278 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6dcb6d7e397773b6595430a2c2318d9.pdf 14f82ae1a227c5a67bf6eb2dc1ea1f32 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Effects of Employees' Demographic Characteristics on the Perception of Organizational Culture: A Study in Service Enterprise Halil SAYLI Afyon Kocatepe University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyonkarahisar, Turkey sayli@aku.edu.tr Ahmet BAYTOK Afyon Kocatepe University School of Tourism and Hotel Management Afyonkarahisar, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Hasan Hüseyin SOYBALI Afyon Kocatepe University School of Tourism and Hotel Management Afyonkarahisar, Turkey hsoybali@aku.edu.tr Abstract: This study aims to evaluate the service sector employees‘ perception of organizational culture from the demographic characteristics perspective. The research was conducted in a Ministry of Culture and Tourism Licensed five-star thermal hotel in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey. In scope of this study, a questionnaire was developed and applied to thermal hotel employees. The data collected through the questionnaire survey was analysed by using SPSS 18.0 statistics package software and the relationship between factors which creates the organizational culture and demographic characteristics of employees such as age, gender, education level and duration of experience both in the sector and in the hotel was examined. From the hypothesis developed it was observed that while differences exist between organizational culture perception and gender, age and education level, there are no differences between organizational culture perception and duration of experience both in the sector and in the hotel. Introduction Culture, as a fact related to human societies gathered according to certain principles, is used to express the interaction between human beings and it‘s consequences (Hodgetts & Luthans, 2000: 108). Being an important concept related to human and human beings makes the culture important for enterprises whose one of the most important competitive tools is human. The power, which forms common language, expressions and concepts to create an internal commitment between the members of an organization, arranges the power of members, their status, promotions and relationships between each other and makes them to be able to give meanings to all organizational events is culture (Özkara, 1999: 84). One of the factors that play a key role in creation of a strong culture which will contribute to achieve the objectives of a business is its employees. Because employees are the people who keep the culture alive in organizations. Therefore, it is essential to know how employees perceive organizational culture in an organization. Demographic characteristics of employees are one of the factors which play an important role in employees‘ organizational culture perception (Hofstede et al.1990; Helms & Stern, 2001). Being aware of the effects of demographic characteristics on the perception of organizational culture will guide primarily management in areas of policy formation, determination of competencies, manpower planning, socialization process planning, keeping the culture alive and changing the culture. 198 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Organizational Culture Over the last 30 years, organizational culture has been a topic of significant interest in the organizational studies literature. In short, the culture expressed with a ― the way things are done around here‖ phrase, can be defined as ―shared and the agreed set of values and beliefs by the members of organization‖ (Recardo & Jolly, 1997: 5), ―the shared philosophies, ideologies, values, assumptions, beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and norms that knit a community together (Kilmann et al. 1986: 89), ―collective thinking program which makes different the members of an organizations from others‖ (Hofstede 1991: 182–183), ― a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems‖ (Schein, 1992:12). When the above organizational culture definitions are examined, a group of people, behavioural characteristics which distinguish this group from others and the resources of these are indicated as determinant factors. The culture of organizations bears the characteristics of the community culture. However, each organization brings about its own culture to ensure organizational cohesion among its members. As each organization is formed by people with different characteristics, as fingerprints organizational culture is also different from others and unique. Different behavioral norms, expectations, practices and organizational values are the main reason for formation of differences (Vanderberghe, 1999: 175). Everybody who works in an organization accepts the culture which symbolizes unwritten behavioural aspects of the organization. But, the culture controls the organizational life without getting noticed Daft, 2000: 314). In the world of modern management, the culture which has become a main area of interest at the same level with strategy, structure and control is the characteristics of organizations, not individuals‘. But, it is measured by individuals‘ actual and intellectual behaviour (Hofstede, 1998: 479). Understanding the organizational culture and its dynamics, it makes meaningless and unusual human behaviour faced in the organization meaningful (Schein, 1992: 4) and allow us to understand how the organization works in reality (Wilkins, 1983: 25). Demographics Characteristics, Organization Culture And Their Relationship Culture of an organization is formed by artifacts, espoused values and basic assumptions and is unique (Schein, 1992). This is because each organization is formed by different people. In addition, in an organization, perceptions of the enacted organizational culture are not uniform among employees, as every individual has a unique understanding and explanation of his/her working conditions, based on his/her own characteristics, preferences and personality‖ (Bellou,2010: 5). Demographic characteristics of employees are one of the factors which play an important role in employees‘ organizational culture perception. In the literature, there has been studies indicating that employees‘ perception of organizational culture differs according to their demographic characteristics such as gender, age, education level, work experience (Hofstede et al.1990; Helms ve Stern, 2001; Bellou, 2010). For example, Hofstede et.al. (1990), who claim that the shared perceptions of daily practices are the core of organizational culture, declare that the values of employees change depending on the nationality, age and education level. Helms ve Stern (2001), on the other hand, state in a study conducted in different branches of a hospital group as a service enterprise that the background of employees and sectoral work experience affect the organizational culture more than the experience acquired in work place. The same study also indicates that there are significant differences between the cultural perception and age groups in particular, gender and ethnic background, there is not much difference between the duration of work experience in the organization and organizational culture perception and there is no relationship between the department of employees and organizational culture perception. Bellou (2010) who conducted a research on organizational culture as a determinant of job satisfaction emphasizes that age and gender are determining factor in perception of organizational culture values. In this context, the study tries to find an answer to the following question; ―does the perception of organizational culture differ according to employees‘ demographic characteristics in service enterprises? Hypotheses were developed to answer the basic research question and in development of these research hypotheses, Helms & Stern‘s (2001) study was taken as a reference study. The ways male and female employees fulfill their work and communicate are different in an organzation. Similarly, decision making and leadership styles indicate differences between male an female employees and managers. Therefore, organizational culture perception difference is expected depending on employees‘ gender. H1. Employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to gender. 199 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Age is a determinant in formation of employees‘ experience. In addition, hayat görüĢleri (life views) ans communication and consequently values of employees at the same age group are similar. For this reason, it is expected that employees‘ perception of organizational culture at different age groups will indicate differences. H2. Employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to age groups Organizational culture is a subject which contains different elements and related to values. Therefore, it requires cumulative knowledge and conceptual perspective. Level of education is a important determinant in development of conceptual perspective. Therefore, it is expected that employees‘ perception of organizational culture will indicate differences according to their education level. H3. Employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to level of education The experience acquired in the sector provides information to managers and employees about how the processes of their work and style of conducting the work should be. Consequently, they understand which values should form the values, aware of and understand their importance. From this perspective, it is expected that employees‘ perception of organizational culture will indicate differences according to their sectoral work experience. H4. Employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to their duration sectoral work experience. Learning and adaptation process to the culture requires a certain time. Therefore, existence of organizational culture perception difference between employees who have worked longer in an organization and who have worked shorter is an expected result. H5. Employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to their duration of work experience in the organization. The Study Research was carried out in an accommodation enterprise as part of tourism industry and consequently service sector. The thermal hotel is located in Afyonkarahisar Omer-Gecek Thermal Tourism Region. It is one of the largest hotel in the region and in Turkey and in operation since 2006. The hotel provides services to its customers on half board service base and operates all year round. While the hotel provides services with 250 employees during the high season, only 120 employees are employed in spring season which is accepted as the off-season. Observation and interviews as qualitative methods (Smircich, 1983) are widely accepted and preferred research tools by researchers in measuring the organizational culture and understanding the artifacts of culture. Nevertheless, it may be possible that employees may behave differently and reply the questions used in these methods in the way that the observer expects or the observer may exhibit biased behaviour in his/her observations. On the other hand, quantitative methods provide instantaneous (cross-sectional), explanatory and descriptive benefits for organizational research and large scale studies. Quantitative methods allow culture researchers to examine culture in different departments and conduct comparative studies (Tepeci, 2001). In this context, a questionnaire was used as a data collection tool to find out employees organization culture perceptions. In the study, ―Organizational Culture Questonnaire‖ which was developed and its validity and reliability was tested by Hee-Jae Cho‘s (2010) was used. Questionnaire consists of 60 judgements. Organizational culture in the questionnaire consist of four main factors; involvement, consistency, adaptability, and mission. Each main factor that makes up the questionnaire includes three sub-factors which each contain five questions describing themselves. Five-scale Likert type scale was used in the study. Questions include ―1 strongly disagree‖, ―2 disagree‖, ―3 Neutral‖, ―4 agree‖, ―5 strongly agree‖ options. Employees‘ demographic characteristics consist of gender, age, education level, duration of sectoral experience and duration work experince at the hotel. Questionnaire was administered at the beginning of May 2010. Because spring season is the off-season fort he hotel, 120 questionnaires were distributed to the employees and 99 questionnaires were returned. The data obtained through the questionnaire was analysed by using SPSS 18.0 statitics package software. In the statistical analysis, T-test and Anova variance analysis were used. 200 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Findings The demographic data obtained indicate that the hotel has a very young workforce regarding their age groups. 91.8% of the employees who participated in the survey are under the age of 40. It is observed that 56.1% of respondents are male and the remaining 43.9% are female. Almost half of the employees employed by the hotel have high school level of education (46.9). The percentage of employees who received elementary level education is 30.2%. While 60.6% of the employees have more than two years of sectoral experience, 35.5% of whom have worked at this thermal hotel for at least three years. When this data is assessed, it can be said that the hotel has employed young but experienced employees. Besides, because most of the employees are permanent employees and have worked for the organization for at least three years, this contributes to this rearch to obtain reliable data related to the organizational culture values and hypothesis. The research method should comprise the reliability and validity features so that it can produce meaningful and reliable results. The consistency between independent measurements of the same thing, shows the reliability of the research method. Reliability analysis results: The full scale reliabilty coefficient was determined as  = 0,980 which is quite high. Sub-factor groups‘ reliabilty coefficient was found as; Involvement  = 0,942, Consistency;  = 0,929, Adaptability;  = 0,920, Mission;  = 0,953 which are also at quite high level. Demogrphic variables subject to analysis are ranked a gender, age, duration of work in the sector, and duration of work at the hotel. Gender As shown in Table 1, employees' perceptions of organizational culture indicate significant differences within the confidence intervals (p<0.05) depending on their gender. It is observed that the differences in perceptions of organizational culture stems from the male employees. According to this result, the hypothesis of ―employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to gender‖ is confirmed H1. Gender Female Male 122 280 VARIABLES X Involvement Consistency Adabtability Mission Culture 3,7767 3,7442 3,6729 3,7178 3,7279 SS ,75717 ,71948 ,65527 ,74831 ,67402 _ X 4,0933 3,9869 3,9714 4,0488 4,0136 t-TEST RESULTS SS ,60771 ,64025 ,65405 ,71515 ,62581 t value -2,297 -1,772 -2,249 -2,237 -2,168 p value ,024 0,080 0,027 0,028 0,033 Table 1: t-Test findings related to employees' perceptions of organizational culture by gender Age When the organizational perceptions of employees are evaluated according to age groups within the confidence interval (p<0.05), significant differences between consistency, adaptability and mission as organizational culture and sub-factors are observed (Table 2). But, as a sub-factor, no significant difference is seen in involvement. Differences in perceptions of organizational culture become prominent in older ages. Although no significant differences are observed in 15-20 age group, 30 and over age groups indicated significant differences. According to this result, the hypothesis of ―employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to age groups‖ is also confirmed H2. Education As shown in Table 1, employees' perceptions of organizational culture indicate significant differences within the confidence intervals (p<0.05) depending on their level of education. Differences in perceptions of organizational culture become more evident in upper education levels. According to this result, the hypothesis of ―employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to level of education‖ is confirmed H3. 201 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo VARIABLES Involvement Consistency F Value Significance Level 2,147 2,726 0,099 Source of Difference 15-20 21-29 30-39 Significance Level 0,098 0,051 0,014 0,048 40-49 15-20 21-29 30-39 0,014 0,147 0,014 0,006 40-49 0,006 15-20 0,202 21-29 0,009 Adabtability 3,046 0,032 30-39 0,005 40-49 0,005 15-20 0,189 21-29 0,016 Mission 2,698 0,050 30-39 0,007 40-49 0,007 15-20 0,080 21-29 0,013 Culture 2,865 0,041 30-39 0,005 40-49 0,005 Table 2: One-Way ANOVA analysis findings related to employees' perceptions of organizational culture by age groups VARIABLES Involvement F Value 5,768 Significance Level Source of Difference Significance Level ,004 Primary High School ,842 ,003 University Primary High School University Primary High School University Primary High School ,003 ,245 ,010 ,001 ,659 ,006 ,006 ,976 ,003 University Primary ,003 ,567 High School University ,004 ,004 Consistency 6,173 ,003 Adaptability 5,188 ,007 5,277 ,007 Mission Culture 6,021 ,003 Table 3: One-Way ANOVA analysis findings related to employees' perceptions of organizational culture by level of education Tenure According to One-Way ANOVA analysis results, which aims to measure the differentiation in organizational culture perceptions depending on the duration of sectoral work experience, no significant difference is found within the confidence interval (p<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis of ―Employees' perceptions of organizational culture may vary according to their duration sectoral work experience‖ is rejected H4. Tenure in the organization One-Way ANOVA analysis results based on the duration of work experience in the organization do not indicate significant differences within the confidence interval (p<0.05). Thus, the hypothesis of ―Employees' perceptions 202 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo of organizational culture may vary according to their duration of work experience in the organization‖ is rejected H5. Conclusions The results of the study reveal that demographic characteristis are determinant factors in organizational culture perceptions. Significant differences are observed in particular between the perception of organizational culture and gender, age (except for involvement) and education level. However, no significant differences appear between the perception of organizational culture and the duration of work experience in the secto and in the organization. When the findings of the study are compared to other studies conducted before, despite the existence of some differences, the study reveals similar results with others (Hofstede et al.1990; Helms ve Stern, 2001; Bellou, 2010). For instance, Hofstede et.al. (1990) state that the values of employees indicate differences according to their age and level of education. Helms & Stern (2001) and Bellou (2010), on the other hand, emphasise the existence of significant differences between the organizational culture perception and age and gender. Although Helms and Stern determined meaningful differences, even they are small, between duration of work experience in the sector and in the organisation and organizational culture perceptions, no significant differences are observed in this study. This study has some limitations. The most important of which the research is conducted in only one hotel. This does not allow reserachers to generalize the findings to all thermal hotels. When the overall number of employees is taken into consideration, the inadequate number of respondents is another limitation. Repeating the study in similar thermal hotels working in similar environment and other kind of hotels working in different locations and environments (seaside, mountain resort, city hotels) will make the effects of demographic characteristics on organizational culture perception more prominent. References Bellou, V., (2010). Organizational culture as a predictor of job satisfaction: the role of gender and age, Career Development Journal, 15 (1), 4-19. Cho, H.J., (2010). The validity and reliability of the organizational culture questionnaire http://www.denisonculture.com/articles/validity.pdf- (25.04.2010) Daft, R.L. (2000). Organization theory and design. 7.Ed., South-Western Publishing, Ohio-USA. Helms, M.M. & Stern, R., (2001). Exploring the factors that influence employees‘ perceptions of their organization‘s culture. Journal of Management in Medicine, 15 (6), 415-429. Hodgetts, R.M. & Luthans, F. (2000). International management, culture, strategy and behavior, 4.Ed., McGraw-Hill, USA. Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D.D., & Sanders, G., (1990). Measuring organizational cultures: a qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases, Administrative Science Quarterly, 35 (2), 286-316. Hofstede, G. (1991). Culture and organizations: The Software of The Mind, McGraw-Hill, NY. Hofstede, G., (1998). Attitudes, values and organizational culture: Disentangling the concepts, Organization Studies, 19 (3), 477-492. Kotter, J. P. & Heskett, J. L. (1992). Corporate culture and performance, The Free Press, NY. Kilmann, R.H., Saxton, M.J., & Serpa, R., (1986). Issues in understanding and changing culture, California Management Review, 28 (2), 87-94. Özkara, B. (1999). Evrimci ve devrimci örgütsel değiĢim, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Afyon. Pool, S. W., (2000). Organizational culture and its relationship between job tension in measuring outcomes among business executives, Journal of Management Development, 19 (1), 32-49. Recardo, R., & Jolly, J., (1997). Organizational culture and teams, SAM Advanced Management Journal, Spring, 4-7. Riegle, R.F., (2001). Measuring organic and mechanistic cultures, Engineering Management Journal, 13 (4), 3-8. Sadri, G., & Lees, B., (2001). Developing corporate culture as a competitive advantage, Journal of Management Development, 20 (10), 853-859. 203 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Schein, E.H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. 2. Ed., Jossey Bass Publishers. San Fransisco. Simpson, S., & Cacioppe, R., (2001). Unwritten ground rules: transforming organizations culture to achieve key business objectives and outstanding customer service, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22 (8), 394-401. Smircich, L., (1983). Concepts of culture and organizational analysis, Administrative Science Quarterly, 28, 339-358. Tepeci, M., (2001). The effect of personal values, organizational culture, and person-organization fit on individual outcomes in the restaurant ındustry, Thesis for The Degree of Doctor of Philosopy, Penn State University. Vanderberghe, C., (1999), Organizational culture, person-culture fit, and turnover: A replication in the health care ındustry, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 175-184. Weick, K.E., (1987) Organizational culture as a source of high reliability, California Management Review, 29 (2), 112-127. Wilkins, A.L., (1983). The culture audit: A tool for understanding organizations, Organizational Dynamics, Autumn, 24-38. 204 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 155 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Employees' Demographic Characteristics on the Perception of Organizational Culture: A Study in Service Enterprise Author Author SAYLI, Halil BAYTOK, Ahmet SOYBALI, Hasan Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to evaluate the service sector employees‘ perception of organizational culture from the demographic characteristics perspective. The research was conducted in a Ministry of Culture and Tourism Licensed five-star thermal hotel in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey. In scope of this study, a questionnaire was developed and applied to thermal hotel employees. The data collected through the questionnaire survey was analysed by using SPSS 18.0 statistics package software and the relationship between factors which creates the organizational culture and demographic characteristics of employees such as age, gender, education level and duration of experience both in the sector and in the hotel was examined. From the hypothesis developed it was observed that while differences exist between organizational culture perception and gender, age and education level, there are no differences between organizational culture perception and duration of experience both in the sector and in the hotel. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e9de4ba648ba151f3e63ce7d7c700cb.pdf 7bb9ce2fba288d4c01b049302bd5cca6 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The Effects of European Debt Crisis on the Budget Deficits and Debt Stocks of Developing Countries Hüseyin Güçlü Çiçek Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey huseyincicek@sdu.edu.tr Süleyman Dikmen Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey The crisis that had started in the US real estate market in 2007 spread to the other countries of the world particularly with the strong financial relations channel and turned into a global fiscal and real sector crisis. The adverse effects of the crisis were significantly experienced in the EU. The preliminary effects of the crisis were experienced in the weakest link, Greece and spread to the other EU countries. The crisis caused budget deficits and debt stocks to reach crucial levels and put risks on the sustainability of public finance in Greece, Italia, Spain, Ireland and Portugal. Developing countries have strong financial links with European countries and the debt crisis burst in Europe has spread to developing countries. European debt crisis has affected developing countries through three different channels: financial contagion, Europe’s fiscal consolidation effects, and exchange rate effects. In the study, the effects of the crisis on the budget deficit and debt stock of developing countries are examined through chosen country samples. Furthermore the fiscal effects of the crisis on developing countries are compared. The fundamental hypothesis of the study is that developing countries have affected from the crises less than developed countries, developing countries are still the basic determinant of global growth; but the crisis has retarded this growth. On the other hand, it is thought that, the decrease in the public expenditure of developed countries has caused financial resources that are reserved for supporting the development of underdeveloped and developing countries to diminish. Two basic financial indicators of the Maastricht Criteria are the debt to GDP and fiscal deficit to GDP ratios. These two indicators are for the assurance of fiscal stability. Those countries that experienced the crisis mostly could not meet these two criteria. In order to ensure budget stability, developing countries were more successful in maintaining the rates of debt to GDP and budget deficit to GDP around certain levels. This 162 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo success is quite crucial for accomplishing significant and sustainable public finance policies. In addition it is observed that the duration of crisis periods in developing European countries is longer than other developing countries. The debt stocks of European countries caused crisis to last longer in the developing countries of the region. Keywords: Budget Deficit, Debt Stock, Developing Countries, European Debt Crisis, Fiscal Stability. 163 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1648 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of European Debt Crisis on the Budget Deficits and Debt Stocks of Developing Countries Author Author GUCLU CICEK, Huseyin DIKMEN, Suleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. The crisis that had started in the US real estate market in 2007 spread to the other countries of the world particularly with the strong financial relations channel and turned into a global fiscal and real sector crisis. The adverse effects of the crisis were significantly experienced in the EU. The preliminary effects of the crisis were experienced in the weakest link, Greece and spread to the other EU countries. The crisis caused budget deficits and debt stocks to reach crucial levels and put risks on the sustainability of public finance in Greece, Italia, Spain, Ireland and Portugal. Developing countries have strong financial links with European countries and the debt crisis burst in Europe has spread to developing countries. European debt crisis has affected developing countries through three different channels: financial contagion, Europe’s fiscal consolidation effects, and exchange rate effects. In the study, the effects of the crisis on the budget deficit and debt stock of developing countries are examined through chosen country samples. Furthermore the fiscal effects of the crisis on developing countries are compared. The fundamental hypothesis of the study is that developing countries have affected from the crises less than developed countries, developing countries are still the basic determinant of global growth; but the crisis has retarded this growth. On the other hand, it is thought that, the decrease in the public expenditure of developed countries has caused financial resources that are reserved for supporting the development of underdeveloped and developing countries to diminish. Two basic financial indicators of the Maastricht Criteria are the debt to GDP and fiscal deficit to GDP ratios. These two indicators are for the assurance of fiscal stability. Those countries that experienced the crisis mostly could not meet these two criteria. In order to ensure budget stability, developing countries were more successful in maintaining the rates of debt to GDP and budget deficit to GDP around certain levels. This success is quite crucial for accomplishing significant and sustainable public finance policies. In addition it is observed that the duration of crisis periods in developing European countries is longer than other developing countries. The debt stocks of European countries caused crisis to last longer in the developing countries of the region. Keywords: Budget Deficit, Debt Stock, Developing Countries, European Debt Crisis, Fiscal Stability. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/43ac604140166a423d1f160b7537e33f.pdf 809c0c05604f7e21080d7fab4ea13105 PDF Text Text THE EFFECTS OF FAMILY AND NURSERY COOPERATION IN THE NORTH SANDZAK REGION Zehra Hasanović International University of Novi Pazar Serbia zehra.hasanovic@live.com Summary: For normal growth and development of a child, particular, is cooperation of preschool institution (nursery, infant nursery) and family (parents). Better cooperation of these two institutions, the way of harmonization educational influence with individual and group contacts are opened. Objectives of this cooperation is better informing to stay of children in family and preschool institution was more substantial. Results of this research will be support to better solving of these problems, and it will open possibilities for getting acquainted all protagonists of this process with possibilities and perspectives for building strong connections and relations between family (parents) and preschool institutions (preschool teachers). The research on theme “The effects of family and nursery cooperation in the North Sandzak region” ,was realized in preschool institutions on the North Sandzak region (Novi Pazar, Sjenica, Tutin, Prijepolje). In the research participated 140 examinees, 80 parents of the children attending preschool institution and 60 preschool teachers who are employees of preschool institutions. Key words: cooperation, family, nursery, child, partnership Introduction In order to achieve a direct cooperation, special responsibility is on teachers, (but also on preschool teachers, psychologists, social workers and medical personnel). The same responsibility in the process of establishing good cooperation between families and preschools is on parents who are obliged, among other things, to make preschool teachers familiar about the status and activities of the child in the family, about the conditions of child’s life and work, the abilities and possibilities of its development in the family. Good and bad opportunities in the family are often the cause of the child’s special features in behavior which is a clear sign that the child needs the support and assistance. Parents will provide the necessary information to the preschool teachers in order to avoid the possibility of insincere or imagined children’s stories about the real situation in the family. Thus, parents and teachers together are obliged to exchange opinions about the child and his behavior, in order to overcome inappropriate behavior of a child. Parents and teachers will communicate during individual parentteacher meetings, visits to the parental home, and through adequate educational seminars and forums. The most common form of cooperation of the family (parents) and preschools (nursery schools) is individual informing that takes place during the meetings of preschool teachers and parents when they meet each other in person and exchange the necessary information and agree on methods and contents of the joint work of each of these institutions. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 193 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) With the cooperation, both sides are getting close to each other, they talk, they learn and create a joint strategy with the aim of better growth and development of the child. The teacher and parents on both sides gain experience based on the experiences of the other. Preschools should work on a constant conversations with the family of a child who goes to preschool, which will mean a lot for a child. The teacher will look for reasons and initiate a visit to the child’s home, during occassions such as illness or family member, the enlargement of the family and so on. When visiting the home of the child, teacher will have the opportunity to get to know the conditions in which the child resides and develops, and finally meet the child’s family. In the overall life and work (content) of the preschools, the relationship (cooperation) between the preschools and schools is significant in order for a child to have less painful transition from preschool to school environment. The continuous monitoring of the child’s vertical development is developing and strengthening cooperation between preschool teachers and teachers of the class teaching school the child will attend after their stay in preschool. It can be direct or indirect. First, a direct cooperation between preschools and schools needs to be realized, and then the level of cooperation reduces down to preschool teachers and school teachers who will take over the child out of preschool in the next year. The cooperation is achieved in a way that school teachers organize joint visits to old school educational groups and share their experiences about the problems that are common. On the other hand, school teachers can organize visits to preschools (nursery schools) with the aim of exchanging experiences on issues of common interest for children who are students of the school, and previously stayed in the preschool. With such cooperation, preschool teachers acquire the necessary experience to contribute to their quality of work, and on the other hand, teachers in schools get to know children better, as well as the forms and methods of work in preschools. Society, community, and especially parents expect from educational institutions for children of preschool age to be open to the educational environment, including in its scope of work of all the factors of society who show interest, and family as well. Therefore, we believe that cooperation (partnership) of the preschools and family is very important in order to achieve, above all, unified educational influence in the way of the planned program content. In the large part of their daily activities, child remains within the family that leaves a strong influence on its development. The influence of the family does not stop regardless of the absence of the family, and its presence remains in the preschool upbringing and educational institutions. The importance of cooperation between the family and preschool institutions Society, community, and especially parents, expect from educational institutions for education of children of preschool age to be open to the educational environment, including in its scope of work of all the factors of society who show interest, and family as well. Therefore, we believe that cooperation (partnership) of the preschools and family is very important in order to achieve, above all, unified educational influence in the way of the planned program content. In the large part of their daily activities, child remains within the family that leaves a strong influence on its development. The influence of the family does not stop regardless of the absence of the family, and its 194 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation presence remains in the preschool upbringing and educational institutions. How much success we will have in the upbringing of the child largely depends on the compliance of corrective actions of the families and preschool institutions. Noncompliance and non-cooperation of the two institutions (family and preschools) can result in a lack of proper development of the child and the inability to set the society goals. Only joint action, working together of families and preschools can result in a positive outcome recognized in the substantial achievements of preschool education. Upbringing activity in preschools must not be a substitute for family, but should stand for continuity in the upbringing of the child. Educational work in the family should provide support to the family and the two environments should have unique requirements that will be put in front of a child. In order to prevent the upbringing imbalance, the two institutions must cooperate directly. Preschool institution is more organized than family, more comprehensive and more professional. Programming work and expertise of educational staff is a characteristic of education of children in preschool institutions. But the family certainly achieves a particular impact on preschool institution. It is therefore important to introduce the family (parents) with the program content, content, goals and objectives and the overall possibilities of educational work in preschool, so that parents can be able to define their goals. Family (parents) in different ways can provide help and support to preschool in the realization of the planned program content. For Stevanovic (2001), this help can be identified in familiarizing teachers with the “basic terms of temperament and habits of the child, interpreting its cultural, civilizational and value judgments that they want to convey to the child, suggest program content, assist in the development of appropriate teaching materials and directly participate in the implementation of certain program content. “ (Stevanovic, 2001, p. 137) The ability of teachers to ensure cooperation with parents of the children who go to preschool and to earn the trust of parents as a way of mutual understanding is of a particular importance. Kamenov (1999) considers that “parents have more benefits from cooperation with the preschool institution if they are not prone to get involved in its life and work, and even if they get involved, their presence can create the problem to the preschool teacher, because he\she has to share the attention between the children he\she is primarily responsible for, and parents who need help in order to successfully manage within the terms of preschool institutions “(Woodhead, 1979. According to E. Kamenovo 1999) According to Omerovic, successful cooperation of parents and teachers is “contributed by the human qualities which every preschool teacher should possess, ability to grasp the deeper meaning, empathy and tolerance. Since preschool institution is the first one with which parents establish cooperation to ensure proper upbringing of their child, it is one more reason for its successful functioning“. Research methodology The base of the realization of the object in this study is the attitudes of parents and preschool teachers regarding the parental cooperation with the preschool in the North Sandzak. Thus, the subject of this study is to research, analyze and to present the following views: a) The views of parents about the communication of parents and preschool teachers, about the need to exchange information about the child with respect ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 195 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) to gender, age and place of residence, on the participation of parents at parent-teacher conferences, their participation in deciding important issues of preschool, all in regards of their gender, age and place of residence. b) The views of preschool teachers regarding the communication of parents and preschool teachers, about the need to exchange information about the child, on the participation of parents at parent-teacher conferences, their participation in deciding important issues of preschool, all in regards of their gender, age and place of residence. The main hypothesis: There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of parents and preschool teachers to parental cooperation with the preschools within the area of the North Sandzak. Research Techniques The techniques used in this research are: - Analysis of the pedagogical documentation Interviewing Scaling Statistical analysis of the data. The software package SPSS 16.0 (Statiscical Package of Social Sciences-for Windows). Research Instruments During this study a questionnaire and Likert five-point scale assessment were used. The questionnaire contains closed questions with multiple choice, from which we see gender, age, educational background and work experience, and with the scale of assessment we got answers that led us to the factors of cooperation of the family and preschool (nursery schools), communication of parents and preschool teachers, ability to provide good information for parents, participation in parent-teacher conferences, parental participation in the activities of the preschool, as well as issues that are involved because of the insufficient cooperation of teachers and parents. The sample The sample comprised 60 teachers from preschools (nursery schools) from the municipalities of Novi Pazar, Sjenica, Tutin, Prijepolje, and 80 parents of children in preschools (nursery schools) from the territory of the same municipalities. Analyis and interpretation of the research results Checking the reliability of the scale according to the assessment of parents, from the 7 indicators of communication of the parents with preschool Table 1 Cronbach’s coeffici ALPHA = 0.751, indicates a good reliability and internal approval of the scale for this sample of respondents, regardless of measuring gauge having less than 10 items. The average value of the correlation between pairs ofthe value of the scale is 0.39 (optimum between 0.20 and 0.40). 196 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Table 1: Measures of central tendency, variability and distribution of the frequency features of communication of parents with preschool teacher. 1 2 3 4 5 Indicator N M SD )%( )%( )%( )%( )%( KRSU1 80 4,59 74, 2,60 0,00 0,00 31,20 66,20 KRSU2 80 4,46 75, 0,00 3,80 3,80 35,00 57,40 KRSU3 80 4,64 51, 0,00 0,00 1,20 33,80 65,00 KRSU4 80 4,64 53, 0,00 0,00 2,60 31,20 66,20 KRSU5 80 4,58 50, 0,00 0,00 0,00 42,50 57,50 KRSU6 80 3,79 1,36 8,80 13,80 10,00 25,00 42,40 KRSU7 80 4,02 1,07 5,00 5,00 10,00 42,50 37,50 A calculated arithmetic mean (M) of all indicators of 4.39 indicates that the communication of parents with preschool teachers, as assessed by parents, is very important. The value of the standard deviation (SD) of 0.78 indicates that the scattering around the arithmetic mean is very little, as confirmed by the coefficient of variation (CV) of 17.77 and thus confirms a very good homogeneity of the results for this sample of respondents. With the analysis of the results in Table 1 we can see that parents respond mainly with 4 and 5 (agree and strongly agree), while two parents (2.60%) did not agree with this assertion. Therefore, we conclude that the respondents (parents) in the vast majority believe that the teacher is always ready to listen to parents and that parents can talk openly with a preschool teacher about the child. The analysis of the results in Table 1 shows that parents mostly responded with the answer given under number 5 (strongly agree -57.40%), therefore most of them are satisfied with informing on the progress of the child by teachers, 35.00% agree, while 3.80 % of parents had no opinion (neutral), and 3.80% of parents do not agree with this assertion. Therefore, we conclude that respondents (parents) mostly believe that parents are kept continually informed of the progress of their child. The analysis of the results in Table 1 shows that parents mostly gave an answer under number 5 (strongly agree) (65.00%), 33.80% of parents agree with this assertion, a small number of parents (1.20%) is neutral (no opinion) on topics related to their child. Therefore, we conclude that parents respect the opinion of teachers on topics related to their child. The analysis of the results in Table 1 shows that most of the parents answered with number 5 (66.20%), 31.20% of them agree, 2.60% is neutral. Therefore, we conclude that parents mostly believe that the teacher is ready to listen to parents and to talk to them openly. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 197 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) The analysis of the results in Table 1 shows that most parents answered with number 5 (57.50%), 42.50% of them agree with this assertion. Therefore, we conclude that parents mostly believe that the teacher respects the opinion of the parents of the child. The analysis of the results in Table 1 shows that the majority of parents (42.40%) totally agree that they preschool teacher calls them only when a problem arises, 25.00% of them agree, 10.00% is neutral, 13.80% disagree and 8.80% of them do not at all agree that the preschool teacher contacts them only when a problem occurs. Therefore, we conclude that the majority of respondents believe that the preschool teacher contacts them only when a problem occurs. The analysis of the results in Table 1 shows that the majority of parents (42.50%) agree that preschool teacher sees them as partners, 37.50% fully agree, 10.00% of the parents is neutral (no opinion), 5.00% disagrees and 5.00% do not at all agree that the preschool teacher sees them as partners. Therefore, we conclude that the majority of respondents believe that the preschool teacher sees parents as partners. T-test Table 2: Communication of the parents with the preschool teacher Parameters KRSUZ gender N M SD M 23 4,31 50, Ž 57 4,42 54, Razl. M -,11 F .Sig .t-value .Sig ,156 ,694 -,826 ,411 The value of t = -, 826 and its significance Sig. = 411 show that there is no statistically significant difference between the attitudes of parents in regards to their gender in the perceptions of communication of the parents and preschool teachers. So, based on the results we conclude that the sub-hypotheses confirmes that there is no statistically significant difference, as estimated by the parents, regarding the communication of parents and teachers in regards to gender, age and education level. ANOVA Table 3: The views of parents about the communication with the preschool teacher –F-test Parameter N df F .Sig Communication 80 3 2,646 ,055 The value of F-test and its significance (Sig.) show that there is no statistically significant difference between the parents in terms of age. 198 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Table 4: The views of parents on communicating with the preschool teacher comparing significance AGE MD SE .SIG -,756* ,370 ,045 -,958* ,376 ,013 -,905* ,418 ,034 ,756* ,370 ,045 36-45 -,202 ,125 ,109 46-55 -,149 ,223 ,505 ,958* ,376 ,013 ,202 ,125 ,109 26-35 18-25 36-45 46-55 18-25 18-25 26-35 36-45 35 2646-55 ,053 ,231 ,820 ,905* ,418 ,034 26-35 ,149 ,223 ,505 36-45 -,053 ,231 ,820 18-25 46-55 Note: The level of significance from 0,05 * - there is a statistically significant difference at the level of p < 0,05 Based on the results from the Table 4 we can see that there are significant differences between the age groups of 18-25 years and 26-35 years, between 18-25 and 3645 years, and between 18-25 and 46-55 years when it comes to communication of parents with the preschool teacher. The difference between the other age groups was not statistically significant. Thus, we can conclude that sub-hypotheses is partially confirmed, saying that there is no statistically significant difference, as estimated by the parents, in the communication of parents and teachers with respect to gender, age and education level Table 5: F-test in regards to the level of education Parameter N Df F .Sig Communication 80 4 ,704 ,592 With the analysis of Table 5 we can see that there is no statistically significant difference between respondents according to education level when it comes to the first subhypotheses. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 199 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Table 6: Comparing the significance in regards to the level of education LEVEL OF EDUCATION MD SE .SIG ,146 ,176 ,410 Higher ,007 ,283 ,980 Faculty -,023 ,191 ,906 MA and PHD ,464 ,407 ,257 -,146 ,176 ,410 Higher -,138 ,253 ,586 Faculty -,168 ,142 ,239 MA and PHD ,319 ,386 ,412 -,007 ,283 ,980 Secondary ,138 ,253 ,586 Higher -,030 ,264 ,910 MA and PHD ,457 ,445 ,308 ,023 ,191 ,906 Secondary ,168 ,142 ,239 Higher ,030 ,264 ,910 MA and PHD ,487 ,393 ,219 -,464 ,407 ,257 Secondary -,319 ,386 ,412 Higher -,457 ,445 ,308 Faculty -,487 ,393 ,219 Primary Secondary Higher Faculty MA and PHD Secondary Primary Primary Primary Primary Note: The level of significance from 0,05 On the basis of the results obtained, we can conclude that there is no statistically significant difference between the examinees in regards to the level of education when it comes to communication of parents with the preschool teachers and thus confirmed the third part of the first sub-hypotheses that there is no statistically significant difference, as estimated by the parents, about the communication between parents and teachers with regard to gender, age and place of residence. Based on the results of research, we can conclude that the sub-hypotheses is confirmed that there is no statistically significant difference, as estimated by the parents, about the communication of parents and teachers with respect to gender, age and education level. 200 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Conclusion Cooperation and communication of the family (parents) and preschool institutions is very important. This opens the way of harmonizing the educational impact of individual and group contacts. Preschool teachers have a big responsibility in performing a direct cooperation with parents. There are, of course, preschool teachers, psychologists, social workers and doctors. Preschool teachers and school departments inform parents (family) on special preferences (and talents) of their children, as well as about the unexpected change of behavior because of the known or unknown causes. Events in the family are often the cause of the child’s special features in behavior which is a clear sign that the child needs the support and assistance. Parents will provide the necessary information to preschool teachers in order to avoid the possibility of insincere or imagined children’s stories about the real situation in the family. So on the basis of the results we can conclude that the main hypothesis of this research is partly confirmed and it says: There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of parents and preschool teachers to parental cooperation with the preschools in the North Sandzak. Bibliography • Bašić, J., Hudina, B., Koler-Trbović, N., Žižak, A. (2005): Integralna metoda, Aliea, Zagreb. • Brajša, P. (2003.), Roditelji i djeca, Glas Koncila, Zagreb • Einon, D. (1999). Učenje rano. Oznaku Knjige. ISBN: 0816040141 • Gudjon, H. (1994) Pedagogija temeljena znanja (93-107; 143-160). Educa. Zagreb • Lew, A.& Bettner, B. (1996) A roditelja vodič za razumijevanje i motiviranje djece. Sheffield, Velika Britanija: Connexions Press. (ISBN: 0962484180). • Holt. J.(1974). Kako deca uče. Predškolsko dete. Beograd: 1974/4.341-343. • Ivic, I.(1969). Razvoj saznajnih funkcija u predškolskom periodu, Pedagogija, Beograd. • Kamenov, E.(2006): Vaspitno-obrazovni rad u pripremnoj grupi dečjeg vrtića, Dragon, Novi Sad. Sally • Kamenov, E.(1987). Predškolska pedagogija, Knjiga I. Beograd: Zavod za uđbenike i nastavna sredstva • Milanović, M. (1997) Pomozimo im rasti. MOZS. Zagreb • Mitrović, D. (1981). Predškolska pedagogija. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. • Omerović, M. i drugi. (2009). Predškolska pedagogija, Ofset, Tuzla. • Selimović, H., Rodić, N. i Selimović, N. (2013). Metodologija istraživanja, Edukacijski fakultet, Travnik • Seligman, M.(2005) Optimistično dijete. Zagreb. IEP • Stevanović, M. (2001). Predškolska pedagogija, knjiga I. Tuzla: Denfas. • Stojaković, P. (1999). Taksonomija vaspitno-obrazovnih ciljeva u kognitivnom području i njen značaj za efikasniju individualizaciju učenja i nastave. U knjizi: Interaktivno učenje I. Banja Luka:Ministarstvo prosvjete I UNICEF. 119. • Suzić, N. (2005). Pedagogija za XXI vijek. Banja Luka: TT-Centar.129. • Suzić, N. (2006). Uvod u predškolsku padagogiju i metodiku, Banja Luka: XBS.202140. • Prodanović, T., Ničković, R. (1980): Didaktika, Beograd, Zavod za izdavanje udžbenika. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 201 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3338 Title A name given to the resource THE EFFECTS OF FAMILY AND NURSERY COOPERATION IN THE NORTH SANDZAK REGION Author Author Hasanovic, Zehra Abstract A summary of the resource. Summary: For normal growth and development of a child, particular, is cooperation of preschool institution (nursery, infant nursery) and family (parents). Better cooperation of these two institutions, the way of harmonization educational influence with individual and group contacts are opened. Objectives of this cooperation is better informing to stay of children in family and preschool institution was more substantial. Results of this research will be support to better solving of these problems, and it will open possibilities for getting acquainted all protagonists of this process with possibilities and perspectives for building strong connections and relations between family (parents) and preschool institutions (preschool teachers). The research on theme “The effects of family and nursery cooperation in the North Sandzak region” ,was realized in preschool institutions on the North Sandzak region (Novi Pazar, Sjenica, Tutin, Prijepolje). In the research participated 140 examinees, 80 parents of the children attending preschool institution and 60 preschool teachers who are employees of preschool institutions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/64e403b87d00af8ef695305780754619.pdf f99eb60585efdd9939f7e9ff2455982b PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Effects of Financial Failure in Business Inventory Management Mehmet CĠVAN Asst. Prof. Dr.,Gaziantep University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Business Administration mehmetcivan27@hotmail.com Faruk DAYI Research Assistant,Gaziantep University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Business Administration fdayi@gantep.edu.tr Abstract: Global competition increases, inventory management businesses on the importance increased. Goods and services to sell in the global market, the unit costs low, the production efficiency is need to higher..Stok management, raw material supply whether manufactured and offered to customers are far, production and distribution activities is fundamental. The amount of inventory the company's total assets 40% to 60% in the thought, the investment in a significant portion of the inventory allocated to the will see. Especially,in trade businesses inventory, is majority of the balance sheet active.In the industry businesses the fixed assets ,investment is well ossified in inventory that will see. That in a state enterprise liquidity is insufficient and receivables collected in both high-cost inventories disposal are challenges. Daily operations to meet cash asset management could not, pay their debts to be forced, commercial reputation damage to the liquidation or even bankruptcy process go through a process to enter will result. Introduction The amount of inventory, 40% of the total assets of businesses to be between 60% and is considered, a significant portion of investments allocated to inventories will be observed. Connected to the large amounts of money from inventories, short-term debt funding may be provided by increasing the rate of inventory turnover. The company failed financially, the inventory turnover rate is low, the lack of sales will result in the desired level, so businesses will experience liquidity problems. Financially failing companies, the financial measures taken unable bankruptcy to go a long to enter the business to invest in the shareholder losses, and direct the national economy of full employment to reach defended. economic state that is strong businesses, this negative situation that much is not affected unlike grow more powerful as the crisis are .This study will examine the subject of inventory management and financial failures, business failures fall into the cause of the factors to be investigated. Financial Perspective to Inventory Management of Businesses In business inventory management major makes many reasons. Especially in business inventory investment is considerably high, usually ossified investments and consisting of a very high cost. Especially manufacturing and trading companies operating in the subject of the inventory represents that we think the presence of a large portion of the inventories has created to see. Companies inventories is more than ease of delivery to customers in the business as a result. But high inventory costs will endure.(Okka 2009:657-658) Two main purposes of inventory management in have enterprises.It‘s work both necessary and sufficient to sustain the provision of inventory and inventory to be taken for ensuring all the stages of the inventory holding cost is the lowest level(Okka 2009 :657-658).While investing in inventories in companies that it is important to pay attention to two issues. Investment in Inventories Inventories have very important current assets in companies with a share.Operation equipment, raw materials and supplies,work in process and finished goods inventory management are the most important items. Inventories of companies shows diversity that it had been active in the sector depends and kinds of business. Some sector, excessive inventory investment , when it should, and some inventory-free or low inventory keeping 231 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo policy can be watch. Companies inventory the optimal amount of more than investing the profits in a negative way will affect. (Ceylan ve Korkmaz 2008,318-320). Businesses must be sign in terms of inventory management policies are determined, the firm's market share and target what is determined to be the financial terms of inventory investments, both positive and negative aspects of evaluating the investment amount. Negative inventory investment or business, many expenses can lead to well be forgotten. The results of Insufficient Inventory 1.The sales fall 2.Market loss 3.Customer loss 4. Decrease in profits 5.Injury to reputation in the sector Table 1: The results of Insufficient Inventory Level of Raw Materials and Products in Inventory Raw material inventory is been affected first-degree factor is future production plans for next year's planned production degrees.Company decided to increase the amount of production for next year it will need to increase the amount of raw material purchases ( Ceylan ve Korkmaz 2008,320).Raw inventory determines the amount of another factor is the production seasonality specialize.Furthermore, in products shows seasonal fluctuating , production by the amount of precautionary inventories.That well as price increases, natural factors, delivery time, global competition and also taking into account sufficient material can be quantified. (Ceylan ve Korkmaz 2008,320). Businesses have for sales of inventory level in a positive relationship. Production volume occur can be reflect in the future any changes to sales figures. But Demand amount of any increase can‘t to meet supply. Those well vogue does not exceed, in each period will be demanded of the goods or inventory in the It is possible (Ercan 2008,305-308). Cost of Inventory Business occurs investment in inventories for the expenditure of large. This reason to manage inventory with the lowest cost of total inventory cost is minimum will be required to achieve optimal inventory levels. Cost of Keeping Inventory Inventory held in the raw materials,work in process and finished goods to be kept and maintained due to incurred. Stok keeping costs, storage costs, heating and lighting costs, transportation costs, wages, insurance, taxes and outdated goods, waste and corruption costs occurs. Inventory Supply Cost Shipping occurs costs referred to as the inventory supply costs, the order granting inventory enterprises reached until the last every stage of the costs from the sum. Order given the phone calls, office expenses, bank EFT costs, discount incentives, not benefiting, warehouse transportation and other expenses ordered, the cost creates. .(Okka 2009:660). Cost of inventorys not Include It is expenses of inventory keeping arise. Can not be held sales lost by the sale amount, deprived of the profits, customers, such as loss expenses. Because of business in terms of incurred these costs in the industry and market reputation to decrease, the brand value to fall also may result. 232 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Cost of Inventory Total Cost of Inventory Cost of Keeping Inventory Inventory Supply Cost Inventory quantity Shape 1: Determining the optimum inventory level Financial Failure in Business Definition of Financial Failure Financial failure is known that describing in different terms. Financial business end of the mission has to carry out their activities. (Aydın and others 2007;444). Looking from another angle, the business can not provide cash flow is also another dimension of financial failure. .(Wruck,1990;425). The current period as a result, businesses can not pay debts, are faced with the problem of liquid in a technical sense(Gönenli,1994;647). Many companies fail to define the terms we want to use. According to Altman, financial failure by the insolvency, bankruptcy and is unable to pay on time(Altman 1983;3-6). Causes of falling into financial failure Businesses, technology, market, product diversification, cost structure and especially the consumer behavior impact of their financial terms to the many problems facing. As well as business administration and director of the inadequacy can of the company's business environment to adapt fail. Because of production volume falls, sales declines and losses leads. Causes of Financial Failure In Business One of the reason those are Professional non-managerial positions, excessive and irrational borrowing, cash flow is planned absence, insufficient liquidity, budget items necessary diligence is not shown, savings policy is not followed, particularly cost accounting data by managers neglect, or enough of no business in the financial failures. As our daily competition environment is considered to be high, as the company continues to operate, improve profitability in a competitive environment must be suitable for the use of financial resources. Another factor affecting the financial failure is financial leverage.Financial leverage, external and equity resources of business,resource anf quantity of the substance from which mainly shows how much a financial instrument should be used. (Erol 1999;156-157). Own resources can not be open to be allocated to enterprises, with public debt as possible to cause any problems because the future. Companies bonds useful, financial bonds for his use of such debt instruments or loans from banks or financial institutions to supply foreign sources are provided. Loans to firms optimum level to a very rational, and the business growth and market competitiveness will increase, and provide continuity in terms. But businesses will meet big problems ,if they do not use their debts in reasonable places.For example, business uses of the loans financing the timely payment fails, bankruptcy go through a process will enter. Businesses within the required accounting controls is not made, cost accounting enough benefit can not be operating in a knowledge processing and dissemination should be the system's establishment of no-budget preparation flexibility of no and extraordinary circumstances budgets does not contain accounting information system failure caused by financial failure are the causes. Another dimension of the business in terms of financial failure of the timely collection and payment. Companies hitchs can not do debit payments for the production. This result, could not obtain the necessary raw materials for production will be reduced. Without disrupting their activities, the liquidity position of businesses to improve profitability, cash inflows and outflows should also take into account the planning. 233 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Out of Business Reasons in Financial Failure In the economy liquid cash cycle by increasing ,the country's economy development is, increases with income, employment and especially the production. The economy revival and development of enterprises' financial structure to strengthen contribute important. National revenue structure, the inflationary and dezenflasyonist trends, economic policies, macro-economic indicators to the national economy that additives that affect the financial success of companies are among the primary factors. (Dinçer 1996:53,Eren 1990:70-71). Of these, as well as technological innovations and developments for business carries critical. New production techniques wiil reduces, production costs, reducing the innovations do not make the business cost of any of the relative increase their competitiveness. As we today global economy, the unit cost of profitability rather impressed it is considered that the activities continue with the company, particularly the costs of businesses that are reducing the minimum level. One of the most important factor in business is technology. Technology for the business required of all information, communications quickly and cost-effectively be provided. global economic have units to reduce costs, consumers need to answer to, most importantly, profit and profitability to increase information for the operating system for businesses vital. Technology processes to operate large deals in may provide, may also reduce the risk of assets. (Dinçer 1996:51). Technological innovation, practicality and speed. ınformation businesses operating system can be used effectively in competition with businesses, cost leadership may pass to the front of many businesses. Measures Towards Improving the Financial Status Financial structure deteriorated and unable to meet payment obligations on time, to strengthen the financial situation in enterprises for a number of measures to be taken. companies measures are grouped under four main headings. Strategic Measures Future uncertainty is high today, it is impossible that companies effectively operate in the planning and implementation. Today's businesses is quite complex with a structure is also considering, business management strategy, the determination of its financial condition empowering nature pay attention. Economic failure to prevent the need to be strategic measures following as can be sorted (Aydın 2007;451-453); •Making Swot analysis and take preventive measures •Making medium-and long-term by following the developments on the economy •Identifing the market targets according to product groups, accordance with the management plan Precautions to be Taken in the Field of Costs The extension of debt maturity The cash management business for the future if a serious obstacle facing temporary financial problems, the firm's debt maturity, is extended by creditors to supply funds to businesses would be given the opportunity. Because when the management contacts with enforcement, it will be receivables to collect performance fees. Beside this thinking that it could not take a large portion of the charge, this could not claim most of charge. Improve companies receivables net charged availability, debt extension in the financial situation for the future promising enterprises, the creditor company in terms of rationalization would also owe the business picked himself up to the opportunities provided, and thus happens the business liquidation or bankruptcy in the process prevented. If necessary changes are made in management and the measures are not taken until debt maturities, the event probability increases that management through the out without problems.(Büker,Bayar ve Sevil 2001:420) Abandonment of claims through a section of the Magistrates Refer law enforcement for claims to collect from the borrower company, generally a large part of the funds could not receive. Because of management may be cash take a portion of the peace and abandon the rest settle for if both legal lengths and deal does not need to as well as peace through education could amount collected. 234 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Representatives of the firm's receivables by a committee of the Managing Creditors can be request that the firm's management take the company's financial condition is corrected. Another method is if the entity's management to have a say in financial support. Management that seized the company management keeps control of management until improve financial status, if it could not correct, it helps to entry the process of liquidation. Capital Structure Reorganization and Strengthening of Capital Other way to out of the failure for management which fallen to failure and unable to pay their debts, failure to agree a way out with one of the creditors, the amount of claims for money by the business partners to strengthen capital (Büker,Bayar ve Sevil 2001:421). Those can take that measures for the restructuring of capital; - Instead of debt giving the capital share - Instead of bonds giving the stocks - Taking new share holders - Reduction of the nominal value of stocks in companies - Decreasing of bond rate. - Instead of common share giving preference stock Table 2: Measures for the restructuring of capital Fixed assets are sold as Long-Term Renting Excessive investment in fixed assets if companies did it by selling the surplus, to place a long-term leasing new assets by the method of operating cash needs can be met by renting. Due to leasing, to be a longterm financial management, accounting as expenses and tax advantages, the widely used by businesses. Fixed assets of subsidiaries and partially or fully translated into the currency Selling of building, machinery, land and equipment which don‘t contribute to the management to liquidate, gives management cash conversion, as well as would have been the depreciation expense savings. The other firms with a company in the United A financially bleed company merger with another company and revival of the supply of a failed business. Present sector, according to the structure, market controls, or increase profits for mergers or joint ventures to provide management in terms of rationalization can. Selling of Management Whole or Part Operational cost is high subsidiaries or affiliates profit loss analysis after sell. But in long-term can be considering the current financial failures will continue this business in whole or in part is sold, rational. Thus failed business hand to issue a business cash flow can be ensured as well as amortization expenses decreased by Significant savings can be achieved in the operating expenses. (Dinçer 1996:175). Cost Reduction An important cost area is raw matarial in management . Raw matarials purchases to save on supply conditions improve, in use of waste and waste disposal, inventory costs, reducing some vehicle equipment purchases instead of a bike path to be measures such as cost reduction of the privided. Cost mitigation measures can be summarized as follows; • If there is a demand narrow or stock oversupply, cost and expense cutting down about producing • Skilled and talented in the areas of business activities should continue, should withdraw from the areas of poor or weak • Particularly if the current increases developments in exchange rates, should be cut imports, , raw material needs 235 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to be provided from the domestic market. • Travel expenses should be reduced • The budget allocated to fixed assets and new investments should be reduced 2.3.2.10. Liquidation of Companies Despite the precautions taken, the chance to continue the company's assets is low, the company's liquidation is not the way to go to a compulsory liquidation. Because of business is greater than the benefits to be obtained from the liquidation will be more rational. Measures to Boost Cash Flow During periods of financial crisis, businesses must decrease collecting time, recovery time loan maturities and discount for decrease selling inventory costs to get away from losses. One of the most important cash items received orders. Advance receipt and sales or collateral requested as a short-term cash management businesses can relax. An Effective Financial Management and Planning Financial management is sensitive external environment and the macro-activities of businesses. Strategıc financial with business within the created and the company's current situation, the projected data analysis. Now on and future environment to determine the resulting economic, demographic and social quality of the data analysis and the environment within the company's future to determine and to estimate the financial goals and to identify and navigate the process is carried out(Bengshir,1996:77). The four basic criterion (Sayılgan,2003:295); of financial planning 1)Investmen fixed asset 2)Working capital 3)Combination of debt and equity 4)How company decision's will evaluate Table 3: Decision area in financial planning Effects of Financial Failure in Business Enterprises' financial structure, shows differences the firm's business activities. Stops asset investments mainly a business, it is normal that debt is more than equity capital in a mainly stop asset investment business. if comparing the value of certaın debt and sum of long-term debt is higher, we can say for business ―extreme owes‖. Comparing the long-term debt in excess of net debt and inventorys. If companies long-term debt more than inventory this means that the non-cash assets in managment are not achieved with debt they are achieved with management equity. Thus business financial failure affect the degree is reduced. Decrease in operating profit to financial failure shows and ultimately leads to inadequate liquidity to as the bankrupt company's failure to operate. Economic effects can be grouped into three headings summarize. Effects on Investment and financing In Financially failing businesses management also seen the biggest problem, funds flow enabled. That is result in investments late. Current period of investments can stop .Failure visit businesses in an effective inventory policy execution, raw materials and goods across pay, is caused to spread for debt to maturities. Business financial crisis enters its own receivables charged to, the debts to pay, for the production of essential raw materials, supplies, and these, as well as various issues. At the end effective non-inventory policy block, enterprise inputs and outputs of the amount planned when the realization.If production is not on the time,the sales will fail creases, liquidity of business is getting weak as a result crisis with the effect of the company's financial situation gets worse. Businesses is about financially unsuccessful, investments to influence the existing 236 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo fixed assets renewal or a new entity receiving. ınvestment opportunities to be requested before the financial situation improves, and then invest the budget should be prepared, capital or financial resources must be provided. Effect of Profitability Financial failure of business in losing of sales is decreasing revenue and the cost is getting more, the company's profitability is decreasing.At collectting troubles, is getting low particularly the receivables turnover. It will be weak its pay. Because of cash cycle is insufficient, the company can not avaluate alternative investment opportunities and failed emerged a small but are deprived of lucrative opportunities. Inventories and Sales Effectiveness Inventory turnover, in other words the cost of goods sold is lower than the average ratio of inventory desired sales means the amount could not be reached. Financially troubled the businesses, the sales of a sufficient level, not in a production line to slow down production of the amount of reduction and long-term debt payments difficulties caused. This is well as businesses, the financial crisis in the asset and liquidity management difficulty is the determined sales policy not access because of their strategic goals to achieve are also affected. The Effects of Financial Failure in Business Inventory Management Inventory Turnover and Productivity Effect Turnover rate is shown the company's sales rate to the average amount of inventory that how many times to meet. The low inventory turnover in enterprises, means that the desired amount of sales can not be reached. Inventory turnover ratio is lower one of the reasons, the business sold to inadequate is the other one too much inventory. Financial failure falls in business ,the most common problem is not sales of the desired level in the other receivables charged face in the difficulties are. Financially troubled the businesses, the sales of a sufficient level, not in a production line to slow down production of the amount of reduction and long-term debt payments difficulties caused. The sells insufficient, the collection of receivables be key delays, business liquidity and purchasing power.This is well as businesses, financial crisis manage their assets and liquidity in times of difficulty, because the achievement of designated sales policy and therefore unable to reach their strategic goals are also affected. Sales Effectiveness Today's business in the most common questions one of the companies' strategic plans, the targeted sales figures. Companies internal and external factors due to the desired sales figures reach the difficulty the company cash problems.Companies the most important liquid pen is sale revenues.Because of sales desired level of the lack of goods sold cost will increase inventory turnover and sales profitability.inventory management required in the raw materials and finished goods reach the level fail business sales reduce the road.Inventory obtained time effectively not be used as both the sales decline and the reputation of the injury caused. That in a situation inventories to be different can make of the growing inventory of applications and campaigns. Unlike cash management businesses that getting more and more inventory invesment will be paralyzed and market share have been determined to block and eventually entered a path that goes up to the bankruptcy will cause. Liquidity Impact on Business Businesses at the establishment stage by partners of capital on the basis of the liquid assets first started operating the business of the cash power. In hand of funds, investment products or commercial goods inventory as to be converted, realized sales policy, together with their re-liquid assets into a spin this cycle of business activity to end until.Liquidity asset management firms manage the difficulty that the biggest problems. Cash management and effective planning is not if businesses purchase of raw materials from the tax payment until the costs and spending cash deficiency faced with the problem caused. Liquidity insufficient purchasing advance sale discount to benefit will stop time can not be payments to interest costs caused. This well as taxes and payments will be delayed by the state penal sanctions exposed because of inventory management-enabled not business's cash assets are sufficient to prevent. Indirect to as operating cash management activity on corruption to-day spending can not become ,as a result of the liquidation or bankruptcy and go into a process that will lead to. 237 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusion Connect to inventory without too much money, short-term debt funding can be provided to increase the inventory turnover rate. Financially failing businesses, the inventory turnover rate is low, sales are at a desired level or not will result, thus operating liquidity shortage.Economic failure as a result of businesses went bankrupt, and most employees become unemployed and even creditors, the companies that victims and their cash flows regulated can not, and as a result from this process adversely affected Financial crisis in the business, cash flow chart of the arrangements, their debts to restructure, if possible, debt with stocks for replacements, inert tangible assets to sell, the costs of reducing possible, as well as business management and organizational scheme to modify,the financial crisis at least with loss through will ensure . Although all these measures, if the financial failure is still running, the business financially restructuring, downsizing strategy, the implementation of the rational, non-affiliates or subsidiaries to sell. financial failed businesses restructuring as a result of the current situation for the future bright appear unless the company's liquidation to be investors, both creditors is rational for enterprises with the least harm will withdraw from the market. References Altman Edward,Corporate Financial Distress: A Complete Guide to Predicting,Avıiding and Dealing with Bankruptcy,Jhn Wiley and Jons, Newyork.1983 Aydın Nurhan,BASAR Mahmut,COġKUN Metin, Financial Management ,Genç Copy Center,EskiĢehir,2007. Bengshir Türksel, Information Technology and Organizational Change , TODAĠE Publishing.Ankara,1996. Büker S.,D.Bayar,G.Sevil, Financial Management ,Anadolu University Publishing, EskiĢehir ,2001. Ceylan Ali ,Korkmaz Turhan,Financial Management in Business,Ekin Bookstore,Bursa,2008. Dinçer Ömer, Strategic Management and Business Policy ,Beta Publishing,3.print,Ġstanbul,1996. Ercan Metin Kamil,Financial Management Based of Value, Gazi Bookstore,Ankara 2008. Eren Erol, Strategic Planning and Management in Business ,Faculty of Business Administration Publishing, no.234,3.Print,Ġstanbul,1990. Erol Cengiz, Financial Management in Business ,Ġmge Bookstore,Ankara,1999. Gönenli Atilla, Financial Management in Business ,Ġstanbul,1994. Okka Osman, Analytical Financial Management ,Nobel Publishing,Ankara,2009. Sayılgan Güven,Business Finance,Turhan Bookstore,Ankara,2003. Wruck,Karen Hopper.Financial Distress: Reorganization and Organization Efficency,Journal of Financial Vol:27(2),October.(s:419-445),1990 238 Economics, � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 165 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Financial Failure in Business Inventory Management Author Author CİVAN, Mehmet DAYI, Faruk Abstract A summary of the resource. Global competition increases, inventory management businesses on the importance increased. Goods and services to sell in the global market, the unit costs low, the production efficiency is need to higher..Stok management, raw material supply whether manufactured and offered to customers are far, production and distribution activities is fundamental. The amount of inventory the company's total assets 40% to 60% in the thought, the investment in a significant portion of the inventory allocated to the will see. Especially,in trade businesses inventory, is majority of the balance sheet active.In the industry businesses the fixed assets ,investment is well ossified in inventory that will see. That in a state enterprise liquidity is insufficient and receivables collected in both high-cost inventories disposal are challenges. Daily operations to meet cash asset management could not, pay their debts to be forced, commercial reputation damage to the liquidation or even bankruptcy process go through a process to enter will result. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/018156d4a60174be9d7d88e79c3a797b.pdf 3973252e19a903cad7def8bb28e6bc0d PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Sadettin Küçük West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute Antalya-Turkey Recep Coşkun West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute Antalya-Turkey Meliha Temirkaynak West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute Antalya-Turkey Abstract: In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 20062007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Keyworlds: Avocado, grafting, scion/rootstock combination, survival rate, Fuerte, Topa Topa. Indroduction Avocado is an important fruit species, belonging to Lauracea family, which is evergreen and economicaly significant (Zentmyer, 1987). Today avocado is being cultivated in nearly 50 countries in the world. The first rank of avocado production and trade belongs to countries such as Mexico, USA, Brezil, Dominic Republic and South Africa. World avocado production, as of 2007, has been realized in 3.2 million tons (FAO, 2007). These countries are relatively far from North European countries where avocado is consumed extensively. Turkey, due to its geographical and ecological conditions, has plays a significant role in avocado production and exportation. Particularlythe Mediterrenean Region of Turkey, because ofthe factthatitsupplies specialtemperature avocado requiresisthe mostimportant province in growing this species. There is a 400-ton avocado production in Turkey all of which is being realized in Antalya, Hatay and Mersin, allsituated in the Mediterrenean region. In order to investigate avocado growing facilities in our country,initial studies in early 1970’s started via our Institute by introducing the four important commercial avocado cultivars from California. Through this study and those in forthcoming years,the yield which isto show various cultivars ofthe Mediterrenean region in differentlocations will depict the fruit quality,the harvesttime, adaptation to climate, have been examined, and relative varieties have been selected (Dogrular et al., 1983, Demirkol 1998, Bayram and Aşkın, 2006). Nevertheless, growing of avocado fruit, which was introduced in Turkey in the 1970’s, has not reached the required level as yet. At present,thereis an avocado production of 400 tonsin our country, particularlyin the Mediterrenean region. In fruitculture, grafting of different scions and rootstocks has been a traditional practise with the aim to confer dwarfing characteristics and resistance to environmental stress like salinity, cold, drought, pests and diseases. The new charecteristics obtained in the plant must be the result of an intense interaction between the rootstock and scion carrying different genetic information (Reyes-Santamaria et all. 2002, Mickelbart1 and 89 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Arpaia, 2002, Krezdorn, 1973). Com mercial avocado trees are propagated by grafting of budding scions of desirable cultivars onto seedling or grafted rootstocks. Avocados can be grown from seeds, but fruit quality and yield potential will be quite variable. Grafted on budded avokado trees usually produce fruits when three to five years old, while seedlings often require five to seven years. Originating in the tropics,the avocado is very sensitive to climatic factors prevailing in the subtropics, especially drought and extreme temperatures. Extreme temperatures result in low productivity and sometimes even in severe damage to the tree canopy ( Bergh 1976; Oppenheimer 1978). Avocado is also sensitive to soil stress and salinity. A very com mon soil stress factor is root rot disease, caused by the fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is usually associated with lack of aeration ( Ben-Ya’acov and Michelson, 1995). In certain years, due tothis disease factorin avocado orchard in California,it has been stated that asmuch as 20% tree loss took place. In avocado growing, there is no resistant to this disease in tropical and subtropical climate zones. However by using grafting tecniques,itis possibleto reduce loss resulting from this disease factor. The main climatic factor affecting avocado production in the cooler subtropics is low temperatures. Indeed, avocado is extremly sensitive to cold, especiallyin the blooming period. Furthermore, chilling problems associated with avocado growing in the subtropics such as Turkey do occur. Com mercial avocado cultivars are more sensitive to cold temperature than rootstocks. Grafting is a widely used technique in avocado growing regions namely Turkey, Israel and Spain, for rootstocks are resistant to cold. Therefore, some rootstocks belonging to Mexican race, which is widely used in grafting, are more resistantto cold than others. Referring to the requirements mentioned above, the objective of this study, results of which have been presented, was to evaluate the rootstock potential of avocado cultivars,‘Topa Topa’,‘Blace’,‘Mexicola’, ‘W1’ and ‘W2’ for commercial avocado cultivars. Material and Methods This study was conducted between the years 2006-2007 in a nursery situated in West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute in Antalya-Turkey (360 52 N',300 43' E). Inthis study,five Mexican rootstocks (Topa Topa’,‘Blace’,‘Mexicola’,‘W1’ and ‘W2’ were evaluated as rootstocks.Hass (belonging to Guatemale race), Zutano (belonging to Mexican race), Bacon and Fuerte (MexiconxGuatemala hybrids) were used as scions. By the time rootstocks levelled to 75 cm on May 2nd 2007, scions were grafted onto rootstocks with Whip&Tongue Grafting. On July 20th 2007, grafttie was untied; graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm) and shoot length (cm; distance between graft point and the top of shoot) were measured. All grafting groups were laid out with three replications and 10 plants in each replicants in the randomised block experimental design. Data were subject to analysis of variance by SAS statistical program (SAS Institute, Version 7) and means were compared by LSD’s (Least Significant Differences) test at 0.05 significance levels. Results 1. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Graft SurvivalRate (%) The effects of differentrootstocks on graftsurvivalrate(%) is shown in Table 1. Results revealthatthe effects of rootstocks on graft survival rate (%) are statisticaly significant (Table 1). According to reciprocal interaction between rootstocka and cultivars, it can be observed that graft survival rate is directly associated with,rootstocks and cultivars and theirreciprocalinteraction, at main effectlevel. At rootstock level,the highest graftsurvivalratesthat have been found out and fixed were 92.7 % in TTS rootstocks;the lowest graftsurvival rate 83.38 % in Y2 rootstock . When graftsurvivalrates of cultivars are evaluated, on the otherhand,the highest graft survival rate of 96.67 % was determined in Fuerte cultivar.This cultivar is followed by Bacon (90.83) and Zutano (84.17 %) cultivar. Consequently, in terms of graftsurvival rate, however,the lowest graft survival rate of 83.34 % has been determined in Hass cultivar. Upon examination of data in Table 1.it can be seen that at reciprocal interaction level, Fuerte onto which TTS and Mexicola rootstock were grafted with a highest 100% graft survival rate was found. These differences, most probably resulting from ecological conditions, maintanence and the differences between cultural practicesthat are applied. Nonetheless,results clearly indicate rootstocks have affected graftsurvival rates and in the defined experiment conditions,the bestresults have been achieved from plants grafted onto TTS rootstocks. 90 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Cultivar Mean Rootstock Rootstock Hass Fuerte Zutano Bacon Y1 79.17 Ed 91.67 Cc 79.17 Ed 95.83 Bb 86.46 D Y2 79.17 Ed 95.83 Bb 70.83 Ed 91.67 Cc 84.38 E TTS 91.67 Cc 100.00 Aa 91.67 Cc 87.50 Dd 92.71 A Blace 87.50 Dd 95.83 Bb 87.50 Dd 87.50 Dd 89.58 C Mexicola 79.17 Ed 100.00 Aa 91.67 Cc 91.67 Cc 90.63 B Çeşit Ort 83.34 d 96.67 a 84.17 c 90.83 b LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 1. Effect of rootstocks on the graftsurvival rate (%) 2. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Shoot Length (cm) Table 2. shows the effects of different rootstocks on shoot length (cm). Looking into shoot length and statistical analyses , it can be seen that rootstock and cultivar reciprocal interaction between rootstock and cultivar are significantly effective. The highest shoot length of 29.24 cm on rootstock level has been obtained from plants gtafted onto TTS rootstock. The lowest value, however, is observed in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock. The shoot length in this group has been fixed as 18.60 cm (Table 2.).In statistical analyses’ amount varieties,the highest shoot length of 28.27 cm with Fuerte;the lowest value of 16.62 cm with Bacon has been recorded (Table 2). At rootstock x cultivar reciprocal interaction level,the highest shoot length value of 36.55 cm has been obtained from Fuerte plants grafted onto TTS rootstock. Cultivar Mean Rootstock Rootstock Hass Fuerte Zutano Bacon Y1 18.33 Dd 25.32 Ba 26.37 Aa 15.31 Dd 21.33 C Y2 21.96 BCd 22.84 BCc 17.67 Dd 11.92 Dd 18.60 D TTS 29.28 Aa 36.55 Aa 29.97 Aa 21.14 Cd 29.24 A Blace 23.97 Bb 27.81 Ba 35.38 Aa 16.56 Dd 25.93 B Mexicola 23.32 Bb 28.82 Aa 30.44 Aa 18.18 Dd 25.19 B Mean Cultivar 23.37 c 28.27 a 27.97 b 16.62 d LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 2. Effects of rootstocks on the shootlenght (cm) 3. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Rootstock Diameter (cm) Data concerning effects of different rootstocks on rootstock diameter and their statistical evaluations have been presented in Table 3. It has been determined that rootstock diameter indicates different values according to reciprocal interaction. Upon being evaluated in terms of rootstock,the highest data with rootstock diameter of 9.39 cm has been measured in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 3).On the otherhand, when data in Table 3. are to be examined at cultivar level, the highest rootstock diameter of 9.32 cm with Zutano cultivar; the lowest rootstock diameter of 8.73 cm at Fuerte cultivar have been found out and fixed. When all rootstock and cultivars are assesed,the highestrootstock diameter of 9.99 cm has been fixed with Zutano grafted onto W1 rootstock. 91 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Rootstock Y1 Y2 TTS Blace Mexicola Mean Cultivar LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Cultivar Hass Fuerte 8.65 BCc 9.55 Aa 9.88 Aa 8.84 ABb 8.84 ABb 8.13 Cc 8.93 Bb 8.51 Cc 9.20 Aa 8.63 Cc 9.10 a 8.73 bc Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Zutano 9.99 Aa 9.53 Aa 9.03 Aa 9.10 Aa 8.94 ABb 9.32 a Bacon 9.17 Aa 9.32 Aa 8.54 Cc 8.87 Bb 9.09 Aa 8.99 ab 9.34 A 9.39 A 8.64 C 8.85 B 8.97 AB *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 3. Effects of rootstocks on the rootstock diameter (cm) 4. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Scion Diameter (cm) Data related to effects of different rootstock on scion diameter have been presented in Table 4. Upon examining scion diameter values and theirstatistical evaluations,itcan be stated thatrootstocks, cultivars and the reciprocal interaction of these two factors have considerable impact on scion diameter. At rootstock level, the highest scion diameter value of 5.93 cm has been obtained from plants grafted onto W2 rootstock, while the lowest value of 18.60 cm has been found in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 4.). Statistical analyses between cultivars have been recorded as of the highest scion diameter being 5.99 cm in Bacon cultivar; the lowest scion diameter being 5.29 cm with Zutano cultivar (Table 4.). Cultivar Rootstock Hass Fuerte Y1 5.62 Cb 5.56 Cbc Y2 6.43 Aa 5.33 Cc TTS 5.66 Bb 6.50 Aa Blace 5.71 Ba 5.56 Cbc Mexicola 6.17 Aa 5.40 Cc Mean Cultivar 5.92 a 5.67 b LSD% 5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Zutano 5.81 Aa 4.75 Cc 5.16 Cc 5.53 Cc 5.21 Cc 5.29 c Bacon 6.02 Aa 5.81 Aa 6.41 Aa 5.70 Ba 5.99 Aa 5.99 a 5.75 B 5.58 C 5.93 A 5.63 BC 5.69 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Table 4. Effects of rootstocks on the scion diameter (cm) Discussion and Conclusion In the previous studies concerning avocado rootstock and cultivar inter relations, the yield has been emphasized and assesmentsin graftsurvival rateinthese sources have been mentioned to a certain extent. Research findings revealthatplants grafted onto differentrootstocks vary interms of graftsurvivalrate, scion diameter,rootstock diameter and shoot length. Nevertheless, in Fuerte cultivar the highest graft survival rate (%) has been fixed in plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock. Similar results show similarities between findings by Ben-Ya’acov A. and Esther Michelson (1995) who researchs on effect of differentrootstock on graft survival rate that were previously presented in Fuerte and Hass avocado cultivars. These researchers, in their studies, have obtained the highest graft survivalrate of 90 % from plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock To put itin generalterms, as a resultof such studies,itcan be stated thatthe Fuerte cultivar grafted onto TTS rootstock seems to be the bestrootstock, scion combination,inthe light of allfindings. Acknowledgements The authors greatfully thank Mrs. Sedef Bircan for proofreading the material. 92 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Bayram S and M. A. Aşkın, 2006. Using of Oil and Dry Matter Parameters in Some Avocado Cultivars for Determination of Harvest Date. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 1(2):38-48 Ben-Ya’acov A. and E. Michelson, 1995. Avokado rootstocks. In: J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural Reviews. Volume 17:381-429. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, NY. Coffey M. D, 1987. Phytophthora Root Rot of Avocado — An Integrated Approach to Control in California. California Avocado Society 1987 Yearbook 71: 121-137 Demirkol, A. 1998. Avocado Growing in Turkey. World Avocado Congress III, 22–27 October, Tel-Aviv. Procedings, 451–456. Dogrular, H.A, M. Tuncay ve A. Sengüler, 1983. Antalya Ve Alanya Kosullarında Avokado Çesitlerinin Adaptasyonu (Ara Sonuç Raporu). Turunçgil Arastırma Enstitüsü, Antalya, Yayınlanmamıs. FAO, 2007. Statistical Database. http://www.fao.org Kadman, A. and A. Ben-Ya'acov. 1982. Selection of avocado rootstocks for calcareous soils. J. Plant Nutr. 5:639-643. Krezdorn, A.H., 1973. Influence of Rootstock on Cold Hardiness of Avocados. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 86:346-348 Mickelbart1 M. V. and M. L. Arpaia, 2002. Rootstock Influences Changes in Ion Concentrations, Growth, and Photosynthesis of ‘Hass’ Avocado Trees in Response to Salinity. J. AMER. SOC. HORT. SCI. 127(4):649–655. Reyes-Santamaría I., T. Terrazas, A. F. Barrientos-Priego and C. Trejo, 2002. Xylem conductivity and vulnerability in cultivars and races of avocado. Scientia Horticulturae, Vol.92, Issue 2, pages 97-105. Zentmyer G.A.,1987. Avocados Around The World. Calif. Avoc. Soc.Yearb., 71:63-77. 93 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 482 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Author Author Küçük, Sadettin Coskun, Recep Temirkaynak, Meliha Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 2006- 2007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b5d0cf78e053482fa5b85b5273db3804.pdf 1d08b9c38e003aad3b22ec9c0eb73697 PDF Text Text The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Sadettin Küçük Recep Coşkun Meliha Temirkaynak West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey Abstract: In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 2006-2007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Keyworlds: Avocado, grafting, scion/rootstock combination, survival rate, Fuerte, Topa Topa. Indroduction Avocado is an important fruit species, belonging to Lauracea family, which is evergreen and economicaly significant (Zentmyer, 1987). Today avocado is being cultivated in nearly 50 countries in the world. The first rank of avocado production and trade belongs to countries such as Mexico, USA, Brezil, Dominic Republic and South Africa. World avocado production, as of 2007, has been realized in 3.2 million tons (FAO, 2007). These countries are relatively far from North European countries where avocado is consumed extensively. Turkey, due to its geographical and ecological conditions, has plays a significant role in avocado production and exportation. Particularly the Mediterrenean Region of Turkey, because of the fact that it supplies special temperature avocado requires is the most important province in growing this species. There is a 400-ton avocado production in Turkey all of which is being realized in Antalya, Hatay and Mersin, all situated in the Mediterrenean region. In order to investigate avocado growing facilities in our country, initial studies in early 1970’s started via our Institute by introducing the four important commercial avocado cultivars from California. Through this study and those in forthcoming years, the yield which is to show various cultivars of the Mediterrenean region in different locations will depict the fruit quality, the harvest time, adaptation to climate, have been examined, and relative varieties have been selected (Dogrular et al., 1983, Demirkol 1998, Bayram and Aşkın, 2006). Nevertheless, growing of avocado fruit, which was introduced in Turkey in the 1970’s, has not reached the required level as yet. At present, there is an avocado production of 400 tons in our country, particularly in the Mediterrenean region. In fruit culture, grafting of different scions and rootstocks has been a traditional practise with the aim to confer dwarfing characteristics and resistance to environmental stress like salinity, cold, drought, pests and diseases. The new charecteristics obtained in the plant must be the result of an intense interaction between the 38 �rootstock and scion carrying different genetic information (Reyes-Santamaria et all. 2002, Mickelbart1 and Arpaia, 2002, Krezdorn, 1973). Commercial avocado trees are propagated by grafting of budding scions of desirable cultivars onto seedling or grafted rootstocks. Avocados can be grown from seeds, but fruit quality and yield potential will be quite variable. Grafted on budded avokado trees usually produce fruits when three to five years old, while seedlings often require five to seven years. Originating in the tropics, the avocado is very sensitive to climatic factors prevailing in the subtropics, especially drought and extreme temperatures. Extreme temperatures result in low productivity and sometimes even in severe damage to the tree canopy ( Bergh 1976; Oppenheimer 1978). Avocado is also sensitive to soil stress and salinity. A very common soil stress factor is root rot disease, caused by the fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is usually associated with lack of aeration ( Ben-Ya’acov and Michelson, 1995). In certain years, due to this disease factor in avocado orchard in California, it has been stated that asmuch as 20% tree loss took place. In avocado growing, there is no resistant to this disease in tropical and subtropical climate zones. However by using grafting tecniques, it is possible to reduce loss resulting from this disease factor. The main climatic factor affecting avocado production in the cooler subtropics is low temperatures. Indeed, avocado is extremly sensitive to cold, especially in the blooming period. Furthermore, chilling problems associated with avocado growing in the subtropics such as Turkey do occur. Commercial avocado cultivars are more sensitive to cold temperature than rootstocks. Grafting is a widely used technique in avocado growing regions namely Turkey, Israel and Spain, for rootstocks are resistant to cold. Therefore, some rootstocks belonging to Mexican race, which is widely used in grafting, are more resistant to cold than others. Referring to the requirements mentioned above, the objective of this study, results of which have been presented, was to evaluate the rootstock potential of avocado cultivars, ‘Topa Topa’, ‘Blace’, ‘Mexicola’, ‘W1’ and ‘W2’ for commercial avocado cultivars. Material and Methods This study was conducted between the years 2006-2007 in a nursery situated in West Mediterrenean Agricultural Research Institute in Antalya-Turkey (360 52 N', 300 43' E). In this study, five Mexican rootstocks (Topa Topa’, ‘Blace’, ‘Mexicola’, ‘W1’ and ‘W2’ were evaluated as rootstocks.Hass (belonging to Guatemale race), Zutano (belonging to Mexican race), Bacon and Fuerte (MexiconxGuatemala hybrids) were used as scions. By the time rootstocks levelled to 75 cm on May 2nd 2007, scions were grafted onto rootstocks with Whip&Tongue Grafting. On July 20th 2007, graft tie was untied; graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm) and shoot length (cm; distance between graft point and the top of shoot) were measured. All grafting groups were laid out with three replications and 10 plants in each replicants in the randomised block experimental design. Data were subject to analysis of variance by SAS statistical program (SAS Institute, Version 7) and means were compared by LSD’s (Least Significant Differences) test at 0.05 significance levels. 39 �Results 1. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Graft Survival Rate (%) The effects of different rootstocks on graft survival rate (%) is shown in Table 1. Results reveal that the effects of rootstocks on graft survival rate (%) are statisticaly significant (Table 1). According to reciprocal interaction between rootstocka and cultivars, it can be observed that graft survival rate is directly associated with, rootstocks and cultivars and their reciprocal interaction, at main effect level. At rootstock level, the highest graft survival rates that have been found out and fixed were 92.7 % in TTS rootstocks; the lowest graft survival rate 83.38 % in Y2 rootstock . When graft survival rates of cultivars are evaluated, on the otherhand, the highest graft survival rate of 96.67 % was determined in Fuerte cultivar.This cultivar is followed by Bacon (90.83) and Zutano (84.17 %) cultivar. Consequently, in terms of graft survival rate, however, the lowest graft survival rate of 83.34 % has been determined in Hass cultivar. Upon examination of data in Table 1.it can be seen that at reciprocal interaction level, Fuerte onto which TTS and Mexicola rootstock were grafted with a highest 100% graft survival rate was found. These differences, most probably resulting from ecological conditions, maintanence and the differences between cultural practices that are applied. Nonetheless, results clearly indicate rootstocks have affected graft survival rates and in the defined experiment conditions, the best results have been achieved from plants grafted onto TTS rootstocks. Table 1. Effect of rootstocks on the graft survival rate (%) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Zutano Rootstock Y1 79.17 Ed 91.67 Cc 79.17 Ed Y2 79.17 Ed 95.83 Bb 70.83 Ed TTS 91.67 Cc 91.67 Cc 100.00 Aa Blace 87.50 Dd 95.83 Bb 87.50 Dd Mexicola 79.17 Ed 91.67 Cc 100.00 Aa Çeşit Ort 83.34 d 96.67 a 84.17 c LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Bacon 95.83 Bb 91.67 Cc 87.50 Dd 87.50 Dd 91.67 Cc 90.83 b 86.46 D 84.38 E 92.71 A 89.58 C 90.63 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. 2. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Shoot Length (cm) Table 2. shows the effects of different rootstocks on shoot length (cm). Looking into shoot length and statistical analyses , it can be seen that rootstock and cultivar reciprocal interaction between rootstock and cultivar are significantly effective. The highest shoot length of 29.24 cm on rootstock level has been obtained from plants gtafted onto TTS rootstock. The lowest value, however, is observed in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock. The shoot length in this group has been fixed as 18.60 cm (Table 2.). In statistical analyses’ amount varieties, the highest shoot length of 28.27 cm with Fuerte; the lowest value of 16.62 cm with Bacon has been recorded (Table 2). At rootstock x cultivar reciprocal interaction level, the highest shoot length value of 36.55 cm has been obtained from Fuerte plants grafted onto TTS rootstock. 40 �Table 2. Effects of rootstocks on the shoot lenght (cm) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Zutano Rootstock Y1 18.33 Dd 25.32 Ba 26.37 Aa Y2 21.96 BCd 22.84 BCc 17.67 Dd TTS 29.28 Aa 36.55 Aa 29.97 Aa Blace 23.97 Bb 27.81 Ba 35.38 Aa Mexicola 23.32 Bb 28.82 Aa 30.44 Aa Mean Cultivar 23.37 c 28.27 a 27.97 b LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Bacon 15.31 Dd 11.92 Dd 21.14 Cd 16.56 Dd 18.18 Dd 16.62 d 21.33 C 18.60 D 29.24 A 25.93 B 25.19 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. 3. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Rootstock Diameter (mm) Data concerning effects of different rootstocks on rootstock diameter and their statistical evaluations have been presented in Table 3. It has been determined that rootstock diameter indicates different values according to reciprocal interaction. Upon being evaluated in terms of rootstock, the highest data with rootstock diameter of 9.39 mm has been measured in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 3). On the otherhand, when data in Table 3. are to be examined at cultivar level, the highest rootstock diameter of 9.32 cm with Zutano cultivar; the lowest rootstock diameter of 8.73 mm at Fuerte cultivar have been found out and fixed. When all rootstock and cultivars are assesed, the highest rootstock diameter of 9.99 cm has been fixed with Zutano grafted onto W1 rootstock. Table 3. Effects of rootstocks on the rootstock diameter (mm) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Zutano Rootstock Y1 8.65 BCc 9.55 Aa 9.99 Aa Y2 9.88 Aa 8.84 ABb 9.53 Aa TTS 8.84 ABb 8.13 Cc 9.03 Aa Blace 8.93 Bb 8.51 Cc 9.10 Aa Mexicola 9.20 Aa 8.63 Cc 8.94 ABb Mean Cultivar 9.10 a 8.73 bc 9.32 a LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Mean Rootstock Bacon 9.17 Aa 9.32 Aa 8.54 Cc 8.87 Bb 9.09 Aa 8.99 ab 9.34 A 9.39 A 8.64 C 8.85 B 8.97 AB *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. 4. The Effects of Different Rootstocks on Scion Diameter mcm) Data related to effects of different rootstock on scion diameter have been presented in Table 4. Upon examining scion diameter values and their statistical evaluations,it can be stated that rootstocks, cultivars and the reciprocal interaction of these two factors have considerable impact on scion diameter. At rootstock level, the highest scion diameter value of 5.93 mm has been obtained from plants grafted onto W2 rootstock, while the lowest value of 18.60 mm has been found in plants grafted onto W2 rootstock (Table 4.). Statistical analyses between cultivars have been recorded as of the highest scion diameter being 5.99 mm in Bacon cultivar; the lowest scion diameter being 5.29 mm with Zutano cultivar (Table 4.). 41 �Table 4. Effects of rootstocks on the scion diameter (mm) Cultivar Hass Fuerte Rootstock Y1 5.62 Cb 5.56 Cbc Y2 6.43 Aa 5.33 Cc TTS 5.66 Bb 6.50 Aa Blace 5.71 Ba 5.56 Cbc Mexicola 6.17 Aa 5.40 Cc Mean Cultivar 5.92 a 5.67 b LSD%5 A*, LSD%5 Ç*, LSD%5 AxÇ* Zutano 5.81 Aa 4.75 Cc 5.16 Cc 5.53 Cc 5.21 Cc 5.29 c Mean Rootstock Bacon 6.02 Aa 5.81 Aa 6.41 Aa 5.70 Ba 5.99 Aa 5.99 a 5.75 B 5.58 C 5.93 A 5.63 BC 5.69 B *: significant (p<0.05) Means followed by the same letters within each cultivar are not significantly different according to LSD0,05. Discussion and Conclusion In the previous studies concerning avocado rootstock and cultivar inter relations, the yield has been emphasized and assesments in graft survival rate in these sources have been mentioned to a certain extent. Research findings reveal that plants grafted onto different rootstocks vary in terms of graft survival rate, scion diameter,rootstock diameter and shoot length. Nevertheless, in Fuerte cultivar the highest graft survival rate (%) has been fixed in plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock. Similar results show similarities between findings by Ben-Ya’acov A. and Esther Michelson (1995) who researchs on effect of different rootstock on graft survival rate that were previously presented in Fuerte and Hass avocado cultivars. These researchers, in their studies, have obtained the highest graft survival rate of 90 % from plants grafted onto Mexicola rootstock To put it in general terms, as a result of such studies, it can be stated that the Fuerte cultivar grafted onto TTS rootstock seems to be the best rootstock, scion combination, in the light of all findings. Acknowledgements The authors greatfully thank Mrs. Sedef Bircan for proofreading the material. References: Bayram S and M. A. Aşkın, 2006. Using of Oil and Dry Matter Parameters in Some Avocado Cultivars for Determination of Harvest Date. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 1(2):38-48 Ben-Ya’acov A. and E. Michelson, 1995. Avokado rootstocks. In: J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural Reviews. Volume 17:381-429. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, NY. Coffey M. D, 1987. Phytophthora Root Rot of Avocado — An Integrated Approach to Control in California. California Avocado Society 1987 Yearbook 71: 121-137 Demirkol, A. 1998. Avocado Growing in Turkey. World Avocado Congress III, 22–27 October, Tel-Aviv. Procedings, 451–456. Dogrular, H.A, M. Tuncay ve A. Sengüler, 1983. Antalya Ve Alanya Kosullarında Avokado Çesitlerinin Adaptasyonu (Ara Sonuç Raporu). Turunçgil Arastırma Enstitüsü, Antalya, Yayınlanmamıs. FAO, 2007. Statistical Database. http://www.fao.org Kadman, A. and A. Ben-Ya'acov. 1982. Selection of avocado rootstocks for calcareous soils. J. Plant Nutr. 5:639-643. Krezdorn, A.H., 1973. Influence of Rootstock on Cold Hardiness of Avocados. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 86:346-348 Mickelbart1 M. V. and M. L. Arpaia, 2002. Rootstock Influences Changes in Ion Concentrations, Growth, and Photosynthesis of ‘Hass’ Avocado Trees in Response to Salinity. J. AMER. SOC. HORT. SCI. 127(4):649–655. Reyes-Santamaría I., T. Terrazas, A. F. Barrientos-Priego and C. Trejo, 2002. Xylem conductivity and vulnerability in cultivars and races of avocado. Scientia Horticulturae, Vol.92, Issue 2, pages 97-105. Zentmyer G.A.,1987. Avocados Around The World. Calif. Avoc. Soc.Yearb., 71:63-77. 42 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 647 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Five Avocado Rootstocks on Seedling Properties of Commercial Avocado Cultivars Author Author Küçük, Sadettin Çoskun, Recep Temirkaynak, Meliha Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, results of which have been presented, our aim is to determine avocado commercial cultivars grown in Antalya- Turkey ecological conditions and their graft compatibity with Persea americana var. drymifolia and P. nubigena var. guatemolensis avocado rootstocks. In the research as experimental material Topa Topa, Blace, Mexicola, W1 and W2 rootstocks together with Hass, Fuerte, Zutano and Bacon commercial avocado cultivars have been used. The study was conducted between 2006-2007 in BATEM. The results of the experiment have shown that rootstocks were statistically significant in the graft survival rate (%), rootstock diameter (cm), scion diameter (cm), shoot length (cm) and in terms of properties, and the best results could be achived from plants which are Fuerte avocado cultivar grafted on Topa Topa rootstock. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/79c14e12d203dbfa09aa643a713ed41d.pdf d8fcab8f300e5cbae3a0969545de1256 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case Emre M. Görgülü Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey egorgulu@aku.edu.tr Abstract: The stabilized economic growth in the long-run lies ahead as an obstacle in the long road of development for many transition economies especially for those are in the Balkans. Some of the Balkan countries such as Croatia and Bulgaria have managed to get aboard to the European Union train. But for many others, the train has not arrived yet. Furthermore, many of those non-European Union member transition economies in the Balkans have to deal with an inheritance of a war economy experienced during early 90s. Today non-European Union member transition economies in the Balkans need to increase the capital flows to their countries for economic growth purposes. The literature on foreign direct investments suggest that there may be some positive effects on the economic growth of the host countries depending on many conditions most commonly on absorptive capacities. However, are they really ready for this? Are the absorptive capacities in those countries at the extent in which enable them to extract benefits from foreign investments? The answer to this question is the key to truly understand the effects of foreign direct investments in those countries. Therefore, in this study, the effects of foreign direct investments on the economic growth of non-European Union member transition economies in the Balkans are investigated from the absorptive capacity perspective. This paper serves a role in comprehending the true dynamics of absorptive capacities measured through a new technique presented in this paper. The results confirm that current foreign direct investment flows to those non-European Union member Balkan countries are not able to work miracles given the absorptive capacities of the host countries. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 Keywords: Foreign Direct Investments; Transition Economies; Economic Development; Absorptive Capacities JEL Classification: F21, O40, O43, P24, P33 Article History Submitted: 29 April 2015 Resubmitted: 24 July 2015 Resubmitted: 8 September 2015 Accepted: 9 September 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS15523 23 �Emre M. Görgülü Introduction Following the painful 90s, stabilized economic growth becomes the predominant objective for most of the Balkans. In this direction, some of the Balkan countries such as Croatia and Bulgaria have managed to get aboard to the European Union (EU) train. But for many others, the train has not arrived yet. Moreover, being a transition economy in the Balkans creates additional burdens to these counties. Having experienced the harsh Bosnian War and the lagged effects of it, those countries are still struggling to find their way into the long road of development. As an international political instrument Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs) are playing an increasingly important role in economic development. By means of FDIs, the host countries may be affected positively through externality effects and capital enhancement (Alfaro, Chanda, Kalemli-Ozcan, and Sayek, 2006; Sun, 2002). However, FDIs can also create adverse effects such as external-dependency and imbalances in local markets. The outcome on the host economies basically depends on the level of absorptive capacities in these countriesi. Thus, the effects of FDIs in host countries with solid administrative, financial and economical infrastructures differ from the effects in countries lack such structures. These structural differences create a long range of effects on the host countries. In this paper, the effects of FDIs on economic growth of transition economies in the Balkans are investigated through an absorptive capacity perspective. The distinction between EU member Balkan countries and non-EU member Balkan countries has been made in the paper with “transition” concept taken into account; since EU members would be expected to have a better absorptive capacity due to EU obligations has to be fulfilled in order to reach EU standards. Thus, this paper concentrates only on non-EU member transition economies in the Balkansii. Accordingly, the FDIs in the host countries that have some level of absorptive capacities may have some effects that accelerate the growth, while, the FDIs in countries that lack such absorptive capacities, may not promote the growth. Moreover, there is a mutual relationship between absorptive capacities and FDIs. On one hand, absorptive capacities can stimulate the effects of FDIs to both positive and negative sides; on the other hand, FDI flows to a country are in line with the absorptive capacity of that country; as the capacity increases the possibility of increased FDI flows arises (Alfaro et al., 2004; Alfaro et al., 2006). Therefore, the absorptive capacities of the host countries are of vital importance when it comes down to FDIs. Through the absorptive capacity perspective the aim of this paper is to empirically reveal to what extent transition economies in the Balkans can utilize FDIs. Given the potential significance of FDIs on economic development, this paper not only offers an overall guideline on the matter for the transition economies in the Balkans but also presents a new technique to measure the absorptive capacities. Through the new technique employed to measure absorptive capacities, the study aims at contributing to the literature. 24 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case Following the introduction, the FDI movements in Balkans are handled in the second part. In the third part, a comprehensive reasoning for the concept of absorptive capacity and its ties with FDIs takes place along with the empirical analyses applied to the sample. Findings of the analysis are also presented in this part. In the final conclusion part, the results of the analyses have been studied and the paper has been concluded. FDIs in the Balkans The International Monetary Fund (IMF) listed transition economies in 2000 (International Monetary Fund, 2000). According to this list; Croatia, Bulgaria, Albania and Macedonia were listed as transition economies. Later, the World Bank added Bosnia Herzegovina and then Serbia and Montenegro as transition economies as well in 2002 (The World Bank, 2002). After Bulgaria’s membership to EU in 2007, World Bank no longer considered her as a transition economy (Alam, Casero, Khan, and Udomsaph, 2008). Further, while the World Bank includes Kosovo to the list of transition economies in 2009 (The World Bank, 2010), she still remains as a partially recognized state due to ongoing territorial claim issues with Serbia (Rettman, 2013) iii . Moreover, even though, Croatia is still considered as a transition economy, its good economic performance starting from the 2000s and her membership to EU, singles her out from the rest of the group along with Bulgaria. Due to the fact that she is an EU member now, it is expected from her to have a better absorptive capacity needed to carry out EU integration. Therefore, for the purposes of this study, only Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia fit in the group of non-EU member transition economies in the Balkans and are considered in the sample. Following the dissolution of Eastern Bloc, the Balkans faces an era of turmoil and wars. In this period of turmoil in the Balkansiv economic stability was far beyond reach. Naturally, as a result of the socialist heritage and the era of wars and turmoil, foreign investments were not significant at the time. Total FDI inflows for the nonEU member transition countries in the Balkans; namely Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia - Serbia and Montenegro at the timev - and Macedonia in the period of 1992-2001 was 3.82 billion US Dollars (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Whereas the total FDI outflows for the same group of countries in the same period was only 14.64 million US Dollars (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). After 2001, the region finally reaches peace and with the increasing global free movement of capital, FDI movements for these countries increased remarkably. For the period 2002-2013 FDI inflows in the region rose sharply to 51.69 billion US Dollars, while FDI outflows reached 2.97 billion US Dollars (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Since following 2001 the region could finally start to operate in a market manner, the period 2002-2013 was taken as the time frame for the analyses conducted in this paper. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 25 �Emre M. Görgülü According to the FDI movement data (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015) in the region; for the pre-2002 period Serbia and Montenegro was the biggest FDI recipient with a total of 1.52 billion US Dollars and largest FDI sender with nearly 14 million US Dollars in total. For the post-2002 period, despite Serbia and Montenegro cease to exist as a union at 2006, they still remain the largest FDI recipient country in the region with 15.6 billion US Dollars, such that they almost attract more foreign investment than the two countries combined for the period. As for the FDI outflows Serbia and Montenegro still top the list with a figure of 1.41 billion US Dollars. However, the Union owes this FDI movement success mainly to Serbia with her 12.9 billion US Dollars inflow and 924.6 million US Dollars outflow performances (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Below Figure-1 shows FDI inflows to the region for the entire 1992-2013 period, while Figure-2 presents FDI outflows from the region for the same period. Figure 1. FDI Inflows to non-EU Member Transition Economies in the Balkans (millions) Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) Figure 2. FDI Outflows from non-EU Member Transition Economies in the Balkans (millions) Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) 26 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case The pre-2002 period for the region has no significant FDI movement, and for the post-2002 period, it is worth concentrating on 2008-2013 period since Serbia and Montenegro started to have separate data from that date on and between these dates we can truly observe increased FDI movements. So, for the period 2008-2013 FDI movements in the region is summarized for inflows and outflows in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. However, for the statistical significance purpose, we would need more observations. Therefore, given data availability constraints in the sample, the analyses are made for the period 2002-2013. Table 1. FDI Inflows to non-EU Member Transition Economies in the Balkans (USD in Millions) Year Country 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Albania 974 996 1051 876 855 1225 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1002 250 406 493 366 332 Montenegro 960 1527 760 558 620 447 Serbia 3492 2358 1813 3257 659 1377 Macedonia 586 201 212 468 93 334 Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) Table 2. FDI Outflows from non-EU Member Transition Economies in the Balkans (USD in Millions) Year Country 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Albania 81 39 6 30 23 40 Bosnia and Herzegovina 17 6 46 18 15 -13 Montenegro 108 46 29 17 27 17 Serbia 319 67 235 191 75 37 Macedonia -14 11 2 0 -8 -2 Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) According to the analyses conducted in this study, FDI effectiveness is measured through its effects on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth in the host countries. Therefore, in order to create an insight for the matter it would be helpful to compare the FDI inflows to countries in the sample with their GDP performances in the given period. In this direction FDI inflows and GDP performances of the countries in sample is given in Figure-3, Figure-4, Figure-5, Figure-6 and Figure-7 for Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia and Macedonia respectively. At the first glance, one can observe that all countries in the sample has been affected from the 2007-2008 crisis Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 27 �Emre M. Görgülü and 2011 recession experienced by the globe (International Monetary Fund, 2014). Figure 3. Albania FDI Inflows-GDP (USD in millions) Source: International Monetary Fund (2014), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) For the period 2008-2013 Albanian FDI inflows could only exceed 1 billion USD benchmark only in 2010 and in 2013. Her GDP on the other shows a steady movement around the 12 billion USD band. Even though the linear relationship between FDI inflows and GDP figures is not clearly visible at first sight, FDI inflow percentage in Albanian GDP is around 8 to 10 percent in the period (International Monetary Fund, 2014; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Figure 4. Bosnia Herzegovina FDI Inflows-GDP (USD in millions) Source: International Monetary Fund (2014), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) Bosnia and Herzegovinian FDI inflows saw a sharp decline following 2007-2008 global crises, and showing no signs of improvement as of 2013. However, Bosnia and Herzegovinian GDP performance seems to be stable around 17-18 billion USD band 28 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case and displaying little evidence for a linear relationship between FDI inflows and GDP numbers (International Monetary Fund, 2014; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Figure 5. Montenegro FDI Inflows-GDP (USD in millions) Source: International Monetary Fund (2014), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) For Montenegro the only year FDI inflows was able to exceed 1 billion USD level was 2009. The GDP performance for Montenegro was around 4-4.5 billion USD, which is the main reason behind high FDI inflow percentage in GDP in Montenegro. Although the FDI inflow percentage in Montenegro’s GDP is quite high, the linear relationship between them seems to be in opposite direction for many years in the period (International Monetary Fund, 2014; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Figure 6. Serbia FDI Inflows-GDP (USD in millions) Source: International Monetary Fund (2014), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 29 �Emre M. Görgülü The linear relationship between FDI inflows and GDP figures for Serbia is more viable then the first three countries in the sample. At each year FDIs and GDP figures move in the same direction. However, it is observable that Serbian FDI inflows took serious hits along the way. While Serbian FDI inflows were around 3.5 billion USD in 2008, it saw nearly 1.4 billion USD in 2013. Serbia’s latest GDP was around 42.5 billion USD in 2013 which was still roughly 5 billion USD short of Serbian GDP in 2008 (International Monetary Fund, 2014; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Figure 7. Macedonia FDI Inflows-GDP (USD in millions) Source: International Monetary Fund (2014), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) Despite the fact that Macedonia has the last place in the FDI attractiveness list of the sample, the relationship between FDI and GDP is most clearly observable in Macedonia among all countries in the group. Like Serbia, the two variables move in the same direction at each year for Macedonia. Macedonian FDI inflows were around 316 million USD on average for the period and her GDP was around 9.8 billion USD on average for the period (International Monetary Fund, 2014; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). Furthermore, FDI inflow percentage in GDP figures of the host countries is also an important indicator to show the relative magnitude of FDIs in those countries. FDI inflow percentages in GDP Figures for the 5 countries are given below in Figure-8 for the study period (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015). 30 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case Figure 8. FDI Percentage in GDP Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2015) To what Extent can FDIs Promote Economic Growth in the Balkans? Gorgulu and Akcay (2012) state that in the broadest sense, the absorptive capacity of a country is composed of the appropriate regulations and the quality of administrative and economical structure existing in that country. Countries that have sound administrative structure and orderly solid markets have high absorptive capacities and thus are able to benefit as much as possible from the FDIs. Countries that lack such sound administrative and financial structures however are not able to extract such positive effects from the FDIs (Alfaro et al., 2004; Alfaro et al., 2006). In the FDI-absorptive capacities literature, absorptive capacities are measured in various ways. Blomstrom, Lipsey and Zejan (1994) focus on the technology gap as an absorptive capacity indicator and Li and Lui (2005) measured the technology gap as the ratio of the gap between US GDP and host country GDP relative to host country GDP. Lu and Lui also measured years of schooling as a proxy for absorptive capacity (Li and Lui, 2005) along with Borensztein, Gregorio and Lee (1998), thus aiming at revealing the role of human development in absorptive capacities. Financial development is also another strong indicator for absorptive capacities. Durham (2004) uses total stock market capital formation relative to GDP as a financial development measure of absorptive capacity. Credit market lending capacity to the private sector is another proxy for financial development in terms of absorptive capacity (Hermes and Lensink, 2003). Durham (2004) also uses several indexes covering regulation of business property rights and corruption to indicate institutional development as part of the absorptive capacity (Krogstrup and Matar, 2005). In this study, absorptive capacities of the host countries are measured by a new method that is a combination of the well accepted techniques existent in the literature. Accordingly, in order to measure the absorptive capacities of the host countries first the technology gap has been found as did Li and Lui (2005) through a ratio of difference of GDPs among US -given their technological advancement- and host countries to Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 31 �Emre M. Görgülü host country GDPs (International Monetary Fund, 2014). And since the technology gap would be affecting the growth performances in the host countries, the gap figures were multiplied by -1. Then for each country and for each year within the period an average of Human Development Index (United Nations Development Programme, 2015) values, gross capital formation values as percentage of GDP (The World Bank, 2015) and domestic credit to private sector values as percentage of GDP (The World Bank, 2015) were taken and subtracted from 1 to multiply with the gap values in order to assure that a high average would diminish the technology gap’s negative effects on growth. Theoretically with a perfect score -average of 1, it is even possible to offset the technology gap’s negative effects on growth - since the gap value would be multiplied by 0 in this case. Thus, as the absorptive capacity value gets closer to 0, host countries perform better because they would become more able to eliminate the effects of technology gap. By doing so, technology gap, human capital development and financial development aspects of absorptive capacity concept are all captured in the analyses. Moreover, in this study a simple empirical regression model is employed and the analyses are conducted separately for each country in the sample. Accordingly the empirical model to be used in OLS regression is as follows: Yit- Yit-1 = α + θ(Yit-1) + β(FDIit) + δ(ACit)+ εi (1) In the empirical model, Yit - Yit-1 is specified as the dependent variable, where Yit is the value of per capita GDP (International Monetary Fund, 2014) in current US Dollars. Using current dollars in the model enables inflation to be included in the model as part of economic growth and indirectly of financial development. Taking the differences in per capita GDP figures between consecutive years is to exhibit the growth in per capita GDP from year to year. Moreover, while Yit-1 indicates the value of per capita GDP of the previous year (International Monetary Fund, 2014), FDIit represents annual per capita FDI inflows (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2015), and ACit refers to the absorptive capacities of the host countries where the measure is obtained through a series of calculations explained above (International Monetary Fund, 2014; United Nations Development Programme, 2015; The World Bank, 2015). The usage of per capita values is to measure the standard of living. Unlike per capita GDP, growth of GDP is not a measure for standard of living. When the results of the applied analyses to the sample are taken into consideration, it is observed that all models exhibit statistical significance. Moreover, while the results fail to confirm growth enhancing effects of FDIs, they also confirm negative effects of previous years’ per capita GDP for all countries in the sample. According to the results of the analyses applied to Albania, it is revealed that Albanian per capita GDP growth performance is negatively affected by both previous years’ per capita GDP and by the lack of a necessary absorptive capacity level in the country. Thus, due to the absence of a necessary absorptive capacity level, FDIs in Albania have no effect on economic growth and the low level of absorptive capacity in the country negatively affects economic growth in Albania as far as this study concerned. 32 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the results cannot confirm the significance of absorptive capacity in the country at 95% confidence interval. However, at 90% confidence interval it is possible to say that the absorptive capacity level in Bosnia and Herzegovina negatively effects per capita GDP growth. Further, FDIs in Bosnia and Herzegovina have also failed to exhibit any growth promoting effects. Previous year’s per capita GDP also negatively effects the economic growth in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Like the first two countries, Macedonian economic growth also suffers from previous years’ per capita GDP. Moreover, the results fail to confirm statistical significance for Macedonian absorptive capacity at 95% confidence interval but it is still possible to make some significant comments about the absorptive capacity at 90% confidence interval. Accordingly, it is observed that Macedonia lacks the necessary level of absorptive capacity, and due to this reason, FDIs in Macedonia have no significant effect on economic growth and the economic growth in Macedonia suffers from the level of absorptive capacity in the country. In the analysis applied to Montenegro, is has been found out that every variable has a statistical significance. Like others, Montenegro is also negatively affected by previous years’ per capita GDP. It has also been found that, there is a negative effect of the local absorptive capacity level in the country on economic growth, and lack of necessary level of absorptive capacity causes FDIs in Montenegro to have a negative effect on per capita economic growth. The picture is not so much different for Serbia. The results reveal that, the absorptive capacity level in the country is far below the necessary level. That’s why while the absorptive capacity in Serbia has a negative role on economic growth, FDIs have no significant effect. Like the rest of the sample Serbian economic growth suffers from previous years’ per capita GDP as well. Conclusion Through careful evaluation of the results, it is now possible to have an idea about the FDI effects on economic growth from an absorptive capacity perspective. Accordingly for the non-EU member transition economies in the Balkans, for the 2002-2013 period, it is safe to say that they all lack the necessary level of absorptive capacity which would enable them to reap benefits of foreign investments. Given the economical and historical background of the region these results are actually quite normal and are expected. Especially, due to the shifted priorities in the turmoil and transition periods, attracting FDIs or improving infrastructures did not lose importance, therefore domestic –including government investments- nor foreign investments have been made in desired levels. Thus, in a dual way not much could be done in the name of economic development for those countries in the turmoil and transition periods. Gorgulu and Akcay (2012) suggest, absorptive capacities in host countries below a certain level could even be harmful for economic growth and may undermine the growth enhancing effects of FDIs. While the former case is true for all countries in the Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 33 �Emre M. Görgülü sample, the latter case is only true for Montenegro in this study. Therefore with a limited level of absorptive capacity, putting efforts to attract FDIs might not work for the best. The alternative policy should include rather absorptive capacity creating actions and less FDI attractive initiatives followed by increased domestic investments. Finally, the results confirm that current foreign direct investment flows to those countries are not able to work miracles given the absorptive capacities of the host countries. References Alam, A., Casero, P. A., Khan, F., & Udomsaph, C. (2008). Unleashing Prosperity: Productivity Growth in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. World Bank, Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ECAEXT/ Resources/ publications/UnleashingProsperity.pdf Alfaro, L., Chanda, A., Kalemli-Ozcan, S., & Sayek, S. (2004). FDI and Economic Growth: The Role of Local Financial Markets. Journal of International Economics, 64(1), 89-112. Alfaro, L., Chanda, A., Kalemli-Ozcan, S., & Sayek, S. (2006). How Does Foreign Direct Investment Promote Economic Growth? Exploring the Effects of Financial Markets on Linkages, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 12522, Cambridge. Blomstrom, M., Lipsey, R. E., & Zejan, M. (1994). “What Explains the Growth of Developing Countries?” In Baumol, Nelson, and Wolff, (Ed.), Convergence of Productivity: Cross-National Studies and Historical Evidence (pp. 243-59). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Borensztein, E., Gregorio, J. D., & Lee, J. W. (1998). How Does Foreign Direct Investment Affect Economic Growth? Journal of International Economics,45(1), 115135. Cohen, W. M., & Levinthal, D. A. (1989). Innovation and Learning: The Two Faces of R&D. Economic Journal, 99(397), 569-596. Cohen, W. M., & Levinthal, D. A. (1990). Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly,35(1), 128-152. Durham, J. B. (2004). Absorptive Capacity and the Effects of Foreign Direct Investment and Equity Foreign Portfolio Investment of Economic Growth. European Economic Review, 48(2), 285-306. Gorgulu, M. E., & Akcay, S. (2012). The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Economic Growth of Developing Countries: Panel Data Analysis (Doctoral dissertation). AfyonKocatepe University, The Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Economics. 34 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case Hermes, N., & Lensink, R. (2003). Foreign Direct Investment, Financial Development and Economic Growth. Journal of Development Studies, 40(1), 142-63. International Monetary Fund (IMF), (2000). Transition Economies: An IMF Perspective on Progress and Prospects. Issues Briefs List 2000. Retrieved from https:// www.imf.org/external/ np/exr/Ib/2000/110300.htm. International Monetary Fund (IMF), (2014). World Economic and Financial Surveys, World Economic Outlook. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ weo/2014/02/ weodata/index.aspx. Krogstrup, S., & Matar, L. (2005). Foreign Direct Investment, Absorptive Capacity and Growth in the Arab World. HEI Working Paper, No: 02/2005. Li, X., & Liu, X. (2005). Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth: An Increasingly Endogenous Relationship. World Development, 33(3), 393-407. Rettman, A. (2013). Kosovo: EU meeting is ‘de facto recognition’ by Serbia. Retrieved from https://euobserver.com/foreign/118965. Sun, X. (2002). Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Development: What Do the States Need To Do? Capacity Development Workshops and Global Forum on Reinventing Government on Globalization, Role of the State and Enabling Environment, Morocco. The World Bank, (2002). Transition the First Ten Years Analysis and Lessons for Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank. org/ ECAEXT/Resources/complete.pdf The World Bank, (2010). Kosovo Unlocking Growth Potential: Strategies, Policies, Actions. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2859. The World Bank, (2015). 2015 World Development Indicators. Retrieved from http:// wdi.worldbank.org/tables. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), (2015). UNCTADstat 2015. Retrieved from http://unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), (2015). Human Development Index Human Development Report. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/en/data. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 35 �Emre M. Görgülü Appendix Table 4: Summary of the Results (Albania) Dependent Variable: GROWTH Method: Least Squares Sample: 2002 2013 Included observations: 12 Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C GDP_1 3355.801 -0.696708 686.4788 0.158056 4.888426 -4.407982 0.0012 0.0023 FDI 1.976197 1.094186 1.806089 0.1085 AC 1.475628 0.385895 3.823911 0.0051 R-squared Adjusted R-squared S.E. of regression Sum squared resid Log likelihood F-statistic Prob(F-statistic) 0.748208 0.653786 173.1538 239857.9 -76.44463 7.924086 0.008837 Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Hannan-Quinn criter. Durbin-Watson stat Table 5: Summary of the Results (Bosnia) Dependent Variable: GROWTH Method: Least Squares Sample: 2002 2013; Included observations: 12 Variable Coefficient Std. Error C GDP_1 FDI AC 2874.913 -0.437312 0.998817 2.253342 R-squared Adjusted R-squared S.E. of regression 0.717600 0.611699 237.0839 36 1400.197 0.178667 0.895088 1.261986 269.9454 294.2793 13.40744 13.56907 13.34760 1.808639 t-Statistic Prob. 2.053221 -2.447640 1.115887 1.785552 0.0741 0.0401 0.2969 0.0920 Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion 258.0870 380.4680 14.03591 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case Sum squared resid Log likelihood F-statistic Prob(F-statistic) 449670.3 -80.21544 6.776190 0.013765 Schwarz criterion Hannan-Quinn criter. Durbin-Watson stat Table 6: Summary of the Results (Macedonia) Dependent Variable: GROWTH Method: Least Squares Sample: 2002 2013 Included observations: 12 Variable Coefficient Std. Error C GDP_1 FDI AC 3566.408 -0.552927 1.690506 1.442220 R-squared Adjusted R-squared S.E. of regression Sum squared resid Log likelihood F-statistic Prob(F-statistic) 0.835806 0.774233 185.6873 275838.1 -77.28324 13.57430 0.001667 1785.416 0.223725 1.024240 0.799290 C GDP_1 FDI AC Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 7386.888 -0.737282 -0.426353 1.068460 t-Statistic Prob. 1.997522 -2.471461 1.650497 1.804378 0.0808 0.0386 0.1374 0.0988 Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Hannan-Quinn criter. Durbin-Watson stat Table 7: Summary of the Results (Montenegro) Dependent Variable: GROWTH Method: Least Squares Sample: 2002 2013 Included observations: 12 Variable Coefficient Std. Error 1118.284 0.108782 0.160770 0.177662 14.19754 13.97606 2.552401 268.9065 390.7980 13.54721 13.70884 13.48736 2.432775 t-Statistic Prob. 6.605559 -6.777624 -2.651938 6.014011 0.0002 0.0001 0.0292 0.0003 37 �Emre M. Görgülü R-squared Adjusted R-squared S.E. of regression Sum squared resid Log likelihood F-statistic Prob(F-statistic) 0.855874 0.801827 309.9791 768696.2 -83.43253 15.83567 0.000999 Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Hannan-Quinn criter. Durbin-Watson stat Table 8: Summary of the Results (Serbia) Dependent Variable: GROWTH Method: Least Squares Sample: 2002 2013 Included observations: 12 Variable Coefficient Std. Error 435.4529 696.3218 14.57209 14.73372 14.51224 2.135300 t-Statistic Prob. C GDP_1 5889.557 -0.722952 2353.646 0.211956 2.502312 -3.410850 0.0368 0.0092 FDI 0.826728 1.319589 0.626504 0.5484 AC 10.53483 4.846226 2.173821 0.0315 R-squared Adjusted R-squared S.E. of regression Sum squared resid Log likelihood F-statistic Prob(F-statistic) 0.733578 0.633670 447.3163 1600735. -87.83366 7.342523 0.010994 Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Hannan-Quinn criter. Durbin-Watson stat 364.8333 739.0579 15.30561 15.46725 15.24577 1.525363 According to Gorgulu and Akcay (2012); in the most general sense, absorptive capacity is described as the ability of countries to absorb and utilize every kind of knowledge and innovation (Alfaro, Chanda, Kalemli-Ozcan, and Sayek FDIs have positive effects on the growth of the host countries in direct proportion to the quality of the financial markets of these countries. The absorptive capacities have an important role in the process of information acquisition in production through technological knowledge spillover effects from foreign investments (Gorgulu and Akcay, 2012). ii Namely; Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia and Macedonia. iii That is why United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2015) has no FDI i 38 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case data for Kosovo, but her data is included in that of Serbia’s. iv 1991-2001, The turmoil in the region first began with the Slovenian and Croatian Wars and followed by the Bosnian War, which ended in 1995. The turmoil then carried out by the Kosovo War in 1998-1999 and the insurgency in Macedonia in 2001. v For the period of 1992-2006 Serbia and Montenegro was united as a union. Then starting from 2006, Serbia and Montenegro formed their own separate independent republics. The FDI data on UNCTAD (2015) covers Serbia and Montenegro as a union till 2007, and as separate republics starting from 2008. However, The World Bank (2015) and International Monetary Fund (2014) both use a proportional measure to cover the data from Serbia and Montenegro separately. Using a similar proportional measure FDI data was obtained in the paper for missing years. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 39 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2926 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Foreign Direct Investments on Transition Economies: The Balkans Case Author Author GÖRGÜLÜ, Mehmet Emre Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The stabilized economic growth in the long-run lies ahead as an obstacle in the long road of development for many transition economies especially for those are in the Balkans. Some of the Balkan countries such as Croatia and Bulgaria have managed to get aboard to the European Union train. But for many others, the train has not arrived yet. Furthermore, many of those non-European Union member transition economies in the Balkans have to deal with an inheritance of a war economy experienced during early 90s. Today non-European Union member transition economies in the Balkans need to increase the capital flows to their countries for economic growth purposes. The literature on foreign direct investments suggest that there may be some positive effects on the economic growth of the host countries depending on many conditions - most commonly on absorptive capacities. However, are they really ready for this? Are the absorptive capacities in those countries at the extent in which enable them to extract benefits from foreign investments? The answer to this question is the key to truly understand the effects of foreign direct investments in those countries. Therefore, in this study, the effects of foreign direct investments on the economic growth of non-European Union member transition economies in the Balkans are investigated from the absorptive capacity perspective. This paper serves a role in comprehending the true dynamics of absorptive capacities measured through a new technique presented in this paper. The results confirm that current foreign direct investment flows to those non-European Union member Balkan countries are not able to work miracles given the absorptive capacities of the host countries. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bfee1248319b03c62ac478d57ed2f40e.pdf 34ada08ad773fc3737c8010ac43e6f5c PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The Effects of Free Trade Agreements on Turkish Foreign Trade; The analysis of the Bosnian and Herzegovinian case Aslıhan Kocaefe Cebeci Gediz University, İzmir, Turkey aslihan.kocaefe@gediz.edu.tr Ali Rıza Sayın Gediz University, İzmir, Turkey ali.sayin@gediz.edu.tr Begüm Maral Gediz University, İzmir, Turkey begum.maral@gediz.edu.tr According to the Customs Union Agreement effectuated on January 1, 1996 between Turkey and the European Union (EU), Turkey has undertaken the EU’s Common Trade Policy and its preferential trade system towards the countries outside the Union which are called the third countries. Within this scope Turkey can sign similar agreements with other states which were present during the signing of the Free Trade Agreement with the EU on the mutual benefit basis. In other words, Turkey can sign Free Trade Agreements only with the countries with which the EU carries out Free Trade Negotiations. In the Free Trade Agreement, different from the Customs Union, the signatory parties remove the customs duties and limitations among themselves but they do not develop a common tariff policy towards the third countries. Therefore each member country is free to impose its own tariff schedule. Furthermore, while free circulation is acceptable according to the Customs Union in the Free Trade Agreements the rules of origin is applied. In this respect, by means of Free Trade Agreements particular targets such as improving our foreign trade activities with neighboring and surrounding countries, maintaining a fair competition environment in the foreign markets in particular in the European market for our import goods, increasing the volumes of mutual investments, increasing the international competitive power of Turkey in joint ventures, improving the economic cooperation between the countries, removing the obstacles preventing the circulation of goods and services and at the same time improving the 42 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo political, technological and social relations between the signatory parties, constitute the main focus as a principle. Within this scope, our country is not obliged to accept the content of the Free Trade Agreements signed between the EU countries and the related negotiations should be carried out by taking our industrial and trade policy priorities into consideration. In this respect Turkey has signed Free Trade Agreements with 19 countries in total except for the 10 Central and Eastern European countries with which the signed FTAs have been terminated due to their membership to the EU. 13 of the abovementioned agreements have been signed after 2000. In this study the impact of the Free Trade Agreements signed by Turkey on the Turkish Foreign Trade has been evaluated in terms of both import and export issues. With this purpose, the trade relations between Turkey and the other countries with which FTAs have been signed have been scrutinized by analyzing the pre and post agreement conditions. Finally the bilateral trade relation between Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina has been evaluated within the scope of the signed Free Trade Agreement and the pre and post Agreement conditions have also been analyzed. Keywords: Free Trade Agreements, Foreign Trade, Turkish Foreign Trade, Export and Import, Bosnia and Herzegovina 43 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1488 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Free Trade Agreements on Turkish Foreign Trade; The analysis of the Bosnian and Herzegovinian case Author Author KOCAEFE CEBECI, Aslihan RIZA SAYIN, Ali MARAL, Begüm Abstract A summary of the resource. According to the Customs Union Agreement effectuated on January 1, 1996 between Turkey and the European Union (EU), Turkey has undertaken the EU’s Common Trade Policy and its preferential trade system towards the countries outside the Union which are called the third countries. Within this scope Turkey can sign similar agreements with other states which were present during the signing of the Free Trade Agreement with the EU on the mutual benefit basis. In other words, Turkey can sign Free Trade Agreements only with the countries with which the EU carries out Free Trade Negotiations. In the Free Trade Agreement, different from the Customs Union, the signatory parties remove the customs duties and limitations among themselves but they do not develop a common tariff policy towards the third countries. Therefore each member country is free to impose its own tariff schedule. Furthermore, while free circulation is acceptable according to the Customs Union in the Free Trade Agreements the rules of origin is applied. In this respect, by means of Free Trade Agreements particular targets such as improving our foreign trade activities with neighboring and surrounding countries, maintaining a fair competition environment in the foreign markets in particular in the European market for our import goods, increasing the volumes of mutual investments, increasing the international competitive power of Turkey in joint ventures, improving the economic cooperation between the countries, removing the obstacles preventing the circulation of goods and services and at the same time improving the political, technological and social relations between the signatory parties, constitute the main focus as a principle. Within this scope, our country is not obliged to accept the content of the Free Trade Agreements signed between the EU countries and the related negotiations should be carried out by taking our industrial and trade policy priorities into consideration. In this respect Turkey has signed Free Trade Agreements with 19 countries in total except for the 10 Central and Eastern European countries with which the signed FTAs have been terminated due to their membership to the EU. 13 of the abovementioned agreements have been signed after 2000. In this study the impact of the Free Trade Agreements signed by Turkey on the Turkish Foreign Trade has been evaluated in terms of both import and export issues. With this purpose, the trade relations between Turkey and the other countries with which FTAs have been signed have been scrutinized by analyzing the pre and post agreement conditions. Finally the bilateral trade relation between Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina has been evaluated within the scope of the signed Free Trade Agreement and the pre and post Agreement conditions have also been analyzed. Keywords: Free Trade Agreements, Foreign Trade, Turkish Foreign Trade, Export and Import, Bosnia and Herzegovina Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bdfcc3eea12b47d5b26d9714005eb6dd.pdf 34ada08ad773fc3737c8010ac43e6f5c PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The Effects of Free Trade Agreements on Turkish Foreign Trade; The analysis of the Bosnian and Herzegovinian case Aslıhan Kocaefe Cebeci Gediz University, İzmir, Turkey aslihan.kocaefe@gediz.edu.tr Ali Rıza Sayın Gediz University, İzmir, Turkey ali.sayin@gediz.edu.tr Begüm Maral Gediz University, İzmir, Turkey begum.maral@gediz.edu.tr According to the Customs Union Agreement effectuated on January 1, 1996 between Turkey and the European Union (EU), Turkey has undertaken the EU’s Common Trade Policy and its preferential trade system towards the countries outside the Union which are called the third countries. Within this scope Turkey can sign similar agreements with other states which were present during the signing of the Free Trade Agreement with the EU on the mutual benefit basis. In other words, Turkey can sign Free Trade Agreements only with the countries with which the EU carries out Free Trade Negotiations. In the Free Trade Agreement, different from the Customs Union, the signatory parties remove the customs duties and limitations among themselves but they do not develop a common tariff policy towards the third countries. Therefore each member country is free to impose its own tariff schedule. Furthermore, while free circulation is acceptable according to the Customs Union in the Free Trade Agreements the rules of origin is applied. In this respect, by means of Free Trade Agreements particular targets such as improving our foreign trade activities with neighboring and surrounding countries, maintaining a fair competition environment in the foreign markets in particular in the European market for our import goods, increasing the volumes of mutual investments, increasing the international competitive power of Turkey in joint ventures, improving the economic cooperation between the countries, removing the obstacles preventing the circulation of goods and services and at the same time improving the 42 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo political, technological and social relations between the signatory parties, constitute the main focus as a principle. Within this scope, our country is not obliged to accept the content of the Free Trade Agreements signed between the EU countries and the related negotiations should be carried out by taking our industrial and trade policy priorities into consideration. In this respect Turkey has signed Free Trade Agreements with 19 countries in total except for the 10 Central and Eastern European countries with which the signed FTAs have been terminated due to their membership to the EU. 13 of the abovementioned agreements have been signed after 2000. In this study the impact of the Free Trade Agreements signed by Turkey on the Turkish Foreign Trade has been evaluated in terms of both import and export issues. With this purpose, the trade relations between Turkey and the other countries with which FTAs have been signed have been scrutinized by analyzing the pre and post agreement conditions. Finally the bilateral trade relation between Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina has been evaluated within the scope of the signed Free Trade Agreement and the pre and post Agreement conditions have also been analyzed. Keywords: Free Trade Agreements, Foreign Trade, Turkish Foreign Trade, Export and Import, Bosnia and Herzegovina 43 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1489 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Free Trade Agreements on Turkish Foreign Trade; The analysis of the Bosnian and Herzegovinian case Author Author KOCAEFE CEBECI, Aslihan RIZA SAYIN, Ali MARAL, Begüm Abstract A summary of the resource. According to the Customs Union Agreement effectuated on January 1, 1996 between Turkey and the European Union (EU), Turkey has undertaken the EU’s Common Trade Policy and its preferential trade system towards the countries outside the Union which are called the third countries. Within this scope Turkey can sign similar agreements with other states which were present during the signing of the Free Trade Agreement with the EU on the mutual benefit basis. In other words, Turkey can sign Free Trade Agreements only with the countries with which the EU carries out Free Trade Negotiations. In the Free Trade Agreement, different from the Customs Union, the signatory parties remove the customs duties and limitations among themselves but they do not develop a common tariff policy towards the third countries. Therefore each member country is free to impose its own tariff schedule. Furthermore, while free circulation is acceptable according to the Customs Union in the Free Trade Agreements the rules of origin is applied. In this respect, by means of Free Trade Agreements particular targets such as improving our foreign trade activities with neighboring and surrounding countries, maintaining a fair competition environment in the foreign markets in particular in the European market for our import goods, increasing the volumes of mutual investments, increasing the international competitive power of Turkey in joint ventures, improving the economic cooperation between the countries, removing the obstacles preventing the circulation of goods and services and at the same time improving the political, technological and social relations between the signatory parties, constitute the main focus as a principle. Within this scope, our country is not obliged to accept the content of the Free Trade Agreements signed between the EU countries and the related negotiations should be carried out by taking our industrial and trade policy priorities into consideration. In this respect Turkey has signed Free Trade Agreements with 19 countries in total except for the 10 Central and Eastern European countries with which the signed FTAs have been terminated due to their membership to the EU. 13 of the abovementioned agreements have been signed after 2000. In this study the impact of the Free Trade Agreements signed by Turkey on the Turkish Foreign Trade has been evaluated in terms of both import and export issues. With this purpose, the trade relations between Turkey and the other countries with which FTAs have been signed have been scrutinized by analyzing the pre and post agreement conditions. Finally the bilateral trade relation between Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina has been evaluated within the scope of the signed Free Trade Agreement and the pre and post Agreement conditions have also been analyzed. Keywords: Free Trade Agreements, Foreign Trade, Turkish Foreign Trade, Export and Import, Bosnia and Herzegovina Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9ae4764f51ffc193d39e5cca3a2756ec.pdf b0531b138502adc8e2ccec2fa51d7ffa PDF Text Text The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student Achievement in Geography Education Serhat ZAMAN Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Geography Education, Erzurum-Turkey (serhatz@atauni.edu.tr) Res.Assist. Ogün COSKUN Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Geography Education, Erzurum-Turkey Ramazan SEVER Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Primary School Teaching, Social Science Education, Erzurum-Turkey Kenan TÜRKEZ Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum, Turkey Nilgün ZAMAN Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups. Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional methods. Key words: Geography Education, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), Teaching Methods. 227 �Introduction Rapid increase in the production of information and technology and development of communication in the world led to the extensive and easier access to sources of information and, in this way, drastically changed the life. It became the initial problem of the educators to convey this accumulated information in every sphere to individuals effectively and equally. For the realization of this transmission and retention of learning, everyday, new methods, techniques are developed and new materials are used in education. With its subject topics, geography is one of the courses which are appropriate for the use of different instructional materials. Due to this convenience, different teaching designs and materials are developed in order to increase the effectiveness in the education and instruction of geography. One of them is the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which is more extensively used day by day. In this study, the effects of GIS on the academic achievement of the students in geography education were investigated by an experimental research. The study consists of two major parts. In the first part, definition of the GIS, its role in geography education, and the utility of this system in the new changing geography curriculum in Turkey are questioned; and, in the second part, the results of a study aiming to investigate the effects of GIS on students’ academic achievement are discussed. What is GIS (Geographical Information Systems)? Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is a computer system which was designed to collect every type of data, together with their coordinates, related to the physical and anthropological characteristics of the Earth in a database, to make some analyses on them in line with certain purposes, and to illustrate the results in the forms of maps, tables, and figures (Fitzpatrick,C. & Maguire,D.J. 2000,63–64). In other words, GIS is a computer-based data processing program designed to analyze and visualize the objects and events on the Earth (Demirci,A.,2008a,11). The system consists of basically four components. They are computer (hardware), programs used in computer (GIS software), the data to be analyzed through software, and the user who would organize and direct these three components (Figure 1). Figure 1. Components of GIS, Reference: Demirci 2008a: 12. GIS, due its name, is considered to be a technology developed only for the area of geography. Although it is partially true, since GIS is a system collecting, storing, processing, and analyzing data, it is in an interaction with many disciplines. GIS, a system helping the more effective services in various sectors, is a tool used to increase the quality in decision making and solutions of problems. Due its content and scope, GIS can be used by all of the disciplines and groups of profession whose domains cover the phenomenons of natural environments, variable of time, and human beings which somehow represent a part of the Earth (Turoğlu,H. 2000,4). In this sense, GIS can be 228 �defined as a technology with the qualities that would facilitate the lives of people not only from the area of geography but also from every part of society. GIS in the Institutions of Education in Turkey GIS, which used in many official institutions and organizations in Turkey, is utilized mostly by universities in education. It has just begun to be used in primary and high schools. Since 2000, contents of all courses have been gradually changed by the Ministry of National Education with a student-centered educational approach. Trying to keep pace with developed and rapidly changing teaching strategies, Ministry of National Education advises the use of materials, especially, GIS technologies equipped with computers in classes. While GIS is used as an instructional material in social sciences, environmentalism, and sciences courses in the world, in Turkey, it is used only in geography courses. Together with the change in the geography curriculum by the Ministry of National Education in 2005, GIS began to be used in geography education. Unfortunately, limitations of GIS use in schools reveal themselves in the curriculum. In the part related to the application of the program, there is an expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities in schools, teachers may develop GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). However, since most of the schools do not have the equipments and facilities required for the GIS implementations and the teachers qualified enough to use the data and software, they are not ready to use these systems effectively. GIS in the New Geography Curriculums The discipline of geography has vital responsibilities in understanding the relationships between people and the nature and the relationships among themselves. One of the most important aims of geography education is to help students learn the abstract and complex geographical issues meaningfully and far away from memorization and to prepare the conditions required. Therefore, educationalists need the well-selected methods and materials to be able to teach geography in the most effective ways. GIS implementations, the main concern of this study, can meet these needs. For this reason, GIS implementations were put great emphasis on in the new geography curriculum prepared in 2005. Geography curriculum supports the use of GIS in the teaching of geography topics. In the program, it is clearly stated in the expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities in schools, teachers may develop GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). The suggestions for the use of certain acquisitions in the program can be regarded as a clear evidence for this support. When globally analyzed, it is easily seen that most topics (or issues) are convenient to be taught via GIS. However, for the extension of GIS in schools, geography teachers, at least, should attain GIS equipments and make practices. Otherwise, it is certain that the extension of GIS in schools will not be possible. In the geography curriculum in Turkey, there are many activities which are appropriate for the use of GIS. Five of the topics suggested to be taught by GIS are in the 9th, nine of them in the 10th, two of them in the 11th, and four of them are in the 12th year program. The number of the targeted acquisitions in these topics is 28 in sum (See Table 1). 229 �Suggested Number Grade Outcome Numbers A.9.3 1 9 A.9.4 2 A.9.5-A.9.6 3 C.9.5-C.9.6 4 C.9.7 5 A.10.2-A.10.3 6 10 B.10.2 7 B.10.3 8 B.10.4 9 B.10.5 10 B.10.9-B.10.10 11 C.10.10 12 C.10.11 13 C.10.12 14 B.11.4-B.11.5-B.11.6 15 11 D.11.2 16 C.12.4-C.12.5 17 12 C.12.8-C.12.9 18 D.12.6 19 D.12.8 20 Suggested Topics of Activities Maps (in the section of definitions) Coordinate System (in the section of definitions) Contour Lines Climate of Turkey Elements of Climate in Turkey Thermal Springs World Population Population Change Dynamics of Population Population Pyramids Categorization of Economic Activities Urban Structure of Turkey Differences in the Distribution of Population in Turkey Dynamism of Our Population From Production to Consumption Span of Spread of Turkish Culture Trading Structure of Turkey Scenarios in the Population of Turkey for Future Locations of Countries Regionalization of the World Table 1. The Topics in the New Geography Curriculum Appropriate for the Use of GIS (Demirci 2008a: 70). Study The Effects of the Instruction of Vegetation and Types of Climate Topics in the 10th Year Geography Course through GIS on Achievement Levels of Students (Turkey-Erzurum Sample) In this section of the study, the findings obtained from the instruction of pre-determined geography topics (Vegetation and Types of Climate) to students in two different methods were presented. First of them was the conventional method whereas the second was GIS-supported method. The universe of the research consists of the high school students studying at schools in the city centre of Erzurum in 2008-2009 education years; and the sample consists of 86 10th year students from Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye in Erzurum. Formation of the Experimental and Control Groups Tests including the questions related to “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics were given to all 10th year students from both of the schools; and, according to the results, two classes (one experimental and one control) from each school, in sum, four groups, were determined (See Table 2). Research Group Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School Şükrüpaşa High School 10 Science-A 10 Science-B 10 Social-A 10 Social -B (Experimental) (Control) (Control) (Experimental) Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male 7 13 5 14 10 Table 2. Research Sample. 230 14 7 16 �By this study, it was aimed to investigate the effects of the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics in the 9th and 10th years using the Geography Information Systems on the academic achievement levels of students. Using the software of GIS, some practices were made together with the students and they were allowed to develop their own materials. Later, on the basis of the material developed by the researcher, topics were taught in connection with the data formed by the students according to the instructions. In this way, it was intended to help students acquire the skills to use the program and participate in the classes with the materials they developed themselves. In this experimental research, the real experimental design, the model with pre-test/post-test and experimental/control groups, was conducted. In this model, a pre-test and a post-test were given to randomly chosen experimental and control groups before and after the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate” (See Table 3). G1 PRE-TEST X1 POST-TEST G2 PRE-TEST X2 POST-TEST Table 3. Research Model. G1: Experimental Group, G2: Control Group, Pre-test and Post-test: Achievement Test, X1: The group taught through GIS implementations, X2: The group taught through conventional methods. Throughout a four-week period, the experimental group students were taught “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics enriched with the prepared course plans and activities based on GIS, and the control group was taught the same topic through the conventional methods in accordance with the targeted outcomes. Procedure In the procedure of the research, the steps below were followed; ■ In the research, as the data collection instrument, an achievement test consisting of 20 questions which some experts were councilled about was used. ■ A course plan was prepared for the activities to be held and the treatment took four weeks. ■ Both experimental and control groups were taught by the same teacher. ■ A computer downloaded ArcWiev 9.2 program and a projector were taken to the classroom in which GIS implementations would be carried out and a list of instructions was given to each student. ■ GIS implementations were carried out together with the students. ■ In the control group, teacher-centered conventional instructional methods, in which the teacher, all the time, was active, were used. In addition, maps and atlases were utilized in the classes. ■ During the classes, similar extra activities were carried out in the groups and the students were given some questions and asked to answer in order to identify whether they had understood the topics or not. Findings and Interpretations While the mean of the scores of the experimental group students taught through GIS-based activities from the test on “Vegetation and Types of Climate” was X =8,20 before the treatment, after the treatment the mean was found to be X =14,65. On the other hand, whereas the mean of the scores of the students taught through conventional methods (e.g., question-answer, direct instruction) was X =8,20 before the treatment, it changed to X =11,39 after the treatment. According to these results, it was determined that although achievement levels of both groups got higher the increase in the scores of the experimental group students was greater (See Table 4 and Figure 2). 231 �Pre-test Post-test Groups X S.S. N Experimental Control Experimental Control 8,20 8,20 14,65 11,39 2,44 2,62 1,67 2,70 43 43 43 43 Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations for Achievement Test Scores of All Students. As a result of the treatment, it is seen that students’ behaviors (knowledge) related to “Vegetation and Types of Climate” changed positively. The differences between the achievement levels of the groups can be associated with the student-centered GIS practices in the experimental group. Figure 2. Pre-test and Post-test Scores of Experimental and Control Groups. Results and Suggestions Development and use of new technologies in education increase the quality and effectiveness of instructional services. GIS is one of these new techniques. Furthermore, according to the observations, it was understood that students are more willing for classes carried out through GIS-based activities. As understood from the findings from the treatments, students’ achievement levels in geography courses based on GIS technologies are higher than others. When geography classes are taught by the conventional methods, learning based on memorization appears and the topics cannot be remembered in long term. During geography classes, teaching settings which will involve as many senses as possible should be designed. In addition, in GIS-based classes, education, being far away from memorization, is realized by the participation of the students on the basis of practices. Rate of retention in learning through computer is higher. Also, one of the skills acquired by the students thanks to GIS-based activities, as pointed at in geography curriculum, is the skill to use information and communication technologies. More time should be allotted for the GIS use in geography education and, for this purpose; some revisions should be made in the content of geography courses. In a study on the utility of GIS technologies in schools (Demirci 2006,5), it was found that none of the teachers could use the GIS Technologies. To solve this problem, use of GIS Technologies by teachers should be increased and laboratories of GIS technologies should be designed and developed in the faculties serving to train geography teachers. 232 �One of the most important problems in geography education is that there are not enough and appropriate places to preserve the instructional tools and materials. Modern classrooms in which geography instruction can be realized most effectively and the components of GIS can be placed and used should be formed. As in developed countries, the utility of GIS technologies should be tested in not only in geography but also in other, especially, science, courses. The most important components of GIS are data and software. Without them, implementations of GIS are not possible. These sources should be provided to teachers and students by their institutions. References Aksoy,B.,(2004). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamalarının Öğretimi Üzerine Bir Model. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi. Cilt 12, (No:1), pp. 179–190. Aladağ, E.,(2007). İlköğretim 7. Sınıf Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde CBS’nin Kullanımının Öğrencilerin Akademik Başarı ve Derse Karşı Motivasyonlarına Etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi. Ankara. Demiralp,N.,(2007). Coğrafya Eğitiminde Materyaller ve 2005 Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programı. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi. Cilt 5–6, (No:1), pp. 373–384. Demirci,A.,(2006). CBS’nin Türkiye’deki Yeni Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programına Göre Coğrafya Derslerinde Uygulanabilirliği. 4. CBS Bilişim Günleri Bildiriler Kitabı. Fatih Üniversitesi Yay., İstanbul. Demirci,A.,(2008a). Öğretmenler İçin CBS: Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri. Fatih Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Bölümü, Yay. No. 41, İstanbul. Demirci,A.,(2008b). Türkiye’deki Yeni Coğrafya Öğretim Programının Öğretmenlerin Bakış Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi (Sayı-178), pp. 105–178. Doğanay,H,(2002). Coğrafya Öğretim Yöntemleri. Aktif Yayınları, 5. Baskı, Erzurum. Doğanay,H.,Zaman,S.,(2002). Orta Öğretim Coğrafya Eğitiminde Hedefler-Stratejiler ve Amaçlar. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 8), pp. 7-26. Fitzpatrick,C.,Maguire,D.J.,(2000). GIS In Schools: Infrastructure, Methodology And Role In: Gıs: A Sourcebook For Schools. Edited by David R. Green, Taylor&Francis. Girgin,M.,(2001). Neden Coğrafya Öğreniyoruz. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 5), pp. 127-143. M.E.B.,(2000). Milli Eğitim ile İlgili Mevzuat. Milli Eğitim Basımevi, MEB Yay. No: 3126, Ankara. M.E.B.,(2005). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu (9-12. Sınıflar), MEB Yayınları, Ankara. Nalçacı,A.,(2006). İlköğretim 6. ve 7. Sınıf Sosyal Bilgiler Programındaki Coğrafya Konularının Öğretmen ve Öğrenci Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Erzurum. Taş,H.İ.,(2005). Cumhuriyetin Kuruluşundan Günümüze İlköğretim II. Kademe ve Liselerde Coğrafya Dersi ve Müfredatının Değişimi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 14), 2005, pp. 311–330. Türkez,K.,(2009). 10. Sınıf Coğrafya Dersinde Yer Alan İklim Tipleri ve Bitki Örtüsü Konularının CBS İle Öğretilmesinin Öğrenci Başarısına Etkileri (Erzurum Örneği). Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erzurum. Yomralıoğlu,T.,(2002). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Temel Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar. İber Ofset, Trabzon. Zaman,S.,Coşkun,O.,(2006). Erzurum’da Görev Yapan Coğrafya Öğretmenlerinin Sınıf İçi Performanslarını Etkileyen Faktörler Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Kâzım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (Sayı: 14), pp. 373–391. 233 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 405 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student Achievement in Geography Education Author Author ZAMAN, Serhat COSKUN, Ogün SEVER, Ramazan TÜRKEZ, Kenan ZAMAN, Nilgün Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups. Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional methods. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)