only one channelis consist of agricultural programs amongst the 373 national TV channels which are revealed in the daily TV listing and the local TV channels programmes do not have the sustainability. The existing com munication sources do not contain such subjects as is valuable for the farmers. Furthermore,the farmers are not interested in agricultural subjects which organs of the printed publication contain. Ministry of agriculture is trying to apply all sort of visual and printed publications so as to reach banks,the farmer organisations and the private sector farmers. To gain the results of these efforts, modern communication methods need to be utilized. Mobile communications that present us the innovations in different sectors has to be included in agricultural extension works. In the case of mobile communication, one way information flow which isin SMS format requires to be two way. With the information transfer, sound files also need to be enabled to be sent and received. ARGE works should be conducted so asto boost and generalizethe effectiveness of mobile communication in orderto produce communication equipments at the prototype level. Agricultural publications models which are suitable for the mobile communications methods used by farmers should be generated. Farmers registration system that is implemented by Ministry of Agricultural, agricultural business accounting data networks and the software sub-structure of allsort offarmer organisations have to be suitable for 11 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the mobile communications. References Anonymous, http://www.e-kolay.net Anonymous, Http://tüik.gov.tr Anonymous, http://www.tugem.gov.tr Boyacı.M., 1996 Agricultural Extension in EU and Turkey, Ege University publication, Bornova ,Đzmir. Cicek.A., Erkan.O., 1996. Research and Samples Method in Agricultural Economics, Gazi Osman Paşa University Publication, Đzmir. Celep. C., 1995. Public Education Pegem Pub. Number:22,ISBN:975-7251-14-3.Ankara. Oakley. P., Garforth. C., 1998, The Guide Extension Education, Number:11 TYUAP publication, Ankara. Özcatalbas.O., Gürgen. Y., Agricultural Extension and Communication, Baki Bookshop, Adana. Yurttaş.Z.,2006Agricultural Extension and Communication Technics, A.Ü. Agricultural Faculty, Publication Number:67, Erzurum. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 461 Title A name given to the resource To Take advantage of Mass Media Implementation on Agricultural Farms in Konya; The case of Altınekin District Author Author Oguz, Cennet Dogançukuru, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was conducted to supply achievement of Agricultural Extension work which is being implemented in Konya region. It is significantly important to state that which extension implements will be used in which level in order to reach this objective. The minimum usable sample of farm enterprises was determined as 55 based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from Altınekin district in Konya. The new technologies application is quite high in the research area and the producers are open to innovation. The results indicate that agricultural modernization has a positive effect on farm enterprises in the certain district and the reasons behind this are that the producers are open to innovation and they have positive future expectation, the producers in an economy have the right kind of knowledge and information, they can produce economic output efficiently. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/973663bf0ae386c74e668b0598e6af35.pdf 076e47855af6402fd83269ed979aa4b9 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Contributions on the Urban Ecology of Green Spaces in the Context of Sustainable Urban Development Serpil ONDER Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty Landscape Architecture Department, Konya, TURKEY sonder@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: The world is increasingly becoming an urban place. Urbanization increases the distance between people and natural space. Urban ecosystems differ from natural or rural ones in many obvious ways. Green space is an important part of complex urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally and economically. In order to improve the environmental quality in cities and ensure its sustainability, it should be paid an attention to the establishment of green areas. This paper carried out to describe the importance of urban open green spaces which effect on urban climate, air quality, biological diversity and prevents erosion, noise and visual pollution within the framework of sustainable urban development. Keywords: sustainable urban development, urban ecology, urban green spaces. Introduction Some 65% of the world’s population is expected to be urban by the year 2025 (Schell and Ulijaszek 1999). As a result of urbanization,the world’s population has become increasingly concentrated in cities. Due to fast urbanization, natural ecosystems areincreasingly replaced by urban development. Urban green spaces are an important component of the complex urban ecosystem. They have very important functions in the creation of a sustainable city. Green space has significant ecosystem services, which are defined as “the benefits human population derives, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions” (Costanza et al. 1997). In particular, for people living in large and dense cities, a good quality of life depends largely on the quality of the urban environment(Van Leeuwen et al.2006). Originally, merely a decorative elementintowns and cities, green space has now taken on a new value and function,the importance of which is widely acclaimed within the parameters of sustainable development (Sanesia and Chiarello 2006). The aim of this paper isto explanation importance of open green spaces forthe quality of urban life within the framework of sustainable urban development. Urban ecosystem Ecology is used to indicatethe study of relations between living organisms (man, animals and plants) and their environment. Urban ecology is usually associated with ‘nature in cities’. The city is also a part of nature; the processes of abiotic and biotic nature do not stop atthe urban fringe. Sustainable urban developmentis bound to ecologicallimits. Urban ecology is the study of urban ecosystems. The city as a whole and parts of it can be described as ecosystems (Tjallingii 1992). Urban ecosystems differ from natural or rural ones in many obvious ways and are also often of poorer quality than their rural equivalents (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Human activities,such as building,traffic, orindustrial production affectthe quality of air, water,and soil which impacts ecosystems in many ways (Sukopp 2004). The future of earth ecosystems is increasingly dependent on the patterns of urban growth because cities are growing rapidly worldwide. Human activities are part of these systems and an analysis of their impact on the biotic and abiotic fields may provide us with guidelines for the planning of urban ecosystems. Thus ecological urban planning may become a way of planning all urban functions and areas. Ecological planning includes nature conservation and improvement, open and green space systems and environmentalimpact assessment studies. 258 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable urban development concept Sustainability, in general terms, is the ability to maintain balance of a certain process or state in any system. It is now most frequently used in connection with biological and human systems. In an ecological context, sustainability can be defined as the ability of an ecosystem to maintain ecological processes,functions, biodiversity and productivity into the future. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so thatthese needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations to come. The term was used by the Brundtland Com mission. The Brundtland Com mission, formally the World Com mission on Environment and Development (WCED), known by the name of its Chair Gro Harlem Brundtland was assembled by the United Nations in 1983. The com mission was created to address growing concern "about the accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration for economic and social development." According to this report,sustainable development was defined as “meetsthe needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of future generations to meettheir own needs” (Anonymous 1991). The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken intothree constituent parts:environmentalsustainability,economic sustainability and sociopolitical sustainability (Goodland 1995). Environmental sustainability means of ensuring continuity of natural resources includes biodiversity, human health, air, water and soil quality, protection of animal and plant life. Sustainable city planning is possible with ecological planning which is based on sustainability of natural resources. Urban green spaces have taken on a new value and function, the importance of which is widely acclaimed within the parameters of sustainable development. Urban green spaces functions Urban green spaces are an important component of the complex urban ecosystem. Scottish Greenspace (2008) defined green spaces as pieces of vegetated land within or adjoining an urban area, including parks, gardens, natural or semi-natural areas, green corridors,and otherfunctional green areas.More studies on benefits of green space in urban setting can be found in the literature. Green spaces, an important part of urban ecosystems, have significant ecological, social, cultural and economic functions. Their ecological functions can be explained as follows; - Urban green spaces have intrinsic ecological value; they often have a variety of habitattypes, which allows for high species diversity,including rare and threatened species (Chace and Walsh 2006). - Green spaces improve air quality. They reduce air pollution, help to settle out,trap and hold particle pollutants (dust, ash, pollen and smoke) (Yang et al. 2005),can sequester carbon dioxide emissions and adsorb other dangerous gasses (Nowak and Crane 2002; McHale etal. 2007), produce oxygen, purify air(Jo 2002). - Green spaces modify local climate,regulate microclimates and reduce the heatisland effect (Shin and Lee 2005). Trees help cool the "heat island" effect in our inner cities. These islands result from storage of thermal energy in concrete, steel and asphalt. Heat islands are 3 to 10 degrees warmer than the surrounding countryside. The collective effect of a large area of transpiring trees (evaporating water) reduces the air temperature in these areas. They lower airtemperature through shade,increase humidity in dry climates through evaporation of moisture reduce glare on sunny days and wind speed. - Green spaces conserve water and reduce soil erosion (Jim 2001). They reduce surface runoff of water from storms, soil erosion and sedimentation in streams, increase groundwater recharge that is significantly reduced by paving, reduce wind erosion of soil,lesser amounts of chemicalstransported to streams. - Green spaces can reduce noise (Fang and Ling 2003). They absorb and block noise from the urban environment. Tree belts situated between the noise source and the receiver can reduce the noise level perceived by the receiver. - Urban green spaces play a pivotalrolein preserving biodiversity (Attwell 2000). Trees and associated plants create local ecosystems that provide habitat and food for birds and animals. They offer suitable miniclimates for other plants that could otherwise be absent from urban areas. Biodiversity is an important part of urban forestry. Furthermore, green spaces such as public parks, natural areas and golf courses can have a statistically significant effect on the sale price of housesin close proximitytothose resources (Luttik 2000; Kong et al. 2007) They contributes to public health and produce a vitamin ‘‘G’’ for health, well-being and social safety (Groenewegen et al. 2006). They create feelings of relaxation and well-being, provide privacy and a sense of solitude and security, shorten post-operative hospital stays when patients are placed in rooms with a view of trees and open spaces. People are eagerto access these green spaces for recreation and to experience nature (De Groot and Van den Born 2003; Lynn and Brown 2003). Green spaces introduce the natural into the urban environment. They foster a connection between community residents and the natural environmentthat surrounds 259 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo them, thus allowing for a more liveable city. This is essentialin order for a community to be sustainable. Trees add beauty and natural characterto our cities and towns, provide us with colours,flowers,and beautiful shapes, forms and textures, screen harsh scenery, soften the outline of masonry, metal and glass, can be used architecturally to provide space definition and landscape continuity. Results Green space has significant ecosystem services, which are defined as “the benefits human population derives, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions”. To manage progress towards sustainable urban development, it is essential to develop suitable indicators, one of which is the quality and quantity of green spaces and related elements in the city. The planning and management of urban greening is of significance to urban sustainable development. In future, the social and spatial implications of new lifestyles, values, attitudes to nature and sustainability will even lead to higher demands for urban green space. Green spaces provide numerous ecological, social, economic, health, and recreational benefits. To counter these trends, itis important to make sufficient provision of quality green space within urban areas as well as improve access to the countryside around towns. Consequently, the management of urban green areas is an increasingly important issue. At the end of the evaluation of urban green spaces functions, some suggestions are cited: -The management of urban green space including planning, design and resource management requires the collaborative working ofmany disciplines at different spatialscales. -Urban green and open space planning policies need to be developed locally in order to satisfy local needs and to assist also in the achievement of national and international sustainability objectives. -More integrated approaches as well as active involvement of the urban com munity, local authorities, local businesses and voluntary groups (e.g., NGOs),forthe development and management of urban green spaces are needed. -An improvement of quantity, quality and accessibility of green spaces in order to form the basis for a vision for urban green space is needed. -To improve the quality of urban green spaces an up-to-date informative database is needed. -The orderly and careful maintenance (irrigation, pruning, struggle with undesirable plant and animals etc.) must be followed after presentation of green spaces. References Anonymous. (1991). Our Common Future, Turkish Environmental Problems Foundations, p:452. Önder Publisher, Ankara. Attwell, K.. (2000). Urban land resources and urban planting – case studies from Denmark. Landscape and Urban Planning 52, 145–163. Bolund, P., & Hunhammar, S. (1999). Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecological Economics 29, 293–301. Chace, J.F., & Walsh, J.J. (2006). Urban effects on native avifauna: a review. Landscape and Urban Planning 74, 46–69. Costanza, R., D’Arge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Laskin, R., Sutton, P., & Van den Belt, M. (1997). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387 (15), 253–260. De Groot, W.T. & Van den Born, R.J.G. (2003). Visions of nature and landscape type preferences: an exploration in The Netherlands. Landscape Urban Planning 63, 127–138. Fang, C.F. & Ling, D.L. (2003). Investigation of the noise reduction provided by tree belts. Landscape and Urban Planning 63, 187–195. Goodland, R. (1995). “The Concept of Environmental Sustainability”, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol.26, s.17 Groenewegen, P.P., Berg, A.E., Vries, S. & Verheij, R.A., 2006. Vitamin G: effects of green space on health, well-being, and social safety. Study Protocol, BMC Public Health 6, 149. Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/149S (accessed 1 February 2009). 260 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Jim, C.Y. (2001). Managing urban trees and their soil envelopes in a contiguously developed city environment. Environ. Manage. 28 (6), 819–832. Jo, H.K. (2002). Impacts of urban green space on offsetting carbon emissions for middle Korean. Journal of Environmental Management 64, 115–126. Kong, F., Yin, H. & Nakagoshi, N. (2007). Using GIS and landscape metrics in the hedonic price modeling of the amenity value of urban green space: a case study in Jinan City, China. Landscape and Urban Planning 79, 240–252. Luttik, J. (2000). The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house prices in The Netherlands. Landscape Urban Planning 48,161–167. Lynn, N.A. & Brown, R.D. (2003). Effects of recreational use impacts on hiking experiences in natural areas. Landscape Urban Planning 64, 77–87. McHale, M.R., Mc Pherson, E.G. & Burke, I.C. (2007). The potential of urban tree plantings to be cost effective in carbon credit markets. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 6 (1), 49–60. Nowak, D.J. & Crane, D.E. (2002). Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution 116, 381–389. Sanesi, G. & Chiarello, F. (2006). Residents and urban green spaces: the case of Bari. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 4 (3–4), 125–134. Schell, L.M. & Ulijaszek, S.J. (1999). Urbanism, Health and Human Biology in Industrialized Countries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Scottish Greenspace. (2008). What is green space? Available at: http://www.greenspacescotland.org.uk// (accessed 1 May 2009). Shin, D-H. & Lee, K-S. (2005). Use of remote sensing and geographical information system to estimate green spacetemperature change as a result of urban expansion. Landscape and Ecological Engineering 1, 169–176. Sukopp H. (2004). Human-caused impact on preserved vegetation. Landscape and Urban Planning 68, 347-355. Tjallingii S. (1992). Strategies fort he urban ecosystem. 7th Conference on Urban and Regional Research. p: 72-83, 29 june3 july 1992. Ankara, Turkey. Tyrva¨inen, L. (1997). The amenity value of the urban forest: an application of hedonic pricing method. Landscape and Urban Planning 37, 211–222. Van Leeuwen, E.S., Vreeker, R. & Rodenburg, C.A. (2006). A framework for quality of life assessment of urban green areas in Europe: an application to District Park Reudnitz Leipzig. International Journal of Environmental Technology and Management 6 (1/2), 111–122. Yang, J., McBride, J., Zhou, J. & Sun, Z. (2005). The urban forest in Beijing and its role in air pollution reduction. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 3, 65–78. 261 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 475 Title A name given to the resource The Contributions on the Urban Ecology of Green Spaces in the Context of Sustainable Urban Development Author Author ONDER, Serpil Abstract A summary of the resource. The world is increasingly becoming an urban place. Urbanization increases the distance between people and natural space. Urban ecosystems differ from natural or rural ones in many obvious ways. Green space is an important part of complex urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally and economically. In order to improve the environmental quality in cities and ensure its sustainability, it should be paid an attention to the establishment of green areas. This paper carried out to describe the importance of urban open green spaces which effect on urban climate, air quality, biological diversity and prevents erosion, noise and visual pollution within the framework of sustainable urban development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d1be172f0bcbff3fb0ec9685fdf0c95a.pdf fa78a0fe73c3881cc28c00e67d356663 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Open Market Integration in the Balkans: Slovenia’s Success, Bosnia’s Failure Amir OMEROVIC Faculty of the Economy and Business Administration, International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina amir1608@gmail.com Abstract: Dissolution of the former Yugoslavia resulted in creation of newly formed states in Balkans. The stories of market transition of two Balkan countries: namely, the success of Slovenia and the struggle of Bosnia and Herzegovina are examined here. Several aspects of these two economies are investigated such as current regional overview, regional economy, conditions for direct foreign investment, government incentives for FDI, and economic and social reforms required in order to draw interest of global foreign investments. Keywords: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Market Integration, Economy Overview,Investnment Climate 1. Introduction The globalization of the world economy resulted in the rapid growth of industrial production, which in effect generated higher levels of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) among many developing countries. However, the shift in the economic systems of the countries in transition toward a market economy meant global changes and a new quality in the overall social relations. The transition process has affected most intensely the postsocialist countries. Under the influence of the “Velvet Revolution” in 1989-1990, totalitarian socialist regimes collapsed throughout Europe, including the Balkans region of the former Yugoslavia. With the collapse of the social order and the disintegration of the Eastern bloc, the newly created independent countries faced challenges that were unprecedented in many respects. After the change of regime, the independent societies of the former Yugoslavia decided in favor of a pluralistic democratic social order and market economy. However, the transfer of the development model of the Western European democracies has encountered greater obstacles in some regions of the former Yugoslavia. The newly established countries in transition had a beginner’s problem of being recognized as independent countries. In the region of former Yugoslavia, Slovenia had established its independence within a couple of weeks, while in Bosnia and Herzegovina the desire for independence has escalated into four years of brutal war. The war has had a destructive impact on the overall economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. With the establishment of independence and the decentralization of power, all the countries of the former Yugoslavia were facing issues of economic renewal, becoming accustomed to the rules of the market economy, and incorporation into the European Union. This paper will compare two Balkan countries – the prosperous nation of Slovenia, and the struggling Bosnia and Herzegovina, with respect to successful integration into Open Market Economy, specifically the development of conditions necessary to draw interests of Globalizing Foreign Investments. 2. Current Regional Overview 2.1 - Slovenia Slovenia is a high-income country with a gross national income per capita of $17,290 in 2005. Strategically located at the gateway to Balkans, Slovenia has been a star performer since its independence in 1991. With a population of 2 million, the country is strategically located at the crossroads between Eastern and Western Europe and is endowed with highly skilled human capital. It is considered an important model of success and stability for the neighboring countries in the former Yugoslavia. Slovenia joined the European Union in 2004 and is set to become the first among the new EU member states of Central and Eastern Europe and the Baltics to adopt the euro in January 2007. 198 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.2 - Bosnia & Herzegovina On the other hand, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a lower middle-income country with an official gross national income per capita of US$2,440 in 2005. Approximately 62 percent of GDP is created in the services sector, 29 percent in industry, and 9 percent in agriculture. Since the Dayton Peace Agreements ended the war in the former Yugoslavia in 1995, Bosnia and Herzegovina has made tremendous progress in post-conflict reconstruction, social integration, and state building. It is now working towards accession to the European Union (EU), membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO), and membership in NATO’s Partnership for Peace program. Based on its impressive economic recovery and sustained social stability, which have been supported by high levels of international assistance, the country can be considered a post-conflict success story. The country was among the last of the republics of the former Yugoslavia to declare independence, following a referendum in 1992. The Dayton Peace Agreements set the current administrative framework for Bosnia and Herzegovina. The framework is comprised of a central state government and two separate and distinct entities that enjoy substantial autonomy - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. The war caused extensive destruction of physical capital and a huge loss of output. Real GDP plummeted by 80 percent and over 2 million people - nearly half the prewar population - became refugees, either abroad or internally. In 1996, a major donor assistance program set the stage for reconstruction and economic recovery. According to the World Bank, overall donor commitments are estimated at US$5.4 billion. (World Bank, 2003). 3. Regional Economy 3.1 - Slovenia As the most prosperous republic of the former Yugoslavia, Slovenia emerged from its brief 10-day war of secession in 1991 as an independent nation for the first time in its history. Since that time, the country has made steady but cautious progress toward developing a market economy. Economic reforms introduced shortly after independence led to healthy economic growth. Slovenia's economic success clearly illustrates the benefits of embracing liberal trade, following the rule of law, and rewarding enterprise. This success, however, is not unprecedented for Slovenia. Although it comprised only about one-thirteenth of Yugoslavia's total population, it was the most productive of the Yugoslav republics, accounting for one-fifth of its GDP and one-third of its exports. The country already enjoyed a relatively prosperous economy and strong market ties to the West when it gained independence in 1991. Since independence, Slovenia has pursued diversification of its trade toward the West and integration into Western and transatlantic institutions vigorously. In so doing, it has made substantial progress in its transition to a market economy, particularly becoming party to a number of bilateral and regional free trade agreements Slovenia is one the best economic performers in Central and Eastern Europe, with a GDP per capita in 2005 estimated at U.S. $17,008 (Shane,ERS 2008) - slightly more than 75% of the EU-15 average. Slovenia benefits from a well-educated and productive work force as well as dynamic and effective political and economic institutions. Although Slovenia has taken a cautious, deliberate approach to economic management and reform, with heavy emphasis on achieving consensus before proceeding, its overall record is one of relative success. Slovenia's economy is highly dependent on foreign trade. Statistics by Eurostat favorably reflect performance of Slovenian economy. Economic management in Slovenia is relatively good. Public finances showed modest deficits on the order of 1.5% of GDP in 2003. The budgets for 2004 and 2005 constrain public deficit to 1.7% of GDP. The current account balance has improved significantly as a result of stronger exports and a changed composition of imports by economic purpose. In 2003, the current account balance showed a surplus for the second year in a row. Controlling inflation remains a top government priority. The authorities have been successful in stabilizing the Slovenian currency and in bringing inflation down from more than 200% in 1992 to just 3.6% in 2006. (Eurostat 2008). Due to its macroeconomic stability, favorable foreign debt position, and successful accession to the EU, Slovenia consistently receives the highest credit rating of all transition economies. 199 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1: Slovenia Key Economic Ratios, % change on previous year, 1994-2004 Figure 2. Slovenia’s Growth, GDP and GDP per capita as a % of EU-25 average 2005 Source: Eurostat, 2006 3.2 - Bosnia & Herzegovina To understand the state of the current Bosnian economy, one must look at the state of the region even before the war. Before the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to Macedonia as the poorest republic of the former Yugoslavia. Although industry accounted for over 50% of GDP, Bosnia and Herzegovina was primarily agricultural. Farms were small and inefficient, thus necessitating food imports. Industry was greatly overstaffed, with Bosnia and Herzegovina accounting for much of the former Yugoslav’s metallic ore and coal production. Timber production and textiles also were important. The destructive impact of the war on the economy led to a 75% drop in GDP. Since the Dayton Accords, reconstruction programs initiated by the international community financed the construction of infrastructure and provided loans to the manufacturing sector. External aid amounted to $5 billion from 1995 to 1999. This aid caused growth rates to increase to 30%, but as of 2003, that rate had stabilized to around 6%. Actual GDP growth by that year had reached half its pre-war level. Bosnia has made significant progress in achieving microeconomic stability. On the monetary side, Bosnian central bank guarantees the most stable currency in the South Eastern Europe, which contributed 200 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to near-zero inflation rate of 0.2%. Economic stability is reinforced by a treasury system which is sustained by budgets which are kept within required limits. The GDP has risen steadily since 1997 and for 2006 is estimated at 5.5%. Even if this is considered a slowdown compared to 25% average of post-war reconstruction, the rate of 5.5% is more sustainable and in line with the neighboring countries. Figure 3. Annual growth rate, percentage change on previous year, 1996-2005 Source: Eurostat, 2006 Figure 4. Bosnia Key Economic Ratios, % change on previous year, 1995-2005 However, even with almost ten years of heavy reconstruction and a significant number of structural reforms, the Bosnian economy is still lagging. 20% of the population lives below poverty line while 30% are on or just above it. Official unemployment is around 40%. GDP per capita is one of the lowest in Europe. Bosnia is burdened with a total debt of 2.5 billion Euros (U.S $3.2 billions). 201 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 5. Composition of Bosnia’s National Debt, 2004-2005 The value of exports in 2006 equaled 25% of its imports. With foreign aid decreasing, Bosnia faces a mounting current deficit which could threaten economic stability in a matter of years. Current reduction in donor financial inflows is occurring for three reasons: 1) There is a sense of accomplishment among most donors that Bosnia has successfully moved beyond most difficult post-conflict reconstruction phase; 2) Many bilateral donors have other priorities and demands; 3) There is a sense of disillusionment among most donors with the slow pace of reforms and lack of commitment to improving governance. 4. Investment Climate 4.1 - Slovenia Since independence in 1992, the foreign investment climate has steadily improved, despite constraints that have inhibited investment in Slovenia. The small domestic economy has been viewed by many prospective investors as the least risky of the former Yugoslav republics, but to date Slovenia's share of world foreign direct investment(FDI) flows as been well below its share of world GDP. Until the late 1990s Slovenia retained several barriers to foreign investment. Any company incorporated in Slovenia was required to have a majority of Slovenes on its board of directors, or a managing director or proxy of Slovene nationality. Foreign companies and individuals of foreign nationality were prohibited from owning land in Slovenia. However, any company incorporated in Slovenia was permitted to purchase real estate, regardless of the origin of its founding capital. Liberalization laws enacted in 1999 lowered the threshold of foreign direct investment from 50% to 10%. This allowed more foreign investors to avert the custody account regime. Government efforts and reforms designed to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) have proven somewhat successful - FDI almost tripled from 2001 to 2002, accounting for nearly 6.5% of GDP. However, FDI fell sharply in 2003 due to a lack of any major privatization deal or foreign acquisition. Slovenia's traditional anti-inflation policy in the past relied heavily on capital inflow restrictions. Its slow privatization process favored domestic investors and prescribed long lag time on share trading, complicated by a cultural wariness of being "bought up" by foreigners. As such, Slovenia has had a number of impediments to full foreign participation in its economy. However, a number of these barriers to FDI were fully removed in 2002. As a result, expected foreign takeovers of Slovenian blue chip companies, as well as EU membership, have fueled investors' interest in the country. The US Departnment of state reports positively about FDI in Slovenia saying that recent acquisitions by multinational companies - KBC of Belgium's takeover of Nova Ljubljanska Banka, and Swiss Novartis' takeover of Lek Pharmaceuticals - clearly demonstrate the attractiveness of the Slovenian economy, particularly to European investors seeking a platform to support expansion into southeastern Europe. U.S. investments in Slovenia have been more modest; Goodyear is the largest American investor. (US Dept of State/Slovenia, 2008). 202 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4.2 - Bosnia & HerzegovinaAs a result of the political compromise needed to end the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been on a kind of international community life support. Since 1995, billions of dollars of assistance has poured in, primarily to rebuild destroyed infrastructure and homes of hundreds of thousands of refugees and displaced people. With much of the reconstruction work complete, Bosnia is now focusing on building a more stable economy. As with many other transitional economies, Bosnia is starting to recognize the potential of Foreign Direct Investment and has acknowledged the need for creating a more attractive environment for foreign investment. However, many economic problems, uncertainty, corruption, lack of information, insolvency, and the black market are standing in the way of rapid transition and domestic acceptance of FDI. The Bosnian government is trying to work on these issues and for the most part agreeing with foreign organizations that these problems exists, but it will take time to solve them. In addition to some aspects of regulatory environment, the business environment as it stands now has several major issues that hinder foreign investment in Bosnia. According to the Index of Economic Freedom, the overall country rating for Bosnia in 2007 is 54.7 out of 100, or ranked 115th out of 157 countries included. (Index, 2007). This poor country rating, along with a very unfavorable country image by foreign investors, impedes foreign investment. Bosnia is perceived as an unstable country with high uncertainty. With present levels of perceived uncertainty and instability, many foreign investors are opting for business prospects in other less risky countries of Eastern Europe, such as Slovenia. According to Bosnia’s Central Bank Statistics, FDI in 2004 totaled $2.4 billion. The manufacturing industry had the highest percentage of the FDI, followed by the banking sector. Investments from Austria and Croatia represent the largest percentages of the FDI at the end of 2004. 5. Government Incentives for Foreign Direct Investment Some fiscally stable countries, such as Slovenia, sometimes provide additional incentives, start-up cost sharing programs, to attract foreign investors. Other less fortunate countries, like Bosnia and Herzegovina, although they may plan to provide similar start up support programs in the future, due to lack of monetary resources are usually not in a position to implement such a benefit for foreign investors. This section will evaluate additional benefits for foreign investors instituted by Slovenia’s Government. 5.1 Slovenia’s Government FDI Cost-Sharing Grant Scheme In August 2005, the government published a Cost Sharing Grant Scheme, which invites investors initiating ventures of more than 1 million euros to negotiate an investment bonus package with the government. Foreign companies making direct investments in Slovenia may apply for financial grants. The purpose of the Invitation for Applications is to boost attractiveness of Slovenia as a location for foreign direct investment by lowering entry (start-up) costs to the investors whose investment will have a positive impact on new employment, knowledge and technology transfer, facilitation of balanced regional development, and will foster alliances between foreign investors and Slovenian companies. Grants are available for investments in industry, strategic services (Customer Contact Centers, Shared Services Centers, Logistics and Distribution Centers, Regional Headquarters) and R&D. Incentives are eligible for up to 40% cost of infrastructure and utility connections, cost of construction or purchase of buildings, as well as purchase of new machinery and equipment. In the year 2007, there are allocated approx. EUR 5.8 million. As stated in (Reform Programme for Lisbon goals 2008), the government heavily supports research and developments programs through the Structural Funds. Figure 6. FDI Cost-Sharing Grant Scheme for 2006 Source: JAPTI, 2006 203 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 5.2 FDI Cost-Sharing Grant Eligibility The program is open to foreign investors, registered in the Republic of Slovenia in which they hold an interest of at least 10 per cent of equity or foreign investors' subsidiaries. Applicable program requirements: • Investment projects in the manufacturing • sector that envisages the opening of at least 50 new jobs within three years of the grant allocation. The minimum value of the investment for which grants are allocated shall amount to: - 1 million euros in the regions classified on the regional list A considered to be underdeveloped (Pomurska, Podravska, Zasavska and Spodnjeposavska), and on the lists A, B, C and D territories of the municipalities coping with specific development problems; - 2 million euros in the regions classified on the regional list B (Savinjska, Koroška, Notranjsko-kraška and Jugovzhodna Slovenija); - 3 million euros in the regions classified on the regional list C (Goriška and Gorenjska); - 4 million euros in the regions classified on the regional list D (Obalno-kraška and Osrednjeslovenska). • Investment projects in an internationally marketable service activity envisaging the creation of at least 10 new jobs within three years of the grant allocation. The minimum value of the investment for the grant allocation shall amount to 1 million euros. A service activity eligible for preferential treatment shall be among the following: Customer Contact Centers, Shared Services Centers, Logistics and Distribution, and Regional Headquarters. • Investment projects in research & development activity envisaging the creation of at least 10 new jobs within three years of the grant allocation. The minimum value of the investment for the grant allocation shall amount to 1 million euros. An activity carried out by a company or a self-contained organizational unit whose core activity is the research and experimental development in the area of technology is considered a research & development activity. The investment project and newly created jobs must be kept in the region for at least five years. The following costs shall be deemed eligible for grant allocation: • Costs of providing utility connections and infrastructure facilities for the site, • Costs incurred under the construction or purchase of premises, • Costs incurred under the purchase of plant and equipment, and • Costs of gross wages/salaries for newly employed staff (for a two-year period). 6. Necessary Economic and Social Reforms When compared, Slovenia and Bosnia & Herzegovina, in similar ways are still in need of economic and social reforms in order to successfully complete the transition to free markets and to provide enough incentives for foreign direct investment. 6.1 - Slovenia – Owing to the slow pace of change, Slovenia started to lose its advantage in global competitiveness. Other Central and East European transitional economies, mainly those that have implemented more courageous and radical structural reforms such as Poland, are catching up and even overtaking Slovenia’s potential markets in certain areas. Following is a list of possible areas for improvement of Slovenia’s position in the competitive global market: 1. Tax reform in the direction of introducing a flat tax rate and simplification of tax regulations could unburden Slovenia's economy. The abolishment of the payroll tax and introduction of a flat tax rate, while keeping net earnings unchanged, will greatly reduce gross labor costs, especially of the more skilled employees. 2. New reforms should be introduced for the university system and research and development, which will create incentives to use current and new capabilities for economic growth, technological development, and innovation. 3. For efficient and quicker productivity growth, it is necessary to implement the second wave of privatization. This time, the best Slovenian enterprises will be subject to privatization, being more suitable for dispersed privatization and diversified financial investors. The domestic non-transparent consolidation of ownership at low prices must be replaced with a process that will be open to international participation and that will ensure the respect of small shareholders’ rights. This reform calls for transparent withdrawal of the State from the economy. 204 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. For effective financing of future development priorities a reduction in general government spending is necessary in addition to overall restructuring of public expenditure. To narrow the gap between the needs of the State for investment in infrastructure and the available traditional financial sources, additional private capital be engaged in the form of a Public Private Partnership. 6.2 - Bosnia and Herzegovina One of the biggest burdens on the Bosnia’s economic development, in addition to overwhelming government debt, is a dysfunctional bureaucratic system. This section evaluates some necessary changes, reforms required for successful regional ergonomic growth and for creation of attractive environment for foreign investors. 1. Disassemble the Payments Bureau - Rapidly reform all existing forms of Payments Bureau (PB). The transfer of PB activities to commercial banks will both invigorate the banking sector and encourage other economic activity to move gradually from the black market into the legal economy, strengthening the government’s tax base. This reform is necessary for removal one of the major disincentives to foreign investors. 2. Reform of Corporate Legal System is required. The question of Rule of Law in Bosnia and Herzegovina affects all aspects of society, and economic activity is no exception. In neither entity does the court system protect legitimate business interests, nor does it work in the interests of good business practice and common sense. The reform of the judicial system is a massive undertaking, but some reforms could be made quickly which would improve the climate for business. • When inspectors seize goods or shut down firms without due process, institute a right of appeal, with a guarantee of a court hearing within two days; • Create an effective and quick system of appealing court decisions; • Create a network of economic courts to handle small claims quickly and with a minimum of procedure. 3. Reform Taxes – since efficient tax policy is crucial to the economic growth of Bosnia, as well as vital to the revenues of the municipality, tax reform should be urgently considered. A sustainable tax regime might be: • Abolish all current business taxes (except the year-end tax on profit); • Replace business taxes with a sufficient VAT tax. • Lower the level of payroll contributions from 87% to 35% of salaries; • Lower the tax on profit from 36% to 20%. 4. Streamline Business Registration Procedures - Governments should reform business registration procedures, so that they are similar to those in Western countries. The new registration system should have the following characteristics: relatively quick, transparent, inexpensive, standardized paperwork to be completed in when applying for business license, abolish the requirement to declare all areas of business activity to the smallest detail, abolish the requirement for detailed company statutes. 5. Reform the Customs System and Increase Control over the Borders - two entity-level customs agencies should be merged into a single central government customs agency. Revenues from the customs tariffs should accrue to the central government, and not the entity governments. A portion of the revenues could be recycled back to entity governments in accordance with a formula to be agreed. 6. Remove Barriers to Inter-Entity Trade- There is no economic advantage to either entity in erecting barriers to trade within Bosnia and Herzegovina. Internal hidden taxes on inter-entity trade should be abolished. As a result, inter-entity trade will increase, so raising revenues, and incentives to smuggle will be removed. Businesses attempting to operate legally (and pay taxes) will get welcome relief from illegal tax-free competition. 7. Proceed with Privatization - Privatization should not be further delayed, despite the risk that some enterprises will fall into unscrupulous hands. Greater transparency in the ownership of enterprises will help to revitalize the economy and force business to work efficiently for profit rather than simply to keep going through inertia. 8. Ensure priority spending within transport sector – by placing the priority on improving the conditions of the current transport network. Develop a comprehensive strategy and policy for the transport sector to identify proprieties and to ensure that all debt-financed public investments are consistent with available fiscal envelope, especially focusing on the development of corridor 5c. References World Bank, Bosnia & Herzegovina. Country Brief 2003, Country’s capital base http://lnweb90.worldbank.org/ECA/eca.nsf/2656afe00bc5f02185256d5d005dae97/62b3e2e7d301034c85256d5d0067e388? OpenDocument 205 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Shane M. (2008). ERS International Macroeconomic Data Set. Real Historical Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Per Capita and Growth Rates of GDP Per Capita for Baseline Countries/Regions 1969-2008. 1. Eurostat/EBRD (2008), Slovenia, Slovenia Economic Overview Report US Department of State (2008).Under Secretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, Electronic Information and Publication Office. Reports, Slovenia (7). Kane T., Holmes R., & O’Grady Anastasia (2007). The Index of Economic Freedom, Bosnia 129-131 Republic of Slovenia, Government Publications (2008). Reform Programme for Achieving Lisbon Goals 1-130 206 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 177 Title A name given to the resource Open Market Integration in the Balkans: Slovenia’s Success, Bosnia’s Failure Author Author OMEROVIC, Amir Abstract A summary of the resource. Dissolution of the former Yugoslavia resulted in creation of newly formed states in Balkans. The stories of market transition of two Balkan countries: namely, the success of Slovenia and the struggle of Bosnia and Herzegovina are examined here. Several aspects of these two economies are investigated such as current regional overview, regional economy, conditions for direct foreign investment, government incentives for FDI, and economic and social reforms required in order to draw interest of global foreign investments Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22398e00967812d9fb652a2eb8629a5a.pdf eb7620e5de7aa1ab7300af8e7d1df82d PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Corporate Code of Conduct of Japanese Transnational Corporations: Analysis of Corporate Social Responsibility in Supply Chain Management Naoko OGAWA Master of European Studies Department of Economic and Social Sciences University of Hamburg, Germany naokostream@yahoo.co.jp Abstract: This paper verifies that there is an absence of monitoring system and sanctions in corporate codes of conduct of Japanese transnational companies in supply chain by analyzing corporate social responsibility reports or sustainable reports of 40 firms which participate in the Global Compact Japan Network. I argue that setting a proper monitoring system is urgently needed, but setting sanctions does not fit to Japanese firms’ behaviors. Keywords: Corporate Social Responsibility, Corporate Governance, Outsourcing, Sustainable Development Introduction The notion of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is widely spread in Japanese firms. However the concept of CSR is differently understood in Japan comparing with western countries. In general, there is a trend among Japanese firms to see CSR as the responsibility that a firm is expected after it has been caught doing something illegal or unethical or CSR as a charity (ed. Fujii & Mizuno 2006). It can be said that the notion of CSR is close to the primary notion of CSR in the United States where it appeared first in the world (Kolk, Tulder & Welters 1999). On the other hand, European Commission defines CSR as “A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis”1. European Commission emphasizes an aspect, which is how enterprises interact with their internal and external stakeholders (employees, customers, neighbors, non-government organizations. public authorities, etc). Currently, the notion of CSR by European Commission would be dominant widely because corporate cross-boarder operations are occurring under globalization and transnational corporations are required to take responsibility for their activities outside of their home countries. As the policy of CSR, a number of firms set up firms’ code of conduct. Hepple (2005) mentions in his book, ‘Labor Laws and Global Trade’, that private initiative such as corporate code of conduct indicates promoting sustainable social development in the world’s poorest and most disadvantaged countries, with active participation of the people of those countries. From this point of view, corporate code of conduct has a possibility to build win-win relationship between home-country (developed country) and host country (developing country) instead of “race to bottom” under globalization, which is often discussed. However, as realistic perspective, Hepple (2005) points out two main problems regarding to corporate codes based on his research reviews. Firstly, the most codes are limited in coverage. This means even though the companies have corporate codes in home countries, they don’t formulate any practices for suppliers. Secondly, there are lack of effective monitoring and sanctions in the consequence of non-compliance especially in host countries. As the conclusion, Hepple (2005) mentions that private initiatives impose lower standards, which are inadequately monitored and enforced. Corporate code of conduct became quite popular for Japanese transnational corporations (TNCs) and these codes can be seen as an expression of CSR. However, as Japanese trend of CSR, there is a lack of the wide aspect of suppliers in Japanese TNCs’ code of conduct. Moreover, as the Hepple’s indication (2005), there is an absence of monitoring system and sanctions in corporate codes of conduct of Japanese TNCs. Based on these backgrounds, this paper assesses empirically that there is an absence of monitoring system and sanctions in corporate codes of conduct of Japanese TNCs in supply chain. In the first chapter, CSR in supply chain management (SCM) is explored in general. Moreover, the historical transition of the notion of Japanese CSR and the current situation of Japanese CSR is also looked by literature review. Based on literature review, the hypothesis is reintroduced in the second chapter. In the third chapter, data analysis is conducted by using the specific analysis model. Then the results of analysis are explained and whether hypothesis is supported or rejected is shown. Finally, in the fourth chapter, as conclusion, the actual condition of TNCs’ codes of conduct in Japan is discussed and some suggestions are given for that. Literature Review 1 European commission home page; http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/csr/index_en.htm 91 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Corporate Social Responsibility in Supply Chain In 1990s the social and environmental concerns expanded to in the developing countries under the acceleration of the economical globalization (Umino 2004). The TNCs became large size under the globalization and they have had huge influence to the society. The activities of TNCs have caused problems in the developing countries such as child labor and bad working conditions through their supply chains and outsourcing. To resolve these concerns in the developing countries, it is more efficient and more effective to request the TNCs to take actions against the problems concerned rather than to request to the governments in the developing countries (Umino 2004). In this perspective, CSR in SCM has been required for TNCs. Svendsen and Laberge (2006) pointed out that TNCs themselves cannot ignore the stakeholder networks around the world for their firms’ sustainability. Social responsibility by a firm is now required in the all sphere where a firm effects in the business activities. Meanwhile, code of conduct issued by a firm figures prominently as an indicator of socially responsible business (Kolk, Tulder & Welters). To think about TNCs code of conduct in an international business context, the perspective of Wartick and Wood (1998) would be relevant. Wartick and Wood (1998) introduced three principles of social responsibility, namely, the principle of legitimacy, the principle of the public responsibility, and the principle of managerial discretion. They tried to apply these principles to an international business context. According their arguments, the principle of legitimacy means to fulfill the requirements of legitimacy in the home country in an international business context. If I try to combine their arguments with firms’ code of conduct, it can be understood that the code of conduct in the host countries should fulfill the home country level at least. The principle of public responsibility means that firms should try to reduce the negative environmental impacts relating transporters, sellers, buyers, and users. It can be considered that firms have responsibility all stakeholders both inside the home countries and outside the host counties. The principle of managerial discretion indicates that managers can try to make environmentally sound choices, even more higher standard than is required by any government. It suggests the possibility that private code of conduct can be higher standard than code of conduct by international organization such as ILO and the United Nation. As we saw, CSR in supply chain is indispensable for TNCs nowadays under globalization. As the tool of the CSR procurement, TNCs code of conduct is relevant and they have possibilities, such as being a driving force for exceeding legal standard in a host country and setting the higher standards than those by any government or international organization. The Transition of Corporate Social Responsibility in Japan In this section and the following section, CSR in Japan is focused because the notion of CSR has been changed time-to-time and place-to-place. Since the social and environmental concerns depend on the regions under the certain date, it can be said that CSR holds regional characteristic. CSR in supply chain, which I mentioned in the first section, is a trend for American and European countries, but in Japan the trend of CSR would be different. First, I would like to overview briefly the Japanese CSR transactions because I believe it is necessary to see the historical transition of CSR to know the current situation of CSR in Japan. Here I summarized very briefly the stream of CSR from 1960s to today. The all historical information in this chapter is upon the work by Ishikawa (2006). 1960s-1990s In 1960s and 1970s, main CSR for Japanese firms was against environmental pollution because environmental destructions or pollution diseases were caused under the economic growth. The aspect of environmental protection has been continued until today. In 1980s, the Japan experienced bubble economy. Many firms implemented tremendous philanthropic actions as a part of CSR. However, after “bubble economy” collapsed in 1990s, the notion of CSR shifted to “compliance” since many scandals by firms were disclosed. Today Besides “compliance” and “environment”, the issued related to “human right” and “working life” have arisen as the basic components of CSR today, because a remarkable increase in the damage to mental and physical health, even death and suicide commitment due to overwork. Business activities are developed globally and the global standard of firms’ behavior is brought forth. However those issued are a new frontier in CSR for Japanese firms. The Current Situation of Japanese Corporate Social Responsibility 92 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Notion of CSR From the historical review, we can recognize that the notion of CSR in Japan has been changed time to time under the certain social and economical situations. The latest issue, CSR in the global business activities, namely CSR in supply chain, would be not familiar for Japanese firms. The current notion of CSR can be seen also in the empirical data from the surveys, which were conducted in 2002 and 2005 by Keizai Doyukai (Japan Association of Corporate Executives). Keizai Doyukai implemented questionnaires concerning CSR against 2697 firms which were members of Keizai Doyukai and the other firms listed on the first and second section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange. The respondents were the represents of the firms such as CEOs. The result of one of the questions is below (Table 1). We can see the firms’ view regarding CSR currently. Most of the firms in 2005 regard CSR as compliance and acting moralistically, offering qualified products and service, and the protection of environment. As current trend, less than the half of firms consider CSR as philanthropy and less than 20% of firms think CSR as the contribution to the resolution of poverty or conflicts in the world. Table 1: The components of CSR for Japanese Firms Even between 2002 and 2005, the differences can be observed. The items highlighted are the top five of those where the points were increased. To compare with 2002, the concerns of CSR have been expanding from the management to the aspect of humanity such as human rights and contribution to the regional society. Activity of CSR Concerning the real activity of CSR by the Japanese firms, the other survey conducted by Keidanren (Japan Business Federation) in 2005 indicates. Keidanren conducted the mail survey towards 1324 member firms. The results to be focused are below (Table 2). Firstly, about 75% of respondent firms are doing business with conscious of CSR. It means that they have the committees or the organizations capping “CSR” internally and issue the CSR reports. Secondly, the half of the respondents started CSR activities after 2004 (Table 3). In this question of the survey, the definition of CSR activities is not clear. Therefore, it is not clear what activities did the half of firms start as CSR after 2004. However, it could be interpreted that the word and the current notion of CSR were spread among Japanese firms quite recently. Thirdly, the most of respondent firms have management principles, firms’ code of conduct and employees’ code of conduct (Table 4). Specifying the policy seems to be very common for Japanese firms. 93 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2: CSR activities, Yes or No Table 3: The year when firms started CSR activities Table 4: CSR Policies CSR in Supply Chain Regarding CSR in the global business activity by Japanese firms, Ikuta (2007) researched empirically. Ikuta (2007) investigated 118 Japanese firms, which were chosen in the Newsweek Global 500, a world ranking of the firms around the world. According to his research, the firms, which consider CSR in supply chain, were only 39 firms. He concluded that even though they are the worldwide enterprises, the firms that do CSR activities in supply chain were only one third of them. CSR activities in supply chain were more observed in the electronic industries and chemical, medical industries, but they are slow in car industries. On the other hand, the survey by Keizai Doyukai in 20051 shows that 31% of 527 firms have CSR procurement standard in supply chain and about 12% of them give suppliers advice or supervise them. From these both researches, it seems that CSR procurement in supply chain is still not popular for Japanese firms as Ishikawa (2006) mentions. 社団法人 経済同友会 2006 「日本企業のCSR：進歩と展望」. (Japan Association of Corporate Executive, CSR of Japanese firms: progress and foresight, viewed 20 March 2008, http://www.doyukai.or.jp/policyproposals/articles/2006/pdf/060523b.pdf). 1 94 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Hypothesis From the literature review, it was known that most of Japanese firms hold firm’s code of conduct and employee’s code of conduct as expression of CSR. However there are not so many firms that try to procure CSR in supply chain in their international business context. The action of CSR in supply chain has been started quite recently in Japan. When we focus their quite new actions for CSR in supply chain, the two problems would be assumed according to Hepple (2005). As it were, there is an absence of monitoring system and sanctions in corporate codes of conduct of Japanese TNCs. Analysis Data To assess the hypothesis, I evaluate official information of 40 firms, which are members of the Global Compact Network Japan (GCNJ). Precisely, the official information means sustainability reports or CSR reports which are available to assess on the firms’ official websites and the information, which are written on the firms’ official websites. The reason why the firms in GCNJ were chosen as the data to analyze is that these firms can be expected to make an effort for prevailing the firms’ codes of conduct in their suppliers. The Global Compact asks companies to embrace, support and enact, within their sphere of influence, a set of core values in the areas of human rights, labor standards, the environment, and anti-corruption1. Moreover, it seems that the participants of GCNJ have relatively higher concern for CSR. Therefore, it is expected that they practice CSR in supply chain, which is relatively new area for Japanese firms as the target of CSR. GCNJ was officially launched in 2003 and at present, 59 firms, 1 city, and 1 university join the network. To analyze the CSR in supply chain, I excluded the data of all small and medium enterprises, companies in the sector of finance and insurance, the sector of professional, scientific and technical services (a consulting firm), and a newspaper company, a city and a school. Therefore, only companies, which are considered to procure the materials from foreign suppliers, are focused. Method of Analysis To assess the data, I set the criteria and classification as shown in Table 5, which is based on the Tulder and Kolk’s (2005) model to analyze and compare codes of conduct and the evaluation criteria of CSR in SCM by Ikuta (2007). The criteria are divided two main categories, ‘company policy’ and ‘compliance likelihood’. ‘Company policy’ is the criterion whether a firm has a code of conduct, which is addressed to business partners. Business partners mean here suppliers, subcontractors and manufacturers. A code of conduct, which refers only to environment protection, is excluded in this paper. Regarding the classification, if a firm has a specific code of conduct, which is addressed to business partners both in Japan and outside Japan, 2 is given. If a firm has a code of conduct in which business partners are partly touched or it is not clear whether the business partners in outside of Japan is included, 1 is given. If there are no mentions about codes of conducts for business partners, 0 is given. The second category, ‘compliance likelihood’ has four components. First one is ‘request to business partners’. It asks how a firm requests a code of conduct to business partners. There are three degrees of criteria. If a firm requests business partners concretely through regular seminars or meetings, 2 is given. If a firm inform business partner the policy only, 1 is given. If there are no mentions about this, 0 is given. Secondly, ‘Monitoring system and process’ shows whether there is a monitoring system and process and if it is yes, how the content is. When there is good insight into system and process, which means that monitoring details with certain criteria and time frames, 3 is given. If there is only reference to some parts without criteria or time frames, 2 is given. If there is only general reference to monitoring without details, 1 is given. At last, if none is mentioned, 0 is given. Thirdly, the question is who is monitoring actor. If the actors come from outside of companies, 2 is given. It is based on the idea that the monitoring by the third party (here, business partners: first party, companies: second party) is more objective and reliable. If the monitoring is conducted by companies or business partners or both of them, 1 is given. When nothing is written about monitoring actors, 0 is given. Finally, whether sanctions exist or not is observed. The degree of criteria is similar to that of monitoring system and process. Point 3 is given for good insight of sanctions measures including details, criteria, and time frames. Point 2 is given for only reference to some parts without criteria or time frames. Point 1 is given for only general reference to sanctions without details. Point 0 is given for none mentioned. The crucial problem of this analysis is that the companies are determined as no practice of CSR in SCM if they do not present their practices on websites and there would be 1 The United Nation homepage, http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPRinciples/index.html 95 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo time lag until a firm uploads information on the web. Even though the United Nation suggests a company or any other group in GCJN to present the content of activity for GC in the annual report or the company report, it is assumed some firms do not explain details of activities in the annual reports. However, in reality, the information on the official webpage is the tool to be accessed easily by the public and the information would be what a firm wants to send to the public on the first stage. Therefore, the information seems to be relevant to be evaluated and in this analysis, no information regards as there is no actions. Table 5: Analysis Model Result The possible classification of each criterion varies on three or four scale. Figure 1 shows that the proportion of the classifications that whether a firm has a code of conduct including the business partners. 22 firms (55%) declared business partners both in Japan and outside of Japan as the target. Most of them have supplier code of conduct. The others declare that they require suppliers to keep firms’ code of conduct. 8 firms (20%) only touched business partners regarding to CSR, but they do not clarify which codes they require to business partners or they do not clarify the extent of business partners. 10 firms (25%) do not ask anything business partners about code of conduct. 55 0% 10% 20% 30% 20 40% 50% 60% 25 70% 80% 90% Business partners are declared as t he t arget in t he code. Business partners are partly t ouched in the code. None Figure 1: Organization targeted 96 100% �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In 30 firms which require business partners require code of conduct, 12 firms of them (40%) explain their requirements to business partners by holding regular seminars or meeting (Figure 2). 11 firms of them announce specific supplier code of conduct for internal and external of Japan. Similarly, 12 firms (40%) inform the business partners the policy by mail or before making contracts. 6 firms (20%) explain nothing how they request business partners code of conduct. 40 0% 20% 40 40% Request 20 60% 80% 100% Inform only the policyNone concretely Figure 2: Request to business partners If I look the more details of CSR in supply chain, I find that the fewer firms refer to monitoring systems. However, in this paper, no information is interpreted as non action. Based on this point of view, it can be said that a few firms monitor business partners’ behaviors. Figure 3 shows the degree of monitoring system and process. In 30 firms, which require business partner code of conduct, none of them has good insight. 2 firms (7%) reference to some parts of monitoring. 0 7 0% 20 20% 73 40% Good insight Only general reference wit hout det ails 60% 80% 100% Reference t o some parts None Figure 3: Monitoring system and process For example, AEON which is a retailing industry has Supplier Code of Conduct with 13 principles including forbidden child and forced labor, working conditions, business dealing and so on. To check that compliance is being carried out and any necessary improvements to be taken, AEON overseas operations are subjected to either a second party (AEON auditing stuff) or third party (external specialist auditing bodies) audit once a year. Second party audit covers 90 items and third party audit covers 370 items. AEON has also a system whereby complaints can be reported to third party via complaints notification forms. In the case of Nippon Paper Industries Co., Ltd., employees of the firm are stationed in all countries where provide major sources of woodchips, including Australia, Chile and South Africa. They gather information daily about the operations of suppliers, as well as information on the social conditions in the local areas. Suppliers are surveyed annually by Nippon Paper Industries in details with respect to the applicable laws and regulations, the classification of forests, their ownership and the status of forest certification, considerations given to human rights, labor, and society, conservation of biodiversity, ecosystems, soils and water resources. 6 firms (20%) refer to the existence of monitoring system without its details. 5 of 6 firms conducted the survey by questionnaire about the compliance of code of conduct as monitoring. However, a survey by questionnaire cannot be said reliable because suppliers could fake the answers. Besides the monitoring by questionnaires, Toshiba (a consumerelectrics maker) established the Clean Partner Line, a whistle-blower system for business partners. Toshiba encourage business partners to point out any problems or concerns about persons affiliated with Toshiba Group 97 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo from the standpoint of compliance or fair trading and promptly correct any improper behavior. The problem of this system would be the Clean Partner Line is linked directly to Toshiba itself. Under this system, a whistleblowing could be erased by Toshiba or a business partners would be hesitate to announce problems to keep good business relationships with Toshiba. 22 firms (73%) do not mention about monitoring. Concerning monitoring actors (Figure 4), only AEON takes a third party monitoring. 7 firms conducted monitoring by the first (business partners) and second parties (firms). 6 firms of these 7 firms ask business partners to implement questionnaire made by the second party. This case is interpreted that monitoring is conducted by the first party that answers the questionnaire and the second party that gathers the answers and investigates them. 74% of firms which require business partners code of conduct do not mentions anything about who implements audit. 3 0% 23 74 20% 40% Actors from out side 60% 80% Firms t hemselves None 100% Figure 4: Monitoring actor From the results of criterion 3 and 4, it seems that most of firms do not take account of monitoring itself. Furthermore, no firms mention to sanctions. Many of 30 firms refers that they choose suppliers who fulfill their code of conduct prior to the others who do not. Only Anritsu Corporation (an electric equipments maker) mentions the possibility that the contract will be reconsidered if a business partner has a problem of human right. Cancellation of a contract could be a sanction, but the expression of Anritsu Corporation is very indirect. It could not be considered as a sanction, which will be really implemented. Due to the all results, it can be said that there is an absence of monitoring system and sanctions in corporate codes of conduct of Japanese TNCs participating in Global Compact Japan Network. Therefore, the hypothesis is validated. Conclusion The procurement of CSR in supply chain both inside and outside of Japan has not been so popular among the Japanese TNCs focused in this paper, even though they declare to support the Global Compact. However, it is true that some of them are preparatory stage. It is assumed that the number of firms, which have code of conduct for suppliers, will increase in years to come. Even though the firms have the code of conduct, more than half of them do not explain their policy to suppliers through the regular seminars or meetings. Moreover, the point to be considered would be the monitoring way because if code of conduct is not complied, then it has no meaning to have code of conduct. Obviously there is a lack of monitoring system in the firm’s code of conduct of the Japanese TNCs. At present, these codes are not good enough as tools to procure social responsibility globally. They are nothing more than words on paper. There is only one firm who has a monitoring system with a third party audit in GCJN. Therefore Japanese TNCs should arrange urgently the monitoring systems with specific criteria, time frame, and third party audits to ensure the compliance. Regarding the sanction, I do not believe the setting sanction for the incompliance fits to Japanese business behaviors. The characteristics of Japanese firms’ transactions would be a long term transaction, familiar relationship through the information sharing and developing human resources among the business partners, and a long-term employment in the business affiliations. Therefore, Japanese firms would not prefer applying a sanction for the incompliance, which could break a long term relationship. These characteristics can be an advantage for Japanese firms to procurement CSR in supply chain. Because it is possible that they diffuse their code of conduct through conversation with their suppliers for a long term and it could be more effective for compliance than a top-down directions of CSR with sanctions. Moreover, if there have been already close and reliable relationships, it is easier for the suppliers to accept the code of conduct. Japanese TNCs would need not 98 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo only to set the monitoring system, but also to support CSR management of suppliers through regular seminars for the manager class and developing human resources, for example. Acknowledgment/ Note The views reported in this paper are those of me alone, and not those of any institution. All errors and omissions, which may unwittingly remain are the sole responsibility of me. References 生田孝史 2007，「サプライチェーンのCSR戦略」 『研究レポート』 富士通総研 経済研究所. (Ikuta, T. (2007). “CSR strategy in supply chain”, Research Report of Economic Research Center, Fujitsu Research Institute, no. 283, viewed 20 February 2008, http://jp.fujitsu.com/group/fri/report/research/2007/report-283.html). Ishikawa, A. (2006). “Changing Patterns of Corporate Social Responsibility in Japan”, in S György (eds), Labour, Education & Society, Europäischer Verlag der WIssenschaften, Frankfurt am Main. 藤井敏彦・海野みづえ 編，2006「グローバルCSR調達―サプライチェーンマネージメントと企業の社会的責任」 日科技連出版社. (Fujii, T. & Umino, M. (ed.) (2006), Global CSR Procurement ~Supply chain management and corporate social responsibility~, JUSE Press, Ltd.) Hepple, B. (2005), Labour Laws and Global Trade, Hart Publishing c/o, Oregon. 社団法人 経済同友会 2006 「企業の社会的責任(CSR)に関する経営者意識調査」. (Japan Association of Corporate Executive, The survey of the managers’ attitude toward CSR, viewed 20 March 2008, http://www.doyukai.or.jp/policyproposals/articles/2005/pdf/060307.pdf). 社団法人 経済同友会 2006 「日本企業のCSR：進歩と展望」. (Japan Association of Corporate Executive, CSR of Japanese firms: progress and foresight, viewed 20 March 2008, http://www.doyukai.or.jp/policyproposals/articles/2006/pdf/060523b.pdf). 社団法人 日本経済団体連合会 2005 「CSR（企業の社会的責任）に関するアンケート調査結果」 (Japan Business Federation, The reports of the survey regarding to CSR, viewed 20 March 2008, http://www.keidanren.or.jp/japanese/policy/2005/066.pdf#search='企業の社会的責任に関する調査'). Kolk, A., Tulder, R. & Welters, C. (1999), “International codes of conduct and corporate social responsibility: can transnational corporations regulate themselves?”, Transnational Corporations, vol. 8, no 1, viewed 20 February 2008, http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/iteiit20059_en.pdf#search='Transnational%20corporation%20Kolk%20Tulder%20Welters% 201999%20can%20transnational%20corporations%20regulate%20themselves' Kolk, A. & Tulder, R. (2005), “Setting new global rules? TNCs and code of conduct”, Transnational Corporations, vol. 14, no 3, viewed 15 February 2008, http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/bin/269fulltext.pdf#search='Kolk%20%20tulder 海野みづえ 2004 「グローバル化するサプライチェーンでのCSR」『CSR企業価値をどう高めるか』高 巌 編 日本経済新聞社. (Umino, M. (2004), “CSR in globalizing supply chain”, in I Taka (eds), CSR, How firms enhance their value, Nikkei Inc, Tokyo). Svendsen, A. & Laberge, M. (2006), “A New Direction for CSR: Engaging Networks for Whole System Change” in J Jonker & M de Witte (eds), The Challenge of Organizing and Implementing Corporate Social Responsibility, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Wartick, S.L., & Wood, D.J. (1998), International Business & Society, Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford. 99 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 150 Title A name given to the resource Corporate Code of Conduct of Japanese Transnational Corporations: Analysis of Corporate Social Responsibility in Supply Chain Management Author Author OGAWA, Naoko Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper verifies that there is an absence of monitoring system and sanctions in corporate codes of conduct of Japanese transnational companies in supply chain by analyzing corporate social responsibility reports or sustainable reports of 40 firms which participate in the Global Compact Japan Network. I argue that setting a proper monitoring system is urgently needed, but setting sanctions does not fit to Japanese firms’ behaviors. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a4de3688f849fdcd864b896fa3e071d4.pdf 3502a69b3d080d714e845e5acdb2faf6 PDF Text Text Business Process Management in Educational Institutions Dr. Tarik OBRALIĆ Bosna Sema Educational Institutions 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina obralict@hotmail.com Abstract: Management education is a specific part of management as a general phenomenon of organized, institutionalized society. In social practice, on the modern level of development, there are in all known countries of the world prescribed systems of organized education and, in parallel with them, or even contrary to them, specific systems. The educational system is a regulated and highly organized, programmed system which is necessarily controlled, and within it there are certain terms, factors, and relations, typical for management in general, but not all are used in the same way. In the economy, which is relatively independent, based on private ownership and markets, in a direct competitive relationship with the arbitration market, management is necessarily independent (within the ownership powers) and possesses relatively high powers and responsibilities. The educational system is under the direct jurisdiction of state and government bodies that make strategic decisions on the establishment, development, organization, and programs of education, the manner of the exercise, and the performance of the duties of supervision and evaluation of results. In the system there are different areas and levels of education that mutually differ. As mentioned above, the differences between management and management education emanate. They are in practice relatively wide even when it comes to education in a market - oriented education organization. Key words: educational management - management in education, top manager, manager of university The Study Process of education, the result of which has always been some level of education of human subject, belongs among the most complex and most spread social realities. That is a real social change which saturates all social relationships and entire history of human society; it is in the basis of social development and development of personality as a rational, socially competent, successful social being. Management, the essence of which is managing of processes, relations, groups, communities, organizations and institutions in society and society of people, but also managing or at least its adequate intervention, aimed – relevant and meaningful – at people's environment, is a real social activity – social phenomenon. Exposed dominant understandings of education and management impose to us a number of important complex scientifically methodological, scientifically professional and practical issues. Therefore, let us tackle this one by one: Management understood as an aimed, relevant activity of managing processes has various natures and attributes – from managing of organized processes to managing of crisis and disasters, but always understood as social process and always understood as social relation. Management is a form of work and influence, primarily of intellectual and psychical, and only sporadically manual nature. Its important role is in defining objectives, making orders that have to be performed during work process, according to defined rules, establishment of specific rules of conduct, control of performance and validation of performance and effects achieved by execution performance. Management is formed at different levels of organization. We understand education as a process of acquiring of socially useful and personally applicable knowledge within the framework of occupation and profession and in realization of social communication and social position. Acquiring of knowledge is guided precisely by needs for socially useful work and social promotion, wherein education plays an important role. Education, as a term and reality, imposes the need of processing and terms of upbringing and training, and among other for application – practicing of acquired knowledge and capacities. A derived construct „educational management“ – „management in education“ belongs to the important terms of this theme. On one hand, that term designates an educational area as a set of manageable processes, and on the other hand, as a management area. 68 �We understand the term educational management in the widest meaning – so that indirect orientating influence belongs to its contents in entirety, and not only in educational system. The term „educational institutions“ encompasses a very wide circle of independent and other social institutions, with their relevant features: 1) relatively permanent existing as an organized form of work of which it is primary role and overall task; 2) it has relatively stable plans and plans and programs of education; 3) these are legal institutions. Among those institutions the following certainly belong: A) all types of schools, whether as schools of a defined level, „state“, private-owned, or as one of functional forms of some other institution; B) relatively permanent forms of education in the framework of some economic organizations – enterprises. Business side of work and business management are particularly different between private-owned educational institutions and state-owned institutions or those owned by some economic or other organization. In this sense, we should differentiate educational institutions that acquire all funds in open, external market and have free use of them, from institutions that do not acquire funds in market or they acquire them only partially. The most obvious example is the difference between state- and private-owned primary schools and the management within them. Education in state-owned primary schools has the following important characteristics: (1) materially – financial basis provided by the state according to its standards; (2) schools are obliged to work according to prescribed programs with relatively low possibilities for their varying, especially through the choice between more text-books for the same subject; (3) only those people who meet prescribed requirements can realize a teacher’s role; (4) working hours, way of assessment of results and material compensation for certain work and success in work are approximately prescribed. In such institutions possibilities for realization of management functions are very restrictive. Their restrictiveness is strengthened by the fact that citizens of a defined age are obliged to attend and to complete if possible corresponding primary school degree. In those schools, be they simple or complex (central (master) school with more units separated in terms of territory) it is possible and as a rule it is so, one subject is the „TOP MANAGER“ – authorized and responsible for material – financial activities and for managing of educational processes. Does such person suit to the model of „top manager“? Top – managers, in understanding of Aziz Šunje PhD, are: „managers positioned on the top of an organization, or managers who are responsible for business activities of entire organization. They, in contrast to middle-line managers, have so-called cross – sectoral responsibility, or responsibility for business activities of entire organization – all organizational units. Seen in that context, organizational top managers really are organizational key managers.“ (Šunje, 2003: 15) According to opinion of the quoted author, „The role of business decision-making makes the essence of manager’s job, and according to this concept, we can distinguish the following roles of business decisionmaking: (1) Role of entrepreneur, role within which a manager shows up as initiator of changes, most often on the basis of information collected through the role of monitor (identification of external „opportunities“ and „risks“, initiating of new ideas...). (2) Role of disturbance handler, within which a manager reacts to all kinds of disturbances that appear as result of pressures (and changes) out of manager’s control – from a quarrel between two subordinates, to complaints made by a customer or a supplier... (3) Role of resource allocator, role in which a manager shows up as central subject who decides which resources will be engaged and how the given resources will be deployed and mutually connected. (4) Role of negotiator, with notice that managers, especially top – managers, spend a big part of time negotiating with different partners – customers, suppliers, unions, government and all stakeholders. Negotiation skill is however one of most appreciated manager’s skills...managers, performing one role, most often simultaneously perform some other managerial roles.“ (Šunje, 2003: 15) Although this model does not show decision-making process, it is important because it allows comparing the most important function of a manager and a top – manager. Top manager deals, relatively freely, with overall consent of the owner, with all key functions and businesses playing the role of supreme order issuing authority and controller in all matters of business activities, and business success is his/her main task and responsibility. That is also main criterion in measuring of his/her success. Business making in budgetary, non-economic institution, certainly is not primary object of interest, but is satisfying of social needs for which the institution was established, and understanding is primarily directed towards usage of funds put at disposal by the budget, in the most effective and most functional way. Of course, we do not dispute the fact that, within business activity of a budgetary primary school there are necessarily procurements of means for maintenance of the school, the school hygiene, teaching materials, articles for pupil’s kitchen (if applicable) as well as that selling of written off material, certain kinds of waste or, maybe services and products of pupils’ cooperative. But, that cannot approach by any means to business transactions happening 69 �in market, with competence and in order to gain profit. Top manager (principal of a state primary school) by his/her real role and functions in business activities of school, does not fit in ideal type of manager that can be found in postulates of manager as strategist and visionary of business. With private-owned primary schools the thing is completely different. Indeed, they are also as regards relevant educational and upbringing activities due to fulfill their legally prescribed obligations and set standards. However, in business part they have very broad opportunities. First of all, private-owned schools do not have obligatory attendants. On the contrary, they face strong competition of developed network of free-of-charge primary schools owned by the state. In that competition, they have to attract clients who can pay for it, and to succeed in that, it has to offer to those clients certain exclusivity – but without disturbing of basic, prescribed educational programs and standards of work. It has to (and should) offer and realize more and better, something that in clients’ opinion you cannot obtain in state schools and which is worth of extra-paying for. We emphasize, it is about normal schools. It could be said that business part in such schools has all factors and characteristics of market business with limitations related to program realization and diplomas being conditioned by successful realization of those programs, implementers of which have to possess prescribed worker profile and attendants of defined age and health status. Private owner of such school can be any subject (except the one prohibited by the law) whether as group or collective. However, specificity of management of such school is that its general manager and his deputy have to be from educational profession, which means subjects who acquired through their own schooling certain corresponding levels of professional education and verified practice. Other composition of management has to be in accordance with a school’s needs (its organization and level of development) and regulations in effect. Most often, there occur middle-level managers from legal and financial profession. An example of private-owned primary school points to appearing of a type of manager educated to perform unified managerial functions. Possibly the owner and top manager can be connected in the same subject with corresponding qualifications and that these, with support of expert associates who do not have status of manager or are ’’first-line managers’’ – „managers at first level of organization – people who coordinate work of operative executors at the bottom of organization.“ He/she performs all roles of top manager (interpersonal, informational, business decision-making) and all relevant functions of management (planning, organising, human resources function, leading, marketing, and control) with assistance of expert executants or with support from specially engaged people and institutions. The most complex situation with identification of management and managers is at universities,(Franz and Nemeth, 2002; Shepherd, 1998) both at state- and private-owned. According to law, faculties remain corporations, which implies, in principle, rights and responsibilities of faculties in business activities, as well as corresponding management. However, by legal regulation of relation between faculties and universities where faculties can only exist within the framework of universities, by regulation of professional and academic education and position of institutions in interrelations, as well as schedule of competences and responsibilities of collective organs, makes big difficulties to application of ideal – typical concept of management in their business activities. As for state universities and faculties, it is clear that in business sphere we can speak only about strictly restrictive management because: a) Ministry with influence of universities makes decision on number of students who will be admitted by certain faculties in certain status; b) for one number of students, the budget provides funds; c) costs of studying of ’’self-financed’’ students are formed under control and influence of competent Ministry, etc. These all lead to a situation that faculties introduced, beside Dean, status of ’’manager’’, as persons with special responsibility for extra-curriculum business activities, but everything is subject to the Dean. Hence, at state faculties and universities we cannot speak about standard type of management and manager, although those faculties can deal with non-educational profitable activities, in certain cases, (e.g. renting premises, providing certain intellectual services, expert advice, etc.) Private-owned university, especially if it is an individual subject, seeks to manage material and financial assets, to centralize them and use them with the least expenses and with profit. There are two typical situations: 1) University is the only activity and exclusive (or main) source of income of its owner; 2) University is only one specific business unit in owner’s business system. In addition, head of university may be owner of university if he meets legal requirements – and then he embodies them, he is supreme governor of activities out of and in process of educational activity. Head of university can be any other person who fulfils conditions, for example a prominent scientist, but he is also, although competences of a head of university are defined by law and statutes of university, is greatly dependent on owner. Because, private-owned university is private property of ’’landlord’’ and he is in system, his business unit that has to be profitable. Since head of university (as well as deans) does not have to be familiar with economy and applied economics, with legal – administrative and other non-educational business aspects, we encounter manager of university, who leads extra-curriculum activities, but also some closely related to educational processes and their function. At such universities it is very difficult to identify real managerial roles, authority and responsibilities of head of university, dean, managers of faculties and universities on one hand and owner and management of a 70 �system in which and within which university operates. Even when a university does not belong to another, wider business system, it is very difficult to distinguish between normatively defined competences and responsibilities between managerial organs and collective organs, as well as between organs of university and of faculty. It is even more difficult to make it in practice. A very complex and important issue arises: what in educational management sphere brings a concept that it is state and private-owned institutions that are independent in performing of educational business? Is not it a new concept of independence of universities? It is obvious that it is a very complex concept that can be realized with extreme difficulties. Independence is always under material and legal independence, and that material – legal independence is a condition for independence of educational and upbringing process, which means management in education as well. From the above exposed, it can be relatively clearly seen executive character of management in education. The state sets basic frameworks, it more or less defines our plans and programs and conditions to be fulfilled by their executors, prescribes conditions under which those programs can be performed – including organizational structure, as method of acquiring of funds through these activities. Management of educational institutions mainly makes influence indirectly, and its main task is to organize execution of tasks posed by the state. Generally taken, this relates to state- and privateowned educational institutions equally. Do the above considerations allow us the mentioned conclusion? Basis of the issue is the fact that all legal organisations have to comply with legal frameworks. However, regulation relating to institutions, and especially to the educational ones, is far more detailed and concrete, and possibilities of management more reduced. In that sense, even in private-owned educational organizations, only one specific form of restrictive management can be established. And secondly, it is evident that management of educational institutions is clearly divided into two spheres: (1) conditionally named ’’business sphere ’’ and (2) educational sphere. In business sphere, no matter how limited it might be, we discover functions of management and managerial roles where this is manifested in private sector of education in a more evident and more accented way. Everything that we said until now on management in business sphere of education is valid for special schools as well (army, police, diplomacy, etc.), and for educational forms in enterprises and other forms of education that perform their functions in framework of other systems, and with all that it is more emphasized. It is possible that such forms do not even have their management in area of material – financial business activities. Examples for this are those forms of education in enterprises without permanent organizational forma or plans and programs of education. All their material – financial transactions are related to and mediated for manager of human resources (human resources, cadre) of an enterprise. Reason for that is activity which imposes domination of educational and upbringing process and its results as criteria of a successfully achieved goal. References Adler Louise, ˝The Politics Of Linking Schools And Social Services (Education Policy Perspectives)“, Falmer Press, 1994. Anderson Lesley, Bennett Nigel D. (eds.), ˝Developing Educational Leadership: Using Evidence for Policy and Practice (British Educational Management Series)“, Sage Publications Ltd, 2003. Bhimani Alnoor, ˝Contemporary Issues in Management Accounting“, Oxford University Press, USA, 2006. Block Stanley B, Hirt Geoffrey A, ˝Foundations of Financial Management Text + Educational Version of Market Insight + Time Value of Money Insert“, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 12 edition, 2006. Bockstael Eric, ˝Handicap and Politics - Studies in Pedagogy, Andragogy and Gerontagogy“, Peter Lang Publishing, 1995. Bogdan R.C, Biklen S.K, »Qualitative Research in Education«, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1992. Bush Tony, West-Burnham John, ˝Principles of Educational Management (University of Leicester MBA Series)“, Financial Times Prentice Hall, 1998. Bush Tony, Bell Les A, ˝The Principles and Practice of Educational Management - Educational Management Research Series, Sage Publications Ltd, 2002. Chance Patti L, Chance Edward W, ˝Introduction to Educational Leadership and Organizational Behavior: Theory into Practice“, Eye on Education Incorporated, 2002. Dean Joan, ˝Managing the Primary School - Educational Management“, Routledge; 2 edition, 1994. DeCenzo D.A, Robbins S.P, »Human Resource Management«, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, 6th edition, 1999. 71 �Glanz Jeffrey, ˝Finding Your Leadership Style: A Guide for Educators“, Association for Supervision & Curriculum Deve, 2002. Glasser William, “The Quality School“; Harper &Row, New York, 1990. Gropello Emanuela Di, ˝Meeting the Challenges of Secondary Education in Latin America and East Asia: Improving Efficiency And Resource Mobilization“, World Bank Publications, 2006. Honig Meredith I, ˝New Directions in Education Policy Implementation: Confronting Complexity, State University of New York Press, 2006. International Labour Organization (ILO), ˝Global www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/wer2004.htm.. Employment Trends“, 2006, internet, Khosrow-Pour Mehdi, ˝Advanced Topics in Information Resources Management“, Idea Group Publishing, 2006. Kouzes James M, Posner Barry Z, ˝Leadership the Challange“, Jossey – Bass, A Wiley Company, 3rd edition, CA, USA, 2002. Kraut Harvey, ˝The Assistant Principal and the Art of Successful Department Management: A How-To Guidebook for Supervisors in Secondary Schools“, Aysa Pub., 2004. Law Sue, Glover Derek, ˝Educational Leadership and Learning: Practice, Policy and Research“, University Press, 2000. Open Lord Robert G, Klimoski Richard J, Kanfer Ruth, ˝Emotions in the Workplace: Understanding the Structure and Role of Emotions in Organizational Behavior“, Pfeiffer, 2002.. Martocchio Joseph J, ˝Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management“, in: ˝Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, Volume 25“, JAI Press, 2006. McKenna Christopher D, ˝The World's Newest Profession: Management Consulting in the Twentieth Century“, Cambridge University Press, 2006. Payne R. L, ˝Emotions At Work: Theory, Research And Applications For Management“, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2006. Poggeler Franz, Nemeth Balazs,˝Ethics, Ideals and Ideologies in the History of Adult Education“, in: Studies in Pedagogy, Andragogy and Gerontagogy, International Conference on the History of Adult Education 2000 Pecs, Peter Lang Publishing, 2002. Shepherd Knowles Malcolm, ˝The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy“, Cambridge Book Company, 1988 Šunje Aziz, „Top-menadžer, vizionar i strateg“ (Top-manager, visionary and strategist), Tirada, Sarajevo, 2003. Šušnjić Đuro, „Kritika sociološkog metoda“, Gradina, Niš, 1973. United Nations, ˝The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)“, New York, internet,www.un.org/millenniumgoals/index.asp#; http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/pdf/MDG%20Book.pdf. 2005, United Nations, ˝In larger freedom: Towards Security, Development and Human Rights for All“, Report of the Secretary-General оf United Nations, A/59/2005, 21.03.2005, internet, www.un.org/largerfreedom.htm, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/270/78/PDF/ N0527078.pdf?OpenElement. Wallace Mike, Poulson Louise, ˝Learning to Read Critically in Educational Leadership and Management (Learning to Read Critically Series)“, Sage Publications Ltd., 2003. Wilson Lynda Swanson, ˝A test of Andragogy in a Post-Secondary Educational Setting“, ProQuest / UMI, 2006. 72 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 653 Title A name given to the resource Business Process Management in Educational Institutions Author Author OBRALIĆ, Tarik Abstract A summary of the resource. Management education is a specific part of management as a general The Study phenomenon of organized, institutionalized society. In social practice, on the modern level of development, there are in all known countries of the world prescribed systems of organized education and, in parallel with them, or even contrary to them, specific systems. The educational system is a regulated and highly organized, programmed system which is necessarily controlled, and within it there are certain terms, factors, and relations, typical for management in general, but not all are used in the same way. In the economy, which is relatively independent, based on private ownership and markets, in a direct competitive relationship with the arbitration market, management is necessarily independent (within the ownership powers) and possesses relatively high powers and responsibilities. The educational system is under the direct jurisdiction of state and government bodies that make strategic decisions on the establishment, development, organization, and programs of education, the manner of the exercise, and the performance of the duties of supervision and evaluation of results. In the system there are different areas and levels of education that mutually differ. As mentioned above, the differences between management and management education emanate. They are in practice relatively wide even when it comes to education in a market - oriented education organization. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ff4a7c6846352ba5079a75b5cc52911a.pdf 7c89a2fc68732bcd7f35182f0d43beca PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Using the Advantage of Being in Between, with the Example of Fuzzy Set Theory: Opportunities for Bosnia Hüseyin Hayri NUROĞLU International University of Sarajevo Faculty of Economics and Business Administration Bosnia and Herzegovina hnuroglu@ius.edu.ba Abstract: This article analyses how culture, tradition and perception of the science affect the creation and application of techniques used in industry and management. Although it is thought that there are some global rules in business, cultural perspectives have an enormous effect on the application of the theories. This difference can be seen in the early fuzzy set theory applications. Fuzzy set theory has been accepted and applied by the eastern firms earlier than western firms. Despite its usefulness, western corporations met the fuzzy theory very suspiciously at the beginning, and they started utilizing it after its success has been proven. The biggest obstacle for the west for being late in using fuzzy set is their loyalty to the crispness and their crisp way of thinking. Bosnia, as a country which has both west's crispness and east’s mystical insight, can use the advantage of this feature. Bosnia can convert this characteristic of being a country between east and west and being familiar with the two different mind-sets into a competitive advantage. Instead of following only one trend, Bosnia can harmonize the characteristics of two sides and enjoy the early application of some promising theories. Keywords: Fuzzy Set Theory, Cultural difference, perceptions of science, Bosnia 1- Introduction It has always been a research question how and to what extent culture affects human beings. Does it only affect how to behave in the environment we exist or does it also affect how we think? There are thousands of studies about this issue but there isn’t any compromise between the researchers. First of all, there is a debate on the definition and content of the culture. However, one acceptable definition can be made as “a distinctly human means of adapting to circumstances and transmitting this coping skill and knowledge to subsequent generations. Culture gives people a sense of who they are, of belonging, of how they should behave, and of what they should be doing.” (Harris et al., 2004). Researchers believe that culture shapes the way we behave, our productivity at work, our values; shortly all human being’s behavior. Trompenaars (2003) defines culture as “the contextual environment, defining much of the essence of the relationships between an organization and the environment in which it operates. In the world, there are more than 200 nations, and Hofstede (1993) offers to focus on cultural factors in separating or uniting nations. In order to understand and differentiate cultures better, many different models have been developed. Some researchers have offered ten different categories to identify the culture (Harris et al., 2004). Some others claim that firms will be able to limit imitation and create competitive advantage if they concentrate on retaining the relationship between their corporate culture and their national/regional culture (Moran et al., 2007). We should also understand national culture to explain differences in international operational decision making (Pagel et al., 2005), because managers make their decisions and manage their resources under the shadow of their culture. In an interesting cross-cultural research, Kirkman et al. (2006) review empirical studies that have used the cultural values framework of Hofstede for the years between 1980 and 2002. They identify 180 studies in which culture has the main effect or moderator. 148 of these studies out of 180 cases, examine culture as a main effect, 32 of them as a moderator. Hofstede (1991) claims that national culture explains 50% of the differences in managers´ values, beliefs and attitudes. Culture shows its effect on many different areas of business and industry. For example, due to the cultural differences various types of Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) use have been seen in Japan and UK. Britain preferred to utilize CNC tools by operators with previous experience, but Japanese tried to use their CNC tools with no previous experience of machine tool operation. Moreover, British firms appointed one worker per machine, while Japanese were attempting to achieve multi machine operation (Kambayashi, 2004). This example explains individualism in the UK and collectivism in Japan with the cultural values framework of Hofstede. 278 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to the Hofstede (1980)´s research, German and Anglo-Saxon worlds specifically and western world in general are less uncertainty avoidant than eastern countries. Moreover, western countries have been less open to new experiences, sceptical about new theories such as Total Quality Management (TQM) and Fuzzy Logic. They applied these theories only after the success of these theories have been proven. The more interesting thing is, Deming´s ideas about total quality management hadn’t been accepted by Americans, but welcomed by Japanese businessmen first. Bensaou and Earl (1998) compare the Japanese and Western “mindsets” and approaches to the management of IT. Westerners use IT to have the smartest and cheapest result and to improve performance, while Japanese use IT to reach their goals after identifying performance goals. As mentioned so far culture is an important factor for the development and application of new theories. However, in some cases it can be misleading to consider the entire region as the basis for analyzing the culture. For example, the culture of UK is closer to the culture of USA even though UK is geographically closer to the European countries. The same is true for Mexico and USA as well. Although they are neighbors, they have different management cultures. In this case, besides cultures of the nations and similar culture of the regions, the perception of science of the cultures is another important factor in the development and application of new theories. Although TQM and Fuzzy Logic have enormous applications and benefits, western world was late to accept and to utilize these theories. As mentioned above, culture might be one reason but cannot explain the whole story alone. At this point looking at the science perception of the cultures might be helpful. The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 2 discusses fuzzy logic, the possible reasons why it has been accepted by the eastern world earlier than the western world, applications of fuzzy logic in commercial and industrial products and historical development of it. Section 3 analyzes the differences between eastern and western logic and connects these differences with the developments of fuzzy logic. Section 4 concludes. 2- Fuzzy Logic 2.1. Why fuzzy logic has been exploited in the east before the west? McNeil and Thro (1994) suggest two possible reasons for western nations for being late on accepting fuzzy logic. One reason is traditional cultures of west which rely on Aristotelian either-or-approach. Western people avoid uncertainty and risk. In the West, individual competitiveness is the main force of technological progress, whereas in the eastern cultures strength and success is achieved through consensus and group work which was also explained by the Hofstede’s (1980) analysis. As easily seen, eastern characteristics are more compatible with the fuzzy logic than mathematically oriented western attitudes. Another reason they suggest is Japan may be more open to new ideas than management- and bottom-line oriented western firms. Lotfi Zadeh, the founder of fuzzy logic, says that one important reason for Japan for being so advanced in fuzzy logic is that they are really consumer oriented. Japanese can immediately adapt new ideas and technologies which have a potential to serve the consumers (Blair, 1994). “When the only tool you have is a hammer, everything begins to look like a nail”(Zadeh) According to Zadeh, in Aristotle's day people tried to be as precise as possible. This Aristotelian or Cartesian tradition makes people to look at everything as being totally white or black. As Zadeh states, sometimes people may perceive things as being bad at the beginning, but then they turn out to be good or not so bad as people thought originally. One failure of classical logic is paying so little attention to approximate reasoning and perceiving things only in absolute terms. This allows solving many problems in real life but prevents us from solving many other everyday problems which are not crisp, subjective or have many possible solutions. He says that: “When the only tool you have is a hammer, everything begins to look like a nail. Classical logic simply doesn't provide the means to solve the problems. They concerned themselves with models of precise knowledge. But such models are so far removed from the real world that they don't do you any good” (Blair, 1994). 2.2. The Differences between Crisp Sets and Fuzzy Sets The difference between conventional dual logic and fuzzy set theory is that in conventional dual logic a statement can be either true or false; in set theory, an element can either belong to a set or not. However, real world situations are very often uncertain. Lack of information may cause the future state of the system to be unknown or unpredictable. This type of uncertainty has been handled by statistics and probability theory sofar. Fuzziness is possible to be found in many areas of life such as meteorology, medicine, engineering, manufacturing etc. where it is possible to define one situation in different ways or it is possible for an element to belong to different sets. In daily life, the meaning of words is often imprecise. Fuzzy set theory provides a 279 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo mathematical framework to study vague phenomena precisely. It is defined as a modeling language for fuzzy relations, criteria and situations (Zimmerman, 2001). In fuzzy set theory, normal sets are called crisp sets to be differentiated from fuzzy sets (Driankov et al., 1996). Let C be a crisp set and F a fuzzy set defined on the universe U. For any element u of U, either u ∈ C or u ∉ C . However, in fuzzy set theory it is not necessary that either u ∈ F or u ∉ F . In fuzzy set theory, a membership function µ F is assigned to every u ∈ U from the unit interval [0, 1], instead from the two element set {0, 1} as in crisp sets. If an element belongs to a fuzzy set with certainty, it has a membership value of 1. If this element does not belong to a fuzzy set, its membership value will be 0. On the other hand, an element can take the membership values of 0.9, 0,8, 0,7 or 0,2, 0,1 according to the degree at which it is near or far away from the target value which can be inferred from the definition of fuzzy set. According to Zimmermann (2001), major objectives of fuzzy set theory are to model uncertainty and to relax or generalize classical methods based on dual logic from a dichotomous to a gradual feature. Furthermore, it aims to reduce the complexity of data to a reasonable degree via linguistic variables. Computational units use these linguistic expressions and membership functions of fuzzy sets and finally retranslate the fuzzified result into the words via linguistic approximation and produce the output for the crisp world. 2.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuzzy Systems Fuzzy logic has been used and become quite popular in different fields due to its advantages (McNeill and Thro, 1994). In fuzzy logic, linguistic variables are used instead of numerical ones which makes it similar to the way human beings think. Another advantage is that fuzzy logic needs fewer values, rules and decisions than conventional models. However, it is hard to develop a model from a fuzzy system. Even though they are cheaper, easier to design and faster to prototype than conventional systems, fuzzy systems may face cultural bias in some countries who favor mathematically crisp systems and linear models. This may be the reason why Japanese firms exploited fuzzy systems before the United States and European countries. Moreover, as the complexity of system increases, it becomes more difficult to specify the correct set of rules and membership functions to describe the behavior of the system appropriately (Aliev et al., 2004). 2.4. Fuzzy Set Mathematics In classical or crisp sets an element either belongs to a set and has a membership value of 1 or this element does not belong to the mentioned set and has a membership value of 0. However, an element of a fuzzy set may have various degrees of membership value between 0 and 1. ~ Definition (Zimmermann, 2001): If X is a collection of objects denoted generically by x, then a fuzzy set A is a set of ordered pairs: ~ A = {( x, µ A~ ( x) | x ∈ X } ~ µ A~ is called the membership function of x in A that maps X to the membership space M. The range of the membership function is a subset of the nonnegative real numbers whose supremum is finite. The membership function is the crucial component of a fuzzy set. Therefore, operations with fuzzy sets are defined with their membership functions. 2.5. Historical Development of Fuzzy Logic Fuzzy Logic was developed in the 1960s by Lotfi Zadeh claiming that this new paradigm will be able to model the own uncertainty of human reasoning. He believed that computer logic didn't have to be restricted to only 0 and 1. However, the acceptance of this technique by the “highly deterministic scientific society” has taken some time (Dualibe et al., 2003). The earliest supporters of fuzzy set theory were Japanese scientists and engineers (McNeil and Thro, 1994). Another country, which has the highest number of fuzzy-oriented scientists and engineers is China. The theoretical studies and practical applications on fuzzy theory have been caught in the US and in Europe later than eastern nations. Once it has been proven that fuzzy logic can be applied in the productions of commercial and industrial products quite successfully, western nations started to use and develop it. Nowadays, Germany has quite a lot of fuzzy oriented researchers and applications, and can be counted as the second country in fuzzy related developments after Japan. 2.6. Fuzzy Business and Industrial Systems 280 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Fuzzy systems have been used heavily in industrial production (McNeil & Thro, 1994). For example, Fujitsu Laboratories developed a neuro-fuzzy system for rating the investment safety of bonds. A method of data analysis has been developed at a German company, INFORM, which is used for many purposes such as for the design of automobile and truck parts by Mercedes-Benz and to determine creditworthiness. Furthermore, at Los Alamos Scientific laboratory an experiment was conducted to design the best techniques for improving the recovery of oil from the ground which was a complex optimizing problem. A Portuguese company has implemented a fuzzy based digester management system and achieved a higher degree of automation (Driankov et al., 1996). The main advantages of this system were the consistent control strategy, up to 60% reduction of the variation of product quality, and a significant reduction in energy and base material consumption. Another interesting fuzzy product, an automated storm-sewage pumping station for Shanghai, was developed by a Chinese scientist Hong Chen. It aimed to correct the deficiencies of crisp pump controllers which either start too late to prevent backflow, run too long or stop too soon. Fuzzy system can easily determine when the pumps should be started and stopped according to the water level, change in water level and also to the weather. Moreover, fuzzy insulin infusion system for diabetics, some consumer products such as vacuum cleaner, washing machine, fuzzy air conditioner, dishwasher, video camera-recorder, heater, rice cooker, and clothes dryer can be counted how fuzzy theory is applicable and useful in practice. These machines arrange their own speed, water level and when to work and when not by easily adapting to their environments and save a lot of energy. In Japan, a home appliance which has the label “fuzzy-controlled” raises a positive sense of modern, high quality and user friendly machine (Driankov et al., 1996). On the other hand, the use of fuzzy logic is not restricted only to home appliances (Karray et al., 2004). Nissan, Subaru and Mitsubishi use the fuzzy control transmission systems which sense vehicle speed and acceleration, throttle opening, the rate of change of throttle opening, engine load, and driving style. Fujitec and Toshiba use a fuzzy scheme in elevator control which is said to reduce waiting time and improve the efficiency and reliability of operation. Even a subway train is being used in Sendai, Japan which determines the speed and stopping routine. Ride comfort and safety are performance requirements of this train. However, it is not so simple to implement fuzzy control in the production immediately; it requires well-trained personnel in the industry as well as researchers at the universities and laboratories. This is seen one of the bottlenecks that prevents a broader exploitation of fuzzy technology by European countries at the end of 1990s by Driankov et al. (1996). By 2002, Japanese firms who utilize fuzzy logic were Canon, Hitachi, Matsushita Electric, Minolta, Mitsubishi Electric, Ricoh, Sanyo and Sharp. In the USA, General Electric, Texaco and US Air Force Office of Scientific Research were the main users of fuzzy logic. At the same time in Europe, AEG, Bosch, Cerberus, Viessmann, INFORM, Endress and Hauser and DASA were utilizing fuzzy logic in their products (Kazemian, 2002). 3. Analysis Fuzzy logic is a very important and beneficial theory which is subject to change the electric, electronic and computer sciences deeply. Surprisingly, this theory was introduced by someone (Professor Zadeh) whose roots are in the east and was developed by the eastern nations firstly; but not by the western world which has been industrialized and developed before all other nations. Fuzzy logic has been started to be used by the western world first after it has been developed to some extent in the east and its usefulness has been proven. With this characteristic, it shares the same destiny with the Total Quality Management. These examples show one important fact: the invention and development of new ideas is not only dependent on the development level of countries. Culture and the perception of science play the key roles in inventing or accepting new theories. Western world which follows the paths of Aristo, Newton and Renaissance has been pioneers of many developments in the world but could not go beyond perceiving the world as crisp. However, we cannot understand and solve all the problems of human beings and of the world only with crisp theories. On the other hand, eastern way of thinking perceives the world not only with “0 and 1” or “true and false” concepts. This way of thinking makes the east luckier in solving the problems that cannot be solved by the crisp theories. The examples from the past prove these ideas. It is also possible to see new examples in the future as well. When we analyze the situation of Bosnia, we see that if Bosnia can concentrate on its national/regional culture and follow western and eastern world closely, it will be able to follow the latest trends in the industry and become more competitive in the region. Bosnia like the founder of fuzzy logic Professor Zadeh, witnessed different cultures (Catholics and Orthodox Christian culture, Muslim culture, Austria-Hungarian Culture, Ottoman Culture) and belongs to the western world from one perspective and also is a part of the eastern world from another perspective. For example, Bosnia has adopted western education system, and at the same time is familiar with the eastern philosophy, and mind-set. All these features offer Bosnia big chances for the future developments. 281 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion As a conclusion, under the shadow of culture and tradition, perception of the science affects the creation and application of techniques used in industry and management. This can be seen in the background of the fuzzy logic founder and by looking at the nations which applied fuzzy set theory first. The reason why western companies were late in accepting and utilizing fuzzy logic can be explained mainly by their science perception. Different than eastern ancient tradition, western tradition and taught teaches to be always precise and crisp. However, many unsolved problems we face are not crisp and cannot be solved by crisp logic. On the other side, the contribution of western nations to the science and technology is not possible to ignore. At this point, Bosnia, as a country which has both west's crispness and east’s mystical insight, can use the advantage of this feature. Bosnia can convert this characteristic of being a country between east and west and being familiar to the two different mind-sets, into a competitive advantage. Geographically it is in west, but has experienced both western and eastern cultures in different time periods. Instead of following only one trend, Bosnia is able to observe and understand two traditions, and can enjoy the early application of promising theories. References Aliev Rafik A., Bijan Fazlollahi & Rashad R. Aliev (2004). Soft Computing and its Applications in Business and Economics. Springer Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg. Bensaou, M. & Earl, M. (1998). The right mind-set for managing information technology. Harvard Business Review, 76(5), 118–128. Blair Betty (1994). Interview with Lotfi Zadeh: Creator of Fuzzy Logic. Azerbaijan International, 2.4, 46-57. Driankov Dimiter, Hans Hellendoorn & Michael Reinfrank (1996)., An Introduction to Fuzzy Control. Springer Verlag: Berlin-Heidelberg-NewYork. Dualibe, Carlos, Verleysen, M., & Jespers, P. (2003). Design of Analog Fuzzy Logic Controllers in CMOS Technologies: Implementation, Test and Application. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Harris, Philip R., Moran, Robert T. & Moran, Sarah V. (2004). Culture and its Characteristics, Global Leadership Strategies for the 21st Century. Elsevier Butterworth–Heinemann: Oxford. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures, Organizations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. (1993). Cultural Constraints in Management Theories. The Executive, 7(1), 81-94. Kambayashi, N. (2004). Culture-specific IT Use in Japanese Factories. Asian Business & Management, 3, 241–262. Karray F.O., & de Silva C. (2004). Soft Computing and Intelligent System Design: Theory, Tools and Applications. Addison Wesley. Kazemian H. B. (2002). Fuzzy Logic Applications. Expert Systems, 19(4), 189-190. Kirkman, B. L., Lowe, K. B., & Gibson, C. B. (2006). A Quarter Century of Culture's Consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede's cultural values framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(3), 285-320. McNeill F. Martin & Ellen Thro (1994). Fuzzy Logic: A Practical Approach. Academic Press Limited: London. Moran, F., Palmer, D.W.,& Borstorff, P.C. (2007). The Relationship between National Culture, Organizational Culture, Causal Ambiguity and Competitive Advantage in an International Setting: An Explanatory Analysis. Proceedings of the Academy for Studies in International Business, 7(1). Pagell M.; Katz J. P; & Sheu C. (2005). The importance of national culture in operations management research. International journal of Operations & Production Management, 25(¾), 371. Trompenaars Fons & Peter Woolliams (2003). Business Across Cultures. Capstone Publishing: England. Zimmermann Hans-Jürgen (2001). Fuzzy Set Theory and Its Applications, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 282 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 223 Title A name given to the resource Using the Advantage of Being in Between, with the Example of Fuzzy Set Theory: Opportunities for Bosnia Author Author NUROĞLU, Hüseyin Hayri Abstract A summary of the resource. This article analyses how culture, tradition and perception of the science affect the creation and application of techniques used in industry and management. Although it is thought that there are some global rules in business, cultural perspectives have an enormous effect on the application of the theories. This difference can be seen in the early fuzzy set theory applications. Fuzzy set theory has been accepted and applied by the eastern firms earlier than western firms. Despite its usefulness, western corporations met the fuzzy theory very suspiciously at the beginning, and they started utilizing it after its success has been proven. The biggest obstacle for the west for being late in using fuzzy set is their loyalty to the crispness and their crisp way of thinking. Bosnia, as a country which has both west's crispness and east’s mystical insight, can use the advantage of this feature. Bosnia can convert this characteristic of being a country between east and west and being familiar with the two different mind-sets into a competitive advantage. Instead of following only one trend, Bosnia can harmonize the characteristics of two sides and enjoy the early application of some promising theories. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory