277 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3c70f4025f992607086d95143b802978.pdf e2c4962aa5c012ce157cab55d3dd923f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dickens and his Memorable Characterization Dr. Hasan ÇAKIR Selcuk University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Teaching, 42090 Meram, Konya, Turkey. Email: hasan_cakir63@hotmail.com hasan_cakir63@yahoo.com Abstract:Charles Dickens is a distinguished novelist and an influential figure in the Victorian period. In spite of that, some superficial observation and generalization is rife in critical commentaries about his novels. Such repeated assertions are not always the case when respectively applied to the characters and the novels of the writer. One of the achievements that Dickens possesses in connection with the art of his novels is his obvious success in creating memorable characters in his substantial novels. The power that lies under his striking success is that he uses so many interesting techniques to describe characters in detail. He uses many fixed phrases, styles of clothing, parts of jewelry, typical pets, chronic diseases, handy tools, elements of decorations, positions of the body, and mannerisms in using some external organs and the manners associated in daily life. Characters are marked with such techniques and these become indispensable parts of their characterization. Based on the actions and the manners, characters seen with these objects are easily recognized and remembered by the reader to the end of a particular novel. The vivid, colorful, credible and lifelike characters and the techniques used for their creation prove the matchless mastery of the writer. INTRODUCTION The character is an indispensable element of fiction. Certain techniques are used to create and develop a character representative of an individual. In direct characterization, the writer may create a character through simple reports. The writer makes certain explanations about the personality of the character. In addition, he may have other characters speak about him. The thought of other characters about a character is an effective indication to his personality. Moreover, the character can give some information about his own personality. He may attach some attributes to his personality or he may make a confidential confession. In indirect characterization, the character reveals his personality in his actions, emotions and conduct. The author shows his characters performing some kind of action, occupation, and profession. The reader can make a definite inference about the personality of a character when put in these situations. Another way is to show his emotional reactions. Also useful in characterization is the information about a character pertinent to his faith, ideology, thought, obsession, prejudices, his norm to decide right and wrong, his beliefs concerning the relationship of man to society, to his creator, to other creatures, to his physical and psychological environment and more importantly some information about the attitude of a character toward life. The novelist often uses speech features of his characters as a different technique for characterization. The writer often describes the personal speech properties of a character: his mannerisms, gestures, or way of speaking. The author usually shows certain levels of language: his diction, choice of vocabulary from formal, informal, standard and slang words, his regional dialect or occupational register, and his pet phrases that he habitually uses. The mask is a special device of direct and indirect characterization. According to Tomashevsky (1925), ―the descriptions of the external appearance of the character, and his clothes, his decoration of his house are elements of the mask.‖ (in Lemon and Reis: 1955, 88) The imaginative writer generally describes the 565 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo appearance of a character. In fiction, physical appearance of a character is frequently described to foster the mental picture or the visualization of a character. The description of physical appearance may include the physique and facial features, his clothes, his diseases, his bodily defects, his noticeable scars and warts. The author needs to use almost every particular active and unique trait about a character. Physical details are functional in the creation of a character. In the following part of this study, a character analysis will be done on Charles Dickens‘ characterization with specific page references to some of his works and the explanation presented to the reader may prove illuminating and reasonable. For this practical purpose, some of his common characterization techniques will be explained. Dickens and his Interesting Technique in Characterization To begin with, an abstract generalization is usually observed in literary commentaries over Dickens‘s novels. These generalizations and remarks are due to the assertions of several theoretical and practical novelists. Their observations may not be equally parallel to their fame or notoriety. For instance, certain critics hold that Dickens does not give a mental life and doctrine to his characters in a theoretical sense. Collins (1964:194) makes such an observation that Dickens is generally an anti-intellectual and anti- heroic writer. The life of characters representing educated men and women is seen as satisfactory when they get a respectable position in society or a well-paid job. Doctors are respectable men if they are not bad. Lawyers and clergy man are comic creatures. Seldom are policemen portrayed. Dickens‘s characterization is susceptible to criticism in this regard. Similarly, Orwell (1965:136) says following assertions about his characterization: Dickens‘s characters have no mental life. They say perfectly the thing that they have to say, but they cannot be conceived as talking about anything else. They never learn, never speculate. Some critics hold a common observation that Dickens‘ characters seem to be types or caricatures rather than individuals. James (1981:9) takes the matter a little further and criticizes his characterization, claiming that Dickens has created nothing but figure. He suggests that Dickens has added nothing to the understanding of human character. Although the repeated sweeping assertions of some critics holds partly true for certain characters, a fastidious analysis of his characterization technique will prove to be otherwise for most characters. To illustrate the point, Dickens never overlooks the thoughts of the characters in characterization in Hard Times. Thomas Gradgrind talks about his educational philosophy in the opening chapter of Hard Times. Utilitarianism is only the philosophy on which he brings up his children. According to Leavis (1970:235), Dickens is unmistakably possessed by a comprehensive vision in Hard Times. Fostered and sanctioned by a hard philosophy, the inhumanities of Victorian civilization are described as the aggressive formulation of an inhumane spirit. The philosophy is represented by Thomas Gradgrind, Esquire, Member of Parliament for Coketown, who has brought up his children on the lines of the experiment recorded by John Stuart Mill as carried out on himself.‖ In Hard Times, Mr Gradgrind will become disappointed with the negative results of his of educational principles in the life of his children. He explains his philosophy in the class as follows: Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Facts; nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle on which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which I bring up these children. Stick to Facts, sir! (HT:3) Believing in utilitarianism, Thomas Gradgrind is a man of realities, facts, and calculations. He never accepts anything he could not measure and weigh. He thinks that any parcel of human nature is a mere question of simple arithmetic. He never finds it useful to have imagination. He never wonders about human nature, human passion, and human hopes and fears. The struggles, triumphs, defeats, the cares, joys and sorrows, the life and death of common men and women are not significant for Thomas Gradgrind. Generally speaking, Dickens‘s characters are not fully developed in a single page or in a chapter. Dickens goes on conferring new particulars and new dramatic features to them until the last chapter of the novel. His characters are akin to dramatis personae, rather than novel characters. They are individualized particularly with their speech features. Ford (1967:61) asserts a similar view about their speech properties when he says: 566 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The whole question of particulars and universals ought to be related to the context in which the characters are placed rather than be settled off hand by rigid prescription. The uniqueness of Dickens‘s most successful creation is readily apparent in their speech. Linguistic writers define idiolect as a definitive word denoting the specific and personal speech quality of an individual, which differentiates individuals from each other like finger prints. Visible in diction, pronunciation, structure and sense, an individual has a unique speech quality at different language levels. Sometimes an individual continually uses certain linguistic expressions. Aware of these language differences, a novelist pays particular attention to these features and highlights them when creating a character. As a result, characters become different in terms of language at the very beginning. They appear to the reader as unique individuals. Of the particular idiolectial characteristics, fixed phrases and expression are frequently used in characterization. Williams (1973:32) points to the same observation, claiming that Dickens‘s characters, either men or women, are heard to speak in some fixed phrases and in some fixed expressions. Almost every character reveals his own personality, background, and reality with these fixed phrases. The fixed expressions, or to use linguistic term of the idiolectial features, imply to the reader the social position, class, regional and ethnic distinctiveness, educational level of characters, and even their real personality, along with their differentiation through bold lines. Dickens pays much attention to their speech qualities and diligently forms a different language for his characters. Brook (1970:138) voices a similar view about his characters when he says: Dickens took a lot of trouble to individualize the speech of his characters, and for many of them he devised what has been called special language. What Dickens often applies in characterization as an interesting technique is to use various fixed phrases. In David Copperfield, Barkis wants David to take a message to Pegotty. The content of the massage is that ―Barkis is willin.‖ This simple coach-driver expresses his intention to marry Pegotty with such a fixed phrase. (DC:66) However, the reader hears that expression from Barkis wherever he appears in the novel. Even when he dies, the reader hears him say that ―Barkis is willin.‖ Some characters seem to be caricatures because of too much stress on such individual features of speech. Penny (1920:112) suggests a similar view about the characterization of Barkis: In David Copperfield, ― Barkis is always "willin.‖ These repeated idiosyncrasies of talk, or face or disease, of manner undoubtedly help to accentuate the individuality of the character, but if too exclusive reliance is placed upon them it is just to turn them, whether in a book or upon the stage, into caricatures. Likewise, Uriah Heep is always heard to say ―I am much too Umble‖ in David Copperfield and he is marked with such an expression with an ironic tone. Heep learns this word at a boarding school. ―I‘m umble‖ (DC:2) He repeats this sentences to mask all his mischief. As in creation of other characters, Dickens is not slow to show his repetition and intonation. At first, he makes Heep a different person from other characters and makes him a distinct though bad character. Leech and Short (1981:167) clearly explicate the relevant point when they say: The most familiar lexical contribution to characterization (combined with graphological marker) is Uriah Heep's harping on the adjective ―umble‖ in David Copperfield a good example of how even a single word may encapsulate idiolectial expression of a character. By the same token, Mr Micawber, one of Uriah Heep‘s victims in David Copperfield, always addresses to David as ―my dear Copperfield.‖ In Bleak House, Jo becomes a memorable character with his words ―I dont know nothink‖ (BH:574) This simple street sweeper, who only knows his name is Jo and simply expresses his ignorance with multiple negations in his words: ―I dont know nothink about no.‖ In Little Dorrit, Mrs Plornish, able to deceive any human being under any circumstances, has a peculiar way of taking a turn in speech with such a phrase, ―Not to deceive you‖ (LD:178) Her trick to deceive people is to use such a form of speech. Blandois conceals the awful aspect of his personality using such a phrase as ―Frankness is a part of my character.‖ (LD:394) Blandois makes a thick catalogue about his own personality: filling in the subject position of this remark, he attaches some nice attributes to his evil character. ―Fairness is a part of my character‖, and ―Chivalry towards the sex is a part of my character.‖ (LD:401) In spite of being a mean blackmailer and prison dweller, Blandois has other positive qualifications. As he usually claims, Blandois is an ardent, sensitive, conscientious, and imaginative man. (LD:408) 567 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dickens uses a further idiolectial feature in character creation. Interjections and exclamations are frequently employed to depict a character. Mr Dorrit has difficulty finding proper words in his daily conversation during his new life after his imprisonment for his debts. He fills the pause in his speech with some strange sounds or interjections ―Ha hum.‖ (LD:531). With some sounds, he takes time to speak correctly. (LD:675). Though often unable to keep the physical property of a character in his mind, the reader can easily remember the usual fixed phrases precisely. In Hard Times, Dickens reflects the manner of articulation for Mr Sleary. His speech seems to be heard by the reader while reading. ‗Any way,‘ said Sleary, after putting his lips to his brandy and water, ‗ith fourteen month ago. Thquire, thinthe we wath at chethter. We wath getting up our children in the wood one morning, when there cometh into our ring, by the thtage door, a dog. He had travelled a long way, he wath in very bad condition, he wath lame, and pretty well blind. He went round to our children, one after another, as if he wath a teheeking for a child he know‘d: and then he come to me, and throwd hithelf up behind, and thotood on hith two fore-legth, weak ath he wath, and then he wagged with tail and died. Thquire, that dog wath Marryleght. (H.T:290) Dickens individualizes Mr Sleary with his eccentric pronunciations. That dialogue runs between Mr Sleary and Gradgrind. Dickens inserts ‗th‖ sound into his speech instead of the ―S‖ sound. Dickens records his speech features so sensitively and precisely almost as if he were a tape-recorder. Dickens employs clothing style to create a colorful character. In Great Expectations, Miss Havisham dressed in rich materials- satins, and lace, and silks- all of white. ―Her shoes were white. And she had a long white veil dependent from her hair, and she had bridal flowers in her hair, but her hair was white. Some bright jewels sparkled on her neck and on her hands, and some other jewels lay sparkling on the table. Dresses, less splendid than the dress she wore, and half-packed trunks, were scattered about. She had not quite finished dressing, for she had but one shoe on - the other was on the table near her hand - her veil was but half arranged, her watch and chain were not put on, and some lace for her bosom lay with those trinkets, and with her handkerchief, and gloves, and some flowers, and a prayer-book, all confusedly heaped about the looking-glass.‖ (GE:62) Pip infers that everything within his view which ought to be white, was white long ago, and lost its luster, and is faded and yellow. The bride within the bridal dress has withered like the dress, and like the flowers, and has no brightness except for the brightness of her sunken eyes. With words, Dickens paints the disappointment of a bride whose bridegroom did not come to the wedding ceremony. It is difficult to imagine a better way to show Miss Havisham and her disappointment than this vivid description though it may seem comic to some. Through the description of her possessions, the verbal picture of the disappointed bride becomes more long lasting and more colorful. Although Miss Havisham is statically portrayed, her conscience develops. She expresses her repentance to have nurtured Estella to wreak revenge on men without mercy. Professing her repentance to Pip, she begs his pardon before the fire has erupted in Satis House. In the same manner, Mrs Joe almost always wears a coarse apron full of pins and needles. She never takes it off during her life in Great Expectations. In addition, her meek husband, Joe Gargery puts on a leather apron in his forge, not to mention his pipe which he smokes when he needs some speculations. The leather apron is so integrated into his characterization that his Sunday suit seems strange on him when he visits Pip in Barnard‘s Inn in London. On top of that, Joe Gargery‘s black hat becomes a big problem for him during this visit. He feels at a loss as to where he should put it and keeps it in his hands just like a birds nest. His clumsy behavior makes Pip ashamed of him before his gentleman friend Herbert Pocket. (GE:266). It would be rather difficult to think of these characters without their unusual garments in the novel. Spectacles and some objects have a similar function in characterization. In Oliver Twist, Mr Brownlow is an old gentleman, with gold spectacles. He is dressed in a bottle-green coat with a black velvet collar. He wears white trousers and carries a smart bamboo cane under his arm. With such a description Mr Brownlow gains a white-haired respectable personage. (OT:114). In Bleak House, Sir Leicester reads the article in the newspaper through his double-glassed spectacles. (BH:458). In Little Dorrit, Bar waves his double eye-glasses several times while speaking with Mrs Merdle. (LD:770). From character to character, the structure of eyeglasses and the material of which they are made change. But they become indispensable parts of these characters and conspicuously complete their characterization. 568 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Symbolically making considerable contribution to their characterization, pet animals are used to create characters. In Oliver Twist, Sikes is a cruel member of Fagins‘ gang. He has a devoted dog which never leaves him. In the story, Sikes kills Nancy and runs away. Walking and running on the roofs of the houses so as not to be arrested by the police and people behind him, he loses his balance and accidentally falls down from the roof. In the accident, the murderer swings lifeless against a big wall. At the same time, his dog runs to and fro on the parapet and jumps for the dead man‘s shoulders with a dismal howl. Missing his aim, the dog falls into a ditch, striking his head against a stone, dashing out his brains. Sikes and his loyal dog are so integrated that even their destiny is the same. (OT:453) In Little Dorrit, the painter Gowan has a dog named ―Lion,‖ which begins to roar when he sees Blandois. Gowan smothers the dog, kicks him several times, and threatens to kill if it does not calm down. Gowan‘s merciless behavior towards his dog symbolically reveals his cruel personality under his artistic soul. (LD:346). In Hard Times, Mr Jupe possesses a trained dog named Merrylegs, which likes him so much. Unsuccessful in his shows, Mr Jupe runs away from the circus. Because of his recent failures, he does not want to be a disgrace for his only daughter. Nobody knows where he is. One day Merrylegs comes back to the circus in a terrible condition to find Cecilia. Too weak, lame and blind, the dog dies in front of Mr Sleary. The circus people infer that Mr Jupe has died. Otherwise, his trained dog would have never deserted him. Its loyalty to him is so strong that it will never separate from his master as long as he lives. (HT:290) In Bleak House, Mr Krook is characterized with his cap, eye-glasses, and a grey cat on his shoulder. Ada and Miss Summerson visit Mr Krook in his shop. When they leave the shop, they look back and see Mr Krook standing at his shop-door, in his spectacles looking after them, with the cat upon his shoulder, and her tail sticking out from one side of his hairy cap, like a tall feather.(BH:108) In addition, a little old lady, one of Mr Krook‘s neighbors, keeps a bird collection. When Ada, Richard Carstone, and Ester Summerson look for Mr Krook, a little old lady invites them to her simple house. This old lady is a partner in the Jarndyce inheritance case. The old lady partly draws aside the curtains of the long low garret window, and calls their attention to a number of bird cages hanging there, perhaps at least twenty. Some of the cages contain several birds. There are larks, linnets, and gold-finches in the cages. She keeps these little creatures with the intention of restoring them to liberty when the Jarndyce case has settled. She has no hope to set them free since they die one by one in cage. The life of the poor creatures is so short in comparison with the Chancery proceedings, that the whole collection has died over and over again. The little old lady thinks that it will be such a mortifying situation for her that even one of them will not live to be free though they are all young. The death of the birds is a contrastive symbol of the long Chancenery proceedings, for it takes forty years to solve this inheritance case even with the fiasco.(BH:104). Mr Boythorn is associated with a very precious canary. When he speaks with Mr Jarndyce, Mr Boythorn says that he has left an annuity for the sole support of this little canary, in case he should outlive him. The canary is so tame that he is brought down by Mr Boythorn‘s man, on his forefinger, and after taking a gentle flight round the room, alights on his master‘s head. Mr Boythorn is a happy, sincere and mild man. Quietly perching on his forehead, the tame canary is an amusing illustration of his temperament. (BH:168) As Ghent (1967:24) stated, ―things like animal pets have adopted the disposition and expression of their masters.‖ Animal pets associated with these characters symbolically reflect their personalities. Dickens successfully uses chronic diseases to create excellent characters. In Bleak House, the lawyer Mr Vholes turns down the invitation made by Mr Jarndyce to have lunch, for his digestion is impaired. The consequence might be bad for him if he is to partake of solid food at that period of the day.(BH:673) Mr Snagby, a law-stationer, displays a habit of coughing which expresses his comportments. When Mr Tulkinghorn questions him about Nemo‘s death, Mr Snagby‘s coughs assume several meanings during the inquiry. Mr Snagby replays all the questions with an apologetic cough, with a cough of general propitiation, and with his deferential cough. He continues his explanation after a cough of consideration behind.(BH:192) Mr Tulkinghorn offers wine to him. Mr Snagby drinks and murmurs with an admiring cough. (BH:360) Mr Snagby coughs as if to determine the function of his sentence. In order to make them more remarkable, Dickens assigns several interesting gestures and mimics to his characters. In Bleak House, Mr Chadband stretches his flabby hands, like a bear paw when he speaks. Fixing some members of his congregation with his eye, Mr Chadband fatly argues his points with that particular person. (BH:412) Mr Bucket also has a fat forefinger. When he has a matter under his consideration, his fat forefinger seems to rise to the dignity of a familiar demon. He put it to his ears, and it whispers information; he puts it to his lips, and it enjoins him to secrecy; he rubs it over his nose, and it sharpens his scent; he shakes it before a guilty man, and it charms him to his destruction. The Augurs of Detective Temple invariably predict that when Mr Bucket and that finger are in much conference, a terrible avenge will be heard of before long. (BH:768) Brook (1970:185) points out the character gestures and explains the following concerning Dickens‘s character: 569 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Just as many Dickensian characters use habitual phrases, by which they can be recognized, some of them have habitual gestures... Gesture language is most common among low-life characters, but it is not confined to them. As stated by Brook, some of the characters, either from high or from low class, have habitual gestures during their speech. In this way, the reader is able to tell the difference between them. Furthermore, various tools and objects are used to create unforgettable characters. In Bleak House, the reader always sees Jo with his broom. Jo is so simple and pure that he only knows that lies are lies and it is necessary to be grateful to the person who does something good for him. Jo always sweeps the marble steps of the church and those of Mr Krook‘s grave, who has given him some money in the street. As a sign of gratitude, Jo cleans the steps of his grave very often. (BH:272). The objects in Mrs Badger‘s house contribute to her characterization. Mrs Badger gets married three times. Two portraits of her diseased husbands are on the wall. The first is Swosser, a captain in the Royal Navy. The second is Professor Dino , a famous man in Europe. To keep Dickens‘s style, Mrs Badger is surrounded in the drawing-room by various objects, indicative of her painting a little, playing the piano a little, playing the guitar a little, playing the harp a little, singing a little, working a little, reading a little, writing poetry a little, and botanizing a little. She is a lady of fifty, youthfully dressed and of a very fine complexion. If the writer adds, to the little list of her accomplishments, that she roughed a little, the narrator does not mean that there is any harm in it.(BH:224). Moreover, wheel chairs are also used in the same manner. In Little Dorrit, Mrs Clennam sits in her wheel-chair because she becomes a disabled woman. Whenever someone wants to speak with her, he must push her chair towards the table in the sitting room. Mrs Clennam also keeps a stool beside the table for the person to speak with her. It becomes usual to push her chair to the table in the house. Her step son, Mr Arthur Clennam pushes her chair to the table when he wants to have a special talk with her. (LD:745). In Great Expectations, Miss Havisham holds a wheel chair in Satis house. Miss Havisham sits in her chair when Pip comes there. She first makes her exercise for her joints walking in the rooms resting on Pip‘s shoulder. When she gets tired, Miss Havisham sits in the chair and Pip pushes her wheel chair through all the dark rooms of Satis House.(GE:104) While creating a particular character, Dickens maintains a striking perspective naturally attaching importance to the obvious typical details. A close relationship is obtained between perspective and typology. According to Lukas (1969:64), it is not a coincidence that such writers as Balzac, Stendhal, and especially Tolstoy and Dickens have created typical and universal characters. Only great realist novelists are able to comprehend different actions and new directions in a historical process and reflect them precisely. Great writers recognize new directions in which human behavior forms, existing types develop and newer types emerge. In addition, Lukas (1969:108) also discusses the novel techniques which reflect society within and without. Many realist writers use these techniques and both of them may be put into practice in the same work. As said by Lukas, Dickens sets the best example for these methods. Dickens examines aristocratic and noble people from the outside, common people from inside. Dickens is an illuminative writer in the social background of these events. Every novelist tends to reflect from inside the life of the society in which he lives. He will work on the characterization of a representative character for the other social classes from outside. On the other hand, Dickens creates hundreds of characters to populate a small town. The characters in his novels are so crowded that it is rather difficult to count all of them. Unforgettable men and women in literature, most characters diffuse into the daily routines and language of English people with their specific vivacity. They are diverse and comic but equally entertaining creatures. According to Zweig (1949:235), Dickens creates many kinds of individuals with traits as if he took their photographs. They have unusual occupations, and plunge into unusual adventures. No matter how crowded they are, none of them are similar to one another. The personality of each character is described from the obvious traits to the utmost details. Almost each of them represent an existing and living individuality, rather than remaining a human outline and rough draft. Seen though the comic perspective of an exceptional novelist, the characters are depicted as they are in reality, rather than in isolation. More importantly, Dickens has his character act in accordance with the expected persona in the situation into which he was placed. In psychology, persona is defined as the mask that an individual ought to wear in compliance with the social expectations. An individual frequently possesses some tendencies to behave in a proper way as is expected of him, to meet the educational and social expectations in life, to develop certain behaviors suitable to the established social traditions and norms. G. C. Jung is the first to use the concept of persona. According to Jung, individuals come into interaction and keep the external relations with the society through ‗persona‘. Dickens places most of the characters in different situations in his novels and reflects their 570 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo personas in various actions and occupations. Through their personas, characters inevitably reveal their inner world and deeper personalities. Sucksmith (1970:46) stresses this point: Often Dickens represents the inner life of a character through the activity of the persona, a process which is not only psychologically accurate but typical of the way most people do express an inner life of which they are unconscious. Action is a sound and safe way to reveal and develop a character. Dickens therefore shows the actions of his characters. He describes their mannerisms, their reactions, and their behaviors towards other characters. Full and round characters are those that develop with their actions. In Hard Times, almost all characters are round since they develop with their actions. Mr Gradgrind is a serious utilitarian character. However, a great change is observed in his character when he gets the result of his philosophy. After Lousia has explained her unhappiness in her marriage, Mr Gradgrind changes drastically; he makes himself responsible for her sorrow. His suspicion about his system grows comprehensive to include the past, the present, and the future. He feels overwhelmed. Mr Gradgrind thinks that the grounds on which he stands have ceased to be solid under his feet. He is stunned by the discovery that his daughter is not pleased with her matrimony and his well-educated son is a disgraceful burglar. With a freezing frustration, he later realizes the truth. He has administered his hard system to his children. He bears the responsibility for their failures though he meant to bring them up properly. Mr Gradgrind‘s sympathetic action in Sissy‘s case makes his well wishing personality by far clearer. Together with Mr Bounderby, he goes to the circus to meet Mr Jupe. Sissy will not be admitted at his school any more. Mr Gradgrind learns that Mr Jupe has gone away lest he should be a disgrace to his daughter because of the recent failures in his job. Circus people have no expectation about his return. In the new circumstances, Mr Gradgrind makes a different proposal regarding her education. He expresses his new decision to take charge of Sissy at his private school again. Accepting his suggestion, Cecilia goes to Stone Lodge to get some practical education. Mr Gradgrind makes an effective effort to send Tom, his son, abroad as he has learned about the theft in the bank. As a result, Tom will not be punished for his crime. In the circus scene, Mr Gradgrind implores Bitzer, his graduate student, to let his son go. But for the change in his personality, he would have no mercy for his son and let him suffer for his crime in prison. All these well-meaning actions and conduct make Mr Gradgrind a round and full character. Dickens creates Cecilia Jupe as a symbol of goodness. Showing her grateful action, Dickens depicts her as a compassionate and considerate girl. Always assistant to Mrs Gradgrind in the housework, Cecilia tenderly looks after her little daughter Jane. Cecilia changes the atmosphere of this hard-disciplined house into a loving and affectionate home. Helpless and miserable with her marriage, Lousia comes back to the stone lodge. Cecilia always supports Lousia. Sucksmith (1970:125) asserts that ―without a full appreciation of the sympathetic link between Sissy and Lousia, we cannot grasp either Lousia‘s character or the function of Sissy in the novel.‖ Cecilia always protects Louisa when she is in trouble. Cecilia also goes to the hotel and tells Mr James Harthouse to leave the town. In addition, Cecilia becomes a consoling and comforting friend for Racheal when Stephen disappears. Stephen is not the culprit responsible for the bank robbery, which is clear from his last words to Mr Gradgrind. Tom is the only person responsible for the robbery. Making a plan, Cecilia advises Tom to go to the circus people, who will be willing to harbor him for her sake. But for her simple plan, Tom would be arrested. Her thoughtful action saves Tom from being punished for the robbery. Racheal is also characterized with her actions. Anxious about his problems, Racheal sends Stephen a message and tells him to return Coketown. The workers begin to suspect Stephen of the bank robbery. She strives to prove that Stephen is an honest and respectable man. She requests that Lousia should make an explanation about her visit to Stephen‘s house. During her visit, Lousia offers Stephen Blackpool a large sum of money to help him. Stephen accepts her offer only as a debt and takes two pounds for his fare. Moreover, Mr Bounderby is developed with his rough and practical manners. He is a self-made humbug. Dragging by the collar, Mrs Sparsit brings his real mother, Mrs Pegler to his mansion. A group of curious people gathers in his dining room. At the sight of this uninvited party, Mr Bounderby becomes confounded rather than hospitable. He shouts at Mrs Sparsit for her meddling into his private life. He shows the door to the people, and orders them to go away immediately. There follows a conversation about the cruelty to her son between Mr Gradgrind and Mrs Pegler, Mr Bounderby‘s real mother. Her responses to all the questions clarify her son‘s deceptive conduct. Additionally, Mr Bounderby is always characterized with his rough and arrogant behavior. His conduct is also violent and careless when he looks for Lousia, his young wife in Stone Lodge. Such are his manners in the circus, where he and Mr Gradgrind have paid a quick visit to inform them that they do not want Cecilia at the school. 571 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mrs Sparsit‘s actions are not different from those of her boss, Mr Bounderby. She drags Mrs Pegler to make an explanation about Stephen‘s whereabouts, for Mrs Pegler was seen with Stephen Blackpool in front of Mr Bounderby‘s house. Mrs Sparsit is jealous of Lousia. Sparsit imagines a staircase, from the steps of which Lousia goes lower and lower in her friendship with Mr James Harthouse. For this reason, Mrs Sparsit always wishes Lousia to make a scandalous mistake and bring disgrace to the reputation of her husband. Watching her relationship with Mr Harthouse, she always pursues Lousia. Mrs Sparsit keeps an unrelenting watch on her in the country house. She chases Lousia across the entire road dividing Coketown from the country house. Mrs Sparsit maintains a cat-like observation of Lousia, through her husband, through her brother, through James Harthouse, and through the outside of letter and packets. Mrs Sparsit also uses Bitzer as a spy in the bank. Often seated with her iron needlework at the window, Mrs Sparsit acts as a guardian over the bank. To reveal and develop their persona in most cases, Dickens uses the idiosyncratic actions and conduct of all these characters in Hard Times. CONCLUSION Charles Dickens is a successful novelist in characterization. In spite of the sweeping assertions over his characters, many memorable characters are created through his excellent genius and warm heart in English literature. Because he has unique talent with characterization, many readers all over the world believe that his characters are interesting enough. They can easily count several of his characters when questioned. It is not a sheer coincidence that various readers still know his characters very well. Many readers are able to remember them due to his interesting creation. In contrast to some views of the critics, Dickens must have an unusual characterization technique. Otherwise, most readers would have already forgotten all of his characters. A number of his characters seem so flat and simple as to be explained in a few words. However, an unnoticed aspect of his mastery may emerge when his characters are thoroughly examined. The suggestion of some critics is partly true that Dickens‘s characters have no inner life. Many of them do not have inner life because they do not need to in the general artistic structure of the novels. For my part, critics must have a clearer conscience and a truer perception. Dickens is simply a novelist, not God. They had better be more merciful, more reliable, and more precise in their criticism. One of the things they often overlook is that Dickens creates character through their action, where they are seen in interaction, transaction, and not simply with a physical description in a flash. Proper or improper by the norms of Victorian society, most characters come alive with their usual actions, reflecting their inner world. Dickens creates many memorable characters in his novels and makes them equally credible. In this regard, the reader should decide on the credibility and the vitality of his characterization on safer grounds. When postulating a fictional world, Dickens bestows such compound personal traits as may be missed at first glance to stress the individuality of a character. Dickens especially shows the choices, habits, inclinations, consciousness, intelligence, and sentimentality of almost each significant character in the story. Precise information about these points is frequently influential to understand accurately the identity and social image of a character. Furthermore, Dickens uses the thoughts of a character on specific subjects. The thoughts such characters intensify the depth and dimension. Without some thought, these characters would seem like a dummy model. They have certain thoughts, ideology, and prejudices. Their thoughts are revealed in discussions, in materials and in flashbacks. To give his due rights, Dickens shows the thought and the reasoning processes of his characters when dictated by the structure of the novel. 572 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Brook, G. L. (1970). The Language of Dickens. London: Andre Deutsch. Collins, Phillip. (1962). Dickens and Crime. London: Macmillan. (Ref:1964) Dickens, Charles. Bleak House, London: Penguin. (ref:1971 and abbreviated as BH) _____________. David Copperfield, London: Longman. (ref:1966 and abbreviated as DC) _____________. Great Expectations, London: Longman. (ref:1975 and abbreviated as GE) _____________. Hard Times, London: Longman. (ref:1973 and abbreviated as HT) _____________. Little Dorrit, London: Penguin Books. (ref:1985 and abbreviated as GE) _____________. Oliver Twist , London: Penguin Books. (ref:1985 and abbreviated as OT) Ford, George H. (1967). The Poet and the Critics of Probability. Dickens: a Collection of Critical Essays. Martin Price. (Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Ghent, Dorothy Van. (1967). The Dickens World: a View from Todger‘s Dickens. Dickens: a Collection of Critical Essays. Martin Price. (Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. James, Henry. (1981). Selected Literary Criticism. Morris Saphira. (Ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leavis, F. R. and Q. D. Leavis. (1970). Dickens the Novelist. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Leech, N. Geoffrey and Michael Short. (1981). Style in Fiction. London: Longman. Lucas, Gyôrgy. (1969). The Meaning of Contemporary Realism. (ÇağdaĢ Gerçekçiliğin Anlamı. Cevat Çapan. (trans.). Ġstanbul: Payel Yayınevi.) Orwell, George. (1953). Decline of English Murder and Other Essays. London: Penguin Books. Perry, Bliss. (1920). A Study of Prose Fiction. Cambridge: the Riverside Press. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. Sucksmith, Harvey Peter. (1970). The Narrative Art of Charles Dickens. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Thomashevsky, Boris. (1955). Thematics. Russian Formalist Criticism Four Essays. Lee T. Lemon and Marion J. Reis. (trans.) Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. William, Raymond. (1973). The English Novel. London: Chatto and Windus. Zweig, Stefan. (1979) Three Great Men: Dostoyevsky, Balzac and Dickens. (Üç Bùyùk Adam: Dostoyevsky, Balzac and Dickens Ayda Yùrùkan. Ankara: Tur yayınları.) 573 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 86 Title A name given to the resource Dickens and his Memorable Characterization Author Author ÇAKIR, Dr. Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. Charles Dickens is a distinguished novelist and an influential figure in the Victorian period. In spite of that, some superficial observation and generalization is rife in critical commentaries about his novels. Such repeated assertions are not always the case when respectively applied to the characters and the novels of the writer. One of the achievements that Dickens possesses in connection with the art of his novels is his obvious success in creating memorable characters in his substantial novels. The power that lies under his striking success is that he uses so many interesting techniques to describe characters in detail. He uses many fixed phrases, styles of clothing, parts of jewelry, typical pets, chronic diseases, handy tools, elements of decorations, positions of the body, and mannerisms in using some external organs and the manners associated in daily life. Characters are marked with such techniques and these become indispensable parts of their characterization. Based on the actions and the manners, characters seen with these objects are easily recognized and remembered by the reader to the end of a particular novel. The vivid, colorful, credible and lifelike characters and the techniques used for their creation prove the matchless mastery of the writer. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1f70202babf6240f2597e3dae9a42f40.pdf 480b001bc63646c45d4dd57383c97bee PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ġki Dilli Ortamlarda Türkiye Türkçesinin Öğretimi (Semerkand Örneğinde) Mustafa Çetin International Burch University, Sarajevo Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı mcetin@ibu.edu.ba Zeynel Polat Yunus Emre Vakfı, Sarajevo ozbekturk04@hotmail.com Özet:Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin çağdaĢ anlamda yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminin kısa geçmiĢi olmasına rağmen bu alanda çok ciddi geliĢmeler kaydedilmiĢtir. Dùnyadaki değiĢim ve geliĢmeler Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin evrensel ve bilimsel boyutta ôğretimini zorunlu kılmaktadır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin iki dilli ortamlarda ôğretimine bu açıdan yaklaĢılmaktadır. Çok dilli ve çok kùltùrlù bir ortam olan Özbekistan‘ın Semerkand Ģehrinde, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi sùrecinde gôzlemlenen bazı problemler ôrneklerle ortaya konulmuĢtur. Anahtar Sözcükler:Ġkidillilik, Tùrkçenin yabancı dil olarak ôğretimi, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi. GiriĢ Yabancı dil ôğretiminin giderek ônemli bir alan haline geldiği gôrùlmektedir. 21. Yùzyılla birlikte dùnyada meydana gelen siyasi değiĢim ve globalleĢme yabancı dil ôğretimini, ôğrenimini tetiklemiĢtir. Avrupa Birliği çok kùltùrlùlùğù ve çok dilliliği destekleyen projeler geliĢtirmiĢtir. Dil pasaportu tùm Avrupa ùlkelerinde geçerli olacak Ģekilde standart hale getirilmiĢtir. Avrupa‘da serbest dolaĢım hakkı ve iĢ izni alabilmek için her Avrupa vatandaĢının bu pasaportu yanında taĢıması gerekli olacaktır(Demirel, 2007:24). Bu pasaport çok dilliliği teĢvik eden bir projedir. Siyasi değiĢiklikler neticesinde dağılan Sovyetler Birliğinden bağımsızlığını ilan eden Tùrk Cumhuriyetleri dùnya devletleri arasına katılmıĢtır. Doksanlı yıllarla birlikte Tùrkiye Cumhuriyeti, kardeĢ ve akraba Tùrk Cumhuriyetleri ile diplomatik mùnasebetler kurmuĢ ve her alanda iliĢkileri geliĢtirmiĢtir. KardeĢ devletler arasındaki iletĢimin en ônemli aracını dil teĢkil etmektedir. Onun için ivedilikle karĢılıklı ôğrenci değiĢimleri, okullar açma, ortak komisyonlar kurma faaliyetlerine giriĢilmiĢtir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin akraba topluluklara ôğretimi gùndeme gelmiĢtir. Bu konuda Tùrkiye Cumhuriyeti hazırlıksız yakalanmıĢtır. Tùrk Lehçelerinin hemen hepsinin kôkeni Tùrkçe olsa da farklılıklar bulunmaktadır. Farklılıklar ôzellikle sôzcùk hazinesinde, sôzdiziminde ve fonetikte hatta morfolojide de kendini gôstermektedir. Ġki Tùrk lehçesinin uzun sùren ayrılıkları, farklı dil ve kùltùrlerden etkilenmeleri iki dili birbirine yabancılaĢtırmıĢtır. Tùrk lehçelerinin farklılığına ilk defa KaĢgarlı Mahmut Dîvan ı Løgati‘t Tùrk eserinde değinmiĢtir. Tùrk dili VII. ve VIII. Yùzyıldan baĢlayarak XIII. yùzyıla kadar uzanan dônemde tek yazı dili halinde yaĢamıĢtır. Eski Tùrkçe‘de A.Von Gabain, beĢ farklı ağız tesbit etmiĢtir. Eski Tùrkçe‘den sonraki devrede Tùrkçe Farklı yazı dillerine bôlùnmùĢtùr. Tùrkistan diye adlandırdığımız Orta Asya Tùrk coğrafyası ve toplulukların parçalanarak bùyùk kitleler halinde Hazar denizinin kuzeyinden ve gùneyinden, Kuzey ve Gùney batıya doğru gitmeleri, yeni kùltùr merkezlerinin meydana gelmesi ile birlikte birçok yeni kavramın toplum hayatında yer alması ve yeni yazının kullanılması gibi dıĢ sebepler ile Tùrk‘lerin kendi iç yapılarında meydana gelen tabiî değiĢmeler farklı lehçelerin ve yazı dillerinin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuĢtur(Karaôs,2005:38). Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin akraba topluluklara yabancı dil yaklaĢımıyla ôğretilmesini zorunlu kılmıĢtır. Tùrk dili, coğrafi sınırları aĢmıĢ ve daha yaygın bir dil olma ôzelliğini kazanma yoluna girmiĢtir. Tùrkçe, bir dùnya dili olma yolundadır. UNESCO tarafından yapılan bir tesbite gôre, gùnùmùzde Çince 1.200 milyon, Ġngilizce 427 milyon, Ġspanyolca 266 milyon, Hintçe 182 milyon, Urduca 233 milyondur. Bunlardan sonra beĢinci dil, 200 milyon konuĢanı ile Tùrkçedir (Karaôrs, 2005:30). Özellikle dùnyanın farklı coğrafyalarında açılan Tùrk okulları sayesinde Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin evrensel bir değer kazanması onun ôğretiminin de bilimsel ve evrensel bir bakıĢ açısıyla yapılmasını zorunlu kılmaktadır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin iki dilli ortamlarda ôğretilmesi konusu ônemli gôrùlmektedir. Tùrk Cumhuriyetlerinden olan Özbekistan‘ın 366 366 Özbekistan, 20 Haziran 1990'da egemenliğini, 1 Eylùl 1991'de bağımsızlığını ilan etmiĢtir. 29 Aralık 1991 tarihinde dùzenlenen referandumla bağımsızlık ilanı onaylanmıĢtır. Özbekistan bağımsızlığını kazandıktan sonra geliĢmiĢ ùlkelerle ôzellikle ekonomik anlamda iliĢkiler kurmuĢtur. Özbekistan zengin yeraltı kaynaklarını dıĢ ùlkelere satma imkânı bulmuĢtur. Özbekistan çok eskiye dayanan kôklù devlet geleneği sayesinde bağımsızlığını kazandıktan kısa sùre sonra Orta Asya'nın gùçlù devleti hâline gelmiĢtir ve gùnùmùzde de Orta Asya liderliği konusunda Kazakistan ile 1373 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Semerkand367 Ģehrinde geçmiĢ yıllarda yaptığımız Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi çalıĢmaları iki dilli ortamda Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimine ôrnek olarak dùĢùnùlmektedir. Ġki dilli ortamlarda Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde karĢılaĢılan problemler ve çôzùm ônerileri Semerkand ôrneğinde değerlendirilecektir. Semerkand, Özbekistan‘ın zengin tarihi ve kùltùrel mirasın bulunduğu, geçmiĢte Timuriler devletinin baĢkentliğini yapmıĢ, çok dilli, çok kùltùrlù, gùzel bir Ģehridir. Semerkand‘da yaĢayanlar arasında Farsça, Rusça ve Tùrkçe (Özbek Tùrkçesi) ana dili seviyesinde bilinmekte ve konuĢulmaktadır. Ġki Dillilik ve Türkiye Türkçesinin Öğretimi YaĢamın herhangi bir evresinde anadilinden baĢka ikinci bir dili bir ôlçùde kullanmaya baĢlayan bir kiĢi ―iki dillilik‖ dônemine girmiĢ sayılmakla birlikte, henùz iki dilliliğin tanımında bir uzlaĢma yoktur. Kimilerine gôre ikinci dilde dinleme, konuĢma, okuma, yazma becerilerinden birini en alt dùzeyde kullanabilen kiĢi; baĢkalarına gôre ise iki ayrı dili, dil iĢlemleri arasında herhangi bir giriĢim / karıĢtırma olmaksızın kullanabilen kiĢi; ya da iki ve daha çok dili, anadili ôlçùsùnde kullanabilen kiĢi iki dilli sayılmaktadır (Demircan, 2005:20). Ġki dillilik, uzun sùre bir kiĢinin ikinci dili kendi anadili kadar rahat konuĢma yetisi olarak kabul edilmiĢtir (Kıran, 2006:277). Ġki dillilik kiĢinin ana dili dıĢında baĢka bir dili de en az bir etkinlik dùzeyinde rahatlıkla kullanabilmesidir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında Semerkand‘daki halkın iki hatta çok dilli olduğu dùĢùnùlmektedir. Dil kùltùrùn taĢıyıcısı olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Ġki dilli ortamlarda kùltùrùn daha zengin olduğu ifade edilmektedir. Dilsel gôrecelik açısından bakıldığında, Whorf ve Vygotsky‘ye gôre, iki dilliliğin dùĢùnce ùzerinde derin etkisi olduğunu kabul etmek gerekiyor (Demircan, 2005:27). Ancak bu durum toplumsal çok dillilikle ilgili olarak bir artı olarak gôrùlmekle birlikte; dil ôğretimi açısından dùĢùnùldùğùnde bireysel ―dilyetisi‖ ôn plana çıkmaktadır. Bireyin her yeni dili ôğrenirken bazı zorluklarla karĢılaĢtığı gôzlemlenmiĢtir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin de iki dilli bir ortam olan Semerkand‘da ôğretimi karĢılaĢılan problemler açısından değerlendirilecektir. Bu yolla çok dilli ortamlarda yeni bir dilin yabancı dil mantığıyla ôğretiminin tabiatının araĢtırılmasına katkı sağlanmıĢ olunacaktır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi sùrecinde Semerkand‘da çok dilliliği sağlayan diller ùzerinden bazı tespitler ortaya konulacaktır. Bu çalıĢmada Semerkant Devlet Yabancı Diller Enstitùsù‘de ikinci dil olarak Tùrkiye Tùrkçesini seçen yaklaĢık 150 ôğrencinin ders içi ve ders dıĢı ôğrenme aktiviteleri gôz ônùnde tutularak bunların ôğrenmedeki ve konuĢmadaki problemleri ùzerinde duruldu. Kelime ve cùmleleri Özbek Tùrkçesi ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi olarak karĢılaĢtırıp hem benzerliği, hem de etimolojik yapı ile ilgili durumları gôsterildi. Semerkand‘da konuĢulan dillerden biri olan Özbek Tùrkçesi, zamanla meydana gelen lehçeleĢmenin etkisine girmiĢtir. Dilin kullanımı sırasında konuĢurlarında geriye ket vurma, aynı etimolojik kôkù paylaĢma, morfolojik rekabet hâlindedir. Bağımsızlığından gùnùmùze değin devlet baĢkanlığını Ġslam Kerimov yônetmektedir. Bir Tùrk devletidir. Bağımsız Özbekistan'ın 447.400 km2'lik bir yùz ôlçùmù bulunmaktadır. Özbekistan; Kazakistan, Tacikistan, Afganistan, Kırgızistan ve Tùrkmenistan'a komĢudur. BaĢkenti TaĢkent'tir. 2009 yılında nùfusu (tahminî) 27.488.000‘dir. http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96zbekistan/07.04.2011, saat 11:40. 367 Özbekistan'ın gùney kesiminde kent. ZeravĢan ırmağının vadisinde, TaĢkent'in 275 km gùneybatısında yeralan Semerkand'ın nùfusu 566,000'dir. Önemli bir sanayi ve ôğretim merkezi olan kent, Timur dôneminden kalma tarihsel anıtlarıyla çok sayıda turist de çekmektedir. Semerkand sôzù eski Farsça'da asmara: "taĢ", "kaya" ve Soğdça kand: "kent", "kale" birleĢmesinden gelir. Dùnyanın en eski Ģehirlerinden biri olan Semerkand, antik Yunanlıların Marakanda (eski Yunanca: Μαράκανδα) isminde tanıdığı, M.Ö. 14. yùzyıllarında ZeravĢan'nın (Yunanca: Polytimetos) verimli ovasında bir vaha Ģehri Persler tarıfından kurulmuĢ ve uzun sùre AhameniĢ Ġmparatorluğu'nda ônemli bir rol oynamıĢtır. Eskiçağ'da Soğdlar'ın yaĢadığı, M.Ö. 329'da Bùyùk Ġskender tarafından alınmĢtır. Semerkand 6. yùzyılda bir Tùrk Yabguların etki alanları içindeydi. Ġpek Yolu'nun ônemli bir kavĢağında kurulan kent, tarih boyunca gezginlerin uğrak noktası olmuĢtur. 14-15. yy'ların Semerkand'ın altın dônemi olarak kabul edilir. 1499 yılı içinde Özbek Tùrkleri Semerkant'ı kontrolùne aldı. ġiban sùlâlesi Özbeklere burada veya yaklaĢık olarak bu zamanda liderlik yaptığı gôrùlùr. 1784 yılında Semerkand Buhara emiri'nin buyuruğuna girmiĢtir. Semerkand, 1868'de Ruslara geçerek Tùrkistan'a bağlandı. 1924'ten 1930'a kadar Özbekistan Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti'nin baĢkenti oldu. Semerkand'ta Ġslâm Mimarisinin en gùzel ôrnekleri bulunur. ġehir UNESCO Dùnya Miras Alanları Listesine eklemiĢtir. Registan antik Semerkand'tın kalbidir. Anlamı "Kumlu yer" demektir. http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semerkand/07.04.2011, saat 12:00. 1374 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo açıdan ufak tefek farklılıklarla kullanılan bazı kelimelerin ÇağdaĢ Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde birtakım karıĢıklıklara sebep olduğu gôzlenmiĢtir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi‘nin ôğretilmesinde hedef kitle, bu dili konuĢtuğunu zanneder, gerçekte kelime benzerliği sebebiyle Özbek Tùrkçesini kullanmakta olduğunun farkına varamamaktadır. Bu husus dil ôğretiminde tamamen farklı aileden gelen bir dili ôğrenmekten daha zordur. Ayrıca, fazla zaman isteyen bir çalıĢmayı beraberinde getirmektedir. Özbekistan‘ın ikinci bùyùk Ģehri olan Semerkant‘ta Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi‘nin ôğretiminde etimolojik, morfolojik ortaklık ve Tùrk dilleri arasında sesteĢ sôzcùk ve sôzcùk guruplarının varlığı Tùrkiye Tùrkçesini ôğrenmeyi, konuĢmayı olumsuz etkilemektedir. Bunların bazılarına sırasıyla değinilecektir. A) Fonetik Açıdan Gözlemlenen Problemler: 1.Ses DeğiĢmeleri:“k----g”, “t----d”, “i----ı”, “o----e”, “a----e”, “o----a”, “u----o”, “q-g----k” ses değiĢmelerinin yol açtığı yanlıĢlar ôzellikle konuĢmalarda hisedilmektedir. Örneğin: ―keldi--geldi‖, ―til---dil‖, ―ilik---ılık‖ vb. 2.Kiril Alfabesi‘nden Latin Alfabesi‘ne Geçerken Harflerin OkunuĢunda ve YazılıĢında Meydana Gelen DeğiĢiklikler: Dili ôğrenen hedef kitlenin yazma çalıĢmasında en çok karĢılaĢılan sorunların baĢında gelmektedir. “ç----ch”, “Ģ---sh”, “ ö---o’ ”, “c----j,dj”, “e----e (okunuĢu (ye)”, “ı---i” 3.Ses ArtıĢı: Dilin doğal iĢleyiĢinde normal bir hadise olan ses ikilemeleri, çift ùnsùzlerin tekleĢmesi, ses değiĢimi, kelime baĢında ve sonunda ses değiĢimleri ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi, hem saha, hem de geçirdiği evreler sebebiyle birçok ses değiĢikliğine uğramıĢtır. Bu hadise dilin tekamùlù sùresi içinde normal bir hadisedir. 4.Sert Sessiz Harflerin BenzeĢmesi Hadisesi (Progresif Asimilasyon): Kelime içindeki bir sesin, niteliği veya boğumlanma noktası bakımından yanyana veya aralıklı duran bir baĢka sesle benzer veya eĢ duruma getirilmesi olayıdır. ―gitti---ketdi‖, ―uçtu---uçdi‖ 5.Metatez Hadisesi: Kelime içindeki komĢu veya uzak seslerin yer değiĢtirmesi olayıdır. (CoĢkun, 2000:26) ―yomg‘ır---yağmur‖, ―qo’shni < koshni < komĢi < komĢu‖ 6.Bağların düĢmesi Hadisesi: Kelimenin aslının kullanılması ile gùnùmùzdeki kullanılıĢı arasında yakın benzerlikten kaynaklanan geriye ket vurmayı gôsterir. Dili ôğrenen kiĢi ya da hedef kitle eski Tùrkçe metinleri okuduğunda bu kùçùk gibi gôrùnen hadisenin farkına varamamaktadır. ―küçücük---kichik + gina < kichikkina < kichkina”, “ aheste, yavaĢ<asta< (Farsça ohista)” B) EĢ Değerlerin Yorumlanmasına Dayalı Problemler: Tùrk lehçeleri arasında kôken birliğinden ve ses değiĢmelerinden kaynaklanan anlam ve anlatım değeri eĢ ya da çok yakın olan sôzcùkler vardır. Bu sôzcùklerle karĢılaĢan hedef kitle kendi ana diliyle benzerliğin olduğunu gôrùnce bazı ôn yargılar geliĢtirmektedir. Örneğin: Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde karĢılaĢtığı ―ana‖ ile Özbek Tùrkçesindeki ―åna‖ sôzcùklerine bakarak bu diller aynıdır. O halde; ‗Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi bir yabancı dil değildir‘ dùĢùncesi geliĢmektedir. Elbette bunun kısmen doğruluk payı vardır. Ancak, bu iki dil arasında azımsanmayacak farklılıklar da tespit edilmiĢtir. Buna bağlı olarak ôğrencilerin metin aktarmalarında ciddi hatalar yaptıkları tespit edilmiĢtir. EĢ değerlerin Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimine elbette olumlu katkıları da olmaktadır. Örneğin: Rusça ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde eĢ değer olan ―viĢne‖ ve benzer sôzcùklerden dolayı ôğrenci bu dillerin ve bu dilleri konuĢan halkların kùltùrel etkileĢimde bulunduklarını anlayabilmektedir. Bu da ôğretimde ilgi uyandırmaktadır. 1375 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Öğrencilerin motivasyonu dillerdeki eĢ değer sôzcùkler tespit edilip ôğrencilere verilerek sağlanmalıdır. C) SesteĢ(Yalancı EĢ Değerler) Sözcüklere Dayalı Problemler: Yalancı eĢ değerlerin bùtùn diller arasında bulunduğu ortaya konulmuĢtur. Yalancı eĢ değerler kôken birliği olan diller arasında ses değiĢmelerine, anlam değiĢmelerine bağlı olarak oluĢmaktadır. Ayrıca, yabancı dillerden ôdùnçlemeler yoluyla da yalancı eĢ değerler meydana gelmektedir. Aslında hiçbir dilde eĢ değer yoktur. Çùnkù sôzcùklerin anlatım ya da kavram dùzeyinde mutlaka dilden dile farklılıklar gôsterdikleri gôrùlmùĢtùr. O halde diller arasındaki eĢ değerlere de yalancı eĢ değerler denmesi yanlıĢ olmaz. Yalancı eĢ değerlere ôzellikle akraba diller arasında sıkça rastlanılmaktadır.Yalancı eĢ değerler Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde ôğrenciler tarafından yapılan ônemli hatalara sebep olmaktadır. Öncelikle eĢ değerlere benzemeleri yanlıĢ ôn yargıların geliĢtirilmesine sebep olmaktadır. Bu da metin aktarmalarında hatalar oluĢmakta ve sôzcùklerin anlatım, kavram dùzeyinde algılama zorluklarına neden olmaktadır. Öğrenci kendi ana dili ile hedef dili eĢ değer gôrmektedir. AĢağıda yalancı eĢ değerlere bazı ôrnekler verilmiĢtir. Türkçe Dede:çocuğun babasının babası Çirkin: gùzel olmayan, gùzel gôrùnmeyen, estetik olmayan) Kol: insan vùcudunun omuzdan parmak uçlarına kadar olan kısmı TaĢlamak:taĢa tutmak, taĢ atmak Hala: babanın kız kardeĢi Zor : kolay olmayan Hafız: Kur‘an-ı Kerim‘i ezberleyen kiĢi Burçak: tahıllardan bir çeĢit HoĢ: hoĢa giden, gùzel olan, ruhu okĢayan YaĢar: geniĢ zamanda hayatına devam eder anlamında Özbekçe Dädä: Çocuğun babası, Chirkin: kirli, temiz olmayan Qo‘l: parmak ucu ve bilek arasındaki kısım, el Tashlamoq:gerekmez bir Ģeyi bir bırakmak, atmak kullanmamak Xola: annenin kız kardeĢi Z‘or: gùçlù,harikulade, mùkemmel Hofiz: Ģarkıcı Burchak: açı, kenar H‘osh: peki, evet kôĢeye Yashar: yaĢında D) Eklerden Kaynaklanan Problemler: 1.Hal Ekleri: Tùrkçe‘deki bulunma hâli olan “-de, -da, -te,- ta” eklerinin yônelme ekleri olan “-a, -e, ya, -ye” ile karıĢtırılması Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde sıkıntılara sebep olmaktadır. Bu sorun genelde ana dili Tacikçe olan ôğrencilerde gôzlemlenmiĢtir. KonuĢucu hep ana diline çevirme gereksinimi duyar. Kendi ana dilinin sôzlùksel ve anlamsal yapısını ôğrendiği dile uygulamaya çalıĢır(Kıran, 2006:278). Bu yanlıĢlık ôğrencilerin dilbilgisel Ģekilleri kavramasını zorlaĢtırmaktadır. Özbekçe‘de de bulunma hali -dä eki ile yapılır. Koldä (elde) vb. bunun yapılıĢı sırasında araya ―n‖ girmez. (Ercilasun, 1991: 1077) Tacikçe‘de (–ba) eki hem ―–e hali(yönelme)”, hem de ― –de(bulunma)” hali olarak kullanıldığından ôğrenci tarafından karıĢtırılmaktadır. Türkçe Eve gidiyorum. Tacikçe xonaba merem. O evdedir. inkas xonaba. Ben Ģimdi iĢteyim. man hoz‘r korba. 2. ―mi‖ Soru Ekinin Yazımı: Burada ―mi‖ soru edatının daha çok ayrı ve bitiĢik yazılmasında gôrùlen yanlıĢlıklar yapılmaktadır. 1376 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Türkçe ―Bizim eve gelecek misiniz?‖ “Mergilan‘dan bulunmayan kurtuluĢ, TaĢkent‘ten mi bulunsun?” Özbekçe ―Bizning uyimizga kela olasızmı?” ―Marğilondan topilmagan najot Toshkanddan topilsinmi? ‖ (Qodiriy,2000:80) 3.Ġyelik ve ġahıs Eklerinin Yazımı: Burada daha çok Özbek ôğrencilerin yaptıkları hatalarla karĢılaĢılmaktadır. Tùrkçedeki b<m ses değiĢmesinden kaynaklanan yanlıĢlar gôze çarpmaktadır. ―Ben‖ yerine ―Män‖ kullanılmaktadır. ―Mendan ham siz Yahshi bilasiz.‖ (Qodiriy,2000:338) ―Siz, benden daha iyi bilirsiniz.‖ 4.ġimdiki Zaman Ekinin Ġstek Kipi ile KarıĢtırılması: Aslında ―–yäp‖, ―(ä) yátir‖, ―-mákdä‖ ekleri ve ―turmåk‖, ―otirmåk‖, ―yürmåk‖, ―yátmåk‖ yardımcı filleri ile de Ģimdiki zaman yapılır. (Ercilasun, 1991:1080) Ama burada konuĢurun en sık kullandığı ―–a‖ ile Ģimdiki zaman yapılıĢı ùzerinde duruldu. Bu kullanımın istek kipi ile karıĢtırılması gôrùlmektedir. Türkçe ―yaz-ar-ım‖, ―yaz-ıyor-um‖ Özbekçe ―yoz-a-man‖ 5.Sıfat Fiil Ekleri: Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi‘nde bulunan sıfat fiil eklerinin (-An, -AsI, mAz, -Ar, -DIk, -AcAk, -mIĢ ) kullanımında, benzerlik sebebi ile meydana gelen sorunlar. Özellikle ―-an, -en‖ ekinin kullanımında hatalar yapılmaktadır. Türkçe ―Benim yazdığım mektup‖ ―Kôtùleyen birisi olması lazım.‖ Özbekçe ―Mening yozgan xatim‖ ―Kimdir yåmonlagan bulish kerak.‖ (Öztùrk, 1997:184) Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde “yazan” olarak kullanıldığında, asıl anlatılmak istenen “yazdığım” ifadesidir. 6.Sıra Sayı Sıfatlarının YazılıĢı ve SöyleniĢi: Asıl sayılara –(i)nçi eki getirilerek yapılır. ―bir-inçi‖ (Ercilasun,2007:316) vs. Bu konuda yapılan hatalar imla ve noktalama hatası olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Sıra sayı sıfatını gôsteren “-IncI” eki Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde (.) ile gôsterilirken, Özbekçede (-) ile gôsterilmektedir. Türkçe ―Benim oğlum 2. (ikinci)sınıfta okuyor‖ ―ġubat ayının 28. gùnù gelecekler.‖ Özbekçe ―Mening o‘ğlim 2-(ikkinçi) sinifda o‘qiydi‖ ―28-chi Fevral kùnù keledilar.‖ 7.Gün ve Ay Ġsimlerinin YazılıĢı: Bu da imla ve noktalama yanlıĢlıkları içerisinde değerlendirilmektedir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde belli bir gùnù gôsteren tarihte ay ve gùn isimleri bùyùk yazılırken Özbekçe‘de kùçùk yazılır. Yazılı anlatımlarda Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki Ģeklini yerleĢtirmek zaman almaktadır. Türkçe 10 Nisan 2011 Özbekçe 10 aprel 2011 8.ĠĢaret Zamirlerinin Benzerliği ve Farklı Tarafları : Dili kullanan ya da ôğrenen hedef kitle tarafından nesnelerin gôsterimi Özbekçede yakın olan bir nesne için ―shu‖ (Ģu) zamiriyle; Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde yakın olan nesneyi gôstermek için ―bu‖ iĢaret zamiri kullanılır. Biraz daha uzakta olan bir nesneyi gôstermek için de ―Ģu‖ zamiri kullanılmaktadır. Bu iĢletim, yazma ve konuĢmada sorunların çıkmasına neden olmaktadır. 1377 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Türkçe ―Buradayım.‖ ―Bugùn sınav var.‖ dùğùn yapmak kolay mı? ‖ Özbekçe ―shu yerdaman‖ ―shu kun egzamen bor‖ ―To‘y qilish osonmi shu zamonda‖ (Hoshimov,2008:119) ―Bu zamanda Sonuç Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminin geçmiĢi çok eskiye dayanmamaktadır. Buna rağmen ôzellikle son yirmi yılda bùyùk geliĢme gôstermiĢtir. Dùnyada iki yùz civarındaki ùlkede Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi ôğretilmektedir. Bugùn yùz elliye yakın ùlkenin katılımıyla Tùrkçe Olimpiyatları yapılmaktadır. GloballeĢen dùnyada Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin çok dilli toplumlarda da ôğretiminin yapılması kaçınılmaz hale gelmiĢtir. Bu çalıĢmada ortaya konulan değerlendirmelerin Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi çalıĢmalarına ıĢık tutması umulmaktadır. 19.yy‘da yapılan dil tipolojileri dùĢùnùldùğùnde bugùn dillerin çok dilli ve çok kùltùrlù ortamlarda ôğretilmesi dil tipolojilerinin daha reel ve daha somut olarak ortaya çıkmasını sağladığı dùĢùnùlmektedir. References CoĢkun,V.(2000),Özbek Tùrkçesi Grameri, Ankara. Demircan, Ö.(2005), Yabancı –Dil Öğretim Yôntemleri, Der yayınları, Ġstanbul. Demirel, Ö.(2007), Yabancı Dil Öğretimi, Pegem Akademi yayınevi, Ankara. Ercilasun, A.Bican(1991), KarĢılaĢtırmalı Tùrk Lehçeleri Sôzlùğù, Kùltùr Bakanlığı, Ankara. Ercilasun, A.Bican ve diğerleri(2007), Tùrk Lehçeleri Grameri, Akçağ Yay. Ankara. Hoshimov, O‘tkir(2008), Dunyoning Ġshlari, Sharq Nashriyot-Matbaa, Aksiyodarlik Kompaniyasi, Bosh Tahririyati,Toshkent. Kıran, Z.,Kıran A.(2006), Dilbilime GiriĢ,Seçkin yayınları, Ankara. Komisyon(1997), Özbekçe-Tùrkçe ve Tùrkçe-Özbekçe Ġzahlı Sôzlùk,TaĢkent. Komisyon(1997), O‘zbek Hikoyalari Antologiyasi, Sharq Nashriyot-Matbaa, Aksiyodarlik Kompaniyasi, Bosh Tahririyati,Toshkent. Qodiriy, A.(2000) O‘tkan Kunlar (XX. Asr O‘zbek Romani), ġarq Nashriyot-Matbaa Kontserni Bosh Tahririyati,Toshkent. Shoabdurahmonov, Sh.,Reshadov, V.(1978), O‘zbek Dialektologiyası, Toshkent. Ubeydullayev, A.(1996), O‘zbek Tilining Asosiy Ġmlo Qoidaları, Samarqand. 1378 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 689 Title A name given to the resource İki Dilli Ortamlarda Türkiye Türkçesinin Öğretimi (Semerkand Örneğinde) Author Author ÇETİN, Mustafa POLAT, Zeynel Abstract A summary of the resource. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin çağdaĢ anlamda yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminin kısa geçmiĢi olmasına rağmen bu alanda çok ciddi geliĢmeler kaydedilmiĢtir. Dùnyadaki değiĢim ve geliĢmeler Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin evrensel ve bilimsel boyutta ôğretimini zorunlu kılmaktadır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin iki dilli ortamlarda ôğretimine bu açıdan yaklaĢılmaktadır. Çok dilli ve çok kùltùrlù bir ortam olan Özbekistan‘ın Semerkand Ģehrinde, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi sùrecinde gôzlemlenen bazı problemler ôrneklerle ortaya konulmuĢtur. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3207b217d107f523c5906ed2149351e5.pdf a00269ef72373311bcba22018289e9e7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilde Anlam ve Bağlam Mustafa Çetin International Burch University Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Sarajevo/Bosna Hersek mcetin@ibu.edu.ba Murat Yiğit Saraybosna Yunus Emre Tùrk Kùltùr Merkezi Sarajevo/Bosna-Hersek muratyigit06@gmail.com Elçin KARLI International Burch University Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Borna Hersek kelcin@ibu.edu.ba Özet: Anlam insan için geçmiĢten gùnùmùze ônemli gôrùlmùĢtùr. Ġnsanoğlu için anlam sadece bu dùnya ile sınırlandırılmamıĢtır. Ġnsanlık kôkleriyle geçmiĢe hayalleriyle geleceğe bağlı yaĢamaktadır. Ġnsanın bedeni Ģekil, ruhu anlam olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bedensiz ruh, ruhsuz beden olamayacağı dùĢùnùlmektedir. Dilde de anlam ruhla eĢ değer tutulmaktıdır. Bu çalıĢmada, dilde anlam ve bağlamın ne ifade ettiği değerlendirilecek, anlam-bağlam iliĢkisi incelenerek, bağlamın çeviriye ve dil ôğretimine etkisi ùzerinde durulacaktır. Anahtar Sözcükler: Dil, dilbilim, anlam, anlambilim, bağlam, kùltùr, çeviri, dil ôğretimi. GiriĢ Anlam, insanlık tarihi kadar eskidir. Ġnsanoğlu dùnyaya geldiğinde ôncelikle içinde yaĢadığı dùnyayı anlamlamlandırarak dile aktarmıĢtır. Çevremizdeki doğal veya kùltùr hayatıyla ilgili her çeĢit olaya anlam verme, anlamlarını araĢtırma ―signification (anlam yapma)‖insan doğasının en baĢta gelen ôzelliğidir. Ġnsan, etrafında olup bitenlere anlam veren veya onların anlamlarını soruĢturan yaratık değil midir? Bùtùn insan bilimlerinin ortak yônù anlam araĢtırmaları oluĢlarıdır (Bayrav, 1998:120). Ġlk dil incelemeleri din etkisi ile (BaĢkan, 2003:23) dilde anlamın incelenme ve araĢtırılmasına sebep olmuĢtur. Anlamı en çok merak edenler ve onu araĢtırma konusu yapanlar ôncelikle din adamları, teologlar olmuĢtur. Eski çağlardan itibaren dilde anlama ônem verilmiĢtir. Anlamın temeli durumunda olan nesne ile onun dildeki karĢılığı, adı arasında bir iliĢki bulunup bulunmadığı sorununun daha Ġ.Ö. IV. Yùzyılda Hindistan‘da Yaska tarafından, aynı yùzyılda Eski Yunan‘da Platon‘un Kratylos adlı yapıtında ele alınarak tartıĢıldığını biliyoruz (Aksan, 2006:16). KavramlaĢtırma dediğimiz, ―dùnyadaki nesne ve olayların belli bir ses bileĢimiyle simgeleĢtirilerek kavramlaĢtırılmasına anlambilimde anlamlama (signification) adı verilmektedir (Aksan, 2006:31). Gerçekten bu anlamlandırma iĢi dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, anlamın ortaya çıkıĢı olarak dùĢùnùlmektedir. KavramlaĢtırma nesneyle onların dildeki gôstergeleri arasındaki ilk temel (gôndergesel) anlamlarını ortaya çıkarmıĢtır. GeçmiĢten gùnùmùze dile ilgi duyan, bu alanda araĢtımalar yapan bilim insanlarını kavramlaĢtırma konusu dilin doğuĢtan mı, yoksa sonradan mı var olduğu konusunda tartıĢmaya itmiĢtir. Dilde kavram (anlam) dediğimiz dil gôstergelerinin bu yônù aslında gerçeklik dùnyasının insan zihnindeki değeri, anlamıdır. Dilde, anlama ve anlambilime ilgi duyan birçok dilcinin çalıĢmaları ônemli gôrùlmektedir. XVII. Yùzyılda John Locke, sôzcùklerin anlamları ùzerinde ônemle duruyor, aynı çağda Bacon, XVIII. Yùzyılda Leibniz, Herder ve daha sonraları (Wilhelm von) Humbolt dilin dùĢùnceyle ilgisine eğiliyorlardı (Aksan, 2006:17). XIX. Yùzyıl dilde anlama bakıĢın daha çok ônem kazandığı ve bilimselleĢtiği bir dônem olarak gôrùlmektedir. Dilde anlamı inceleyen, baĢlıbaĢına bir bilimsel alanın temellerini atan ônemli dilciler ortaya çıkmıĢtır. Alman dilcisi K. Reisig ―Semasiologie‖ , Fransa‘da M. Breal ―Semantique‖ adı altında dilde anlamı ve anlamla ilgili konuları incelemiĢlerdir. Bunların dıĢında dilde anlamı iĢleyen Trier, Ullmann, Greimas, Lyons, Guiraud, Chomsky, Katz-Fodor gibi dilbilimciler yetiĢmiĢtir (Aksan, 2006:17). Anlam, tarihi sùreç içierisinde bazen Ģekle feda edilmiĢtir. Oysa, dilde Ģekil ve anlam beyaz bir kağıdın iki yùzù gibidir. Anlamı Ģekilsiz dùĢùnmek, Ģekli de anlamsız dùĢùnmek neredeyse imkansızdır. Yalnız biçime kıymet verip anlamı hesaba katmadan incelemelere giriĢmek isteyen Bloomfield‘çilerin çalıĢmaları gerçekte pek netice vermemiĢ gôrùnùyor (Bayrav, 1998:129). Ancak, dilin çift eklemliliği içerisinde anlamın temelinin sesler (anlatım-Ģekil) dùzeyinde atıldığı anlaĢılmaktadır. 1368 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilde anlam farklı terimler altında incelenmektedir. Gùnùmùzde bunlar ayrı birer bilim dalı halini almıĢtır. GeçmiĢten gùnùmùze batıda retorik, doğuda ise ilmù‘l belaga (Aksan, 2006:17) terimleri anlam konularını içermiĢtir. Modern anlambilim inceleme ve araĢtırmaları içerisinde Edimbilim, Sôylem Çôzùmlemesi alanları ônem kazanmıĢtır. Dilde Anlam ve Ġfadesi Dilbiliminde anlamın tanımı ve dilbilimcilerin anlama bakıĢı ùzerin durulacaktır. Anlam (meaning, sense, signification) dildeki bir birimin aktardığı ya da uyandırdığı kavram, tasarım, dùĢùnce; içerik. Anlamı, dil içi bağıntıların yanı sıra bağlam ve durum belirler (Vardar, 2002:18). Dil gôstergeleri iki yônlù anlam taĢımaktadır. Gôsteren (anlatım-somut) kısmı anlamın temelinin atıldığı daha çok dil içi bağlamın ağırlığının hissedildiği yônù, bir de gôsterilen (içerik-soyut) kısmı dil dıĢı bağlamın hakim olduğu bôlùmùdùr. Burada anlamın dil içi ve dil dıĢı bağlamla bùtùnlùk kazanacağı ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Anlam, bir kelimeden, bir sôzden, bir davranıĢ veya olgudan anlaĢılan Ģey; bunların hatırlattığı dùĢùnce veya nesne, mana, fehva. Bir ônermenin, bir tasarının, bir dùĢùncenin veya eserin anlatmak istediği Ģey (Komisyon, 1988:71). Tùrkçe sôzlùkte geçen anlam tarifi anlamı sadece gôsterilen (kavram) boyutunda değerlendirmiĢtir. Bir sôzcùğùn değeri, içinde yer aldığı tùmcedeki ôteki sôzcùklere gôre oluĢur. Sôzcùğùn anlamı ise, konuĢan kiĢinin durumu, alıcının bu sôzcùğe verdiği yanıtlar toplamıdır.‖(Kıran, 2006:132). Kıranın tarifi de dil içi ve dil dıĢı bağlamı dikkate alan bir tanım ôzelliği gôstermektedir. F. de Saussure, Kıranın tanımında yer verdiği değeri anlam olarak değerlendirmektedir. Burada değer dil içi bağlam olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Dağılımsal dilbilimin savunucularından Z. S. Harris: ―Dilbilimsel bir iletinin anlamı ancak bir konuĢucunun sôzcelerini sôylediği durum ve bu sôzcelerin alıcıda uyandırdığı dùrtù-tepki davranıĢlarıyla geçerli bir biçimde tanımlanabilir.‖(Kıran, 2006:157) demektedir. Bu tanımda ise anlam dil dıĢı bağlamla iliĢkilendirilmektedir. ―Sôzcede, sôzceleme durumu, bağlam, konuĢucu ve alıcının ùzerine bir Ģeyin bilinmediği, salt sôzcùklerin kendi aralarındaki iliĢkileriyle ortaya çıkan dilbilimsel anlamdır. (Kıran, 2006:227)‖ denilmektedir. Dilbilimsel anlam sôzdiziminde dizilen sôzcùklerin birlikte oluĢturduğu anlamdır. Burada dil içi bağlamdan sôz edilmektedir. Ünlù dùĢùnùr Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations adlı tanınmıĢ yapıtında ‗sôzcùğùn anlamı, onun dil içindeki kullanımıdır‘ der. Aynı gôrùĢù paylaĢan ve anlamın değil, kullanımın var olduğunu ileri sùren baĢka bilginler de vardır (Aksan, 2006:46). Burada anlamla ilgil ônemli bir nokta ùzerinde durularak, anlamın kullanıma bağlı olduğu belirtilmektedir. Gerçekten hiçbir sôzcùk sôzlùkte iletiĢim amacıyla kullanılmaz. Sôzcùkler sôzlùkte belirgin olmayan temel, yan anlamlarıyla bulunur. Anlam kullanımda belirginleĢir. ―Doğan Aksan anlamı ‗Dilde birer gôsterge niteliğiyle yer alan, insanın dùnya bilgisine dayalı birtakım belirleyicileri bulunan sôzcùklerin belli bir bağlam ve belli bir konu içinde ilettikleri kavram‘ (Aksan, 2006:48; Aydın, 2007:85) Ģeklinde tanımlamaktadır.‖ Aksan ve Aydın da anlamın insan zihninde tasnif edilmesine yarayan ve anlamı yaĢantılara dayandıran anlayıĢın ùrùnù olan anlam ayırıcıları ve anlam belirleyicilerini dikkate alan bir tarife yer vermektedir. Eğer anlambilim, anlamın incelenmesi ise, onun kuĢkusuz sôzdizim gibi birleĢtirimsel bir gôrùnùmù olacaktır (Durak, 2005:62). Anlamın bildiriĢimde kesinleĢtirilmesi gerektiğini belirten bir bakıĢ açısı burada gôrùlmektedir. Roman Jakobson ―Anlamı ele almayan dilbilim anlamsızdır.‖(Aydın, 2007:83) der. KonuĢmada ya da sôylemde bize iletildiği biçimiyle anlam, sôzcùğùn aynı bağlamdaki ôbùr sôzcùklerle kurduğu iliĢkilere bağlıdır. Her kullanımda anlamı bağlam belirginleĢtirir ve her durumda ad kesin bir kavramı canlandırır. Her sôzcùk bağlamıyla sıkı sıkıya iliĢkilidir ve anlamını ondan alır (Guiraud, 1999:34). Y.M. Lotman bir yandan metin çôzùmlemesine ve metnin anlamını yine metnin içinden çıkarmaya çalıĢan bir yaklaĢıma yônelirken (metnin iç yapısını inceleyen yazın bilim) ôte yandan da, yapıtın baglamını dikkate alır. Ona gôre, metnin var olan gerçek gôrùmùnùn yanı sıra, bu gôrùnùme katılan varsayımsal bir metindısı ôzellikler bùtùnù vardır. Bôylece yazınsal bir metin içinde birbiriyle çatısma durumunda olan bircok dizge yer alır; anlam da bu dizgelerin kesiĢme noktasındadır. Bôylece metnin art alanında yer alan kurallar, uzlaĢmalar, gelenekler de metnin iç yapısı içinde ya aynen ya da degiĢerek yer alırlar.Y.M Lotman bu devingen degisimini metnin enerjisi diye tanımlar (Rifat, 2008:165). Yukarıda yapılan anlam tariflerinde genel olarak sôzcùğùn kullanımdaki anlamından sôz edilmektedir. Eski dil çalıĢmalarında sôzcùk anlamı en çok iĢlenen anlam konusu durumundadır. Sôzcùk, anlamın temelini oluĢturmaktadır. Bununla birlikte her sôzcùğùn anlamı sôzdiziminde, kullanımda kesinleĢmektedir. Sôzcùğùn anlamının sôzdiziminde gerçekleĢmesi dilin bir dizge olduğu sonucunu doğurmaktadır. Dizgede ise her unsur (sôzcùkler) birbiriyle iliĢkilidir. ĠĢte anlamın ilk belirginleĢtiği alan sôzdizim alanıdır ki, buna dilbilgisel anlam denilmektedir. Sôzdizimi dıĢındaki anlam sôzcùğùn gôndergesel (temel) anlamıdır ki, bu anlam saymaca anlamdır. Sôzlùklerdeki anlamlar saymaca anlama gôre teĢkil edilmektedir. ―Ullman‘ın da belirttiği gibi eğer sôzcùkler bağlam dıĢında var olmasaydı bir sôzlùk yazılamazdı (Aksan, 2006:46). Sôzlùk anlamları daha ônce kullanılan anlamların dilin ùst dil iĢlevi kullanılarak yapılan bir betimlemsidir. 1369 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilde Bağlam ve Ġfadesi Bağlam dilde anlamın kaynağıdır. Dilde anlam her aĢamada bağlama ihtyaç duyar. Bağlam anlamla eĢ değer tutulmaktadır. Bağlam tanımlarına bakarak bağlamın kapsamı ve anlam açısından ônemi daha doğru tespit edilebilecektir. Bağlam (context) 1. Bir dil birimini çevreleyen, ondan once ya da sonra gelen, birçok durumda sôz konusu birimi etkileyen, onun anlamını, değerini belirleyen birim ya da birimler bùtùnù. (Ġç bağlam, dil içi bağlam da denir.) 2. Duruma, konuĢucu ve dinleyicinin dil dıĢı toplumsal, ekinsel, ruhsal nitelikli deneyim ve bilgilerine iliĢkin verilerin tùmù. (DıĢ bağlam, dil dıĢı bağlam da denir.)(Vardar, 2002:30). Burada dil içi ve dil dıĢı bağlamdan sôz edilmektedir. Bu bağlamların her dil için farklı olduğu dùĢùnùlmektedir. ―…her dil birliği, kavramları kendi algılaması ve anlatımıyla değiĢik yollardan, değiĢik kavramlarla iliĢki kurarak oluĢturur (Aksan, 2006:41).‖ Bağlamların dil içi olsun dil dıĢı olsun toplumun yaĢantılarının neticesi olan kùltùrden kaynaklandığına inanılmaktadır. KavramlaĢtırma aĢamasından baĢlayarak dile toplumun bakıĢ açısının yôn verdiği ve dili kendi kavrayıĢ, anlayıĢıyla Ģekillendirdiği gôrùlmektedir. Malinowski, kelimelerin fikirlerden ziyade tecrùbenin anlamında ortaya çıktığını ve en ônemli fonksiyonun insanın davranıĢ Ģekillerinde gôrùldùğùnù ileri sùrer. Kùltùr realitesindeki içerikte faaliyetler, ilgiler, ahlak, ve estetik değerler, kelimelerin iliĢkili olduğu anlamlar, duygular ve inançlar bulunur. …bùtùn kelime anlamlarının tecrùbeden çıkarıldığını sôyler. J.R.Firt, ―sosyal yapı ile dil devamlı iliĢkilidir.‖ Bu anlamda dil, deneyimlere ad vermektir (Karakaya, 2007:41) der. Kurgusal ôzellikler dônemden dôneme kùltùrden kùltùre değiĢiklik gôsterebilir. Metin de, aslında tek baĢına yaĢamdan ve dùnyadan kopuk bir Ģey değildir. Metni çevreleyen bir ortam, bir kùltùrel yapı, yaĢam vardır (Erkman-Akerson, 2005:129). Bağlam denince akla gelen ya da araĢtırmacıların ve dilbilimcilerin dikkate aldığı dil içi ve bir de dil dıĢı bağlamdan sôz edilmektedir. Eğer bir tùmcenin kendi sınırları içinde kalan sôzcùklerin yardımı ile anlam çıkabiliyorsa, ortada bir ―tùmce içi‖ bağlam, yani ―iç-bağlam‖ vardır. Tùmcenin kendisi, sôzkonusu anlamın çıkarılmasına yetmiyorsa, o zaman da ―tùmce-dıĢı‖ bağlam, yani ―dıĢ-bağlam‖ sôz konusudur (BaĢkan, 2003:205). Ancak bu bağlamların daha çok dilin kullanımında var olduğu belirtilmektedir. Bağlam, bir dil biriminden ônce ya da sonra gelen, baĢka bir ifadeyle bir dil birimini kuĢatan ve birçok durumda sôz konusu birimi etkileyen, onun anlamını, değerini belirleyen birim ya da birimler bùtùnù biçiminde tanımlanır (Aydın, 2007:86). Oysa asıl bağlam ad vermede kavramlaĢtımada kendini gôstermektedir. Gôstergelerin değer (anlam) kazanmaları ancak bir bağlam içinde gerçekleĢir. Bu, dùzanlam için olduğu kadar yananlam için de geçerlidir (Erkman-Akerson, 2005:128). Bağlam, kùltùr, sadece dil gôstergesinde değil, her tùr gôstergede kendini hissettirmektedir. Dilde olsun, dil dıĢı gôstergelerde olsun, gôstergelerin anlam değeri kazanmaları sôzcelem, kùltùr ve yaĢam bağlamında gerçekleĢir (Erkman-Akerson, 2005:129). Bağlamın anlam ùzerindeki etkisi ôncelikle kavramlaĢtırma (anlamlama) aĢamasında gôrùldùğù belirtilmiĢti. ―TavĢan‖ sôzcùğùnùn kavramlaĢtırılmasında farklı dillerden ôrnekler verecek olursak, Tùrkçede ―tavĢan‖ın XI. yùzyılda ―duygu ve kımıldama‖ anlamına gelen tavıĢ/tavuĢ sôzcùğùyle ve bùyùk olasılıkla, bugùn davranmak eyleminde geçen tav kôkùyle ilgili olduğu anlaĢılmakta, tavĢanın çabucak kaçan, hareket eden bir yaratık oluĢu bu adlandırmada rol oynamaktadır. Ġngilizcedeki hare (yaban tavĢanı) sôzcùklerinin ―gri, parılayan‖ anlamına gelen ve hayvanın rengiyle ilgili olan hasan kôkùne dayandırıldığı gôrùlmektedir. Farsçada ise ―tavĢan‖ sôzcùğùne ―eĢek kulaklı‖ anlamına gelen harguĢ adı verilmiĢtir. Buradan her toplumun gerçeklik nesnesine kendi penceresinden baktığı ve gerçeklik dùnyasını kendi kùltùrùne gôre kavramlaĢtırdığı anlaĢılmaktadır (Aksan, 2006:31). Sôzdiziminde ortaya çıkan dilbilgisel anlamı (dil içi bağlamın etkili olduğu) yine bağlam yani kùltùr kontrol etmektedir. ―Hırsızı fena dôvmùĢler‖, ―Hırsızı iyi dôvmùĢler.‖ altı çizili sôzcùkler aynı anlamı vermektedir. Ancak, ―Hırsızlar fena insanlardır.‖, ―Hırsızlar iyi konuĢmuĢ.‖ burada ise altı çizili sôzcùkler farklı anlamlar ifade etmektedirler. Bu cùmlelerde sôzcùklerin anlamı diğer sôzcùklerle oluĢturduğu bùtùnlùk içerisinde belirginleĢmektedir. Burada dil içi bağlam vardır. Bağlamda sôzcùklerin sôzdiziminde sıralanıĢı ve onların imge ve tasarımları ait oldukları kùltùrden kaynaklanır. Burada dilbilgisel uygunluğu sağlayan anlam ayırıcıları ve anlam belirleyicileri bir yaĢantıya dayanan kùltùrel olgulardır. ―Kedi eti yedi.‖, ―kedi evi yedi.‖ gibi cùmlelerde bunu rahatlıkla gôrebiliriz. Buradan bağlamın anlamı kontrol ettiği anlaĢılmaktadır. DildıĢı bağlamın belirginleĢtirdiği anlamlar ùzerinde kùltùrùn daha etkili olduğu anlaĢılmaktadır. Dilde argo, deyim, atasôzù ya da yan (mecaz) anlamların anlaĢılmasında dıĢ bağlama çok ihtiyaç vardır. ―Buralarda aradığını bulamadı.‖ Dùz anlam da olabilir, deyim anlamı da olabilir. ―Seninle çıkıĢta gôrùĢelim.‖ Bir tehdit anlamı mı yaksa bir sôzleĢme mi, ―Ne demek istiyorsun?‖ sıradan bir soru mu yoksa tehdit mi, ―Ayağını yorganına gôre uzat.‖ dùz anlam mı yoksa mecaz anlam mı? ĠĢte burada faklı anlamları ortaya çıkaran kùltùr olarak kabul edilmektedir. Bağlamın Çeviri Açısından Önemi Çevirilerde metnin anlamının doğru bir Ģekilde, eksiksiz olarak aktarılması için anlamların doğduğu kùltùrùn (bağlamın) iyi bilinmesi gerekliliğine inanılmaktadır. Özellikle simultane çevrilerde çevirmenin her iki dili de ana dili seviyesinde kullanması ve her iki dilin kùltùrel ôzelliklerine vakıf olması beklenir. 1370 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bir dildeki iletiyi diğerine aktarırken, anlamsal değeri yakalayabilmek için sôzcùklerin incelenmesi, yananlamsal ôzelliklerin, dolayısıyla dilbilimsel ôzelliklerin gôz ônùnde tutulması gerekebilir. Yalnız sôzcùkler ùzerinde yoğunlaĢmak çeviri yapmayı her zaman mùmkùn kılmayabilir. Bir metni çôzmek; sôzcùklerin ne demek istediklerini; yani taĢıdıkları anlamları çôzmekle; çevrilecek dùĢùnce ve anlamın diğer dilde kazanacak olduğu anlamsal ve iĢlevsel eĢdeğerde baĢka bir sôylem meydana getirmekle mùmkùn olabilir (Dikici, 2007:4). Çevirinin ônemli ôzelliklerinden biri de, iki dilin kelime servetindeki sôzcùk değerlerinin farklılığıdır. Dillerin sôzcùk değerlerinin farklı olması ait olduğu dilin bağlam farklıklarından meydana gelmektedir. Toplumların kùltùrel farklılıkları sôzcùklerin bağlamlarını da farklı kılacaktır ki bu gayet doğaldır. Örneğin; Ġngilizcedeki ―love‖ sôzcùğù, Tùrkçe‘de ―aĢk, sevgi vb.‖ anlamlara gelelebilmektedir. Bu sôzcùklerin hepsi için eĢ ya da yakın anlamlı denilebilir ama bu sôzcùkler ―eĢdeğerli‖ değildir. Çeviride bu gibi sôzcùkler iletiĢim durumları ve ait olduğu dilin bağlamlarından çıkarılmaya çalıĢılır. Örneğin, Ġngilizce, ―It‘s raining cats and dog‖ yapısını Tùrkçe‘ye ―Yağmur yağıyordu kediler ve kôpekler‖ Ģeklinde çevrilmektedir. Bu, bağlamdan yoksun bir çeviri ôrneğidir. Oysa, Ġngilizcedeki ―It‘s raining cats and dog‖ yapısı Tùrkçe‘de Ģu Ģekilde ifade edilmektedir: ―Bardaktan boĢanırcasına yağmur yağıyordu‖. Aslında iki ifadede yapı, ses, biçem, deyiĢ farklı olsa da anlam aynıdır. Bu noktada çeviri yapılırken ôzellikle kalıplaĢmıĢ sôzcùkler (deyimler, atasôzleri) baĢta olmak ùzere bağlamdan ayrı dùĢùnùlemez. Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Bağlamın Önemi Anadili edinimi ile bir yabancı dili ôğrenmek arasında birçok farklılık gôrùlmektedir. Birey anadili edinirken içinde yaĢadığı topluma da ayak uydurmaya çalıĢır. Bu sùreçte anadili edinimi bireyin topluma ayak uydurma çabasıyla beraber geliĢir. KiĢinin, hangi sôzù/sôzceyi ne zaman, nerede, nasıl kullanacağının çerçevesi bellidir. Toplumsal uzlaĢmaya dayalı bu çerçeve kiĢiyi sınırlandırır/Ģekillendirir. Anadili edinimi bu çerçeveden bağımsız dùĢùnùlemez. Oysa yabancı dil ôğrenimi sırasında bu sùreç biraz farklı iĢlemektedir. Yabancı dil ôğretilirken dôrt temel becerinin (dinleme, konuĢma, okuma, yazma) kazandırılmasının yanında bu becerilerin hepsinin kullanımını gerektiren iletiĢim becerisinin kazandırılması zor gôrùlmektedir. Çùnkù iletiĢim becerisi ôğretilen dilin toplumsal sùreci içersinde sosyalleĢmeyle birlikte kazanılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda dil ôğretiminin bir sùreç dahilinde gerçekleĢmekte olduğu ve bu sùreçte ―toplumbilim‖, ―edimbilim‖, ―ruhbilim‖ gibi disiplinlerin etkili olduğu gôrùlmektedir. Bu disiplinlerden alınan verilerin yabancı dil ôğretimi sùrecine dahil edilmesi, amaç dilin ôğretilmesini kolaylaĢtıracaktır. Bôylelikle bireylerin dôrt temel dil becerisine (dinleme, konuĢma, okuma, yazma) parallel olarak ―iletiĢim becerisi‖ni de kazanmaları kolaylaĢacaktır. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde iletiĢimsel yetinin kazandırılması için; ôğretim sırasında kullanılam materyallerin amaç dilin kùltùrùne ve toplumsal değerlerine uygun bir biçimde tasarlanması gerekmektedir. Bireyler ôğretilen dildeki kelimelerin anlamları bağlamları içersinde ôğretilmelidir. Yabancı dil ôğretimi için hazırlanan ders kitapları anlam ve bağlam ekseninde hazırlanmalıdır. Ders kitapları ve diğer materyaller hazırlanırken iletiĢimsel yetiyi oluĢturan toplumsal ôgeler, anlamları ve bağlamları içersinde kullanılmalıdır. Her ôlçùnlù dilin toplumun kùltùrùnden sùzùldùğù belirtilmiĢtir. Dillerde ôzellikle yan anlamlar dildeki kùltùrùn izlerini taĢımaktadır. Anlamın doğru aktarılması ve ôğretilmesi açısından ôzellikle mecazların kùltùrle (bağlam) iliĢkisi iyi bilinmelidir. Bu bağlamda, amaç dilin ôğretiminde yazınsal ùrùnlerden (Ģiir, ôykù, deneme, fıkra) ve deyimler ve atasôzlerinden faydalanılabilir. Toplumsal ve kùltùrel ôğelerin imbikten damıtılarak sùzùldùğù, az sôzle çok Ģey anlatıldığı bu ùrùnlerin engin anlamlarının, yabancı dil ôğretimi sùrecine de ônemli katkılar sağlayacağı yadsınamaz bir gerçektir. Sonuç Anlamın dildeki yeri ônemli gôrùlmektedir. Dildeki anlamı her aĢamasında bağlam kontrol etmektedir. Bağlam ise kùltùr olarak kabul edilmektedir. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde bağlamın bilinmesi anlamın doğru ôğretilmesini sağlayacaktır. Çeviri çalıĢmalarında da bağlamın (kùltùr) bilinmesi anlam kayıplarını ônleyecek ve doğması muhtemel anlam kopukluklarının ônùne geçilmiĢ olacaktır. 1371 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Refeneces Aksan, D. (2006), Anlambilim, Engin Yayınları, 4. Baskı, Ankara. Aydın, M. (2007), ―Dilbilim El Kitabı‖, 3F Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Bayrav, S. (1998), ―Dilbilim Yapısal Dilbilimi‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. BaĢkan, Ö. (2003), ―Dilbilim Lengùistik Metodu‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. BaĢkan, Ö. (2003), ―BildiriĢim Ġnsan-Dili ve Ötesi‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Budak, M. (2005), ―Terimden Anlama Dilbilim Yazıları‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul.Aydın, Dikici, Ġ.Z (2007), ―Çeviri ve Dilbilim ĠliĢkisi‖. Muğla Ünv., Sos. Bil. Ens., Y.Lisans Tezi., Muğla. Erkman-Akerson, F. (2005), ―Gôstergebilime GiriĢ‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Guiraud, P. (1999), ―Anlambilim‖, (çeviren: Berke Vardar) Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Karakaya ġ. (2007), ―Dil GeliĢimi ve Dil Politikası‖, Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara. Komisyon (1988), ―Tùrkçe Sôzlùk‖ , TDK Yayınları, cilt 1, Ankara. Rıfat, M. (2008), ―XX.Yùzyılda Dilbilim ve Gôstergebilim Kuramları‖, YKY Yayınları, 4. Baskı, Ġstanbul. Vardar, B. (2002), ―Açıklamalı Dilbilim Terimler Sôzlùğù‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. 1372 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 688 Title A name given to the resource Dilde Anlam ve Bağlam Author Author ÇETİN, Mustafa Yiğit, Murat KARLI, Elçin Abstract A summary of the resource. Anlam insan için geçmiĢten gùnùmùze ônemli gôrùlmùĢtùr. Ġnsanoğlu için anlam sadece bu dùnya ile sınırlandırılmamıĢtır. Ġnsanlık kôkleriyle geçmiĢe hayalleriyle geleceğe bağlı yaĢamaktadır. Ġnsanın bedeni Ģekil, ruhu anlam olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bedensiz ruh, ruhsuz beden olamayacağı dùĢùnùlmektedir. Dilde de anlam ruhla eĢ değer tutulmaktıdır. Bu çalıĢmada, dilde anlam ve bağlamın ne ifade ettiği değerlendirilecek, anlam-bağlam iliĢkisi incelenerek, bağlamın çeviriye ve dil ôğretimine etkisi ùzerinde durulacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/78d2c9eea1fefc2931c643163907337f.pdf e05d5c19745f2625a1ff7cd6e2b68abf PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo KARAHANLI DÖNEMĠ TÜRKÇESĠNDE SÖZÜN ETKĠLĠ KULLANIMI Ramazan Çakır Mevlana Üniversitesi, Tùrkçe Eğitimi Bôlùmù Öğretim Üyesi,Konya/Tùrkiye r.cakır@yahoo.com Özet: Karahanlı dônemiTùrkçesi‗ninve Ġslami Dônem Tùrk Edebiyatının temeleserlerinden KâĢgarlı Mahmut‘un Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk‘ù sadece bir sôzlùkdeğil; edebiyat ve dil tarihini aydınlatan, sôzùn etkili gùcùnù ve kullanımını gôsteren ansiklopedik bir eserdir. Aynı dônem eserlerinden biri de ilk nasihatname ôrneği olan Yusuf Has Hacip‗ in Kutadgu Bilig isimli eseridir. Bu eser de Ģu ôğùtler sıralanır: Sôzù yerinde sôylemeli, sorulunca konuĢmalı, iki dinleyip bir sôylemeli, kaba sôze yumuĢak; acı sôze tatlı karĢıtlık vermeli gibi. Bôylece, toplumsal değer yargıları ve kutlu saadet bilgileri anlatılırken, sôzler inci gibi dizilerek, etkili ve kalıcı bir anlatım sağlanmıĢtır. Bu dôneme damgasını vuran ve dilin muhafazası hakkında manidar bilgiler veren ùçùncù yapıt ise; Edip Ahmet‘ in kaleme aldığı Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘tır. Her ùç eserde bilimsel olarak incelendiğinde sôzùn o dônemdeki gùcù ve etkisi ayan beyan gôrùlmektedir. Bu çalıĢmada: Karahanlı Dônemi Tùrkçe‘ si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‗ l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılarak, çeĢitli bulgulara ulaĢılmıĢtır. Bu bulgular gùnùmùz eğitimcileri ve eğitim dùnyası için de ônem arzetmektedir. AnahtarKelimeler: Karahanlı dônemieserleri, sôzùngùcù, dilsôziliĢkisi ON THE EFFECTIVE USAGE OF SAYINGS IN KARAHANIDS TURKISH Abstract: The works such as DivanuLùgati‘t-Tùrk, KutadguBilig and Atabetù‘l-Hakayıkmanuscripted in Karahanids Turkish are known as preIslamic Turkish books. In these works there are not only Islamic characteristics of Turks but also Turkish traditional features before Islam. DivanuLùgati‘t-Tùrk is a dictionary including examples of Turkish literature, history, traditions of Turks, many Turkish proverbs and idioms. KutadguBilig by Yusuf Has Hacip and Atabetù‘l-Hakayık by Edip Ahmed are advice books. There are many advices related with sayings and the effective usage of sayings in these works. For example, It was advised that you speak only If you are asked, listen before you talk. It was also advised that when you response someone, be kind and use soft words, use ‗siz‘ (polite version of you in Turkish) instead of ‗sen‘ (you). In these works, it is pointed out that Turkish language must be protected. In this paper, the proverbs, idioms and verses related with the effective usage of sayings will be considered. The data extracted from these works will be classified and examined. The concluding results will be examined from educational point of wiev. Key Words: Karahanidsc periods works, the power of words, that the relationship between language and word GiriĢ: 8. yùzyıldan itibaren Araplarla tanıĢmaya baĢlayan Tùrkler, Karahanlı dôneminde Ġslâmiyeti resmen kabul etmiĢlerdir. Bu nedenle tarihte varlığı bilinen ilk Mùslùman Tùrk Devleti Karahanlı Devleti (912-1212) olup, Ġslâm kùltùrù etkisinde geliĢen Tùrk edebiyatının elde bulunan en eski ôrnekleri de bu dôneme aittir. Bu dônemde kaleme alınan tefsirlerin yanı sıra, Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesiyle yazılmıĢ varlıkları bilinen en meĢhur eserler; Kutadgu Bilig, Dîvânu Lùgâti`t-Tùrk ve Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`tır. Kutadgu Bilig, Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesi olan Hakaniye lehçesi ile yazılan bir eserdir. Karahanlı dônemi Tùrk edebiyatının kronolojik sıraya gôre ikinci ônemli eseri Dîvânu Lùgati`t-Tùrk`tùr. KaĢgarlı Mahmud tarafından 1074`te Bağdat`ta tamamlanmıĢ olan bu eser Tùrkçe-Arapça bir sôzlùktùr. 1037 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Karahanlılar dôneminin sonunda kaleme alınan, konu ve edebi nevi itibariyle Kutadgu Bilig‘in devamı olan ùçùncù bir eser ise; Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`tır. Karahanlı Devleti kısa zamanda kendi dilini ve medeniyetini oluĢturmuĢ, KaĢgar, Balasagun ve Sir- Derya boyunda kendini hissettirmiĢtir. (Hacıeminoğlu, 1996:13) 3.AraĢtırmanın Amacı Ve Bölümleri: Karahanlı Dônemi eserlerini sırasıyla tanıtan bu çalıĢmanın amacı: Karahanlı DônemiTùrkçe‘ si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılarak, çeĢitli bulgulara ulaĢılmaktır. Bu bildiri dôrt ana bôlùmden oluĢmaktadır: Birinci bôlùmde, Karahanlı Tùrkçesine ve dônemine yùzeysel bir bakıĢ; Ġkinci bôlùmde, Kutadgu Bilig‘in dil ôzellikleri ve eserde geçen sôzlerin etkili kullanımı; Üçùncù bôlùmde, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk eserindeki sôz – dil etkisi ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Dôrdùncù bôlùmde ise, Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılmıĢtır. 4.Veriler Ve Yöntem: Karahanlı Dônemi Tùrkçe‘ si eserlerinden, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta geçen sôz – dil kavramları ve etkisi, farklı kaynaklardan alınan veriler ile tespit edilmiĢ ve tarama metodu kullanılarak sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve çalıĢma gerçekleĢtirilmiĢtir. 4. Karahanlı Dönemi Türkçesi Ve Eserleri 5.1.Karahanlı Dönemi Türkçesi: Ġlk Ġslâmî edebiyat dili olan Karahanlı Tùrkçesi, 11.-12. yùzyıllar arasında KaĢgar ile Doğu ve Batı Tùrkistan‘dan geliĢmiĢtir. Karahanlı Tùrkçesi aynı zamanda Karahanlı Devleti‘nin resmî dili olmuĢtur. Karahanlı Devleti 10. yùzyılda Ġslâm dinini benimsemesiyle birlikte, çevresindeki Ġslâm devletleriyle yakın iliĢkiler kurmuĢtur. Bu iliĢkiler zamanla çeĢitli toplum kurumlarında ve ôzellikle dil ùzerinde birtakım etkiler yapmıĢ ve bazı Arapça, Farsça terkip ve tamlamalar tabii olarak kullanılmaya baĢlanmıĢtır. YaklaĢık iki yùzyıllık bir zaman dilimine hakim olan Karahanlı Tùrkçesi, Uygur ve Kôktùrk Tùrkçesi‘nin devamıdır. (Hacıeminoğlu, 1996:1) Karahanlı Tùrkçesi` nin merkezini KaĢgar teĢkil eder. Karahanlı‘lar devrinden itibaren, KaĢgar Ģivesinde inkiĢaf eden Tùrkçeki, buna hem hakaniye(Karahanlı) hem de Doğu Tùrkçesi adı verilmektedir.(Caferoğlu,1984:74) Karahanlı Tùrkçesinde Arapça ve Farsça kimi dil ôgeleri (sôzcùkler, ekler vb.) yerleĢmeye ve halk dili dıĢında bir zùmre dili oluĢmaya baĢladı. Karahanlı Tùrkçesinin ôzelliklerini gôsteren yapıtlar arasında KaĢgarlı Mahmut‘un ―Divan-ı Lugat-it-Tùrk‖ ù (Tùrk Lehçeleri Sôzlùğù), Yusuf Has Hacib‘in ―Kutadgu Bilig‖ i (Saadetli Olma Bilgisi), Edip Ahmet‘in ―Atabet-ùl Hakayık‖ ı (Hakikatlerin EĢiği) ve ―Ashab-ùl-Kehf ‖ (Yedi Uyurlar) ôzellikle anılabilir. Karahanlılar dônemi eserlerinde kullanılan dil; o dônemin kùltùr ve sanat yaĢamında Ġslâm gelenek ve gôreneklerindeki etkisini kısa zamanda gôsterdi ve Karahanlı Tùrkçesinde eserler verilmeye baĢladı. (www.birdunyabilgi.net/karahanli-turkcesi-ya-dahakaniye-turkcesi, 23-03-2011, saat:10.00). Bu devirde birçok Tùrkçe eserler yazıldığı muhakkak ise de, yazık ki bize bunlardan pek azı gelebilmiĢtir.(Kôprùlù,1986:153) Ayrıca, sôz ve konuĢma âdâbı, bir milletin tecrùbe imbiğinden sùzùlerek nesilden nesile hayat gôrùĢù olarak aktarılan atasôzleri ve deyimler içinde oldukça geniĢ yer tutar. ―Sôz gùmùĢse sùkøt altındır‖, ―Tatlı dil yılanı deliğinden çıkarır‖, ―Sôz dokuz boğumludur, boğa boğa sôyle‖, ―Sôz adamın mihengidir‖ gibi atasôzleri ve ―sôz açmak, sôz geçirmek, sôz vermek, sôzùnù bilmek, sôzùnùn eri olmak‖ gibi deyimler bazılarıdır. (Tunç, 2001:162) Edebiyatımızda hemen hemen bùtùn hacimli dinî, ahlâkî ve didaktik eserlerde sôze bir bôlùm ayrılmıĢ veya yeri geldikçe konuĢma âdâbı ile ilgili hususlar dile getirilmiĢ, hatta sırf sôz âdâbı ile ilgili nasihat-nâme tùrùnde mùstakil manzumeler yazılmıĢtır .(Yeniterzi, 2001: 322-23) Sôzùn tesirli kullanıldığı eserlerin baĢında Divan-ı Lugat-it-Tùrk gelir. 5.2.Divan-ı Lugat-it-Türk‘te Sözün Etkili Kullanımı: Dinî ve ahlâkî eserlerde, nasihat-nâmelerde sôz ve konuĢma âdâbına ônem verilmesi ve çoğunlukla bôlùmler ayrılmasında, Tùrk edebiyatının kôklù bir sôzlù geleneğe bağlı olmasının da payı vardır.(Tunç, 2001:183) Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesi‗ nin ve Ġslami Dônem Tùrk Edebiyatının temel 1038 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo eserlerinden KâĢgarlı Mahmut‘un Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk‘ù sadece bir sôzlùk değil; edebiyat ve dil tarihini aydınlatan, sôzùn etkili gùcùnù ve kullanımına vurgu yapan bir eserdir. Araplar`a Tùrkçe ôğretmek ve Tùrkçenin zengin dil-sôz varlığını ortaya koymak amacıyla yazılmıĢtır. KâĢgarlıMahmut‘un; ―Derdini dinletebilmek ve Tùrklerin gônlùnù almak için onların dilleriyle konuĢmaktan baĢka çare yoktur.‖ sôzleri (Atalay, 1985:6), yabancıların Tùrk dilini vedille birlikte folklorùnù ve kùltùrùnù ôğrenmelerini, Tùrklerle iyi iliĢkiler kurmak için tek yol olarak kabul ettiğini gôsterir. (Eker, 2006:191) Dilin yaygınlaĢmasında ve tesirin artmasındaki temel etken; canlı,derin manalar ifade eden kelimelerin kullanımı, yazılı veya sôzlù dil unsurlarının anlaĢılır ve yalınlığının yanında muhatabına gôre seçilmesidir. Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk açıklamalı bir sôzlùktùr. Tùrkçe kelimeyi açıklarken bir ibare, atasôzù ya da bir manzum parçayı ôrnek olarak verir. Divan‘da yer alan edebi malzeme savlar(atasôzleri) ve koĢuklar (Ģiirler) olmak ùzere iki grupta toplanabilir. Divan‘daki 7500 madde baĢını açıklamada yararlanılan 289 atasôzù 172‘ dôrtlùklerden, 55 beyitten ibaret toplam 798 dize vardır. (Eker, 2006:193). Divan-ı Lùgat-itTùrk; bir sôzlùk olarak ele alındığında, sôzcùkten oluĢan sôz varlığıyla ve bu sôzcùklerin açıklamalarıyla ôn plana çıkmaktadır. Pek çok dil bilimsel ôzelliği içinde barındıran bu eser, aynı zamanda dônemin karĢılaĢtırılmalı Tùrk dili ansiklobedisidir.(Bayraktar,2009:139) DîvânuLùgati`t-Tùrk`te 7500 dolayındaki Tùrkçe kelimenin Arapça karĢılıkları verilmiĢ ve Tùrk boylarının dilleri tanıtılmıĢtır. KaĢgarlı Mahmut Divanında: ―Tùrk dilini ôğreniniz; çùnkù onlar için uzun sùrecek egemenlik vardır.‖(Eker, 2006:192) sahih olmayan bir hadisten bahseder. Gùnùmùzde Tùrkçe 130 ùlkede ikinci bir dil olarak ôğretilmektedir. Dilimizle birlikte bize ait değerler en veciz ifadelerle aktarılmakta vesôzùn gùcùnden yararlanılmaktadır. Sôzlù ve yazılı dil geleneğimizin temel taĢlarından birini oluĢturan Dîvânu Lùgati‘t-Tùrk‘te dilin ve sôzùn etkili kullanımını gôsteren ifadeler: 1.Erdem baĢı tıl. Erdemin,edep ve faziletin baĢı dildir.(Çùnkù gùzel sôz sôylemesini bilen Ģerefe eriĢir,onurlanır. Bir Arap atasôzù: ―Ġnsan-insanın değeri-dilinin altında saklıdır.‖) 2. Savın sagrakkategir. (Gùzel sôzle insan beylerin çanağından içme Ģerefine erer. En gùzel Ģekilde ağırlanır.) (Birtek, 1994:14) 3. Bilge eren sawların algıl ögüt./Edhgüsawığadhlese özge sinğer. (Bilgin adamların sôzlerini ôğùt olarak al, iyi sôz tesir ederse ôze siner) (Atalay, 1985: 155) 4.Tılda çıkar edhü söz ‗iyi söz dilden çıkar‘. ( Halkı hoĢnut edecek gùzel sôzleri dilinden eksik etme) (Atalay, 1985: 161) ―Kuru kaĢık ağıza yaraĢmaz, kuru sôz kulağa yaraĢmaz. Tılıntirgik ete gir. Dil ile sofraya eriĢilir. (gùzel sôzle insan nimete eriĢebilir. Bu sav insanın kendi erdemini ancak sôzleriyle tanıtabileceğini vurgular. Dil ile bağlanan diĢle çôzùlmez. (Bu sav sôzùnùn eri olan sôzùnù yerine getirmesi gerekenler için sôylenir. Sôzùn tadına dalan kimse esir olur (Lafa dalan tutsak olur). Çok sôzù anlamak olmaz, yalçın kaya yıkılmak olmaz. Ġnsan çok sôzù anlayamaz, nasıl ki dağdan yalçın kayayı yıkamaz.‖ (DîvânuLùgati‘tTùrk, 1998: I/383; 429; II/20; 150-51; III/20) 5.3.Kutadgu Bilig‘te Sözün Etkili Kullanımı: Kutadgu Bilig, Karahanlı dônemin edebi eser niteliği taĢıyan ilk ôrneğidir. 1069 yılında Balasagunlu Yusuf tarafından yazılmıĢtır. Karahanlı hùkùmdarı Tabgaç Buğra Han`a sunulmuĢ olan eser Buğra Han tarafından çok beğenilerek yazarında sarayda "Has Haciplik" gôrevi verilmiĢtir.(Kôprùlù,1986:165) Saadet veren bilgi anlamına gelen Kutadgu Bilig, adından da anlaĢılacağı gibi, insana hem dùnyada hem de ahirette mutlu olma yolunu gôstermek amacıyla yazılmıĢtır.(Arat,2006:29) Mesnevi biçiminde yazılmıĢ olan eserin sonunda 124 beyitlik ùç kaside ile mesnevi içinde yeri geldikçe sôylenmiĢ ayrıca 173 dôrtlùk bulunmaktadır. Anılan ek manzumelerle birlikte Kutadgu Bilig`in tamamı 6645 beyittir. Kutadgu Bilig, Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesi olan Hakaniye lehçesi ile yazılmıĢtır. Sayıları fazla olmamakla birlikte Arapça ve Farsça kelimelerin de kullanıldığı eserde, Tùrkçe aruza uydurulurken, çok sayıda imale yapılmıĢtır. Kutadgu Bilig, dùĢùnce yanı ağır basan, ôğretici bir eserdir. Tatsız mecazlarla ahlak dersi veren kuru bir ôğùtçù değildir. Bu eseriyle insan hayatının anlamını çôzùmleyen ve onun toplumun, dolayısıyla da devletin içindeki gôrevini saptayan bir hayat felsefesi sistemi kurmuĢtur.(Arat, 2006:30) Kullandığı dil Tùrk yazı dilidir ve inceliklerine vakıftır. Dilin ve sôzùn 1039 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo tesirini artırmak için seçtiği yarı hikâye yarı temsil tarzındaki açıklayıcı monologlar ve canlı betimlemelerle mùkemmel bir ùslup ve mimari oluĢturmuĢtur.(Arat,2006:31) Dil ve dùĢùnce tarihi yônùnden değerli bir belge niteliğindeki bu eser, yazıldığı dônemin insanına ve devlet adamlarına, doğru yolu gôstermek, yôneticilikle ilgili bilgi vermek amacıyla yazılmıĢtır. Karahanlı dônemi Tùrk aydınlarının dùnya gôrùĢùnù, duyuĢ ve dùĢùnùĢ tarzlarını, kùltùr dùzeylerini tanıtan bu eserde: Tùrk Dili, seçilen kelimeler, hikâye, temsiller, monolog ve betimlemelerle kullanım alanını ve etkinliğini arttırmıĢtır. Sadece Karahanlı dôneminin değil gùnùmùzùn de en etkin bir Ģaheseri olma ôzelliğine kavuĢmuĢtur. Sôzùn ve dilin etkisini ve erdemini gôsteren beyitler: AnlayıĢ ve bilgiye tercùman olan dildir; Ġnsanı aydınlatan açık dilin kıymetini bil KiĢiyi dil kıymetlendirir ve kiĢi onunla mutluluk bulur; KiĢiyi dil kıymetten dùĢùrùr ve dili yùzùnden baĢı gider. Dil arslandır, bak, eĢikte yatar; Ey ev sahibi, dikkat et, senin baĢını yer. (Arat,2006: 117) Sôzùne dikkat et ki, baĢın gitmesin; Dilini tut ki diĢin kırılmasın. Bilgili kiĢi dil için ôzlù bir sôz sôyledi; BaĢını gôzet, ey dil sahibi. Sen kendi esenliğini istiyorsan, Ağızdan yakıĢıksız sôz çıkarma. Sôz bilerek sôylenirse bilgi sayılır; Bilgisizin sôzù kendi baĢını yer. Çok sôzden bir fayda gôrmedim; Ama sôylemek de faydasız değildir. Sôzù çok sôyleme, az ve birer sôyle; Binlerce sôzùn dùğùmùnù bu bir sôzde çôz. KiĢi sôz ile yùkseldi, melik oldu. Çok sôz baĢı, gôlge gibi yere serdi. Çok konuĢma ―gevezelik etti‖ derbilgi; Ama sôylemezse de ona ―dilsiz‖ der. Mademki bôyledir, sen açık dil kullan; Dil açık olursa kiĢiyi yùkseltir. Dili iyi gôzet, baĢın gôzetmiĢ olur; Sôzùnù kısa kes ômrùn uzun olur. Dilin faydası çok olduğu gibi, zararı da çoktur Dil bazen ôvùlùr, bazen de çok sôvùlùr. Mademki bôyledir, sôzù bilerek sôyle; Sôzùn olsun gôzsùzlere kôrlere gôz. Bak, doğan ôlùr; ondan eser olarak sôz kalır; Sôzùnù iyi sôylersen ôlùmsùz olursun.(Arat,2006:119) KiĢi iki Ģey ile kendini yaĢlanmaktan kurtarır: Biri iyi iĢ, diğeri de iyi sôz Bak kiĢi doğdu, ôldù; sôzù kaldı; 1040 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ġnsanın kendisi gitti adı kaldı. Kendine ôlùmsùz bir hayat dilersen; ĠĢin ve sôzùn iyi olsun, ey hakîm. Dili bu kadar ôvmek ve arada bir sôvmekten amacım, Sana sôzùn ne olduğunu anlatmaktı. Her sôzù saklamayı da anlayıĢ hoĢ gôrmez; KiĢi gerekli sôzù sôyler, gizlemez. Ey yiğit, ben bu sôzù oğlum için sôyledim; Oğul benden aĢağıdır, bana nasıl denk olur. KiĢiden kiĢiye miras olarak sôz kalır; Vasiyet edilen sôzù tutmanın faydası çoktur..(Arat,2006:121) Sôz deve burnu gibi yularlıdır; DiĢi deveboynu gibi nereye çekilirse oraya gider.(Arat,2006:125) Aklın sùsù dil, dilin sùsù sôzdùr; KiĢinin sùsù yùz, yùzùn sùsù gôzdùr. Ġnsan sôzùnù diliyle sôyler; Sôzù iyi olursa yùzù parlar.(Arat,2006:133) Hem yumuĢak huylu, hem tatlı dilli Hem akıllı hem bilgili olmak gerekir .(Arat,2006:141) Vùcudun nasibi hep boğazdan girer; Ruhun nasibiyse doğru sôzdùr ve kulaktan girer. Bak bilginin iki alameti vardır; Bu iki Ģey ile insan bahtiyar olur Bunlardan biri dil, biri ise boğazdır; Ġnsan bu ikisine hakim olursa çok fayda gôrùr. Bilgilinin boğazına ve diline hâkim olması gerekir; Boğazını ve dilini gôzeten bilgiler gereklidir.Aklın sùsù dil, dilin sùsù sôzdùr; KiĢinin sùsù yùz, yùzùn sùsù gôzdùr. Ġnsan sôzùnù diliyle sôyler; Sôzù iyi olursa yùzù parlar.(Arat,2006:133) Hem yumuĢak huylu, hem tatlı dilli Hem akıllı hem bilgili olmak gerekir (Arat,2006:251) Ay- Toldı dedi ki: sôzùn faydası bùyùktùr; Sôz yerinde kullanılırsa, kulu yùkseltir. Sôz sayesinde yağız yerden mavi gôğe yùkselir Ve baĢ kôĢeye geçenlerden olur. Eğer dil sôz sôylemesini bilmezse Mavi gôkte olanı yere indirir Ay-Toldı dedi ki: Fazla sôz, sormadan Sôylenip insanı usandıran sôzdùr. 1041 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Az sôz ise sorulduğu zaman sôylenen Ve bir ihtiyacı karĢılayan sôzdùr. Dilini gùzel sôzle sùsleyen ve onun yùzùnù açan Ģair Bu vadide Ģôyle bir sôz sôylemiĢtir: (Arat,2006:253) Sôzù gùzel ve iyice dùĢùnerek sôyle; Ancak sorulduğunda sôyle ve kısa kes. Çok dinle, fakat az konuĢ; Sôzù akıl ile sôyle, bilgi ile sùsle. Çok dinlemeli fakat sôzùn birer birer sôylemeli Bilgili hakîm bana ôyle dedi Çok sôylemekle bilge olmaz kiĢi; Çok dinlemekle bilge bulur baĢkôĢeyi. Ġnsan, dilsiz de olsa bilgili olabilir Fakat sağır olursa bilgiyi elde edemez. (Arat,2006:255) Ay- Toldı dedi: Hùkùmdara arz edeyim; Dili ile sôylemezse bilgi ôylece kalır Dile yalnız sôvmek olmaz, ôvùlecek tarafı da çoktur; Sôzùn de ôvùlecek ve sôvùlecek tarafı vardır Bùtùn canlılar bùtùn bu sayısız yaratıklar; Tanrının birliğine dil ile Ģahadet getirdi Tanrı yùz binlerce mahløku yarattı Onların hepsi de Tanrı‘yı dilleriyle ôver. Vùcut sahibi kiĢiye gereken Ģeylerden Biri dil ve sôz, biri de gônùldùr. Tanrı gônlù ve dili doğru sôz için yarattı Sôzù doğru olanları zorla ateĢe atarlar. Sôz doğru sôylenirse faydası çoktur Eğri sôz daima ayıplanır. Doğru sôyleyecekse dilin kımıldasın Sôzùn eğriyse onu gizlemelisin. KonuĢmayan kiĢiye dilsiz derler Çok sôyleyenin adıysa geveze baĢıdır. KiĢinin itibarsızı geveze olanıdır; KiĢinin itibarlısı cômert olanıdır.(Arat,2006:257) Hangi iĢ olursa olsun onu tatlı dil ile karĢıla; Her iĢte tatlı dil kullanırsan, mutluluk sana bağlanır.(Arat,2006:301) Sôzùnù gôzet emniyet içinde yaĢa; Kendini gôzet esenlik ile ihtiyarla.(Arat,2006:331) BaĢını korumak istersen beylerin sôylemesi gereken sôzleri sôyle Sen sôyleme, memlekete karĢı suç iĢleyip kendi baĢını yeme 1042 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Avam memlekete karĢı suç iĢlerse baĢı gider; KonuĢurken dili suç iĢlerse diĢi kırılır. Sonra çok okudum dil ihtiyatsız konuĢurken Gônùl sırrını ifĢa etmiĢ ve o kiĢiyi yaralamıĢtır. Meliklere vakti gelince yùzùnù gôster, Sorduklarında sôyle ve ancak sorduklarına cevap ver. (Arat,2006:481) HoĢsohbet kiĢiler her yerde iyi kabul gôrùr; Sôzde usta kiĢi iĢinde de baĢarılı olur.(Arat,2006:503) Ağızdan bazen ateĢ bazen su çıkar; Bunların biri yapar biri de yıkar. Gereksiz sôz yanan ateĢ gibidir; Onu ağzından çıkarmamalısın sonra kendin yanarsın. Kızıl dil kara baĢın amansız dùĢmanıdır; Bu kôtù dùĢmanı sıkı tut ve huzur içinde yaĢa.(Arat,2006:507) Kaba sôze yumuĢak yanıt verilmeli, Acı sôzlere de tatlı sôzle karĢılık verilmeli. Ġnsanlara karĢı kaba sôz sôyleme; Kaba sôzùn acısını gônlùn uzun yıllar çeker (609) Ne ise zararı yok doğru sôylemiĢ; Doğru sôz haĢin olur o da haĢin sôylemiĢ (Arat,2006:673) Dinle akıl insan sana ne der: Sôzù dùĢùnerek sôyle ey mert yiğit. Sôzù sôylemenin faydası çoktur; Bu dilim beni sôylemekle piĢman etti. Sôzù sôylemezsen o sôz sana kul olur; Eğer sôylersen o seni kendine kul eder. Sôzù dùĢùnerek sôyle acele etme, sabırlı ol; Acele sôylenen sôzden ayrın piĢmanlık gelir.(Arat,2006:679) Sôzùn uzun olursa bıktırır; Akıllı kiĢiler sôzù kısa keser. (Arat,2006:687) Sôzù kapalı tutarsan sonu çiğlik olur; Çiğ olan her Ģeyin altında zarar vardır.(Arat,2006:703) Yanındakini kendinden uzaklaĢtırmak istersen, Ona istediğini verme, onunla biraz kaba konuĢ Kendini herkese sevdirmek istersen, Sôzùn ve fikrin birbirine uygun, dilin tatlı olsun.(Arat,2006:739) Sôz her Ģeyi altùst eden bir rùzgârdır, kalbi sızlatır; Kalbi sızlayan kimse seni mahvedebilir.(Arat,2006:741) Onlar nasıl hareket ederlerse sen de ôyle yap; Tatlı sôz sôyleyenlere sen de tatlı dil kullan 1043 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sana siz diyenlere sen de siz tabirini kullan KarĢılık verirken daima karĢındakinden daha nazik davran Kaya yankısından daha aĢağı kalma Sana sen diyenlere sen de senle.(Arat,2006:743) Çok sôz sôyleme, kendine hâkim ol, dilini koru; Çok sôylenen sôzùn kıymeti kalmaz. Her sôzù sôz diye ağızdan çıkarma; Gerekli olan sôzù dùĢùnerek ve ihtiyatla sôyle. Akıllı bir insan gôrdùm çok az konuĢtu; Fakat çok konuĢtum diye yıllarca piĢman oldu.(Arat,2006:747) Sôzùnù dùĢùnerek sôyle, sana keder gelmez; Hayatını boĢa geçirme, piĢman olmazsın.(Arat,2006:781) Gônlùnù ve dilini doğru tut, erdemiyse yùksek tut; Gaflete dalma yolunu ĢaĢırma Beyler haĢin sôz sôylememeli, kendilerine hâkim olmalı; HaĢin sôz insanların gônlùnù çabuk soğutur.(Arat,2006:879) Bu Tùrkçe sôzù yabani geyik gibi gôrdùm; Onu yavaĢça tuttum, aldatarak kendime yaklaĢtırdım. OkĢadım ısındırdım, çabucak bana gônùl verdi; Yine de ara sıra ùrkùyor, korkuyor. Ele geçirdiğim gibi sôzù takip ettim; Onun miski gùzel kokular saçmaya baĢladı Sôzù doğru sôyledim, o sert ve acı oldu; Doğru sôze tahammùl eden akıllı insandır. (Arat,2006:1085) Sôzù çok sôyledin dikkat et tazeliğini kaybetmesin Çok sôzden insan usanır ve bıkar.(Arat,2006:1087) Dilini tut boğazına hâkim ol çok uyuma, Gôzùnù yum kulağını tıka ve bôylece huzur içinde yaĢa.(Arat,2006:1089) 5.4.Atabetü`l-Hakâyık ‘ta Sözün Etkili Kullanımı: Bu dônem eserlerinden bir baĢkası da Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`tır. Yazarı, Yùknekli Edip Ahmet olan Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`ın yazılıĢ tarihi bilinmemekle birlikte, Kutadgu Bilig`den yarım yùzyıl sonra yazıldığı sanılmaktadır. Dini-ahlâki didaktik bir eserdir. Ġslâmi Tùrk edebiyatının, Mùslùmanlık inançlarını telkin eden ilk eseridir. Tùrk dili tarihi, tarih ve edebiyat tarihi açısından da ônemli bir yapıttır. Asıl metnin dôrtlùklerle sôylenmiĢ olması yazarın milli Ģiir zevkini sùrdùrdùğùnùn gôstergesidir. Dil bakımından Kutadgu Bilig`e gôre Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`ta Arapça, Farsça kelime sayısı daha fazladır. Ancak, halka hitabeden eserde konu ve dùĢùnce kurgusu daha basittir.Edip Ahmet, ağzınve dilin ziynetinin doğru sôz olduğunu ve etkili sôz sôylemenin doğru ve sanatlı sôzle mùmkùn olacağını eserinde vurgular. Dilin muhafazası hakkındaki beyitler: Dinle bilgili ne diyor: Edeplerin baĢı dili gôzetmektir; Dilini muhafaza altında tut, diĢin kırılmasın; Eğer muhafaza altından çıkarsa, diĢini kırar. DùĢùnerek konuĢan adamın sôzù, sôzùn iyisidir; Çok gevezelik eden dil, karĢı konulmaz bir dùĢmandır. Sôzùnù baĢı- boĢ bırakma; dilini sıkı tut; 1044 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilin baĢı- boĢluğu bir gùn baĢa belâ olur. BoĢ- boğaz adam akıllı olur mu?; Bu boĢ- boğazlık ve ağız gevĢekliği çok baĢları yedi. Ġnsanı dil ile kızdırma; bil ki, ok yarası kapanır, Fakat dilin açtığı yara kapanmaz. Sefîh adamın dili kendi baĢının dùĢmanıdır; Birçok adamların kanları dilleri yùzùnden dôkùldù. Çok konuĢanlar arasında piĢman olan çoktur. Dilini muhafaza altında bulunduranlardan piĢman olan kim var? Ġnsana ne gelirse, dilinden gelir; Dili yùzùnden kimi iyi, kimi kôtù olur; Dinle ve bu sôze inan ki vùcut her sabah Kalkıp, eğilerek, dile yalvarır. Eğer bir insanda(Ģu) iki Ģey birleĢirse, O insanda mùrùvvet yolu kapanmıĢtır: Bunlardan biri, lùzumsuz yere gevezelik etmek Ġkincisi ise yalan sôylemektir. Yalan sôyleyen adamdan uzak dur, kaç; Sen ômrùnù doğruluk ile geçir. Ağzın ve dilin ziyneti doğru sôzdùr; Sôzù doğru sôyle, dilini sùsle. Dilini sıkı tut, gel, sôzùnù kısa kes; Dil korunursa kendin korunmuĢ olursun; Resøl; - ― Ġnsanı yùzùkoyun ateĢe atan dildir‖- dedi; Dilini sıkı tut, yùzùnù ateĢten kurtar Doğru ol, doğruluk yap ve adın doğruya çıksın; Ġnsanlar seni doğru olarak bilsinler; Eğriliği bırakıp doğruluk libasını giy, Elbiselerin en iyisi, doğruluk libasıdır. Sırrını iyi sakla, kimse bilmesin, Sôzùnden kendine piĢmanlık gelmesin; Bùtùn gizli iĢlerin âĢikar olup, Gôren ve duyan sana gùlmesin. En yakın ve inanılır arkadaĢına bile, sakın, ArkadaĢım diye inanıp, sırrını sôyleme; Sırrın kendinde sabretmez ve saklamazsa, ArkadaĢına sabreder mi; bunu iyi dùĢùn. (Arat,Atabet‘ùlHakayık, 2006, s.87-88) Sonuç: ―Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk bir hazinedir; onun ùzerinde ùç, beĢ kiĢinin çalıĢması yeterli değildir. Divanın ùzerinde yùzlerce kiĢi çalıĢacak ve her çalıĢan yeni bir cevher bulacaktır.― Divanın giriĢindeki bu cùmleler, bu çalıĢmaya teĢvik eden temel sebeblerden birisi oldu. Bu bildiri de dôrt ana baĢlık altında, Karahanlı dônemindeki dil ve sôzùn tesirini ôrneklerle incelemeye çalıĢtım. Karahanlı DônemiTùrkçe‘si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ıLugatIt Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yaparak, edebiyatımızda ve dilimizde sôzùn gùzelliğini, ―Aklın sùsù dil, dilin sùsù sôzdùr; / KiĢinin sùsù yùz, yùzùn sùsù gôzdùr.‖ Beyitiyle taçlandırdık. Bir sôz insanın yùzùnù ak ederken, baĢka bir sôzùyle yùzùnùn kara olabileceğini vurguladık. Sôzùn fazileti ve tesirini en veciz herhalde Ģu Ģekilde ifade edilebilir: ―Kendine ôlùmsùz bir hayat dilersen, ey hakîm, iĢin ve sôzùn iyi olsun. 1045 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Arat, R, Atebetù‘l- Hakâyık,TDK, Ankara, 2006 Arat, R. R, KutadguBilig, Kabalcı yay.Ġstanbul, 2006 Atalay, B. Divan-ı Lugat-it TùrkTercùmesi, Ankara 1985 Bayraktar, N. ―Dil Bilimci ve Dil Eğitimcisi Olarak KaĢgarlı Mahmud‖ Akademik AraĢtırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 10 sayı:39, Ġstanbul, 2009 Birtek, F., En Eski Tùrk Savları, AlahaddinKıral Basımevi, Ankara 2006 Caferoğlu, A., Tùrk Dili Tarihi, Enderun Kitabevi, Ġstanbul,1984 Eker, S., ―Erken Dônem KaĢgarlı Mahmut‖, Tùrk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Kùltùr ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yay. ,Ġstanbul2006 Hacıeminoğlu, N., Karahanlı Tùrkçesi Grameri, TDK, Ankara 1996 Kôprùlù, M.F., Tùrk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Ötùken Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1986 Tunç S., "Dede Ömer RûĢenîDîvânı'nda Söz ve KonuĢma Âdabı ile Ġlgili Hususlar", SÜ Tùrkiyat AraĢtırmaları Enstitùsù Tùrkiyat AraĢtırmaları Dergisi, S. 10, Konya, 2001 Yeniterzi, E., ―On Altıncı Yüzyılda Konyalı Bir ġair: MeĢâmî‖ Tùrk Dili, Sayı: 591 Mart 2001 (www.birdunyabilgi.net/karahanli-turkcesi-ya-da-hakaniye-turkcesi, 23-03-2011,saat:10.00) 1046 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 576 Title A name given to the resource KARAHANLI DÖNEMĠ TÜRKÇESĠNDE SÖZÜN ETKĠLĠ KULLANIMI Author Author Çakır, Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. Karahanlı dônemiTùrkçesi‗ninve Ġslami Dônem Tùrk Edebiyatının temeleserlerinden KâĢgarlı Mahmut‘un Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk‘ù sadece bir sôzlùkdeğil; edebiyat ve dil tarihini aydınlatan, sôzùn etkili gùcùnù ve kullanımını gôsteren ansiklopedik bir eserdir. Aynı dônem eserlerinden biri de ilk nasihatname ôrneği olan Yusuf Has Hacip‗ in Kutadgu Bilig isimli eseridir. Bu eser de Ģu ôğùtler sıralanır: Sôzù yerinde sôylemeli, sorulunca konuĢmalı, iki dinleyip bir sôylemeli, kaba sôze yumuĢak; acı sôze tatlı karĢıtlık vermeli gibi. Bôylece, toplumsal değer yargıları ve kutlu saadet bilgileri anlatılırken, sôzler inci gibi dizilerek, etkili ve kalıcı bir anlatım sağlanmıĢtır. Bu dôneme damgasını vuran ve dilin muhafazası hakkında manidar bilgiler veren ùçùncù yapıt ise; Edip Ahmet‘ in kaleme aldığı Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘tır. Her ùç eserde bilimsel olarak incelendiğinde sôzùn o dônemdeki gùcù ve etkisi ayan beyan gôrùlmektedir. Bu çalıĢmada: Karahanlı Dônemi Tùrkçe‘ si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‗ l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılarak, çeĢitli bulgulara ulaĢılmıĢtır. Bu bulgular gùnùmùz eğitimcileri ve eğitim dùnyası için de ônem arzetmektedir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7b0a1c12a80df9ae0af7a4f8d2aff575.pdf 535c09dc3f2910affbb6dce6cbc442d7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Traces of the Life of Charlotte Brontë in Jane Eyre Mine Özge Çeri School of Foreign Languages Sùleyman Demirel University, Turkey mineozgezure@yahoo.com Abstract: ‗‗Details, situations which I do not understand and cannot personally inspect, I would not for the world meddle with. Besides not one feeling on any subject, public or private, will I ever affect that I do not really experience.‘‘ (Smith, 2000) This confession settles the question whether the books written by Charlotte Brontë are drawn from what came within her own world of experience. This paper wants to show the influence of the life and experiences of Charlotte Brontë on her famous novel Jane Eyre. The first part of the article provides a brief summary of the life of Charlotte Brontë. The second part provides information about the schools she attended to which are Cowan Bridge and Roe Head and their similarities to the novel. The third part of this paper provides Charlotte Brontë‘s working experience as a governess in Stonegappe. The fourth part provides information about Henry Nussey, Mr. Heger and Hathersage, which have important influences on the novel. The paper concludes that a close acquaintance with Charlotte Brontë‘s life shows that the story of Jane Eyre is largely her own experience. Key Words: Literature, novel, biography. Introduction In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, C. Holloway argues about Charlotte Brontë‘s works that ‗‗Her works are mainly delineations of actual experiences; she was not an inventor of fiction. Her fancy filled in the background of her pictures, but her own knowledge of people and things supplied the material.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) This is what most of writers who study the life and works of Charlotte Brontë argue about her writing. Holloway further states that ‗‗Had she not known the experience, we should not have had such books as she wrote, …‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) In Understanding Jane Eyre : A Student‘s Casebook to Issues, Sources & Historical Documents, Teachman states; ‗‗As sources of material for her fiction, Brontë used the experiences she, her sisters, and her female friends had at school and work.‘‘ (Teachman, 2001) Barker illustrates in The Brontës that ‗‗Perhaps learning from her Brussels chapters in The Professor, Charlotte began to draw on personal experience to flesh out her characters and scenes.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, C. Holloway states about Charlotte Brontë that ‗‗With her mind she could see, independent of the organs of vision; and her wonderful intuitive powers invested her with a knowledge of human nature incompatible with the restricted life she led.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) Debra Teachman argues about Jane Eyre that ‗‗It claims a need for women to have equal experiences with men-not the same, but equal in quality and depth of meaning.‘‘ (Teachman, 2001) In Jane Eyre, Jane points out the famous lines about the equal states of men and women which have been read over and over again; ‗‗Women are supposed to be very calm generally: but women feel just as men feel; they need exercise for their faculties, and a field for their efforts as much as their brothers do; they suffer from too rigid a restraint, too absolute a stagnation, precisely as men would suffer; …‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) That a young and plain girl like Jane Eyre claims to have ‗‗a field for her efforts‘‘ is what Charlotte Brontë dreams of. Brontë reflects her own ideas about the equality of men and women on her heroine. Jane Eyre thinks of herself as a spirit equal to any other spirit, on this subject Gordon points out; ‗‗It is here that Charlotte Bronte gave form and meaning to the private extravagance of her own life tugged between the claims of the self and the claims of society.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) In her biography Juliet Barker draws the conclusion that ‗‗an intense family relationship‘‘ was vital to the writing of the Brontës‘ fiction. In We are Three Sisters : Self and Family in the Writing of the Brontës, Drew Lamonica states about the same topic that ‗‗Family was the medium through which they saw and interpreted the world.‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003) She further claims that literary critics viewed family as Brontës‘ ‗‗motive for their writing‘‘ and argues; ‗‗Yet the family was not simply an essential context for the Brontës‘ writing processes-the family is an essential element of content in the texts themselves.‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003) In Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, Gordon points out that ‗‗But Jane Eyre stands out from many predecessors in the gothic or romance tradition for its unusual heroine: no swooning beauty, no fragile model of sensibility, Jane is a plain, intelligent governess who tells her story with compelling honesty.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) We see the characteristics of Charlotte Brontë in her heroine and on this topic, in her famous biography The Brontës, Barker states that ‗‗Just as she was later to do with Jane Eyre, Charlotte endowed Elizabeth with many of her own characteristics.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Charlotte was very small in figure as Mrs. Gaskell describes her. Barker indicates; 948 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗‗It is also the first novel to have a plain and ordinary woman as its heroine. Charlotte is usually credited with this innovation in Jane Eyre, which she told her friends, was written to prove to her sisters that a heroine ‗as plain and as small as myself‘ could be as interesting as their conventionally beautiful ones.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Charlotte Brontë‘s Early Life Charlotte Brontë was born on 21st April, 1816 in Thornton, Yorkshire, England, the third child to Patrick Brontë, a clergyman of Irish descent and his wife, Maria Branwell. The family only lived in Thornton for five years and Patrick Brontë was offered to work for the Church in Haworth. The house in Haworth had a garden in front and was near the Church. In In the Footsteps of the Brontës, Chadwick states; ‗‗The house is full of memories, and the old-fashioned window seats remind readers of Jane Eyre, and of her partiality for hiding herself in the recesses of the windows.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) In Selections from the literary remains of Ellis and Acton Bell, Charlotte Brontë gives a very faithful picture of the district, which applies to Haworth; ‗‗Mills and scattered cottages chase romance from these valleys; it is only higher up, deep in among the ridges of the moors, that imagination can find rest for the sole of her foot; and even if she finds it there, she must be a solitude-loving raven, no gentle dove.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) Kathryn White, the writer of the book The Brontës examines; ‗‗The Brontës‘ environment affected their work deeply …‘‘ (White, 1998) In Charlotte Bronte A Passionate Life, Gordon describes the moors as ‗‗a contrast between restriction and freedom that was to be central to their work.‘‘ Gordon indicates; ‗‗Jane Eyre has a notion that, in the last extremity, she will cast herself on the breast of nature as on the body of a mother.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Brontë children read and studied books from their father‘s library and they used to be very creative drawing and writing plays, poems and stories. Bewick‘s British Birds was included in Patrick Brontë‘s collection of books. In The Brontës, Juliet Barker illustrates that ‗‗The simple lines but the great detail of the vignettes were endlessly copied by the young Brontës with varying degrees of success.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Kathryn White, in The Brontës, indicates that ‗‗they all copied vignettes from Thomas Bewick‘s A History of British Birds, mentioned in the first chapter of Jane Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) It is significant that in the first chapter Jane Eyre studies the vignettes of this book. Charlotte Brontë‘s School Life Cowan Bridge In her widely-read biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë, Elizabeth Gaskell states what Charlotte told her; ‗‗Miss Brontë more than once said to me, that she should not have written what she did of Lowood in ‗‗Jane Eyre‘‘, if she had thought the place would have been so immediately identified with Cowan Bridge, although there was not a word in her account of the institution but what was true at the time when she knew it; … ‘‘ (Gaskell, 2009) The Clergy Daughters‘ School was the first school which the Brontë sisters were sent. Her experiences here are reflected in Lowood in Jane Eyre. In an essay which was written in Charlotte‘s time Elizabeth Rigby states; ‗‗… Cowan Bridge near Kirkby Lonsdale-these being distinctly, as we hear, the original and the reformed Lowoods of the bookis pretty generally known.‘‘ (Rigby, 1990) In The Brontës, Juliet Barker depicts; ‗‗The story of the young Brontës at the Clergy Daughters‘ School has become inextricably entwined with that of the young Jane Eyre at Lowood School.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Kathryn White in The Brontës indicates that ‗‗The school is notorious for being the basis of Lowood charity school in Charlotte‘s Jane Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) In Understanding Jane Eyre : A Student‘s Casebook to Issues, Sources & Historical Documents, Teachman states that ‗‗Brontë‘s experiences at Cowan Bridge School provided the foundation for much of Jane‘s experience as a student at Lowood, and Brontë‘s experiences at Roe Head School provided her with an understanding of the experiences Jane would have undergone as a teacher at Lowood.‘‘ (Teachman, 2001) In her book, Chadwick talks about a commemorative medallion on which it is written ‗‗At this school Maria Elizabeth Charlotte Emily Daughters of the Rev. P. Brontë were educated in 1824-1825.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) Chadwick talks about a report for the Brontë children at the school and she states Charlotte Brontë‘s report; ‗‗Entered school August 10, 1824. … Altogether clever of her age, but knows nothing systematically. Left school June 1, 1825. Governess.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, Holloway states about Cowan Bridge that ‗‗The pupils all knew the pangs of unappeased hunger, and a feeling of nausea overcame her for years when she recalled the food she was compelled to eat there.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) In Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, Lyndall Gordon points out to the condition of the food in the school ‗‗Hungry as they were, the girls often could not bring themselves to swallow such food, and were soon semi-starved.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Similar to these accounts, Jane Eyre complains about the food in the school stating that ‗‗Then the scanty supply of food was distressing: with the keen appetites of growing children, we had scarcely sufficient to keep alive a delicate invalid.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Gordon further argues that ‗‗In Charlotte‘s later view, low morale, semi-starvation, and physical neglect predisposed most of the pupils to 949 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo infection.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) In The Brontës, Kathryn White argues about Cowan Bridge; ‗‗Cowan Bridge suffered from poor diet and hygiene in food preparation, encouraging the spread of disease.‘‘ (White, 1998) On the subject of Helen Burns Mrs. Gaskell points out; ‗‗I need hardly say that Helen Burns is as exact a transcript of Maria Brontë as Charlotte‘s wonderful power of reproducing character could give.‘‘ (Gaskell, 2009) White states about the death of Charlotte‘s sister Maria; ‗‗Charlotte blamed the school for her death and over twenty years later she recreated Maria in the character of the saintly Helen Burns in Jane Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) In Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, Lyndall Gordon argues; ‗‗From the time of her arrival at the school, Charlotte was forced to watch Maria‘s repeated humiliation at the hands of a schoolmistress called Miss Andrews, the Miss Scatcherd of Jane Eyre. Miss Scatcherd, who is described as small, dark, smartly dressed, with a rather morose look, persecutes the uncomplaining Helen Burns, an exact portrait of Maria Brontë.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Maria was ‗‗her teacher‘s prime victim‘‘ and Gordon argues; ‗‗Charlotte quivered in ‗impotent anger‘, but Maria preached a creed of endurance.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) This reminds us of Helen Burns who does not resist but accepts her teacher‘s bad treatment of her. Juliet Barker points out that ‗‗In the saintly Helen Burns, too, she drew from life, taking as a model her eldest sister, Maria. Ironically, this was the one character the reviewers were to find fault with, considering her too good to be true …‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Barker further indicates that ‗‗Charlotte herself suggested that her own sister, Maria, was the original of Helen Burns in Jane Eyre. She later told her editor, William Smith Williams: ‗she was real enough: I have exaggerated nothing there.‘ ‘‘ (Barker, 1995) The Rev. W. Corus-Wilson was the founder and the manager of the Clergy Daughters‘ School, and known in Jane Eyre as the clergyman, Mr. Bracklehurst. Kathryn White indicates; ‗‗Cowan Bridge was run by the Revd William Carus Wilson, author of magazines such as The Children‘s Friend and The Friendly Visitor, which featured the terrible consequences for little children if they thwarted God‘s wishes. Mr. Brocklehurst of Lowood was based on Carus Wilson.‘‘ (White, 1998) Mrs. Chadwick in In the Footsteps of The Brontës states somewhat a similar situation about Carus Wilson; ‗‗That Mr. Carus-Wilson made several mistakes in the early days is not to be wondered at, and that he was very strict and narrow concerning religious matters …‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) Throughout the novel, religion is an important theme. Mr. Brocklehurst is a religious figure and represents a model of religion which has the hypocrisies of the nineteenth-century Evangelical movement. In Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, Lyndall Gordon argues about Carus Wilson that ‗‗Carus Wilson was a manipulative, rather sinister man who saw girls as weak and sinful and whose school would attempt to save them by trying to stamp out their nature: by cutting off their hair, by chilling their bodies, by depressing their appetites with inedible food, and birching them into submission.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) In Jane Eyre, when Mr. Brocklehurst visits Lowood, he makes a student‘s ‗‗natural curls‘‘ cut. When Mrs. Temple tells him that the girl‘s hair curls naturally, he says; ‗‗Naturally! Yes, but we are not to conform to nature. … I desire the hair to be arranged closely, modestly, plainly.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Tunstall Church is described in Jane Eyre as Brocklebridge, Charlotte Brontë depicts it in Jane Eyre; ‗‗Sundays were dreary days in that wintry season. We had to walk two miles to Brocklebridge Church, where our patron officiated. We set out cold, we arrived at church colder: during the morning service we became almost paralysed. It was too far to return to dinner, and an allowance of cold meat and bread, in the same penurious proportion observed in our ordinary meals, was served round between the services.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Of Tunstall Church, In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, Holloway argues; ‗‗Charlotte tells us of the long, cold walks the pupils were compelled to take in the snow and rain, hungry and insufficiently clad; of the barren, uncomfortable church in which they sat shivering through a long sermon, only to resume their weary march at the end of it, and then to go supperless to bed, or eat food that was distasteful and wholly inadequate to supply their needs.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) Roe Head School Kathryn White in The Brontës states; ‗‗During Charlotte‘s first days at Roe Head school in January 1831, Ellen Nussey, a fellow pupil, discovered a little, weeping, shrinking figure in the shadows of the library, a picture which is echoed in the opening chapter of Jane Eyre when the young Jane takes refuge among the books.‘‘ (White, 1998) Ellen Nussey and Navy Taylor were Charlotte‘s close friends at Roe Head and they left a faithful record of Charlotte Brontë. Mary Taylor indicates; ‗‗She used to draw much better and more quickly, than anything we had seen before and knew much about celebrated pictures and painters.‖ (Chadwick, 1914) Ellen Nussey described her as ‗‗rising from the bottom of the classes to the top.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) Similarly, Jane Eyre states; ‗‗Already I had made visible progress: that very morning I had reached the head of my class.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) As her friends state Charlotte had that habit of pacing to and fro in the room, this also reminds us of Jane Eyre who has the same habit. At this point, Sandra Gilbert illustrates that ‗‗… restlessness and passion-the pacing ‗backwards and forwards‘-which it were italicize Jane‘s little meditation on freedom.‘‘ (Gilbert, 1990) Charlotte had little pleasures like visiting the homes of Mary Taylor and Ellen Nussey. Gordon argues that Charlotte was inspired by a story which built the foundation for Jane Eyre when she was teaching at Roe Head. ‗‗Charlotte may have recalled this story in July 1845 when she visited the Eyre family seat of North Lees during a three-week stay with Ellen in Hathersage, Derbyshire.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Charlotte was frequently invited to Ellen Nussey‘s home at the Rydings, Birstall. The Rydings figures in Jane Eyre as Thornfield. 950 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo After Charlotte studied at Roe Head, she obtained a teaching position there. Barker states; ‗‗Charlotte had taken up her post as a teacher at Roe Head with deep reluctance.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) She quitted her job in 1838 and returned to Haworth to teach her sisters. However, she was anxious about the future; she was determined to qualify herself to earn her own living. Stonegappe In The Brontës, Kathryn White points out; ‗‗Career options for women were severely restricted. … and the only resort for an educated woman was teaching, being a governess or writing.‘‘ (White, 1998) She further states that ‗‗One of the main themes of the Brontës‘ writing is their own experience of education and the need to learn a living.‘‘ (White, 1998) Charlotte Brontë tried to work as a governess herself as her heroine Jane Eyre. Her brief experiences as a governess cast some light on the experiences of Jane Eyre as a governess. In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, Holloway states that ‗‗When the question of earning her bread came to be considered by her, and it came early, Charlotte realized that teaching young children was her only available accomplishment, and she sought and obtained a position as governess.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) In 1839, Charlotte Brontë obtained a situation as a governess to the children of Mrs. John Sidwick at Stonegappe, a large house in Skipton, Yorkshire. Gateshead Hall, described in the early part of the novel is based on Stonegappe. Gordon points out; ‗‗Below, in the valley, runs the river Ayre, perhaps one source for the name of Jane Eyre. It is well-known that Stonegappe was the source for Gateshead in Jane Eyre, and it is likely that Jane‘s position as an interloper in an uppish family owed something to the position in which Charlotte found herself when she joined the Sidgwicks in May 1839.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Lyndall Gordon states the indifference of Mrs Sidgwick and argues; ‗‗However Charlotte tried to please – however Anne tried at Blake Hall – neither won the slightest recognition. Their gifts of mind were invisible; their employers could not see what did not reflect themselves.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Charlotte wrote to Emily about Mrs. Sidgwick that ‗‗I now begin to find that she does not intend to know me.‘‘(Gordon, 1994) Charlotte reflects this feeling of being invisible as a governess in Jane Eyre. In Jane Eyre, two sisters, Diana and Mary Rivers, leave their home, Moor-House, to serve as governesses in families ‗‗by whose wealthy and haughty members they were regarded only as humble dependants, and who neither knew or sought one of their innate excellences, …‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Ellen Nussey well remembered Charlotte giving an account of Norton Conyers, an old mansion that she visited when she was employed at Stonegappe. The interior of Thornfield Hall, referred to in Jane Eyre, must have been taken from Norton Conyers. One of small rooms in the attic was shown as ―the mad woman‘s room‖ and there is a story that it was once occupied by an insane woman. This most probably gave rise to the story of Bertha Mason. However, at this point Gordon argues about the Thornfield Hall that ‗‗Based on Ellen‘s old home, the Rydings, near Birstall, and on the Eyre family seat of North Lees which CB visited during her stay in Derbyshire in 1845.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Marriage Proposal Charlotte‘s letters probably led Mrs. Gaskell to think that she had no eagerness for marriage but Jane Eyre proves the opposite. Marriage in her view should mean a real union between two souls such as existed between Rochester and Jane. Charlotte had a great desire for a true marriage. She received a marriage proposal from the Reverend Henry Nussey, the brother of her friend Ellen Nussey. About this proposal, in The Brontës, White states that ‗‗In March 1839, Charlotte received an unexpected, businesslike proposal of marriage from Ellen‘s brother, the Revd Henry Nussey. He had contemplated missionary work and the experience may have influenced Charlotte‘s depiction of the chilly missionary, the Revd St John Rivers, in Jane Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) Although the proposal was unromantic, there were certain advantages to this marriage as Charlotte would not worry about her future any longer and could forget about being a governess. However, Charlotte refused the proposal and as its reason, White indicates; ‗‗For Charlotte, love was a prerequisite of marriage, though many women would have considered her foolish not to grasp the opportunity of financial security.‘‘ (White, 1998) As to her refusal, Barker examines; ‗‗The problem was that Charlotte like Elizabeth Hastings and Jane Eyre, had the romantic notion that she should love her husband. ‗I asked myself two questions-‘, Charlotte told Ellen ‗Do I love Henry Nussey as much as a woman ought to love the man her husband? … Yet I had not, and never could have that intense attachment which would make me willing to die for him-and if ever I marry it must be in that light of adoration that I will regard my husband.‘ ‘‘ (Barker, 1995) In her letter containing her negative answer to Henry Nussey, she writes; ‗‗In forming this decision- I trust I have listened to the dictates of conscience more than to those of inclination.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Similar to Revd. Henry Nussey‘s offer of marriage and missionary work with him, St. John Rivers makes Jane an offer of marriage and missionary work with him in India. He proposes; ‗‗A missionary‘s wife you must-shall be. You shall be mine: I claim you-not for my pleasure, but my Sovereign‘s service.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Like Charlotte, her heroine refuses this proposal as she knows that she will never be able to love him as she does Mr. Rochester, as Jane is already aware of passion she cannot tolerate a marriage without it. Jane tells Henry Nussey that; ―I scorn the counterfeit sentiment you offer: yes, St. John and I scorn you when you 951 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo offer it.‖ (Brontë, 2006) Jane indicates that; ‗‗It is-that he asks me to be his wife, and has no more of a husband‘s heart for me than that frowning giant of a rock ...‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Hathersage In The Brontës, Barker illustrates; ‗‗Though Charlotte was to stay only a brief three weeks at Hathersage, the visit was to be a major influence in shaping Jane Eyre.‘‘(Barker, 1995) Barker mentions Charlotte‘s poem The Missionary which was probably written at that time. This poem tells of a man who has to give up his love to be a missionary in another county. ‗‗This scenario was to be developed more fully in Jane Eyre, where St. John Rivers loves Rosamond Oliver but refuses to ask her to share his own destiny as a missionary in India because he knows she will not be able to adapt to his hardships.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Barker depicts; ‗‗Whether or not Charlotte was consciously seeking material for the story that, a year later, was to become Jane Eyre, the village of Hathersage and its setting were to feature prominently in her novel. Even the name of his heroine seems to have been adopted from the four splendid medieval brasses of the Eyre family in the church. The fifteenth-century Eyre home, North Lees Hall, which lay two miles from Hathersage, may also have provided Charlotte with material for her description of Rochester‘s Thornfield Hall.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) In We Are Three Sisters: Self and Family in the Writing of the Brontës, Charlotte depicts her sisters, Anne and Emily, in Rivers sisters; ‗‗Not only are the Rivers sisters alike, but Jane immediately recognizes her affinity to them: ‗I liked to read what they liked to read: what they enjoyed, delighted me; what they approved, I reverenced. … we coincided, in short, perfectly.‘ ‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003) Gordon argues the same about Rivers sisters being Emily and Anne ‗‗Grave and slender, both possessed faces full of distinction and intelligence. So she described them in the form of two studious sisters, Diana and Mary Rivers, who shelter Jane when she runs away from bigamous Mr. Rochester.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Lamonica further examines that ‗‗This idealized picture of sisterly solidarity can be seen in the context of the Bronte family relations in the 1840s, as Charlotte compensated for her increasing estrangement from Branwell, her former confidante and creative spur, by turning to her sisters for both emotional and creative support. Despite Hannah‘s presentation of the Riverses‘ sibling unity, St John is significantly peripheral to the female community in Moor-House. He is unable to share in their domestic harmony, as Branwell was, by 1846, distanced from his sisters.‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003) Monsieur Heger Monsieur Heger‘s personality was a great source of inspiration for Charlotte Brontë. Charlotte was very happy during her first year at Brussels. At the end of six months, Emily and Charlotte were offered the position of teaching. Holloway indicates; ‗‗At the expiration of the six months two sisters were offered positions in the school …‘‘ (Holloway 20) In her second stay in Brussels, Charlotte was feeling lonely as she was feeling herself more attached to Heger. Barker focuses on that ‗‗She could not declare her love to Monsieur Heger in such shameless terms, but her heroine could and would. Like Monsieur Heger, Mr Rochester was married, and Jane, like Charlotte, would take the moral line and flee from temptation; but Jane, unlike Charlotte, would eventually win her man.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Gordon depicts; ‗‗M. Heger‘s letters to Charlotte have vanished, but forty years later, writing to another English pupil, his engaging ways remained undimmed.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) She presents a paragraph from Heger‘s letter and states; ‗‗This voice is like Rochester‘s as he contemplate Jane in his library and becomes aware of a resolute woman who does not deny feeling but who will not allow it to shake her reason‘‘ (Gordon, 1994). ‗‗Though this relationship was beyond all doubt entirely proper, the letter breathes an intimacy and sensuality which a susceptible woman would find erotic. ‗I only have to think of you to see you‘, he told the lady in question.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) She further examines; ‗‗This could be Mr. Rochester talking to Jane Eyre.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Charlotte Bronte fell in love with a powerful man like Mr. Rochester who was the opposite of everything she valued. Gordon illustrates that ‗‗Rochester‘s words to Jane are close to Heger‘s style.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) White indicates ‗‗It is interesting that she addresses him as her ‗master‘ on several occasions, a term which Jane Eyre uses to describe the moody Rochester.‘‘ (White, 1998) When she returned to Haworth, she was not ill in body, but she never seemed to be well after leaving Brussels. There were constant complaints of depression and ill-health. Charlotte said ―I shall not forget what the parting with M.Heger cost me, it grieved me so much.‘‘ (Gaskell, 2009) This state of mind resembles that of Jane Eyre when she flees Thornfield and Mr. Rochester. ‗‗Depression drives Jane into the wilderness near Whitcross. Whitcross was derived from the stone pillar known as the Moscar Cross, close to the Hallam moors in Derbyshire which Charlotte would have seen when she vacationed with Ellen in the village of Hathersage in the summer of 1845.‘‘(Gordon, 1994) Barker depicts that ‗‗Charlotte‘s own journey across the flat moorlands between Sheffield and Hathersage, where the desolation is broken only by scattered outcrops of rock, was to provide an appropriate setting for Jane‘s flight from Rochester, and Hathersage itself became the fictional village of Morton.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Conclusion 952 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On this study, the influences of Charlotte Brontë‘s experiences on her successful novel, Jane Eyre have been analysed by stating many opinions of various critics and biographers as well as connotations from the novel, Jane Eyre itself. The first part examines Charlotte Brontë‘s early life illustrating its reflections on her novel. It further focuses on her time in Haworth. The second part indicates Charlotte Brontë‘s school life, Cowan Bridge, Roe Head and her teaching experience, depicting their relevancies to her novel. The third part focuses on Charlotte‘s experiences as a governess and its reflections on Jane Eyre. The last part depicts Henry Nussey, Monsieur Heger and Hathersage and their impacts on the novel. Therefore, through this study, traces and effects of Charlotte Brontë‘s life on her work are analysed and a close observation of her life depicts the reflections of her experiences on her novel, Jane Eyre. References Brontë, C. (2006). Jane Eyre, London: Penguin Red Classic. Gaskell, E. (2009). The Life of Charlotte Brontë, A Digireads.com Book. Barker, J. (1995). The Brontës, London: Phoenix. Chadwick, H. E. (1914). In the Footsteps of the Brontës, London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. Gordon, L. (1994). Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, London: Chatto & Windus. 953 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teachman, D. (2001). Understanding Jane Eyre : A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources & Historical Documents, Westport: Greenwoodpress. Lamonica, D. (2003). We Are Three Sisters : Self and Family in the Writing of the Brontes, Columbia: University of Missiouri Press. Holloway, C. (1883). An Hour with Charlotte Brontë; or Flowers from a Yorkshire Moor, New York: Funk & Wagnalls Publishers. White, K. (1998). The Brontës, Stroud: Sutton Publishing Limited. Rigby, E. (1990). Review of Jane Eyre: An Autobiography. Critical Essays on Charlotte Brontë, Boston: G. K. Hall & Co. Gilbert, M. S. (1990). Plain Jane‘s Progress. Critical Essays on Charlotte Brontë, Boston: G. K. Hall & Co. Smith, M. (2000). The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, New York: Oxford University Press. 954 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 561 Title A name given to the resource Traces of the Life of Charlotte Brontë in Jane Eyre Author Author Çeri, Mine Özge Abstract A summary of the resource. ‗‗Details, situations which I do not understand and cannot personally inspect, I would not for the world meddle with. Besides not one feeling on any subject, public or private, will I ever affect that I do not really experience.‘‘ (Smith, 2000) This confession settles the question whether the books written by Charlotte Brontë are drawn from what came within her own world of experience. This paper wants to show the influence of the life and experiences of Charlotte Brontë on her famous novel Jane Eyre. The first part of the article provides a brief summary of the life of Charlotte Brontë. The second part provides information about the schools she attended to which are Cowan Bridge and Roe Head and their similarities to the novel. The third part of this paper provides Charlotte Brontë‘s working experience as a governess in Stonegappe. The fourth part provides information about Henry Nussey, Mr. Heger and Hathersage, which have important influences on the novel. The paper concludes that a close acquaintance with Charlotte Brontë‘s life shows that the story of Jane Eyre is largely her own experience. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d254fbfc13a7f9b375f38e9ebbd35f8c.pdf 4e31737e626fc59a8b8d044065517dee PDF Text Text 1 The Problem of Conceptualization in Rhetoric: A case of Ittisâl, Mülâyim and Cihet-i câmia Abdurrahman Özkan Kadriye Yılmaz Orak Melike Üzüm Department of Turkish Language and Literature Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey abdurrahmanozkan@sdu.edu.tr kyilmaz32tr@gmail.com melikeuzum@gmail.com Abstract: Today, there are some difficulties in understanding the old rhetoric (belâgat) books by modern people. Today, although the basic rhetoric terms are known by the majority, the supporting terms used in the old rhetoric books to define these terms are not known by everyone. For us, that is the reason for our classical rhetoric not to be understood sufficiently. Indeed, there have been many attempts to define the rhetoric terms since 20th century, but as the supporting terms, used (that should be used) in defining these terms, were not clearly defined, yet all those studies fill the void, as they are not systematic, they are useless in teaching them. In this study, we will focus on three terms, used in the definitons of the rhetoric terms in the old rhetoric books but not known properly today, and we will try to explain these terms in relation with their usage in rhetoric books. Among the three terms we will deal with; (ittisâl, mülâyim) is related with beyân (figure of speech) and cihet-i câmia with meânî (word order). Ittisâl is a term used in the explanation of the teşbih (simile) in the beyan chapter of the rhetoric books. It means a set of intersection to be based on the metaphor, created by the components through which the müşebbeh (likened) and müşebbehün-bih (likened-to) in create meaning. For example, "Ali is a lion." In this teşbih sentence, ittisâl is made up of courage, which exists between the components of meaning of the two elements (likened and likened-to) and based on the this teşbih. Mülâyim is the term used in the definition of istiâre in the beyân chapter of the rhetorical books. In a broader sense, istiâre is the word, used with the istiâre word and by which the metaphor is understood (İstiare is a kind of allegory). It also indicates the feature of the metaphor belonging to one of the two elements of the sentence. Cihet-i câmia, a term related with vasıl and fasıl (conjuction and disjunction) topics of meânî, is used to describe the connection of sentences or common elements in the connected sentences and it means the partnership between the semantic elements of to-be conected elements. We suppose that the seeds and the principles of the meaning unit (anlam birimciği-séme), one of the most basic branches of the modern semantic, can be said to exist in our classical rhetorical books or at least in ittisâl, mülâyim and cihet-i câmia by looking the descriptions below. As we also suggest, it is quite apparent that; not only the study of the basic terms but also the study of the terms used in their definitions will contribute a lot to the understanding of our rhetoric. Key words: term, rhetoric, ittisâl, mülâyim, cihet-i câmia, séme analysis �2 Introduction Emerged and developed in Islamic culture, rhetoric was one of the pillars of our education. It used to be utilized to teach how to create discourse and include 3 components “meânî”, ‘beyân” and “bedî”. Meânî, included the major principles of oral and written discourse, beyân focused on the stylistic issues of language and bedî dealt with the decorative and argumentative structure of discourse such as contrasts, similes and cinas (jinâs). It is clear that rhetoric, which traditionally had a major impact in our teaching and learning, can shed light on the current research in literature. The theories and meaning, which could be found in old rhetoric books, and the schools of thoughts that this knowledge was based on, is not widely known by contemporary readers therefore is difficult to understand. As a result, the key terms and definitions found in classical rhetoric books were not made accessible to modern readers. The major terminology of rhetoric is somewhat known, but some key terms to make meaning of the major terminology are not widely known. It is not possible to make sense of the basic terminology without being familiar with the toolset used to deconstruct the basic terms. Therefore, this study will examine the terms ittisâl, mulâyim and cihet-i câmia as a tool set to understand and explain some basic concepts in rhetoric such as tesbih, istiâre and vasıl-fasıl. We will also address their connections to and similarities with FR analyse semique which is widely used in semantics (Yılmaz 2009: 294). 1. Ittisâl: Ittisâl can be defined as “reaching and proximity”. In fikih, the relationship between literal meaning and figurative meaning of a word (causes leading to the transfer of meaning from literal to figurative) can also be called ittisâl and examined in two subtopics. Manevî ittisâl (virtual simile feature): The similarities between the semantic units that comprise meaning. Istiâre (metaphor) is comprised of these connections. Sûrî ittisâl (formel simile feature): the connections between syntactic units that make up form. Mecâzî mürsel (metonomy) is comprised of these connections. (Atar 2002: 220) Ittisâl in rhetoric, is the intersection between the semantic connections of two words and the metaphoric relationship they make up. Here is an example defition of ittisâl by Said Paşa of Diyarbakir in his work Mizânü’l-Edeb: “The commonalities between the literal meaning of a word the figurative meaning after the meaning is trasfered from literal to figurative can be called ittisâl. Consider, Zeyd is a lion. Zeyd as a human, and lion as an animal, their qualities have been compared and analyzed and bravery was something they had in common, therefore Zeyd has been transferred from the human meaning to that of a lion on the basis of being brave.” (Diyarbakırlı Said 1305/1890: 194-195) In the example above, Zeyd and a lion had other qualities in common too such as being present, animate, and concrete, these do not qualify to create the simile between Zeyd and the lion. What connects these two on the semantic plane, is the quality of being brave. Based on this example, we can claim that these are the first examples of deconstruction of semantic units in rhetoric. The example mentioned above, is a simile. This means that ittisâl is one of the components of simile. Similes are created when two seemingly dissimilar objects have a common quality, and this commonality is called ittisâl. Simile is an expression used to explain an object based on a certain quality by making comparisons with other objects which possess that specific quality. For example, in the expression “Grain is yellow like gold”, the main point of comparison is the “yellowness of grain” which is an indication of ripeness for plants, but this quality was not told explicitly but compared with an object gold, which is more strongly associated with being yellow and considered invaluable by people. Therefore, the meaning was enhanced. As it could be seen in this example, the yellowness that is common between the semantic units of these two words has been used as ittisâl. Rhetoricians use a particulat term for ittisâl specific to simile-vechi-sebeh (point of comparison). Rhetoricians claims 4 categories for points of comparison according to the modality of perception: 1. affective, it is about emotions. Hasan aga is as black as Arabs. The blackness mentioned here is a quality perceived in visual modality, one of the five major senses 2. cognitive, qualities whose presence is perceived through cognition. Personal qualities such as Knowing, authority, intelligence and ethical, righteous, proud and coward, comparing someone to another in these areas, or comparing a useless thing to absence: Bekir aga is as brave as a lion. Bravery can be perceived through cognition 3. imaginative connections made through imagionation, comparing knowledge with light and ignorance with dark �3 4. delusional comparing real objects with unreal objects Rhetoericians also made comparisons on the basis of form of existence, according to such categorization vechisebeh (commonalities) might emerge in zâtî (direct), vasfî (indirect) and izâfî (relative) aspects. Vasfî İzâfî The creators of the nature meaning Zâtî The creators of the indirect Additions to the asset itself, but of imagination 1. zatî (essential) a permanent quality that identifies an object. This shirt is cotton like that shirt. 2. vasfî (atributal) temporal qualities that can be shared by other objects Hasan aga is as black as an Arab. 3. izâfî (imagined) an object does not possess a certain quality but the person who creates the simile assigns it by imagination. He is like sun in shedding light on evidence. These three are the basic meaning bundles. Below is the scheme, showing the approaches and categoizaions of the object in teşbih by the rhetoricians (This classification belongs to Rıza Filizok): 1.essential 2. attributal 3. imagined object (liked-to) speaker listener 1.affective 2.cognitive 3.imaginative 4. delusional 2. All these detailed categorizations show that our semanticists were no worse than the Western semanticists from the point of discussing subject. Alıcı (Algılama cihazlarına göre) Verici (benzetmethe yapan) 2. Mülâyim: 1. hissî 2. aklî 3. hayalî 4. vehmî (dört ayrı It means "suitable, expedient and soft". "Mülâyim" is used to determine the types of istiâres. It is the use sémè) of the meaning components of either müsebbeh or müsebbehun-bih in istiâre. The information related to the term "mülâyim" is as follows in the "Edebiyat Lugati" by Tahirü'l Mevlevi. It is the word that is equivalent to metaphor and it has links to the likened-to in the implicit istiâre (istiâre-i mekniyye) Tahirü'l Mevlevi uses the term "mülâyim" in relation with the implicit istiâre. Like Tahirü'l Mevlevi, Cevdet Paşa also uses for implicit istiâre (Cevdet Paşa 2000: 96-97) while Ahmed Hamdi and Said Paşa use for explicit istiâre Ahmed Hamdî 1293: 90-92, Said Paşa 1305: 344-345). Whether used for implicit istiâre or for explicit istiâre, the implied thing is one. It is the clear expression of one the meaning components belonging to müşebbüh-bih (liked-to; müsteârun-minh) or müşebbeh (liked; müsteârun-leh). (Note: Rhetoricans use mülâyim for explicit istiâre, while they use "havas" (properties), the plural form of "hasse" (property), and "lâzime" (component), the plural form of "levâzım" (components). Istiâre is divided into categories as to whether mülâyim exists in the istare word or not, whether mülâyim belongs to müsterün-leh (borrowed-to) or müsteraun-minh (borrowed-from). Mülâyim in istiâre;    if not present, then it is " mutlaka" (absolute metaphor), if present, and if it is a component of borrowed-to, it is "mücerrede" (naked metaphor), if present and if it belongs to a component of borrowd-from, it is "muraşşaha" (enhanced metaphor). Mülâyim The position of mülâyim and the categorization of istiâre are as follows: + + + müsteârun-leh (borrowed-to) müstârun-minh (borrowed-from) mutlaka (absolute metaphor) mücerrede (naked metaphor) muraşşaha (enhanced metaphor) �4 Let’s see this in an example. We can create such a scenario. Tom can say these for his friend John:  Today, I saw a lion in the bazaar.  Today, I saw a fluffy-maned lion in the bazaar. (John has long and fluffy hair.)  Today, I saw an iron-fisted lion in the bazaar. (John has fighted and beaten three people.) explicit istiâre lion (borrowed-from) John (borrowed-to) - - yele (fluffy-maned) - - Yumruk (iron-fisted) a. mutlaka (absolute) b. muraşşaha(enhanced) c. mücerrede (naked) Mülâyim components are written in the related columns. 3. Cihet-i câmia The sub-units of text are not brought together randomly, those which are in related to each other are brought together in combination. Units that do not have this relationship will be seperate and detached. The formation of interrelated units depending on each other is called “vasıl”, the connection of the sentences grammatically is called “atıf” (co-ordination), and the formation of unrelated units as detached is called “fasıl”. Rhetorically, in order to connect two or more sentences, namely “atıf”, we need an intersection set between those sentences. This intersection set is called as “cihet-i câmia” (Fr. sémè)” (Bilgegil 1984: 145-147; Bilgegil 1989: 105-108). Cihet-i câmia is the common aspect to be found between element sor sentences in order to the connect the elements of the sentences to each other or connect to one sentence to another. Out of the two connected sentences, the first one is called as “matûfun-aleyh” and second as “matûf”. Matûf ve matûfun-aleyh, namely the first and the second sentences are united in semantic unity (“cihet-i câmia”). The formation of a meaningful unity of the sentences connected to each other by th way of “atıf” depends on semantic unity, namely “cihet-i câmia”. “Şu Efendi, hem kitâbet eder ve hem şiir söyler” (This gentelman writing in prose and saying poem.) (Ahmed Hamdî 1293: 55). In that sentence, “kitabet” is used in the sense of writing in prose and saying poem in the sense of writing in verse. According to that, writing creates the top concept, namely the “cihet-i câmia” between the two sentences. That can be illustrated with a schema like that: 2nd Sentence 1st Sentence “cihet-i câmi‘a” (“matûfun-aleyh”) Efendi, hem kitâbet eder (matûf) (archisémème) hem şiir söyler. Cihet-i câmia is divided into three main branches: “aklî (logical), “vehmî” (suspicional) and “hayâlî” (fictional). “Aklî” and “vehmî” are also divided into three sub-branches. One of the 19th century classical rhetoricans Ahmet Hamdî classifies cihet-i câmia as follow (Hamdi 1293: 55-58):  eserkind yazmak  of cihet-i câmi‘a a. aklî b. vehmî 1. ittihâd 1. şibh-i temâsül 2. temâsül 2. tezâd 3. tezâyüf  eser yazmak  3. şibh-i tezâd c. hayâlî a. Cihet-i Câmia-i Akliyye: It is the type of logical relationship between the two elements (word, sentence or sentence element) to be connected to each other. This can be in three ways; “ittihâd”, “temâsül” ve “tezâyüf”. 1) ittihad: Ahmet hem yazar hem de şairdir. In this example, there is a relationship between two species combined in the same genus: kitabet and telling poem, writing are united in the composition and this clearly shows the relationship between the two types that are connected to the same top cluster. �5 2) temasül: Unlike ittihad, which is not united in a top category, temasül is the relationship between different concepts, belonging to different categories, but having similarity, proximity and partnership. It can be illsutrated as ascribing somebody to somebody other who are connected to each other in loyalty and friendship. “Bill writer and Tom tanner ve John tailer”. In that example, three people who have a tie of friendship and amity are ascribed to each other. 3) tezâyüf: It is the kind of relationship in which the consideration of one thin requires the consideration of the other, too. For exmaple; virus-sick, down-up, little-many etc. Down is existent only together with up, their existence depends on each other in logical thought. These can also be called as the relations of "mütekabils". Here are the tezâyüf examples shown in a schema: father son Relationship(sémè) down up place (sémè) more less amount (sémè) b. Cihet-i Câmia-i Vehmiyye: When no reason exists in connection of the words, sentences and the elements of the sentences, it is the thinking of a reason in logic as if there is one. It is divided into three: Şibh-i temâsül (so-called similarity), tezâd (contrast) ve şibh-i tezâd (so-called contrast). 1) şibh-i temâsül: It is the realization of an imaginary similarity relationship among the elements to be connected. The world lights up with three things: the light of sun, the light of moon and the justice of the ruler (king). 2) tezâd: The contrasts between the accidents. This two opposite components, white and black, is associated being colour in other words being “araz’’ (accident). 3) şibh-i tezâd: It means the opposites which are thought to be in subtance because the opposites become among araz (accident) (Kınalızade Ali Efendi: 47-48). What it seems like the opposite among the essence such as the opposite which is thought to be between ground and sky, is actually an illusion (şibh-i tezat). Contrast relation becomes between the accidents and the ground and sky maybe only contrast illusion between them because of being the type of subtance (makule-i cevher). First sentence Tom went to bazaar. meaningful Second sentence The water boils at 100 ‘C. meaningful Third sentence The weather is nice today. meaningful Meaningless c. Cihet-i Câmia-i Hayaliyye: It occurs to be with proximity between two things imagining. Based on the example of Ahmed Hamdi and Cevdet Paşa, we can say that this proximity is based on connatations. Ahmed Hamdi implies that a proximity can be found between many things depending on customs and traditions and this kind of relations which are overrated by Belagatçiler are based on cultural connatations. There is need to include sub-cultures within a common culture. Also two components which there is no connection between each other in a society, can establish a common direction in other society. These are related with connotative meanings. Counting materials in the example of “to anyone who reads and writes needs inkpot, pencil, paper, pencil sharpener, scissors”can be considered together because of being materials of writing and reading. What makes possible consideration of a combination of these creates cihet-i câmia-i hayaliyye and fort his reason they can be connected to each other with conjuctions. In fact, there isn’t any rational reason to expect from the associative connotations. Other than those listed above no common direction is found between the two sentences that sentences of the text seperately brought together without a conjunction. Mean scholars (meânî alimleri) say this “the chapters”’.The term in belagat, cihet-i câmia is met with the coherence and cohesion in the modern semantics. In terms of modern semantics we can explain the subject with these examples: Above each sentence has a meaning on its own but there is no connection between them. So these consecutive sentences aren’t composed of a meaningful text. The meaning of the text isn’t in its words and its �6 clauses, but in the connection between them. Here, meaning is neighter A, nor B and C. A+B+C is D. This jointly created D gives the meaning of the text. The meaning comes to us with the connections of the words and phrases of the text. The more the connections change, the more the meaning of the text changes. A literary work consists of relating these word fields to each other as a solid hooking up. This connnecting and combining in literary works is called “cohesion”. In addition, a meaning area takes place under the layer of linguistic area in the texts. The links between the semantic layers are called coherence. Cohesion and coherence are similar but different concepts of levels. Even though cohesion can be seen on the surface of the text through the linguistic items, the coherence is logical links between the deep structure of the meanings. Although showing the linguistic items have specific linguistic items,not showing the consistency of cohesive ties (Onursal, www.ege-edebiyat.org ). Conclusions and Recomendations Considering all the explanations above and all the examples we give, it is seen that ittisâl, mülâyim and cihet-i câmia are the whole meaning and that whole meaning is built up on the idea of meaning particles When we note, this idea highy overlaps with the understanding of sémème analysis (meaning particles analysis) which is one of the important stages of the modern semantics and aims to determine the characteristics of meaning that occurs the content of a meaningful unit by utilizing phonology methods (expect for some use of methods of modern phonology) (Vardar 1998: 22). We want to put forward this overlap in our notification briefly. �7 References Ahmed Cevdet Paşa (2000). Belâgat-ı Osmâniye, Akçağ Yay., İstanbul. Ahmed Hamdî (1293). Belâgat-i Lisân-ı Osmânî, Matbaa-i Âmire, İstanbul. Atar, Fahrettin (2002). Fıkıh Usûlü, Marmara Üniversitesi İlâhiyat Fakültesi Yay., İstanbul. Bilgegil, Kaya (1984). Türkçe Dilbilgisi, Dergâh Yay., İstanbul. Bilgegil, Kaya (1989). Edebiyat Bilgi ve Teorileri, 2. Baskı, Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul. Çankı, Mustafa Namık (1954). “Connatation”, Büyük Felsefe Lûgatı, C. I, Cumhuriyet Matbaası, İstanbul. Diyarbakırlı Said (1305). Mizânü’l-Edeb, İstanbul. Kınalızâde Ali Efendi (Tarihsiz). Ahlâk-ı Alâî, Tercüman Yay. Onursal, İrem. “Türkçe Metinlerde Bağdaşıklık ve Tutarlılık”, www.ege-edebiyat.org Tahir'ül-Mevlevi (1994). Edebiyat Lügatı, (Haz.: Kemâl Edib Kürkçüoğlu), Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul. Vardar, Berke (yön.) (1998). Açıklamalı Dilbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü, 2. Bs., İstanbul. Yılmaz, Kadriye (2009). Belâgat-i Lisan-ı Osmanî’deki Terimlerin Tanımları ve Tasnifi Üzerinde Bir Araştırma, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir 2009. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 687 Title A name given to the resource The Problem of Conceptualization in Rhetoric: A case of Ittisâl, Mülâyim and Cihet-i câmia Author Author Özkan, Abdurrahman Orak, Kadriye Yılmaz Üzüm, Melike Abstract A summary of the resource. Today, there are some difficulties in understanding the old rhetoric (belâgat) books by modern people. Today, although the basic rhetoric terms are known by the majority, the supporting terms used in the old rhetoric books to define these terms are not known by everyone. For us, that is the reason for our classical rhetoric not to be understood sufficiently. Indeed, there have been many attempts to define the rhetoric terms since 20th century, but as the supporting terms, used (that should be used) in defining these terms, were not clearly defined, yet all those studies fill the void, as they are not systematic, they are useless in teaching them. In this study, we will focus on three terms, used in the definitons of the rhetoric terms in the old rhetoric books but not known properly today, and we will try to explain these terms in relation with their usage in rhetoric books. Among the three terms we will deal with; (ittisâl, mülâyim) is related with beyân (figure of speech) and cihet-i câmia with meânî (word order). Ittisâl is a term used in the explanation of the teşbih (simile) in the beyan chapter of the rhetoric books. It means a set of intersection to be based on the metaphor, created by the components through which the müşebbeh (likened) and müşebbehün-bih (likened-to) in create meaning. For example, "Ali is a lion." In this teşbih sentence, ittisâl is made up of courage, which exists between the components of meaning of the two elements (likened and likened-to) and based on the this teşbih. Mülâyim is the term used in the definition of istiâre in the beyân chapter of the rhetorical books. In a broader sense, istiâre is the word, used with the istiâre word and by which the metaphor is understood (İstiare is a kind of allegory). It also indicates the feature of the metaphor belonging to one of the two elements of the sentence. Cihet-i câmia, a term related with vasıl and fasıl (conjuction and disjunction) topics of meânî, is used to describe the connection of sentences or common elements in the connected sentences and it means the partnership between the semantic elements of to-be conected elements. We suppose that the seeds and the principles of the meaning unit (anlam birimciği-séme), one of the most basic branches of the modern semantic, can be said to exist in our classical rhetorical books or at least in ittisâl, mülâyim and cihet-i câmia by looking the descriptions below. As we also suggest, it is quite apparent that; not only the study of the basic terms but also the study of the terms used in their definitions will contribute a lot to the understanding of our rhetoric. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3fff0733b769eeb08342477c704695e7.pdf baf6c924b310e3053a18833ec1cb9f7c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching English as a ―lingua franca‖ to achieve intercultural communicative competence Neva ĥebron University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities, Koper, Slovenija neva.cebron@fhs.upr.si Abstract: Raising intercultural communicative competence has gained a central place in many considerations and discussions in the globalized world. The present paper therefore examines and analyses approaches to achieving intercultural competence proposed by a number of prominent authors from the American and European cultural environment, such as E.T. Hall, Gert Hofstede, R.D. Lewis, Anna Wierzbicka, Elsa Oksaar, Michael Byram, Manuela Guilhelme. They base their theoretical and applied methods of teaching, as well as their approaches to raising intercultural awareness in the intercultural dialogue, while highlighting slightly different levels of communication, thus also suggesting somewhat different conclusions. As a consequence two approaches have been developed: cross-cultural and intercultural communicative approach. We could say that even considerations about the intercultural dialogue show signs of cultural conditioning. Furthermore, the paper deals with the application of such theoretical premises in the English classroom at the tertiary level. Building on language teaching methods, the paper suggest ways of extending the theme to cross-curricular units, since actualization of theoretical insights in the classroom lends itself nicely to intertwining both a critical cultural awareness of multilingualism in ones own environment and the intercultural communicative competence, leading thus to an "intercultural citizenship". Key words: intercultural communicative competence, cross-cultural communication, multilingualism, plurilingualism. 1 Promoting Multiligualism and Intercultural Awareness in the EU The main cohesive principle binding together the nations and states forming the European Union is regarded to be a high level of respect for cultural and linguistic heritage of all the peoples living within its boundaries. These core values are clearly stated in the Preamble to the EU Treaty, which declares to be »drawing inspiration from the cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe, from which have developed the universal values of the inviolable and inalienable rights of the human person, freedom, democracy, equality and the rule of law«. Article 151 further elaborates on this integration principle by asserting that »the Community shall contribute to the flowering of the cultures of the Member States, while respecting their national and regional diversity and at the same time bringing the common cultural heritage to the fore«. Moreover, Article 149 points to the importance of promoting and protecting the inherent linguistic variety within the EU by claiming that »the Community shall contribute to the development of quality education by encouraging cooperation between Member States and, if necessary, by supporting and supplementing their action, while fully respecting the responsibility of the Member States for the content of teaching and the organisation of education systems and their cultural and linguistic diversity.« The document that suggests to streamline the above tennets into a set of standards for classroom application is the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFF). It proposes that »that the rich heritage of diverse languages and cultures in Europe is a valuable common resource to be protected and developed, and that a major educational effort is needed to convert that diversity from a barrier to communication into a source of mutual enrichment and understanding«, as a consequence »it is only through a better knowledge of European modern languages that it will be possible to facilitate communication and interaction among Europeans of 999 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo different mother tongues in order to promote European mobility, mutual understanding and cooperation, and overcome prejudice and discrimination.« The CEFR thus advances standars for learning, teaching and assessing modern language skills and competences, while similar standards for learning, teaching and assessing intecultural communicative skills and competences are still being explored and shaped. Furthermore, it is important to consider how these principles and guidelines apply to communication and interaction with peoples beyond the boundaries of the EU. 2 Approaches to Raising Intercultural Awareness Intercultural awareness and competence is at the centre of many aspects of life in a globalized world. Amidst constant technological advancement daily contacts, real or virtual, with culturally and linguistically diverse groups have become a normal event for pupils from an early age. It is therefore important for teachers and promoters of intercultural communicative competence to consider which teaching approach can best help them to cope with the challenges presented by multicultural environments and how to integrate it into our teaching practices. A brief examination of theoretical trends dealing with the development of intercultural sensitivity and intercultural communicative competence will help us grapple with these aspects of education. In the field of research of communication between people from different cultural backgrounds two quite distinct approaches have been adopted to raising awareness and sensitivity of otherness, namely, the cross-cultural approach and the intercultural approach. They both share common tenets and principles. Indeed, although they even intersect in many aspects, they tackle the common field of research from different angles. The cross-cultural approach originates in the USA and draws mainly on anthropological research principles. In fact in American universities courses on cross-cultural communication are normally offered within departments of anthropology and communication studies. The intercultural approach, on the other hand, derives its methods from the teaching of languages and has developed within European universities mostly within departments of applied linguistics. 2.1 Cross-cultural approach The cross-cultural approach to analysing communication in multicultural settings draws on insights offered by anthropological, culturological, psychological and communication research. It started developing in response to the needs of diplomats and businessmen for a better understanding of foreign cultural environments and it, therefore, tries to contrast cultures and identify their distinctive features. An early attempt to map the distinctive features of cultures can be found in the work of E. T. Hall (1959: 190-192), who introduced concepts such as high context and low context cultures (1977: 35-52), as well as cultures functioning within monochronic and polychronic time systems (1966: 25-32). According to this theory, communication in a high context culture is highly ritualised and encodes little explicit information in a message, requiring thus a deeper understanding of behavioural patterns; whereas in a low context culture messages are rather explicit and straightforward. In terms of the embeddedness of culture in a time system, Hall suggests that people from various societies have different ways of managing time requirements. The monochronic time system is characteristic of cultures that expect people to compartmentalize and plan their activities one at a time, while the polychromic time system describes cultures in which people tend to engage in several activities at the same time. Further tools for a cross-cultural analysis were provided by Hofstede's (1980) five dimensions of culture, namely, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity and long versus short term orientation, which condition our behaviour, norms, values and beliefs, forming a different software of the mind of individuals from each cultural background and thus defining a person's expectations or responses inculcated by the cultural environment. While Hofstede's analysis instruments are based on a large-scale investigation and his approach has had a large following in business circles, it has also been criticised in terms of promoting an oversimplified view of behavioural patterns and can, therefore, lead to stereotyping. The above approach can also be criticized for neglecting the role of language as a salient and informing element of each culture, for overlooking language‘s centrality for anthropological research, a facet of culture defined by Whorf in the first half of the previous century with the claim 1000 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo that "the linguistic relativity principle which means /.../ that users of markedly different grammars are pointed by their grammars toward different types of observations and different evaluations of externally similar acts of observation, and hence are not equivalent as observers but must arrive at somewhat different views of the world." (John B. Carroll 1956: 221). The gap has been amply filled by Anna Wierzbicka‘s impressive body of work into crosscultural linguistics. Within the domain of contrastive semantics her research analyses the semantic components (conceptual primitives) of core vocabulary of numerous languages and concludes that there are only about fifty universal concepts and just one absolute semantic universal: the meaning of the personal pronoun "I" (Wierzbicka 1996: 36-37). Within the field of cross-cultural pragmatics, her analysis of speech acts across a wide range of languages further illustrates the implications of cultural and linguistic conditioning on cross-cultural interactions (Wierzbicka 2003). Another attempt to integrate both the cross-cultural and the intercultural approach to communicating across cultural boundaries is given in M. J. Bennett's (2004) integrative approach to global and domestic diversity. Postulating radical constructivism (Kelly, 1963) as the basis for ethnocentrism, the author devises a model of gradual increase of intercultural sensitivity that leads from the initial ethnocentric stages (denial of cultural difference, defence against such difference, minimisation of its importance) to more advanced ethnorelative stages (acceptance of cultural difference, adaptation to such difference, a final cultural integration and identification with the adopted culture). What sets off the intercultural approach from the cross-cultural approach, is that the former seeks to build on the common ground, the similarities and the integrative elements of cultures in contact while developing a deeper understanding of the defining elements of an individual's own cultural conditioning, while the latter compares and contrasts cultures within various parameters in order to discover and understand the differences, thus focusing on unveiling a somewhat simplified system of behavioural features constituting the ‗otherness‘ of unfamiliar cultural environments. Promoting distinctions between cultural circles and analytical oversimplifications can also lead to conclusions predicting the inevitability of a future ―clash of cultures―(Huntington 1997). 2.2 Intercultural approach Drawing on lessons learned from the rich tradition of the language classroom the intercultural approach focuses on understanding one's own culture, on a critical assessment of the limits and impositions of our own cultural conditioning thus helping us to decentre and empathise with people from other cultural environments as we engage them trying to convey our meaning or understand theirs. Just as having a good command of our mother tongue helps us acquire a foreign language while contrasting the two linguistic systems, intercultural awareness helps us to realize the differences and to overcome mishaps, thus easing communication flow. Since both, the communicative and collaborative language teaching approaches have proved successful, applied linguists have tried to extend these methods to intercultural dialogue, extending intercultural communicative awareness to mean language awareness and cultural sensitivity, because "language /.../used in the context of communication is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways" (Kramsch, 1988: 3). In order to achieve intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and, therefore, be ready to actively participate in the diversified European or global community (in terms of nationalities, cultures and languages), Michael Byram (1997 and 2008a) proposes "an integrated framework for language, culture and citizenship education‖ based on "five orientations" that prepare learners for interacting, understanding and empathizing with the viewpoint of people with different values and beliefs, as well as different norms and expectations. Building on respect for otherness and promoting a critical reassessment of ‗own‘ cultural environment this approach emphasizes the ‗oneness‘ of humanity, positing cultural differences as a challenge that can successfully be integrated into our classroom practices, just like learning foreign languages. The approach is structured so as to foster mutual knowledge of interlocutors in terms of their social backgrounds, history, practices, perceptions, products, institutions, etc., as well as the processes of interaction as part of the cognitive orientation. Within the evaluative orientation attitudes of curiosity and openness are promoted, as well as a readiness to suspend disbelief about 1001 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo other cultures and to question beliefs about one‘s own. The comparative orientation furthers the skill of interpreting documents, events, tenets, customs, values from another culture by developing the skills for explaining and relating these facets of culture to events, documents, customs… from one‘s own culture, thus helping us to identify areas where misunderstandings can occur and promoting empathy as an approach to overcoming potential conflict. It is mainly in this dimension of intercultural education that insights and devices developed within the cross-cultural approach can fruitfully be adopted. The communicative orientation leads to the development of linguistic, sociolinguistic and discourse competences. The action orientation advances skills of discovery and interaction, whereby these skills can be employed under the constraints of real-time communication and interaction. Integrating all these elements into our classroom practices leads to achieving the critical cultural and political orientation, an ability to evaluate practices, perspectives and products critically in one‘s own environment as well as in other cultures and, on the basis of explicit criteria, enhance efficient communication with persons from other cultures in a foreign language with the purpose of engaging with and affecting in some way an (international) community. Intercultural communication thus concentrates on developing skills that can enhance intercultural awareness, tolerance of ambiguity, openness to diversity by drawing on research in the field of linguistics, ethnography and political science. It promotes intercultural dialogue as an active, engaged attitude of each individual to discovering and dealing with diversity, while also critically evaluating one‘s own cultural identity, thus building a common ground within which communication can take place. It leads present and future members of the EU to aspire to developing intercultural communicative competence as a precondition to adopting an intercultural democratic citizenship, which does not postulate cultural otherness as something to observe, copy and adapt to in contacts with foreigners as proposed by the cross-cultural approach, but prepares us for active participation in a multicultural society and a daily engagement with a kaleidoscope of culturally and linguistically tinged behaviour patterns, beliefs, values and world views. 3. The Role of Lingua Franca It seems that Byram (2008b: 16) also identifies a close relationship between intercultural communicative competence and the actual interiorisation of language use when he draws a fine line between multilingualism and plurilingualiasm: We need to be precise in our use of language and terminology. Another example is the distinction between ‗multilingualism‘ and ‗plurilingualism‘, a distinction which is made in two ways. The first way is to use ‗multilingualism‘ to refer to geographical spaces and ‗plurilingualism‘ to refer to people. Slovenia is a multilingual space in which several languages are present, some of them used in schools as media of instruction, some of them taught as subjects, some of them not recognized in schools. In this multilingual space, there are some people who use more than one language and are plurilingual but there are others – probably very few, in fact – who use only one language, and are ‗monolingual‘. This is a sociolinguistic usage. The second way to use the distinction multi/pluri is when referring to individuals. This is a psychological usage. The CEFR says that some people know a number of languages which are kept separate in their minds and experience; this is sometimes referred to as ‗co-ordinate‘ capacity in languages. Other people are considered ‗plurilingual‘ – another term is ‗compound‘ capacity – because they do not keep their languages separate: Plurilingualism (…) does not keep these languages and cultures in strictly separated mental compartments, but rather builds up a communicative competence to which all knowledge and experience of language contributes and in which languages inter-relate and interact in different situations (…) a person can call flexibly upon different parts of this competence to achieve effective communications with a particular interlocutor. (CEFR, p4) Thus this second definition of integrating various languages into actual communication proposes spontaneous ―code switching‖ between languages as a higher level of interiorization of cultural awareness and self-awareness. On Bennet‘s (2004) scale it would probably coincide with the highest level of ethnorelativism, namely, integration, but an integration that does not overlook or deny cultural and linguistic distinctions and, therefore, does not lead to acculturation. 1002 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Despite marked differences between the cross-cultural and the intercultural approach in terms of the methods used in analyzing communication in multicultural settings and in terms of approaches to overcoming hindrances to communication, the two approaches both contribute to a better understanding of an area of studies that is focal in a globalised world and has been generating increased attention so as to confirm the claim that developing intercultural communicative competence can be defined as the tertiary socialization (Byram, 2008a: 106). The above analysis leads to the conclusion that competent use of English as a lingua franca would presuppose that learners achieve a plurilingual status, a ‗compound‘ capacity to switch between their mother tongue and English, while developing a level of empathy for other cultures which would allow them to pause and ‗decentre‘ whenever inferring the meaning of others could be hindered or ambiguous. 4 Conclusions In order to communicate effectively with members of other linguistic and cultural communities we need a common linguistic code which can help us render our meaning explicit and infer the meaning of others. Building on tenets promoted by the EU, as well as on the vast body of research proposed by both cross-cultural and intercultural approaches, we can discern a path to a better understanding between cultures, ethnicities and peoples of the globalised world. 1003 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Bennett, Janet M. & Milton J. Bennett (2004) Developing Intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Global and Domestic Diversity. In: Landis, Dan, Janet M. Bennett and Milton J. Bennett (ed.) Handbook of Intercultural Training. (pp. 147 – 164) London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications, Inc. Byram, M. 1997, Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, Michael (2008a) From Foreign Language Education to Education for Intercultural Citizenship. Clevedon, Buffalo, Sydney: Multilingual Matters. Byram, Michael (2008b) Plurilingualism, education for plurilingualism and the languages in and of education. Revija za obrazovanje i kulturu 8-9. Carroll, John B. (ed.) (1956) Language, Thought and Reality. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Hall, Edward T. (1959) The Silent Language. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday Dell Publishing. Hall, Edward T. (1966) The Hidden Dimension. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday Dell Publishing. Hall, Edward T. (1977) Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday Dell Publishing. Hofstede, Geert (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Newbury Park, London, New Delhi: Sage Publications. Huntington, Samuel P. (1997) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. Simon & Schuster UK Ltd. Kelly, George A. (1963) A Theory of Personality. The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton. Kramsch, Claire (1998) Language and Culture. Oxford, New York: OUP. Wierzbicka, Anna (1996) Understanding Cultures Through Their Key Words. New York, Oxford: OUP. Wierzbicka, Anna (2003) Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. Berlin, New York: Mouton De Gruyter. Treaties EU, Charter of Fundamental Human Rights. (http://europa.eu/scadplus/constitution/objectives_en.htm) (25 May, 2011) 1004 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 567 Title A name given to the resource Teaching English as a ―lingua franca‖ to achieve intercultural communicative competence Author Author Čebron, Neva Abstract A summary of the resource. Raising intercultural communicative competence has gained a central place in many considerations and discussions in the globalized world. The present paper therefore examines and analyses approaches to achieving intercultural competence proposed by a number of prominent authors from the American and European cultural environment, such as E.T. Hall, Gert Hofstede, R.D. Lewis, Anna Wierzbicka, Elsa Oksaar, Michael Byram, Manuela Guilhelme. They base their theoretical and applied methods of teaching, as well as their approaches to raising intercultural awareness in the intercultural dialogue, while highlighting slightly different levels of communication, thus also suggesting somewhat different conclusions. As a consequence two approaches have been developed: cross-cultural and intercultural communicative approach. We could say that even considerations about the intercultural dialogue show signs of cultural conditioning. Furthermore, the paper deals with the application of such theoretical premises in the English classroom at the tertiary level. Building on language teaching methods, the paper suggest ways of extending the theme to cross-curricular units, since actualization of theoretical insights in the classroom lends itself nicely to intertwining both a critical cultural awareness of multilingualism in ones own environment and the intercultural communicative competence, leading thus to an "intercultural citizenship". Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6005e56cebe42d16ca591fcef99eb084.pdf 530dbf6fe6533af35111dfaf03f376ea PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo German and French Borrowings in an EFL Context – A Serbian Perspective Biljana ĥubroviĤ English Department, Faculty of Philology University of Belgrade, Serbia biljana.cubrovic@fil.bg.ac.rs Abstract: This paper looks into the nature, some specificities of interlanguage usage and the phonetic adaptation (or the lack of it) in the area of some recent French and German loanwords and their teaching in a Serbian EFL classroom. It is a commonplace to say that French, German and English have been in intensive contact for many centuries now, but the level and direction of influence have by no means been constant. The two main extralinguistic criteria that trigger the borrowing process, need and prestige, are taken into account, with the aim of deciding to what extent such newer lexical acquisitions have been nativised in contemporary English. The nature of the linguistic contact between French and English, on the one hand, and German and English, on the other, conditions the selection process in which a loanword enters the English lexicon, and an EFL classroom. Lastly, a justification for the teaching of borrowings is provided and some guidelines for their teaching offered, which could easily be implemented in any EFL context. Key Words: Loanword, borrowing, pronunciation, French, English, German, Serbian EFL learner Introduction The linguistic developments of English and French have been intertwined for quite a long time. The intensity of the contact seems to be susceptible to constant changes, but the contact produced many important but also less significant influences, especially in the domain of lexical borrowings. Lexical borrowings are most prone to permeate another language, and they can be seen as mere additions, or rather enrichments to the lexical inventory of the recipient language, depending on the reasons of their introduction into the recipient language. The intermittent linguistic contact between English and French resulted in the expanse of the lexical inventory of English. No matter how dominant English seems to be today, its vocabulary is still growing and many new additions come from across the Channel. According to Merriam Webster‘s Collegiate Dictionary (MWCD, for short), as many as 8,324 entries are still listed as French borrowings, or at least having something to do with French. The corpus extracted from MWCD by an advanced search tool this electronic dictionary has to offer, ranges from very simple vocabulary like arrive, letter and vase, but also contains a number of clichéd phrases like vers libre, premier danseur and Nez Percé. It is important to note that not all entries listed in MWCD as originating from French have a French origin. Many words have the Latin root and in some cases it is unclear how a word found its way into the lexical inventory of English. It should be borne in mind that the number given above is by no means exact, but it still can be used as a starting point and a rough estimate. Although German and English are both Germanic languages, their linguistic contact is less intense, judging by the number of German borrowings in English. According to MWCD, German lexical additions amount to 2,522 entries, but many lexical items only have vague traces of German, and can be seen as indirect borrowings (especially from Yiddish and also Latin). Still, there is a number of strictly German borrowings present in the corpus, e.g. Festschrift, hausfrau, kitsch, wunderkind and verboten, but also gastronomic terms like schnitzel, strudel and wurst. The Nature of the Linguistic Contact There is virtually no language that has not borrowed words from other languages, and the reasons for lexical importation are manifold. To name just a few, Weinreich‘s (1953) pioneer study on contact linguistics is used. Some kind of cultural influence may trigger the borrowing process. It may also occur when rare native words are lost and then substituted by borrowings, or when two native words sound so similar that substituting one by a foreign lexical item eliminates possible misunderstandings in a given speech community. One of the roots of lexical borrowing is a constant need for synonyms, especially in those cases where native words have lost their expressive force. By way of adding new lexical items from a foreign language, new, subtle semantic nuances may become possible. Furthermore, a word may be taken over from a low-status language and be used 244 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo pejoratively, or quite on the contrary, a word may be taken over from a high-status language and be used to achieve an effect of prestige. Even though lexical borrowing is the most widespread type of borrowing, mainly due to the fact that new lexical acquisitions cannot affect the language system as a whole, languages do not utilize it without limitations. In other words, the speakers of English do not borrow randomly, but when they do import, they do it for a reason. All the situations mentioned above cannot apply to any language contact. Weinreich studied the process of borrowing taking many language communities into account, and an attempt is made here to check his reasons having English as a recipient language, and German and French as donor languages. Later contact linguistics studies, such as Thomаson & Kаufmаn‘s (1988: 72-7) hold that the social factor they labelled the ―intensity of contact‖ between the two languages is of great importance for the typology of borrowing. This factor assisted them in proposing a unique borrowing scale that ranges from a very casual contact, on one hand, to a very intense cultural pressure, on the other end of the scale. I will now look into the nature of the linguistic contact between English and French, but also English and German. The linguistic contacts between English and French in the last two centuries have resulted mostly in lexical borrowing, thus enriching the lexicon of English as the recipient language. This kind of borrowing may be referred to as a casual contact, without any serious consequences to the language system. Borrowings that are introduced into the recipient language do not have a great impact in L2, and there is a minimum of cultural interference associated with them. Furthermore, the intensity of the linguistic contact may change with time, and this is exactly what happened during the development of English and French. These two languages repeatedly borrowed lexemes, and the intensity of contact changed according to the status of the donor language. French seemed to be a dominant language in the Middle English period, but more recently English has offered French many newer lexical acquisitions. Interestingly enough, some loanwords entered the recipient language twice, denoting various concepts. For instance, a recent French loanword chаise has the same root (but a completely different lexical status) in contemporary English, if compared to an earlier French loanword chair. Similarly, the newer French loanword pâté has a ring of prestige to it (this may be due to its unchanged orthography), unlike an earlier cognate that is very common in the lexical inventory of English, pastry. Diachronically, the intensity of contact between French as a donor language, and English as a recipient language, was the strongest in the Middle English period. The linguistic influence of French was so intense in this period that English borrowed two new phonemes, the velar nasal //, but also the palate-alveolar fricative //. Generally speaking, the importation of phonemes occurs very rarely, and when it has been realized translinguistically it leads linguists to think of the language contact as very powerful. Phonological importation is a sure indicator of a strong interlinguistic influence, even though the donor language may only fill its empty phonological slots, that had previously not been utilized. However, linguistic history has repeated itself and the French language enriched the phonological inventory even in the Modern English period by way of introducing nazalized vowels into English. Wells & Colson (1971: 34) propose a term for such phonological innovations and refer to them as ―marginal segments―. Such phonemes are used strictly in loanwords from the donor language and do not have a tendency to reach a status a regular native phoneme has. This means that the nazalized French phoneme will probably not be equal to native English phonemes when it comes to the distribution in English – such vowels will retain the positions they have in French loanwords, without a tendency to gain other positions and be employed in the words of Germanic stock, unless used jokingly. English and German, both belonging to the same family of language, share a large percentage of the lexicon. Words of Germanic origin in these two languages resemble one another in the domain of their phonetic shape, but also in their semantic content. The borrowing hypothesis is that German offers its lexical items pertaining to its cultural heritage, and that the intensity of the contact is not strong. Most linguistis (Weinreich 1953: 79; Bolinger 1968: 90-1; Lаngаcker 1968: 177-79; Vаn Coetsem 1988: 13; Trаsk 1994: 12-15; Hock & Joseph 1996: 271; Rаdford et аl. 1999: 255) agree that two most important trgiggering factors of borrowing are ―need― and ―prestige―. When speakers of a language are in need of a lexeme for a new cultural, technological or religious concept, the easiest way to acquire it is by way of borrowing. The English lexemes typhoon i monsoon (Hockett 1965: 405) entered the English language by way of borrowing. On the other hand, words like teа, coffee, tobаcco, sugаr, cocoа, chocolаte or tomаto became an indispensible part of the English vocabulary, although they originate from a number of different languages. Prestige brought about many new lexical acquisitions in English. Middle English borrowed beef, veаl and pork from the French, and used them alongside with the native items cow/bull and pig, to signal fine French culinary concepts. French was the language of the Court at the time, and its usage signalled a noble origin. 245 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo French: treatment of nazalised vowels French belongs to the group of the world‘s languages (cca. 20%) whose phonological inventories use nasal vowels (Paradis & Prunet 2000: 351). Theoretically speaking, French has four nasal vowels, / /, English has none. On the other hand, some phoneticians claim that American English utilizes nazalized vowels more than French, where such vowels have the status of phonemes. This is irrelevant for the current study, due to the fact that it mostly covers the phonological state of affairs in British English. The corpus analysis shows that three out of four French nasal vowels occur - / loanwords containing French nasal vowels undergo the process of unpacking, where the nasal vowel does not occur in the English replica. The sequence of an oral vowel + nasal consonant occurs instead, and such pronunciations may be interpreted as anglicized. Selected examples of all three French vowels follow (for more examples, see Cubrovic, 2005): (1) Fr. / / → Eng. / / + N gamin / / intern / / intransigeance princesse / quintet / singleton / / timbale / / / (2) Fr. / / → Eng. / / + N aplomb / / blouson / / Cabernet Sauvignon / crouton / / filet mignon / piton / / raconteur / / (3) Fr. / / → Eng. / / + N danseur / entourage / / entrepreneur / fiance, fiancee / / Franglais / Montmorency / restaurant / / / / / Anglicized French words where vowel nasality is abandoned follow the English pronunciation patterns and an EFL teacher is advised to teach them as such to their non-native learners. Serbian learners may at times be confused by the pronunciation of those loanwords that Serbian also borrowed directly from French, or indirectly through another language, e.g. ambulance, avant-garde, billion, blouson, camion, centime, debutante, elan, hangar, panda, renaissance, restaurant. However, these words should be taught as native words of English, as the process of anglicization seems to be completed. Special attention should be paid to the semantic content, which may vary in English and Serbian as recipient languages. The lexeme camion is a very frequent word in Serbian, but it is very rarely used in English in the meaning the Serbian language adopted it (Eng. truck, lorry). This loanword may be classified as an interlinguistic false friend and an EFL student‘s attention should be drawn to the difference, provided they come across it in a conversation or a text composed in English. This type of problematic situation is often debated in EFL teaching, and it covers those lexical items which students make up on the spur of the moment, drawing parallels between their native language and English. Similarly, Serbian EFL learners very often use a nonce formation fabric to denote the concept of a factory (Serb. fabrika). Alongside with the process of unpacking, English has phonologized a certain number of loanwords, thus making them semi-foreign. The introduction of vowel nasality is evident in these words, but the vowel 246 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo quality has been approximated to the phonological system of English. The three French nasal vowel / / are adapted to / / and / / . Selected examples from the corpus illustrate the point: (4) Fr. / / → Eng. / / fin de siècle / pointe / coq au vin (5) Fr. → Eng. raison d‘etre / Cabernet Sauvignon  / crouton / / marrons glacés / montage / nom de plume / piton / / wagon-lit / (6) Fr. / / → Eng. / agent provocateur arrondissement croissant debutant elan enfant terrible idiot savant pièce de résistance séance , , / / / Judging by examples given in (4)-(6), these loanwords have not undergone the process of assimilation to the full extent. This may be due to their infrequent use or prestigious aura, or the combination of these two factors. The retaining nasality strongly resembles the French pronunciations of the models. Many of the lexemes listed are French phrases, which may be classified as ―learned words‖. Group (5) brings about a logical conclusion about the unstable phonetic shapes of some loanwords. If a loanword can be pronounced in two different ways, EFL learners are best advised to use the fully assimilated form, e.g. elan, crouton. At the later stages of EFL acquisition, EFL learners might be taught how to pronounce unassimilated forms. Lexemes such as crouton, montage, croissant, debutant, elan and séance, among others, are also French loanwords used in Serbian. A plausible assumption is that a Serbian EFL learner will recognize these in English, and be able to deduce the meaning. However, the EFL learners should beware the varying level of frequency of these words in English and Serbian, as recipient languages. Montage, for instance, is a noun that can be characterized as highly frequent in Serbian, but not in English. Séance, on the other hand, may have specialized meanings in Serbian and English. German: need and prestige The German share of loanwords in English seems to be much more moderate compared to the massive influx of French borrowings. Some lexemes are characterized by unique German semantic contents, e.g. auslander, autobahn, blitzkrieg, doppelganger, kindergarten, schilling, or they belong to a semantic field specific for the German speaking territories, e.g. alpenglow, alpenhorn, alpenstock. Isolated loanwords may be interpreted as ―learned‖ - Bauhaus, Biedermeier, bildungsroman or Ablaut. The nature of the contact between German and English, and German and Serbian varies to a large extent, and consequently German loanwords in English and Serbian will only occasionally strike a Serbian EFL learner. The German lexical items Biedermeier may trap a Serbian EFL learner, but mostly with regard to the meaning. German pronunciation rules are straightforward and very few pronunciations change significantly as a result of tanslinguistic importation. 247 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Bolinger, D. (1968). Aspects of Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, Inc. ĥubroviĤ, B. (2005). Fonolońka struktura novijih francuskih pozajmljenica u engleskom jeziku. Beograd: Philologia/Filolońki fakultet. Hock, H. H. and B. D. Joseph. (1996). Language History, Language Change and Language Relationship. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Hockett, C. (1965). A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan. Langacker, R. W. (1968). Language and its Structure: Some Fundamental Linguistic Concepts. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. Merriam–Webster`s Collegiate Dictionary. (1994-96). CD-ROM. Merriam-Webster Inc. Paradis, C. and J-F Prunet. (2000). Nasal Vowels as Two Segments: Evidence from Borrowings. Language, 76(2): 324-357. Radford, et al. (1999). Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP. Thomason S. G. and T. Kaufman. (1988). Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press. Trask, R. L. (1994). Language Change. London: Routledge. Van Coetsem, F. (1988). Loan Phonology and the Two Transfer Types in Language Contact. Dordreht: Foris Publications USA, Inc. Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistics Circle of New York. Wells, J. C. & G. Colson. (1971). Practical Phonetics. London: Pitman Publishing. 248 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 37 Title A name given to the resource German and French Borrowings in an EFL Context – A Serbian Perspective Author Author Čubrović, Biljana Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper looks into the nature, some specificities of interlanguage usage and the phonetic adaptation (or the lack of it) in the area of some recent French and German loanwords and their teaching in a Serbian EFL classroom. It is a commonplace to say that French, German and English have been in intensive contact for many centuries now, but the level and direction of influence have by no means been constant. The two main extralinguistic criteria that trigger the borrowing process, need and prestige, are taken into account, with the aim of deciding to what extent such newer lexical acquisitions have been nativised in contemporary English. The nature of the linguistic contact between French and English, on the one hand, and German and English, on the other, conditions the selection process in which a loanword enters the English lexicon, and an EFL classroom. Lastly, a justification for the teaching of borrowings is provided and some guidelines for their teaching offered, which could easily be implemented in any EFL context. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6dde50712eac1c81fe43b222a8762ae.pdf 01c904f3b08e52c10f201774f0e12c18 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Findings upon the Designation of Turkish Words among Balkan Languages Fatih ĠYĠYOL Department of Turkish Language and Literature International Burch University, Bosnia Herzegovina fiyiyol@ibu.edu.ba Ahmet Musab KESMECĠ Department of Turkish Language and Literature Sùleyman ġah University, Turkey akesmeci@ssu.edu.tr Abstract: The presence of the Turks in the geography of Balkans can be track back to the centuries before Ottomans. The actual impact of the Turkish language and culture began with the start of Ottoman conquests. With the Ottoman conquest, there have been great changes on the structure of the Balkan communities. As a result of this comprehensive and large impact, thousands of Turkish words entered into the Balkanic Languages. The quantity of Turkish words, their effect of the Balkanic Cultures and Languages have directed the researchers to search these words. The researchers who investigated the Turkish words in the Balkanic Languages faced a fundamental problem. The main problem that the researchers faced was the issue of designation of these words in question. Due to the appearance of the words of Arabic and Persian origin along with Turkish, some researchers have applied the term ―Orientalism‖ for these words in question. Since the vast majority of words in the Balkanic Languages are Turkish, the researchers, considering the fact that Arabic and Persian words entered into the Balkanic Languages through Turkish, have preferred the concept ―Turkism‖ for these words. Researchers, without making a detailed evaluation on either ―Orientalism‖ or ―Turkism,‖ have stated their more general preferences. However, the designation issue of these words, which have such effect on the Balkanic Languages and their numbers getting closer to ten thousand in some languages, requires a detailed analysis in order to formulate an opinion. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the words in question in terms of grammatical, cultural and historical process and to contribute to the issue of designating through Ottoman institutions and community life. Within the scope of this study, the emphasis is given, in addition to all the Balkanic Languages, on the Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian and Albanian Languages where Turkish words are dominantly present. Key Words: Turkish, Balkanic Languages, Orientalism, Turkism, culture and language. Introduction The existence of the Turkish communities in the Balkans and the cultural effects of these communities can be tracked back to a much earlier periods before the Ottoman Empire evoked its impact on the region. It is known that the Avars, Cumans and Pechenegs continued their existence in certain periods and contributed to the cultural structure of this Geography. Settling in the area in the VI. century, the Avars is a Turkic tribe which affected the Balkanic communities from the socio-cultural perspective. ―Ban‖ title that Bosnians and Croatians confer to their rulers is a word of Avar origin. In the Slavic Languages of the Balkans, the word ―Obrovac,‖ which means the place where the Avars live, even seen in today‘s toponomy, derived from the word ―Obri,‖ which is used for the Avars, is pretty significant in displaying the extend of Avars‘ effect in the region (Malcolm, 2002: 6). Before the Ottoman conquest, the presence of the word ―Kaduna/Kadın‖ in Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian is another example for the effect of the Avarian Turkish on the Slavic Languages in the Balkans (Skaljic, 1965: 12). In the Balkans, the effect of pre-Ottoman Turkish communities is also seen in Albanian Language. Ġstyan Schùtz, Hungarian Linguist, states that Turkish was a language which affected the Albanian Language between X-XIV centuries. According to Schùtz, the Albanian men were returning to their villages in winter after working as a shephard. Therefore, an important period of the year, only women and children remained in the villages. When Pecheneg Turks raided these villages, upon seeing the crowd consisting of women and children, 471 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo they used the ―Katun, kadın‖ phrase for Albanian villages. This word, entering into Albanian, caused the villages to be called ―Katund‖ (Bayraktar, 2009: 1084). The effect of Turks before Ottoman in the Balkanic communities is not limited with the examples we provided. The debate over Proto-Bulgarians being people of Turkish origin, Cuman communication with Romanians in the West Balkans, the presence of Western Huns in the Eastern Europe can be approached from the aspect of the effect of Turkic communities in the Balkans before Ottoman. It is likely that these Turkic tribes contributed to the cultures of the Balkanic communities, which are as similar and complex as to one another. However, considering the effect of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, the effects of communities in question are seen to be limited and gradually fused into , indigenous cultures, within the time limited and is seen to be fused into the local cultures. The effect of Ottoman in the Balkanic Cultures With the Ottoman political and military influence on the geopraphy of the Balkans, the interaction between the Turkish culture and the Balkanic communities began. Indirect communication began before the conquests turned into a direct and more comprehensive impact with the conquests. Reconstruction of the conquered lands, establishment of the cities, and occurrence of the Turkish-Islamic cultural basin around these cities, ensured the emergence of permanent, deep and great effects, the results of which has lasted till today. It is possible to classify the Balkanic communities in terms of the socio-cultural effect caused by the Ottomans. The first group 158is Bosnians and Albanians, who were Islamized in vast majorities after the conquest movements. The second group is Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Romanians who protected their OrthodoxCatholic structures and the Islamization was limited. The interactions of these two groups from Turkish culture and the ratio of Turkish words in their language have been different. With the new religion, while the cultural change in the Bosnian and Albanian communities was deeper and more comprehensive; the other Balkan communities regarded them as ―Turkicized masses.‖159 However, the Balkanic communities in the second group, who preferred to be ―Reaya,‖ have deeply experienced the effect of the Ottoman-Turkish culture, even though not as much as the Islamized communities. According to Maria Todorova, who emphasized the importance of the influence that Ottoman‘s left in the Balkanic communities, there are two actors in the history of the Balkans. One of them is the political and religious influence of Byzantine and the other is the Ottomans, who gave names to the peninsula from their language and established the longest political unity. Todorova has attracted such attention to this effect, ―it is not an exaggeration to conclude that the Balkans are the Ottoman legacy.‖ To Todorova, ―In the field of Demography and the public culture, the Ottoman legacy has left lasting and continuous effect‖(Todorova, 2006: 36). Other researcher, who indicated this effect that Bulgarian historian emphasized, is Vuk Karadzic. Serbian Linguistic Karadzic, while refering to the folk culture of his era, expresses the traditional lives of the Serbians residing in the cities. Karadzic states that while the women in Belgrade wore scarves like Muslim women did and the Serbian men, wore turban and smoked hookah (Castellan, 1995: 148). The effect of the Turkish culture in the Ottoman period in the Balkans can also be seen in language and literature. Author Sofroniy Vraçanski (1739-1813) states that since Bulgarians, living in the cities, knew Turkish better than they knew Bulgarian, they consistently used Turkish words in their works (Yalçın, 2009: 572). Another author, who expresses the effect of Turkish in the Bulgarian cities is Ivan Vazov. Living in the middle of the XIX century, Vazov identified the language spoken in the Bulgarian cities as ―Almost the half of the languages spoken in our cities was Turkish‖ (Öztekten, 2004:32). In the Balkanic communities during the Ottoman period, a literature called ―Alhamijado/Alhamiyado‖ emerged, written in Ottoman alphabet and consisting of Turkish, Arabic, Persian and local Balkanic languages. The representatives of this literature adapted the Ottoman alphabet according to their own languages. Some of the representatives of the Alhamijado Literature wrote their works mainly in Turkish, Arabic and Persian. Yet other repsentatives of this literature prefered their own languages in their literary works. The Alhamijado poets built their works upon Turkish poetry tradition and the culture of dervish lodges. Specially the Alhamijado poets 158 Torbes and Pomaks (Macedonians Muslim), whose origins are controversial, can also be included in this group. Gypsies, who are seen in almost every region of the geography of the Balkans and Tatars, living in Romania, are not taken into the scope of this study. Since the non-Turkish communities are discussed in classification, the Balkan Turks were not included. 159 Vatican, Orthodox churches and Balkanic communities regarded the Islamized communities in the Balkans as ―Turkicized masses.‖ Konstantin Mikhailovich, towards the end of XV century, states this for the Islamized Slavs ―...in spite of everything, the number of our people voluntarily being Turkicized is rising every year...‖ Benedict Kurupesic, for the same community, in 1530, used such a statement"... The Turks left them a religion, young people were Turkicized..."(Nurkiç, 2007: 63). It is accepted opinion that the "Potur" statement, used for Bosnian Muslims, is derived from the verb "Poturçiti / Turkicized"(Malcolm, 2005: 60-61). "Turkization," expressed in the sources, is not used a community‘s change of language and entisite, but for the Islamization of the communities in question. 472 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of Bosnian and Albanian origins also became important representatives of classical Turkish poetry and dervish lodge literature. Many poets, lik Muhammed Karamusic, Ziyai, Vahdeti, Dervis-Pasha, Mezaki, Hasan Kaimi, Sukkeri, Asım Yusuf Celebi, Mehmed Meyli, Ahmed Hatem, Fadıl-Pasha Serifovic, Arif Hikmet (Nametak, 1997), were important intellectuals of their own periods writing in Turkish and Balkanic languages. In the works that these poets wrote in their own languages, a deep Turkish effect can be noticed. One of the poets that we clearly see this effect is Hasan Kaimi, a poet of Dervish lodge. Bosnian Turkologist Fehim Nametak makes such an assessment of the head of Sarajevo Hadji Sinan Dervish Convent Hasan Kaimi‘s famous poem ―Ostante se tutuna,160‖ ―We are not so sure either Turkish words are more or Bosnian words are‖ (Nametak, 1989: 121). The Turkish Words that Entered into Balkanic Languages During the Ottoman period, Turkish word entered in ot the Balkanic languaes in many ways. Particularly young people of Balkanic origin receiving their religious education in the Ottoman cities like Istanbul is one of the basic reasons. Young people of Bosnian, Albanian, Torbes, etc., origin obtained classical madrasah-dervish lodge education in Istanbul,Bursa and in other Ottoman learning centers and reached a proficient level of reading and writing literary Turkish. When these young people returned to their countries after being equipped with Ottoman-Islamic culture, they used these words and concepts belonging to the language they learnt along with their own local language and this way Turkish words passed on to the masses of public (Metaj, 2009: 10; SkajliĤ, 1965: 13). Another reason for extensive use of Turkish words in the Balkanic languages is the Balkan native folk poets‘ writing in Turkish or using great many Turkish words in the local language. Attributing the extensive use of Turkish word in Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian to the folk poets and scholars, Grga Martic uses such remarkable statements: ―For this reason, the number of Turkish words increased in our folk poems and people used these words and they could not write poems with them. These words are similar to salt in a dish, how you cannot get the taste of a dish without adding salt in it, the public could not write poems without those words‖ (SkajliĤ, 1965: 13). The Ottoman perception of urbanization and the effect of Turkish in the Balkan cities it built and developed, due to various reasons like Turkish being the state language, gave a significant number of words to the Balkanic languages. The quantity of the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages and the effect on the public culture differ from one community to another. The Turkish words that are seen in the language we calle Balkan Slavic language, which includes: Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian languages. The most comprehensive study, which examines these words in terms of semantics and morphology and deals with the changes of these words in the languages in question, is Abdullah SkajliĤ‘s work called ―Turcizmi u Srpsko-Hırvatskom Jeziku/ The Dictionary of Turkish Words Available in Serbian and Bosnian Languages‖, which was published in 1965. SkajliĤ states that he discovered 8.878 words and 6.878 terms in these languages (SkajliĤ, 1965: 23). A variety of studies were carried out on the presence of Turkish words in the Albanian language. In Tahir Dizdari‘s researches, the number of Turkish words identified in Albanian is 4406 (Kadiu-Abdiu, 2009: 1230). Ilaz Metaj, in the dictionary called ―Orientalizmat‖ that he published in 2009, identified 3600 words (Metaj, 2009: 7). Recent studies show that the number of Turkish words available in the Albanian language is almost 5000 (Bayraktar, 2009: 1086). Various studies on the number of Turkish words in the other Balkanic languages were conducted as well: but these studies are not as comprehensive as the studies conducted in Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Albanian. For this reason, it is difficult to give figures closer to the realistic existence of the Turkish words in Romanian, Greek and Bulgarian. Ivan Gaberov, in the dictionary called ―Reçnik na Çujdite Dumi v Bilgarskiy/ Dictionary of Foreign Words in Bulgarian‖ that he published in 1998, states that 3548 Turkish words are still in use today in Bulgarian language. The most comprehensive study examining the effect of Turkish on Romanian dates back to XX. century. L. Ńaineanu detected 3900 Turkish elements in Romanian. Today, the presence of Turkish words in Romanian is seen to be decreasing compared to early XX. century. Muhummed Nurlu, in his work called ―Turkish Traces in Romanian‖ in 2002, identified 1200 Turkish words. The researchers, who conducted significant studies on Turkish elements in Greek, are K. Kukkidis and P. Georgias. While Kukkidis identifies the existence of Turkish words in Greek as 3000, Georgias does it as 1968161 (Öztekten, 2004). 160 A sample stanza from the poem in question: Frenkler buni satarlar Frenkler bunu satarlar Sudøk içre tutarlar Suduk içre tutarlar Ba ne zehir jutarlar Bak ne zehir yutarlar Ostante se tutuna Tütünden vazgeçin (Ġyiyol, 2010a: 276). 161 We tried to mention the basic works related with the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages. However, the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages and So many studies have been conducted on the Turkish words and their sound, structural 473 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The presence of Turkish words in any of the Balkanic languages is seen to differ from one study to another. Although there are several reason for this difference, but it is mostly related to the study‘s scope and period. While some of the researchers deal with the Turkish words in the literary language, yet one section of researchers deal with written and spoken language together. The number of Turkish words in the Balkanic languages varies according to the quality of the source scanning and compilation work. Another reason for changes of Turkish words is related to the period study was conducted. The number of Turkish words gradually decreased with the departure of Ottoman from the region. For this reason, there will be difference in word numbers between the studies conducted at the end of XIX. century and today. The Designation of Turkish Words in the Balkanic Languages The multitude of the presence of Turkish words in the Balkanic lanaguages, the frequent use of these words in the public culture and literary works, revealed the need to designate these words which entered into the Balkanic languages through Turkish. The language and cultural researchers of the Balkanic communities have tried to designate these words, which are found in significant numbers in their languages, in different concepts such as; ―Orientalism,‖ ―Turcizmi-Turcizam/Turkism,‖ ―Arabism,‖ and ―Balkanism.‖ The designation problem of these words, which have been conceptualized as ―Turkism‖ or ―Orientalism‖ by vast majority of the researchers, should be dealt with in various ways. The morphological and semantical features of these words, through which cultural basin they entered into, their equivalences in the folk culture and their positions in the literary language will help to solve the problem. Russian linguist Agnia Desnitskaja deals with the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages starting from the Albanian examples. According to Desnitskaja, the Albanian youth adopted Arabic and Persian words which they are taught at the Ottoman educational institutions. Desnitskaja expresses that since the Ottoman‘s literary language was Persian and religious language was Arabic, therefore these words should be called ―Orientalism.‖ Albanian linguist Tahir Dizdari prefered to use the term ―Orientalism‖for the words which entered into Albanian in the Ottoman period. Dizdari, in his another article, designated the words in question with ―Turkism‖ concept. Tahir Dizdari‘s use of these two concepts indicates that author cannot make a definite choice between these two concepts (Abazı-Egro, 2002: 5). Ilaz Metaj,in his dictionary called ―Orientalizmat/Orientalists‖ in which he brought Turkish words in Albanian together, prefered to use ―Oryantalizm‖ concept for these words.Metah states that he encountered a basic problem in his dictionary work and these words in question have problems of designation. The words in question, according to Metaj, came from three oriental languages like Turkish, Arabic and Persian. For this reason, he prefered to use Orientalism concept for designating these words in question. Ilaz Metaj expresses the effect of Albanian Orientalist Fethi Mehdiu on his choice of this concept (Metaj, 2009: 7). Hanka Vajzovic, in the work entitled ―Orijentalizmi u Knijiţevnom Djelu-Lingvistička Analazia/ The Linguistic Analysis of Orientalisms in the Literay Language,‖ deals with the words which entered into Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian from Turkish and thought Turkish. Vajzovic states that he used ―Turkism‖ concept for the words in question but, nowadays the ―Orientalism‖ concept began to be widespared. According to Vajzovic, although the vast majority of the words in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian are Turkish, but he stated that also the words of Arabic and Persian can also be found(VajzoviĤ, 1999: 11). While Vajzovic prefered Orientalism concept at the beginning of his work, at the summary section, he states that Orientalism is a synonym of ―Turkism‖ concept. Many linguists designated the words which entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman period as ―Turkism.‖ Abdullah SkajliĤ deals with this matter in his comprehensive work called Turcizmi u Srpsko-Hırvatskom Jeziku. SkajliĤ provides information on the studies which are examining the Turkish elements in the Balkanic languages at the begining of his dictionary. According to him, the studies, which are conducted on this subject, are full of inaccuracies due to several reasons. SkajliĤ gives an example to the more explicit inaccuracies by Otto Blau‘s claim that the word ―Eyvallah‖ is the derivative of the Bosnian word ―Eh! Hvala/ Eh! Thank you‖ (SkajliĤ: 1965: 17). SkajliĤ expresses that most of the words, which entered into Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian, are Turkish or possess the semantic and morphological features of Turkish. According to him, the number of Arabic and Persian words which entered into Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian, not through Turkish, are very limited. For this reason, these words in question should be called ―Turcizmi/Turkishm‖ (SkajliĤ, 1965: 24). According to Eqrem Cabej, who designated the words that entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman period with Albanian examples, these words should be designated as ―Turkism.‖ Cabej states that Arabic and Persian words in Albanian entered into the language though Turkish, therefore it will be more accurate to designate them as ―Turkism.‖ Starting from the Albaniam example, another researcher, who took up the task of designating the words in question, is Norbert Borevsky. According to Borevsky, there are three main and semantic features in the Balkanic languages and the reflection of Turkish words and group of words on social life. See. (SkajliĤ, 1965; Metaj, 2009; Öztekten, 2004). 474 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo reasons for these words to be called ―Turkism.‖ First, the number of people in the Albanian community who knew Arabic and Persian were very few. The people of Albanian origin, who have a good command of Arabic and Persian, did not live in Albania and did not get into an important communication with the Albanian community. These intellectuals were mostly assigned in the important cities of the Empire like Istanbul. Therefore, there was no significant communication between these superior Arabic-Persian knowing party and the Albanian community. Since these Arabic and Persian words entered in to Albanian through Turkish, they are designated as ―Turkism.‖ Secondly, it is difficult to say that Arabic and Persian words, which entered into Albanian, are directly taken from these languages. These words are also present in Turkish. Sincere there are no any Arabic and Persian words, which are present in Albanian and not available in Turkish, these words should be called ―Turkism.‖ Thirdly, in the Arabic-Persian words in Albanian, there phonetic features of Turkish can be seen. In order to call these words, which are left from the Ottoman period as ―Orientalism,‖ the pronunciation and grammatical features of these words in question should have been out of Turkish usage. However, no such word has been located till now (Abazi-Egro, 2002: 6). The researchers, who were explaining the words that entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman period with ―Turkism‖ concept, have accepted the discourse of the vast majority of these words being Turkish origin as the point of reference. Arabic and Persian words in the Balkanic languages, other than Turkish, have taken shape according to Turkish grammar. Therefore, since these words are Turkicized, it is more appropriate to use ―Turkism‖ concept. The main claim of those defending Orientalism is that even though the majority of these words in question are Turkish, Arabic and Persian words are also available. Therefore these words belong to the east. For this reason, it is more appropriate to call these words in question as ―Orientalist.‖ In our view, the designation of the Turkish words and the other words which entered in the Balkanic languages through Turkish should be considered various angles. The position of these words in the Balkanic languages and cultures, their function in the Balkanic folklore, their semantics, syntax and morphological features should be taken into consideration. When the association of Turkism and Orientalism concepts and the question of whether these concepts will be adequate or not in designation of these words are evaluated, it will be possible to reach a conclusion based on scientific data. One of the basic factors to discuss in designating Arabic, Persian and Turkish words in the Balkanic languages is to consider the historical-cultural basis of the passage of these words in question. The literary language is called ―Ottoman Turkish‖ during the Ottoman Imperial period. In this language, although Turkish is the dominating element, but the influence of Arabic and Persian, the two major languages of the Islamic civilization, is present. Ottoman Turkish accommodated Arabic and Persian elements well and was formed as a language with wide range of vocabulary. So many great poets and authors and significant verse and prose work have emerged from the body of this language. Therefore, the dominant language in the Balkans along with the Ottoman is Ottoman Turkish. Ottoman Turkish has affected the Balkanic languages and Turkish, along with Arabic and Persian, which it harbors in its body, entered into the Balkanic languages. The poets of Classical Turkish Literature and Turkish Dervish Lodge Literature prepared a similar literary ground in the Balkanic communities. The Balkan poets and authors, who are affected with this literary ground, have used the words which they obtained from Ottoman Turkish in their works. Many factors such as Ottoman state system, educational institutions, the effects of dervish lodges deeply affected the languages of the Balkanic communities. If Turkish, Arabic and Persian words in the Balkanic languages are considered in this regard, it will not be appropriate to use expressions like Orientalist or ―Orientalism,‖ which means the words of Eastern languages, for these words from the historical-cultural basis. A part of the words, which entered into the Balkanic languages from Ottoman Turkish, are concepts from the Turkish state tradition. 453 of the Turkish words in Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian are related to state system, administration and law. 166 words in these languages are army and military terms (SkajliĤ, 1965: 25). One part of the words in the Turkish state system and the organization of army are Turkish, and yet another part of the words are of Arabic and Persian origin. In Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian, beside the Turkish words such as: Bajraktar (Flag-bearer), Beg (Gentleman), Beglerbeg (Governor-General), there are some concepts of Arabic origin on state system such as: Kadija (Judge), zabit(Officer), vilajet (Province). Due to some of the concepts of Turkish state system being Arabic-Persian origin, it is not enough to define these words as Orientalism. Along with the words belonging to Ottoman Turkish, Turkish adjuncts also entered into the Balkanic languages.162 The adjuncts, mentioned below, preserve their functionality in the Balkanic languages even today. These adjuncts, which we explained with examples, are of Turkish origin and are not used in Arabic and Persian. For this reason, evaluating these Turkish adjuncts within the concept of Orientalism will be an enforcement in terms of linguistics. The -cı, ci,-cu, cü, -çı,-çi,- çu,-çü adjuncts are in use in Albanian, Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian and Bulgarian. 162 Apart from the adjuncts, which entered into the Balkanic languages, from Ottoman Turkish, there is also –gar (kar) adjunct. This adjunct is used in all Balkanic languages. 475 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian; KeĦedņija (Felt-maker), kundurdņija (Shoemaker), mejdanņija (Fieldsman) Albanian; Shakaxhi(Joker), inatçi (obstinate), batakçi(crook), sherrxhi (aggressive) Macedonian; ilecija (trickster), kavgacija (aggressive), abacija (wool-cloth maker). -lık,- lik, -luk, -lük; these adjuncts can be seen in all the Balkanic languages except Greek. Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian; bajramluk (festivity outfits), dunjaluk(worldly goods), Ħizmedņiluk(boots-making), Ħobanluk (occupation of a shepherd) Albanian; baballek (stepfather), beqarllek (bachelorhood), budalallek (stupidityk), pazarllek (bargain). Macedonian; pazarlak (bargain), rezilak(disgracefulness), samanlak (haymow), terzilak(tailorship) haremlak (wifehood), fukaralak( poverty). -lı, -li, -lu, -lü, these adjuncts can be seen in all the Balkanic languages except Greek. Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian;Sarajlija (Court-member-Sarajevo-resident), mekteplija (student), (additional) Albanian; nazeli (coy), sheherli (city-dweller), vesveseli (apprehensive), borxli (indebted) Macedonian;tatlija(dessert), sarajlija(court-member), Ģerbetlija(sweet and juicy). yedeklija -ça,- çe,-ca, ce ; these adjuncts can be seen in Albanian, Bosnian,Serbian and Croatian. Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian: Ġlidņa (hot spring) daidņa (maternal uncle) Albanian; hajdutçe (banditry), Turçe (Turkish), çobançe/çabanlık (occupation of shepherd) (SkajliĤ, 1965; Metaj, 2009; Kadiu,Adiu, 2009; Bayraktar, 2009; Oktay, 1999). The words, which entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman period, could be used with prefixes and suffixes of that particular lanaguage. These words, which are used with the adjuncts of the Balkanic languages, can be discussed with examples from Albanian. For example; Pa-gejf(dejected, unhappy) pa-rehati (sick, uncomfortable), çoban-eri (shepherd), çam-ishte (Pine grove), bayrak-as (flag-bearer), oda-tar (office boy, janitor), çay-tore (tea-maker), azdi-sem (getting angry), bırakti-sem (leaving, giving up), çirak-i (apprentice), jeshil-im (green vegetation) etc. (Metaj, 2009). Starting from these examples, Turkish, Arabic and Persian words are seen to adjust to the phonetic and grammatical features of Albanian language. Therefore, these words, available in Albanian, do not belong to the East; they are adopted into Albanian. For this reason, evaluating these words in question with ―Orientalism‖ concepts will mean to disregard this adaptation and transition. The slogans, which entered into the Balkanic languages from Ottoman Turkish, carry the traces of Turkish folklore and social life in terms of function and meaning. The functionality of the following slogans, which are seen in Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian, are not different from their functionality in Turkish; akĢam hajrola/may your evening be good, Allah rahmetejle/ God rest his soul, baĢun sagosum/may the head of your family be alive, bajram mubareč ola/happy holidays, dostlar sagosum/may friends be alive, hoĢgeldum/welcome etc. (SkajliĤ, 1965; Ġyiyol, 2010b). The majority of the words, which entered into the Balkanic languages from Ottoman Turkish have been identified as Turkish as a result of the researches. Arabic and Persian words, which are seen in the Balkanic languages, in terms of phonetic and morphology,are seen to possess the phonetic and morphological features of Turkish. The following words, which are seen in Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian, can be shown as examples of this. Bosnian Bardak Çoban Turkish <Bardak < Çoban Persian < Bârdân <ġubân Patlijan Rakija <Patlıcan <Rakı, arak <Bâdingan Memur <Memur Sejmen <Sey(ğ)men Arabic < Araq <Ma‘mur <Segbân Source: SkajliĤ (1965); Vajzovic (1999). The meanings, scopes and connotations of the words, which entered into the Balkanic languages from and through Turkish, should be taken into consideration. With the term ―Eastern,‖ Western European and 476 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo American researchers essentially meant the Arabic, Persian and Turkish geographies; but in broader sense, it refers to a region from the Mediterranean to China. With ―Eastern,‖ Balkan linguists meant Turks, Arabs and Iranians; Turkish, Arabic, and Persian by implication. In this respect, there are differences in geography and languages, which Balkan researchers and Orientalists meant. Secondly, according to philogists and anthropologists, such as, Silvestre de Sacy and Ernest Renan, the basic language of Orientalism is Arabic (Said, 2006: 134). Despite the Arabic language being at the center of the Orientalist researches; the vast majority of the words in the Balkanic languages are Turkish. It is seenthat even non-Turkish words are used with Turkish adjuncts, they form compound words when they are combined with Turkish words and the slogans have the functionality in Turkish culture. However, using Orientalism concept for these words will reveal the idea that vast majority of the words, in the Balkanic languages, belonged to the East or these words passed through Arabic culture. If the vast majority of these words in the Balkanic languages were of Arabic origin, or if these words possessed the morphological features of Arabic language and passed on to the Balkanic languages though Arab communities, it would be possible to call these words ―Orientalism‖ or ―Arabism.‖ The Turkish words in the Balkanic languages are naturally adopted by the Balkan communities. Like Arabic and Persian words are naturalized in Turkish language, these words, too, became a part of the languages of the Balkan communities. Abdullah SkajliĤ describes this situation with such expressions, ―Turkism did not forcibly enter into our language and did not leave a negative effect on our language...‖ This natural interaction, which SkajliĤ states, brought thousands of words into the treasures of the Balkanic languages and cultural structures. Using ―Orientalism‖ concept for these words, whose existence in the Balkanic languages exceeds centuries, in a sense, would mean to ―Alienate‖ these words. It will be inconsistent to use ―Balkanizm‖ concept for these words in various aspects because these words pass on from one Balkan language to another. The following words,such as yorgan(quilts), yastık (pillow), döĢek (mattress), kebap (kebab), baĢka (another), tüfek (rifle), ocak (stove), sedir (cedar), yaka (collar), çakır (greyish blue) etc., which are used in every aspect of daily life, predominate a conviction that these words passed on from one Balkan language to another. Even though some of the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages are same words, the number of the words in these languages are enough to refute this concept. Since the number of Turkish words in the Balkanic languages are different, it is not possible to see all these words throughout all the Balkanic languages. Therefore, ―Balkanizm‖ concept does not have enough scope to designate these words. It is a case open for discussion whether it is necessary to use a concept for the words, which belong to Islamic communities and entered into the Balkanic languages during Ottoman period. For the Arabic-Persian words, which are present in Turkish and gradually became Turkicized, there was not any concepts used for them or was no need for it. Gathering the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages under a concept will alienate these words and due to political reasons, it will bring the idea of dismissing these words from the Balkanic languges along with it. During the Yugoslavia period, significant task have been done in the name of eliminating the cultural heritage of the Ottoman period.163 On the other hand, in order to conduct scientific studies on these words, to analyze the effect of these words and word groups on the cultures and languages of the Balkanic communities in various aspects, it is seen that there is a need for designation. Conclusion It is inconsistent in terms of linguistic, cultural and historical process to designate the words, which entered into the Balkanic languages during the Ottoman period and still continue to preserve their functionality today, with the concepts like ―Orientalism,‖ and ―Balkanizm.‖ There are differences between the meaning and scope of the word Orientalism in the studies of language and culture and the Orientalism concept used for the Turkish-Turkicised words in the Balkanic languages. It is seen that it would not be a right choice to designate the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages with ―Orientalism‖ whether in terms of language and culture, or the associations and scope of the word. Gathering the Turkish words in the Balkanic languages under a concept will bring the idea of alienating and dismissing these words in question from the languge along with it. However, it is necessary to gather these Turkish-Turkicized words in the Balkanic languages under a concept for scientific studies. In our view, ―Turkism‖ bears the feature of the most powerful concept meeting the need for designating these words in question. A vast majority of the words in the Balkanic languages being Turkish, passing of these words in the Ottoman period, the use of Turkish adjuncts with these words, these words-slogans in question having the functionality of Turkish cultural life, Arabic and Persian words in the Balkanic languages having Turkish grammatical features and like many factors support our view. 163 In 1946, the schools in Yugoslavia were closed, children‘s reception of Koran education in the mosque was banned, Muslim officers were warned not to have their children circumcised. (Malcolm, 2002: 195). Like the pressure on the religious beliefs of Muslims in Yugoslavia, the similar pressure was on the Turkish words in the language (Korkmaz, 2007: 253-256). 477 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Abazi-Egro, Genciana (2002), ―Arnavutluktaki Tùrkoloji ÇalıĢmaları‖, Bilig, issue 21, Bahar, pp.1-24. Ahmet, Oktay (1999), Makedonca Sözlükte Türk Etkileri, Unpublished Graduate Seminar Workı, Cyril and Methodius Univ. Faculty of Philogy. Aksan, Doğan (2006), Anlambilim, Engin Publication, IV. Edition, Ankara. Bayraktar, Fatma Sibel (2009), ―Arnavutçaya ve Diğer Balkan Dillerine Geçen Tùrkçe Kelimelerin KarĢılaĢtırılması‖, Turkish Studies, Vol. 4/4 summer. pp. 1083-1090. Castellen, Georges (1995), Balkanların Tarihi, 2. Edition, Milliyet Pub., Ġstanbul. Iyiyol, Fatih (2010a), BoĢnak Halk Kültüründe Türk Tekke-Tasavvuf Geleneğinin Ġzleri, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Sakarya University, Institute of Social Sciences. Iyiyol, Fatih (2010b), ―BoĢnak Folklorunda Tùrk Kalıp Sôzlerin Etkisi‖, International IX. Language Literature Phraseology Sympozium Proceedings (15-17 October), Sakarya University Publicationhouse, v. II, pp. 2-10. Kadiu Spartak, Xhemile Abdiu (2009), ―Tùrkçe Yapım Eklerinin Arnavutça Yapım Eklerine Etkisi‖, Turkish Studies, Vol. 4/3 Spring, pp. 1229-1241. Korkmaz, Hùseyin (2007), Osmanlının Batı Yakası Bosna, 3F Pub., Ġstanbul. Malcolm, Noel (2002), Bosnia a Short History, Pan Book, London. Metaj, Ilaz (2009), ―Oriantalizmat Shtrirja Leksiko-Semantike Ne Gjuhen Shqipe‖, Shtepia Botuese Drenusha, Prishtine. Nametak, Fehim (1989), Pregled Knjiţevnog Stvaranja Bosansko- Hecegovačkih Muslimana Na Turskom Jeziku, El-Kalem, Sarajevo. Nametak, Fehim (1997), Divanska Knjiţevnost Bošnjaka, Orijentalni Institut u Sarajevu, Sarajevo. Nurkic, Kemal (2007), Bosna-Hersek'te ĠslamlaĢma Süreci, Unpublished Graduate Thesis, Ondokuz Mayıs Univ, Institute of Social Sciences. Öztekten, Özkan (2004), ―Tùrkçenin Dùnya Dillerine Etkisine Genel Bir BakıĢ‖, Türkçenin Dünya Dillerine Etkisi, Prepared by: KARAAĞAÇ, Gùnay, issue. 11-37. Said, Edward W. (2006), Orientalizm,trans. Belma Ülner, Metis Pub., III. Edition, Ġstanbul. ŃkaljiĤ, Abdullah (1965), Turcizmi u SrpsoHrvatsom Jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo. Todorova, Maria (2006), Balkanları Tahayyül Etmek, 2. Edition, ĠletiĢim Pub., Ġstanbul. VajzoviĤ, Hanka (1999), Orijentalizmi u Knijiţevnom Djelu-Lingvistička Analazia, Orientalni Istitut, Sarajevo. Yalçın, Emrullah (2009), ―Tùrk-Bulgar Ortak Kùltùrù‖, Ankara University Institute of the History of Turkish Reformation Atatürk‘s Path Magazine, Issue. 43, Spring, pp. 555-576 478 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 71 Title A name given to the resource The Findings upon the Designation of Turkish Words among Balkan Languages Author Author İYİYOL, Fatih KESMECİ, Ahmet Musab Abstract A summary of the resource. The presence of the Turks in the geography of Balkans can be track back to the centuries before Ottomans. The actual impact of the Turkish language and culture began with the start of Ottoman conquests. With the Ottoman conquest, there have been great changes on the structure of the Balkan communities. As a result of this comprehensive and large impact, thousands of Turkish words entered into the Balkanic Languages. The quantity of Turkish words, their effect of the Balkanic Cultures and Languages have directed the researchers to search these words. The researchers who investigated the Turkish words in the Balkanic Languages faced a fundamental problem. The main problem that the researchers faced was the issue of designation of these words in question. Due to the appearance of the words of Arabic and Persian origin along with Turkish, some researchers have applied the term ―Orientalism‖ for these words in question. Since the vast majority of words in the Balkanic Languages are Turkish, the researchers, considering the fact that Arabic and Persian words entered into the Balkanic Languages through Turkish, have preferred the concept ―Turkism‖ for these words. Researchers, without making a detailed evaluation on either ―Orientalism‖ or ―Turkism,‖ have stated their more general preferences. However, the designation issue of these words, which have such effect on the Balkanic Languages and their numbers getting closer to ten thousand in some languages, requires a detailed analysis in order to formulate an opinion. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the words in question in terms of grammatical, cultural and historical process and to contribute to the issue of designating through Ottoman institutions and community life. Within the scope of this study, the emphasis is given, in addition to all the Balkanic Languages, on the Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian and Albanian Languages where Turkish words are dominantly present. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/005c18087b690c8c477cede5039c17ff.pdf 68108dc7c5262e16e8c9cf24a733a2f6 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Deyimlerin Kültürel Özellikleri (Azerbaycan, Türk, Özbek ve Uygur Dillerinde) Günel Ġsayeva Bakù Slavyan Universitesi, Azerbaycan gunel.isa81@gmail.com Özet: Bildiride Turk kùltùrùnù; tùrklerin ulusal ôzelliklerini, ayrıca, dùnyaya bakıĢ açısını, dini gôrùĢlerini, tefekkùr tarzını, psikolojisini, tarihini, inanclarını, ôrf ve adetlerini, mitoloji ve kosmoloji tasavvurlarını, yaĢam koĢullarını yansıtan deyimlerin ôzellikleri araĢtırılmıĢtır. ÇağdaĢ Tùrk dillerinde bugùn de iĢlenen deyimlerin meydana gelme sebepleri incelenerek kùltùrel açıtan semantik anlamları ùzerinde dayanılmıĢtır. Tùrk dùĢùnce yapısını aksettirmesi açısından bakıldığında deyimlerin turkçe geleneksel deyimlerin izlerini taĢımakta olduğunu gôrùyoruz. Deyimlerin kùltùrel temele sahip olması onların toplumun kùltùr yaĢantısından izler taĢıması ve kanıtlar sunması doğaldır. Anahtar kelimeler: deyim, kùltùr, Tùrk dilleri GiriĢ Ġnsanlar arasında karĢılıklı iliĢki yaratan tek ve aynı zamanda benzersiz bir araç olan dil hemde insana ôzgù eylemlerin bir sonucudur. Çevrenin bu araçla yansıtılması, pratik ve teorik bilgilerin pekiĢtirilmesi, bu bilgilerle dùnyanın kavranması dilin varlığının iletiĢimde çok ônemli olduğunu gôsteriyor. Ġnsan dùĢùnceleri dile aktarılarak çôzùmlene, değerlendirilebilir ve bu değerlendirme, çôzùmlenme dilbilim ile yapılmaktadır. Dilin dilbilim nesnesi olarak bilimsel araĢtırmaların konusu olması kùltùrlerin gizli kalmıĢ ôzelliklerinin açılmasının bir amacıdır. Bu açıdan dil kùltùr arasında sıkı iliĢki ve dayanıĢma dil, kùltùr, hatta tarih araĢtırılmalarında çok etkili yardımcıdır. Kùltùrlerarası iletiĢimde baĢlıca rol oynayan deyimler dilin kùltùrel iliĢkisini kendisinde tecessùm ettiriyor. Bu da deyimlerin ulusal-kùltùrel yanlarının sayesinde gerçekleĢir. Dilbilimin diğer alanlarına nazaran deyimbilimin araĢtırma tarihi genç olsada, bu alanda sayısız araĢtırma eserlerine rastlanır. Etnokultur içerik taĢıyan frazeoloji birimler çeĢitli ùlkelerin dilbilimcilerinin defalarca araĢtırma nesnesi olmuĢtur. Bir dilin sôz varlığı ve deyimbilimi belli dùzeyde benimsenilmelidir, bu da konuĢmada onların dùzgùn ve akıcı kullanımını sağlıyor. Dilbilimde belirtildiği gibi, "eğer anlambilim mahiyet itibariyle hayat gerçeklerini, olaylarını, faktôrlerini, sùreçlerini tùmùyle yansıtıyorsa, deyimbilim ôncelikle his ve heyecan, ùzùntù ve sevinç, sevgi ve dostluk, çekiĢme ve mùcadele gibi, kalite belirtilerini kapsamaktadır (Royzenzon ve Avaliani, 1967). Dilin deyim (frazeoloji birim) katını oluĢturan çeĢitli frazeoloji birimler deyimbilime karmaĢık dil iĢaretlerini ôğrenen dilbilim alanı gibi bakmaya esas veriyor. Genelde, dilin deyim sistemi farklı tùrlù ve çok yanlı olaydır. "Deyimbilim daha canlı, hareketli ve çeĢitli hizada olan dil olaylarını inceler (Vinoqradov,1946). Frazeoloji birimler gerçeğin obrazlı kabul edilmesi temelinde oluĢur, herhangi dil topluluklarının gùnlùk yaĢamını, kùltùrel ve tarihi birikimini yansıtıyor. "Onlar (frazeoloji birimler - G.Ġ.) kendisinde masal, mitolojik, dini ve edebi metinlerin parçalarını taĢıyor ve bağlamdan canlılığa sahiptir" (Teliya, 1981). Deyimbilim dilbilimin diğer alanlarından farklı olarak, kuĢaktan kuĢağa, hemen hemen hiçbir değiĢikliğe uğramadan yollanır. Bilindiği gibi, "deyimler dil dùzeylerinin (fonetik, sôzcùksel, morfolojik ve sintaktik) tam teĢekkùlù zamanı oluĢur" (Әlizadə, 2009). Bu bakımdan dilin frazeoloji birimlerini derinden ôğrenmek o dilin kanunlarını benimsemektir. Frazeoloji birimler; kùçùk metin, tarih ve mitoloji gôrùĢler (mikromətn, mikrotarih, mikromif) – bu "kùltùr kodu"nda iletiĢimin tùm hattı, olayı Ģifrələnib" (Kovaleva ve Yakuçakova, 2010). ĠĢte bu açıdan da dilin deyim katı karmaĢıktır. Aynı zamanda dil "onun koruyucusunun milli kùltùrùnùn aynasıdır: dil birimleri halkın - dil taĢıyıcılarının yaĢam tarzına Ģu veya bu ôlçùde uygun içeriği yansıtıyor" (Felisina ve Mokienko, 1990). Herhangi bir etnosun dilinin derin katlarını, ulusal ôzelliklerini, ayrıca, tefekkùr tarzını, psikolojisini, kùltùrùnù, tarihini, yaĢam koĢullarını ve diğer niteliklerini içeren, koruyan dil birimlerinden en ônemlisi frazeoloji birimlerdir. "Frazeoloji birimler dil ve tefekkùrùn karĢılıklı abstraksisinin ùrùnù olmasaydı, dilin bilgeselliyi ve ulusal doğasının, halkın etnik psikolojisinin gôstergesine dônùĢmezdi‖ (Әlizadə, 2009). 533 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Halkın dili onun ruhudur ve halkın ruhu onun dilidir – bundan gùçlù aynı bir hadise yoktur‖ (Zveqinsev, 1965). Frazeoloji birimler ise bu ruhu dıĢarıya yansıtan ve tùrk dillerinin dil manzarasını yaratarak dùnyanın dil manzarasına dil ve kùltùr açısından ôzellik katan dil birimleridir. Her milletin dilinde onun dunyaya bakıĢ açısı, hayat yolu, tarihi geliĢmeler bir Ģekilde kendini gôsteriyor (Axundov, 2006). ÇalıĢma Yöntemi AraĢtırmada tarihi karsılaĢtırmalı dilbilim yôntemi kullanılmıĢtır. Frazeoloji birimlerin iç yapısını açmak için onların etimolojisi de araĢtırılmıĢtır. Amaç, ÇağdaĢ Azerbaycan, Tùrk, Özbek ve Uygur dillerinde iĢlenen deyimlerin yaranma sebeplerini ôğrenmek, kùltùrel ôzellik taĢıyan faktôrlerin deyimlerin yaranmasında ne gibi rol oynadığını aĢkarlamaktır. Örnekleme AraĢtırmaya sevkedilen Azerbaycan, Tùrk, Özbek ve Uygur dillerinde sôzlùklerden, deyimler sôzlùğùnden ôrnekler seçilmiĢ, onlardan dini, simgesel, mitoloji ôzellikleri, inanc sisteminin unsurlarını, kult izlerini taĢıyan deyimler ôrnek olarak verilmiĢtir. Veri Analizi Süreçleri Kùltùrù içeren kavramlar deyimlerde kendini gôsteriyor; renklerin, rakamların simgeselliyi, tùrk mitoloji dùĢùncelerin ilkin ôgeleri, Ġslamdan ônce ve sonrakı dini gôrùĢler, hayat tarzı ve gelenekler, inanıĢlar deyimlerin kùltùrel nitelik taĢımasını sağlıyor. Bu ôzelliye sahip deyimler tùrk dillerinin sôzlùklerinden alınmıĢ karĢılaĢtırılmıĢtır. Deyimler renk adlarının deyimlerde rolu, sayıların sembolik nitelikleri, mitoloji tasavvurlardan ve inançlardan tùreyen deyimler gibi gurublaĢtırılarak farklı ve benzer ôzellikleri ortaya koyulmuĢtur. Tùrk dillerinde, ôzellikle, Azerbaycan, Tùrkiye, Uygur ve Özbek Tùrkce`lerinde deyimler arasındaki sôzcùksel bağlar ortaya koyularak bu diller arasındaki ortak kullanımların, ortak fikirlerin tespiti sağlanmıĢtır. Bu dillerin kôkenleri aynı tarihe ve aynı kùltùre dayandıkları için deyimleri arasında benzerlikler vardır. ĠĢte bu çalısma aynı kôkenden gelen, aynı kùltùrù paylaĢan toplum arasındaki ortak dùsùnceleri ve ortak kullanımları ortaya koymuĢtur. Aynı kùltùrùn bir parçası olan bu deyimler arasındaki farkın sadece Ģekil yônùnden olduğu ve anlam olarak aynı dùĢùnceleri ifade ettiklerinin tespiti sağlanmıĢtır. Fakat bazı farkların da olmadığını da sôylemiyoruz. Bu farkların olması doğal, cùnkù farklı hayat tarzı sùrmùĢler ve bu da kendini deyimlerde gôsteriyor. Bulgular ve Yorum Her milletin kendine ôzgù tarihî ve kùltùrel değerleri vardır. Bir millet baĢkalarından farklı kılan da, sahip olduğu bu değerleridir. Dùnyanın en kôklù ve bùyùk milletlerinden olan Tùrkler, tarihî ve kùltùrel değerlerini, ôrf, adet ve geleneklerini, dinî inançlarını, mitoloji tasavvurlarını dùnden bugùne bùyùk bir itina ile taĢımıĢlardır. TaĢıdıkları tùm bu nitelikler dillerine de yansımıĢtır. Tùrk dili, Tùrk milletiyle birlikte, çok geniĢ alanlara yayılmıĢ zengin bir dildir. Tarihin derinliklerinden gùnùmùze uzanan bu zengin dil, dùnyada en çok konuĢulan diller arasında yer almaktadır. Yayılma alanlarına kesin sınırlar konulamayan Tùrk dili, çok geniĢ alanlara yayılmakla kalmayıp kendi içinde tekrar bùyùklù kùçùklù kollara bôlùnmùĢ kendine has ôzelliklere sahip olan dillere dônùĢmùĢler. Tùrk dillerinin sıkı dil bağları olduğu için onların sôzcùk sistemi de ortak dil birimleriyle zengindir. Tùrk dillerinin kelime hazinesini zenginleĢtiren, eski Tùrklerin genel anlamda kùltùrel ôzelliklerini kendinde taĢıyarak koruyan ve savunan dil birimlerinden biri de deyimlerdir. Deyimler, dilin sôzcùk sistemindeki boĢlukları doldurmakta ve çoğu zaman bir nesneyi, niteliği, sùreci, koĢulu ve buna benzer durumları tek bir ifade haline getirmektedir. Deyimlerin oluĢumu, dùsùnce gereksinimi ile dilin sınırlı sôzvarlığı kaynakları arasındaki çeliskiyi azaltmaktadır. Deyimler bir dilin hazinesidir ve genelde açık bir sekilde ulusal karakter taĢımaktadır. Bir halkın tarihi, kùltùrù ve yasam zenginliği deyimlerde anlam bulmaktadır. Dilin anlatım gùcùnùn en iyi tespit edilebildiği sôz varlıkları, deyimler olduğu kabul edilmektedir ve onların oluĢturulmasında, sôz konusu kùltùrùn temel değerlerinin baĢ rolù oynadığı bilinmektedir. Bunlar arasında renk adlarının, rakamların simgeselliyi ve bùyùlù nitelik taĢımalarının, inanc sistemini oluĢturan kult ve dinin, ôrf ve adetlerin, mitoloji ve kosmoloji dùĢùncelerin, hem toplumun temel kùltùr değerlerinden, hemde deyimlerin yapısında ônemli bir iĢlev ùstlenen ôgelerden olduğu muhakkaktır. 534 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Renklerin deyimlerdeki anlamı Renklerin ifade ettiği anlamlar ve anlam çağrıĢımları toplumdan topluma hem değisiklik gôsterirə hemde farklılıklar arz edebilir. Tùrk tarihinin en eski devirlerden baĢlayarak, çesitli renklerin sembol anlamlardan baska, manevî ve millî anlamlar da kazandığı gôrùlmektedir. Deyimlerde renk bir kavram gôstermektedir. Mesela, ak çoğu durumda iyi, olumlu kavramı; kara ise kôtù, olumsuzluğu gôstermektedir. Dolayısıyla renklerin gôsterdiği kavramlar ùzerinde de durulması gerekmektedir. Mesela, ak renginde ―iyi, olumlu; temizlik, arılık; dùrùst, doğru (insan için); beyaz tenli, gùzel; yaslılık, basarı‖ gibi kavramlara tùrk dillerinde rastlanmaktadır. Ak rengi ÇağdaĢ Uygur ve Özbek dillerinde ak sünek//ak suyak deyimlerinde iĢlenmiĢtir. Bugùn de tùrk dillerinde iĢlenen ak kemik deyimi asıl soylu kimse, çok saygılı, çok temiz kisiler için kullanılmaktadır (Uyqursko-russkiy slovar, 1968). Ak rengin, Tùrklerin en eski inançlarından olan ġamanist dônemle ilgili bazı manevî inançlarından kaynaklanarak ululuk, adalet ve gùçlùlùk anlamları kazandığı gôrùlmektedir. Tùrk ġamanizminde Ülgen, hayır ilâhıdır. Ülgen‘in altın kapılı sarayı ve altın tahtı vardır. ġaman dualarında ona Beyaz Parlak (Ak Ayas), Parlak Hakan (Ayas Kaan) vb. Ģekilde hitap edilir. ĠnanıĢa gôre Ebem Kusağını (Gôk Kusağı) da o yaratmıĢtır (Ġnan, 1987). Bu sebeple ġamanlar kùlâhlarını bilhassa beyaz kuzu derisinden yaptırırlardı. Çùnkù, itikatlarına gôre beyaz renk, temiz ruhların hosuna giderdi (Ġnan, 1987). Buradan giderek ak sôzù ve rengi ġamanizm Tùrk inançlarında arılık ve yùceliğin bir sembolù haline gelmiĢtir. Bu yùzden ak renk için ―baĢ renk‖, ―esas taraf‖ da diyenler vardır (Genç, 1997). Yine bu inançlardan kaynaklanarak Tùrklerde ―aklık‖ temizliktir, arılıktır, yùceliktir, ululuktur. YaĢlılık, tecrùbe ile dolu oluĢ ve bir kocalıktır, bùyùklùktùr. Devletin ululuk, adalet ve gùçlùlùğùnùn bir sembolù, devlet bùyùklerinin, ôzellikle savaĢlarda giyindikleri bir giysi, elbise rengidir. Beyaz renk elbise, bilhassa Hun bùyùklerinin ve subaylarının bir ùniforması gibi algılandığı gôrùlmùstùr. Beyaz at da ordu içindeki bùyùk rùtbelileri askerlerden ayıran bir isaretti. Bu gelenek Tùrklerden Moğollara da geçmis ve Cengiz Han devletinde de devam etmistir (Ögel, 1991). Eski Tùrklerde ak sôzù daha çok Oğuzlarda kullanılmıĢ, diğer Tùrklerde ise ak yerine daha çok ―ùrùng‖ sôzù yayılmıĢtır. Batı Tùrklerinde ―aksakal‖ deyimi, yaslı, akıllı ve bilge bir kiĢiyi aklımıza getirirken, Kutadgu Bilig‘de Doğu Tùrklerinde ôlùmùn yaklaĢtığını hatırlatır, ―sakalın ùrùng olunca ôlùmùn yaklaĢtı‖ demektir (Ögel, 1991). Ak – soy, ak soylu anlayıĢı da Karahanlı kùltùr çevresinde ürüng kelimesinin tanıtılmasıyla yapılmıĢtır. Özellikle Çingiz Han devletinin etkileri altında kalan Tùrk bôlgelerinde, ak – kemik, kara – kemik deyimleri; idare edenlerle edilenleri birbirinden ayırmak için kullanılmıĢtır. Gôktùrk yazıtlarında, yalnızca kara – kamıg, yani kara – kemik sôzù bulunmaktadır. Bu deyimle halk kitlesinin anıldığı gôrùlmektedir (Ögel, 1991). Tùrklerde boz kelimesi renk anlamından baĢka ―genç‖ anlamını da taĢıyor. Boz kelimesi ÇağdaĢ Özbek ve Uygur dillerinde bўz bola (Uzbeksko-russkiy slovar, 1959)//bўz ẏiqit//boz bola (Uyqursko-russkiy slovar, 1968) frazeoloji birimlerinin tarkibinde iĢlenmektedir. Harfiyan ―boz oğlan‖, anlamca her Ģeyin sağını solunu tam anlamıyla daha anlayamamıĢ; ergenlik çağına ermiĢ, fakat henùz delikanlılık olgunluğuna eriĢememiĢ genç erkek demektir. Boz kelimesi, açık toprak rengi, kùl rengi, boz renk olarak açıklanmıĢtır. Ayrıca açılmamıĢ ve sùrùlmemiĢ (toprak) anlamında kullanılmaktadır. DTS‘de boz ―gri‖, ―kır dùsmùs‖, gri tonları (tùy rengi, don) olarak gôsterilmiĢtir (Drevnetyurkskiy slovar, 1969). Bu frazeoloji birimin içerdiği "boz" sôzù hakkında çeĢitli gôrùĢler ileri sùrùlmùĢtùr. Öyle ki, boz bola frazeoloji birimindeki boz kelimesi "Boz ayğırlı Bamsı Beyrek" adı almıĢ oğlanın "Bozoklar" kavmına ait olduğunu belirtmek için iĢlenmiĢ deyimdir. BaĢka tahminlere gôre ise bu deyimdeki boz kelimesi "genc, yetiĢkin" anlamını bildiriyor (Elekberova, 2007). DùĢùnùyoruz, bu ônerme daha doğrudur, çùnkù Tùrk dillerinde de bu deyim aynı anlama geliyor. Kırgız dilinde de boz bala Ģeklinde rastlıyoruz ve bu dilde de aynı anlam veriyor. Ayrıca, boz bala frazeoloji biriminin Uygur dilinde boz jiqit seçeneğine de rastlıyoruz. Onun anlamı ise "bekar erkek" demektir. Deyimlerde sayıların sembolik nitelikleri Genelde, Tùrk dillerinde frazeoloji birimlerin oluĢmasında sayılar da rol oynuyorlar. Sayılardan oluĢan frazeoloji birimlerin anlamlarında her bir rakamın semantikası ve onlardakı kutsallık deyime yansıyor. Bu da bazı rakamların kutsallığının Tùrklerin dini-mitolojik gôrùĢlerinde, inançlarında, felzefi dùĢùncelerinde taĢlaĢıp kalması ile ilgilidir. Öyle ki, bir -Allah'ı, iki - yeraltı ve yerùstù dùnyayı, dôrt - dùnyayı yaratan dôrt unsuru, yani ateĢ, su, hava, ve toprağı, dokuz - gezegenleri, yedi - çoğulluk kavramını bildiriyor, beĢ danıĢık organlarını, altı ise tarafların sembolù gibi alqılanılıyor. Tùrk halk inançlarında rakamların bùyùlù gùcùne olan inancın, eski kamlık dùsùncesinin etkisi ve Ġslâm‘ı kabul ettikten sonra Arapların alfabe dùzenlerinde her harfe bir sayı değeri verdikleri ―ebced hesabı‖nın (Mercanlıgil, 1960) etkisiyle Ģekillendiğini dùĢùnmekteyiz. Tùrk halk kùltùrùnde 3, 7, 9, 40 gibi rakamlardan ôzellikle kırk rakamının ônemli bir yeri vardır. Kırk gùnlùk, kırklamak, kırk yıllık v.b. gibi sùrelerin oynadığı 535 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo rolùn ônemine binaen, bu rakamın mistik bir kuvvet kazandığına inanılmaktadır (Karahan, 1951). Halk inançlarında genelde 3, 7, 9, 40, 41 rakamlarında mistik bir yôn ve bùyùsel bir gùç olduğu savunulmaktadır. Bu sayılardan 3 ve 7 yaygın bir sekilde kullanılmaktadır. 9 sayısı sonsuzluğun,ululuğun simgeselliyi gibi algılanılıyor. Özbek dilinde tôrenle ilgili yaranmıĢ bir deyim vardır 9 rakamı o deyimde semboliktir. Örneğin, tomsa tўққuz, oқsa ўtuz (Umarov, 1971) frazeoloji biriminin harfiyan anlamı "damcılasa dokuz, aksa otuz" demektir. Bu frazeoloji birim eski tôrenle bağlı oluĢmuĢtur. Öyle ki, eğlence gecelerinde eğer kimse Ģarabı yere dağıtsaydı, onda o kiĢiyi zorluyorlardı ki, dokuz Piyale Ģarap içsin. Eğer Ģarap tamamen yere dağılsaydı, onda o kiĢi mecburen otuz kadeh Ģarap içme idi. Uygur dilinde Yette ata (Uyqursko-russkiy Slovar,1968) frazeoloji birimi mevcuttur ki, çok uzak, ulu nesil anlamını taĢıyor. Yedi arka ulusuna, neslin yedinci kôkùne kadar olan akrabalık iyerarxiyasını bildiriyor. Tùrkçe'de bu deyimin baĢka bir varyantına yedi arka dönen//yedi arka geçinen ifadesine rastlanır. M.Adilov bu deyimin en eski kabile yapısının izlerini muhafaza ettiğini yazıyor; Ata-baba kultuna, bùyùklere, ihtiyarlara derin saygı besleyen Tùrk milleti içerisinde yedi arka ulusun (dônen) tanımak çok zor olarak gôrùlùyordu, Ģunları tanımayanlar asılsız ve genellikle yaramaz adam olarak gôrùlùyordu, saygıdan, otoriteden, gôzden dùĢùrdù. Yedi arka neslini tanımayanı eski qırğızlar "kul" olarak yapıyorlardı. Onlar hatta ana hattı ile yedi arkasını (dônənini) tanımayanlara "kul" diyorlardı (Adilov, 1988). Genellikle, yedi arka ulusunu (dônənini) tanımak eski Tùrk kabile gelenekleri ile ilgili olmuĢtur ve "yedi arka dônen" birimi tùrklerin yaĢam ve aileiçi iliĢkileri ile alakalıdır. Tùrk dilinde mevcut olan yedi kat yabancı (Aksoy, 1988) frazeoloji birimi "akraba veya tanıdık gibi yakınlığı bulunmayan" anlamına gelir. Özbek dilinde de tamamen yabancı, akrabalık iliĢkisi olmayan bir insanı belirten etti ѐt beqona (Uzbek tilininq izoxli lugati, 1981) frazeoloji birimine rastlıyoruz. Hatta frazeoloji birimin anlamını gùçlendirmek için "yabancı" anlamına bildiren ѐt ve beqona kelimeleri birlikte iĢlenmiĢtir. Genellikle, yedi sayısı diğerlerinden daha gùçlù kutsallığa sahiptir ve onun bu seviyeye yùkselmesi "insan dùĢùncesinde çoğulluk kavramının geliĢmesi ile doğrudan ilgilidir" (Qıpçaq, 2002). Birçok halkların, ôzellikle de Tùrklerin mitolojik tasavvurlerinde yedi sayı kutsallığın simgeselliyi olarak yaĢıyor. Ve bu tasavvurlar frazeoloji birimlerde kendini gôsteriyor. Mitoloji, dini görüĢlerden, adet ve törelerden türemiĢ deyimler Her ùlkenin, kùltùrùn, kuĢağın içinde bulunduğu evreni, dùnyayı, çevresindeki nesneleri kendine ôzgù bir algılama biçimi vardır. Tùrk mitolojisinde ve inanç sisteminde atalar kùltù, tabiat kùltleri, gôk tanrı kùltleri, dini tôrenler gùnùmùzde iĢlenen deyimlerin oluĢmasında esas rôl oynadıklarını onların etimolojisini araĢdırırken gôrùyoruz. Tùrk mitolojisinde gùneĢ, ônceleri daha bùyùk bir ôneme sahipti. M.S. 763 de Uygurlar "Mani" mezhebini kabul edince, yavaĢ yavaĢ "Ay"da bùyùk bir ônem kazanmağa baĢlamıĢtı. Bununla beraber Bùyùk Hun Devleti zamanında hem gùneĢe, hem de aya, ayrı ayrı saygı gôsterildikten sonra, kurbanlar kesildiğini de biliyoruz. ÇağdaĢ Özbek dilinde kullanılan kўzi ѐrimoқ fiili frazeoloji biriminin harfiyan anlamı "gôzù iĢıqlandı" demektir. Ёrimoқ fiili "aydınlatmak, aydınlık olmak" anlamını ifade etse de, frazeoloji birimin anlamı "doğurmak, dùnyaya çocuk getirmek" demektir. ÇağdaĢ ôzbek dilinde iĢlenen bu frazeoloji birime "Oğuzname"nin Uygur versiyonunda rastladık: ... Ay қağanuң közü yarıp bodadı, erkek oğul toğurdı (Oğuznamələr, 1993). Uygurca Oğuznâme'de Oğuz-Han'ın babasının adının, "Ay-Han" olduğu sôylenir. Maalesef, bu Oğuznâme'nin baĢkısmı kaybolmuĢtur. Bu sebeple, bu "Ay-Han"ın kim olduğunu anlayamıyoruz. Bilindiği ùzere, Oğuz Han'ın ikinci oğlunun adı da, Ây-Han" idi. Burada "Ay-Han" yalnızca bir ùnvandır. Yoksa bazılarının dedikleri gibi, Ay-Han, "Ay'ın Han"ı, Kùn-Han da "GùneĢ'in Han'ı değillerdi. Elbetteki Ay-Han, Tùrk mitolojisinde Ay'ı temsil eden sembolik bir ad idi. Tùrklere gôre ay, erkek idi. "Ay-Ata" deyim ve adları, buradan geliyordu. Tùrk-Moğol efsanelerinde "Ay'ı, çocuk doğurtan bir baba olarak" da gôrùyoruz. Özbek dilinde ise kўzi ѐrimoқ frazeoloji birimi xotunin kўzi ѐridi Ģeklinde iĢleniyor. "Öğuzname"deki versiyon ÇağdaĢ Özbek dilinde iĢlenen kўzi ѐrimoқ frazeoloji biriminin invarinatının (ilkin varyantının) seçeneği hesap edilecektir. Tùrk mitolojisinde Aydan ıĢık doğması tasavvurları mevcut olmuĢtur. ĠĢte bu elementin "Oğuznae"de yansıyan Ay kağana aktarılması invarinat anlamın variantını dahil frazeoloji anlamı meydana getirdi. Ayrıca metn`de kўzi ѐrimoқ frazeoloji birimine "doğurmak" anlamını taĢıyarak ѐrimoқ seçeneği de kullanılıyor: Töl boğaz boldı. Künlәrdәn son, keçәlәrdәn son ẏarudı, üç erkek oğulңı toğurdı (Oğuznamələr, 1993). Bu da onun gôstergesidir ki, Tùrk dillerinde tek kelimeden oluĢan frazeoloji birimlerin varlığı eski kôklere bağlıdır. Gôrùldùğù gibi, Tùrk halklarının mitolojik tasavvurlarında yansıyan stereotiplər frazeoloji birimlerde de kendini gôstermektedir. Eski Tùrklerde, yas alâmeti olarak yùksek sesle ağlanmakta, yùzler parçalanmakta ve kesilmektedir. Orhun Abideleri'nde yas tutarken saçların ve kulakların kesildiği, feryat ederek ağlanıldığı zikredilmektedir. ÇağdaĢ Tùrk dillerinde mevcut olan kan ağlamak veya Azerbaycan dilinde qan yaĢ tökmek (Orucov, 1976) frazeoloji birimi de eski tùrklerin defin tôreni zamanı yaptıkları adetlerden kalmıĢtır. Tùrklerin defin tôrenlerine gôre ôlùyù çadıra koyarlarmıĢ sonra ôlmùĢ kiĢinin oğulları, torunları ve baĢka akrabaları çadırın karĢısında 536 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo koyun yahud at kurban kesermiĢlerdi. Sonra çadırın etrafına yedi defa dolanır, yùzlerini bıçakla keser sesli ağlarlardı; gôz yaĢları kana karıĢıb akardı. Defin ederken de ağlar ve yùzlerini keserlerdi (Rəcəbov ve Məmmədov, 1993). OĢuқi alçı kelivatidu frazeoloji birimi "iĢleri yolunda gitmek, Ģans getirmek" anlamında birçok Tùrk dillerinde iĢleniyor. Bu ifade Tùrk uluslarında "aĢık oyunu" gibi mevcut olan oyundan oluĢan ve deyimleĢerek Tùrk dillerinde Ģimdiye kadar da iĢlenmektedir. Tùrklerde "âĢık" koyunun arka ayağının diz kemiğine deyilirmiĢ. Oyunun içeriği Ģu ki, aĢığı atarken onun yan tarafı yukarı dùĢerse, aĢığı atan kiĢinin "aĢığın alçı kalkıp", yani kazanmıĢtır demektir. Bu oyun Azerbaycan'da Ģimdi de çocuklar arasında oynanır. Özbek dilinde bu frazeoloji birim oĢiği olçi (Uzbeksko-Russkiy Slovar, 1959) Ģeklinde, ismi frazeoloji birim gibi mevcuttur. OĢuқi alçı kelivatidu frazeoloji birimi Tùrk dilinde aĢığı bey (cuk / cuk) oturmak (Aksoy, 1988) seçeneğinde iĢleniyor. Bu frazeoloji birimin içerdiği bey ve cuk sôzlerine Ö. Aksoy Ģôyle izah etmiĢtir: "cuk aĢığın çukur gôbek tarafı, bey "cuk" arkasındaki yuvarlak tarafsız" (Aksoy, 198). Tùrkçe'de iĢlenen bu frazeoloji birim maçası alçı kalkıp (Aksoy, 1988) Ģeklinde de kullanmaktadır. Özbek dilinde iĢlenen anқoninq tuxumi//uruği frazeoloji biriminin harfiyen anlamı "anko kuĢunun yumurtası" demektir. "Anko" mifik kuĢ ismi olup Ġbranice anak kelimesinden tùremiĢtir, isim olarak anlamı gerdanlık, uzun boyunlu div, fiil olarak ise gerdanlık takmak, boğmak, boğazı sıkmak anlamlarına gelir (Batislam, 2002). ―Anka; uzun boyunlu, ismi olup cismi olmayan bùyùk bir kuĢtur. Simurg, Zùmrùdùanka adlarıyla da bilinir. Cennet kuĢuna benzer yeĢil bir kuĢ olduğu için bu ad verilmiĢtir. Bu adların dıĢında Anka, Semender, Devlet KuĢu, Phoenix, Tuğrul, Hùmâ adlarıyla da bilinir" (Batislam, 2002). Arapça'da Anka, Farsça'da Simurg adı verilen; Tùrkçe'de ise, bu iki isimle ya da bu iki ismin birleĢmesinden meydana gelen Zùmrùdùanka (Simurg u Anka) adıyla anılan, Ġslâm tasavvuf ve sanatında da ônemli yer tutan efsanevî kuĢ, benzer nitelikteki baĢka kuĢlarla karıĢtırılmıĢtır. Genellikle, Anka, Simurg, Humay gibi efsanevi kuĢlar hakkında çeĢitli yorumlar vardır. M.Adilov Simurg kuĢu hakkında Ģôyle yazıyor: "Eski esatirlere gôre Elbrus Dağı'nda yaĢıyor. Bazı kaynaklarda bu dev ve efsanevi kuĢa Әnqa (veya Ünqa) denir" (Adilov, 1988). Anka kuĢunun yumurtası olması konusunda ama kimse bahsetmiyor. Yalnızca M. Adilov Humay kuĢundan bahsederken bu kuĢ hakkında varolan rivayetlerden birine gôre onun yumurtladığını yazıyor; "Bir rivayete gôre, Bùyùk Okyanus adalarında, Hindistan'da, Çin'de, Kıpçak bozkırlarında yaĢayan kuĢtur ki, gôlgesi herkesin ùstùne dùĢerse, o kiĢi veya padiĢah, yada zengin, zengin, mutlu kiĢi oluyormuĢ. Gùya havada yumurtlar ve yavrusu havadaca yumurtadan çıkıp uçmaya baĢlarmiĢ ..." (Adilov, 1988). Bôylece, Anka veya Simurg, Humay kuĢlarının aynı efsanevi kuĢ olma ihtimali ortaya çıkıyor. DùĢùnùyoruz, Humay kuĢunun havada yumurtlaması hakkındaki rivayeti anқoninq tuxumi frazeoloji birimi doğruldur. Özbek dilinde bu frazeoloji birim çok ender bulunan veya çok zor bulunan, bulunması mùmkùn olmayan bir Ģeyi belirtmek için kullanılır. Humay kuĢunun havada yumurtladığı yumurtanın da elde edilmesi muhtemelen mùmkùn olmayan bir iĢtir. Buradan da ihtimal olabilir ki, Anko, yani Simurg ve Humay aynı kuĢtur. Örneğin, Ҩavas bўlsa, anқoninq tuxumi ҩam topiladi. (Oybek, "O.v. Ģabadalar") Bunqa iĢonadiqan odam ҩozir anқoninq tuxumi (Uzbeksko-Russkiy Slovar, 1959). Tùrkçe'de anқoninq tuxumi frazeoloji birimine "kuĢ sùtù" (Aksoy, 1988) frazeoloji birimi uygun geliyor. Özbek dilinde қўlini yuvub <қўltikқa urmok> frazeoloji birimi ayrıca "kul yuvmok" biçiminde de dilde iĢleniyor. ġ.Raxmatullayev tahmin ediyor ki, Özbek dilinde "қўl yu vmoқ" "қўlini yu vub қўltikқa urmok" frazeoloji biriminin kısaltılmıĢ varyantıdır. Fakat E.A.Umarov yazıyor, Özbek dilinde el yuvmoқ//ilik yuvmoқ frazeoloji birimi XIX yùzyılda artık қўl yu vmoқ biçiminde iĢlenmeye baĢlamıĢtır. Bu da "el" ve "ilik" kelimelerinin aynı dônem için artık dilden çıkmasıyla bağlıyor (Umarov, 1971). A.Zayonçkovski "el yumak" frazeoloji biriminin Fars dilinden tùrk dillerine geçen bir taklit olduğunu sôylùyor. E.A.Umarov ise A. Zayonçkovskinin fikrine itiraz ederek yazıyor: "Birincisi, "қўl yu vmoқ" frazeoloji birimi eski Tùrk yazılı yapılarında gôrùlùr ve yaygın olarak seçenekleri ile birlikte iĢlenmiĢtir. Ġkincisi ise, ÇağdaĢ tùrk dillerinde sadece yazılı dilde değil, ayrıca sôzlù dilde de iĢlenir" (Umarov, 1971]. Rus dilinde de bu deyim iĢlenmektedir ve ―iĢin içinden sıyrılmak, bir kenara çekilmek, bir iste artık sorumluluk almamak‖ anlamını taĢıyor. Aslı Eski Slavca‘dan geçen taklittir rus etimol. Bazı eski topluluklarda hakim ve savcilar verilen karara razı olmadıklarını gôstermek için sembolik bir tôrenle ellerini yakarlardı. Bunu yaparak, alınmıĢ olan karara karĢı sorumluluğu ùzerinden attıklarına inanırlardı. Bu gelenekten Ġncil‘de de sôz edilmektedir (Vtorozakoniye, 21, 6-7). Ġncil‘de belirtildigine gôre, Ġsa‘nın çarmıha gerilme kararına onay vermek zorunda kalan Pilatus‘un, halkın ônùnde ellerini yıkayarak ―Bu kutsalının kanında benim suçum yoktur‖ (Matfey, 27, 24) demesinden sonra bu deyim yaygın bir Ģekilde kullanılmaya baĢlamıĢtır (Mokiyenko, 2005). Tùrk dillerinde her iki Ģekilde, қўl yuvmoқ ve қўlini yuvub қўltikқa urmok Ģekillerinde mevcut olan frazeoloji birimlerin anlamı "umudunu kaybetmek" demektir. Iki seçenekten hangisinin daha erken olmasını ayırt etmek biraz zor olsa da, fikrimizce, E.A.Umarovun da gôrùĢùne gôre de bu frazeoloji birim "қўl yuvmoқ" Ģeklinde mevcut olmuĢ, "қўlini yu vub қўltikқa urmok" seçeneği ise sonra oluĢmuĢtur. Oğuz grubu Tùrk dillerinde el yıkamak, Kıpçak grubunda ise kol yıkamak Ģeklinde mevcut olması da қўlini yuvub қўltikқa urmok seçeneğinin daha sonra oluĢtuğunu sôylemeye esas 537 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo veriyor. Örneğin, Azərb. el yıkamak//el yüzmek//el çekmek; tm. el yuvmak; tr. El yıkamak//el çekmek; gr. kol juup kaluu. Örneklerden gôrùldùğù gibi, bu frazeoloji birimin hatta seçeneklerine da rastlamak oluyor. Gùnùmùzde, Azerbaycan dilinde ―Gôyden ùç alma dùĢdù. Biri menim, biri ôzùmùn, biri de nağıl sôyleyenin‖ (Seyidəliyev, 2004) deyimini tez tez kullanıyoruz. Bu deyimin tùreme sebepleri çok ilgiçekicidir. ―Gôyden ùç alma dùĢtù‖ deyiminin kôkù eski Tùrk inanıĢına bağlıdır. Geleneksel Tùrk dini içerisinde, tabiat kuvvetlerine inanç çerçevesinde "orman ve ağaç inanıĢı" da ônemli bir yer tutmuĢtur. Ötùgen dağının ormanlarla kapalı olmasının ve buraların Gôktùrkler ve Uygurlarca kutsal sayılmasının tesiri bùyùk olmuĢtur. Gerçekte orman inanıĢının, ormanda yaĢayan ve yiyecek derleyip avcılık yaparak geçinen ilkel topluluklara mahsus olduğu; Tùrklerin de gôçebe çoban hayatına oradan geçtikleri ône sùrùlmùĢtùr. Tùrkler arasında bozkır kùltùrùnùn hakim olduğunu kabul eden bazı bilim adamları bu gôrùĢe karĢı çıkmıĢtır (Gùngôr, 2002). Gùnùmùzde Uygurlar arasında bazı ağaçlara ôzel ônem vererek kutsal sayma inancı hala devam etmektedir (Rahman, 1996). Uygurların inancında, elma kôtù ruhlu olmayan sihirli ağaç sayılır. Onun için cinlerin ruhuna değsin diye elma ağacı ve elma kurusunu kullanarak tùtsù yaparlar. Bunun için Perihunluk geleneğinde tuğ bağlandığında onun dalına bir elma ağacı asılır. BahĢi‘nin (dinî hekim) elinde de elma sopası olur. Tùrklerin dini inanıĢlarından da tùreyip gùnùmùze kadar gelen deyimler de çoktur. Ġslami tasavvufla bağlı deyimlere rastlıyoruz. Mesela, Tùrk dilinde abası kırk yerinden yamalı (Tasavvuf terimleri ve deyimleri sôzlùğù) deyimi, dilimize tasavvuftan geçmiĢtir; derviĢlerin abalarının yırtık pırtık olmasını ifade eder. Eskiden derviĢler, hırkalarının helal maldan olmasına itina gôsterirler, bu yùzden mallarının helal olduğuna inandıkları sufilerden kumaĢ parçaları toplarlar, bunları birbirine dikip ekleyerek kendilerine aba yaparlardı. Ayrıca, "abalı" kelimesi, fakir ve yoksul kimseler için kullanılır. Deyimlerde tùrk dillerinin ifade gùcùnù, gùzelliğini gôrmek mùmkùndùr. Aynı zamanda Tùklerin Ġslamiyet ôncesi dini, tarihi, kùltù ve toplum hayatıyla ilgili dùnya gôrùĢleri ve hayata bakıĢları konusunda ip uçları verir. Sonuç ve Öneriler Malum olduğu gibi de, oldukça geniĢ bir coğrafyada yaĢayan Tùrk ulusu zengin ve kôklù bir dil ve kùltùr geleneğine sahiptir. Bu geleneğin bir parçası Ģùphesiz deyimlerdir. Yıllar geçse de ortaklığını kaybetmeyen deyimler onların arasındaki kùltùr bağının ne kadar eskiye dayandığını ve ne kadar sağlam temele sahip olduğunu gôsterir. Bu bildiriyi daha bilimsel dayanaklarla ispat etmek için bazı deyimlerin etimolojisini kaynaklara dayanarak araĢtırtık ve bu alanda araĢtırma yapmıĢ dilbilimcilerin de eserlerinden faydalandık. Tùrk deyimleri Tùrk ulusunun binlerce senelik yaĢam felsefesinin ùrùnùdùr. Onlar binlerce senelik tarih içerisinde kuĢaktan kuĢağa geçip gùnùmùze kadar ôzlùğùnù korumuĢtur. Gùnùmùzde oldukça geniĢ bir coğrafyada yaĢayan ÇağdaĢ Tùrk topluluklarının kelime hazinesinde pek çok ortak deyimlerin bulunması bunun bariz bir delilidir. Bu durum aynı zamanda yine ÇağdaĢ Tùrk toplulukları arasındaki kùltùr bağının ve birliğinin ne kadar derinlere uzandığını ispat etmektedir. Bu çalıĢmada, Azerbaycan, Tùrk, Uygur ve Özbek deyimleri arasında ne kadar ortaklık ve ne kadar farklılık olduğunu gôrmek amacıyla, bu dillerde olan bazı deyimleri inceledik ve onların iç yapısındakı semantik ôzelliyin tùreme sebeplerinden kaynaklandığını gôrmùĢ olduk. Eski Tùrklerin mitoloji tasavvurlarına, rivayetlerine, efsanelerine, inanc sistemine, kùlt inanıĢlarına, ôrf ve adetlerine, yazıtlarına bir seyahet ettiğimiz zaman deyimler kendi kendiliğinde bu kavramların bir ôzeti olduğunu isbat ediyor. Bunlar aslında deyimlerin dil niteliğini ortaya çıkaran faktôrlerdir. Bir dilin semantik açıdan araĢdırılması deyimlerin de araĢdırılmasını içine almalı, Tùrk dillerinde deyimler daha detaylı incelenmelidir. Çùnkù, Tùrk dillerinde deyimlerin ve kùltùrel açıdan araĢtırılması deyimbilim sahasında yapılması gereken ônemli iĢlerden biridir. 538 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Karahan A. (1951). Ġslamiyette 40 Adeti Hakkında, Ġstanbul ùnv. Edebiyat Fak.Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Dergisi, Ġstanbul, IV., s. 266-267. Adilov M. (1988). Qanadlı sôzlər Bakı: Yazıçı. Aksoy Ö.A. (1988). Atasôzleri ve deyimler sôzlùğù. Ankara: Ġnkılap, II c. Axundov A. (2006) Ümumi dilçilik. Bakı: ġərq-Qərb. Batislam D.H. (2002). Divan ġiirinin Mitolojik KuĢları: HÜMÂ, ANKA VE SĠMURG. Tùrk Kùltùrù Ġncelemeleri Dergisi I, Ġstanbul, s. 185-208. turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/.../batislam.pdf Drevnetùrkskiy Slovar. (1969). Nauka Yay., Leningrad. Elekberova E. (2007). Dilimizin ulu səsi – Dədə Qorqud abidəsi. Bakı: Nurlan. Elizade S. (2009). Frzeologizm dil və təfəkkùrùn əlaqəli abstraksiyasının məhsulu olmasaydı, dilin mudrikliyinin və milli təbiətinin, xalqın etnik psixologiyasının timsalına çevrilməzdi. Tùrk dillərinin frazeologiyası. I cild. Bakı: Nurlan. Felicina V.P., Mokiyenko V.M. (1990). Russkie frazeoloqizmı. Linqvostranovedçeskiy slovar. Moskva. Genç, Resat. (1997). Tùrk ĠnanıĢları ile Milli geleneklerinde renkler ve sarı kırmızı yesil, Ankara, Nevruz. Gùngôr Harun. (2002). Eski Tùrklerde Din ve DùĢùnce, Tùrkler, 1.Cilt, Yeni Tùrkiye Yayınları, Ankara. Ġnan A. (1987). Makaleler ve Ġncelemeler. I. C. (II. Baskı) Ankara , s.412-413. Kovaleva T.B., Yakuçakova O. (2010). Ġdiomı teleutskoqo yazıka kak otrajenie nacionalnoy yazıkovoy kartinı mira. Materialı mejdunarodnoy nauçno-praktiçeskoy konferencii ―Reqionı Rosii dlya ustoyçivoqo razvitiya: obrazovanie i kultura narodov Rossiyskoy Federacii‖ / Otv. 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(2004). Frazeologiya lùğəti. Bakı: Çıraq. Tasavvuf terimleri ve deyimleri sôzlùğù. prof. Dr. Ethem Cebecioğlu. dosyalar.semazen.net/.../tasavvuf_terimleri_ve_deyimleri_sozlugu.pdf Teliya V.N. (1981). Tipı yazıkovıx znaçeniy. Svyazannoe znaçenie slova v yazıke. Moskva: Nauka. Vinoqradov V.V. (1946). Osnovnıe ponyatiya russkoy frazeoloqii kak linqvistiçeskoy disciplinı // Trudı nauçnoy sessii LQU. L.: Ġzd.-vo LQU, s. 45-69. 539 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Umarov E.A. (1971). Frazeoloqiçeskiy slovar ―Xazoyin-ul-maoniy‖ AliĢera NavoiĢ TaĢkent: Fan. Uyqursko-russkiy slovar. (1968). Sost. E.N.Nadjip. M.: Ġzd. Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Uzbeksko-russkiy slovar. (1959). Pod red. S.F.Akabirova, Z.M.Maqrufova, A.T.Xodjaxanova. M.:. Qos. izd-vo. inostr. i nac. Slovarey. Uzbek tilininq izoxli luğati. (1981). Z.M.Mağrufov taxriri ostida. T. II, M.: Rus tili naĢriyoti. Zveqincev V.A. (1965). Ġstoriya yazıkoznaniya XIX-XX vekov v oçerkax i izvleçeniyax. Çast II. Moskva. 540 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 81 Title A name given to the resource Deyimlerin Kültürel Özellikleri (Azerbaycan, Türk, Özbek ve Uygur Dillerinde) Author Author İsayeva, Günel Abstract A summary of the resource. Bildiride Turk kùltùrùnù; tùrklerin ulusal ôzelliklerini, ayrıca, dùnyaya bakıĢ açısını, dini gôrùĢlerini, tefekkùr tarzını, psikolojisini, tarihini, inanclarını, ôrf ve adetlerini, mitoloji ve kosmoloji tasavvurlarını, yaĢam koĢullarını yansıtan deyimlerin ôzellikleri araĢtırılmıĢtır. ÇağdaĢ Tùrk dillerinde bugùn de iĢlenen deyimlerin meydana gelme sebepleri incelenerek kùltùrel açıtan semantik anlamları ùzerinde dayanılmıĢtır. Tùrk dùĢùnce yapısını aksettirmesi açısından bakıldığında deyimlerin turkçe geleneksel deyimlerin izlerini taĢımakta olduğunu gôrùyoruz. Deyimlerin kùltùrel temele sahip olması onların toplumun kùltùr yaĢantısından izler taĢıması ve kanıtlar sunması doğaldır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics