275 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0b4ca9a13dfc4124b02eb2079ac8c780.pdf 685988471f2b107ec8fc5c98fa074d49 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The position of a woman in modern culture - that of a subject or of an object? Danka SinadinoviĤ The Institute for Foreign Languages Belgrade, Serbia dankas78@gmail.com Abstract: Is gender clearly defined and merely biological or is it a much greater phenomenon? Can a modern woman, within her (clearly) defined role, be a subject in some important aspects of the culture she belongs to or is she still an object, following a long tradition of a (slightly changed) masculine principle? In order to find an answer to these crucial questions, this paper first deals with the history of masculine and feminine principle, their relations and the issue of dominance. Some gender differences are presented as well, in order to provide a frame for what we wish to examine. As only a synthesis of different cultural aspects can provide us with the real picture, this paper looks at three different spheres in the life of a modern woman – her private life, her professional life, as well as media and popular culture and the way modern woman is presented in them. Our aim is to examine certain views we can find in literature concerning these spheres, in order to approve of these views, deny them or provide some new examples from this region and the world. Key words: masculine principle, feminine principle, modern woman, culture, esthetic stereotype, commercials, media representation. Introduction The position of woman in modern culture is an intriguing question that almost equally appeals to professionals and ordinary people, so we can read about it both in scientific publications and women magazines. Different authors deal with this issue in different ways, but the most conspicuous characteristic of their research is an interdisciplinary approach. Apart from culturologists, who do intensive research in this field, there are others who can contribute – sociolinguists, psichologists, anthropologists and even neurolinguists and bilologists. The first question they are trying to answer is whether gender is something that can be clearly defined and is biological in its nature or if it is a more complex phenomenon that should be carefully defined. Can a modern woman be a subject in important aspects of the culture she belongs to or is she still merely an object, following a long tradition of a masculine principle? In order to answer this crucial question, the paper deals with three different cultural aspects that can provide us with a complete picture of a modern woman – her professional life, her private life and the way she is represented in media and popular culture. As our aim is to examine various views from the abundant literature and provide some new examples, we shall first briefly look at the history of masculine and feminine principle, the issue of dominance and some obvious gender differences presented in literature. Men‘s world versus women‘s world It seems that gender dominance has always been extremely important for building the social hierarchy. Mother Earth and the cult of fertility, as symbols of matriarchate in the New Stone Age, were replaced by their masculine counterparts (worriors, the cult of arms and a conquerring concept) in the Bronze Age (TomiĤ, 2007: 47-48). This is when men started ruling both the family and the society and when the idea of the natural dominance of masculine principle over feminine principle was developed. The great Aristotle found female children degrading to a perfect masculine principle, as women were regarded as mere meterial, totally deprived of any spirituality (TomiĤ, 2007: 48). For Lévi-Strauss, a woman was an object of exchange, whereas a man was a subject of communication in the process of the exchange, being the only one who can choose the object of exchange and attach a certain value to it (TomiĤ, 2007: 49). His opinion remind us of an ancient comparison of woman (and her impure body) with nature and of man with culture (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljaviĤ, 2007: 230). From the perspective of politics and economy, this relation can be seen as the agonism/hedonism duality. Agonism, being characteristic of underdeveloped society models from the time prior to capitalism, can see a woman only inside the family, whereas a man is always on the social scene and is given the power of 322 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo communication. Hedonism, which originated in capitalism, socialises women by giving them an oportunity to find a job and start earning their living, but it does not truly change their position, as they can be found doing only particular, ‘female‘, jobs - those that include serving others (TomiĤ, 2007: 51 – 54). Similarly, the concept of andocentrism is an authoritative construct of norms which praises masculine qualities and at the same time demeans anything that can be described as "feminine" (MesiĤ, 2006: 340). In other words, even if woman is allowed to leave a gheto-like family frame, she is still evaluated much differently than man in public life. In the past, a working woman was even identified with a prostitute and presented with the red colour symbolizing a bloody mass of secretion, being, thus, filthy, vulgar and threatening. In other words, such a woman is available to anyone, like a public toilet, as she is not protected from other men‘s eyes and desires (TomiĤ, 2007: 56 – 61). Despite this masculine idea of woman‘s position, things slightly changed after the World War II concerning woman‘s position in the public life. Woman‘s representation in this sphere got more sex-appeal than before (for example, warm-blooded Merylin Monroe replaced Greta Garbo‘s cold beauty) and soon after this the famous sexual revolution took place (TomiĤ, 2007: 64). However, something that changed the image of woman and her position in the world forever was the feminist movement (ZaharijeviĤ, 2007: 14). Being a movement which primarily asks for respecting five crucial rights in every woman‘s life (to vote, to work, to be educated, to have an abortion and to get divorced) it has several, more or less radical, forms which are influenced by different doctrines. For example, the so-called liberal feminism simply asks for all the people to be equal concerning education and the right to vote, whereas the so-called radical feminism goes much further, denying the entire patriarchal system of values and asking for a total separation of feminine and masculine world (TomiĤ, 2007: 66 – 67). It is obvious that there is a constant need for separating and oposing these two worlds. Are they really so different and how can it influence the position of a woman in modern culture? Gender differences and their real importance An opinion that men and women speak different languages and that they even come from different planets (Mars and Venus) is now so overspread that we can read about it even in women magazines and bestseller literature (Cameron, 2007: 1). Biologically speaking, certain hormonal differences are held responsible for various realistic differences between the two sexes, especially when it comes to emotions. Owing to a higher level of testosteron, men are far greater risk-takers and much more agressive, whereas women are more capable of expressing (positive) emotions, are more talkative, more cooperative and better-organized, but their spatial and mathematical skills are less developed than those of men (Barker, 2002: 119 – 120). It is also thought that the gender/language relation can reveal many gender differences and many linguists have been working on this field since 1970‘s. Lakoff (1973, quoted in Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2003: 1) first described women speech as totally different from that of men, claiming that this difference shows a degrading role women have in society. She noticed that women very often used mitigators and unnecessary intensifiers and she, thus, defined women speech as trivial, tentative and powerless and concluded that such a speech gave absolute power to men. Linguists also think that women often use diminutives and euphemisms (Gumperz, 1982: 197), that they are listened to less carefully, are more often addressed by first name and are more often and more easily interrupted while speaking (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljaviĤ, 2007: 238). Moreover, some studies showed that men use sexually explicit and profane words more often and more easily than women, which means they possess courage, self-confidence and social power (DeKlerk, 1992: 286), whereas girls are always taught to speak and behave like ladies (Gumperz, 1982: 199). Of course, modern culture often denies certain stereotypes according to which women are absolute language puritans, but women certainly find it much more difficult than men to decide on using informal and abusive languge and even when they do use it, they usually do it inside an intimate group and less productively than men. On the other hand, culture regards gender and sex as social constructs that are not influenced much by biology and there are, thus, innumerous combinations inside gender (Barker, 2002: 117). The term psychological gender, which is now often used, means that there are typically masculine and typically feminine characteristics inside one person, regardles of the real biological sex (Myers and Cortese, 1995: 5) and this casts doubt on all the previously mentioned clear-cut differences between the two genders. In other words, it is rather possible that there are various forms of femininity (and masculinity) which are used by one and the same woman in different situations, which means that the universal cultural category of "woman", that all the women in the world share, must be questioned, although it is something the feminists insist on (Barker, 2002: 111). 323 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo So, we should discover what position women really have in modern culture and if it is identical with its traditional image and the perceived gender differences or whether women have left the boundries of patriarchal society. The position of a woman in modern culture – has anything changed? 1.1. The profesional life of a modern woman As we have previously mentioned, capitalism and hedonism brought certain changes to the lives of women by allowing them to work and earn their living if they wanted to, but in a strictly controlled way and under different conditions than those men had. It was then that certain "feminine professions" were created those professions that demanded having particular feminine qualities. In other words, some qualities are much more characteristic of women than of men, such as empathy, kindness or care, so women are thought to be much better at doing particular jobs (e.g. being a nurse). At the beginning, women used to be offered only badly-paid part-time jobs (McDowell, 2003: 347), but even that was a step forward, as there had previously been only three locations a woman could be good for – bed, kitchen and street (TomiĤ, 2007: 150). Although this opinion is present in modern culture as well, it must be said that women have a much better position on the labour market than they used to. McDowell (2003: 347) claims that women have even managed to beat men on the labour market owing to better results in school and a stronger will for achieving high education. So, a woman boss in a company or a highly qualified woman are no longer difficult to find. However, even though women and men are now equal concerning education and competence, women still earn up to 20% less than their male colleagues on same positions (McDowell, 2003: 348). Another serious problem is a specific boycott that men impose on their female colleagues on the same or higher position. They do their best to prove that women are too fragile for fighting the cruel world of business, trying to illustrate this by harsh and often discriminatory behaviour – yelling when talking on the phone, demeaning their female colleagues and women in general, showing disrespect, telling rude jokes and showing off and generally behaving in an overemphasized chauvinistic way (McDowell, 2003: 149 – 150). Gender discrimination is particularly obvious in certain tipically male professions, and in the case of British police, for example, it can be noticed in almost bizarre ceremony of initiation that is designed only for women. There are many such examples, especially in a more conservative millieu where a woman doing a "male" job is considered to be "mannish, unfeminine, wierd, unattractive, cold".45 Despite all the above mentioned obstacles, women are about to start dominating the labour market. McRobbie (2003: 358) even claims that highly educated young women have become a metaphore for a social change and been given a task to establish a new meritocracy, and in order to illustrate the importance of this fact, she mentions a huge interest Tony Blair‘s government showed for this target group and their behaviour. Owing to media influence, ambitious young women start to believe that an award for hard work and sacrifice will be a good material status or at least financial independence, as well as the ability to afford good looks and glamour. McRobbie calls these women "TV blondes" and media present them as a model for what a young woman should become and which is opposite to the image of poor, untidy young mothers holding crying grimy children in their arms (2003: 359 – 366). She warns, though, of a new and dangerous phenomenon – ruthless female individualism –and of a fact that more and more successful women consciously give up motherhood, claiming that children and family would deindividualise them and disable them of following their brilliant careers (McRobbie, 2003: 360 – 365). Together with the ideal picture of a business woman we can see in media, there comes a certain youth imperative. Usually, a desirable (female) candidate should not be more than 35 years old and she should also have at least "agreeable" looks. However, women themselves often use their looks to get quick and easy money and seem to have no problem with this. For example, a very popular "profession" in this region is the job of a promoter, which is almost exclusively done by female students who wish to earn some pocketmoney. The job is usually well-paid and includes promoting a particular product or brand and selling it to potential customers. Promoters usually wear special uniforms and are provocatively dressed in order to attract the attention of potential (male) customers. Although the mere existence of such jobs is a great step forward in comparison with patriarchal and traditional culture, we need to wonder how different this is from some "traditionally" female professions – an entertainer, a dancer or a starlet – that were identified with women in hedonistic concept, in order to perceive women as consuming goods (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljeviĤ, 2007: 231; TomiĤ, 2007: 54). 45 These answers were given by a certain number of men in Serbia when they were asked what they thought of women who did a traditionally male job (e.g. a police officer, an engineer, a manager, a taxi driver, a bus driver...). 324 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1.2 The private life of a woman Unlike the professional sphere in which the position of women has gone through certain changes over time, it seems that not much has changed in the private sphere and that women are still, more or less, determined by tradition and patriarchal practice. In other words, the image of a heroic mother (TomiĤ, 2007: 58) is still an ideal and is superior to any other manifestation of a modern woman. According to the traditional form, a woman is supposed to stay at home and she plays the role of a perfect housewife, wife and mother (NeniĤ, 2007: 245). From the aspect of politics and economy, the diference between male and female world is actually the difference between productive (paid) and reproductive (unpaid) work (MesiĤ, 2006: 340) and women are in ‘charge of‘ the latter. So, owing to (patriarchal) gender role distribution in the society, woman‘s basic role is reproductive, that is – sexual. Paradoxical, thus, is the fact that patriarchal society at the same time anathematizes woman‘s sexuality, trying to repress it (TomiĤ, 2007: 57). This aspect of patriarchal society is very important for the image of woman herself in modern culture, as it means a deeply set contrast between an innocent and pure nature of a perfect woman (a wife, mother and housewife) and a warm-blooded eroticized woman who is public and thus filthy. Despite being far from perfect, the private sphere has undergone some changes as well, owing to the fact that a huge number of women nowadays are employed. While a woman living in an underdeveloped conservative social environment still has to accept the role created for her by the traditional system of values, a woman living in a modern millieu tries to unite two different forms. In other words, a modern woman is usually employed, she has the same working hours and duties like her partner, but at the same time she often tries to be a good housewife, as well as to meet the reproductive demands. The trend of giving up motherhood that McRobbie (2003: 359 – 369) warns about when illustrating what is going on in modern British society, seems not to be that serious in this region yet, as women here are still trying to find a balance between the traditional and the modern. Moreover, a woman who does not get a child in a millieu like this is implicitely considered to be unsuccessful (Butler, 1994, quoted in McRobbie, 2005: 74). In other words, woman is supposed to find a recipe for reconciling career and family (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljeviĤ, 2007: 230). Another thing that shows a modern woman is trying to reconcile two different models is her frequent decision to take her husband‘s surname upon getting married. In some traditional, mostly rural, places, this also means accepting her husband‘s parents as her new parents and feminists think that by doing this the woman also gives up her identity and accepts a new one. How important the choice of a surname is to men themselves can be seen during the wedding ceremony when "the groom‘s guests" aplaud and cheer the bride‘s decision to take her husband‘s surname. It is thought that by doing this a woman puts herself to a particular position, shows that it is possible to "tame" her and women usually accept this because it is "common, they will have the same surname as their children when they have them, it goes without saying, it is less complicated, it is the most natural thing in the world."46 1.3 The representation of a woman in media and popular culture Apart from putting her professional and private life into ballance, a modern woman finds it important to be present in media and popular culture as well. The way women are represented in newspapers, on television and especially in marketing and advertising, has become very important in their lives and can give us the complete picture of women‘s position in modern culture. Nowadays, it can be easily said that if you are not in media, you do not exist at all, so it is essential for both genders to be equally present in this field. Many people (mostly feminists) claim that media is still dominated by men, but there are also those who maintain that things have changed (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljeviĤ, 2007: 227 – 228). First of all, it cannot be said any more that women do not have their place in media, both as employees and as "the news". For example, the number of female journalists and TV announcers is constantly growing and on the global level there are 58% of women who do these jobs. In Serbia, 48% of all the employees in electronic media are women and there are even some editors among them. However, it should be mentioned that a huge 46 These answers were given by young married women in Serbia when asked why they have accepted their husband's surname. They all have their careers and are financially independent. 325 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo number of these women are under the age of 35 and that they all have "agreeable looks" (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljeviĤ, 2007: 237), which brings us back to two most important criteria for getting a job if you are a woman and in the case of media this is even more conspicuous than in any other field. On the other hand, representation of women in media seems to be far from modern principles and equality ideals. The image of a woman in media is thought to be mostly in accordance with tradition and it should revitalize patriarchal gender role distribution in modern society (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljeviĤ, 2007: 239). In other words, media in a more conservative millieu still tries to project particular male/female stereotypes and it is often successful in doing this, owing to a traditional lifestyle in that social environment and people‘s mentality. So, media still gives women roles of mothers, wives and good housewives or, perhaps, the role of a man‘s companion. If we look beyond documentaries and informative programmes, there is another manifestation of women in media – that of entertainers; so, most of the women we can find in media are singers, fashionmodels and TV-hostesses, who are all beautiful and young and wear expensive and modern clothes. This is obviously paradoxical. On the one hand, women can be satisfied with the way they are represented in media and their beautiful image, far from home and kitchen. On the other hand, feminists claim that such an image is meant for feeding a typical male fantasy (VińnjiĤ and MirosavljeviĤ, 2007: 231), which is no different from the time before the 1950s. The field of commercials and advertisements can most clearly show that women are represented in media mostly through their body and sexy image and that they thus still play their sexual role. Billboards and other forms of advertising show women as eroticized objects (NeniĤ, 2007: 252). What has changed in this field? What almost all the comercials from 1960s and 1970s have in common is depriving women from their right to be smart, successful and equal to superior men in any way. The woman of this time is a two-dimensional creature who is totally incapable of existing anywhere but in the house, but who is at the same time beautiful and sexually attractive. For example, an advertiement for Mini Morris from that period shows a young woman sitting at the driver‘s seat, squeezing the wheel with both hands, her eyes wide open with fear like she has never driven before, but having very nice make-up, a beautiful hairdo and a lot of shiny yewellery. The slogan in the advertisement emphasizes the fact that even a not very bright person can drive this car ("The Mini Automatic. For Simple Driving."). There are also many advertisements from that period which place woman in the house and one of them, which advertises American vacuum-cleaner brand Hoover, shows a woman in an ellegant dress sitting on the floor by the Christmas tree and reading the manual for the new vacuum-cleaner she had just unpacked, with an expression of admiration on her face. The slogan is important again - "Christmas Morning – she‘ll be happier with a Hoover". So, the best possible present for a woman is a vacuum-cleaner; she will have a great time tyding her house (as there is nothing else she can do, anyway). Later, comercials became a bit more subtle and they mostly used puns, but they also started showing woman‘s body much more explicitely. A famous advertisement for an American underwear brand Wonderbra, from 1990s made a top-model Eva Hercigova planetary popular. A stunning girl with a substantial cleavage in a black bra is smiling from the billboard and saying she can‘t cook, but she doesn‘t care! Advertisements that appeared after this one exploited (nude) female body even more and some of them were so scandalous that they finally provoked negative comments in public. One of these is certainly the commercial for tires Kumho which shows an almost naked ballet dancer doing the splits, followed by the slogan "(she is) adjustable to any material". The public was shocked and protested for some time, but there were no real results and the trend of such commercials continued. Apart from these commercials that undoubtedly show woman‘s sexual role, there are many commercials that remind women of their position in family life and at home. For example, commercials for various types of washing powder all show woman as someone who cannot think of anything else but of her laundry that must be clean and perfectly white (and better than her neighbour‘s!). In a rather new commercial for a brand of hair shampoo one man asks the other: "Is that the bride?", and he replies: "No, but she will be", emphasizing that the only good and profitable thing a woman can do is get married as soon as possible. It seems that feminists and culturologists are most attracted by commercials for beer, as a typically male drink, where a woman is put on the same level with beer or peanuts, that go perfectly with watching football with friends (TomiĤ, 2009: 150). In these commercials, a woman is never treated as a person who can drink beer herself, but as a nusance who is distracting the poor man from drinking beer and cheering his favorite team with friends (DjordjeviĤ, 2008) or as someone who should contribute to the holiday of foodball with her perfect looks. 326 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo However, it seems that something has changed in the field of sexist advertising after all. A commercial for beer in Croatia has recently provoked many negative comments in public, although it is not different from other beer commercials. Similarly, a commerical in Bulgaria, which used an idea similar to "blonde jokes" was banned soon after release due to a public feminist campaign, whereas the Craotian prime minister urged for the entire tourist campaign of her country to be changed because of a nude female body that was intended for attracting male visitors. Conclusion What can be concluded about the position of a woman in modern culture? By looking at the history of male/female duality, it can be said that the positions of men and women in this eternal struggle have not changed since the ancient times, but that they have certainly taken on different forms. Supported by some biological differences of the two sexes, men in modern culture try to maintain their superior position by emphasizing their manly characteristics. On the other hand, it seems that women are gradually taking over even those positions that used to be traditionally male, owing to hard work, persistance and a strong will for being well educated. Does this mean that the question we asked at the beginning of this paper is affirmative – that a woman in modern culture can have a position of a subject? In their professional life women have certainly made a huge step forward, as they have grabbed a chance to work and earn their living and thus become financially independent and able to decide on their own lives. However, when looking at other aspects of woman‘s life, we must say the answer to the question is much more complex. Looking at women‘s private life, we can easily find examples that remind us of old times, but they are at the same time integrated well into modern culture, giving us an illusion of progress. Even though it seems that woman is no longer expected to be only in the house and at her family‘s disposal, she is still expected to reconcile her various roles and never give up the role of a mother and a wife. Most vivid examples of a subtle objectification of woman‘s position in modern culture can perhaps be found in media, as they offer an illusion of glamour and at the same time show a sexist image of woman inside the popular culture. Puting all the examples together, we could say that the answer to the question we asked is somewhere in the middle. It is hard to claim that woman has entirely won the role of a subject in modern culture, as it would mean being equal to man in all important aspects of modern life, as well as not being treated in a sexist way. Owing to media in the first place, it seems that women are still only instruments rather than subjects in creating the social reality. However, we cannot say that woman is necessarily an object, as she is gradually moving forward, showing that she is ready to break the housewife-mother-wife mould. As it is a long and slow process, it will probably take much time before we are able to say that the position of woman has drastically changed. 327 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Barker, C. (2002). Making Sense of Cultural Studies, London: Sage Publications. Cameron, D. (2007). The Myth of Mars and Venus. The Guardian: an extract. De Klerk, V. (1992) How Taboo are Taboo Words for Girls? Language in Society, vol. 21, no. 2, 277 – 289. DjordjeviĤ, M. (2008) Kulturni dodatak, Beograd: Politika On-line. Eckert, P. and McConnell – Ginet S. (2003) Language and Gender, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gumperz, J. (1982) Language and Social Identity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, R. (1973) Language and Woman‘s Place. Language in Society, vol. 2, 45 – 80. McDowell, L. (2003) Changing Cultures of Work, in Morley and Robins (eds.) British Cultural Studies: Geography, Nationality and Identity, New YorkOxford University Press Inc., (pp. 343 – 360). McRobbie, A. (2003) Good Girls, Bad Girls? Female Success and the New Meritocracy, in Morley and Robins (eds.) British Cultural Studies: Geography, Nationality and Identity, New York: Oxford University Press Inc. (pp. 361 – 372). McRobbie, A. (2005) The Uses of Cultural Studies: A Textbook, London: Sage Publications. MesiĤ, M. (2006) Multikulturalizam, Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. Myers, S. and Cortese, J. (1995) The Social Acceptability of Sexual Slang: Functions of Biological Sex and Psychological Gender. Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association. NeniĤ, I. (2007). Matrica koja obeĤava? Predstavljanje i uĦeńĤe ņena u popularnoj kulturi, in ZaharijeviĤ (ed.) Neko je rekao feminizam, Beograd: Centar za ņenske studije i istraņivanje roda (pp. 244 – 257). TomiĤ, Z. (2007) Muńki svet, Beograd: ĥigoja. TomiĤ, Z. (2009) News Age, Beograd: Sluņbeni glasnik i ĥigoja. VińnjiĤ J. i MirosavljeviĤ M. (2007) Problem reprezentacije roda u medijima, in ZaharijeviĤ (ed.) Neko je rekao feminizam, Beograd: Centar za ņenske studije i istraņivanje roda (pp. 227 – 243). 328 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 48 Title A name given to the resource The position of a woman in modern culture - that of a subject or of an object? Author Author Sinadinović, Danka Abstract A summary of the resource. Is gender clearly defined and merely biological or is it a much greater phenomenon? Can a modern woman, within her (clearly) defined role, be a subject in some important aspects of the culture she belongs to or is she still an object, following a long tradition of a (slightly changed) masculine principle? In order to find an answer to these crucial questions, this paper first deals with the history of masculine and feminine principle, their relations and the issue of dominance. Some gender differences are presented as well, in order to provide a frame for what we wish to examine. As only a synthesis of different cultural aspects can provide us with the real picture, this paper looks at three different spheres in the life of a modern woman – her private life, her professional life, as well as media and popular culture and the way modern woman is presented in them. Our aim is to examine certain views we can find in literature concerning these spheres, in order to approve of these views, deny them or provide some new examples from this region and the world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c034fc202b34c23e5687677614db710d.pdf 39d80cee92cc499586df951647b3541f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Women Soldiers and Male Nurses – Adjustment of Gender Identity Marijana Sivric Faculty of Arts and Humanities University of Mostar marijana.sivric@tel.net.ba Abstract: It is said that gender identity can be seen as either unidimensional or multidimensional depending on its realization within society. The question is how gender identity is connected to social groups. Membership in a social group profoundly influences human behavior, with both positive and negative implications. On the one hand, positive social identity is promoted by the feeling of belonging to a group, which enhances individuals‘ self-esteem and a sense of connectedness to others. On the other hand, membership in a social group can promote negative bias toward outgroup members, in-group members who violate group norms can be derogated, and the whole group can be negatively stereotyped in certain areas (for example, women in the military). In our research we will try to prove that such positioning within social groups, in a way, enforces the adjustment of gender identities, breaking the stereotyped frames of gender, which is especially evident in ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations. We will also show how continuous construction of a range of masculine and feminine identities is reflected in discourse. The examples will be taken from ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations, e.g. military opposed to nursing, to illustrate that specific shift from typical construction of identity into a new sphere of genderness. Key words: gender, identity, social group, stereotypes, adjustment. Introduction A rather broad and open-ended definition of identity would be that identity is the social positioning of self and other (Buholtz, Hall, 2005). Buholtz and Hall also suggest that ―identity may be in part intentional, in part habitual and less than fully conscious, in part an outcome of interactional negotiation, in part a construct of others‘ perceptions and representations, and in part an outcome of larger ideological processes and structures.‖ (Buholtz, Hall, 2005:2) Even a superficial view of this definition shows that identity, especially gender identity research, is multidimensional and interdisciplinary. One of the dimensions important for understanding identity construction is a sociological dimension, to the point in which we speak about a person‘s positioning within a social group and how a social group influences someone‘s self-gendering. Another dimension is a psychological one, ―where the divergence in perspectives can be characterized in terms whether sex typing is considered adaptive or maladaptive, described as an individual or normative difference, and whether gender identity is regarded as a unidimensional or multidimensional construct.‖ (Ruble, Lurye, Zosuls, 2008) The third dimension, which is of particular interest to us, is a discursive dimension of gender identity, i.e. how gender identity is constructed through the construction of discourse or particular discursive events. Naturally, none of these can be taken separately. They are rather intertwined, helping create an overall picture of identity construction. In their social life, people are positioned within varied structures of institutions and society, and they are assigned specific social roles; they all take on different gender identities in different communities or cultures. Also, they are actively involved in the construction and performance of their own gender identities. Belonging to a social group profoundly influences human behavior, the implications of which can be both positive and negative. Membership in a social group can promote a positive social identity from which individuals enhance their self-esteem and a sense of belongingness or connectedness to others. On the other hand, membership in a social group can promote ―negative bias toward out-group members, derogation of ingroup members who violate group norms, and disengagement from certain areas in which one group has been negatively stereotyped.‖ (Ruble, Lurye, Zosuls, 2008:2) Being multidimensional, gender identity is reflected through the relationship between social identity, which shows the awareness of group membership, and personal adjustment. 811 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Gender identity may be conceptualized as categorical knowledge - you confirm that you are a member of a certain group; a feeling of importance - being a part of that group is really important to you; and evaluation - you like to be a part of that group. The degree of your masculinity or femininity was earlier considered by developmental psychologists as a direct and optimal result of sex typing – you are either a man or a woman. On the other hand, cross-sex typing was seen as deviant and potentially harmful. Bem (1981) argues that the extent to which people were sex typed was indicative of the extent to which they were gender schematic or had internalized culturally prescribed gender norms. This could result in negative adjustment, which means that people will not be able to react appropriately in different situations, especially when gender norms are violated. Higgins (2000) suggests that people can be either prevention focused, being concerned with avoiding negative outcomes, or promotion focused, in obtaining positive outcomes. 274 In feminist theory a metaphor which is frequently used is ‗creation of different faces‘ for constructing one‘s own identity. This refers to particular situations through which we, while performing gender, create different gender identities. As Eckert and McConnell (2003) emphasize ―in a world where simply being can count as being bad, identities are often constructed in opposition to dominant cultural ideologies. Identity construction is not an exclusively individual act, social selves are produced in interaction, through processes of contestation and collaboration.‖ In the1990s a diversity of research on people‘s identities emerged, investigating how identity was constructed, displayed and performed in the language used by particular gender groups (e.g. McElhinny (1993) on women police officers in Pittsburgh or Bergvall (1996) on women engineering students). That was the period when a shift occurred in feminist theory and gender studies in thinking about gender. Gender identity is no longer conceptualized as something people just have but also as involving what they do, how they react in particular situations. Gender is undergoing a constant process of production, reproduction and change through people‘s performance of gendered acts in which they project their own gendered identities. 2. Construction of Identity Identity construction, as we have suggested, is multifold. It may occur as the creation of individual identity, the simultaneous creation and challenging of other people‘s identity, their relationships within group identity, etc. In the reality we experience around us, a specific group identity rarely exists or operates in isolation from other identities. People‘s own identities are largely determined by the identity of the social groups they belong to. People often identify with, and are influenced by, group memberships, which does not mean that this identification is directly relevant to their present circumstances. This would mean that the social identity network of an individual has significant implications for the person‘s perceptions, emotions, and behaviors. As an individual you have created a network of different identities which is not connected only to one group or to the last group you are a member of. The two key concepts that offer complementary perspectives on identity are whether you are ‗the same‘ as your group or ‗differ‘ from it. If you are ‗the same‘, you are allowed to see yourself as belonging to a group, while if you are ‗different‘ it produces social distance between those who perceive themselves as unlike. Apart from the individual and in-group identities, there are also differences between in-group members and those outside the group. This is a well known concept of in-group and out-group relationships, which are, in most cases, ideologically conditioned. Buholtz and Hall (2003) suggest that such ideological ranking enables the most powerful group to constitute itself as a norm from which all others diverge. However, that norm is not usually recognizable as a separate identity. Within this complex relational network of different identities, it is possible that some in-group members are identified as closer to the members of the out-group. This is especially significant in social groups in which complex gendered identities are at work. Getting closer to the members of the other group leads to identity change, which is also challenging because individuals start categorizing themselves as members of any new group that they have joined. The process of taking on a new group membership involves an adjustment of one‘s own identity or, to be more precise, the present identity, in order to accommodate the identity of the new group. It may take some time before people get accustomed to the new group membership, or before they start perceiving that group‘s identity as a part of their self-identity. 274 Higgins gives an example of a woman wearing a feminine outfit to avoid being criticized for being unfeminine or looking unattractive or, as a contrast, wearing a feminine outfit because of a desire to be admired for being feminine and perceived as attractive. 812 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In contrast, this integration to the new group is not always successful. People may experience rejection and hostility from the members of the group, which is a very difficult position, especially if you really want to prove that you are worthy of being a member of that group and you highly identify with it (Jetten et al, 2004). Iyer, Jetten and Tsavrikos (2006) suggest that old and new group memberships may be reconciled. One possibility is that both identities independently co-exist without any impact on each other. That is, the idea of network of identities that we all create does not, in fact, depend on the group we belong to but on the situation in which we find ourselves. Another question that we earlier tackled is the one of power relations within the group or between the groups. Previous research on identity was mostly based on the assumption that identities were attributes of individuals or groups rather than of situations. The power of a group is dynamically constructed and exercised in different aspects of a specific interaction; group members manifest power in a variety of ways as they construct their own identities and roles in response to the behavior of others. When we speak of gendered power, especially in mix-gender groups with a majority of men, it is significant how women try to construct their identity. Women who attempt to adjust to more masculine styles of behavior are considered more credible but less feminine, the situation which is typical for the military, police forces etc. Howes and Stevenson (1993) emphasize that ―women in groups are less prone to self-assertion and more prone to compromise…If women follow the trend shown by the sociological data and become a large minority of military personnel, their presence can be expected to change the organizational structure in which they participate.― If we speak of the military as a traditionally male group, with specific and rather rigid identity, it is true that allowing the access of a larger number of women into the group will require a new strategic vision and leadership and challenge the existing one. Nevertheless, being a minority, women rarely achieve high-level positions and if they do, the reason they are selected is for their rather counter-stereotypical characteristics, i.e. less feminine and more masculine. Similarly, Howes and Stevenson (2000) describe this situation as women's attempt to protect themselves by adopting the attitudes of their male colleagues. They 'go native in order to survive'. Most research on women in contemporary male-dominated organizations suggests that women develop two major patterns of adaptation: cooption and segregation. The first applies to those structures and occupations where women accept male definitions of the situation and try to blend into the male organizational culture. The second pattern manifests itself in groups of women who become effectively isolated from the organizational mainstream and cultivate female friendship, support, and cooperation in order to cope with the rejection or obstacles put before them by the opposite gender. The situation with the military can become more complex. An article in Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military (1996:12) regarding the captivity of Rhonda Cornum during the Gulf War states: ―Women in wartime and in military culture provide a ready test for male dominance and a ready target of anger: women become the object of male violence just for being there. They violate the male terrain of war and fraternity of power. Tailhook is an excellent example of male terrain, where the women ―had‖ to have it happen. Similarly, the female captivity can‘t be over until there is a rape.‖ Victoria Bergvall (1996) gives a similar example of female engineering students: on the one hand there is a social need to behave in stereotypically ‗feminine‘ ways, if they wish to take part in heterosexual social and sexual relationships. On the other hand, if they are going to succeed in their studies, they must assert themselves and their views, which is liable to put them in competition with fellow students. This involves assertive, competitive behavior perceived as ‗masculine‘. What is important is the way women try to adjust their identities if they want to become members of a male-dominated group. Obviously, it is a very hard job; they have to give up a great deal of their femininity in order to become a part of the male group. Women who find themselves in new groups, like the military, can partly segregate to cope with other girls and preserve their identity, but consequently, they can become ‗targets of male anger‘. Their positions and their identities are challenged both ways. There is also an opposite example of the identity adjustment that we want to discuss here - the men who want to become members of a female-dominated group. Do the ‗male nurses‘ have to co-opt or segregate, is their male identity challenged? These are some of the questions we will try to answer in the following chapters. 3. Gender Identity in Language and Discourse The third dimension of identity research that we noted earlier is its discursive dimension. The question of identity construction is primarily expressed through language and it is extremely significant to define how gender identities are reflected in discourse. Buholtz and Hall (2005:585) argue that ―identity is best viewed as the emergent product rather than the preexisting source of linguistic and other semiotic practices and therefore as fundamentally a social and cultural 813 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo phenomenon.‖ As such, identity is an intersection between culturally imposed and personal meanings which may be chosen and imposed through language use. In particular discursive situations identity is formed and constructed through different language forms. When constructed in ongoing discourse, identity is not a final product or creation; it is constantly challenged, reproduced, adjusted and changed. Their dynamic perspective is in contrast with the traditional view of identities as unitary and constant psychological states or social categories. As each community has its identity, the linguistic reflection of that identity is the language specific for that particular community. Therefore, we say that language is an authentic expression of group identity. Some sociolinguistic approaches to language and identity associate rates of use of particular linguistic forms with particular kinds of speakers. Of course, speakers are not always aware of all the language features they are using in particular situations and the nuances of linguistic behaviors which signify their identity. But they are definitely sure of certain aspects of language which they use in certain situations to confirm their identity, e.g. radicals who use some linguistic expressions pejoratively, ascribing completely new meanings to them, or, the language expressions used pejoratively by male soldiers to identify themselves as a group opposed to female soldiers. Due to gender subordination, according to Eckert (1989), women in many cultures do not have the same access to possible accomplishments as men, which they tend to compensate through more symbolic resources, primarily language, personality and physical appearance in order to present themselves as acceptable or equal members of society. We claim that the relationship between speakers‘ gender and their use of linguistic forms is a direct one. However, some linguists (Ochs and Taylor, 1995) claim that this relationship is indirect; ―linguistic features are associated with gender via their association with something else that itself can be associated with gender, e.g. a professional woman who uses a direct, forceful style of speaking and is described by her colleagues as 'talking like a man'‖ Does it mean that this woman is using language to signal that she is aware of her masculine behavior and wants others to accept her as such or is she using it for professional reasons to index her self-confidence and authority, which is also connected to masculinity? It is especially important how we perceive this situation in male-dominated groups or female-dominated groups in regard to the power she wants to exert. What she regards as appropriate to her professional status can be interpreted by others as inappropriate for her behavior as a woman, which does not mean that it is inappropriate for her new identity. As we can see, the same way of speaking can signify both professional identity and gendered identity, which is in practice difficult to separate and the usage of language for one or the other identity is to be negotiated for each particular situation or context. For a female soldier, it is not always necessary to index her masculine nature or behavior; it depends on the situational context and discursive practice. Another important feature in constructing gender identity in male-dominated groups is hegemonic masculinity which is frequently connected to violence. M. Talbot (1998:191) suggests that ―masculinity is not an individual property or attribute; it is formed within institutions and is historically constituted.‖ When women perform ‗masculine‘ job, they have to perform it through the power of the institution. That is expressed symbolically, through the way they are dressed, i.e. special uniforms, to the language they use, the way they behave – physical ability and exertion of power. On the other hand, the presence of women in typically masculine jobs can lead to a certain shift of identity of a whole group, sometimes through the language forms they use, sometimes through cool and emotionless efficacy, which is something we will try to argue in the following chapter. 4. Adjustment of Identity in Discourse – Discussion In her paper on women police officers in Pittsburgh (1995), Bonnie McElhinny claims that investigations on gender should not focus exclusively on differences between men and women but also on how hegemonic femininities and masculinities produce subordinate and subversive femininities and masculinities. That way the existence of competition between male and female identities is also investigated in different contexts. Similarly, we tried to investigate the positioning of female identity in the male-dominated jobs, but also the positioning of male identity in typically female occupations. For that purpose we investigated gender performances of female soldiers and male nurses based on interviews with groups of female and male soldiers (30 of them); as well as female and male nurses (10 of them), and on the analysis of their blogs and forums, i .e. their cyber-communication. What we claim is that both examined groups, female soldiers and male nurses, must adjust, at least to a certain extent, their feminine or masculine identities by positioning in one-gender dominated groups. 814 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Just like the female police officers, whose job is considered masculine, and who can be perceived as women, men or simply as police officers, women soldiers are also in the same position. Their female identity is challenged by the identity of the group whose members they want to be, which is predominantly a masculine identity. The initial perception and stereotype of women as mothers, housewives, secretaries etc. is transformed into an image of rational and efficient professionals. However, that is not the image of a male soldier embodying his strength, aggressiveness and excessive use of force. For example, the stereotypical attitudes of male soldiers, like ―this is not for women; what is a woman doing here?‖; ―women should cook and take care of children‖ are gradually changed into the attitudes of more recognition of women‘s efforts, such as ―women find the solutions to problems that no man can even think of‖ or ―women contribute to the humaneness of the modern military‖. What we have is the situation that both identities are challenged: the female one is getting closer to the male identity form, whereas the typically male is slightly changed into a more rational and professional direction. Some of the examined male soldiers agreed that ―the character of the military is changing due to the fact that there are more and more women soldiers‖. They also readily confirm that ―women are better at administrative work, they are more efficient and organized and also better at writing reports‖275, although it is not quite clear if they perceive certain tasks within the military as male only or female only. What is more acceptable to the male soldiers than we assumed is the idea of women‘s participation in direct combat. Most of them agree that ―a soldier is a soldier, and should therefore perform all the duties equally‖. However, some of them think that ―it should be voluntary for women‖. Generally, the stereotypes that those from the outside world seem to have about women in the military are being changed from the very heart of that typically male organization – male soldiers think that ―the significance of women in the military should be promoted‖. On the other hand, female soldiers themselves, especially the younger ones, show their more ‗masculine‘ nature, e.g. ―we have passed all the training and should take part in combat, if necessary‖; ―we want to be more equal to men‖; ―we are used to military order and discipline‖; ―there should be more women in commander positions.‖ Some of them even perceive themselves as ―future generals‖. None of the informants, neither men nor women, mentioned the physical appearance of tough and strong soldiers as a prerequisite, which we, again, look at stereotypically. Obviously it is not the appearance of female soldiers that define them as masculine but their actions and attitudes expressed in different situations. However, they can be labeled as more masculine if they use too much profanity, which is again something that their male colleagues as insiders do not perceive as such. Some female soldiers report increased usage of profane language (―holy shit‖ and similar expressions) than they used before joining the military, with the tendency to use it in their outside environment, i.e. when surrounded by their families or friends. Usage of profanity can be conscious, getting women closer to the male world, or unconscious, because of the majority‘s influence. Regardless of the reason, the use of profane language is the result of feminine identity adjustment to the identity of the other group, the masculine group. It is also significant that they are aware of certain changes in their language use, at least on the lexical level. However, they are not completely aware of their style when answering the questions. Some of them are rather ‗gruff‘, their sentences are short and cut, they just give precise answers to the questions, in other words their style is more masculine than feminine. We would expect of a woman to give answers with lots of detailed descriptions, which we did not get. For example, to the question on how they joined the army, they just offered the answers like ―it is secure job‖; ―the pay is regular‖; ―the job is competitive and dynamic‖; ―the job is challenging‖. To the question on female soldiers participating in direct combat, we received answers such as ―we had the same training as men and we should take part in direct combat‖; ―we accepted this job and we should take part in direct combat‖. Interestingly, we got similar answers from the men, in sentences of similar style. The fact is that women are getting closer to the masculine way of speaking in the military, without descriptive details or more elaborate sentences, which are typical for women. 276 The question is whether women see this kind of language use as the influence of masculine identity in the military or the identity of the institution itself, which, in this case, is not clear cut. Despite the fact that a military job is associated with masculinity, female soldiers do not perceive themselves as such. In other words, the reasons for their joining the army are not their tough personality or behavior, or their masculine appearance. In most of their answers the reasons were ―job security in these insecure times when many people are jobless or unwaged‖, and ―regular pay‖. The older ones, however followed 275 This was also reported for women police officers in McElhinny's paper (1995) This trait of their new identity can be shortly described with a sentence from McElhinny's paper (1995), when a woman police officer said ―I don't smile as much....‖ They describe it as a sense of reserve or emotional distance as the only way to survive on the job. 276 815 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the ―sequence of events‖, namely, they stayed in the military after the 1992 War, when they first joined. Several younger female soldiers mention their ―childhood dreams to become soldiers‖ or ―I had father or brother in the same job and it was natural for me to follow the family tradition‖ or ―because of competitiveness and physical action‖. What we perceive as adjustment of identity from feminine to more masculine identity of the institution might be explained by what McElhinny (1995) sees as a change in the normative pattern of masculinity – from physical aggressiveness to technical rationality and calculation. ―In their interactions, female police officers construct a kind of masculinity that is simultaneously hegemonic, subordinate and subversive.‖(McElhinny 1995:238) However, in any situation men may align against women, some men against some women, some women against other women, or some men and some women against others, because, as Cornwall and Lindisfarne (1994) state, the processes of gendering can produce difference and inequality. This is clear from some of the answers of both men and women. Female soldiers are aware that this is a ―male world‖, that sometimes they are perceived as ―hookers or whores‖ on the one hand or ―fags or dykes‖ on the other. They occasionally experience treatment such as ―you are a woman, you should wash the coffee cups‖ or ―women should be at home and raise children‖. However, according to women‘s reports, such remarks are addressed to them only occasionally and by few male soldiers whose ―advances they rejected‖. Such comments are more common for their outside environment. Sometimes, there are negative comments from their female colleagues, such as ―you are a whore‖ (if they are too close to male soldiers) or ―you are overly ambitious‖, if they are envious of someone who achieves better results. Gossip and envy are considered more frequent from female colleagues than negative comments are from men. Finally, a few words about the language forms the institution itself uses for gender marking. Although the forms of address used in the military were not a focal point of this research, it is worth mentioning that all of the address forms are marked for the masculine gender. Unlike English, Croatian and other local languages show the distinction for feminine and masculine ranking forms. However, the military in Bosnia and Herzegovina does not accept these forms which show feminine marking except in informal language. On the other hand, these forms are accepted in the Croatian military, so we have examples such as bojnica, narednica, brigadirka etc. (major, sergeant, colonel etc.). Most of the female soldiers included in our research do not see the use of masculine gender forms as a problem; it seems that they have taken them for granted, and what is more significant, they see them as a part of the institutional identity. They do not have a problem with being ranked as soldiers (not female soldiers) and for them this distinction is unnecessary, which means that they accept these forms as institutionally neutral.277 This formal mode of address is obviously still most rigid and resistant to changes or adjustment. The second part of our research refers to a group of male nurses. This is not a quantitative research; it is based on several interviews with male and female nurses, for the purpose of comparing the data with those on female soldiers. However, some findings could be significant as a general overview of the different perceptions about male nurses, and this could be a good start for more detailed research on the topic. We have stated that female soldiers prefer to be called soldiers. The same situation is with male nurses, they just do not like to be called ‗male nurses‘, as one of them suggests ―I am no more or less a nurse because of my sex than my female colleagues are because of theirs.‖ Does insisting on neutral terminology show their efforts to construct their own identity or to adjust it to the identity of the majority of nurses who are women? First of all, hospitals and other health institutions are not as ‗closed‘ and typically feminine institution as the military is masculine. The terminology such as ‗male nurse‘ is notable in English, whereas in Croatian there are two gender-marked forms (bolnicar/bolnicarka or medicinska sestra/medicinski tehnicar)278. We will use here the term ‗male nurse‘ for the purpose of better distinction between the genders. Most of the ‗male nurses‘ we talked to think that the perception of nursing as a traditionally female occupation is a stereotype. They even think that ―it is bad that so many men stay out of this profession at a time when more and more nurses are needed.‖ Their reasons for joining this profession are mostly ―job security‖; ―love and altruism for the people in need‖; ―the reward of helping others‖. There are a few nursing specialties that are off limits for men, e.g. labor and delivery 279, but they can find their position in all other fields. This could be compared to women in the military, where all military fields 277 Some female soldiers insist on the use of masculine forms when being addressed, which enhances their sense of belonging to the institution. See the response of a female soldier to Lt.Col. E. Disler (2005): ―…Today I am proud to say that I am an American Airman, I am a leader, warrior, and wingman as a combat-focused Wing Commander. I am proud to be in the US Air Force, part of something bigger than myself. I just happen to be a woman.‖ 278 Some people like to say 'medicinski brat' although it is more informal and not widely accepted. 279 In the USA, male nurses, in some hospitals, entered these wards as well. 816 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and branches are accessible, except direct combat, as we earlier mentioned. Searching for their position in nursing and establishing their status as a nurse are equally open to both men and women. Male nurses in fact believe that they are ideally suited to both the pressures and excitement of nursing. They are trying to find their position as men, not through adjusting to the female identity of the job, but doing the jobs that are harder for women, e.g. carrying the patients. ―We do the jobs that women can‘t do‖ is what they often say. Both male and female nurses consider that the stereotypical image of nursing as a job not suitable for men comes from the outside. One of these stereotypes is that most male nurses are gay. A few of the male nurses we interviewed reported sentences like ―you must be gay, otherwise you wouldn‘t do this job‖, or ―only gays work as male nurses‖. However, this is something they get from the male patients mostly. They rarely report such qualifications from their female colleagues, just one of them reported his female colleague‘s comment on a new male nurse being employed: ―is the new one gay too?‖ 280 Harding (2008) states that in most cases such comments make male nurses ‗hide‘ their sexuality. Comments about their sexuality can be compared to the comments female soldiers get on their sexuality (e.g. whores). Men who enter 'female' occupations do not conform to the idea of hegemonic masculinity, according to traditional, conservative beliefs. Nordberg (2002) argues that ―their choice of workplace can be comprehended in society as unmasculine and associated with effeminateness and homosexuality.‖ As Butler (1990) suggests masculinity is a process which depends on performance and repetitions in social settings. Their positions as male nurses are under constant change and transformation, one time it is more important to be a man, the other time, it is more important to be a nurse. The construction of their identity is directly connected to the discourses in which they participate, i.e. their identities are created through discourses. However, men sometimes become aware of their nursing position as more feminine using the style which is more typical for women, e.g. ―sweet-talking‖ when talking to patients or female colleagues, or using too many adjectives when describing things. One of them, for example, mentioned using so many color nuances he had never even heard of, such as ―dusty brown, icy blue‖ etc., or discourse topics which are more typical for women, e.g. ―exchanging cooking recipes‖. On the other hand, to preserve their ‗masculinity‘, they take part in male jargon with their male colleagues, both nurses and doctors. They consider male jargon to be ―talking about women and sports‖. We can say that men who work in female-dominated occupations are also exposed to reproduction and negotiation of gender relations, in other words, they try to adjust their identities, but to a lesser extent than women in male-dominated occupations. We can definitely speak here about new masculinities which emphasize the similarities between men and women. 5. Conclusion As we previously mentioned, this paper is not a quantitative study, it is based on a very limited corpus of interview samples, with small groups of informants. However, the results can be very indicative and can be used for more detailed future research on the topic. Our initial assumption, which we tried to prove, was that both women in male-dominated occupations and men in female-dominated occupations have to adjust their identity to the identity of the groups they have joined. The findings of the analysis of interviews with women in the military have proved that they try to adjust their identity to the masculine identity of the military. They start doing it through the obvious signs of wearing uniforms, and usage of masculine gender forms of address, which is taken as a part of the institution‘s identity. However, they adjust to it even more, adapting their identity to the typically ‗masculine language‘, such as profanity, short and cut sentences lacking detailed descriptions. On the other hand, they show their feminine side in the jobs within the military organization which need more organization and efficiency. Consequently, they are sometimes perceived as ‗real soldiers‘ (readiness to take part in direct combat), and sometimes as ‗real women‘ (in the organizational tasks). Furthermore, mostly negative attitudes to women in the military are stereotypical ones and come from their surrounding, rarely from their male colleagues. Their male colleagues admit the necessity of an increase in the female population in the military, which, however, they do not see as ‗feminization‘ of the institution. As for ‗male nurses‘, their position is more one of searching for the right place within the traditionally feminine organization. The search for their positioning is in performing the tasks which are difficult for women (needing physical effort), which is already a part of their masculine identity. What can be viewed as a change in the identity is a somewhat unconscious adaptation to female talk, when they are with their female colleagues, such as ‗sweet talk‘, detailed descriptions etc. 280 Harding (2008) mentions similar comments. 817 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On the other hand, the perception of their environment is that they are more ‗feminine‘ than they really are and they are somehow in the constant negotiation of identity with the outside world. However, the perception of their female colleagues is not a stereotypical one. What both examples (female soldiers and male nurses) have in common are the stereotyped views of the environment, especially expressed through negative attitudes, such as - all female soldiers are whores or all male nurses are gay. If we go back to the initial assumption of identity adjustment, we could say that it is an ongoing process. 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American Psychologist; 55: 1217-1230 Holmes, J.; Marra, M. (eds.) (2010) Femininity, Feminism and Gendered Discourse: A Selected and Edited Collection of Papers from the Fifth International Language and Gender Association Conference (IGALA5), Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Howes, R. H. and Stephenson, M. (1993) ―Women and the Use of Military Force‖, Boulder, Co.: Lynne Reinner Publishers, Inc., 44. Iyer, A.; Jetten, J.; Tsivrikos, D. (2006) ―Torn between Identities: Predictors of Adjustment to Identity Change―, F. Sani (Ed), Individual and collective self-continuity. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Jetten, J.; Spears, R.; Postmes, T. (2004) ―Intergroup Distinctiveness and Differentiation: A Meta-Analytic Integration‖. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 86(6):862-879. Kelley, M. J. (1997) Gender Differences and Leadership, Maxwell Aiforce Alabama. Knowlton, B.; McGee, M. (1994) Strategic Leadership and Personality: Making the MBTI Relevant, Washington D.C.: National Defense University, Industrial College of the Armed Forces. Lazar, M. (ed.)(2005) Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis: Gender, Power and Ideology in Discourse, Palgrave: Macmillan. Loughrey, M. (2008) ―Just how male are male nurses..?―, Journal of Clinical Nursing 17, 1327–1334. 819 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lurye, L.E.; Zosuls , K.M.; Ruble, D. (2008) ―Gender Identity and Adjustment: understanding the impact of individual and normative differences in sex typing‖, In the Intersections of Personal and Social Identities, vol.2008, issue 120: 31-46 Mariner, R. (1994) ―A Soldier is a Soldier―, JFQ, Winter 1993-94, 54-62. McElhinny, B. (1995) ―Challenging Hegemonic Masculinities: Female and male police officers handling domestic violence―. In Hall, Kira and Mary Bucholtz (eds.). Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self. New York: Routledge. 217 – 243. McMillan, J.; Morgan, S.; Ament, P. (2006) ―Acceptance of Male Registered Nurses by Female Registered Nurses―, JOURNAL OF NURSING SCHOLARSHIP, 38:1, 100-106. Ochs, E.; Taylor, C. (1993 )―Mothers' Role in the Everyday Reconstruction of ‗Father Knows Best'‖ In Locating power: Women and Language, Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, University of California, Berkeley, 447-463. Nordberg, M. (2002) ―Constructing masculinity in women‘s worlds: men working as pre-school teachers and hairdressers―, NORA no.1, volume 10, 26-37. Romaine, S. (2001) ―A corpus-based view of gender in British and American English‖. In Hellinger, Marlis and Bussmann, Hadumod eds. Gender Across Languages. The de/construction of gender roles through language variation and change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 113-135. Romaine, S. (1997) ―Grammar, gender and the space in between‖. In Kotthoff, Helga and Wodak, Ruth eds. Communicating Gender in Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 51-76. Talbot, M. (1998) Language and Gender, an Introduction, Polity Press: Cambridge/Malden Tannen, D. (1994) Gender and Discourse, OUP 820 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 119 Title A name given to the resource Women Soldiers and Male Nurses – Adjustment of Gender Identity Author Author Sivric, Marijana Abstract A summary of the resource. It is said that gender identity can be seen as either unidimensional or multidimensional depending on its realization within society. The question is how gender identity is connected to social groups. Membership in a social group profoundly influences human behavior, with both positive and negative implications. On the one hand, positive social identity is promoted by the feeling of belonging to a group, which enhances individuals‘ self-esteem and a sense of connectedness to others. On the other hand, membership in a social group can promote negative bias toward outgroup members, in-group members who violate group norms can be derogated, and the whole group can be negatively stereotyped in certain areas (for example, women in the military). In our research we will try to prove that such positioning within social groups, in a way, enforces the adjustment of gender identities, breaking the stereotyped frames of gender, which is especially evident in ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations. We will also show how continuous construction of a range of masculine and feminine identities is reflected in discourse. The examples will be taken from ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations, e.g. military opposed to nursing, to illustrate that specific shift from typical construction of identity into a new sphere of genderness. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/24a10cb6aa76fe27fc8ae1a25e0ec209.pdf 1b4c79872389aca646f54006e9ec84c4 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cultural diversity as a key factor in planning foreign language teaching policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina Mejra SoftiĤ Islamic Pedagogical Faculty University in Zenica mejra1967@gmail.com Abstract:Bosnia and Herzegovina is a multiethnic and multicultural community which has traditionally displayed deep sensitivity to the need for appreciation, promotion, learning, connecting, and preservation of the different cultures. The aim of the paper is to indicate the multilayered nature of the cultural identity of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as the fact that cultural, traditional, and religious diversity, as well as the civilisation imbuement with the elements of the European and Oriental-Islamic culture have strongly affected the planning of foreign language teaching policy in this country for centuries. Having been subjected to strong political and cultural influences both from the East and the West, Bosnia and Herzegovina opens up possibilities for combining European and Oriental languages by applying modern curricula at primary schools. The primary goal is for the students to encounter cultures of entirely different regions and to be taught tolerance, understanding, and appreciation for what is foreign and different by establishing a correlation among those cultures themselves and a correlation between those and their native culture. The paper also addresses a close relationship between a foreign language and culture of the people using that language and indicates the necessity to teach a foreign language by teaching elements of foreign culture. Such a method introduces a student to the process of intercultural learning of a foreign language and produces a positive effect on the development of the student's cultural communication competences. BiH has shown strong tendencies towards harmonising the foreign language curricula with modern European concepts of foreign language teaching and learning. Key words: cultural diversity, foreign language policy, curricula, interaction, tolerance, appreciation and coexistence Introduction Cultural diversity is one of the most significant attributes of the human population in general. It is mankind's centuries-long fact conditioned by numerous differences. It is primarily related to the use of different verbal and non-verbal communication codes within social communities and their relationship to other social communities. Additionally, it is related to different norms of behaviour, different beliefs, religions, opinions and values. Identification of individuals with a group that has a common system of symbols, meanings and norms of behaviour represents their cultural identity, and ―(...) knowing another's cultural identity (...) does help you to understand the opportunities and challenges that each individual in that culture had to deal with‖ (Jandt, 2010:15). The familiarity with cultural diversity has become a part of our daily lives, having in mind that meeting others has been alleviated by globalisation processes worldwide and a resulting wider opening-up of some societies towards others. A consequence of the globalisation processes is the strengthening of migration processes, which leads to an increased number of various multicultural contacts and formation of multicultural communities. On the other hand, we must bear in mind the fact that the diversity of cultures, i.e. multiculturalism, may be historically rooted in a social community thus constituting its distinguishable constant feature, not a product of migration processes. Education policies have always had profound influence both in terms of developing and the weakening of cultural diversity. Therefore, the task of contemporary educational process, viewed through the prism of the transfer of knowledge and acquisition of competences, is to facilitate the acquisition of intercultural competences which enable coexistence with others, together with their cultural diversity (Byram, 1997). Within the framework of UNESCO report on Education for Twenty-first Century, under the leadership of Jacques Delors, another report was presented entitled Learning – The Treasure Within, which emphasises that education relies on four principles: ―learning to be‖, ―learning to know‖ ―learning to work‖ and ―learning to live together‖. The Commission has singled out the ―learning to live together‖ principle as the most important one as it entails ―(...) the development of people's understanding for other people, their histories, traditions, and spiritual values (...)‖ (Report, 1996:20-21), thus implying the conclusion that these principles can be applied successfully only if they are established on appreciation of cultural diversity. Language is most frequently referred to as one of the basic criteria of cultural diversity and its fundamental element. Language is considered a product of spiritual culture of a people and its transmitter at the same time. This is why, from the point of view of cultural diversity, languages are not considered only a means of communication. In 877 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo fact, being the media of our experiences, our systems of value, our encounters with other people and our sense of belonging, languages are also a combination of our cultural expressions, the strongholds of our identity, our values, and our views of the world (Risager, 2006). Hence, in growing political and economic integration of European countries, whose level of future unity will depend on the level of mutual familiarity, understanding, and tolerance towards others and the different, the Council of Europe has defined the foreign language learning, promotion of significance of language and cultural diversity, and the need for their preservation as the priority tasks of education in the 21st century. In view of the above, this paper is focused on three main areas. First, it analyses the elements of cultural diversity in Bosnia and Herzegovina, its understanding in both broad and narrow terms, the effect these elements have on the planning of foreign language teaching policy in BiH, and their status and position in our contemporary education concept. Secondly, the paper attempts briefly to show that there is a close correlation between foreign language learning and its culture and that it is paramount to teach elements of the culture as it leads to developing intercultural communication. The final section of the paper points out the elements of harmonisation of the curricula in our schools with the European concept of curricula, which bring to the fore the development of students' cultural communicative competence. Cultural identity of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its influence on planning foreign language teaching Historical background A culture of a people is inseparable from its history. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina has witnessed centuries-long interactions and blending of several civilizations. Nowadays, three religions coexist there with an enviable degree of tolerance and respect, without assimilation pretexts for integration and creation of a unique cultural pattern which would annul the diversity and the specific quality of each cultural individuality. BiH has thus ―widely opened a door to another and different, so becoming a home to what is domiciliary and foreign, (...), to what is here and what is there, to what is altogether an ideal to which Europe itself is steered― (Strategy for Cultural Policy in BiH, 2008:7). Due to its rather sensitive geopolitical position between the East and the West and its incorporation into the transitional zone of European culture, the cultural and historic heritage in BiH is heterogeneous, formed in a broad time span from the pre-historic and antic to the mediaeval, Ottoman, and modern times. Owing to such a geographic position, its culture has been shaped under the influence of four cultural and civilisation heritages: Mediterranean, Central European, Byzantine, and Oriental-Islamic, which is one of the decisive facts that has affected the course and content of the education and cultural development of BiH, as well as the abundance of forms of its culturalhistoric legacy. In the world that is becoming increasingly globalised, imposing its own system of values, which does not show too much understanding for traditional culture, which is, nevertheless, increasingly becoming aware of the need to preserve cultural values created for centuries, this abundance of cultural-historic heritage can become one of the comparative advantages of our country, ―(...) and our culture an important product with which BiH of today can in fact be competitive in Europe and the world‖ (Strategy for Cultural Policy in BiH, 2008:12). In addition to the three constitutive peoples – Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks - BiH is a home to representatives of 17 ethnic minorities: the Romani, Slovenians, Ukrainians, Czechs, Albanians, Poles, Macedonians, Bulgarians, Austrians, Germans, Turks, Arabs, Italians, Hungarians, Russians, Slovaks and others, who present through their activities the most significant proof of the affirmation of cultures of diversity at a time of globalisation, which is invaluable for the development of intercultural dialogue and the strengthening of social cohesion. From the point of view of language diversity, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian are the three official languages of BiH, which show a high degree of mutual appreciation, clearly manifested towards the languages of minorities which are extensively used. Therefore, historically established multiculturalism, diversity of religions and traditions, and the language diversity lie at the heart of cultural identity of BiH. Hence, in defining priorities, the Strategy for Cultural Policy in BiH states as one of the fundamental goals and tasks: ―(...) further affirmation of multiculturalism and cultural unity, constantly bearing in mind the cultural wealth and specific cultural feature of BiH which incorporates numerous influences from the East, West and the Mediterranean, which represents its peculiar advantage, the factor of unifying and not of separation and a step more on the road to European integrations and, particularly, the nurturing of the cultural specificities of each of its peoples and ethnic minorities, with a full support to the activities of the (...) national, cultural, and educational associations and their contribution to the promotion of culture, protection of cultural-artistic heritage and language‖ (ibid., 34). Having experienced encounters with powerful European and Oriental cultures and civilisations, from which it inherited the spirit of cultural, traditional, and religious distinctiveness, long existing as an integral part of the globally known multicultural community – former Yugoslavia, having been taught painful experiences carried from the recent wartime events, Bosnia and Herzegovina understands the term and meaning of multiculturalism in its broadest terms, not only within its own borders. This is a result of the fact that multiculturalism in BiH, viewed in 878 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the historical and geographic context, has always had its cultural forms which had its common institutions, which, by nurturing cultural diversity, did not advocate intolerance, isolation, and self-containment but openness, communication, and unity. Even nowadays, being a member of the Council of Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina actively participates in the work of the Council of Europe Committees dealing with the issues in the field of culture. Its capitol was the organiser of the first pilot project entitled the First Intercultural City of the Council of Europe 2003/04, and the first forum on intercultural and interreligious dialogue organised in cooperation with the Council of Europe and the Japanese foundation. Innovating the foreign language learning programmes Although in the transitional process and divided into two entities, and the entity of the Federation of BiH itself into ten cantons, although still in a state of an institutional and political chaos, in the past ten years BiH has invested a great deal into the education system reform. In the Federation of BiH and the Republic of Srpska the New Concept of Nine-year Education and Upbringing has been produced. Harmonisation with modern primary school concepts and compatibility of education standards with those of the European Union is referred to as one of the fundamental principles the Concept rest on. Following the recommendations of the Council of Europe, the BiH education system has implemented the projects of early foreign language learning, Common European Framework of Reference for Languages has been adopted, new upgraded foreign language curricula have been implemented, particularly at the primary school level as the key factor in developing students' capacities for successfully mastering the elements of a foreign language and culture (Prebeg-Vilke, 1991), the goals and objectives of the foreign language teaching have been redefined, and the foreign language teachers' role has been reviewed and corrected. In order for the students to master at least two foreign languages by the end of their schooling, under the innovated Framework Primary School Curriculum in both entities, the first compulsory foreign language, English, is being taught in the third grade. The second compulsory foreign language is now taught in the sixth grade; however, the students choose one among several optional foreign languages. The number of languages and the language selection itself differs in the Federation of BiH and the Republic of Srpska, and among the cantons themselves. They are mostly dictated by the interests of the majority population in a canton. In addition to the English language, the languages offered in the Republic of Srpska are: German, French, Russian, Italian, and in some schools, Spanish. Apart from English, the Federation Ministry of Science and Education has proposed German, French and Arabic, however, the cantonal ministries have been granted the autonomy to amend the list of languages offered based on the interest of students and their parents. The continuity of learning these languages has been ensured throughout the secondary schools and universities. Numerous private educational institutions, religious ones too, actively promote the learning of Turkish and Persian in addition to some of the above-mentioned languages. Our education system selected those European foreign languages under the influence of several key factors. The first factor, the leading one in planning foreign language policy worldwide, is the overall political and economic power of the country where the language is spoken and its global influence. Based on this criterion, English has stood out among other languages, becoming a global language of today and achieving the status of a lingua franca of the contemporary multilingual Europe and the first foreign language taught at all schools. An analysis and forecast of the labour market needs, current foreign language hierarchy in the world, and overall socio-political circumstances in a country, the political, economic, and cultural in particular, relations with the countries whose languages are taught are also rather important factors that have affected the selection of the dominant European, and non-European – Oriental languages, too. Oriental languages are an inseparable part of the cultural-historic heritage in BiH. As a result, they have been present in our education system for centuries. During the Ottoman Empire rule in these areas, literacy, education, and literature was developed in Arabic as the language of science, law, theology, Turkish, as the language of administration and fine literature, and Persian as the language of poetry (ŃabanoviĤ, 1973). In addition to having been studied at religious schools in continuity, in the mid 19th century they began to be taught at classical grammar schools in all the major centres of BiH (RamiĤ, 1999). With certain discontinuance and amendments, they remained an integral part of the secondary and university level curricula in our country, and the literary heritage created in these languages holds an exceptional cultural value of BiH. At the time when the issues under discussion are conflict of civilisations, conflict between the East and the West, the need for a closer cooperation and intercultural understanding, Oriental languages have increasingly been taught in the modern world. The growing strategic, economic, political, cultural and military potentials of the countries where these languages are spoken also represent significant causes of interest in these languages. By implementing the projects of early foreign language learning, whose goal is to promote the importance of multilingualism and cultural diversity at the earliest school age, the BiH education system has intentionally and purposely opened a possibility to combine the European and Oriental languages at primary schools. Bearing in mind the fact that ―(...) teaching a foreign language can in no way be separate from teaching a culture (...)‖ (Serrano, 2002:124), the combinations such as these are aimed at exposing the students to cultures of entirely different regions – European and Oriental - from a very early age and teaching them tolerance, understanding, and appreciation for 879 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo what is foreign and different by establishing a correlation among those cultures themselves and a correlation between those and the native culture. Bosnia and Herzegovina has practically lived the cultural diversity for centuries and is aware of the need for its further preservation within its own borders and its promotion and understanding in a broader European context. Therefore, planning foreign language teaching as the most important medium of foreign culture has traditionally been addressed with full responsibility and willingness to implement modern teaching methods which nowadays emphasise the acquisition of (inter)cultural communicative competence. The dependence of foreign language and culture and development of intercultural learning The objective of the foreign language learning is to achieve successful communication in all the language domains. Starting from the etymology of the term communication, Fred E. Jandt (2010:37) points out that communication and culture are inseparable. A derivative of the Latin word communicare, it means:―(...) to share with or make common, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes and knowledge‖. On the other hand, he believes that culture, being a product of human social activity, is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing requires communication. Therefore, in order for us to understand each other, communication and culture must be learned together. Taking the fundamental communicative function of language as a starting point, we can reach the conclusion that learning a foreign language means learning about a foreign culture. Therefore, in order to successfully participate in communication in a foreign language, we must, at least to a certain degree, learn and understand the cultural background of the language, know the customs and habits, and how to behave and act in a variety of situations in life, as close as possible to how speakers of a foreign language would (TanoviĤ, 1978). This implies that foreign language should be acquired within its cultural context. Namely, in the process of its learning and teaching it may not be separated from its natural environment and general cultural heritage it originates from. Contemporary linguistic theories of foreign language learning and teaching are based on such principles bearing in mind that they bring us closer to the community that uses it and that they change our preconceptions, notions and prejudices with regard to that community. The principles emphasise that foreign language teaching without the elements of foreign culture is incomplete, imprecise, and nonsensical even if learners know nothing about the native speakers or the native country. (Genc & Bada, 2005). These theories have also indicated the incompleteness of a widely accepted communicative approach whose goal is to develop the learners' communicative competences focusing on the functional and structural aspect of a language and their mutual combination in fuller communicative sense. With an approach like this, a learner masters the ability to choose the most suitable linguistic form for the execution of certain language functions and to use the language in accordance with the situation environment or social context, which means that, depending on when, where, why, who with and what they talk about, learners know which lexicon and models of expression to use (Littlewood, 1981). The fundamental disadvantage of this approach is that, in essence, it does not encourage the development of cultural awareness in learners, which is embedded in one of the chief goals of the modern language learning, and that is ―the development in learners of sensitivity to the culture (in the widest sense) of the communities whose languages are being studied‖ (Byram, 1993:26). In building communication competence, the language and cultural component are complementary as communication attains its full meaning only in relation to the fundamental socio-cultural signs. Communication cannot be reduced to transfering solely linguistic message as its essential features are composed of extra-linguistic and paralinguistic aspects of communication – mimicking, gesture, body movements, special intonation and rhythm used in specific situations. Not knowing those can lead to misunderstanding the message. Foreign language acquisition by teaching elements of foreign culture should primarily serve to developing cross-cultural communication, which introduces the learner to the process of intercultural language learning defined as ―(...) a process where the learner's picture of culture grows wider, with the help of new information about foreign culture and language, increasing in the same time the consciousness of the special features of one's own culture and language‖ (Kaikkonen, 1997:47). Therefore, for so oriented foreign language learning to be successful, it is necessary to develop in learners a positive attitude towards the foreign phenomena. After that, learners are focused on observing the elements of foreign culture and their comparison with their own culture, which further leads them to learning and acquiring the standards and norms of the foreign culture. Acquisition of new codes and meanings helps develop students' linguistic and cultural skills in communication. Curricula and developing cultural communicative competence Contemporary curricula in BiH are focused on developing learners' communicative competence from their very first encounter with a foreign language, indicating at the same time, the necessity of acquiring a language in a broader social context based on the culture of the people speaking it. Therefore, the primary goals of foreign language teaching referred to in the literature are to teach learners how to communicate in a foreign language, in 880 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo writing and orally, about various aspects of every-day life, to develop the learners' general culture by teaching them about the life and tradition of the countries where the language is spoken, and to attempt to develop in learners through the foreign language teaching an awareness of the importance of multilingualism, the spirit of tolerance, cosmopolitanism, humanism and internationalism. Further, one of the fundamental goals of the foreign language instruction referred to in the literature is to develop intercultural skills that help learners learn about the culture of the foreign language speaking countries, compare it with their own culture and tradition, and develop a positive, tolerant attitude towards diversities, all of which serves the purpose of enhancing their cultural communicative competence. Contemporary foreign language teaching methodologies in our schools support and promote European inter-cultural approach to foreign language teaching. By displaying how cultures are intertwined, this approach contributes to shaping learners' personality in terms of tolerance and respect for what is different, setting aside the ethnic differences, and explaining the importance of preserving social diversities and cultural pluralism within a nation (Vrhovec, 1999). The techniques applied in developing learners' (inter)cultural awareness in class and beyond are varied and mainly start with the strategies of observation, reflection, and conclusion about the cultural signs from every-day lives related to food, refreshments, sports, celebrities, and items used daily. Role-plays and simulation of daily situations in communication, comparisons, and contrasting with the elements of one's own culture, use of different audio-visual aids and authentic materials, trips to and living in the country where the foreign language is spoken etc. develop at the same time learners' communication skills and change their attitudes and relationship towards members of other cultures and nations in a positive way. Naturally, the selection of the technique and strategy depends on the learners' age and success and their efficiency primarily on the knowledge, skills, creativity, and motivation of the teachers themselves. Although education institutions in BiH are in a rather poor financial situation, and although primary and secondary schools are to a great extent divided based on the ethnicity of the students, as a result of which we have a unique phenomenon of two schools under one roof, the entity ministries of science and education keep abreast with contemporary trends in the foreign language teaching in Europe and make efforts in implementing them in their own curricula. Approaches that develop in learners sensitivity to cultures of others and different are not entirely new in our traditionally culturally aware society. However, in this rather sensitive post-war period it is essential to emphasise their importance in order to raise new generations which will be aware in the overall globalisation process of the significance of preserving their own cultural identity and which will have a developed sense of general unity and collectiveness in the cultural diversity of the united Europe. Conclusion Cultural diversity is considered the most valuable legacy of human civilization, though simultaneously a cause for frequent conflicts, lack of mutual understanding and intolerance. Rapid globalisation processes in the world lead to more common multicultural encounters which, as a result, call for development of positive attitudes and tolerance to others and those different from us. Viewed through the prism of the transfer of knowledge and acquisition of competences, modern education systems, particularly the processes of foreign language teaching and learning, have a task to help the acquisition of intercultural competences that enable coexistence with others and their cultural diversity. This is why one of the fundamental objectives of the foreign language classes is teaching elements of foreign culture, primarily serving the purpose of developing intercultural understanding and communication. Shaped under the influence of the Mediterranean, Mediaeval, Byzantine, and Oriental-Islamic culture, BiH has existed for centuries as a multicultural community with a developed sense of respect, appreciation, and understanding of the cultural diversity in its broadest terms. BiH is a place where the cultures of the East and West come together. Therefore, the possibility for combining the European and Oriental languages at the earliest school age is a proof of its attempts to build a bridge of understanding and tolerance between these two different cultures and support and promote them equally in a student's consciousness applying modern foreign language learning programmes. Contemporary approaches to the foreign language teaching suggest that foreign language learning has to take place in its broader socio-cultural context and in a direction opposite from the usual one. In fact, instead of the traditional practice of having the most important elements of a culture of the people speaking a language adopted through that foreign language, these approaches endeavour to put at the forefront learning about cultural and civilisation contents intended to stimulate and strengthen a student's personal motivation to further master the foreign language itself. An approach like this simultaneously develops students' communication and cultural competences, which guarantee accuracy and precision in communicating in a foreign language only in correlation. References: 881 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assesing Intercultural Communicative Competence, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Counsil of Ministres in B&H, (2008). Strategy of Cultural Politics in B&H, Sarajevo: Ministry of Civil Affairs. Delors, J. (1996). Learnin The Treasure Within, Report to UNESCO of the International Commision on Education for the Twenty- firs century. UNESCO Publishing. Genc, B. & Bada, E. (2005). Culture in language learning and teaching. The Reading Matrix, No. 1, 73- 84. Jandt, F. E. (2010). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community, London:SAGE Publications, Ltd. Kaikkonen, P. (1997). Learning a culture and a foreign language at school – aspects of intercultural learning. Language Learning Journal, No. 15, 47-51. Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Prebeg – Vilke, M. (1991). Vańe dijete i jezik, Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. RamiĤ, J. (1999). Obzorja arapsko-islamske knjiņevnosti, Sarajevo: El-Kalem. Risager, K. (2006). Language and Culture, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Serrano, N. (2002). Teaching culture in foreign language programmes at third level education. CAUCE, Revista de Filologia y su Didactica, No. 25, 121-145. ŃabanoviĤ, H. (1978). Knjiņevnost Muslimana BiH na orijentalnim jezicima, Sarajevo: Svjetlost. Ńkiljan, D. (1988). JeziĦna politika, Zagreb: ITRO „Naprijed―. TanoviĤ, M. (1978). Savremena nastava stranih jezika u teoriji i praksi II, Sarajevo: IGKRO „Svjetlost―. Vrhovec, I. & suradnici (1999). Strani jezik u osnovnoj ńkoli. PoduĦavanje elemenata strane kulture, Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga, 235-241. 882 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 549 Title A name given to the resource Cultural diversity as a key factor in planning foreign language teaching policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Softić, Mejra Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a multiethnic and multicultural community which has traditionally displayed deep sensitivity to the need for appreciation, promotion, learning, connecting, and preservation of the different cultures. The aim of the paper is to indicate the multilayered nature of the cultural identity of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as the fact that cultural, traditional, and religious diversity, as well as the civilisation imbuement with the elements of the European and Oriental-Islamic culture have strongly affected the planning of foreign language teaching policy in this country for centuries. Having been subjected to strong political and cultural influences both from the East and the West, Bosnia and Herzegovina opens up possibilities for combining European and Oriental languages by applying modern curricula at primary schools. The primary goal is for the students to encounter cultures of entirely different regions and to be taught tolerance, understanding, and appreciation for what is foreign and different by establishing a correlation among those cultures themselves and a correlation between those and their native culture. The paper also addresses a close relationship between a foreign language and culture of the people using that language and indicates the necessity to teach a foreign language by teaching elements of foreign culture. Such a method introduces a student to the process of intercultural learning of a foreign language and produces a positive effect on the development of the student's cultural communication competences. BiH has shown strong tendencies towards harmonising the foreign language curricula with modern European concepts of foreign language teaching and learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7326831c6ac4e19675816eb40779ab3c.pdf 8d67d55a6bfd4ba80e9bcfae5746e354 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Self-perception of Non-native Speaker Teacher of English in the Expanding Circle Mehdi Solhi English Language Department Istanbul University, Istanbul solhi.mehdi@gmail.com Abstract: In norm-dependent countries, where English is being taught as a foreign language, the main attention is mostly being paid to the native speaker teacher of English language as the ultimate teaching resource. In such countries, native speaker‘s norm is being considered as the standard by which the language should be taught to non-native speakers. However, in recent years, more emphasis has been given to the significance of non native teachers of English and to the advantages such teachers could have in the process of language teaching (e.g. Ellis, 2005; Llurda; 2005; and Seidlhofer, 1999). In this study, attitudes of the non native teachers of English toward their own status were explored, drawing on an empirical study of the self-perception of Iranian teachers. At the same time, advantages of nonnative speaker teachers as significant resources in the expanding circle are discussed. Key words: Native speaker teacher, non native speaker teacher and expanding circle Introduction Kachru (1996) classifies the various types of Englishes using a circles analogy. The first, known as the Inner Circle, includes countries where English is used as a native language, among them Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. The second, the Outer Circle, includes countries where English is an institutionalized variety, that is, is used as an official language. Former British colonies, such as India, Nigeria, and Zambia, to list a few, belong in this category. The third, the Expanding Circle, consists of countries where English is traditionally used or learned as a foreign language and in which English played little or no administrative or institutional role. Some such countries include Japan, China, Turkey, and Iran. In a nutshell, the Inner Circle varieties are considered as ‗norm-providing‘, the Outer Circle as ‗norm-developing‘, whereas English in the Expanding Circle is seen as ‗norm-dependent‘. Phillipson (1992) believes that the native speaker tenet reinforces the linguistic norms of the Center, Inner Circle, creating an ideological dependence. This idea is echoed in Seidlhofer (1999) as she puts emphasis on how non-Inner-Circle English teachers are likely to find themselves in the context of pedagogical theories, methods and institutions in which the main attention is being paid to the native speaker as the ultimate teaching resource. Similarly, Thornbury (2006) points out that the educated native speaker‘s norm has long been considered as the standard by which the language should be taught to non-native speakers. In addition, in many teaching contexts, native speaker teachers has been regarded to have priority over the non natives and native speaker teachers are preferred to non native speaker teachers, irrespective of the training or experience. He clearly states that such assumption is questionable. Llurda (2005, as cited in Vivian, 2007) also states that native speaker teachers were formerly those who spoke with authority because of their ownership of the language; now non-native teachers are the authentic sources of knowledge about what it is like to be an L2 user. Descriptions of native speaker English are a temporary measure until proper descriptions of L2 users are made. Ammon (2000) criticizes the marginalization of non-native speakers in the scientific community. He takes the view that while science and other domains demand that there should indeed be one lingua franca; this raises a problem of justice because native speakers of English are at an advantage. Using a native or nonnative speaker of language in the classroom has always been a controversial issue in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. For instance, Phillipson (1992) questions ‗why should the native speaker be intrinsically better qualified than the non-native?‘ He says that teachers are made rather than born. Many of them doubtless self-made whether they are natives or non natives. In fact, the untrained or unqualified native speaker is potentially a menace. Phillipson (1992) criticizes that fact that the ideal teacher is a native speaker, somebody with native speaker proficiency in English who can serve as a model for the students. The native speaker fallacy dates from a time when language teaching was indistinguishable form culture teaching, and when all learners of English were assumed to be familiarizing themselves with the culture that English originates form and for contact with that culture. At the onset, it was the native speaker who was considered as the automatic best teacher, and all other teachers admired the native speaker. Now that is no longer the case. 853 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo According to the report made by Unesco (1953), a teacher is not adequately qualified to teach a language merely because it is his/her mother tongue. This statement indicates that native speaker teacher should not be considered as the best embodiment of the target and norm for learners. It is arguable, as a general principle, that nonnative speakers may in fact be better qualified than native speakers, if they have gone through the arduous process of acquiring English as a second language and if they have perceived the linguistic and cultural needs of their learners. Similarly, Widdowson (1994) strongly objected to the assumption that a native speaker is always better as a teacher of English than a teacher whose mother tongue is not English. Who is the best teacher; native speaker of a language or non-native speaker? Phillipson (1992) emphasizes that language teachers should have a detailed acquaintance with the language and culture of the learners they are responsible for. The very idea of claiming that the ideal teacher of English is a native speaker is ludicrous as soon as one starts identifying the good qualities of a teacher of English. The tenet has no scientific validity. Agular (2007) believes that, in fact, the best teacher is neither the native nor the non-native speaker, ‗but the person who can make students see the connections between their own and other cultures, as well as awaken their curiosity about difference and otherness‘ (p. 69). That is to say, the task of the ideal teacher is not to provide comprehensive information or bring the foreign society into the classroom for learners to observe and experience but his/her duty is to develop in students the competence that will make them able to connect their own cultural values, beliefs and behaviors (Byram et al. 2002, as cited in Agular, 2007). Medgyes (1996, as cited in Arnold and Rixon, 2008) believes that whether language teachers are native or non-native speakers may also affect the skills, attitudes to learners and willingness to take risks that they bring to the classroom, with not all of the advantage necessarily being with the native speakers. Advantages of Non-native Speaker (NNS) EFL Teachers Seidlhofer (1999) takes the various ‗double‘ aspects of non-native EFL teachers‘ professional lives as opening the possibility for constructive contributions that they can make. Terms with negative connotations are re-considered to indicate their positive meanings for ELT professionals: double agent, double talk, double think, and double life. According to Kachru and Nelson (2006), such doubling comes to exist as a result of the ‗double standards‘ under which non-native EFL teachers work. They work in a context in which ―monoculturalism seems to have been replaced by multiculturalism, monolingualism with multilingualism, and targets seem to be criterion referenced rather than (native-speaker) norm-referenced‖ (p. 234). Seidlhofer (1999) believes that non-native EFL teachers should be regarded as ‗double agents‘. They are members of their own communities, hence; they share similar languages or cultures with their students and they are familiar with 'terrain inhabited by the target language‘. The non-native EFL teachers have themselves been nonnative EFL learners. They have passed through the process of learning the same language and they know the dilemmas involved it. Hence, they have ‗thorough knowledge of English as it is used in various domains in their societies‘ (p. 235). Seidlhofer (1999) declares it in the following words: ―One could say that native speakers know the destination, but not the terrain that has to be crossed to get there: they themselves have not traveled the same route. Non-native teachers, on the other hand, know the target language as a foreign language‖ (p. 238). At the same time, non-native EFL teachers are involved in ‗double talk‘. Double talk can be carefully examined by teachers in ‗double think‘, i.e. in which non-Inner-Circle teachers are supposed to consider the two directions about what kind of English to teach for the reason that English as a foreign language is different form English as a first language (Seidlhofer, 1999). Seidlhofer (1999) concludes that the double capacity of the non-native EFL teachers enables them to be simultaneously familiar with the target language and distanced from it, and it makes it possible for the non-native teachers to lead double lives with positive connotations ‗of value and strength, … something that is twice the size, quantity, value, or strength of something else‘ (p. 243). As Kachru and Nelson (2006) apparently clarify, ―Nonnative EFL teachers are well prepared and inherently equipped to put themselves into the place of their students, as contrasted with the pressure to put themselves into the place of native speakers‖ (p. 106). Seidlhofer (2000, as cited in Jessner, 2008) argues for a redefinition of the ideal nonnative teacher of English. This need is as a result of the significant increase of English as lingua franca in recent years. She argues that although English nowadays mainly serves as a medium of communication between speakers with different primary languages, the norms of the language is still being controlled by the monolingual minority of its speakers, that is what Phillipson (1992) calls Linguistic Imperialism. According to Medgyes (1983), through his own experience as a persistent learner of English on the one hand, and through the experience gained over the years as a foreign language teacher on the other, NS EFL teacher should know best where the two cultures and, consequently, the two languages converge and diverge. More than any native 854 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo speaker, he is aware of the difficulties his students are likely to encounter and the possible errors they are likely to make. Therefore, non-native teacher has easier access to the measures and techniques which may facilitate the students‘ learning. Ellis (2005, as cited in Jessner, 2008) points out that the non-native teacher is able to find linguistic problems and offer metacognitive learning strategies that the native teacher without foreign language experience is unable to notice. Such ability of the non native teachers refers to what Seidlhofer (1999) calls it ‗the double capacity of the non-native EFL teachers‘ because, as it was said before, non-native teachers have moved through the process of learning the language and they are familiar with the difficulties that the learners are mostly likely to encounter. In nutshell, the non native teachers are both members of their own communities and are familiar with the target group. This ability of the non native speakers refers to the ‗double life‘ suggested by seidlhofer (1999). Consequently, in this context, non-native teachers become particularly valued for their ability to move between the home and target cultures (Corbett 2003, as cited in Agular, 2007), although, a curious and, open-minded native teacher, especially if widely-traveled, can be equally or better valued. Tang (1997) states NNS teachers ‗not only play a pedagogical role in their classrooms, but they also serve as empathetic listeners for beginning and weak students, needs analysts, agents of change, and coaches for public examinations in the local context‘ (p. 579). Some people would argue that a qualified native-speaker EFL teacher will always be in a better position than his/her nonnative-speaker colleague of equal qualification—simply because the language and culture that s/he teaches to his/her students will always be, or at least ―look‖, more ―authentically native‖. Tarnopolsky (2008) classifies some advantages that nonnative teachers of EFL might have over their native speaker colleagues; firstly, it is possible for NNS EFL teachers to apply their students‘ mother tongue whenever and wherever it can facilitate and accelerate the process of learning English. Secondly, they can pave the way for developing their students‘ interlingual awareness by making comparisons and making them aware of the similarities and differences that exist between the structures of their L1 and target language. Thirdly, they are better prepared for developing their students‘ intercultural awareness by comparing similarities and differences between the L1 and target culture, which is considered to be the only way of developing the learners‘ target culture sociolinguistic behaviors in the conditions where students have no or very little direct contact with target culture communities. Of course, this advantage of NNS EFL teacher is apparent when he/she is well aware of the target speech communities‘ cultural characteristics. ‗Understanding cultural and sociolinguistic differences should be among the teachers‘ professional requirements— just as understanding the linguistic characteristics of the language that they teach‘. (p. 313) There are two other advantages that the NNS EFL teachers might have in the process of language teaching. The first of them, as Tarnopolsky (2008) indicates, refers to the fact that NNS EFL teachers, who share the mother tongue of their students and who may have worked through similar problems in learning English, are better prepared to deal appropriately with those specific learners‘ problems. Hence, they are most likely to better understand the essence of students‘ difficulties while a NS EFL teacher might be unable to observe these problems. Tarnopolsky is, in part, echoing Seidlhofer‘s (1999) views toward NNS EFL teachers. As it was cited before, passing through the process of learning the same language, teachers are familiar with the difficulties that learners might encounter. Similarly, Tang (1997) believes that being familiar with the source language and non-native speaker teachers‘ status as L2 learners could be seen as two significant advantages of the NNS EFL teachers. Their previous L2 learning experience offers them a privileged understanding of the problems and weaknesses of their students. Medgyes (1983) points out that more than any native speaker, NNS teacher is aware of the difficulties his/her students are likely to encounter and the possible errors they are likely to make. The second advantage refers to purely psychological advantage. Students may prefer the fallible nonnative-speaker teacher who presents a more achievable model because students may feel overwhelmed by native-speaker teachers who have achieved a perfection that is out of students‘ reach (Cook, 1999). However, all the advantages listed above should not lead use to overlook the importance attached the native speaker EFL teachers. In addition, as Tarnopolsky (2008), declares we should not adopt ‗a view opposite to the long established perspective that NS EFL teachers should have no say in EFL teaching situations and that only their NNS colleagues can be the absolute authorities on all related issues.‘ (p. 314) Challenges for Non-native Speaker (NNS) EFL Teachers Tarnopolsky (2008) lists a number of challenges that NNS EFL teachers face. They are summarized as five principal points: 1. Majority of the NNS EFL teachers have a foreign accent and the best of them often cannot overcome it during their career even if their visits to English-speaking countries are lengthy. The reason is that if a foreign language is learnt after the puberty, native-like pronunciation is rarely achieved, despite years of practice. 2. For NNS EFL teachers, however competent they are, it is very difficult to be aware of the most recent developments in the English language because as every other living language, it is constantly changing. As 855 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo a rule, NNS EFL teachers do not frequently visit English-speaking countries and they do not stay lengthy enough to keep track of all such changes. 3. The NNS EFL teachers might not be aware of the most recent developments in the English-speaking nations‘ cultures, including the developments in patterns of sociolinguistic behaviors. So they might lack such cultural awareness. There are a significant number of the NNS EFL teachers, who have never been to English-speaking countries, and may not even be aware of essential differences in such patterns as compared to their home cultures. 4. Another challenge is the limited availability of the latest and most advanced teaching materials and methods developed in English speaking countries—that is, those that are better known to their NS EFL colleagues and are much more accessible to them. 5. The last and perhaps most serious challenge is the fact that in many parts of the world both students and school and university authorities believe that a native speaker is always the best teacher of English and thus prefer to be taught or to employ NS EFL instructors to the detriment of their NNS colleagues. This is one of the visible manifestations of linguistic imperialism (Phillipson, 1992). To put in a nutshell, NNS EFL teachers have many strengths but may encounter some considerable challenges as well. To sum up, according to Tarnopolsky (2008), advantages of NS EFL teachers could be summarized as follows: ‗authentic native English, full awareness of its most recent linguistic and cultural developments, and better awareness of the most advanced and recent developments in the ways of teaching the language‘ (p. 315). However, the challenges that NS EFL teachers might face are: ‗no or little command of their students‘ L1 and home culture, lack of ability to develop their interlingual and intercultural awareness, lack of understanding the learners‘ L1 related language problems, and presenting a model that learners may believe unachievable‘. Inspired by the studies on the self-perception of the non-native speaker teachers, I decided to carry out a study on the use of the native language in Iran context, where English is taught as a foreign language and where majority of the language teachers are non-native speaker teachers. Method of the Study A questionnaire was devised to investigate the self-perception of non-native speaker teachers of English, and their feelings of confidence and/or insecurity in EFL context. In the first three questions, I tried to get some demographic information about the teachers. The questions inquired their age, year of experience in teaching, and their educational background. In the last three questions, attempt was made to investigate the self-perception of the non-native speaker teachers of English. They were analyzed in detail. Sampling and Data Analysis Processes The vast majority of teachers of English in Iran are non-native speakers. This questionnaire was sent out to 87 teachers throughout Iran, and exactly 61 were returned. However, only 44 of them were taken to final evaluation since some of them lacked the information required. Data was analyzed using SPSS package program (Version 11.5). Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the demographic information of the participants. Findings and Discussion Demographic information gathered via a questionnaire revealed that half of the respondents (N = 22) were aging from 26 to 30. The mean of scores obtained for the age of the participants is 3.18 and the standard deviation is 0.87 with the variance of 0.75. They have been teaching for a mean of 29 ± 1 years. As it is evident in Table 2, the educational background of the participants were ranging from a high school diploma (N = 1) to Ph.D. (N = 2). The participants with bachelor‘s degree constitute more than 77 % of the respondents. The mean of scores obtained for the educational background of the participants is 5.18 and the standard deviation is 5.74 with the variance of 32.94. The information about their age and educational background is given in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1: Demographic information about the age of the participants ___________________________________________ N Percent ___________________________________________ 21-25 9 20.5 856 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 26-30 22 50 31-35 9 20.5 Over 36 4 9.1 ___________________________________________ Total 44 100 ___________________________________________ Table 2: Demographic information about the educational background of the participants ________________________________________________ N Percent ________________________________________________ A high school diploma 1 2.3 Bachelor‘s Degree 34 77.3 Master‘s Degree 7 15.9 PhD 2 4.5 ________________________________________________ Total 44 100 ________________________________________________ Among the six questions asked the last three are of particular relevance here. The fourth question aimed at getting some information about whether native speaker teacher or non-native teacher of English could be an effective teacher of English in EFL context. It was to get some information on their self-perception and their attitudes toward their native or non-native colleagues. It was a multiple choice question but the respondents were encouraged to briefly explain the reason for their choice. It enabled them to explain their rationale for that. Only just over 10 (22.7%) went for the second option, i.e. that the main emphasis had been on non-native teacher of English language, while 34 (77.3%) said the native teacher of English language had been in the foreground. The purpose of the fifth question was to get some information on whether the non-native teacher should be as near-native as possible or he/she should strive to become an effective foreign language teacher. It was also an openended question. More than half of the participants (68.2%) indicated that being as near-native as possible is the most prominent factor, and only 31.8% said the reverse was true. Finally, the sixth question was asked to study whether being a non native teacher of English in the classroom makes them feel insecure or confident. According to the results, 54.5% believed that being a non-native speaker teacher makes them insecure or stress out, while 45.5% said that the reverse was true and being a non native makes them feel confident. Descriptive Statistics of the last three questions are represented in Table 3. Some respondents did not tick either option in the last three questions, but gave a verbal response such as ‗neither-nor‘, ‗neither and both‘ or ‗it depends‘, offering various reasons and explanations. Table 3: Descriptive Statistics of the three questions ________________________________________ M SD ________________________________________ Question 4 1.22 0.42 Question 5 1.32 0.47 Question 6 1.45 0.50 ________________________________________ Conclusions and Recommendations The results of the present study on the self-perception of the non-native speaker teacher of English in Iran as an EFL context revealed some differences in contrast to the previous research studies. Different from the previous research findings (Seidlhofer, 1999), 77.3% of teachers of English participating in this study stated that native speaker teacher of English could be more effective teacher of English than the non-natives in EFL context. In a study carried out by Seidlhofer (1999), the participants (60%) felt that becoming an effective foreign language teacher is more important than being as near-native as possible (37%). However, according to the findings of my study, 68.2% of the respondents indicated that being as near-native as possible is the more important than being an effectible teacher (31.8%). Similar to the findings in Seidlhofer‘s (1999) study, more than half of the participants (54.5%) indicated the being a non-native speaker teacher of English made them feel insecure rather than confident. 857 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A research study was conducted by Tang (1997) to investigate non-native English second language teachers‘ perceptions of the proficiency and competency of native- and nonnative-speaking teachers of English, and the advantages and disadvantages for English language learners of having a non-native English second language teacher and a native English second language teacher, a comparison of the English proficiency of the two types of teachers, and their different roles in the classroom. According to the results, a very high percentage of respondents believed that native English second language teachers were superior to non-native English second language teachers in speaking (100%), pronunciation (92%), listening (87%), vocabulary (79%), and reading (72%). In contrast, nonnative English second language teachers were felt to be associated with accuracy rather than fluency. This finding indicates the fact that native English second language teachers are more often respected as models in English language learning. Results of my study also draw some parallels with the previous research in terms of considering native speaker teachers of English as models in English language learning. The greatest disadvantage that NS EFL teachers have is not knowing (or having very little knowledge) of their students‘ L1 and culture. These difficulties could disappear if they learned both thoroughly. A recent study by Ellis (2006, as cited in Tang, 1997) convincingly proves the greatest professional advantages that NS English teachers can get if they undertake learning an L2. It allows them to understand and deal much better with the dilemmas of their students learning English. However, majority of the NS EFL teachers who have stayed in one and the same country for a long time know very little about its language and culture. Therefore, the difficulties of NS EFL teachers that result from not knowing the local language and culture are probably here to stay in the majority of cases (Tang, 1997). As results revealed, more attention should be paid to the significant role played by the non-native speaker teachers in EFL contexts to make them aware of the advantages that they have in such contexts. According to the results obtained in this study, the participants were not aware of the advantages of being a non-native speaker teacher in their particular local conditions. As Seidlhofer (1999) clarifies, teacher education plays a crucial role in making teacher aware of their non-native assets and in preparing them explicitly to use these assets in the development of an appropriate pedagogy. References Agular, C. (2007). Dealing with Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Foreign Language Classroom. In Soler, E, A. and Jordà, M. (Ed.), Intercultural language use and language learning (pp. 59-78). Springer. 858 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ammon, U. (2000). Towards more fairness in international English: Linguistic rights of non-native speakers? In Phillipson, R. (Ed.), Rights to language. Equity, power, and education (pp. 102-110). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Arnold, W. and Rixon, Sh. (2008). Materials for Teaching English to Young Learners. In Brian Tomlinson (Ed.), English Language Learning Materials (pp. 38-58). London: Continuum. Cook, V. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching, TESOL Quarterly 33, 185–209. Jessner, U. (2008). Multicompetence approaches to language proficiency development in multilingual education. In Hornberger, H, N. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of language and Education (pp. 91-103). Springer. Kachru, B., B. (1996) Models for nonnative Englishes. In The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. 2nd edition. Edited by Braj B. Kachru. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 48–74. Kachru, Y. and L. Nelson, C. (2006). World Englishes in Asian context. Hong Kong University Press: Hong Kong. Medgyes, P. (1983). The schizophrenic teacher. ELT Journal, 37(1), 2–6. Phillipson R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford University Press. Seidlhofer, B. (1999). Double standards: Teacher education in the Expanding Circle. World Englishes, 18(2), 233– 45. Tang, C. (1997). On the power and status of nonnative ESL teacher, TESOL Quarterly 31, 577–580. Tarnopolsky, O. (2008). Nonnative speaking teachers of English as a Foreign Language. In Hornberger, N., H. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 309-321). Springer. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Macmillan Books for Teachers. Vivian, C. (2007). The goals of ELT: reproducing native-speakers or promoting multicompetence among second language users? In Cummins, J. and Davison, C. (Ed.), Intercultural handbook of English language teaching (pp. 237-248). Springer. Widdowson, H.G. (1994). The ownership of English, TESOL Quarterly 28, 377–389. 859 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 124 Title A name given to the resource Self-perception of Non-native Speaker Teacher of English in the Expanding Circle Author Author Solhi, Mehdi Abstract A summary of the resource. In norm-dependent countries, where English is being taught as a foreign language, the main attention is mostly being paid to the native speaker teacher of English language as the ultimate teaching resource. In such countries, native speaker‘s norm is being considered as the standard by which the language should be taught to non-native speakers. However, in recent years, more emphasis has been given to the significance of non native teachers of English and to the advantages such teachers could have in the process of language teaching (e.g. Ellis, 2005; Llurda; 2005; and Seidlhofer, 1999). In this study, attitudes of the non native teachers of English toward their own status were explored, drawing on an empirical study of the self-perception of Iranian teachers. At the same time, advantages of nonnative speaker teachers as significant resources in the expanding circle are discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/016ec3890fd1cfefa0e48b93c298353c.pdf 26e91ee76441e6369c7278b559a29d19 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The use of first language in the EFL classroom: A facilitating or debilitating device? Mehdi Solhi Department of English Language and Literature Istanbul University, Turkey solhi.mehdi@gmail.com Münevver Büyükyazı Department of English Language and Literature Celal Bayar University, Turkey munevverbuyukyazi@gmail.com Abstract: Despite widespread use of only English in teaching EFL classes, the use of first language in EFL class has been a perennial topic of discussion in the field of language education. Most established L2 teaching methods discourage the use of L1 in class. However, some scholars oppose ―English Only‖ trend in language classes (Auerbach, 1993; and Kumaravadivelu, 2003). In a setting where the students share a common L1, first language can create a less threatening atmosphere. In this article, the non native speaker teachers‘ attitudes toward the use of the first language of the learners in the classroom were asked through a questionnaire. Further, an attempt was made to investigate whether non native speaker English teachers notice the use of the first language as a facilitating or a debilitating factor. This article argues that first language is one of the useful resources that students bring to the L2 classroom and can be used in a judicious fashion. Key words: First language, English only trend, facilitating device and judicious fashion Introduction It has always been a controversial issue to use the first language (L1) of the students in the foreign language (FL) classroom. The L1 is perhaps the most useful and the least-used resource students bring to the FL classroom. This is partly due to some factors. The theory and practice of established methods discourage the use of L1 in the FL classroom. The monolingual approach suggests that the target language ought to be the sole medium of communication, implying the prohibition of the native language would maximize the effectiveness of learning the target language. In situations where students have little opportunity to meet the FL outside the classroom, maximizing the use of the FL in the classroom is very important. One way to do is to carry out classroom management in the FL. If it is done in a planned, consistent way, it can supply a very effective meaningful focused input. However, in classrooms where all the learners share the same L1, there is a tendency for tasks which should be done in the L1, and there are sound arguments that support the use of L1 in the FL classroom. Activities such as conversation, discussion of intensive reading, preparation for writing etc. are done in the L1 because using the L1 is more natural with others who have the same L1; it is easier and more communicatively effective, and using the FL can be embarrassing for those who feel themselves not proficient enough in it. Some researchers have investigated the use of the L1 in the FL classrooms thoroughly. According to one view, the use of L1 may provide learners with additional cognitive support that allows them to analyze language and work at a higher level than the situations where they are restricted to sole use of their FL (Anton and DiCamilla, 1998; Brooks and Donato, 1994; Swain and Lapkin, 2000). Wood et al. suggest that the L1 assists learners in the process and completion of the tasks. In their study, Brooks and Donato (1994) showed that the L1 was used for three functions: to comment on their FL use; to establish a joint understanding of the task and to formulate the learners‘ goals. Swain and Lapkin (2000) argue that the L1 may facilitate L2 classroom activities, particularly for lowproficiency students and on complex tasks. In addition, some researchers think that prohibition of mother tongue use with monolingual students at lower levels of English proficiency is practically impossible (Nunan and Lamb, 1996). According to Dôrnyei and Kormos (1998) the L1 is used by L2 learners as a communication strategy to compensate for deficiencies in the target language. Auerbuch (1993) confirms the positive role of the mother tongue in the classroom; she also identifies the following uses for it: classroom management, language analysis, presenting rules that govern grammar, discussing cross-cultural issues, giving instructions or prompts, explaining errors, and checking for comprehension. The results of the study conducted by Schweers (1999) on the attitudes toward using 860 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo L1 in the L2 classroom indicate that the majority of students and teachers agreed that Spanish should be used in the EFL classroom. Using the L1 was found to have profound effects on some language skills. In a study, Knight (1996) reported that the learners who did the preparatory L1 discussion in groups did much better on the L2 written task than other learners who did preparatory L2 discussion even though that discussion was in the same language as the subsequent written task. Similarly Storch and Wigglesworth (2003) determined the positive attitudes towards the use of the L1 in completing tasks in L2 settings. Thus, it is possible to say that L1 has a useful role in helping learners gain the knowledge needed to reach a higher level of L2 performance. Another important effect of the L1 use has been reported on vocabulary learning. There are numerous ways of conveying the meaning of an unknown word. Studies comparing the effectiveness of various methods for learning always come up with the result that an L1 translation is the most effective (Laufer and Shmueli 1997). This is probably because L1 translations are usually clear, short and familiar –qualities which are very important in effective definitions (McKeown, 1993). When the L1 translation is combined with the word cards, learners have a very effective strategy to speed up their vocabulary growth (Nation, 2001). This finding also receives some support from studies of dictionary use. To effectively use a monolingual dictionary, learners need to have a large enough vocabulary storage (at least 2000 words) and need to be able to interpret definitions, which are much more difficult than L1 synonyms. That is why surveys of dictionary preference (Laufer and Kimmel, 1997; Atkins and Varantola, 1997) and learner use (Baxter, 1980) show that learners strongly prefer bilingual or bilingualized dictionaries. Despite the amount of studies carried out all over the world on the L1 use in the second language and FL classrooms, to our best knowledge, the number of studies investigating this issue in Turkey is very limited. Çelik (2006) indicates that especially the English teachers who work for the state high schools of the Ministry of National Education are not expected to use the foreign language efficiently enough; therefore, their use of the L1 in their courses is inevitable. The teachers‘ inefficiency in the FL results from the ineffective use of the FL during their education processes in the Teacher Training Institutions. Candidate teachers may prefer not to speak or to speak in Turkish during their education (Bekleyen, 2004). ġad (2009) reported that there are four reasons for the candidate teachers not to use FL in their lessons. These are: (1) course content or the practice of teaching; (2) not having a collaborative or an encouraging classroom atmosphere (anxiety level of the teachers increased in such atmospheres); (3) not being proficient enough in vocabulary and pronunciation, and (4) not having some standard norms on the use of the FL in the lessons. According to a recent research by ġevik (2007), most of the teachers and students are not against mother tongue, and mother tongue contributes to language learning towards various aims and at different levels. Inspired by the studies on the use of L1 use in FL classrooms, we decided to carry out a study on the use of the native language in the Turkish context, where English is taught as a foreign language and where the learners and most of the teachers share one common L1. We aimed to analyze the L1 use of the Turkish teachers in their FL classrooms and their rationales for this. Method of the Study A questionnaire was devised to gain insight into how teachers evaluated their perception of the use of the first language of the EFL learners in the classroom, from the vantage point of their daily practice. In the first four questions, we tried to get some demographic information about the teachers. The questions inquired their age, year of experience in teaching, their educational background, and their affiliation. The fifth question aimed at getting some information about whether the teachers allow the learners to use their L1 in the classroom. It was an openended question so that they could explain their reasons. The purpose of the sixth question was to get some information on the teachers‘ L1 use in the classroom. It was also an open-ended question which enabled them to explain their rationale for that. This questionnaire was sent out to nearly 110 teachers throughout Turkey, and exactly 72 were returned. However, only 57 of them were taken to final evaluation since some of them lacked the information required. Data was analyzed using SPSS package program (Version 15.0). Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the demographic information of the participants. The responses given for the last two questions were classified under various subheadings and were given as frequencies and percentages. Findings and Discussion Demographic information about the participants 861 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Demographic information gathered via a questionnaire revealed that 17 of the teachers were males; 44 of them were females. They have been teaching for a mean of 10.80±6.5 years. The information about their age, education levels and affiliation is given in Table 1. Age Education Affiliation Table 1: Demographic information of the participants n= 57 f % 21-25 years 5 8.8 26-30 years 19 33.3 31-35 years 12 21.1 over the age of 36 21 36.8 Bachelor‘s degree Master‘s degree PhD Primary school (State) Primary School (Private) University (State) University (Private) 22 20 15 2 2 35 18 38.6 35.1 26.3 3.5 3.5 61.4 31.6 Attitudes of teachers towards L1 use of the learners in the class Among the six questions asked there were two which are of particular relevance here. One elicited whether respondents allowed the learners to use the first language in the classroom or they preferred to prevent the learners from using it. Nearly half (f= 48; 84.2%) went for the first option, i.e. that the main emphasis had been on allowing the L1 use in the classroom, while 15.2% said they do not allow L1 use during the lessons. The other question elicited whether respondents, as teachers, use the first language in the classroom or they prefer to follow the English only in the class. According to the results, 79% (f= 45) believed that using the first language of the learners would be beneficial, while 21.1% (f= 12) said that the reverse was true. Why do teachers allow their learners to use L1 in the class? The first research question inquired the reasons of the teachers for allowing or forbidding the use of the L1 in English classrooms. The answers given to this question were analyzed descriptively and given as frequencies and percentages. The reasons of the teachers who allowed the learners‘ L1 use were categorized under 16 headings (Table 2). 1. 2. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Table 2: Reasons of the teachers to allow learners to use the L1 Items f % Level and interest of the learners 30 23.07 To explain something difficult and unclear and to ask questions 25 19.23 about some parts/points they haven‘t understood To ease the burden of the learners and to lower anxiety 10 7.70 It depends on the type of the lesson 9 6.92 For vocabulary learning 9 6.92 It saves time 8 6.15 To avoid misunderstanding 6 4.61 To prevent misunderstandings 5 3.84 To ensure comprehensible input 5 3.84 Only at the beginning of the school 4 3.07 Forcing to use FL all the time can lead to negative attitude 4 3.07 To have them provide connections between L1 and FL 3 2.30 They are not confident enough to use FL 3 2.30 To give feedback on the activities 3 2.30 They lack motivation to use FL in and outside the classroom 3 2.30 While preparing for the tasks 3 2.30 TOTAL 130 100 The vast majority of teachers of English in Turkey are non-native speakers. It might be eminently useful to have a closer look at those who allow the first language of the learners to be used in the classroom. Here are some 862 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo comments from teachers who believe that sharing their students‘ L1 makes the learners feel relaxed and more confident. ―Using L1 in the classroom lowers the anxiety level of the learners and the learners feel more relaxed‖ (7.70%; f= 10); ―They can explain something unclear and difficult, and they can also easily ask questions about some parts/points they haven‘t understood‖ (19.23%; f= 25); ― Some respondents describe the shared L1 as strength: ―Using L1 helps the learners avoid misunderstandings‖ (3.84%; f= 5); ―It is very useful especially for vocabulary learning‖ (6.92%; f= 9); ―It just saves time; the learners easily express themselves‖ (6.15%; f= 8). And several make reference to the level and interest of the learners: ―It depends on the learners‘ level; I usually allow the low level or beginners to use their L1, but as their level improves I restrict its use‖ (23.07%; f= 30); others state that they allow the learners to use L1 because they lack motivation and confidence to use FL in and outside the classroom: ―Most learners believe that they can‘t speak English, and they also believe that they will never have an opportunity or a necessity to use the FL outside the classroom. They either use L1 or keep quiet‖ (2.30%; f= 3). Quite many teachers believe that allowing the use of L1 is dependent on the type of the lesson: ―I don‘t allow them to use their L1 during skill based activities, especially during speaking activities; however, they can use L1 during grammar and vocabulary teaching sessions‖ (6.92%; f= 9). Some also find it useful while the learners prepare for some tasks (2.30%; f= 3). Why do not the teachers allow the learners to use L1 in the classroom? Analysis of our data revealed that the majority of the teachers believed that using the first language of the learners would be beneficial; however, 15.2% said that they would not allow L1 usage in their classes. The teachers who indicated that they did not allow their learners to use the L1 in the classes justified themselves under six main points. They are given in Table 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Table 3: Reasons of the teachers not to allow learners to use the L1 Items f To have them practice FL 7 To increase FL development 5 To prevent L1 use from being a bad habit. 4 They are learning English so they have to use it. 4 To master all skills 4 To prevent misbehavior in the classroom 5 TOTAL 29 % 24.13 17.25 13.79 13.79 13.79 17.25 100 Of the 12 teachers, 7 believed that the learners do not have any other opportunities for practicing the FL than the classroom; therefore those teachers wanted to provide their learners with opportunities so that they can use the FL as much as possible (24.13). 17.25% of the teachers believed that using FL in the classroom can increase FL development; if they let the learners use their L1, they would never improve themselves in the target language. Some teachers also stated that allowing L1 use in the classroom leads to misbehavior (17.25%; f= 5). They also justified themselves stating that encouraging the FL use may prevent the learners from having a bad habit of using the L1 use whenever they find themselves in a difficult situation; in order to master all skills FL use is required; they are there to learn English; therefore they have to use it (13.79%; f= 4 for each) Why do teachers use L1 in the classroom? In Turkey, most teachers of English are non-native speakers. Teachers and learners share the same language, so there are homogenous classrooms in terms of languages shared. Some teachers make use of this situation and state clearly that they find using the L1 in the classroom beneficial. The analysis of our data enabled us to classify the reasons of the teachers to use the L1 in the classroom under 13 items (Table 4). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.. 6. 7. 8. Table 4: Reasons of the teachers to use the L1 Items f To explain new or difficult grammar structures 26 Depending on the learners‘ language levels 16 To teach complicated or abstract vocabulary 12 To make them relaxed and confident 10 To explain how to write something (in writing courses) 7 Depending on the needs of the learners 7 To save time 6 To establish a good learning atmosphere 6 % 23.21 14.28 10.71 8.92 6.25 6.25 5.35 5.35 863 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. To check comprehension To explain long and complicated instructions To give feedback To teach some sub-skills or strategies To express some culture-based terms TOTAL 6 5 4 4 3 112 5.35 4.46 3.57 3.57 2.67 100 Many teachers indicated that they use the L1 to explain new or difficult grammatical patterns (23.21%; f= 26). The other important thing they stated was the level of the students (14.28%; f= 16). They said that especially with the low level students they needed to make explanations in the L1. However, as the level of the learners gets better, they prefer to use L2 in most of the contexts. Vocabulary teaching, especially teaching abstract words also necessitated the use of the L1 (10.71%; f= 12). Some teachers believed that using students‘ mother tongue makes them relaxed and confident as they understand much better (8.92%; f= 10). In addition, using the L1 creates a good learning atmosphere. Some teachers used L1 to tell some jokes or just to have an informal chat with the learners (5.35%; f= 6). The other reasons were found related to the skills to be taught (e.g. writing), needs of the learners, comprehension check to avoid ambiguity and confusion, and saving time. Why do not teachers use L1 in the classroom? Despite being in the minority, some teachers stated that they never use the L1 in their classes (21.1%; Table 5) 1. 2. 3. 4. Table 5: Reasons of the teachers not to use the L1 Items f To make learners hear correct pronunciation 10 To provide massive amount of meaningful input 8 To enhance learners‘ thinking skills and communicative competence 4 In speaking classes 4 TOTAL 26 % 38.46 30.76 15.39 15.39 100 Majority of those teachers believed that they are the main sources of correct pronunciation (38.46; f= 8) and comprehensible input (30.76%; f= 8) in the classroom. They also stated that using FL in the classroom would enhance the learners‘ thinking skills and communicative competence (15.39; f= 4). For them, especially in skill classrooms, the medium of instruction should be English (15.39%; f= 4). Conclusions and Recommendations The results of the present study on the use of the mother tongue in Turkish EFL contexts revealed many similarities to the previous research. Similar to the previous research findings (Anton and DiCamilla, 1998; Brooks and Donato, 1994; Schweers, 1999; Storch and Wigglesworth, 2003; Swain and Lapkin, 2000; Tang, 2002), majority of the Turkish teachers of English participated in this study stated that they found the use of the L1 beneficial. Some discrepancies exist and they can be explained with the level of the learners those teachers deal with and the goals of the institutions they work in. In Turkey, there are two types of universities: state and private. In most of the private universities the medium of instruction is English. Therefore, the learners should reach at a certain level before their sophomore years. Teachers working in these institutions should keep the L2 use at a maximum level. Similarly, in private primary and high schools, one of the most important objectives is to get the learner at a desired level in the L2. However, in most of the state universities and nearly all the state primary and high schools this is not the case. As Çelik (2006) indicated, the FL level of the English teachers working for the Ministry of National Education is not efficient enough to enable them to use the FL as the medium of instruction. As they cannot use the FL effectively, they have to allow the learners to use their L1 during the courses. According to Bekleyen (2004), even the candidate teachers prefer to use their L1 during their education and in his study, ġad (2009) tried to clarify the reasons for L1 preferences of these teachers-to-be. Considering the previous research findings, we may conclude that our study revealed similar results with the previous research either conducted in different countries or in Turkey. Our results also draw some parallels with the previous research in terms of the reasons why teachers find the L1 use in the classroom beneficial. According to the studies conducted before, one of the most effective ways of teaching vocabulary is the translation of the words since they provide clear, direct and more concrete information about the meaning (Laufer and Shmueli 1997; McKeown 1993). A great number of teachers in our study indicated that they use and allow the use of L1 especially during vocabulary teaching and learning. 864 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This study also revealed that the L1 in the Turkish schools plays a supportive role rather than be the medium of instruction because a large number of teachers stated that they allowed its use and they used it only with the low level students (i.e. with beginners or elementary level learners). As the learners improve in the process, teachers stated that they reduced the amount used or they restricted it to a minimum. They also stated that they use the L1 depending on the type of the lesson and the activity. Even if the medium of instruction of the majority of the learners will not be in English in the future, the efforts of the English teachers should be appreciated. Our results also confirm the findings of Auerbuch (1993). Although her study was conducted in an ESL setting, it is quite pleasing to see quite similar reasons of the Turkish teachers in their L1 using and allowing their learners‘ L1 use. Like her identification of the L1 use, the teachers participated in this study stated that they use the L1 to explain complicated grammar rules, difficult and abstract words; long and complicated instructions of the activities and games, to give feedback, and to check comprehension. Unlike the participants in Tang‘s study (2002), majority of the Turkish students are not motivated enough to learn and to become proficient in English. According to the comments given by the teachers participating in this study, a vast amount of learners believe that they will not use English in their future careers; they will not find opportunities to use English outside the classroom; and most of them lack motivation and confidence to communicate with a foreigner in English. Therefore, most of the learners consider English as a curricular requisite and their main purpose is to get an average grade that will enable them to pass the course. A close look at the research in the field of the L1 use in EFL and ESL classrooms show that limited and judicious use of the mother tongue in the English classrooms can facilitate the teaching and learning processes. Thus, the role of the L1 should not be over emphasized. We agree that English should be the main instrument in the classroom communication. However, we suggest that second language learning can be facilitated by raising awareness to the similarities and differences between the L1 and FL. Another suggestion can be extended to the teachers who would like to overcome the obstacles of the learners while using the FL. If they choose manageable tasks within the learners‘ proficiency level, use staged and graded tasks, inform learners of the learning goals of each task, discuss the value of using the FL in class, and use non-threatening tasks, L1 use may be kept to a minimum; FL use might be increased. 865 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Anton, M., & DeCamilla, F. (1998). Socio-cognitive functions of LI collaborative interaction in the L2 classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 54, 314-342. Atkins, B. T. S., & Varantola, K. (1997). Monitoring dictionary use. International Journal of Lexicography, 10, 145. Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexaming English only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 9–32. Baxter, J. (1980). The dictionary and vocabulary behaviour: a single word or a handful? TESOL Quarterly, 14, 325336. Bekleyen, N. (2004). Öğretmen ve sınıf arkadaĢlarının yabancı dil sınıf kaygısı ùzerindeki etkileri. Dil Dergisi, 123, 49-66. Brooks, F. B., & Donato, R. (1994). Vygotskyan approaches to understanding foreign language learner discourse during communicative tasks. Hispania, 77, 262-274. Çelik, S. (2006). Tùrkiyedeki Ġngilizce konuĢan yerli ve yabancı Ġngilizce ôğretmenleri arasındaki suni mùcadeleye yônelik kısa bir araĢtırma. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 14, 371-376. Dôrnyei, Z. & Kormos, J. (1998). Problem-solving mechanisms in L2 communication: A psycholinguistic perspective. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 349–385. Knight, T. (1996). Learning vocabulary through shared speaking tasks. The Language Teacher, 20, 24-29. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching, London: Yale University Press. Laufer, B., & Shmueli, K. (1997). Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it? RELC Journal, 28, 89-108. McKeown, M.G. (1993). Creating effective definitions for young word learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 17-31. Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Storch, N., & Wigglesworth, G. (2003). Is there a role for the use of the L1 in an L2 setting? TESOL Quarterly, 37, 760-770. Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996). The self-directed teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schweers, W. Jr. (1999). Using L1 in the L2 classroom. English Teaching Forum, 37, 6–9. Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2000). Task-based second language learning: The uses of the first language. Language Teaching Research, 4, 251-274. ġad, S. N. (2009). Aday Ġngilizce Öğretmenlerinin Alan Derslerinde Ġngilizce KonuĢmama Nedenleri: Nitel Bir ÇalıĢma, XVIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kurultayı, 1-3 Ekim 2009, Ege Üniversitesi, Ġzmir. ġevik, M. (2007). The place of mother tongue in foreign language classes. Ankara University, Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, 40, 99-119. Tang, J. (2002). Using L1 in the EFL classroom. English Teaching Forum, 40, 36-43. Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89-100. 866 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 125 Title A name given to the resource The use of first language in the EFL classroom: A facilitating or debilitating device? Author Author Solhi, Mehdi Büyükyazı, Münevver Abstract A summary of the resource. Despite widespread use of only English in teaching EFL classes, the use of first language in EFL class has been a perennial topic of discussion in the field of language education. Most established L2 teaching methods discourage the use of L1 in class. However, some scholars oppose ―English Only‖ trend in language classes (Auerbach, 1993; and Kumaravadivelu, 2003). In a setting where the students share a common L1, first language can create a less threatening atmosphere. In this article, the non native speaker teachers‘ attitudes toward the use of the first language of the learners in the classroom were asked through a questionnaire. Further, an attempt was made to investigate whether non native speaker English teachers notice the use of the first language as a facilitating or a debilitating factor. This article argues that first language is one of the useful resources that students bring to the L2 classroom and can be used in a judicious fashion. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c865dd488148ef6a0be5879423896dfe.pdf db64e3ff7082960d930c5cd1ba701b89 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reasons for Using or Avoiding Games in an EFL Classroom Miljana K. StojkoviĤ, High Business School, Leskovac, Serbia, nele_trajce@yahoo.com Danica M. JerotijeviĤ The Faculty of Philology and Arts, Kragujevac, Serbia danicajerotijevic@gmail.com Abstract: The aim of this research was to determine the reasons pro and against using games in an EFL classroom, as well as to discover possible obstacles teachers encounter when applying these activities. The study was performed on both teachers and students of English in Leskovac and Niń, towns in Southern Serbia. The total of 197 participants, 178 students and 19 teachers, took part in the survey. The main instrument employed in the research was questionnaire. The research proved that both the teachers and students prefer using to avoiding games in the classroom. During this research we were able to define some obstacles for introducing game in the classroom which must be overcome. The results suggest that games should be introduced in the classroom since both the teachers and students have found sufficient reasons for their usage. Keywords: educational games, EFL classroom, teachers, students Introduction Some authors suggest that language games should be treated as a central, not a peripheral part of the foreign language teaching program, since, besides being fun, they likewise comprise a goal and a re governed by rules (Haldfield 1999). S. M. Silvers, the author of the book Games for the Classroom and English Speaking Club, says that many teachers often perceive games as the time – fillers and a break from monotonous drilling (Silvers 1992). He claims that many teachers often overlook the fact that in a relaxed atmosphere, real learning can occur, and students are able to use the language they have been exposed to and have practised earlier. Following the definition of Greenall, we may say that games increase positive competition among students participating in a language activity (Greenall 1990). Lee Su Kim, the author of the work Creative Games for the Language Class, states that there is a common perception that all learning should be serious and solemn in nature, and that if one is having fun and there are hilarity and laughter, then it is not really learning (Lee 1995). However, she adds that it is possible to learn a language as well as to enjoy oneself at the same time, and one of the best way to do so is by using educational games. The justification for using games in a foreign language classroom can be found in the fact that students can benefit a lot by learning through games. Many experienced writers ensure us that games have educational value. The afore mentioned author gives us reasons for using games (Lee 1995): games may represent a break from the usual routine, but they can also be highly motivating and challenging. Furthermore, games are a successful encouragement for students to interact, communicate and sustain the effort of learning and they provide a meaningful context for language use, generate fluency, lower anxiety and introduce fun and relaxation. In terms of characteristics defining a game, we may further add a list provided by Caillois, i.e. games can be fun, separate when it comes to time and place, yet uncertain since the results cannot be predicted; moreover, they are rule-governed as well as fictitious, because they are related to a different reality, but they are also non-productive concerning students‘ active participation (Caillois 1957). Games are often used as short warm-up activities or when there is some time left at the end of a lesson. Yet, as Lee observes, a game "should not be regarded as a marginal activity filling in odd moments when the teacher and class have nothing better to do" (Lee 1979: 3). Even if the games result only in producing noise and in entertaining students, they are worth playing since they motivate learners and promote competence and fluency. Moreover, they let students see beauty in a foreign language, not just problems they face with while learning a language. Unfortunately, some of the teachers think that language games are nothing more than a waste of teaching time and that they do not have educational value. Others use them but they do not give them a central part in the foreign language teaching program, but use them as the time-fillers. On the other hand, teachers who realise all the advantages of using games in teaching English as a foreign language and who are aware of their educational values, are quite rare.There is an assumption that the similar situation the one as stated above, can be found in our primary schools. Because of previously stated facts we have decaded to carry out a research to determine the teachers` and students` attitudes towards using games in a foreign language classroom, as well as to determine how often our 940 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo primary teachers use games in teaching the English language. The research was carried out in Niń and Leskovac during the 2010/2011 school year. Reasons for Using or Avoiding Games – Theoretical Considerations Games Classification Games can be applied in numerous ways and at different points in a lesson. Consequently, there are diverse game types designed to stimulate and enhance various aspects of language learning. Some authors (Pham 2007) suggest the following classification of games in EFL: 1) Structure games which provide experience of the use of particular patterns of syntax in communication 2) Vocabulary games in which the learners‘ attention is focused mainly on words 3) Spelling games 4) Pronunciation games 5) Number games 6) Listen-and-do games 7) Games and writing 8) Miming and role play 9) Discussion games Depending on the application of games and numerous factors influencing successful language learning, the use of games in an EFL classroom may have advantages as well as disadvantages, or less favourable results. Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Games in EFL Teaching Considering language learning in general, we may list several advantages of the employment of games in an EFL classroom: 1) Through fun and apparently less demanding practice, ames increase learners‘ motivation and promote learning (Hansen 1994) 2) Group and peer work may induce teamwork and enable successful interaction (Rinvolucri & Davis 1995) 3) By lowering the affective filter (Krashen 1985), games provide favourable conditions for effective language acquisition (Wierus 1994) 4) Through a meaningful context, students are provided with a comprehensible input (Krashen 1985) 5) Each of the four basic skills may be practised by the use of games (Lee 1995) However, some of the disadvantages may be: 1) discipline issues, learners may get excessively noisy 2) straying away from the basic purpose of the game-play activity, perhaps, due to inadequate rules instruction, resulting in playing too much and the lack of learning 3) if games are already familiar or boring, students might not get equally involved 4) some learners, especially teenagers, may find games unnecessary and childish. Methodology The Research Subject In order to reveal the teachers` and students` reasons for using games, we have decided to conduct an empirical research, so the subject of our research is to determine teachers` and students` reasons either for using or avoiding games in the classroom, as well as to discover potential obstacles for their usage. Participants The research was performed on a group of primary teachers of the English language as well as on a group of primary pupils from the 5th to the 8th grade from schools in Niń and Leskovac during the 2010/2011 school year. The population consisted of 178 pupils and 19 teachers. In this research the availability sampling method was used. The afore mentioned schools were visited and both the teachers and pupils who were available and willing to participate in the research underwent the examination. 941 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Measure To examine the reasons for using or avoiding games in an English language classroom we employed a questioning technique, i.e. the main instrument was questionnaire. More precisely, there were two questionnaires, one for teachers and another for students. Each of them consisted of fourteen questions, realted to the values of educational games. Procedure The research was finished during the first half of February 2011. It was conducted between November 2010 and February 2011. The above stated schools were visited and the participants were given the questionnaire to fill in. Finally, the data and the obtained information were processed and interpreted resulting in the present paper. Statistical Data Processing All the data gathered were processed in the following way: the data were processed according to coding lists and prepared for analysis by forming a database. Subsequently, the results were submitted to a descriptive analysis in order to calculate the basic statistic parameters (absolute and relative frequency). A chi-square statistics (²) was used to investigate whether distributions of categorical variables differ from one another. The chi-square statistics compares the counts of categorical responses between two independent groups and the test in question can only be used on actual numbers. We have applied the formula ² = Σ   Where: ² - chi square, Σ – sum, ƒo – empirical/observed frequency, ƒt – theoretical/expected frequency, For contigency coefficient we have applied the formula: C= Where: C – contegency, ² - chi square, N – total number of examinees. Degrees of freedom dƒ for which we have applied the formula dƒ= (r-1) ∙ (c – 1), which means (number of columns minus one) x (number of rows minus one). Level of significance p = (0.01) or (0.05). The results and discussion Reasons for Using Games The table 1 presents the reasons for using games according to the opinion of the students, which were obtained by answering the Q8 in the questionnaire. The students were allowed to choose more answers. Table 1. Reasons for using games – students Reasons lesson will be more interesting helpful in learning reason for attending the class because of groupwork increases competition the teacher will explain less some other reasons Σ ƒ 133 62 47 69 33 27 3 343 % 35.56 16.58 12.57 18.45 8.82 7.22 0.80 100.00 In the table 1, we detect the most important reasons for using games according to students` opinions. The most important reason for using game during language classes is that lessons are more interesting with language games applied, (133 or 35.56%), the second reason is that the students can work in groups (69 or 18.45%), then games can help learning (62 or 16.58%) and finally, the games in language learning process can be a reason for attending the classes (47 or 12.57%). These are the students` opinions yet it is almost certain that teachers would not use games merely because they make a lesson more interesting. The teachers need more convincing reasons for using games. Hence we also examined teachers‘ opinion about the reasons for using games in teaching. The results were gained by answering Q10 in the questionnaire. The teachers were allowed to choose more answers. The results are shown in the table below: 942 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 2. Reasons for using games - teachers Reasons they are motivating present language in meaningful context students by themselves practise the use of language easy groupation of students learning grammar is easier new vocabulary learning is easier for presentation of a new lesson warm up as a reward better communication other reasons Σ ƒ 14 10 13 5 11 13 9 14 5 12 1 107 % 13.08 9.34 12.15 4.67 10.28 12.15 8.41 13.08 4.68 11.22 0.94 100.00 From this table we can formulatea list of top five reasons for using games according to the examined teachers. The first place according to teachers` opinion belongs to the fact that games are motivating and that they are good as warm – up activities (14 or 13.08%), then students by themselves practise to use language and it is easier to learn new vocabulary through games (13 or 12.15%). The third reason the teachers stressed is the fact that games enhance more successful communication (12 or 11.22%). The following fact underscores that learning of grammar is easier through games (11 or 10.28%), and finally, the last most important reason mentioned by the teachers is that it represents language in meaningful context (10 or 9.34%). As we can infer from the previous tables, teachers‘ and students` opinion about the reasons for using games differs, and this can be explained by the fact that teachers are more experienced and they are able to realise the value that a game has and use it properly, while students only see those values that are pereferred by themselves or their peers. On the basis of the obtained results, we may conclude that the facts mentioned in the theoretical part about reasons for using games have been confirmed. Reasons for not Using Games In the table 3, the results we got after the students answerd Q9 in the questionnaire are presented. Having processed the results, we presented them in the following table: Table 3. Reasons for not using games – students ƒ % unitnerested 8 11.78 prefer learning to playing 8 11.78 distract in learning 5 11.11 prefer some other activities 5 11.11 don`t know 16 35.56 other reasons 2 4.44 44 100.00 Reasons Σ Considering this table, we may conclude that the majority of students who would not use games do not know the reason for this (16 or 35.56), but still there are the students` who are not interested in this method and who prefer learning to playing (8 or 11.78%). The second reason for not using games according to the students` opinion is that the game distracts learning or that the students prefer some other activity (5 or 11.11%). The explanation for such results can be found in the fact that these students who are not willing to use games have not been exposed to them or are used to the old traditional way of learning and to other activities, so now they fear that the class may transform into playing only and that in such circumstances learning can not take place. Although we have got results that all the teachers are either willing or positive about using games in the classroom, however, those who are uncertain stated the following reasons for not using them. The results were 943 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo gained by answering Q11 in the teachers` questionnaire. Having processed the results, they have been shown in the table presented below: Table 4. Reasons for not using games - teachers ƒ 1 5 2 8 Reasons a game doesn`t have educational value there are better methods than this makes a mess in the classroom teachers can`t follow the work of the students other reasons Σ % 12.5 62.5 25.00 100.00 From the previous table, we can deduce that the teachers are mainly preoccupied with the fact that where playing takes place, we can also find mess. That is mainly the reason why such a large number of teachers avoid using games. Another important reason is that they are not able to follow the work of their students, and this can be related to the previous reason: if there is a mess in the classroom teachers would not be able to follow students‘ work because of losing control over the class. That is why many teachers refuse to use games in a foreign language classroom. Obstacles for Using Games Up to this point, we have been discussing the reasons for using or avoiding games according to students` and teachers` opinion, nevertheless, there are certain obstacles which do not depend on teachers or students but of something or somebody else. Thus, in this research, we discovered what these obstacles can be. This subject was not planned in the research tasks but since we got that information we have decided to present it and discuss it, hoping that this discussion may open some important questions for further discussion. The results were obtained by answering Q12 in the teachers` questionnaire and the results are presented in the table below. As we can see from the table 5 the main obstacle is the lack of time (14 or 40%), moreover, there are the curriculum and unfamiliarity with this method (5 or 14.28%). Unfortunately, we can still find those teachers who are worried about parents` opininon and their colleagues` remarks (3 or 8.57%). And finally there is a small number of teachers who think that the school would not permit the usage of game in the classroom (1 or 2.86%). Table 5. Obstacles for using games Obstacles ƒ % the school doesn`t permit this method because of the curriculum lack of time unfamiliarity with the method students` negative attitude parents` opinion the remarks of the colleagues no obstacles Σ 1 5 14 5 _ 3 3 4 2.86 14.28 40.00 14.28 _ 8.57 8.57 11.44 35 100.00 Considering the previously stated facts we can conclude that teachers should organize their classes more effectively, and find a few minutes for introducing games in ELT. Yet, there is a problem with the curriculum and it can be solved only if the teachers and the school principal make a compromise for using games and try to find a solution how to place games in the school curriculum. The problem of unfamiliarity with this method, can be explained by the fact that either teachers are not interested in these new methods of teaching, or the school has not organized teacher training yet. Concerning parents` and their colleagues` opinion, the teachers can solve that problem by introducing parents and their colleagues to the benefits and advantages of this method. Teachers` Opinion about the Educational Value of Games According to their Usage For this task it was compulsory to make a contigency table. We used it to connect two variables: Q7 and Q13 from the database for teachers` questionnaire. The results that we got are shown in the following table. 944 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 6. Teachers` opinion about educational value of games according to their usage ²=3.865 The usage of games Always Rarely Σ Very big 1 16.66 2 15.38 3 15.79 C=0.663 dƒ=2 Educational value Big 4 1 66.68 3 8 23.08 7 9 36.84 p=0.01 Σ Small 6 16.66 100.00 13 61.54 100.00 19 47.37 100.00 We have obtained chi square statistics (²= 3.865) and predetermined level of significance (0.01), and degrees of freedom (df =2). Entering the chi-square distribution table with degree of freedom and reading along the row, we find our value of ² (3.865) lies between 5.991 and 9.210. Since our probability level (2.42) is lower than significant levels (5.991 and 9.210), we can conclude that there is no statistically significant differences in the opinion about the educational value of games among theachers who use game constatntly and those who use them rarely. From the prevously presented table, we can conclude that those teachers who use game constantly in teaching English as a foreign language, are more aware of the educational value of games than those teachers who use them rarely. This can be explained by the fact that those teachers who use game in education, have probably noticed that the students make some progress in learning when they are learning through games, while the other teachers have not realised this. They might be afraid that teaching may transform into palying and that students will not be able to learn anything. Finally, we can conclude that our hypothesis, that teachers who use games constantly realize the educational value of games and their advantages unlike those teachers who use it rarely, has been confirmed. Conclusion In our research, we sought to disclose teachers` and students` reasons either for using or avoiding games in an English language classroom. The initial assumption was that some of the English language teachers have negative attitudes towards using games as a teaching method. Some of them think that the language game is nothing more than losing time and that it does not have any educational value. The others believe that a language game has its eductional value, but use it rarely in their classes. Finally, there are only few teachers who recognize all the values and advantages of language games. This research has likewise been based on the supposition that although game means fun, it also has its educational value. And for this reason it should be introduced in language classes. Through games students are able to realise their own as well as their classmates‘ progress in learning language. This type of activity can also be a perfect way for practising and learning a language since it usually includes a variety of language structures that students will later use in every day situations. Consequently, a language game can be used for presentation, as a warm-up activity, for practising and learning vocabulary and grammar, for improving language skills or simply as a break from drilling and finally, as a reward. The previously presented study has the following features: it was performed according to the research problem and tasks and ince we could not find numerous types of research on this problem, our research proved that research of this kind can be successfully carried out. It also proved: that there are significantly more reasons for using games than for avoiding them, that both teachers and students are awarer of the advantage of this method of teaching or learning, that there are certain obstacles that must be overcome if we want to introduce this method in teaching, and finally that the teachers who use games constantly are more aware of the educational value of games and their advantages in comparison to the teachers who use it rarely. We may assume that some of the examined teachers will use language games but according to their opinion there are certain boundaries to overcome. Possible ways to overcome the difficulties in question are: - to introduce teachers with this method of teaching (the best way is through teachers` training); - to find a compromise with the school about this method, which means that both the school and language teachers should try to introduce and provide games with a part it deserves in the curriculum; - to attempt to disregard their colleagues` negative reamrks about this way of teaching. The conducted research may be a minute contribution to the improvement of teaching in a foreign language classroom, yet it may raise some important issues and stimulate further research on the subject. We hope to entice 945 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo teachers to consider the possibility of using games more frequently than they do. Finally, taking the eductional value of language games into consideration, it may be interesting to perform a research in due course which will examine students‘ progress in learning English as a foreign language with games representing an integral part of the lesson. References Amato, R.. (1988). Interaction in the second language classroom. New York: Longman. Apt, Krzysztof & Van Rooij, Robert.. (2008). New Perspectives on Games and Interaction. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Bonanno, Giacomo & Van Der Hoek, Wiebe & Wooldridge, Michael. (2008). Logic and the Foundations of Game and Decision Theory. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Byrne, D.. (1995). Games. Teaching Oral English. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited. Caillois, R.. (1957). Les jeux et les hommes. Paris: Gallimard. Claparède, Édouard. (1919). Les nouvelles conceptions éducatives et leur vérification par l‘expérience. Scientia, no. 35, p. 3–5. Dubreucq, Francine. (1993). ―Jean-Ovide Decroly‖, in Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education, vol. 23, no. ½. UNESCO: International Bureau of Education, p. 249–75. Froebel, Friedrich. (1912). The Education of Human Nature, in Froebel‘s Chief Writings on Education, rendered into English by Fletcher, S.S.F. and Welton, J. London: Arnold. Gardner, H.. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books. Greenall. S.. (1990). Language games and activities. Hulton educational publications Ltd, Britain. Hadfield, J.. (1999). Beginners‘ communication games. Longman. Hameline, Daniel. (1993). ―Édouard Claparède‖, in Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education, vol. 23, no. 1/2, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education, p. 159-71. Hansen, M.. (1994). The use of games for vocabulary presentation and revision. Vol 36 No 1, January, March 1998. Available at http://www. Esldepot.com/section.php/4/0. Consulted in December 2010. Jacobs, G. M. & Kline Liu, K.. (1996). Integrating language functions and collaborative skills in the second language classroom. TESL Reporter, 29: p. 21-33. Krashen, S.D.. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. New York: Longman. Kumar, Rita & Lightner, Robin.. (2007). Games as an Interactive Classroom Technique: Perceptions of Corporate Trainers, College Instructors and Students. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Volume 19, Number 1, p. 53-63. Laurie, Simon. (2009). The Training of Teachers and Methods of Instruction (1901), The United States: Kessinger Publishing Company. Lee, S. K.. (1995). Creative games for the language class. Malaysia: Forum, 33 (1). Available at 946 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/no1/p35.htm. Consulted in February 2011. Lengeling, M. & Malacher, C.. (1997). A natural resource for teachers. Mexico: English teaching forum, vol.35 no.4. Miller, Christopher Thomas. (2008). Games: Purpose and Potential in Education. New York: Springer. Pham, T. H.. (2007). The effects of games on optional English classes in Ben Tre primary school. HCM city: M.A thesis at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University- HCM City. Rinvolucri, M. & Davis, P.. (1995). More grammar games: Cognitive, affective and movement activities for EFL students. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sandford, Richard, Ulicsak, Mary, Facer, Keri & Rudd, Tim. Teaching with Games, Guidance for Educators. http://www2.futurelab.org.uk/resources/documents/project_reports/teaching_with_games/Guidance_for_Educators.p df. (consulted on December 2010). Silvers, S. M.. (1992). Games for the classroom and english speaking club. Washington: English teaching forum. Wierus, W.. (1994). Zagraj razem a name. Czesc I. Jezyki obce w szkole. May-June: pp.218-222. (extracted from Urberman. A.. (1998). The use of games for vocabulary presentation and revision Vol 36 No 1, January- March 1998. Available at http://www.esldepot.com/section.php/4/0. Consulted in January 2011. Wright, A., Betteridge, D., & Buckby, M.. (2005). Games for language learning (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. 947 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 559 Title A name given to the resource Reasons for Using or Avoiding Games in an EFL Classroom Author Author Stojković, Miljana K. Jerotijević, Danica M. Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this research was to determine the reasons pro and against using games in an EFL classroom, as well as to discover possible obstacles teachers encounter when applying these activities. The study was performed on both teachers and students of English in Leskovac and Niń, towns in Southern Serbia. The total of 197 participants, 178 students and 19 teachers, took part in the survey. The main instrument employed in the research was questionnaire. The research proved that both the teachers and students prefer using to avoiding games in the classroom. During this research we were able to define some obstacles for introducing game in the classroom which must be overcome. The results suggest that games should be introduced in the classroom since both the teachers and students have found sufficient reasons for their usage. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/65081b58a3279c254cef40f4b841f6a0.pdf eabc2601cedb80a35286c884400f341b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo THE EFFECTS OF THE SYLLABUS, METHODS AND TEACHING STYLES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE COURSES ON THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS Mehmet TAKKAÇ Atatùrk University, Department of English Language takkac@atauni.edu.tr Aysel ÇATAL Atatùrk University, Lecturer ayselcatal@atauni.edu.tr Ahmet Selçuk AKDEMĠR Erzincan University, Lecturer ancient---mariner@hotmail.com Abstract: English is taught as a foreign language nearly in all higher education institutions in Turkey. Though the aim of teaching English is mainly based on communicational skills, it is rarely performed with innovative and technologically up to date methods. Many instructors find it easier to construct courses with a traditional style without using technological devices and materials. English lessons become rather boring and dull, and as a result of this, the achievement and attitudes of students decline. The aim of this study is to assess the effect of the syllabus, methods and teaching styles of foreign language courses on the achievements and attitudes of students. This research is an experimental study with a mixed group and an attitude test, open – ended questions survey model. The study was conducted on university students in the 2nd grade of the School of Health, Erzincan University. 21 male and 24 female students took part in this research. As the first step of the research the syllabus design, method and teaching style of the class was defined by an interview with the instructors of English courses. Then the opinions of students on English courses were obtained with a questionnaire using the Likert scale model. Based on statistical analyses of the questionnaires and evaluation of observations on the syllabus, methods and teaching style of the instructor, it was concluded that the achievements and attitudes of the students vary according to the syllabus design, method and teaching style of the class. Key Words: language teaching, attitude, syllabus design, style, teaching materials 1. Basic Concepts 1. 1. Syllabus in Foreign Language Teaching In recent years there occurred an expanding interest to define the process of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT). This tendency of understanding and defining the process has led to the emergence of many concepts one of which is syllabus. The simplest explanation of this concept is ‗a statement of what is to be learnt‘. A syllabus is a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning elements which translates the philosophy of the curriculum into a series of planned steps leading towards more narrowly defined objectives at each level (Dubin and Olsthain, 1997). There are many other definitions of the term itself;  A syllabus is an endorsement of specific set of sociolinguistic and philosophical beliefs regarding power, education and cognition that guide a teacher to structure his or her class in a particular way (Hadley, 1998)  A syllabus is a social construction produced interdependently by teachers and learners. It is concerned with the specification and planning of what is to be learnt (Candlin, 1984). Basic syllabus types are as follow:  Type A (interventionist) syllabi are concerned with what should be learned. They divide the language into small, discrete units and evaluate the outcomes in terms of mastery of the language.  Type B (non-interventionist) syllabi are concerned with how the language is learned and how this language is integrated with learners‘ experiences. Evaluation criteria are set by the learners themselves (White, 1988). 56 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. Methods in Foreign Language Teaching There are several FLT methods and those methods have an extension from behavioral methods to communicative – psychological ones. Each method has some challenges over the preceding one. For example Silent Way was born with the notion that though they learn language with ALM (Audio –Lingual Method) the students would not be able to communicate out of the class furthermore language learning can not be a habit formation as human being do learn the expressions that s/he has never heard. Basic methods are:  Grammar – Translation Method (GTM)  Direct Method (DM)  Audio – Lingual Method (ALM)  Silent Way  Suggestopedia (Desuggestopedia)  Community Language Learning  Total Physical Response (TPR)  Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)  Content – based, Task – based and Participatory Approaches  Cooperative Learning and Multiple Intelligences ( Larsen – Freeman, 2000) 1. 3. Style in FLT ―Every man is in certain respects (a) like all other men, (b) like some other men, (c) like no other man" (Kluckhohn and Murray, 1953). This quotation is perhaps the best way of mentioning the difference of each human being both as learners and teachers. Style is the difference of each person from the others. If the subject is an educational setting, then style turns to have two aspects; teacher‘s teaching style and learner‘s learning style. A good teaching/learning environment is created only when learner‘s and teacher‘s styles cover one another. Style has a crucial role on achievement and attitude towards any topic or course. 1. 4. Attitude Attitude is the mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual‘s response to all objects with which it is related (Triandis, 1971). Attitude is a complex term having relationships with many other internal and external factors when the subject is ‗attitude towards learning a language or the language itself‘. Language teaching includes all the factors such as teacher, learner, and the interaction of the two, internal and external variables as well as attitude of the learner. 2. Methods and Procedures The aim of this study is to assess the effect of the syllabus, methods and teaching styles of foreign language courses on the achievements and attitudes of students. This research is an experimental study with a mixed group and an attitude test, open – ended questions survey model. The study was conducted on university students in the 2nd grade of the School of Health, Erzincan University. 21 male and 24 female students took part in this research. As the first step of the research the syllabus design, method and teaching style of the class was defined by an interview with the instructors of English courses. Then the opinions of students on English courses were obtained with a questionnaire using the Likert scale model. 3. Analyses and Findings 3. 1. Views of the Instructor The instructor of the English courses of the school is a 54 years – old male having B.A. from ELT department. He has been teaching for 30 years. He was interviewed by the authors of the paper and the interview included open – ended questions such as: - What do you think about the efficiency of English lectures you give in this class? - What are the aims/goals/purposes of your course? - How do you plan your courses? - What are the basic elements of your teaching style/approach/method? - How do you assess your students? - What are the materials of your English course? - How do you evaluate yourself by means of being a teaching professional? - What do you expect from your students? - What is the manner of interactions of your class? The instructor‘s answers are as follow: 57 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo I think my English course is far from being efficient enough because of students‘ attitude towards English. - My aim is to teach English through rules and habit formation in order to make students understand English for their profession and career. - I follow the plans that I have shaped through years of experiences without depending on any external planning. - Basic elements of my teaching style are presentation of the subjects, explanation of the rules and exceptions of each rule, then giving examples of the grammatical structure. - I use written exams to assess my students. - I use only printed materials for the courses and I generally present the subject in the board. Very rarely do I use powerpoint presentations because it is difficult to prepare or adapt a prepared one. - I have spent nearly 30 years as an instructor so I feel confident enough to lecture but I should admit that I am reluctant to learn about and use new technologies. - I expect them to learn a good English especially grammar and vocabulary. - Generally I do present the matter and students learn it by listening and note – taking, though I tried to integrate them to the courses actively, they seemed unwilling. 3. 2. Questionnaire Attitudes of the students were determined by a questionnaire which was developed by Gùven (2007) and proved to be reliable and valid after some pre – experimental applications to minor groups. The questionnaire includes 24 items 12 of which are negative such as: Item 2: I feel distressed during English courses (strongly agree/agree/moderately agree/disagree/strongly disagree) Item 16: English is terrifying course for me (strongly agree/agree/moderately agree/disagree/strongly disagree) 12 items are positive such as: Item 11: I find it interesting to discuss the topics in English courses (strongly agree/agree/moderately agree/disagree/strongly disagree) Item 17: I find English as an enjoyable course (strongly agree/agree/moderately agree/disagree/strongly disagree) 12 positive questions were designed to determine positive attitudes of the students while remaining 12 questions existed to provide internal coherence of the questionnaire. In order to ensure the validity of the study, only positive questions were taken into account while analyzing the data. Cronbach Alpha validity of the scale was calculated as 0.91 showing that the study has the validity. - SPSS analysis of the questionnaire: Descriptive Statistics N Minimum ORTALAMA 46 Valid N (listwise) 46 1,00 Maximum 4,83 Mean Std. Deviation 2,3696 ,94684 Mean: 2.37 Standard Deviation: 0,95 Mean value of the answers given to 12 questions which are asking about positive attitude towards English courses is 2,37 which means ‗disagree‘ in our questionnaire. The results of statistical data showed that students do not agree positive attitude statements of the questionnaire. 4. Conclusion As English becomes an international language for nearly all areas (science, communication, interaction etc.) it is not reasonable to go on using old – fashioned methods, strategies and approaches to teach English as a foreign language. Like all other sciences and educational activities, FLT also needs to be revised according to the needs of modern world. As it can be seen easily from these study, it is crucial to think FLT as a whole process along with all components e.g. teacher, teaching style, students and even external ones such as school and materials. Students learn best when they feel confident and find the topic worth to be learnt by means of their needs. So the courses should be constructed to include technological settings and media so that students will find it interesting and they will be able to learn the language itself rather than set of grammar rules and patterns. 58 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teacher has also has responsibilities of being well prepared for the course and equipped enough to be able to use technology and multi – dimensional teaching techniques. Having only one type of teaching style in mind makes the teacher a flat one. As a result s/he will not be able to control the class and teaching/learning process. References Candlin, C.N. (1984). Syllabus design as a critical process. In C.J.Brumfit (Ed.). General English Syllabus Design. ELT Documents No. 118. London: Pergamon Press & TheBritish Council. 29-46 Dubin, F. & Olstahin, E. (1997) Course design: Developing programs and materials for language learning, Cambridge: CUP Gùven, Z. Z. (2007) Öğrenme stillerine dayalı etkinliklerin ôğrencilerin dinleme becerisi eriĢileri, Ġngilizce dersine yônelik tutumları ve ôğrenilenlerin kalıcılığına etkisi. (Unpublished PhD Dissertation) Selçuk University: Turkey Hadley, G. (1998) Looking back and looking ahead: A Forecast for the early 21 st century publications.org/tlt/articles/2001/07/hadley last access) (http://www.jalt- Kluckhohn, C., & Murray, H. A. (1953) Personality formation: The determinants. In C. Kluckhohn & H. A. Murray, Personality in nature, society & culture (pp. 35-48). New York: Knopf. Larsen – Freeman, D. (2000) Techniques and principles in language teaching, Oxford: OUP Triandis, H. (1971) Attitude and attitude change. USA: Wiley Publications. White, R. (1988). The ELT curriculum, design, innovation and management. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Publications 59 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 12 Title A name given to the resource THE EFFECTS OF THE SYLLABUS, METHODS AND TEACHING STYLES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE COURSES ON THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS Author Author TAKKAÇ, Mehmet ÇATAL, Aysel AKDEMİR, Ahmet Selçuk Abstract A summary of the resource. English is taught as a foreign language nearly in all higher education institutions in Turkey. Though the aim of teaching English is mainly based on communicational skills, it is rarely performed with innovative and technologically up to date methods. Many instructors find it easier to construct courses with a traditional style without using technological devices and materials. English lessons become rather boring and dull, and as a result of this, the achievement and attitudes of students decline. The aim of this study is to assess the effect of the syllabus, methods and teaching styles of foreign language courses on the achievements and attitudes of students. This research is an experimental study with a mixed group and an attitude test, open – ended questions survey model. The study was conducted on university students in the 2nd grade of the School of Health, Erzincan University. 21 male and 24 female students took part in this research. As the first step of the research the syllabus design, method and teaching style of the class was defined by an interview with the instructors of English courses. Then the opinions of students on English courses were obtained with a questionnaire using the Likert scale model. Based on statistical analyses of the questionnaires and evaluation of observations on the syllabus, methods and teaching style of the instructor, it was concluded that the achievements and attitudes of the students vary according to the syllabus design, method and teaching style of the class. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3ee3745e4d353fc0df418f5699e97024.pdf d98db1c66fb64188bd44888332544948 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Have them move, see and speak! Jerry Istvan Thekes Director of studies IFF Language Academy, Hungary www.jerrythekes.com jerry@jerrythekes.com Abstract: The aim of this study is to show that the 21st century modern TEFL classroom has to provide entertaining, visual and kinesthetic elements for the language learners. Four different TEFL games are presented in order to prove that total physical involvement of the students aided by visuals help teaching and language acquisition. The description and the presentation of the ‘Sandwich‘,‘ the Kali goddess‘, the ‘Traffic lights‘ and the ‘Luggage‘, the ‗Scales‘ and the ‗Swatch‘ game all serve the aim to justify the necessity of students‘ moving and being given plenty of visuals during the lessons. The need to physically involve the students is supported by such respected professionals as Scott Thornbury, Michael Swan and Mario Rinvolucri. The academic support is also aided by the two greatest TEFL experts on motivation, Dôrnyei and Csizér Key Words: visualization, grammar games, kinesthetics Introduction In this article, I will present the description of six grammar games which will be described. By grammar game, I mean an entertaining activity involving learners in order for them to comfortably acquire the grammar point. I will try to argue for the importance of teaching grammar through fun. Constant explanation of grammar rules and decontextualizing grammar are a quick way for the teacher to demotivate their students and unfortunately a lot of non-native EFL teachers still fall into the comfortable trap of presenting grammar through rules as they saw it done to them when they studied a foreign language. This fact is supported by Xiao-Yun (2010) who asserts that ―traditional grammar teaching is often associated with the dry memorization of rules and the equally dry prospect of applying these rules in fill-in-the-blank, pattern practice, substitution transformation, and translation, which cause negative feelings.‖ A further support on this opinion comes from Krashen (1987), according to whom ―language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill.‖ Throughout this article, I will use the terminology ‗grammar McNugget‘, which will stand for the particular grammar points. This denomination comes from Thornbury (2010), who says that ―an enthusiasm for compartmentalization, inherited from grammars of classical languages, has given rise to the elaborate architecture of the so-called tense system – including such grammar McNuggets as the future-in-the-past, and the past perfect continuous, not to mention the conditionals, first, second and third – features of the language that have little or no linguistic, let alone psychological, reality.‖ As I give a description of games, I will indicate the grammar McNugget that the teacher is supposed to teach with that particular game. Thornbury‘s notion of grammar McNugget is also supported by Michael Swan (1985, 76) who posits that „the role of 'grammar' in language courses is often discussed as if 'grammar' were one homogeneous kind of thing. In fact, 'grammar' is an umbrella term for a large number of separate or loosely related language systems, which are so varied in nature that it is pointless to talk as if they should all be approached in the same way. How we integrate the teaching of structure and meaning will depend to a great extent on the particular language items involved.‖ The teaching of six grammar points, these loosely related language systems, will be presented in this article. I firmly believe the conveyance of grammar usage needs to be carried out in a demonstrative and entertaining way for the students to be receptive to the learning content of the lesson. Using the phrase ‗learning content‘ I refer to Medgyes‘ terminology, who has differentiated between the two main targets of an EFL lesson: ―…foreign-language teachers have no direct body of knowledge available in the sense that physics or history teachers have. Or rather they have two different sets of content to teach: the grammar of the foreign language and the topics which serve to present and to carry to specific items of grammar. Littlejohn (1992) calls these two sets the 685 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo learning content and the carrier content (paraphrased in Medgyes, 1995).‖ The main target will be the teaching of grammar in this article. I will not use Medgyes‘ terminology-learning content- but I will use the one of Thornbury‘s quoted earlier: Grammar McNuggets.‘ In order to motivate students to learn grammar, teachers need to fend off the tension the learners usually are under. If it is proved to them that the acquisition of grammar structures is an enjoyable pastime, they will be more willing to proceed in their EFL studies. When I use the term ‗motivate‘, I always have Dôrnyei‘s and Csizér‘s (1999) research in mind. They have asserted that it is important to create a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere and to make the language classes interesting. I believe grammar games such as the ones described here assure that the learners are entertained. Richard-Amato (1988) also supports the view of a relaxed classroom atmosphere by stating that ―it appears that a lowered anxiety level is related to proficiency in the target language.‖ The ‗Sandwich‘, the ‗Kali goddess‘, and the Traffic Lights‘ games- the ones described below - are a key to achieving a lowered anxiety level. Making language teaching and the teaching of grammar game-like is of crucial importance so as to keep students interested and to create a relaxed atmosphere. Hadfield (1992) says that ―affective activities aim to create a positive and supportive group atmosphere in a non-explicit way‖ As it will be seen, the below-described grammar games are aimed at creating a positive and supportive atmosphere. The notion of making the lesson game-like is also asserted by Rinvolucri (1995): ―Grammar is perhaps so serious and central in learning another language that all ways should be searched for which will focus student energy on the task of mastering and internalizing it. One way of focusing this energy is through the release offered by games.‖ Games not only engage students‘ interest in the TEFL classroom but they also keep them involved. As Rosenberg (2009, 10) asserts we should „focus on the students in the classroom, on keeping them involved, on having them doing and producing rather than passively receiving information.‖ By involving the students in grammar games, the teacher can achieve his/her goal of having the learners acquire the grammar McNugget taught in the particular lesson. Teaching grammar McNuggets through games necessarily has an implication of avoiding students‘ consciousness raising. A no consciousness raising strategy stands for implicit grammar teaching. The idea of teaching grammar implicitly through comprehensible inputs comes from Krashen and is well known in the TEFL profession. Krashen and Terrell(1983) further elaborated on this idea by saying that ―we should not expect our students to be concerned with fine points of grammar while they are speaking in free conversation.‖ I will present six grammar games. I will precisely name the level of students, the grammar McNugget of the lesson, the materials and the procedure. Presentation of grammar games 1. Sandwich game Grammar McNugget: adjectives+prepositions Level: intermediate Material: pictures, loaf of sliced toast bread, duct-tape Procedure: The whole concept for this grammar game is that adjectives and governed prepositions are always used with a noun or a gerund. The adjective, the preposition and the noun form a sandwich with the preposition being the inner part. Prior to the lesson, the teacher sticks cards with adjectives (afraid, surprised, interested, etc.) on them onto one set of slices of toast bread and cards with nouns (spiders, gift, baseball game, etc.) onto another set. In the lesson, the cards with prepositions written on them are placed on the table. Pairs of students are given slices with adjectives on them and they have to find the correct prepositions. An ‗afraid‘ slice is matched with the ‗of‘ preposition card, for instance. The pairs present their unfinished sandwiches and as a result of peer-correction, they will end up having the right adjective-preposition chunk. As the following stage of this game, they are instructed by the teacher to find the noun slice in order for them to have a complete sandwich. Such sentences as ‗I am afraid of spiders‘; ‗My sister is interested in the baseball game‘ are formed as a result of the learners having made their sandwiches. The sandwiches consists of a slice of bread with adjectives, a preposition card in the middle and a noun on another slice of bread. 686 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Kali goddess game Grammar McNugget: Conjunctions (in spite of the fact, if, despite) Level: upper-intermediate Material: slips of paper, pictures, duct-tape Procedure: Prior to the lesson the teacher has put six different piles of prompt cards on two different chairs in the classroom. On one chair there is a pile of images designating different notions, e.g.: ‗have a stomach ache‘, ‗rainy day‘, ‗ have a bad car‘, etc. On another chair, there is another pile of cards with sentences written on them, e.g.: she is working the whole day‘,‗we are playing tennis outside‘, I am driving all the way to Turkey‘, etc. In the lesson the teacher has the learners choose two pictures. Once they have chosen them, they are told to go to the chair with the pile of sentences. They are then instructed to find a contrasting match to their pictures. For instance, the ‗rainy day‘ pictures will be matched up with the ‗we are playing tennis outside‘ sentence. After all the students are done with their matching, one has to go behind the teacher, who is standing in front of the classroom with a card ‗in spite of the fact‘ stuck on his/her chest with a blue-tack. The student behind the teacher holds up the sentence in his right hand and the picture in his left hand. The rest of the class now sees a fragmented visual sentence which one student has to read out: ‗We are playing tennis outside in spite of the fact it is a rainy day.‘ The other students then take turns in standing behind the teacher and holding up the sentences and picture in the same system as the first has done. As all students stand behind the teacher, By the end of the game the whole class will have looked like the Hindu goddess Kali, who has multiple hands. 3. Traffic lights game Grammar McNugget: affirmative, interrogative, negative in any tense Level: any Material: pictures, duct-tape, cartons of red, yellow, green color Procedure: In this grammar game the teacher is using the simple associative intelligence of the students. The green color will naturally stand for the affirmative; the red will mean the negative form and what we have left is the yellow, which will denote the interrogative form. Students get easily involved in this game since it is quite simple to associate the red color with negation and the green with affirmative statements. Prior to the lesson the traffic lights colors are drawn on the board in the usual order: red, yellow, green. In order to make sure, the teacher might as well draw cross by the red, a question mark by the yellow and a tick by the green. Teacher presents the way present simple in the affirmative is formed. It is done with pictures of daily routine and slips of cards with ‗always‘, ‗sometimes‘, ‗rarely‘, ‗never‘ written on them. Such sentences are presented as: ‗I always get up early‘. ‗I never mow the lawn in the garden‘, etc. In the midst of doing it, the teacher has a green circle stuck on his/her chest so as to indicate that it is the affirmative. This is done in the same way with the negative and interrogative with the difference that negative is presented with a red circle stuck on the teacher‘s chest and the interrogative with a yellow circle. Once the presentation is done, teacher elicits sentences from students by handing out pictures of daily routine and holding up either a green or a yellow or a red circle. For instance if a students has the picture ‗have breakfast‘ in his hand and is prompted with a green circle, then this student is supposed to say ‗I have breakfast every day‘; if however, another student has ‗dust the room‘ and is prompted with a red circle, this students is supposed to say ‗I don‘t dust the room.‘ The students pass around the pictures and wait for the teacher to elicit either an affirmative or interrogative or negative sentence with the associated color. Elicitation is achieved through association with colors. 687 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo x ? 4. Luggage game Grammar McNugget: going to Level: elementary Material: pictures, duct-tape, realia Procedure: The teacher sticks pictures of different types of travelers (lonely tourist, family going on a package tour, beach girls, etc.) on the white board. Sentences are elicited from students with questions with regard to where they think these tourists are travelling. After students are engaged in the activity, they are given realia such as Agatha Christie books, tube of sunscreen, lipstick, map, etc.) The students are instructed to go to the whiteboard with the objects and symbolically put them into the bags. They are supposed to match the items with one type of tourist. The teacher expects them to say sentences with ‗going to‘ and give a reason for their choice; for example: ‗The beach girls are going to take a tube of sunscreen because they are going to spend a lot of time under the sun.‘; The business tourist is going to take a car rental brochure because he is going to rent a car.‘ 5. Scales Grammar McNugget: comparative adjectives Level: elementary Material: pictures, slips of cards, a balance scale, bluetack Procedure: Prior to the lesson, the teacher puts two sets of scales onto one of the tables. These scales need to be a balance scale and not the digital one. Previously they have had to prepare for the lesson with pairs of pictures of objects and people to be easily compared, for example a rocket and a snail; a giant and a dwarf; Mont Blanc and a hill, etc. They have also had to choose adjectives for the students to use as the teacher will have them compare the two things or persons. These adjectives are ‘fast‘, ‘big‘, ‘high‘, etc and are printed on slips of paper. 688 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Before the activity starts, the teacher engages the learners with an easy but necessary game. Two envelopes are stuck on the wall with bluetack. On one envelope there is a picture of a snake, on the other, there is that of a baby shoe. The snake illustrates long, multi-syllabic adjectives whereas the baby shoe denotes short, monosyllabic adjectives. The teacher divides the class into two groups and randomly gives them adjectives on slips of papers such as ‗fat‘, ‗interesting‘, heavy‘, etc. The groups have to decide whether the adjective is long or short and correspondingly place the slips of paper into either of the envelopes. Once it is done, the teacher presents how these adjectives have to be used in the comparative form by saying sample sentences. Following this presentation, everybody in the class is given pictures of objects and people. They are then instructed to find a matching pair from the pile of pictures that are put on a one of the tables in the classroom. The student that has the picture of a Ferrari needs to find the picture of an old Lada. When every student has a set of two pictures to be compared, the teacher presents the activity. They stick a slip of paper with an adjective written on it in the middle of the scales and they put one picture into one pan of the scales and another into the other pan. What the students see now is for example the adjective ‗fast‘ stuck on the scales and an image of a rocket in the left pan and that of a snail in the right pan. The teacher deliberately pushes down the left pan so as to indicate the difference and says: ‗A rocket is faster than a snail.‘ Having done this presentation, the teacher has the students take turns in sticking one adjective on the scales and putting two images into the two pans. An example could be ‗giant‘, ‗dwarf‘, ‗tall‘. The student has to stick ‗tall‘ on the scales and put the two images into either of the pans, then push down the one with the giant in it and produce the sentence: ‗The giant is taller than the dwarf‘. Tall 6. Swatch Grammar McNugget: telling the time in correct English Level: beginner Material: 1-12 numbers on pieces of paper, pictures of a short and a long pan of the watch Procedure: As an engaging activity the teacher presents the way of telling the time in English with the help of a toy clock. The below-described ‗Swatch‘ game follows this presentation in order for the students to be activated in telling the time. 689 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The teacher puts the numbers from 1 to 12 printed on A4 papers in a round shape in a formation equivalent to that on a watch or clock. Two students are given the roles of being hands of the watch. The teacher sticks the picture of a short hand on one of the students and sticks that of a long hand on another. The learners stand in the middle initially. Then they are instructed to move inside the circle as they wish. They have three seconds to do that. After this period of time, the teacher tells them to stop. Wherever they stand they always shoe a particular time, which one student has to tell. If the ‗short hand‘ student stands with the pointer pointing at three and the ‗long hand‘ student points at 10 minutes then it is 10 minutes past 3. It is a physically involving activity and students enjoy it very much. Conclusion In the first section of this paper I have tried to find assertions, views and notions supporting the concept of the importance of teaching grammar through games. I have cited Krashen, who contemns the conscious teaching of grammar rules. I have also used Swan‘s view, according to whom grammar is only an umbrella term and every point has to be approached in a different way when teaching them is at issue. I have found Thronbury‘s notion of grammar inevitable in this article. Through the description of six games aimed at teaching grammar McNuggets I have intended to prove that teaching grammar with fun and games is crucial in the facilitating process of teaching the TEFL learners. The ‗Sandwich‘ game has been aimed at showing that any type of realia can be used for the sake of transferring a message to make it comprehensible. The‘Kali goddess‘ game has been targeted at showing that students acquire grammar easier once they are in motion. The purpose of ‗Traffic Lights‘ game has been to substantiate that the associative intelligence of the learners can be exploited. References: Alexander, L. (1994). Grammar in the Classroom in Bower, R.ed. (1994). Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching. London: British Council Dôrnyei, Z., Csizér, K. (1999). Ten commandments for motivating language learners. Language Teaching Research Hadfield, J. (1992). Classroom Dynamics. Oxford: Oxford University Press Krashen, S. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Littlejohn, A.P. (1991). Why are English Language Teaching Materials the way they are? Ph.D. Thesis: Lancaster University cited in Medgyes Medgyes, P. (1995). The non-native teacher. London: MacMillan Publishers. Richard-Amato, P. (1988). Making it happen. New York: Longman Rinvolucri, M. (1995). Grammar games. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Rosenberg, R. (2009). Tools for activating materials and tasks in the English language classroom. English Teaching Forum No. 4 2009 pp. 2-11 Swan, M. (1985). ‗A critical look at the communicative approach.‘ ELT Journal Volume 39/2 April 1985 pp. 76-87 Thornbury, S. (2010). G is for Grammar MacNugget. cited from http://scottthornbury.wordpress.com/2010/09/18/gis-for-grammar-mcnuggets/ Xiao-Yun, Y. (2010). ‗Interactive grammar teaching‘ Modern English Teacher.Volume 17No. 3 p 34-37 690 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 103 Title A name given to the resource Have them move, see and speak! Author Author Thekes, Jerry Istvan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to show that the 21st century modern TEFL classroom has to provide entertaining, visual and kinesthetic elements for the language learners. Four different TEFL games are presented in order to prove that total physical involvement of the students aided by visuals help teaching and language acquisition. The description and the presentation of the ‘Sandwich‘,‘ the Kali goddess‘, the ‘Traffic lights‘ and the ‘Luggage‘, the ‗Scales‘ and the ‗Swatch‘ game all serve the aim to justify the necessity of students‘ moving and being given plenty of visuals during the lessons. The need to physically involve the students is supported by such respected professionals as Scott Thornbury, Michael Swan and Mario Rinvolucri. The academic support is also aided by the two greatest TEFL experts on motivation, Dôrnyei and Csizér Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f63ab00622fc37eba0d55a42c31a63f3.pdf cfa72d179e302ddc8842a034ca9f8b35 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Shakespeare‘s Othello: A Representation of the Clash between the Orient and the Occident Alpaslan Toker International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina English Language and Literature atoker@ibu.edu.ba Melih Karakuzu Atatùrk University, Turkey The Department of English Language mkarakuzu@hotmail.com Abstract: This paper attempts to trace how Shakespeare‘s Othello reflects the deeprooted Eurocentric ideology of the Elizabethan people and show how such views created distinctions like self vs. other, master vs. slave, civilized vs. savage, white vs. black, good vs. evil, strong vs. weak, occident vs. orient. These views had such a deep impact that many writers have portrayed the Europeans as superior and the ‗self‘ as belonging to the ‗centre‘ or ‗Occident,‘ whereas people in far-away lands are shown as inferior and the ‗other‘ belonging to the ‗margin‘ or ‗Orient‘. In Elizabethan England, African men were regarded as illiterate, barbaric, lustful womanizers who were the white man‘s property and apt to be used as servants. These views have been handed down century after century. However, in the play Othello Shakespeare breaks away from these beliefs and introduces an African man who disregards such stereotypical views and thus shocking his audience with this deviation from the norm. He presents a reality that African men are indeed polite, educated, loyal and faithful husbands. Shakespeare even makes Othello more prejudiced against his own culture than against another race. In Othello, Shakespeare sets a mood that questions the way a person sees his or herself and the world around. Shakespeare‘s depiction of Othello departs from the stereotype established by his cultural predecessors. To understand the matter well, we will have to try to define the word ‗Moor‘, explore how these oriental people were regarded in Elizabethan England and finally conclude by pointing out how Shakespeare differed from his own society and culture. The whereabouts of unknown ‗dark‘ worlds have always appealed to travelers from European. This fascination gave rise to the discovery of the oriental East via land routes and across the Mediterranean towards the Atlantic Ocean. These explorations made in pursuit of slaves, gold, ivory, slaves and resources laid the foundation for imperial intercourse through trade and travel with those mysterious lands. These European colonizers divided the world into two different sections - the West or the Occident and the East or the Orient. The relationship between the Occident and the Orient exhibited a ―relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony.‖8 Western imperialism had despised the colonized lands and their inhabitants as backward, savage as well as exotic. Therefore, the imaginary friction and geographical breach between the imperial center and its peripheries constituted the concepts of imperial superiority, attitudes and experiences. The Elizabethans considered the far-away lands, its people and culture as exotic and mysterious with all the negative attributes of darkness. Said also points out the generalized notions of the Orient, ―its strangeness, its difference, its exotic sensuousness and so forth‖9 that form the history and perceptions of the world. Othello‘s tales are very much exciting and are laden with the mystery and mysterious pleasures of the Orient. Not only do we come to learn that he was ‗sold to slavery‘, but also he faced: …cannibals that each other eat, The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads 8 9 Edward W. Said. Orientalism. London: Penguin Books,2001. p.5. Ibid.p.72 109 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Do grow beneath their shoulders. (I, ii.143-145) It is at this very point that Desdemona does ‗seriously incline‘, and at this point, too, Othello shifts his focus from himself to Desdemona. The fascination can be placed, as Kim F. Hall has stressed in her discussion of travelers‘ tales in early modern England, in ‗not only…the mysteries and ―strangeness‖ they depict but in the yet-untold marvels that they present to the potential future travelers‘ 10 wonders which expose restrained attitudes to the body. Othello himself, since, he is a part of the exotic cultures which he describes, can be regarded as Desdemona‘s ‗new-found-land‘ at this point. Said states that there is a line drawn between the East and the West11. Said and his followers voiced that the East and the West stay in a dual vicious circle: civilization versus backwardness, humanity versus barbarism, religion versus atheism and so on. In history and culture, we get to see ―European superiority over Oriental backwardness‖12 as the so-called advanced Europeans believed that the exotic oriental lands cannot have independent history or culture. Therefore, theses barbarian territories should be ruled and be under the hegemony of the Occidentals who took up the challenge of bringing civilization to those backward lands of the Orient. Othello‘s oriental characteristics and physical aura have kindled manifold divisions among the doyennes of English Literature. These Shakespearean critics have notably diverged in their views with regard to Othello‘s depiction in the play. A.C. Bradley, for example, asserts that ―in regard to the essentials of his character‖ Othello‘s race is of no importance, and that Shakespeare would have laughed if anyone had praised him on ―the accuracy of his racial psychology.‖13 G.K. Hunter and Eldred Jones have argued that Shakespeare criticizes the ongoing negative Elizabethan stereotypes of Africans by invoking them on the stage. William Hazlitt, one of the most prominent Shakespeare researchers of the early nineteenth century, seems to suggest a reason as to why Othello‘s character changes throughout the course of the play. He states that ―the nature of the Moor is noble, confiding, tender, and generous but his blood is of the most inflammable kind.‖ 14 The question of Othello‘s exact race is debatable. Historians have trouble determining who exactly the Moors were. What is known is that the Moors were people, possibly of Berber and Arab origin, settled in Northern Africa. It is learnt that in the eight century, people called Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, which contains both today‘s Spain and Portugal. They were eventually forced out of their last bastion in Southern Spain in the year 1492, which corresponds to Columbus's sailing to the New World. The word ‗Moor‘ is an obscure term mainly used in Medieval and Renaissance England to refer to the ‗Moors‘, ‗blackmoors‘, ‗Negroes‘, ‗Indians‘, or ‗Muslims‘. As critics have established, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, these terms were more often used interchangeably one instead of another despite the fact that the English came to recognize the distinctions between different types of blacks. 15 European people have historically pinpointed a number of related ethnic groups as "Moors". Sometimes "Moor" is communicatively used for any person with North African origin. Some people, to whom it is applied, think of the term as irreverent and racist. Jack D‘Amico, in his introduction to The Moor in English Renaissance Drama, states that ―as an opposite in race, religion, and disposition, the Moor can be used to confirm the superiority of Western values‖16 Both the Elizabethan dramatists and audiences found the exotic stories about the Orient and its people appealing.17 The logic behind using Africa as a setting by dramatists in the Occident is that such an act, conceivably, would bring more excitement to the theatre. Shakespeare, in Titus Andronicus, introduces an evil Moor called Aaron whom we see changed towards the end and showing goodness when he pleads for his child's life. .A Moor also appears in The Merchant of Venice. He comes from the Oriental country Morocco. He is the Prince and he is a potential suitor for Portia‘s hand in marriage. Even before he arrives to make his bid for her, he becomes a subject of Portia‘s racist remarks. The dichotomy between East or the Orient and West or the Occident is emphasized once again. 10 Kim H. Hall. Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England. Cornell University Press, 1995. 11 Edward W. Said. Orientalism. p.57 12 Ibid.p.7 13 A.C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy (1904; rpt. London: Macmillan, 1941), p. 187. 14 William Hazlitt, Characters of Shakespeare's Plays. London: C.H. Reynell, 1817. 15 Antony G. Barthelemy, Black Face Maligned Race: The Representation of Blacks in English Drama from Shakespeare to Southerne, London: Louisiana State University Press,1987, pp. 5-17. 16 Jack D‘Amico, The Moor in English Renaissance Drama, Florida: University of South Florida Press, 1991, p. 2. 17 Eldred Jones, Othello‘s Countrymen: The African in English Renaissance Drama. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965, p. 37. 110 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Othello is often addressed as ‗the Moor‘, not with his actual name. This, on the one hand, debilitates Shakespeare‘s effort to emphasize Othello‘s race and Oriental descent, and, on the other hand, places Othello into the scheme of the stereotype, despite his honorable and special nature. Elizabethans thought of Moors as being dark strangers. They did not have a clear picture in mind, they came to know about them when Shakespeare and his contemporaries described people with darker skins as black and Moors. Virginia M. Vaughan, in her book entitled Othello. A contextual history, points out that ―blackness became so generally associated with Africa that every African seemed a black man,...the terms Moor and Negro used almost interchangeably.‖18 Therefore it is very confusing and unclear how dark the color of the Moor‘s skin in Othello actually was in Shakespeare‘s time. However, Moors were, without any doubt, regarded as being exotic and different from the Europeans themselves. It is important to mention that the Elizabethan audience had a stereotype in mind when they saw Othello being performed on the stage. Elizabethan playwrights obtained their stories about the Orient from four main sources: returning fighters who fought against the Muslims in the Medieval period; history books and published travel narratives that were available at that time; the living merchants and traders who travelled to the Orient; and, most importantly, the stories of those captives who were captured by Moorish and Turkish pirates through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare attempted to create a realistic portrait of a Moor for this protagonist. The protagonist in Cinthio‘s novella called ―Un Capitano Moro‖(―A Moorish Captain‖), is an absolute stereotype, notorious in Venice only for being black, jealous, and vengeful. Shakespeare‘s protagonist is not only liberally complex but also individualized and differentiated from Venetian society in his posture, and, most importantly, his language, with its unusual poetical rhythms, splendor, and eccentricity. Moreover, Lois Whitney claims that many of Othello‘s specific attributes probably were derived from Shakespeare‘s reading of Leo Africanus‘s, Geographical Historie of Africa.19 Othello‘s Oriental aura and his otherness delighted the exclusively white European people. In the same way the Barbary ambassador to the Queen, Abdel Ouahed bin Messaoud with his sixteen delegates, used to draw attention from Londoners with their native dresses, customs and behavior. This Moorish ambassador sometimes was claimed as an inspiration for Othello. Although Othello is set in Venice and Cyprus, the sentiments and values shared in the text by the members of Venetian society are probably reflective of the attitudes and values of Shakespeare's own society. During the time Othello was written, the English were becoming more and more conscious of the presence of other races in the world. People started travelling a lot and in Europe, blacks were beginning to be used for the slave trade. Othello contains one of the most powerful, disputable representations of the black other in Elizabethan drama. The portrayal of the Moor in Othello, oftentimes contradictory, surfaces the wide-spread racial attitudes of the time period, and has continued to generate insight into removing social disagreements throughout the centuries since its performance. Despite Othello‘s unclear true race, his status as a foreigner or outsider truly influences the racial effects of the play. Being from a different race meant, for the most part, being an Other, non-English, as well as non-Christian. This utter otherness can also be seen in the subtitle of the play itself (The Moor of Venice), which describes the main character not in terms of his social role but only in terms of race. Interestingly enough, in spite of his Oriental background Othello is initially considered honorable; but when race is associated with multiracial sexual and marital unions that it turns into a passionate sentimental issue for the Venetians, and for the members of the audience in the seventeenth century. It may be assumed that, because Othello kills his wife Desdemona after the shrewd plots of Iago, then perhaps Othello is as much as a victim of Iago's evil designs and Desdemona is as much as Othello's extreme anger. Some may protest that Iago‘s plot to prepare the downfall of the Moor is much more worse because it stems out of a diabolical, calculating mind, as opposed to Othello‘s sin, which is committed because he has become a mere pawn in Iago's hands, blinded by injury, destroyed by his own candor. However, it can be 18 Virginia M. Vaughan, Othello: A Contextual History, Cambridge: CUP, p.64. Leo Africanus‘s book Geographical Historie of Africa was originally written in Arabic. It was collected and translated into English by John Pory in 1600. It has been suggested that William Shakespeare may have been inspired by Leo Africanus' book to create the character of Othello. 19 111 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo claimed that Othello allows himself to be manipulated. Iago's suggestions of Desdemona‘s infidelity only supplies the alibi Othello needs to justify the murder of the wife, who he believes, cannot sincerely love him. It can be argued that Desdemona's murder is a result of Othello's pride and rush to judgment and, as a result, he must be held responsible for his action. Unlike Iago, Othello, has the potential to form strong, loving and affectionate relationships; his sincere friendship with Iago substantiates this fact. Othello allows Iago to influence him, and allows Iago to bring out his most evil characteristics from. Although Iago may be the one with the more innately evil nature, Othello does not do much to prevent his base instincts taking control over him. In order to find out why Othello commits his crime and why he should be hold responsible for it, we have to analyze the hidden intention behind it. It may not be wrong to claim that what actually prompts Othello to commit murder is not his being mentally impaired and manipulated by Iago, but rather his pride and lack of confidence which he allows him to gain control. Othello is a strong leader, very assertive in his ability to cope with military matters, but when it comes to personal qualities he is uncertain and hesitant. He has arrived in a new city with different customs, but he is not well-aware of it. He has a new young and beautiful bride, whom he loves. He is quite puzzled as to why Desdemona would choose him for a husband, and can only bring one possible explanation, "She lov'd me for the dangers I had pass'd." (1.3.167) Shakespeare is emphasizing the well-known fact that Othello greatly differs from the society he lives in. Desdemona‘s murder, as critics say, is significant in the sense that it helps Othello‘s innate barbaric nature resurface. It is a well-established fact that Othello is an honorary white. He certainly is pretty conscious of the prevailing prejudice in Venice and certainly must question why Desdemona would disregard her culture and fellow white Venetians by marrying a black man. Othello is in doubts about Desdemona before Iago starts his act of conspiracy. Despite the fact that his wife shows nothing but genuine love for him, Othello cannot wholeheartedly believe in her love. Othello is going to speculate that Desdemona's tenderness and virtue alone make her to fall in love with the unlovable and the unlikable. When Iago does rupture Othello‘s whimsical image of Desdemona, he is just fueling what Othello, deep down, believes to be totally probable: that Desdemona could very well love another man. Iago dexterously argues that Desdemona is pretty much capable of betrayal because she has already shown it by betraying her own race. At the outset of the play we are informed that Brabantio willingly lets him enter his house before he elopes with Desdemona. It is only after their inconceivable marriage that he employs this discriminatory attitude. Therefore, it is Desdemona who becomes the reason for his isolation. The matrimonial union of a black man and a white woman is not welcome in Venetian society. Desdemona shattered Othello‘s precarious entrance into the world of white people. This also accommodates Iago‘s attacks against Desdemona and the workings of racism. In Othello‘s last speech, he contrasts himself with a Turk. The way Othello‘s character is depicted stands in strong contrast with the previously categorized Europeans‘ view of the Moor. Shakespeare does not only reject presenting Othello as the devilish Moor, but arguably introduces him as the protector of Christendom against invasion. Othello is a Christian. Othello is to going to defend Cyprus against the ―General enemy Ottoman‖ (I, iii, 49). He is an essential part of Venetian civic society. He is highly sought after by the duke and senate, as proven by Cassio‘s remark that the senate ―sent about three several quests‖ to look for Othello (I.ii.46). The Venetian government entrusts Othello with martial and political command in Cyprus. However, Othello shows his nobility by abandoning his sweet newlywedded bride‘s chamber to join the conflict without hesitation. The play's action shows how deep is the affection shared by Othello and Desdemona. Through the exotic and mesmerizing power of Othello's poetry and Iago‘s treachery, Shakespeare invites his audiences to locate the true color of villainy. Marjorie Garber, in her book Shakespeare After All, comments on how Shakespeare depicted his Moor, first giving him noble qualities then making him boil with jealousy and rage afterwards. She goes on to say that ―here then is the key dramatic point, one typically Shakespearean at the same time establishing and critiquing a stereotype: Othello looks black, but it is Iago who become the pole of moral negativity (conventionally, blackness) in the play.‖20 20 Marjorie Garber, Shakespeare After All, Random House, 2004, p.592. 112 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Othello murders Desdemona under the pretence of righteous outrage and will not reveal his true motive. When Othello discovers that Desdemona is absolutely pure and innocent, as the enforcer of justice he is left no choice but to commit suicide. Justice must be served and rendered, this time upon himself. Due to Othello's genuine repentance and subsequent suicide, we should not place him on the same level of villainy as Iago. But, in the meantime, his feelings of remorse after the act of cruel murder cannot be enough to exonerate him. Othello has a responsibility to give a chance to Desdemona to confront the charge of adultery. He chooses to ignore that obligation in order to satisfy his own fixations. Shakespeare‘s play Othello is, after all, about a great man whose tragedy lies in his insistent romantic belief that the world is wholly good, that his "perfect soul" will protect him from prejudice, and that lago could not possibly be dishonest. Yet even he sees, too late, that a devil like lago can never be killed, only acknowledged. Othello is allowed to join the so-called Venetian society and enjoyed the words of compliment and bravery like ‗valiant Moor‘, ‗brave Moor‘, ‗warlike Moor‘, ‗the Moor my lord‘ and ‗Moor…a full soldier‘, uttered by the leading personalities of the society. Emily Bartels holds that Othello is ‗so integrated into Venetian society that he can set the terms of both military and social action.‘ 21 However, it is when he dares to marry a white woman that he becomes subject to discriminatory behavior from the very people who praised him with their words of flattery. He thought he could blend into this white Occidental society, but, it is when he becomes a pawn in Iago‘s hands, boils with rage and jealousy that his barbaric nature surfaces and he becomes the stereotyped Oriental character that Shakespeare tries very hard to keep him away from. Othello surrenders himself to the prison of race he thought he had escaped. Othello is a professional soldier and he is well aware of his responsibilities as the Commander of the Venetian military. As Shakespeare shows, Othello himself is quite the reverse of the stereotypical ―lusty Moor‖. To respond to the call of arms, he delays his wedding-night happiness without hesitation, almost welcoming it in a curious way. Shakespeare is demonstrating his firm belief in merit and in the equivalence of great minds but the play is also a testimony that a happy outcome should not to be expected in an unromantic world. G.K. Hunter and Eldred Jones, in particular, have argued that Shakespeare invokes the negative Elizabethan stereotypes of Africans only to discredit them. Critics have not arrived at any sort of consensus about the role of race in Othello, despite the fact that the topic of racism continues to be one of the most prevailing issues about the play. The Shakespearean scholars greatly deviate in their treatment of Othello. Coleridge honored Othello as ―noble, generous, open-hearted, unsuspicious and unsuspecting.‖22 Indebted to Coleridge, A.C. Bradley‘s character analysis, even though it is a very much contested assessment of Othello, has been central. Bradley excessively idealizes the Moor as a romantic figure: Othello is, in one sense of the word, by far the most romantic figure among Shakespeare‘s heroes; and he is so partly from the strange life of war and adventure which he has lived from childhood. He does not belong to our world, and he seems to enter it we know not whence – almost as if from wonderland. There is something mysterious in his descent from men of royal siege; in his wanderings in vast deserts and among marvelous peoples… 23 However, through his tender and caring portrayal of Othello, Martin Orkin and Emily C. Bartels state that Shakespeare was criticizing racism, and putting the blame on his society for its racist behavior . It is safe to say as we are drawing our conclusion that Shakespeare made daring and intrepid attempts to bridge the gap between the Orient and the Occident by bestowing on his hero qualities like nobility, eloquent diction, sobriety, and trustworthy that were only thought possible in white men. He also places him in an important position of as a commander of the Venetian military. He enters the play as ‗noble‘ and ‗valiant‘ Moor and exits as a ‗blacker devil‘ and ‗erring Barbarian.‘ 21 Emily C. Bartels, in her article entitled Othello and Africa: Postcolonialism Reconsidered published in The William and Mary Quarterly magazine in 1997, comments on Othello‘s elevated status in the Venetian society. 22 Coleridge‘s Shakespearean Criticism; edited by Thomas Middleton Raysor, Harvard University Press, 1930. p.227. 23 A.C.Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy. Penguin (Non Classics), 1991.p.153 113 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Bartels, E.C. (1997). Othello and Africa: Postcolonialism Reconsidered. The William and Mary Quarterly. Barthelemy, A.G. (1987). Black Face Maligned Race: The Representation of Blacks in English Drama from Shakespeare to Southerne, London: Louisiana State University Press. D‘Amico, J. (1991). The Moor in English Renaissance Drama, Florida: University of South Florida Press. Garber, M. (2004). Shakespeare After All, Random House. Hall, K. H. (1995). Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England. Cornell University Press, Bradley, A.C. (1941). Shakespearean Tragedy. London: Macmillan. Hazlitt, W. (1817). Characters of Shakespeare's Plays. London: C.H. Reynell. Johannes, L.Africanus, Pory, J. (1993). A Geographical Historie of Africa. Jones Research & Pub Co. Jones, E. (1965). Othello‘s Countrymen: The African in English Renaissance Drama. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Raysor, T.M.(1930). Coleridge‘s Shakespearean Criticism. Harvard University Press. Said, E.W. (2001). Orientalism. London: Penguin Books. Vaughan, M.V.(1994). Othello: A Contextual History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 114 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 20 Title A name given to the resource Shakespeare‘s Othello: A Representation of the Clash between the Orient and the Occiden Author Author Toker, Alpaslan Karakuzu, Melih Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper attempts to trace how Shakespeare‘s Othello reflects the deeprooted Eurocentric ideology of the Elizabethan people and show how such views created distinctions like self vs. other, master vs. slave, civilized vs. savage, white vs. black, good vs. evil, strong vs. weak, occident vs. orient. These views had such a deep impact that many writers have portrayed the Europeans as superior and the ‗self‘ as belonging to the ‗centre‘ or ‗Occident,‘ whereas people in far-away lands are shown as inferior and the ‗other‘ belonging to the ‗margin‘ or ‗Orient‘. In Elizabethan England, African men were regarded as illiterate, barbaric, lustful womanizers who were the white man‘s property and apt to be used as servants. These views have been handed down century after century. However, in the play Othello Shakespeare breaks away from these beliefs and introduces an African man who disregards such stereotypical views and thus shocking his audience with this deviation from the norm. He presents a reality that African men are indeed polite, educated, loyal and faithful husbands. Shakespeare even makes Othello more prejudiced against his own culture than against another race Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5987e097b4748017fe5300373ff450f0.pdf 1e212db9287e064d6ae1abdcf77d7427 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Grammatical orientation: fundamental language differences on learnability Junichi Toyota SOL Centrum, linguistics/Department of Linguistics Lund University, Sweden/University of Belgrade, Serbia Junichi.Toyota@englund.lu.se Abstract: The world languages can be roughly divided into three types based on grammatical orientation, e.g. reality-oriented type (e.g. Russian, Chinese); speaker-oriented (e.g. Japanese, Serbian); hearer-oriented (e.g. English, Swedish). Differences borne out of grammatical orientations are hardly ever taken into consideration in making teaching materials. Each type has its peculiarities in grammatical system (e.g. reality-oriented languages have a description of situation as a basic unit, while speakeroriented languages consider speaker‘s experience as a base). Such differences can create fundamental differences in the language use in learners‘ L2, and this influence cannot be underestimated. In this paper, it is aimed to raise awareness of such differences and point out that crosslinguistic comparison can offer numerous points for improving L2 learning. Key Words: Grammatical orientation, cognition, semiotic difference, learnability Introduction In this paper, an attempt is made to integrate a typological comparison of world languages with a foreign language teaching method. The world languages are divided into three groups, based on grammatical orientation as described in Section 2. According to different orientation types, each language can be considered to possess its own unique semiotic resource, and problems encountered in learning a new language is related to how one can decode tis semiotic resource. It is argued here that language teaching can be organised according to orientation types, and based on a learner‘s first language and a target language, we need to create different teaching materials in order for a learner to achieve the result more efficiently. This paper is organised as follows: the basic distinction concerning grammatical orientation is shown first, immediately followed by some possible problems in this distinction. After establishing these backgrounds, some possible problems in cross-cultural communication are presented. Such problems can be, as proposed in this paper, dealt with in teaching using the basic concept of grammatical orientation. However, there still remain some possible challenges, which are listed at the end. Grammatical orientation It is common that different packaging of expression units exists, but they can be classified into three groups, termed here as orientation (Durst-Andersen 1992. 102-105; 2005; 2008: 9-10). The first type is mainly concerned with a model of situations in reality. This type makes a firm distinction between a state caused by an activity and an activity intending to cause a state. This is normally marked by aspect. In Slavic languages, for instance, this distinction has to be made on each verb. In Serbian imperfective has a suffix -ja (e.g. (1b)), while in Russian perfective is overtly expressed with a prefix po- (e.g. (2a)). It also distinguishes a real world from an imaginative one. This type is termed as realityoriented grammar. In this type, a speaker acts as a reporter, speaks with an objective voice. Serbian (1) a. ubiti ‗kill (PRFV)‘ b. ubi-ja-ti ‗kill (IMPRFV)‘ (2) Russian a. po-spati ‗take a nap (PRFV)‘ b. spati ‗sleep (IMPRFV)‘ 1196 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The second type functions as a symptom of the speaker‘s experience of situations. This type involves aspect, but also a complex modal system in order to express explicitly which part of situation is experienced by a speaker. For instance, some languages have a modal construction known as evidential (see Aikhenvald 2004), which explicitly indicates what and how a speaker experienced a situation. Cherokee examples in (3) and (4) illustrate how evidential actually works. The suffix -ıši in (3) indicates that a speaker has a first-hand (or direct) experience over the event, while -eši in (4) shows that a speaker has to rely on information inferable from outside. This type is called speaker-oriented grammar. A speaker talks about his/her experience as a basic unit with a subjective voice and acts as a commentator. (3) Cherokee (Iroquoian) a. wesa u-tlis-ıši cat it-run-FIRST.PST ‗A cat ran‘ (I saw it running) b. un-atiyohl-ıši they-argue-FIRST.PST ‗They argued.‘ (I heard them arguing) (4) Cherokee (Iroquoian) a. u-wonis-eši he-speak-NON.FIRST.PST ‗He spoke.‘ (someone told me) b. u-gahnan-eši it-rain-NON.FIRST.PST ‗It rained.‘ (I woke up, looked out and saw puddles of water) The third type has an elaborate system of identifying different types of information, such as new and old, referable and non-referable, etc. This is encoded in the simple past tense (as opposed to the perfective aspect) or articles (e.g. definite vs. indefinite). These aid the hearer to decode details of information and identify whether a referent is familiar to him or not. This type is known as heareroriented language. In this type, interlocutors consider information as its basic unit. The speaker is a second-person-oriented speaker, acts as an informer and speaks with an intersubjective voice. These three different grammatical orientation types are summarised in Table 1. Note that these three types are prototypical cases and there are a number of f intermediate stages. This is largely due to historical changes, and we will turn to this point later (cf. Figure 3). Table 1. Grammatical orientation types Reality-oriented Speaker-oriented Hearer-oriented Representatives Russian, Chinese Japanese, Serbian English, Swedish Basic unit Situation Experience Information Speaker orientation Third person First person Second person Speaker function Reporter Communicator Informer Identification mark Aspect prominence Mood prominence Tense prominence Various differences among these types may be more significant than one may expect them to be. For instance, the presence or absence of articles often corresponds to the difference in orientation type. The definite article is an important discourse marker for reference, and it functions as a clear indicator for the hearer that he/she has to be able to trace a referent‘s identity. Such a subtle difference in discourse is not so significant in describing a situation. Reality-oriented languages might have demonstratives which functions quite similarly to the definite articles in hearer-oriented languages, but there is no discourse function in them. With speaker-orientation, it may be useful to have articles, but not necessary, since there is no absolute need for the overt expression of discourse reference as long as the speakers are clear about referents. And the use and importance of the definite article is also shown in its historical development. The common source for the definite article is demonstrative pronouns (Heine and Kuteva 2002: 109-111), e.g. English the is derived from Old English demonstrative se (s.v. OED the dem. a. (def. article) and pron.). However, note that there are some cases where a numeral ‗one‘ turning into a definite article. Irish has a definite article an, as in (5b), but not an indefinite 1197 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo pronoun (e.g. (5a)). Etymologically, an ‗the‘ is derived from a numeral aon ‗one‘ in Old Irish. The numeral ‗one‘ is often turning into an indefinite article (Heine and Kuteva 2002: 220-221), but the definite sense can be derived from a numeral via a restrictive sense of ‗only‘. In such languages, it is often the case that so-called double definiteness is found, e.g. an ‗the‘ and sin ‗that‘ in (5c). This is so, since the numeral origin allows a demonstrative to coexist with the definite article. Nevertheless, the discourse referential system in Irish works in favour of the hearer even without an indefinite article. (5) Irish a. Tá leabhar agam is book at.me ‗I have a book.‘ b. Tá an leabhar agam is the book at.me ‗I have the book.‘ c. Tá an leabhar is the book ‗I have that book. sin that agam at.me Another interesting point concerning the article is that the definite article is often created in contact-intense areas. Consider the map in Figure 1. The darker shades represent the presence of definite articles, and the high concentration can be found in West Africa, Europe, Papua New Guinea and the western coast of North America. In such areas, contacts are often made among mutuallyintelligible languages for trading and speakers may be forced to help hearers identify referents in discourse. This type of communication may raise necessity for grammatical devices such as the definite article. This is also common in Europe and as argued in Toyota (forthcoming), the dialect mixing in the Middle English/Early Modern English periods helped the definite article to grammaticalise fully in English. Such contacts also suggest that the use of definite articles is meant for hearers, not speakers. Figure 1. Presence of definite articles (Dryer 2008) For another case to illustrate how orientation works, we can take a look at possession. English most commonly uses a verb have to express possession, although other verbs, such as belong, hold, own, etc. can also refer to possession. The lexical verb works very well in English since the main expression unit in English is information (i.e. hearer-orientation), and the lexical verb of possession is a simple way of referring to who owns what. This is not the same in languages with reality-orientation. In Russian, for instance, there is a lexical verb imati ‗have‘. It may appear to be identical to the English counterpart, but imati ‗have‘ is not normally used to denote possession. Instead, Russian uses another verb jest‘ ‗exist‘ in a phrase ‗something exists with possessor‘. Those languages with reality orientation are not primarily concerned with experience or information, but an objective description of a situation. With imati ‗have‘, it is obligatory to insert a subject, which can possibly turn a sentence into a structure used for the purpose of showing experience or information. In order to keep an objective viewpoint over situation in reality-oriented languages, the use of locative sense and verbs denoting state is better suited for the expression of possession. 1198 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (6) Russian a. ?Ya imeju zenu I.NOM.SG have.PRS wife.ACC ?‗I have a wife.‘ (it has a sexual connotation) b. U menje jest‘ zena with I.ACC.SG exist.PRS wife.NOM ‗I have a wife.‘ (lit. ‗wife exists with me‘) (7) Russian a. ?Ya imeju I have.PRS ‗I have a book.‘ b. U menja with I.ACC.SG ‗I have a book.‘ knigu book.ACC.SG jest‘ kniga exist.PRS book.NOM (lit. ‗book exists with me‘) The instances exemplified in (6) and (7) illustrate how common phrases or expressions can be a vital clue in identifying the grammatical orientation. Possession has been extensively studied in the past (cf. Lyons 1977: 722; Heine 1997) and several patterns have been identified cross-linguistically. For instance, Heine (1997: 47) identifies eight possible structures expressing possession and ones based on locational sense are shown in (8). These divisions, however, have not been considered from the perspectives of grammatical orientation types. It has been claimed that the most common strategy to express possession is the use of location schema (i.e. (8i)) (see, among others, Benveniste 1966: 200; Lyons 1977: 722). Structures involving the locational sense are very common in possession, including the Russian examples (6) and (7). Locational sense is very useful in describing a situation, and if there is a strong connection between the orientation type and the expression of possession, there is a strong indication found here that the majority of the world languages have the reality orientation. More research has to be done in this area, but one should not overlook such possibilities of connection. (8) i. ii. iii. iv. Y is located at X (the Location Schema) X is with Y (the Companion Schema) Y exists for/to X (the Goal Schema) Y exists from X (the Source Schema) Problems in cross-orientation communication The classification shown in Table 1 is a very rigid, rather optimistic one. In analysing typological data, one soon realises that it is hard to draw a line between different types and making a specific text for a specific orientation type and level can be a highly demanding task to achieve. As already shown in the previous section, the grammatical orientation can show some differences that can be beyond the mere grammatical features. For instance, metaphors and sense of humours can differ according to orientation type, e.g. metaphors and humours used in speaker or hearer orientation are often literary understood in reality orientation. Thus, literary effects do not function as they are meant in speaker and hearer-oriented languages. Likewise, greetings can have various consequences across different types of orientations. Greetings ritual can vary from culture to culture (cf. Lundmark 2009), but phrases such as ‗How are you?‘ can be an indicator of orientation. In hearerorientation, it can be a part of a general greeting, since what matters in the act of greeting is to show that one is greeting and the content is not so significant. In reality-orientation, however, contents of greetings do matter and ‗How are you?‘ is interpreted as a proper question regarding health. These cases clearly show that the use of languages is not purely dependent on grammatical differences. Students may learn basic grammatical rules, but this does not mean that they are fully aware of subtle differences hidden behind surface structures. Thus, some students may consider it polite to ask how his interlocutors are, although this may result in the opposite effect. This type of differences can be also found in narratives. Situation-oriented languages tend to develop background information, such as place and time, in earlier part of discourse, and it may take a while before a speaker/narrator reaches a main point. Type A and B in Figure 2 may schematically represent how narrative works in reality-oriented languages. Speaker-oriented languages may also use these types, but they can reach a main point direct, as shown in Type C in Figure 2. Hear-oriented 1199 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo languages are more likely to use Type C for the ease of hearers‘ retrieving information, and they may add additional information after reaching the main point. Different types of narrative have been known, but they can be also closely connected to grammatical orientation. Type A Type B Type C Figure 2. Different narrative types In this sense, understanding different orientation types can be studied in a semiotic sense of understanding signs, e.g. de Saussure‘s (1916) signifier. Each language is packed with various semiotic resources, arranged slightly differently from language to language and grammar is a self-contained system of communication. However, as in a case of comprehension of signs, sometimes it may not be easy to perceive a right message (i.e. de Saussure‘s signified), and difficulty increases once the border of orientation types is crossed. This is comparable to the historical study of pictograms, since we currently find it difficult to comprehend what these pictorial signs were intended initially. Perhaps this is a part of our cognitive facility, which is somehow adopted to a particular style of cognition and it requires some training to adjust to a new one. It is easy to identify differences in typical grammatical orientation, but they can have additional implications according to each type and some cases may be better considered intermediate, as in the case of narrative in speaker-oriented languages. Our languages are known to have gradient nature of various features (cf. Croft 2001; Givñn 1979; Harris and Campbell 1995), and this can make it practically impossible to classify rigidly every language in the world into three types of orientation that have been presented so far. This is mainly because of the fact that languages are constantly changing and what we see synchronically is just a transition from one phase to another. This is applicable to grammatical orientation. Durst-Andersen (2008) assumes that the direction of change is from situation to speaker orientation at a first stage, and in a second stage, from speaker to hearer orientation, as schematised in Figure 3. He further argues that hearer orientation can return to situation orientation, forming a circular changing pattern. However, as argued in Toyota (2009), the link from hearer to situation orientation has not been identified in recorded historical changes. Thus, this final stage may be hypothetical, but the rest of changes have been documented. Reality (aspect) Hearer (syntactic transitivity) Speaker (semantic transitivity) Notes: straight line = evidence traceable in historical data; dotted line = hypothetical link Figure 3. Diachronic shift in grammatical orientation types (based on Toyota 2009: 55) These intermediate stages may make it rather difficult to identify orientation types clearly, but this is a natural part of human languages. Thus, we need to assume a prototypical case of orientation, but also some intermediate stages. This also entails that some languages have a different mixture of features, depending on varying degrees of historical changes. 1200 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Orientation: application to learning In teaching and learning languages, it is obvious that students have to deal with various features of languages. What is normally covered in conventional teaching methods is grammar and pronunciation, but cultural differences are often not integrated into teaching programme. It is possible to argue that each language has its own speaking culture (cf. linguistic relativity), and this point can be extended to dialects. Facing this wide diversity, a task of creating materials accommodating both linguistic features and cultural diversity, it may seem impossible to teach language appropriately. However, this task can be sorted relatively easily once grammatical orientation is taken into consideration. Our working hypothesis is that languages that belong to the same orientation types are easier to acquire, since problems that students have to face are mainly grammatical, not socio-cultural or different world views. We have seen in Section 3 that different orientation types can use certain phrases in a totally different manner. This type of differences is certainly beyond the grammatical level, but manageable as a variation among different languages within the same orientation. It is possible to make a brief guideline for cross-orientation learning to raise awareness of different world view encoded in basic functional aspects of languages. In order to achieve this, learning materials should reflect differences in orientation. Thus, there is no single course book for one language at one level (beginner, intermediate, etc.). This means that at least three different teaching materials are required at each level according to different orientations for a single language, aiming at different background of learners. Let us take an example of student learning English. Swedish learners can simply learn grammatical features without much attention to general world view of English speakers, since they share it through the same orientation. As for Russian speakers, there must be a thorough instruction on differences in the world view and the use of languages, since their world view is supposed to be totally different from that of English speakers. Speakers of Serbian or Japanese are located somewhere in between Russian and Swedish speakers. They certainly require some explanation concerning differences, but not as thorough as the one for Russian speakers. The differences can be summarised in Table 2. This is a simplified version to illustrate a general pattern proposed in this working hypothesis. There are three levels (beginner, intermediate and advanced) in conjunction with three orientation types. They make nice possible text types, marked as Text 1 to Text 9 in Table 2. The number of text indicates that the lesser the number is, the more explanation learners need. Thus, a beginner of Russian speaker needs the most intensive explanation, and an advanced learner of Swedish speaker need the least explanation, a learner of Serbian speaker forming an intermediate stage. Table 2. Different teaching materials for learning English according to grammatical orientation types Beginner Intermediate Advanced Reality orientation Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 (Russian) Speaker orientation Text 4 Text 5 Text 6 (Serbian) Hearer orientation Text 7 Text 8 Text 9 (Swedish) Challenges Classifications such as the one shown in Table 2 are perhaps easier said than done. This is perhaps because it is difficult to identify clearly what language belongs to what orientation type. As indicated earlier in Section 2, there are numerous intermediate stages and there are numerous cases of combinations of various features. For instance, Japanese in principle belongs to a speaker-oriented type, but its greetings are much closer to the one commonly found in situation-oriented languages. Thus, it is hard to draw a line between different types and making a specific text for a specific orientation type and level can be a highly demanding task to achieve. In addition, considerable revision of teaching materials may require according to this method, and teachers may also be required to be familiar with some basic linguistic differences. Language teachers are not necessarily linguists and they may have to learn some basic linguistic differences in order to manage with teaching materials properly. This may involve a considerable amount of training Summary Learning a new language across the border of orientation requires much more effort, i.e. students are required to learn more than grammatical matters, but different world view in a semiotic sense and socio-cultural matters concerning a target language. This point has not been noticed, but this 1201 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo method may solve various problems concerning cross-cultural aspects of language learning. Thus, learners can achieve proficiency of languages at a much wider perspective. Thus, the basic differences based on orientation can be useful in teaching, especially when a learner‘s first language and a target language belong to different orientation types. There are various challenges concerning this approach, but it is hoped that this line of research will bear fruitful results in the near future. References Aikhenvald, A. Y. (2004). Evidentiality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Benveniste, C. (1966). Problèmes de Linguistique Générale [Problems of general linguistics]. Paris: Ballimard. Dryer, M. (2008). Definite articles. In: Haspelmath, M., M. S. Dryer, D. Gil and B. Comrie (eds.). The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library, chapter 81. Available online at http://wals.info/feature/37. Accessed on <8April 2011> Durst-Andersen, P. (1992). Mental grammar. Russian aspect and related issues. Colombus (OH): Slavica. Durst-Andersen, P. (2005). ObńĦie I specifiĦeskie svojstva grammatiĦeskix sistem. K postroeniju novoj teorii jazyka [The general and the specific features of grammatical systems. Towards a new theory of language]. Moskva: RGGU. Durst-Andersen, P. (2008). Linguistics as Semiotics. Saussure and Bùhler Revisited. Manuscript, University of Copenhagen. Givñn T. (1979). On Understanding Grammar. New York: Academic Press. Harris A. C. and L. Campbell (1995). Historical Syntax in Cross-linguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heine, B. (1997). Possession. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heine, B. & Kuteva, T. (2002). World Lexicon of Grammaticalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lundmark, Torbjôrn (2009). Tales of Hi and Bye. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lyons, J. (1977) Semantics (two volumes). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Saussure, F., de (1916). Cours de linguistique générale [Course in General Linguistics]. Paris: Payot. Toyota, J. (2009). Orientation reflected on register: from historical perspectives. Discourse and Interaction, 6, 45-61. Toyota, J. (forthcoming). English Grammar though Time: A typological perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1202 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 667 Title A name given to the resource Grammatical orientation: fundamental language differences on learnability Author Author Toyota, Junichi Abstract A summary of the resource. The world languages can be roughly divided into three types based on grammatical orientation, e.g. reality-oriented type (e.g. Russian, Chinese); speaker-oriented (e.g. Japanese, Serbian); hearer-oriented (e.g. English, Swedish). Differences borne out of grammatical orientations are hardly ever taken into consideration in making teaching materials. Each type has its peculiarities in grammatical system (e.g. reality-oriented languages have a description of situation as a basic unit, while speakeroriented languages consider speaker‘s experience as a base). Such differences can create fundamental differences in the language use in learners‘ L2, and this influence cannot be underestimated. In this paper, it is aimed to raise awareness of such differences and point out that crosslinguistic comparison can offer numerous points for improving L2 learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics