274 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/029a44e7c9efb83f57346fc28210f742.pdf d9e94895f56e4f7eaf80b6418985b1d7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Being an English Teacher in Turkey: Future Teachers‘ Perspectives Dr. H. Sezgi SARAÇ BaĢkent University, Ankara, Turkey hsarac@baskent.edu.tr Abstract: This study aims at identifying prospective teachers‘ perceptions with respect to positive and negative aspects of being an English teacher in Turkey. To this end, a qualitative research design was used and the participants were future teachers (n=40) studying at the department of English language teaching in Turkey. In order to gather data, each participant was interviewed via structured questions. During these interviews, the prospective teachers were asked to put forward their negative and positive associations with the terms: ―teacher‖, ―English teacher‖ and ―English teacher in Turkey‖. The collected data imply those prospective teachers‘ beliefs and values as well as perceptions over teaching and working as an English language teacher in Turkey. The results also denote how future teachers evaluate the present conditions, which are financial and moral, the practitioners work in Turkey today. 1. INTRODUCTION As highlighted in the related literature, actions and identities are closely bounded with personal beliefs (Kagan, 1992; Pajares, 1992; Witcher, et. al. 2001). Belief, as a system, acts as a perceptual filter while adhering meaning to the outside world and reality (Puchta, 1999). Richardson (1996) defines beliefs as psychologically related apprehensions, presumptions or intentions over the world that is perceived to be true. Thus, a system of belief functions as a personal guide that helps a person to define and understand the world and himself (Pajares, 1992). Teachers‘ beliefs are stated to have a form of structured set of principles and they are derived from practitioners‘ experiences, practices and personality (Borg, 2003). Zheng (2009) indicates that a teacher‘s system of beliefs is the substructure of his general belief system and effected from former experience. Beliefs inspire teachers‘ planning, decision making and in-class behavior. Calderhead (1996) distinguishes five main areas of teachers‘ belief which are beliefs on learners and learning; on teaching; on subject; on learning to teach; on self and on teaching role. Since it is not possible to observe or measure individuals‘ beliefs directly, people‘s statements can be used as resource to make inferences from (Rokeach, 1968; Johnson, 1994). Even though beliefs are tacit, the importance of doing research on English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers is underscored by Zheng (2009) as beliefs have an effect on what the practitioners state and how they act in the classroom, which, results in shaping their own beliefs again. While emphasizing the importance of teachers‘ belief, it should also be noted that the actual setting of teaching and contextual factors are to be taken into consideration. The realities of teaching conditions, such as school setting, workload, motivation, parental and administrative pressure on teachers might act as a hindrance to put beliefs into practice (Duffy, 1982, Mohammed, 2006). Khonamri and Salimi (2010) propose that there is a complex and sometimes inconsistent relationship between practitioners‘ beliefs and practices, which might be related to contextual factors and classroom life the teachers face with. Therefore, teachers‘ knowledge alone is not sufficient to understand practitioners‘ behavior and way of prioritizing problematic issues, which requires the elaboration of teacher beliefs (Zheng, 2009). Thus, the aim of this study is to examine pre-service EFL teachers‘ beliefs in a dichotomy of positive and negative associations with three different but interrelated concepts which are: being a teacher, being an English teacher and finally being an English teacher in Turkey. The research questions guided the method and procedures of study are as follows: What are the pre-service teachers‘ positive and negative associations with the concepts: a. ―teacher‖? b. ―English teacher‖? c. ―English teacher in Turkey‖? 2. METHOD 1107 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A qualitative research design was used and the participants were future teachers (n=40) studying at the department of English language teaching in Turkey. In order to gather data, each participant was interviewed via structured questions. During these interviews, the prospective teachers were asked to put forward their negative and positive free associations with the terms: ―teacher‖, ―English teacher‖ and ―English teacher in Turkey‖. As stated by Brown and Rodgers (2002) free association was introduced as a method of psychological research by Sigmund Freud. In one of the forms of free association method, right after the researcher states a word, the participant is asked to utter an immediate response which comes to his mind. The pre-service teachers who took part in the data collection procedure were asked to put forward their free associations with an unlimited number of words, phrases or sentences. The participants‘ associations were recorded to be transcribed and coded under different themes. Since there was no limitation with the number of productions, each participant‘s all of the utterances were taken into consideration and categorized in accordance with the themes. Therefore, the total number of associations was not limited to the number of participants but to that of associations put forward for each concept. In addition, the association stated by only one participant was left out to exclude non-repeating data. The findings were presented in frequencies and percentages. 3. FINDINGS The first set of data is on the participants‘ positive free associations with the concept ―teacher‖. Totally eleven themes are highlighted by the pre-service teachers, which are: sacred, love, fun, devotion, guaranteed, summer break, ideal job for women and patience. Table 1: Positive associations on the term ―teacher‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Love 16 17,9 Fun 13 14,7 Devotion 12 13,6 Patience 10 11,3 Summer break 8 8,9 Sacred 6 6,7 Guaranteed 6 6,7 Ideal job for women 6 6,7 Idealist 5 5,6 Up-to-date 4 4,5 Fair 3 3,4 Total 89 100 The most repeated association on the term ―teacher‖ is ―love‖ (N=16). The participants stated this theme in chunks, such as ―love for students‖ and ―love for human-beings‖. The second most repeated association is ―fun‖ (N=13). ―Devotion‖ (N=12) and ―patience‖ (N=10) were stated to be positive associations by the pre-service teachers. The participants indicated that ―summer break‖ is a positive aspect of being a teacher. The participants associated the key term with ―sacred‖ (N=6), ―guaranteed‖ (N=6) and ―ideal job for women‖ (N=6). The other, less uttered associations are ―idealist‖ (N=5), ―upto-date‖ (N=4) and ―fair‖ (N=3). On the dichotomy, there exist the negative associations with the concept ―teacher‖. This time, the participants provided associations in fewer themes but with more frequency. There are three themes proposed: Association Difficult conditions Low salary Public Personnel Examination (PPSE) Total Table 2: Negative associations on the term ―teacher‖. Frequency (N) Percentage (%) 28 39,5 25 35,2 Selection 18 25,3 71 100 Most of the associations are related with the theme ―difficult conditions‖ (N=28). The actual associations grouped under this theme are: ―difficult working conditions‖ (6), ―corporal punishment‖ 1108 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (3), ―punishment‖ (2), ―responsibility‖ (1), ―receiving orders‖ (2), ―fatigue‖ (5), ―demanding‖ (2), ―service done in the eastern part of Turkey‖ (3), ―dealing with parents‖ (2), ―educational system in Turkey‖ (2). As the third most repeated negative association (N=18), the participants stated the Public Personnel Selection Examination (PPSE) that is administered before appointing servants to work in state institutions, including state schools in Turkey. The third set of collected data is on participants‘ free associations with ―English teacher‖. There are seven main themes stated by the participants related with the keyword given. The data analyzed in frequencies and percentages are as follows: Table 3: Positive associations on the term ―English teacher‖. Association Enjoyable Communication Culture Privileged Job opportunities Cool Creativity Total Frequency (N) 21 19 17 12 10 7 6 92 Percentage (%) 22,8 20,7 18,5 13 10,9 7,6 6,5 100 The participating pre-service teachers associate the term ―English teacher‖ with the job being ―enjoyable‖ (N=21) and leaving space for ―creativity‖ (N=6). The most repeated associations were related with the aspects of ―communication‖ (N=19) and culture (N=17). The other statements were on the themes of ―privileged‖ (N=12) and ―job opportunities‖ (10). The participants also stated that the target term associated with ―cool‖ (N=7). The themes on the negative associations are five in number. Among these themes, ―prejudiced ides‖, ―incompetent teachers‖, ―difficult conditions‖, ―bad pronunciation‖ and ―foreign/imported teachers‖ were included. The findings in frequencies and percentages are: Table 4: Negative associations on the term ―English teacher‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Prejudiced ideas 25 34,2 Incompetent teachers 15 20,5 Difficult conditions 12 16,5 Bad pronunciation 12 16,5 Imported teachers 9 12,3 Total 73 100 Most of the associations are related with ―prejudiced ideas‖. Within this theme, utterances such as ―being compared with native speakers‖ (N=4), ―students‘ with negative attitude towards English‖ (N=4), ―people regarding that English is too simple‖ (N=2) were also included. The second most repeated theme is ―incompetent teachers‖ (N=15). ―Teachers using classical methods‖ (N=5), ―teachers using Grammar Translation Method only‖ (N=3), ―teachers using inappropriate teaching methods‖ (N=2) were among the productions included under the category of ―incompetent teachers‖. ―Difficult conditions‖ (N=12) and ―bad pronunciation‖ (N=12) were the other associations put forward. ―Imported teachers‖ (N=9) was also stated by participants. The phrase ―imported teachers‖ is frequently used in Turkish media to name the contemporary issue in national education that 40.000 foreign English language teachers have been planned to be recruited in Turkey. (http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25195744/, 2011). The next concept presented to the participants to find out their associations was ―English Teacher in Turkey‖. The pre-service teachers proposed associations that were categorized in six different themes, which were ―difference‖, ―prestige‖, ―job opportunities‖, ―enjoyable‖, ―superiority‖, and ―privileged‖. 1109 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 5: Positive associations on the term ―English teacher in Turkey‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Difference 13 25 Prestige 11 21,1 Different job opportunities 8 15,4 Enjoyable 8 15,4 Superiority 7 13,5 Privileged 5 9,6 Total 52 100 Being an ―English teacher in Turkey‖ was associated with ―difference‖ (N=13) and ―prestige‖ (N=11). ―Different job opportunities‖ (N=8) and ―enjoyable‖ were also among the themes. The concept was proposed to have associations with ―superiority‖ (N=7) and ―privileged‖ (N=5). The last set of data is on negative associations related with ―English teacher in Turkey‖. The participants associated the term with ―imported teachers‖, ―PPSE‖, ―bad coursebooks and materials‖, ―low salary‖, ―bad curriculum‖, ―service in eastern Turkey‖ and ―not being appointed‖. The findings are as follows: Table 6: Negative associations on the term ―English teacher in Turkey‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Imported teachers 27 22,5 PPSE 23 19,3 Bad coursebooks and materials 22 18,3 Low salary 19 15,8 Bad curriculum 13 10,8 Service in eastern Turkey 9 7,5 Not being appointed 7 5,8 Total 120 100 Among the negative associations foreign teachers planned to be recruited in Turkey, ―imported teachers‖ (N=27) is the most recurring theme of all. Secondly, ―PPSE‖ (N=23) was stated by the participants. ―Bad coursebooks and materials‖ (N=22) and ―bad curriculum‖ were other themes of association proposed. ―Low salary‖ (N=19), ―service in eastern Turkey‖ (N=9) and ―not being appointed‖ were the last themes analyzed. 3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The most significant finding of current research is that the participants relate foreign teachers planned to be recruited in Turkey, ―imported teachers‖, and ―PPSE‖ as negative associations to working as an EFL teacher in Turkey. In addition, the curriculum, coursebook and materials used are not appreciated by the participants, either. It can be stated that the participants‘ reflections upon such issues derive from previous learning experiences. As is stated by Numbirch (1996) practitioners‘ beliefs are affected from prior learning experiences and these beliefs are influential all through their professional lives. Even though being a teacher is associated with many positive aspects, such as; ―love‖, ―fun‖ and ―devotion‖, associations on difficult working conditions, low salary and PPSE point at the negative aspects of working as a teacher in Turkey again. Besides, enjoyable, communicative and cultural aspects of being an English teacher are emphasized; however, the prejudiced ideas against the target language and profession, incompetent teachers and difficult job conditions were also mentioned by the participants. In another complementary study, pre-service teachers of EFL also indicate in their memoirs that ―teachers who were not specialized in English language teaching‖, ―teachers‘ inability in using English fluently‖ and ―over-crowded classes ... with poor technology‖ are problematic issues in English language instruction in Turkish primary school setting (Saraç & Arıkan, 2010). 1110 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The current study is limited to a group of pre-service teachers‘ (N=40) associations. Future research necessitates comprehensive qualitative and quantitative studies on identifying the negative issues in EFL instruction in Turkey. Besides, expert opinions are to be collected on how to eliminate such problems to excel foreign language teaching nationwide. References Brown, J. D. & Rodgers, T. S. (2002). Doing Second Language Research. OUP: Oxford. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36(2), 81-109. Dufy, G. (1982). Response to Borko, Shavelson, & Stern: There‘s more to instructional decisionmaking in reading than the ―empty classroom‖. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 295-300. Ġngilizce derslerine ithal ôğretmen. NTVMSNBC. 24.03.2011. http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25195744/ Khonamri, F. & Salimi, M. (2010). The interplay between EFL high school teachers‘ beliefs and their instructional practices regarding reading strategies. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 4(1), 96-107. Retrieved 12.02.2011, from http://www.novitasroyal.org/Vol_4_1/khonamri_salimi.pdf Johnson, K. E. (1994). The emerging beliefs and instructional practices of preservice English as a second language teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education, 10(4), 439-452. Kagan, D. M. (1992). Implications of research on teacher belief. Educational Psychologist, 27, 65-90. Mohammed, N. (2006). An exporatory study of the interplay between the teachers‘ beliefs‘, instructional practces, and professional development. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Universiy of Auckland, USA. Numrich, C. (1996). On becoming a language teacher: Insights from diary studies. TESOL Quarterly, 30(1), 131-153. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers‘ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332. Puchta, H. (1999). Beyond materials, techniques and linguistic analysis: The role of motivation, beliefs and identity. Plenary Session at the 33rd International IATEFl Annual Conference, Edinburgh. Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values: A Theory of Organization and Change. JosseyBass: San Francisco, CA. Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In j. Sikula, T.J. Buttery and E. Guyton (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp. 102-119). New York: Macmillan. Sarac, H. S., & Arikan, A. ―The state of English language teaching in Turkish primary schools as reflected in prospective English language teachers' memoirs,‖ Comparative Education, Teacher Training, Education Policy, School Leadership and Social Inclusion (Vol. 8), 233-237, 8th International Conference on Comparative Education and Teacher Training, Plovdiv, Bulgaria, 2010. Witcher, A. E., Sewall, A. M., arnold, L. D. & Travers, P. D. (2001). Teaching, leading, learning: It‘s all about philosophy. Clearing House, 74(5), 277-279. Zheng, H. (2009). A review of research on EFL pre-service teachers‘ beliefs and practices. Journal of Cambridge Studies, 4(1), 73-81. Dr. H. Sezgi Sarac holds a PhD from Hacettepe University, specializing in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. She currently works as an Assistant Professor at Baskent University in Turkey and is also the associate editor of the journal Novitas: ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language). Her research areas are curriculum development, pedagogical knowledge, material development and syllabus design . 1111 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 589 Title A name given to the resource Being an English Teacher in Turkey: Future Teachers‘ Perspectives Author Author SARAÇ, Sezgi Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims at identifying prospective teachers‘ perceptions with respect to positive and negative aspects of being an English teacher in Turkey. To this end, a qualitative research design was used and the participants were future teachers (n=40) studying at the department of English language teaching in Turkey. In order to gather data, each participant was interviewed via structured questions. During these interviews, the prospective teachers were asked to put forward their negative and positive associations with the terms: ―teacher‖, ―English teacher‖ and ―English teacher in Turkey‖. The collected data imply those prospective teachers‘ beliefs and values as well as perceptions over teaching and working as an English language teacher in Turkey. The results also denote how future teachers evaluate the present conditions, which are financial and moral, the practitioners work in Turkey today. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/523c00ec418060056042b26dd7ad439b.pdf 5f6de1dbbab8ee50a5edd9e79457f90b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COLLABORATIVE WEB 2.0 TOOLS IN ELT CLASSROOMS Assoc. Prof. Arif SARIÇOBAN Department of English Language Teaching Hacettepe University, Turkey arifs@hacettepe.edu.tr Eyüp YaĢar KURUM Department of Foreign Languages Turkish Military Academy, Turkey yasarkurum@gmail.com Abstract: The internet applications first labeled by Tim O‘Reilly in 2004 as Web 2.0 have offered numerous new opportunities for the English teachers. Blogging, wikis, podcasting, and social networking are a few examples of the so-called Web 2.0 technologies that language teachers are currently exploring. However, not only many ELT teachers currently working at the schools but also a good number of prospective English teachers‘ awareness of Web 2.0 tools in ELT is far from satisfactory (Usluel and others, 2009). This paper aims to provide awareness for the educators for the potentials of Web 2.0 tools in language learning and teaching. A theoretical foundation for a technology enhanced pedagogy is outlined, one that places Web 2.0 within a social constructivist and connectivist context. Also the importance of Web 2.0 tools in providing comprehensible input to the language learner is emphasized. Finally, an overview of relevant technologies applicable to ELT is provided, along with successful classroom usage models and links to online resources. Key Words: Web 2.0 tools, collaborative learning environments, social constructivism, connectivism Introduction The interactive internet applications which allow the user to perform a more active and participatory role on the net was first labeled by Tim O‘Reilly in 2004 as Web 2.0. The traditional internet applications, which are known as Web 1.0, include only the presentation of the content to the user. The users are sole consumers. They have no chance to contribute or make any changes on the content of the web page they visit. In Web 2.0 however, the sole consumer is replaced by a more contributing and participatory user. The user has an active role; he/she can control the content of the site. He/she is not only bound with whatever content he is presented. With the recent technological developments and a philosophical shift of knowledge, the internet has become more and more interactive today. Why Should English Teachers Concern About the Web 2.0? The implementation of Web 2.0 technologies in the classroom does not immediately improve the teaching quality to an immense level. A teacher deciding to use a new technology in the classroom takes the challenge of increasing his burden of already existing practices and this requires extra time and effort. So, the fundamental questions that should be asked by a teacher deciding to apply a new technology must be these: Is this new technology worth allocating time and effort? Is it a must to implement Web 2.0 technologies to practice a good teaching? The answer is absolutely not. Good teaching practice requires a desire of making a difference in students‘ lives and effort and patience shown to achieve this goal and an inspiring character complementing all these. So then, if the Web 2.0 technology is not something must for a good teaching practice, why should the teachers concern about the issue? As being foreign language teachers every new development in technology concerns us, because our subject matter is oral and written communication and this is what we call language which covers every aspect of human life. Usually the human response to a new technological innovation comes out of a 3 stage cycle which is called ―Hype Cycle‖. In the first phase the new technological innovation arouses a great excitement and unrealistic expectations. Then comes the next stage of disappointment in which people start to think that this new gadget is of 171 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo no value at all. The real fruitful stage of new innovation is the last stage. In this phase, people learn to evaluate the innovation with its strong and weak points and more realistic expectations are created. Web 2.0 based internet applications were first met with great excitement and became a cover story for the Time magazine. In 2006, the Time columnist Lev Grossman wrote that the Web 2.0 applications on the net not only changed the world, but also opened a new way on how to change the world. Although, we cannot easily say how the world will be changed through Web 2.0, we can definitely assume that Web 2.0 will present new perspectives in ELT classrooms. Which Learning Theory Accounts for Web 2.0? Computer assisted language learning dates back to the first wide use of PCs in 1980s. In this first phase, which is called Web 1.0, students were able to do some applications on the ready-made software they were presented. They were not allowed to make any changes or any contributions on the content of the program they were studying. The Web 2.0 applications on the other hand, present a more contributory learning media in accordance with the contemporary learning theory of connectivism (Siemens, 2004). The behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist learning theories used in the past to design learning programs do not suffice today. According to behaviorist learning theory, learning is so complex to be comprehended fully. The fundamental principles of behaviorism can be stated as follows: 1. We should focus on the observable behaviors of individuals rather than focusing our attention to the inner complex mechanisms in human mind which are far from any clear explanation. 2. The human behaviors should be examined as definable stimulus response phases. 3. Learning can only be explained by observing the changes in behaviors. The cognitivist learning theory compares learning like a computer that processes data and explains the acquisition of new information and skills likewise. According to this model, individual first processes the information gathered from the environment in his short term memory. Then, the meaningful information within these newly received data is stored in long term memory as mental symbols. This recorded information is therefore learned. The constructivist model, on the other hand, argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. Learning happens as a result of individual‘s endeavor of giving meaning to his/her experiences. The behaviorist and cognitivist models handle knowledge as a phenomenon that is outside of the individual. The constructivists, however, argue that individual is not an empty vessel filling himself/herself with output coming from outside. He/she rather actively selects, processes and constructs knowledge with meanings given to one‘s individual experiences. In behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist learning models, learning is a phenomenon happening within an individual‘s inner world. Even in social constructivism in which learning is claimed to occur as a result of social interaction, learning is something inner. In modern world, due to the technological and social advances that reduce the half life of knowledge rapidly, the learning paradigms mentioned above cannot be sufficient. According to the American Statistical Association, the present knowledge we have in today‘s world has doubled in the past 10 years. In other words, what we know of today was unknown 10 years ago. However, data assumes that in the next 18 months what we know of today will double, which means a 100% increase in 1.5 years. So what does this mean? This means that people will no longer go for a school for some period of time and then graduate and keep on their work. Knowledge is so abundant and this vast amount increases so rapidly that life long learning is not a fantasy, but a must. Therefore, the fundamental skill that an individual in today‘s school must achieve is learning to learn. In a world in which knowledge is so widespread, to act by using the knowledge that is not stored in our mind is more important. Here is where the connectivist model accounts for. The Connectivist model sees continuous learning as a process of recognizing the relationships between disciplines, ideas and concepts and give decisions based on these relationships. Accordingly, the fundamental skill of an individual in connectivism is the ability of deciding on what to learn and what these newly learned information mean. A correct decision based on the present data might become a wrong one depending on the 172 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo changing context. In short, the connectivist model sees learning no more an inner and individual activity, but rather an impact of the social changes on individual In modern world, as knowledge flourishes every single day, the important thing is not to know how, but rather to know where. Informal learning today is as important as formal learning. Social sharing Web 2.0 addresses affect even format individuals in terms of lifelong learning, professional development, socialization, etc. Lev Vygotsky‘s social constructivist theories must be realized this way in modern world. How Can Web 2.0 be Implemented in Classroom Settings? According to a study conducted in the U.S., 90% of the 12-17 age group of youth use the internet almost every day (Greenhow & et al., 2009). In Turkey, the rates must be similar especially for the urban youth population. In another study, 55% of the youth on the net were found to be using social sharing Web 2.0 sites on a continual basis (Greenhow & et al., 2009). These findings reveal us that the English instructors have a potential to exploit this widely used medium to realize their course objectives. In order to accomplish this, the English instructors themselves first get to know about Web 2.0 applications. The best source of help to achieve this goal would again be the internet itself. First of all, we could start the work by visiting the blog address http://plcmclearning.blogspot.com/2007/01/learning-20-message.html This site is an internet project prepared for the introduction of Web 2.0 for the personnel of a library in Charlotte, North Carolina. When the users complete the 23 activities in the site, they both have an understanding of Web 2.0 and win presents like a laptop or MP3. The example activities in the site are as follows: 1. Visit http://www.blogger.com/home and prepare your own blog, 2. Visit http://www.flickr.com and share your photos there. Search for a photo on a certain topic, download and upload photos. 3. Activities on RSS (Really Simple Syndication). RSS is a special XML file format used to publish frequently updated works —such as blog entries, news headlines, audio, and video — in a standardized format. The internet user can subscribe to the site and follow the continually updated content by using a reader. http://www.commoncraft.com/rss_plain_english presents a 3 minute comprehensive video on RSS. Visit addresses such as http://generatorblog.blogspot.com/, http://www.letterjames.com/start.php?mod=image-personalization to gather information on photo and image making. Visit http://www.librarything.com to check for the activities in which people online catalogue the books they read and write comments on them. There are also comments on similar web addresses. 4. 5. 6. Visit http://www.rollyo.com to make your personal search engine on the net. 7. Visit http://delicious.com to get information about social bookmarking. There is a 8-minute introductory video on http://www.ottergroup.com/learning2.0/?p=14 about delicious.com. By bookmarking your frequently used addresses in delicious.com, you can easily access your favorite addresses from any computer. At the same time, you can contact others visiting your favorite addresses. So, let‘s say you are doing a research on the use of Web 2.0 in foreign language teaching. By using delicious.com, you can easily contact researchers from anywhere in the world studying on the same topic. 8. To learn to work with blog pages like Technorati by using bookmarking sites. 9. To learn about popular Web 2.0 Wiki, YouTube, etc. applications. By following the above steps, you can raise your awareness and experience of Web 2.0 practices. By having been exposed to more Web 2.0 experience we can develop new perspectives and ideas on how to use Web 2.0 in our language teaching practices. We can encourage our students on the use of blogs, podcasts and social networking sites to prepare their class projects. The Web 1.0 practices of ELT students usually covered listening and reading skills. Web 2.0 practices on the other hand, can cover a whole range of 4 skills including speaking and writing. Therefore, Web 2.0 practices on the net are more appropriate for the course objectives of ELT. 173 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From the point of language acquisition hypotheses, Web 2.0 sites offer a promising resource of comprehensible input. In the field of second language acquisition we can mainly talk about three general hypotheses (Krashen, 2007). The hypotheses to be considered are these: 1. 2. 3. The Comprehension Hypothesis, the view that we acquire language and develop literacy when we understand what we hear and what we read. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis, which claims that language acquisition occurs when we are forced to produce language beyond our current competence. We change our hypothesis about grammatical rules and word meanings when we are not understood and have to ―try again.‖ The Skill-Building Hypothesis says that we improve when we make mistakes and are corrected, thus changing our conscious idea of what the rules of the language are. According to this hypothesis, we first consciously learn about language, that is, study the rules and vocabulary. Through output practice the vocabulary and grammar become automatic. In all of the above mentioned acquisition hypotheses Web 2.0 applications can claim a role. Comprehensible input hypothesis claims second language acquisition to occur only if learner is exposed to a fair amount of listening and reading input that he understands. To receive this input, the internet can be a valuable source. Podcasts or youtube for instance, can offer a great amount of listening input. Myers & Linzmeier (2007) coined the term ―Free Web Surfing‖ as a possible means of language development. Free voluntary surfing is doing free voluntary reading on the Internet, or using the Internet to locate printed material of interest for free reading. From the points of Comprehensible Output and Skill-Building hypotheses Web 2.0 applications can again offer numerous benefits. Social network media like blogs or facebook writings and you tube video presentations encourage language production. Learners should adapt their language output in order to give their intended message to their audience. This output practice, according to output hypothesis, improves the language competency of the learners. At the same time it builds not only receptive skills, but also productive skills like speaking and writing. Following are some suggestions on how to exploit some example Web 2.0 sites in ELT: 1. Twitter.com: Short writing practices especially for those learners who are not fond of writing long passages. Besides, students have a chance to practice authentique daily spoken language. 2. The blog sites like http://supportblogging.com/ ; http://www.21publish.com/; http://www.edublogs.com/ can be used to share various activities out of the classroom. 3. The podcast sites derived from the combination of words of ipod and broadcast such as http://www.podcastalley.com or http://www.podcastpickle.com can be very useful in improving the speaking and listening skills of learners. Students can also upload their audio and video files or can make narrow listening on following podcasts on a certain topic. For example, students can be asked to upload their comments on a book or movie they have recently read or watched. So, anyone on the net can follow these comments and students will most likely enjoy contributing to such an activity. In the end, a podcast class library on various topics can be established at the end of the semester. 4. Social network sites like www.myspace.com or www.facebook.com having 100s of millions of users or video sharing sites such as www.youtube.com or http://www.teachertube.com/ can be quite useful in providing our students authentique materials. They can also be used in encouraging the learners to produce something interesting and new by using their English. 5. Students can be asked to upload their visual materials on www.voicethread.com and all students can make comments on other‘s works. These comments can be written messages, audio files or live connections. So, learners from different parts of the world can have a chance to interact on a topic. To conclude, Web 2.0 practices are valuable resources in encouraging the students‘ creativity and personal use of second language. Besides, English instructors can share their successful activities and opinions with their colleagues throughout the world. With the help of Web 2.0, the English can be carried out of the classroom and this is important for especially students learning English as a foreign language. Because foreign language learners, as 174 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo compared to second language learners, usually do not have a chance to practice their language out of the classroom. For them, the internet can be the most precious medium. 175 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Brown, H.D. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Pearson Longman. Celce-Murcia, M. (ed), (2001). Teaching English as a Second Language. Prentice Hall. Ellidokuzoğlu, H. (Ocak, 2003). Basic Principles in FLT. The Journal of Turkish Armed Forces, No: 375. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Greenhow, C. & Robelia, B. & Hughes, J. (2009). Learning, Teaching and Scholarship in a Digital Age. Educational Researcher, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 246- 259. Retrieved from http://er.aera.net Krashen, S. (2007). Case Histories and the Comprehension Hypothesis. Selected Papers from the Sixteenth International Symposium on English Teaching, English Teachers‘ Association – Republic of China. Taipei: Crane Publishing Company. pp. 100-113. Kùrùm, E. Y. (4-8 February, 2002). ―The Latest Developments in Educational Technology‖. Military High School Conferences on The Recent Developments in Educational Technology, Ġstanbul. Myers J. & Linzmeier J. (2007). Free Voluntary Web Surfing. The Proceedings of 2007 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL & Applied Linguistics, Department of Applied English, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan . Taipei: Crane Publishing Company, pp. 7–14. Richards, J. C. (1985). The Context of Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Scarcella R. & Oxford, R. (1992). The Tapestry of Language Learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Siemens, G. (2004). A Learning Theory for the Digital Age. http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm Spada, N. & Lightbown, P. (1999). How Languages are Learned. Oxford University Press. Stern, H.H. (1984). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Talandis, J. (22-25 November 2007).― Web 2.0 in the Classroom―. Japan Association for Language Teaching Conference,Tokyo, Japan. http://www.slideshare.net/talandisjr/web-20-in-the-elt-classroom-anintroduction Yalden, J. (1987). Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. 176 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 28 Title A name given to the resource THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COLLABORATIVE WEB 2.0 TOOLS IN ELT CLASSROOMS Author Author SARIÇOBAN, Arif KURUM, Eyüp Yaşar Abstract A summary of the resource. The internet applications first labeled by Tim O‘Reilly in 2004 as Web 2.0 have offered numerous new opportunities for the English teachers. Blogging, wikis, podcasting, and social networking are a few examples of the so-called Web 2.0 technologies that language teachers are currently exploring. However, not only many ELT teachers currently working at the schools but also a good number of prospective English teachers‘ awareness of Web 2.0 tools in ELT is far from satisfactory (Usluel and others, 2009). This paper aims to provide awareness for the educators for the potentials of Web 2.0 tools in language learning and teaching. A theoretical foundation for a technology enhanced pedagogy is outlined, one that places Web 2.0 within a social constructivist and connectivist context. Also the importance of Web 2.0 tools in providing comprehensible input to the language learner is emphasized. Finally, an overview of relevant technologies applicable to ELT is provided, along with successful classroom usage models and links to online resources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44a910da1bee55a3796179c0c8aefc41.pdf 71911435a87aba92e21aabd57d813ec3 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo USING LITERATURE IN EFL CLASSES: SHORT STORY Assoc. Prof. Arif SARIÇOBAN Department of English Language Teaching Hacettepe University, Turkey arifs@hacettepe.edu.tr Hülya KÜÇÜKOĞLU School of Foreign Languages Hacettepe University, Turkey hulyaku@hacettepe.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate underline the benefits of using literature in EFL classes. Short Stories can be used as a good source in ELT classes in almost all levels depending on the difficulty status of the story. Due to their length which is very appropriate for language classrooms, students can make good use of short stories in learning the target language. Using short stories in ELT classrooms is an effective technique for teaching linguistic system as well as the life in relation to the target language. Choosing the right short story is an important part of the process. At this point, students‘ proficiency level, age, and interests should be taken into consideration. Another important thing is the course objectives and appropriateness of the story as content. In this study the importance of using Short Stories in ELT classrooms and points to be considered while choosing the right short story was discussed at the opening part of the study. On the next part, teaching discrete language skills by using short story in ELT classrooms is studied and a sample application is build up in order to share practical ideas. Key Words: Literature in ELT classes, short story Introduction The first use of literature in EFL classes was started at the beginning of the century when Grammar Translation Method was the only method which was known to suit ELT classrooms. The use of literature in these classes was limited as the only aim was to translate the literary texts from the target language to their native language. Using literature in EFL classes gave a long break with the use of new teaching methods such as Direct Method or Audiolingual Method. The main reason for this was because these methods of teaching emphasized mostly on structures and vocabulary. Starting from the last two decades, the goal of EFL teaching has changed and the aim of English teaching is now to help students to communicate fluently in the target language. As a result of this, teachers and trainers have started to seek for new ways of integrating literature in EFL classes once again because literature has an important role in teaching English. When used appropriately, with their authentic nature, literary genres are functional tools for language classes for all levels. Oster (1989) affirms that literature helps students to write more creatively (p. 85). Instructors can create a variety of writing activities to help students to develop their writing skills. They can ask students to write dialogues or more complex writing activities if students have reached a high level of language proficiency (Murdoch, 2002, p. 9).. With this new era, literature appeared in EFL classes as appropriate tasks and activities which were designed for language classes. Short Story in EFL Classes Researches show that among the other literary genres, short story is the most preferred one in language classrooms. According to Arıkan‘s research findings, students find the contents of the novel, poetry, and drama courses more difficult to follow because these types require ways of reading that are different from those required for the short story. The results of his study also show that the students identify short story reading as simpler and less complex than reading other literature courses. (Arıkan, 2005, p. 33). In this sense there are several advantages of using short stories in ELT classrooms. One of the most important of all is its controlled length. As they are shorter than a novel, short stories are effective sources of teaching 160 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in classroom situations. Another point that makes short stories efficient tools for ELT classes is that they maintain high interest and attention. A short story with its setting, characters and compelling plot, captures and holds the attention of the learners which is an important part of the learning process. The use of short stories to teach English has several other benefits including motivational, literary, cultural and higher-order thinking benefits. Short stories allow the instructors to teach the four main language skills to all levels of language proficiency. Murdoch (2002) indicates that ―short stories can, if selected and exploited appropriately, provide quality text content which will greatly enhance ELT courses for learners at intermediate levels of proficiency‖ (p. 9). The inclusion of short fiction in the ESL / EFL curriculum offers the following educational benefits (Arıoğul 2001, p.11-18): It -makes the students‘ reading task easier due to being simple and short when compared with the other literary genres, -enlarges the advanced level readers‘ worldviews about different cultures and different groups of people, -provides more creative, encrypt, challenging texts that require personal exploration supported with prior knowledge for advanced level readers, - motivates learners to read due to being an authentic material, - offers a world of wonders and a world of mystery, - gives students the chance to use their creativity, - promotes critical thinking skills, -facilitates teaching a foreign culture (i.e. serves as a valuable instrument in attaining cultural knowledge of the selected community, - makes students feel themselves comfortable and free, -helps students coming from various backgrounds to communicate with each other because of its universal language, -helps students to go beyond the surface meaning and dive into underlying meanings, and - acts as a perfect vehicle to help students understand the positions of themselves as well as the others by transferring these gained knowledge to their own world. Another important benefit of using literature to teenage and adult learners at all levels is to develop their reading tasks. As to our case we aim to improve our students‘ not only reading comprehension skills, but their other skills as well. Choosing the Right Material What sort of literature is suitable for use with language learners? Short stories can be a good source in ELT classes in almost all levels from young learners to adult learners so that they can make good use of short stories in learning the target language. While choosing the right short story, students‘ proficiency level, age, and interests should be taken into consideration. Another important thing is the course objectives and appropriateness of the story as content. The needs of the students, interests, cultural backgrounds, and language levels should be taken into consideration when choosing the suitable material for the classroom. One other significant criterion to consider is whether the particular work stimulates personal involvement by arousing the learners‘ interest. At this point it is important to choose books which are relevant to the life experiences, emotions, or dreams of the learner. The difficulty level of the story is another important thing to be considered while choosing a suitable material. This is crucial as the learner is attached to the text if she can understand it. In addition, interest, appeal, and relevance should be taken into consideration. Sample Application: ―Araby‖ Writers' note: "This sample application was prepared for upper intermediate level students because of the grammatical structures and the level of vocabulary used in the text." Pre-Reading Activities Before reading the short story (Araby) by James Joyce, students should be informed about the writer to provide background information. This will help the students to understand the target culture and the 161 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo atmosphere of the story which will be studied during the class. Another point to be underlined is the organization of a short story. This information is also necessary as it will help the students understand the theme of the story clearly. Background Information about the Writer A short biography of James Joyce James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish author of the 20th century. He is known for his landmark novel Ulysses (1922) as well as the short story collection Dubliners (1914) and the semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916). Although he spent most of his adult life outside Ireland, Joyce's psychological and fictional universe is firmly rooted in his native Dublin, the city which provides the settings and much of the subject matter for all his fiction. Joyce became one of the most cosmopolitan yet one of the most regionally focused of all the English language writers of his time.8 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce8 Background Information about the Organization of the Particular Story Triangular Plot Structure (Freytag‘s Triangle) Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. The organization of events and characters in a literary work: the plan, design or pattern of events (Bozer, 1995). This organization consists of five plot parts: exposition, rising action, turning point (climax), falling action, and resolution. In exposition the reader is informed about the background information, the time, the place of the action (setting), the characters, the context of situation and the problem before the action starts. The problem (conflict) is presented at the beginning of the story. This leads to a second act, the rising action. Rising action presents the ―dramatization of the events that complicates the situation and gradually intensifies or puzzles the conflict or contributes the new ones‖ (Arıoğul, 2001:97). After exposition rising action continues successive stages of conflict up to the climax (turning point) according to (Bozer, 1995). In turning point (climax) there is an important development in the action which will cause somehow new events in the action. The vital point in the action occurs when the problem is about to be solved. In falling action the problematic cases that occur in the previous parts come close to resolution (conclusion) where the story may end with some solutions. During falling action, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist is solved either with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist (Bozer, 1995). The falling action might have a final suspense, during which the final outcome of the conflict is controversial. In resolution the event(s) following the climax presents the solution of the problem and/or the explanation of the outcome (Bozer, 1995). 162 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Another striking point in this organization type is the Conflict. It is the tension or opposition between forces in the plot. It is introduced to interest readers enough to continue reading the story. Without conflict, there is no plot. Types of Conflict Authors develop plot through the introduction, development, and resolution of conflict. Conflict usually takes one of four forms: *Human vs Nature *Human vs Society *Human vs Human ―external conflict‖ *Human vs himself ―internal conflict‖ Conflicts in the story Human versus society-The basic conflict in the adolescent boy in Joyce's story 'Araby' is that between his boyish imagination and the hard realities of the market-dominated work-a-day life. Human versus society-Conflicts are between the materialistic modern life and the boy's reaction to it- he imagines carrying his chalice through the hostile market place. Human versus society-There is also a conflict between the materialism of the indifferent world and the mask of spirituality that it wears- the rich priest, Mrs. Mercer 'selling' used stamps for some 'pious purpose.' Human versus himself- Within the boy, there is another conflict unknown to him- his romantic yearning for transcendence and yet his entrapment in physical attraction and therefore the narrative voice talks about 'foolish blood' and 'the serious business of life.' Discussion In order to activate the background knowledge of the students, some pictures are shown. By this way, the ―schema theory‖ which according to Arıkan (2006:7) is a rule system and a mental process which includes a body of experiential knowledge of related concepts, events, emotions, ideas, and roles. He believes that with schemata (prior knowledge) in our minds, we perceive and synthesize new knowledge. According to schema theory comprehending a text is an interactive process between the readers‘ background knowledge and the text itself. This process can be divided into two parts (Sarıçoban, 2001:69); To do this the teacher asks some questions related with the pictures. - When I tell you the word ‗Araby‘ which is the title of our short story, what comes up to your mind? - Do you think the story takes place in an Arabian Country? Why, Why not? - What do you see on the below picture? Do you think the story takes place in this bazaar? Why, why not? 163 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - What seems to be unusual about the picture? Who do you think is the boy sitting? Do you think this boy is lonely or disappointed? Try to remember your own disappointments or loneliness and comment on the picture accordingly. While-Reading Activities Araby, James Joyce Activity 1. Students read the short story "Araby" ( this can be done as home reading) The summary of the text: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Araby by James Joyce -------------------------------------------------------------------------------The story opens with a description of North Richmond Street, a "blind," "cold ... .. silent" street where the houses "gazed at one an-other with brown imperturbable faces." It is a street of fixed, decaying conformity and false piety. The boy's house contains the same sense of a dead present and a lost past. The former tenant, a priest, died in the back room of the house, and his legacy-several old yellowed books, which the boy enjoys leafing through because they are old, and a bicycle pump rusting in the back yard-become symbols of the intellectual and religious vitality of the past. The boy, in the midst of such decay and spiritual paralysis, experiences the confused idealism and dreams of first love and his awakening becomes incompatible with and in ironic contrast to the staid world about him. Every morning before school the boy lies on the floor in the front parlor peeking out through a crack in the blind of the door, watching and waiting for the girl next door to emerge from her house and walk to school. He is shy and still boyish. He follows her, walks silently past, not daring to speak, overcome with a confused sense of sensual desire and religious adoration. In his mind she is both a saint to be worshipped and a woman to be desired. His eyes are "often full of tears," and one evening he goes to the back room where the priest had died. Clasping the palms of his hands 164 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo together, he murmurs, "0love! 0 love!" in a prayer not to God, but to the concept of love and perhaps even to the girl, his love. Walking with his aunt to shop on Saturday evenings he imagines that the girl's image accompanies him, and that he protects her in "places the most hostile to romance." In the mixed symbolism of the Christian and the Romantic or Oriental myths Joyce reveals the epiphany in the story: "These noises con-verged in a single sensation of life for me: I imagined that I bore my chalice safely through a throng of foes." He is unable to talk to the girl. Drifting away from his schoolmates' boyish games, the boy has fantasies in his isolation, in the ecstasy and pain of first love. Finally the girl speaks to the boy. She asks him if he is going to Araby. He replies that if he does he will bring her a gift, and from that moment, his thoughts upon the mixed imagery of the saintly light upon her hair and the potential sensuality of "the white border of a petticoat," the boy cannot sleep or study. The word Araby "cast an Eastern enchantment" over him, and then on the night he is to go to the bazaar his uncle neglects to return home. Neither the aunt nor the uncle understands the boy's need and anguish, and thus his isolation is deepened. We begin to see that the story is not so much a story of love as it is a rendition of the world in which the boy lives. The second part of the story depicts the boy's inevitable disappointment and realization. In such an atmosphere of "blindness"-the aunt and uncle unaware of the boy's anguish, the girl not conscious of the boy's love, and the boy himself blind to the true nature of his love-the words "hostile to romance" take on ironic over tones. These overtones deepen when the boy arrives too late at the bazaar. It is closing and the hall is "in darkness." He recognizes "a silence like that which pervades a church after a service" but the bazaar is dirty and disappointing. Two men are "counting money on a salver" and he listens "to the fall of the coins." A young lady, bored with him and interested in two men who are flirting with her, cheapens and destroys the boy's sense of an "Eastern enchantment." His love, like his quest for a gift to draw the girl to him in an unfriendly world, ends with his realizing that his love existed only in his mind. Thus, the theme of the story-the discrepancy between the real and the ideal- is made final in the bazaar. The epiphany in which the boy lives a dream in spite of the ugly and the worldly is brought to its inevitable conclusion: the single sensation of life disintegrates. The boy senses the falsity of his dreams and his eyes burn "with anguish and anger." (http://theliterarylink.com/araby_essays.html) Activity 2. After reading the story, the students and the teachers studies the organization on the board in order to make the meaning of the story clear. EXPOSITION/ INTRODUCTION Description of the place the boy lives RISING ACTION He and the girl have a conversation 165 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Information about his feelings for the girl Information about the boy and his family CLIMAX He promises to bring a present for the girl. FALLING ACTION Falling action He asks for permission to go toAraby. He waits for his uncle to come. His uncle comes but he has forgotten about the trip. He takes the train to Araby. The train delays. He reaches there. The salesgirl treats him badly. RESOLUTION Resolution Discouraged he leaves the Bazaar Activity 3. Questions for Interpretation In this part, the questions given below will be discussed in the classroom and the students will be asked to make predictions about the text they have read. 1. Judging from the games the boys play, how old do you think the narrator is? 2. What is the mood of the story? How does Joyce establish it in the first few pages? 3. Would you describe the narrator's feelings toward Mangan's sister as realistic or romantic? Explain. 166 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. Why does the word ―Araby‖ contain so much meaning for the narrator? Discuss the possibilities the word represents to him. 5. How are the results of the trip to Araby foreshadowed? Activity 4. The students are asked to write an excuse note addressing the girl, telling her why he could not buy the bracelet. The teacher reminds the students that the excuse note doesn't have to be realistic; they can use imaginary reasons thinking themselves as the little boy. Dear friend, -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Activity 5. In the below exercise the students are asked to find the sentence that matches. (Column A) 1)Mangan is the same age and in the same class at the Christian Brothers school as the narrator… 2) Although the boy had crush on Mangan‘s sister,… 3) Mangan‘s sister says she would like to go to the bazaar… 4) The boy describes Mangan‘s sister in reverential terms … 5) The way the uncle comes home that night suggests… 6) Mangan‘s sister can‘t go to the bazaar so she offers to bring her something from the Araby,,, 7) The boy thinks he is in love with a young girl… 8) After the boy speaks to Mangan‘s sister… 9) On the Saturday evening of the bazaar, the boy‘s uncle has forgotten about the trip… 10) The boy wants bazaar to be bright and open… (Column B) a) but it is dark and closed. b) but all of his thoughts, ideas, actions show that he is merely obsessed. c) he finds it hard to con concentrate on anything except for her. d) which causes the narrator to arrive at the bazaar very late. e) so he and the narrator often play together after school. f) which brings his life to a standstill until he can get this symbol of his love for her. g) he is drunk and that it‘s a usual thing the boy sees. h) she has no idea how the narrator feels about her. i) but she cannot because she has to attend a school retreat that weekend. j) which call to mind the Virgin Mary. Activity 6 Multiple Choice The teacher goes on with some multiple choice questions. 1) In the story Araby doesn‘t symbolize… a) beauty b) content c) romance d) mystery e) commercialism 2) Which is not included in the falling action? a) The boy asks for permission to go to Araby. b) The train delays. c) Information about the boy‘s feelings for the girl d) The salesgirl treats the boy badly. 167 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo e) His uncle comes but he has forgotten about the trip. 3) In the story_____represents the uncle‘s debt and irresponsibility? a) Mangan b) The boy‘s uncle c) Mangan‘s sister d) The boy e) Mrs. Mercer 4) Which is the climax of the story? a) Information about the boy‘s feelings for the girl b) The train delays. c) The boy and the girl have a conversation. d) The boy promises to bring a present for the girl. e) Discouraged the boy leaves the Bazaar. 5) Which one of the following themes are not included in the major themes of the story? a) Religion b) Loneliness c) Alienation d) Transformation e) Impatience 6) Which of the following items cannot be regarded as foreshadowing for the boy‘s disappointment? a) The boy‘s being younger than the girl b) Uncle‘s answer to boy‘s question c) Delay of train d) The harsh weather e) Uncle‘s indifference 7) Which is the following is the antagonist of the story? a) The train b) The boy‘s uncle c) Mangan‘s sister d) Bazaar e) Time 8) Joyce is famous for creating characters who undergo a/an ______ and the narrator of ―Araby‖ is one of his best examples. a) change b) epiphany c) depression d) transformation e) stress 9) Mangan‘s older sister becomes the object of the narrator‘s schoolboy _____. a) crush b) embarrassment c) girl d) enjoy e) fail 10) Narrator‘s aunt warns the boy that he may have to ____the bazaar ―for this night of Our Lord. a) do without b) go on c) call off d) put off e) show up Post-Reading Activities Activity 1 Role-play 168 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teacher wants the students to do role-play for this activity. The teacher selects 6 volunteer students from the class to act some of the parts in the story. Firstly, she divides 6 students into 3 groups and wants them to choose a card the teacher hands them. In these cards the names of the characters are written. In the first card, students should act out the dialogue between the uncle and the boy. In the second one, they should act out the dialogue between the girl and the boy. And lastly, the dialogue between the boy and the salesgirl should be acted out. Secondly, she tells them to create a dialogue between those people. CARDS The boy and the girl The boy and the uncle The boy and the salesgirl Activity 2 The teacher hands out the first part of a different version of the play and ask them to write a different ending (preferably a happy one). Observing me, the young lady came over and asked me did I wish to buy anything. The tone of her voice was not encouraging; she seemed to have spoken to me out of a sense of duty. I looked humbly at the great jars that stood like eastern guards at either side of the dark entrance to the stall and murmured: 'Yes, please.' ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 169 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Arıkan, A. (2005). An Evaluation of Literature Component of Hacettepe University English Language Teaching Department. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 29, 40-49. Arıoğul, S. (2001). The Teaching of Reading through Short Stories in Advanced Classes. Hacettepe University, the Institude of Social Sciences, Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Ankara. Bozer, D. ―An Analysis of a Short Short Story‖. Journal of English Language and Literature, 3, 83-88, December 1995. Murdoch, G. (2002). Exploiting Well-known Short Stories for Language Skills Development.IATEFL LCS SIG Newsletter, 23, 9-17. Oster, J. (1989). Seeing with Different Eyes: Another View of Literature in the ESL Class. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 85-103 Sarıçoban, A. ( 2001). The Teaching of Language Skills. Ankara: Hacettepe TaĢ Yayıncılık, http://theliterarylink.com/araby_essays.html Retrieved, April 5, 2011 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce Retrieved, April 12, 20011 170 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 27 Title A name given to the resource USING LITERATURE IN EFL CLASSES: SHORT STORY Author Author SARIÇOBAN, Arif KÜÇÜKOĞLU, Hülya Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study was to investigate underline the benefits of using literature in EFL classes. Short Stories can be used as a good source in ELT classes in almost all levels depending on the difficulty status of the story. Due to their length which is very appropriate for language classrooms, students can make good use of short stories in learning the target language. Using short stories in ELT classrooms is an effective technique for teaching linguistic system as well as the life in relation to the target language. Choosing the right short story is an important part of the process. At this point, students‘ proficiency level, age, and interests should be taken into consideration. Another important thing is the course objectives and appropriateness of the story as content. In this study the importance of using Short Stories in ELT classrooms and points to be considered while choosing the right short story was discussed at the opening part of the study. On the next part, teaching discrete language skills by using short story in ELT classrooms is studied and a sample application is build up in order to share practical ideas. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 115 Title A name given to the resource Gestures as a Peer-Assistance Mechanism in Collaborative Tasks Author Author Sabbah, Manal Abstract A summary of the resource. Although research on the learner-learner interactive processes has shown how collaboration may result in provision of developmentally appropriate assistance, the mechanisms providing or obtaining assistance during language learning tasks have been little examined. In addition, EFL research has been scarce when nonverbal communication, including gesture, is concerned. The purpose of this qualitative exploratory study is to explore to what extent, in what ways and in what types are gestures are used as a mechanism of obtaining and providing assistance amongst peers to complete collaborative language learning tasks in an ESL classroom. The study is conducted in a school in Bosnia. To collect data, collaborative tasks in an ESL classroom were observed for nine days and video-tapped. The participants were interviewed about their gestures. The results of this research suggest that many types of gestures are used to a great extent as a mechanism of obtaining and providing assistance amongst peers to complete collaborative language learning tasks. These gestures are mainly synchronized with speech. The results have some pedagogical implications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/853d6e6b5c1725a7f75b97a7516ef3f4.pdf 4722aaa5e58385bb4154ca8bc820bfa7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Aspects of intercultural communication in Romania Helena Maria Sabo Faculty of Psychology and Science of Education UBB, Cluj-Napoca, Romania helena-maria.sabo@gmx.net Abstract: Education in our country must take into account cultural diversity. Diversity in which we live can be regarded as a source of conflict as well as wealth, that problem (that needs solving), but as resource (generating development). This diversity requires special education policy that addresses the relationship between people belonging to cultures and different ethnic groups. Multicultural and intercultural education is of particular interest. The difficulties of social policies in different systems can be overcome if social reality known and accepted. A social life quality is not possible other than understanding, dialogue as a means of resolving the conflict, ability to open to other cultures and understanding differences as richness. Key Words: intercultural, multicultural, culture, communication, education. Introduction Romania is a country that because of its rich history has a dowry of intercultural communication, illustrated by the fact that here coexist long and successful intercultural experience with outbreaks of ethnic tension maintained by cultural differences, the extensive social imbalances, mostly politicized, but also a terminological and conceptual inconsistencies in the official documents of the Romanian state also designed to create solid foundations for the democratic development of the society. Romania is obliged to study the issue of intercultural and especially to choose an appropriate methodology to achieve the goal of intercultural dialogue. Cultural minorities Topics related to intercultural, multiculturalism, ethnic relations, etc. are topics of general interest for Romanian society resulting in a heterogeneous mixture of public and private opinions, prejudices, statements and political speeches, emotional outbursts, with scientific truths. This blend is added and that the differences between common and scientific language used in discussions on these issues are sometimes minimal, which generates enormous difficulties of communication (Mincu, M. E. 2001) Romanian society is multicultural, if we assume that ethnic groups are registered as bearers of specific crops. Analysis of intercultural relations allows on the one hand, the possibility of an intercultural society argument, and on the other hand, the relationships between groups that compose a given society. Analyses facilitate understanding both the causes and mechanisms of problematic relations and formulate relevant strategies to stimulate the developments leading to the legitimate needs both individually and Community. In terms of desirability reasons, intercultural society, the promotion of minority rights, and legitimizing their demands and strategies used to obtain their achievement, we face two basic choices (Schifirneţ, C. 2001) The first options are the grounding of this perspective on the principle of equal recognition of cultures and the importance of search and maintain social stability. The second option is the location of the fundamental rights of the human person from appearing and the related recognition and affirmation of identity (including rights that allow such things), as a source of legitimacy of societal relations. The Banat and Transylvania have accumulated a rich intercultural experience. This experience must be addressed in light of the new order, specifically in the context of the existence and development of Europe. Legislation. Culture. Education The Romanian constitution Article 6 (1) The State recognizes and guarantees persons belonging to national minorities to preserve development and express their ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious 601 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (2) The protection measures taken by the state for preservation, development and expression of persons belonging to national minorities shall conform to the principles of equality and discrimination in relation to other Romanian citizens (Education Law 84 / 1995) Human language is a set of rules and legal principles that are meant to facilitate the reproduction of institutionalized and regular use of languages. Language policies are administrative measures by which states manage pluralism, understand the language of complex societies. Legislation on culture and education was not always oriented towards protecting the right of minorities to preserve the identity of ―national‖ culture in their own language by ensuring at the same time, and the protection situation of the majority of Romanians, whose culture National should not be affected if we use a stereotype than circulated 1989 circulated cultures, ―nationalities‖. In the post 1989 rights of national minorities in Romania have been promoted in several dimensions of public policy: the institutionalization of various ways of participation in the legislative and executive act, that through various legal and institutional measures designed to ensure the protection, preservation and development of various sizes particularities of identity of minorities in Romania (political culture, language, educational and administrative). As a major component (even central) to an ethnic identity is language, a considerable part of these policies focused on providing institutional reproduction and public use of minority languages in Romania. Linguistic rights of minorities in Romania have made some significant improvements. Compared with the first half of the nineties legal rules which allow the reproduction of institutional and regular use in official contexts of another language than the language of a state, have become more permissive, with more opportunities for legal-institutional ownership and use of minority languages. An observation of the effectiveness of public policies in the use of minority languages in Romania can be approached in two relatively distinct plans: 1. Implementation of legislation – aimed at the extent to implement the provisions on linguistic rights of minorities. 2. The degree of political-noting the project to what extent and in what direction change dynamic relations phenomena (economic, social, cultural, etc.) that the political class wanted to amend legislation promoting the rights of linguistic minority. In the broader political project pursued by the public policy importance of the content of Article 6.1. of the Romanian Constitution, which provides recognition and ensure ―persons belonging to national minorities to preserve, develop and express their ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious. Official language, compared with other languages in that company, acquires a higher status. In context, a preferential relationship between a language and a state authority to shape the problematic situation of those persons, which express the current that is identified with a language other than enjoy state protectionism. This may take the question: to what extent and in what forms can oblige states citizens to participate and identify with a minimum public culture (whose central element is the official language) promoted by a particular state? In this respect, excesses of states, which have tended even aggressive towards cultural and linguistic homogenization, characterized the nineteenth century and much of the last century. Addressing this issue has resulted in decades of last century, supporting the idea, as similar to the rights and a fundamental freedom is necessary wording, coding, promotion and institutionalization of human rights language. The fact is that in Romania to promote linguistic rights of minorities (in education and administration) had a significant positive contribution to managing relations with the Hungarian minority in particular. Reproduction cultural societies, concerning the idea of complementarity between science and education (EĢi: 2010, 4101-415), education institutional process as having a crucial role (perhaps most prominent in modernity) in the reproduction of language, becomes the legitimate monopoly of states. In the management of the company, we are witnessing an unprecedented penetration of various spheres of social life by the states, resulting in a process of expanding both the volume and the powers of state bureaucracy, leading to the inevitability of increasing contacts with the administration. But how to streamline the working of the administration involved accuracy and communication has become one linguistic code as privileged environment, processing and information management. Thus both processes (the exercise by the state monopoly of legitimate education, that of expanding the role of state administration in managing various aspects of social calves) have involved the reconfiguration of the role of language in society, introducing major differences in terms of social functions and status and authority between the different languages spoken in a given society. Following the result of an unprecedented reconfiguration language markets meaning above all rule-imposing language codes to other languages used in society, above all in education and administration, seeking an extension of this logic of language dominance in all spheres of public communication. As regards culture and education legislation, but always turned towards protecting the right of minorities to preserve the identity of ―national‖ culture in their own language by ensuring at the same time, and the protection situation of the majority of Romanians, whose national culture should not be affected by crop ―nationalities‖. 602 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo How to treat crops, giving them each ―the right of the ghetto‖ was not to encourage intercultural exchanges or to foster intercultural development of those born in modern Romania. Education Law 84 of 1995 followed the same principles as previous legislation on minorities, although the terminology is more nuanced, with alternate terms of family, ―national‖ with others, recent Romania vocabulary: ethnic (on the Romanian citizens of the Republic of Moldova) and multicultural. This law guarantees equal access to all levels and forms of education for all Romanian citizens, regardless of social and material condition, sex, race, nationality, political affiliation or religion. Article 8. – (1) stipulates that education at all levels shall be in Romanian, but also in minority languages and the languages of international circulation. A special chapter, Chapter XII, is dedicated to education for persons belonging to national minorities, stressing that the people belonging to them are entitled to study and instruction in their mother tongue at all levels and forms of education and types of education for which there is sufficient demand, with the possibility that, depending on local needs, to organize the application groups, classes, sections or schools teaching in minority languages. Continuous improvement of this law is seen by many changes such as that made by the Government Emergency Ordinance which provides that ―upon request and by law can be multicultural higher education establishments‖. Languages teaching in the higher education institutions are established in the law establishing and ―to encourage higher education institutions with multicultural structures and activities to promote harmonious inter-ethnic coexistence and integration at national and European level‖. The Babes-Bolyai University has a multicultural university status, stating his aim to develop intercultural and interreligious dialogue in the local community, regional, national and international (Mincu, M. E. 2001). In the Gypsy minority, the second of numerically after Hungarian, the most difficult economic and social situation, the lowest level of education and with a huge baggage of negative perception of all other ethnic groups in Romania, Government adopted in 2001 a strategy to improve the situation of this ethnic group. Among the goals of this strategy and that is to build an ―institutional system of community development, combating discrimination against Roms, promote intercultural education, the creation of elites among the Gypsy, to consolidate the social and identity reconstruction‖. Intercultural enters therefore in the Romanian legislation. As regards education, are introduced in the curriculum Romanian language as optional subject, and the positive discrimination of Gypsies university system, by subsidizing the State of additional seats in the social sciences and the study of Romanian in universities for Gypsy. The strategy also includes ―designing and implementing training programs for school mediators and training teachers in intercultural education‖. In terms of communication and civic participation, the Government strategy to improve the situation of Roma aims to build a national public information and fighting ethnic prejudices in public institutions, start a program to combat discrimination in the media, organizing and developing information programs and intercultural education of the majority, with the participation of the roms. The general plan measures to implement strategies to improve the situation of Gypsy provides education , presentation, in collaboration with NGOs and Gypsy communities, the training programs of school mediators and training and training for teachers on intercultural education. Culture and religion in the states initiating cultural projects for the reconstruction of Gypsy identity and increase self esteem, presentation of an annual plan of action for intercultural education in schools, by which to facilitate communication between students of different ethnicities and learning social tolerance, supporting research projects and intercultural education. A study on intercultural education in countries of Eastern Europe, concluded, in a perfectly valid for Romania, that theoretically, there are prerequisites for supporting an intercultural education in the broadest sense of the term and the general sense that draws attention to the category of pluralism (CucoĢ, C. 2000) During the 90‘s there was an increase in communication between the scientific communities of Eastern Europe and Western, and this also led to a dialogue on intercultural issues and sometimes a joint theoretical development. Discrepancy between theory and practice and intercultural educational history and culture is a constant, and therefore it characterizes both western countries and Eastern countries, to the extent that awareness of cultural discourse could be evaluated in a manner similar to the East and West. Protecting and promoting diversity and the potential of culture on social cohesion and inclusion are fundamental principles in the relationship between the citizen and the cultural and cultural policy. For presentation and publication of the most representative organizations of national minorities in Romania and taking into account that some publications have tradition in our country, especially in Transylvania and Banat again reinforce the idea that the Romanian provinces boast a ―life intercultural‖. 603 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusion Romania as a EU candidate has received numerous programs and community projects. An important role is communication and therefore it has an education in intercultural communication. Through various research there have been found varying degrees of communicative competence in children depending on the type of relationship exists between family members, social environment, and culture. Given the value that power for the social integration of individuals to eliminate frustrations arising from the failure of issue or affective reception of the message, to remove errors of communication and so on, should be a concern as it can close the achievement related to development communication ability, at the training school for all grades. Both in education and in the ―daily‖ should be expected to develop and apply a ―science‖ of communication that endorses and is growing through learning. Objective can be achieved if all knowledge of communication will find the interest due in the concerns of educators from all levels of education and organizational structures. From the perspective of ―lifelong learning‖, it can be argued that to increase the general level of culture on the one hand and professionalism on the other hand it must be permanent concerns communication at all levels of education and his later, in adulthood becomes a necessity. This goal takes into account both the expression language and dialogue tends to achieve a seamless communication. In any case the specific process of education and its characteristics should become a communication experience, an experience of interpersonal relations, dialogue and collaborations, a way to remove the obstacles that stand in the way of communication between individuals and/or social groups and of course, thereby improving and enhancing professionalism, considered in terms of its inherent communication needs. Diversity in which we live can be regarded as a source of conflict as well as wealth, that problem (that needs solving), but as a resource (generating development). This diversity requires special education policy that addresses the relationship between people belonging to cultures and different ethnic groups. Multicultural and intercultural educations are of particular interest. The difficulties of social policies in different systems can be overcome if social reality known and accepted. A first step in this approach is to define the cognitive and operational concepts and intercultural multiculturalism. Although overlap, they are used in different situations to express specific types of manifestation of social education. As discussed during the work starting from the fact that we live in societies faced with massive immigration/emigration, in which minorities or living together for centuries in societies that tend to preserve national identity with the price infringement of minority rights, intercultural education it will cover: 1. Educational policies aimed at ―minorities‖, ―problem groups‖ 2. Educational policies aimed at ―education for all‖. These measures are the result of understanding the idea that society is not possible other than understanding, dialogue as a means of resolving the conflict, ability to open to other cultures and understanding differences as richness. 604 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References CucoĢ, C. (2000). Education / Cultural and Intercultural Dimensions, Polirom Publishing House, IaĢi. EĢi, M. (2000) The idea of complementarity between science and education, in International Conference on Biology, Environment and Chemistry (ICBEC 2010), 28-30 decembrie 2010, (the conference proceedings of this conference is indexed in Thomson ISI, Ei Compendex, and IEEE Xplore), IEEE Catalog Number: CFP1002MPRT; ISBN: 978 – 1- 4244-9155-1; ISBN: 978 -1 4244-9157-5, pp. 410-415; Mincu, M. E. (2001). Le pluralism interculturelle et l‘éducation dans les pays de l‘Europe de l‘Est, VIIIème Actes du Congrès de l‘Association pour la Recherche InterCulturelle (ARIC), University of Geneva – 24-28 September, on website: http://www.unige.ch/fapse/SSE/groups/aric. Schifirneţ, C. (2001). Genesis modern national idea. Romanian psychology and ethnic identity, Albatros Publishing, Bucharest. Education Law 84 / 1995; Law 151/1999 approving Government Emergency Ordinance no. 36/1997 for the amendment of the Education Law no. 84/1995, Article 123, par. 1; 605 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 89 Title A name given to the resource Aspects of intercultural communication in Romania Author Author Sabo, Helena Maria Abstract A summary of the resource. Education in our country must take into account cultural diversity. Diversity in which we live can be regarded as a source of conflict as well as wealth, that problem (that needs solving), but as resource (generating development). This diversity requires special education policy that addresses the relationship between people belonging to cultures and different ethnic groups. Multicultural and intercultural education is of particular interest. The difficulties of social policies in different systems can be overcome if social reality known and accepted. A social life quality is not possible other than understanding, dialogue as a means of resolving the conflict, ability to open to other cultures and understanding differences as richness. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b438209910000016dcc0ccbecb3668b6.pdf 3315ff68d8ef8a314950399ad2b241d8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Foundations of Intercultural Education Helena Maria Sabo Faculty of Psychology and Science of Education UBB, Cluj-Napoca, Romania helena-maria.sabo@gmx.net Abstract: At present, when within the same society, contacts between different cultures become more and more numerous, the space of the individual existence surpasses the traditional limits of the original forming, and socializing background, the intercultural approach to education becomes a disconcerting necessity for the present and the future. Within the contemporary education, together with the ―new types of education‖, the intercultural education represents an infusion of new elements on the traditional contents by advancing an active and participative pedagogy, centered on the educated person and aiming at cooperation between groups and equal educational chances. Key Words: intercultural education, identity, attitude Introduction As an important matter to all those who follow the evolution of humanity in general and/or of the human rational being in particular, education represents that process oriented towards the spiritual fulfillment of the person and of the community, which proposes, during its development, involvement, living, communication between actual individuals within the multiple and complex changes, mutations in all compartments of existence. Over the last two decades issues like the continual deterioration of the environment or the atmosphere, the limited nature of natural resources, the rate of demographic growth etc. have led to the idea of an interdependence between them and to the conclusion that development can‘t take place without peace, that peace can‘t be authentic without respecting human rights and ensuring fundamental freedoms, that in their turn these freedoms and rights are illusory when there still are people so poor that surviving is their only ideal. All these problems have led to stating a new concept – the problems of the contemporary world. (Adler, M.J.1971) The educational systems have tried to find solutions to the challenges raised by the development of the contemporary world, despite the skeptics who maintain that education cannot play an important part in preparing the tomorrow‘s world and in ensuring a better future. The specialists who believe in the transforming power of the education and in its capacity to contribute with specific resources to the development of the future are aware of the fact that education can‘t solve all the problems of the contemporary world on its own, but in the same time a strong and durable solution can‘t be conceived without of the educational systems. Thus, we believe that the intercultural education constitutes an answer to the development requirements and the dynamics of the contemporaneity. The philosophy of the cultural pluralism, which is discussed in the occidental media, constitutes an action background in many democratic states of the world. ―The pluralist ideology advances numerous presumptions upon the nature of pluralist-democratic societies and the function of ethnic groups in the individual‘s socializing skills and the responsibility of their members towards safeguarding their own cultural values. […] The cultural pluralism promotes the hypothesis that ethnic minorities have a unique learning style; thus the analytical program‘s in schools and the educational curriculum should be revised in order to suit the cognitive style and the spiritual profile of students who belong to different ethnic groups‖. (Cozma, Teodor, 2001) It is necessary to promote attachment and ethnic understanding and the students must be helped to acquire skills, thus allowing the ethnic group to gain the signification power of the large culture of the world. According to some analysts nowadays we need a self-critical of the occidental monocentrism, a critical distancing from its ethical and scientific dogmatism; we need to state new principles of living together and reorganizing our existence based on new points of view, on resymbolising our life, on new ways of analyzing and codifying our experiences. 606 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Method of the Study The intercultural education oscillates between the problem of the objective contents of knowledge and the one that aims at intersubjective relationships. The intercultural approach is an intellectual adventure, with its restless aspects for teachers and students because it moves away from the norm, but it opens channels towards stating liberties, individualities, open and multiple identities, by developing the knowledge exchange between partners, a forming demand and offer. The intercultural orientation of education refers to putting into practice several ―types‖ of pedagogies, for example:  a pedagogy centered on the person being educated;  an active and interactive pedagogy;(Allport, G. W. 1991)  a pedagogy that takes into account the learning of decentring and develops an intercultural communication skill;  a pedagogy of the project that favors interdependency among the group members and promotes cooperation;  a pedagogy of the partnership within the educational system (among the teachers of a school, among teachers of different origins, researchers, trainers) but also in connection to the other elements of the social, economic and cultural environment (parents, economic agents, representatives of local authorities, etc.);  a pedagogy of the exchange and interdisciplinarity based on all kinds of school correspondence, traveling abroad, making connections between several sets of knowledge and values that were initially acquired separately. The intercultural education urges us to face and respect alterity by promoting mutual tolerance and understanding. At the beginning of this millennium the space of the individual existence overcomes the traditional limits of the original environment (of initial forming and socializing). The meeting and dialogue of cultures, despite the distances that separate them in time and space, are inevitable and often difficult; thus the matter of cultures coexisting within the same society seems to be, as stated before, a rather disconcerting defiance of the present and the future. The intercultural education represents a strategy for preparing future democratic societies so that people take into account the cultures they represent when they interact (Jackson, T. 1995) According to McLeon, the analysis of the multicultural education typology leads to three specificities, the last one defining the intercultural approach: 1. The ethnic specificity approach – that is the approach or planning of the multicultural education based on ethnic-cultural perspectives. This approach tends to put the accent on culture preserving or on developing multicultural policies; 2. The problem-oriented approach – includes those people and groups whose fundamental orientation towards multiculturalism answers certain problems. Immigrants and their integration are considered to be problems that need solutions for reception centers, interpreting programs and immigration services. Also racism could be considered a critical matter which makes many people think that antiracism is an aspect of multiculturalism. Others consider relations between groups an extremely important matter and consequently they develop intercultural or inter-groups programs; 3. The Cultural\Intercultural approach – it is a more general approach of the intercultural education; it takes place where multiculturalism is an ethic which constitutes the basis of education and of the entire school curriculum and includes preoccupations for ensuring continuity, cultural and linguistic development, matters related to the ethnic and racial relationships, integrating emigrants, bilingualism or human rights. This approach is a comprehensive social and cultural engagement and it is based on defining multiculturalism as including or incorporating culture in general as well as in an ethnic cultural way, paying special attention to diversity and ethnic, racial, linguistic and religious pluralism. The intercultural education originates in the social, economic and cultural relationships, which characterize society in general; in order to apply the intercultural education the teacher must be trained not only for managing strictly didactical situations but also for facilitating the spiritual and cultural permeability of the students. On the other hand, training doesn‘t only mean knowing, but also practicing intercultural because only the theoretical knowledge of the cultural characteristics or differences doesn‘t necessarily give cultural skills to the person who possesses it, as well as knowing the other doesn‘t favors intercultural behavior( Bruner, J. 1970). The intercultural training steps are difficult and face mainly two problems: 1. each person‘s inherent difficulty to perceive cultural differences and especially minority ones. The perceptions are selective, ethnically centered, affected by fear of the other, preconceived ideas, tendencies to reduce things to schemes, attitudes of devaluation and discrimination;(Dewey, J. 1972) 2. our social and cultural identity ―colors‖ the process of knowing the others. The value decoding concerning foreign cultures are made trough value paradigms already fixed that influence the quality of perceiving the other. 607 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We believe that, for any teacher, learning to receive alterity and diversity is a moral obligation in the present conditions. Thus we need a methodical and structured training, as ―the foreigner‖, ―the foreign‖ and ―the straneity‖ occupy a more and more important position in our lives. ―We must learn how to read the present day with ―broadness‖, to permanently question the habitual and the habits, to distance ourselves from familiar things, to approach more boldly what is unfamiliar to us‖ (CucoĢ, Constantin, 2000). According to Micheline Rey, the intercultural training involves at least two dimensions that are permanently linked to each other: a dimension of ―knowledge‖ (as objective as possible and built from multiple angles) and a dimension of ―experience‖ (subjective and relational), but we only mention them here as we already discussed them in detail. The intercultural training must concisely endow the teacher with methodological or conceptual instruments but also with suitable attitudes or behaviors in order to distance him/her from the didactic position. As highlighted by Ct. CucoĢ, recognizing plurality forces us to reorganize the teacher training systems, and this new formula will turn variation from a negative thing into a norm and a stable reference point. C. Camilleri shortly describes a few basic procedural rules for intercultural training:  Understanding the logic of each culture. Cultures must not be valued trough hierarchy and each individual will understand that he/she is part of a cultured endowed with all the attributes of dignity and value. The pejorative judgments of any culture must disappear, proving the indestructible ties between realities, environment of origin and their cultural specificities;  Educating from the perspective of relativism. Cultural systems must be judged in a detached, decentralized manner in order to overcome ethnically centered judgments. The first level of this position consists of presenting your cultural model without imposing it. The second level consists of understanding that we have no reason to consider our own culture superior. Not only must we be tolerant to others, but also it is only fair to admit that we cannot legitimize a hierarchical value judgment upon two or more cultures;  Do not consider cultures to be sacred. By recognizing certain cultures as acceptable practices, we must not consider them sacred or believe they are larger than others. The intercultural helps moving away from a culture imposed or dictated by a group, imposed as transcendence, towards understanding culture as a dialogue with others, thus moving from the ―product culture‖ to the ―process culture‖, from a static to a dynamic perspective;  To take heterogeneity seriously. Heterogeneity should not be blamed when it appears naturally, without being imposed. We live in more and more multiform and different cultural spaces. To be against racism, to know the mechanisms of exclusion and to fight artificial barriers between individuals or communities is an attitude that must be acquired by the person designated to educate for diversity;  To recognize misunderstandings and conflicts. To grasp reality as it is, even if there are certain deficits from an intercultural point of view, is an exam of honesty and professionalism. The conflicts between cultures or people with different cultural backgrounds are obvious, and admitting their existence constitutes a first step towards solving them. The social sometimes facilitates intercultural conflicts; the economic insecurity, unemployment, the competition on the work market, social changes, pride also has a cultural component that leads to conflict, including from an intercultural point of view. To all these we can add the differences of opinion between members of different cultures regarding delicate matters like: polygamy, abortion, the death penalty, euthanasia etc. In our country, the initial training of teachers for intercultural education is almost inexistent. Teacher must be trained not only for managing strictly didactic situations but also for facilitating the spiritual and cultural permeability of their students. To be against racism, to know the mechanisms of exclusion and to fight artificial barriers between individuals or communities is an attitude that must be acquired by the person designated to educate for diversity . That‘s why we should pay attention to forming trainers for intercultural education by using research of intercultural psycho pedagogy, and also from the domains of cultural anthropology, social psychology, development psychology, conflict solving management etc. A virtual curriculum for intercultural training should include themes like: 3. Tendencies of the contemporary society: the multicultural-intercultural dynamics; 4. The phenomenon of transmitting and diffusing culture; 5. Cultural identity and difference-consequences in the school system; 6. Cultural relativism; 7. Filtering social reality trough images (categorization, stereotypes, prejudice); 8. Strategies of relating to others; 9. Discrimination; 10. Intolerance; 11. Xenophobia; 12. Ethnocentrism; 13. Racism; 14. Sexism; 15. Objectives and values of the intercultural education; 608 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 16. Intercultural exigencies and family education; 17. Strategies for experimenting the diversity of values; 18. Formal and informal, curricular and extracurricular in intercultural training etc. As it can be noticed, there are generous themes and multiple possibilities in the field of training for intercultural education. Where there is intuition, pedagogical skills, will to self improve and where the teacher understands the evolution of life and of the contemporary world, he/she will know what method to choose so that the result of his/her transformation –and why not?- his/her accomplishment to raise positive feelings within their own community or school environment. Learning in heterogeneous schools and classes (multicultural) is more an advantage than a handicap and it requires openness and cooperation instead of selection and rejection. We know that identity is built within a relationship of difference \ likeness with the others, and in a pluralist society, the relationship identity-alterity must be approached in a plural manner. As stated by C. Camilleri, we are what we are as individuals also by the ―lack‖ that we are looking for or finding in alterity. Within this projection in/towards the other we can become accomplished or understand our plenitude or real limits. The intercultural education urges us to welcome and respect alterity by promoting tolerance and mutual understanding. Conclusions and Discussion We believe that within the Romanian school system the reform should be given a more intercultural dimension because such an articulation of our school system could constitute a solid basis for creating a democratic, open and permissive society, pluralist as well as united. The intercultural approach to curriculum could enrich the relational aspect of the inhabitants of our country by giving a new dimension to daily human interactions and by considerably reducing phenomena of intolerance, egocentric tendencies, extreme pragmatism, as well as psychological and social marginalization phenomena. The intercultural education teaches us one essential thing: pejorative judgments of any culture must disappear thus proving the indestructible ties between their realities, background and cultural specificities. Due to the major changes that took place recently and that endanger the world‘s ecosystem, larger and more diverse media have realized that the ideological fundaments of our egocentric society are inadequate and have claimed new paradigms of behavior and action. A new challenge has been launched for education: to contribute to promoting human rights in a way that overcomes ethnic centrism. If it succeeds in determining new generations to admit the complex role of interdependencies and interactions and to actively, acquire constructive and dynamic skills of using individual rights and liberties in an intercultural way. Education will prepare them to better understand the new stakes within our societies in the 21st century and will ensure, by admitting the collective identity and the common future, a solid and durable economic, social and cultural development. After all, as Micheline Rey noticed, this challenge is aimed at the completely social community because the ability of education to respond to its expectations depends on its adhesion to the principles of solidarity and the actual choices. Because of the perspective of building a unitary European space, of the international character of economy, of globalizing information the objectives of an enlarged intercultural practice in education are: admitting the diversity of the cultural codes, communicating in an intercultural context, being aware of your own cultural identity, overcoming stereotypes and prejudice, knowing the institutions and living conditions in various European countries, cooperation with representatives of any culture. We believe that all these will bring about profound mutations in a more or less near future related to the system of thinking, feeling and acting of each of us. The question that still stands is the following: in what measure are we willing to change our mentalities, even if we see that it is necessary? 609 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Adler, M. J. (1971). Defending the Philosophy of Education, in an Anthology of the Contemporary American Pedagogy, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest. Allport, G. W. (1991). The Structure and Development of Personality, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest. Bruner, J. (1970), For a Theory of Training, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House , Bucharest. Cozma, T. (coordinator) (2001). A New Challenge for Education: Interculturality, Polirom Publishing, IaĢi. CucoĢ, C. (2000). Education / Cultural and Intercultural Dimensions, Polirom Publishing House, IaĢi. Dewey, J. (1972), Democracy and Education, The Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest. Jackson, T. (1995). Cross-Cultural Management, Butterworth-Heineman, Oxford. 610 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 90 Title A name given to the resource The Foundations of Intercultural Education Author Author Sabo, Helena Maria Abstract A summary of the resource. At present, when within the same society, contacts between different cultures become more and more numerous, the space of the individual existence surpasses the traditional limits of the original forming, and socializing background, the intercultural approach to education becomes a disconcerting necessity for the present and the future. Within the contemporary education, together with the ―new types of education‖, the intercultural education represents an infusion of new elements on the traditional contents by advancing an active and participative pedagogy, centered on the educated person and aiming at cooperation between groups and equal educational chances. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3a3f90de49c2801e9141aefd369ea931.pdf 4950911ed0715c3ec001830f5b46edda PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Educational Partnerships and Intercultural Education in Primary School Marta Santos martasantos@ua.pt Department of Education University of Aveiro, Portugal Maria Helena de Araújo e Sá helenasa@ua.pt Department of Education University of Aveiro, Portugal Ana Raquel Simões anaraquel@ua.pt Department of Education University of Aveiro, Portugal Abstract: Within the framework of a research study developed at the University of Aveiro, a group of educational partners representing local institutions was gathered. The aim was to conceptualize, implement and evaluate a collaborative research project on intercultural education. Each of the participants was interviewed (semi-structured interview), in order to know their perceptions in practices on intercultural and collaborative work and the reasons that lead to this collaborative participation and their expectations concerning the work that is still to be done. Their answers revealed that the intercultural issue is familiar to all participants and that they feel the need to learn more about this topic motivated them to participate in this collaborative project. Further more, all of them reported previous experience on collaborative work, acknowledging its assets in comparison to the work carried out individually. These data will allow us to guide the work that will be developed by the network of partners and also to analyze the evolution of their representations of intercultural education and work in partnership, through the application of a final interview. Key words: Intercultural Education, Educational Partnerships. Introduction This paper emerges from a research study being developed at the university of Aveiro, Portugal, named ―Intercultural education in primary school: partnerships involving the school and the community‖. Within the framework of this study a group of educational partners, who represent the different institutions of the local community was gathered, aiming at conceiving, implementing and assessing a project on intercultural education. The project began in September 2010 and will be carried out till the end of the present school year (June 2011). During this time, the partners will have the opportunity to develop a set of activities to be implemented to their target audience and to get training on intercultural education. The group is made of six primary school teachers, two music teachers (extra-curriculum activities), a representative of an association for Ukrainian immigrants, a representative of a cultural association, a representative of a cooperative for social work (which deals with people with disabilities), a representative of the local library and government and a team of researchers from the Open Laboratory for the Learning of Foreign Languages (LALE) from de University of Aveiro. In the following pages we intend to present and discuss the results of an interview carried out to the group of partners in order to know their attitudes towards intercultural education and collaborative work, as well as the motivation for accepting the invitation of being part of this working group. 827 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Theoretical Framework Cultural diversity is an undeniable characteristic of today‘s societies. Managing cultural and ethical conflicts stands out as one of the most delicate and complex tasks of modern societies and their governmental institutions (Guerra, 2008). Therefore, there is an urgent call for mutual understanding and respect, where one can find the acknowledgement of the value of diversity and the promotion of critical participation of all the citizens in the democratic life (UNESCO, 2006). Cultural, social, economic and political diversity which characterises each society has its reflection on schools. In this context, school plays a crucial role, given that it is expected to provide pupils a high level of education, adapted to its characteristics, needs and interests (Soeiro & Pinto, 2006). In this sense, Breeze (2003) states that intercultural education does not represent as an option but a necessity and a moral prerogative, since there is a mandatory demand for education to answer to the context of diversity, by opening a path to dialogue among people from different cultures. Intercultural education stands out as an educational approach that aims at developing citizens‘ cultural enrichment by appealing to the acknowledgement and respect for diversity through exchange and dialogue, active and critical participation in order to enhance a democratic society underpinned by equality, tolerance and solidarity/ unity (Miranda, 2004). Intercultural education can be defined as: «an educational approach based on respect for and recognition of cultural diversity, aimed at every member of the society as a whole. It posits a formal and informal intervention model, holistic, integral and encompassing all dimensions of the educational process in order to achieve a real equality of opportunities/results, to promote intercultural communication and competency, and to overcome racism in all its expressions.» (Aguado & Malik, 2006:448) However, this concept is often used ambiguously or even inappropriately, referring to practices that have nothing to do with intercultural education. To Portera (2008) the concept of interculturalism is often confused with multiculturalism. The author explains that while the multicultural perspective refers to images and stereotypes of cultures and cultural differences, the intercultural perspective is related to the dynamics of cultures in contact, intercultural relations and intercultural competence. Dervin (2010) adds that intercultural education often comes to be seen as a mere cultural formation. Pretceille-Abdallah (2006) defines ―cultural formation‖ as the cultural knowledge of the Other, based on a discourse of categorization that is based on a factual and descriptive knowledge. In other words, Dervin (2010) explains that the mere knowledge and facts about other cultures do not necessarily contribute to an intercultural education. Gimenéz (2003) adds that the emphasis on intercultural education is the interaction between culturally distinct entities or individuals. Thus, intercultural education places its emphasis on mutual learning, cooperation and exchange, focusing on the coexistence of different, trying to build unity in diversity. By promoting intercultural education, schools look for the development of their pupils‘ knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to the construction of a fair and democratic world (UNESCO, 2006). It must be intended to all students and be able to embrace all participants in pupils‘ education process, so that all the community represents a place where diversity is valued (Vieira, 2006). This task cannot be an exclusive concern of schools. Recent studies from Aguado & Malik (2006) refer that it is essential that the work on intercultural education is developed based on partnerships that comprises not only school but also the whole community. In this sense, the implementation of an intercultural approach on education must consider working communities that integrate different educational actors- not only the school community (teachers, pupils, school assistants and families) but the whole community (Aguado & Malik, 2006; Rey-Von Allmen, 2004). These collaborative networks allow the dialogue, and the exchange of ideias, values, experiences and critical reflection, leading to the enrichment of professional development (Damiani, 2008; Veiga Simão, Flores, Morgado; Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002). Thus, the actions of the partners, regarding cultural diversity can be easily enhanced (Angelides, Stylianou & Leigh, 2007; Leite, 2005). Other authors argue that educational partnerships are considered crucial in terms of educational development, since the collaboration between schools and other institutions may lead to new and adapted answers to the actual educational problems (ACIDI, 2007; Aguado, Jaurena & Benito, 2005, Canário, 2007; Epstein & Sheldon, 2006; Martins, 2009; Ornelas & Moniz, 2007). Educational partnerships are considered a crucial aspect of any policy for sustainable and sustained development and therefore should be part of every interventional program concerning education (Campus, 2004). Interaction and collaboration among all participants should also be at the forefront of this type of projects. Roldão (2007) identifies three main goals of collaborative work: firstly there is a demand for a more successful achievement of a goal, secondly, the skills of each participants are expected to be activated by insuring 828 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo everyone´s enrolment, and finally the enlargement of knowledge build upon each one‘s contribution and interaction is expected. Hernández (2007) admits that the collaborative work may take different forms, according to the heterogeneity of the group and the objectives of the work to develop. If in some cases the work is limited to an occasional meeting to plan an activity, in other cases may involve the sharing of opinions, the seeking for help to resolve conflicts or constraints and the search for new ideas for improving the practices of all elements of the group. However, some studies also show some constrains related to this kind of work, such as problems with personal interaction, lack of training and professional development opportunities, along side with other aspects of organizational and contextual nature (Veiga Simão et al, 2009). Method of the study Within the network of partnerships established in this project, a semi-structured interview was developed with the following aims: i) to get to know the representations of the participants in relation to intercultural education; ii) to identify and characterize intercultural practices dynamised in the partner institution; iii) to get to know the views of partners on the importance of carrying out activities related to intercultural education; iv) to get to know the needs of the participant in terms of knowledge on intercultural education; v) to identify and characterize partners‘ practices concerning partnership work; vi) to get to know the partners‘ representations about working in partnership (gains, constraints,...) and vii) to get to know their motivations for participation in a partnership project on intercultural education. The participants were interviewed individually before the development of the partnership project on intercultural education. The average duration of the interviews was thirty minutes. Their answers were audio taped, transcribed and analyzed. To ensure their anonymity, each respondent was identified with the symbol P (partner) followed by a number between 1 and 12. The data collected allowed us to make an initial characterization of the partners involved in this project with respect, not only to their representations on intercultural education and work in partnership, but also in relation to the type of work undertaken by each one in these areas. It also allowed us to know their motivations and expectations regarding the participation in this project. These previous experiences reported by them will guide us through the development of a partnership project on intercultural education. In addition, we intend to replicate this interview at the end of the project in order to analyze the evolution of partners‘ representations on these issues. Findings and Discussion Intercultural concepts and practices of network partners First, we questioned the participants about their conceptions of intercultural education. The answers indicate two distinct groups: one refers to a multicultural perspective and the other to an intercultural perspective. Half of the participants related the theme of interculturalism with the mere existence of different countries and cultures, stressing that such different cultures should be respected and known. According to these responses, we can assume that the "other peoples and cultures‖ are understood in a multicultural perspective, as explained in Portera (2008). The second group states that the word "intercultural" necessarily refers to interaction, considering, therefore, that interculturalism is related not only with the knowledge of other cultures, but also with the relationship that may exist between them. The responses of this group refer to a dynamic view of the cultures in contact, which, according to Portera (2008), corresponds to an intercultural perspective. Then we asked participants to share with us some of their previous experiences regarding the implementation of activities on intercultural education. Only one said he had never developed work on this topic. All the others had already done at least at the professional level, activities related to intercultural education. Four of them said they had also developed such activities outside the institution where they work. Nine of the respondents said that their aim to carrying out this type of activity was the awareness of different peoples and cultures. Seven of them added the integration / inclusion of minorities, four indicated sharing knowledge and experiences between people of different nationalities and cultures and two cited the respect for citizens with disabilities. Only one of them indicated the respect for other cultures and the development of personal and social skills. When asked about the importance of conducting activities on intercultural education, all respondents are unanimous in stating that such activities are indeed very important. On the one hand, and for personal reasons, two of the participants consider it essential to carry out these activities because they are immigrants and have already experienced situations of discrimination and integration problems caused by this condition. Let's illustrate with the declaration of P1: ―Personally because I'm different (laughs) in another sense / of course (...).You are trying very 829 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo hard and then someone makes fun of you because you have a different accent (…).Not because you said something wrong. It‘s (…) just because you have a different accent. Those things hurt a little/ you know?‖ 281 And P11: "Now/ for example/ there is a very boring tendency in politics! Because there are many politicians who say they do not need immigrants. (...)We didn't come here to take everything away from Portuguese. We came here/ of course/ to live our lives the best we can but we made a/ huge effort to have something here. " Moreover, for professional reasons, the remaining respondents consider it very important that the public for those who develop their work have the opportunity to know and respect different realities, not only in cultural terms, but also for differences physical, mental, social, religious and economic changes that distinguish us from each other. Let‘s take the example of P12: ―because interculturalism isn‘t just/ ahm/ and sometimes we forget the people who can not read/ that are a considerable part of the Portuguese population/ and that device we have is wonderful because it changes the writing/ ahm/ in voice (…) And besides an amblyopic or blind can read an illiterate person can also read/ and we're doing intercultural education because culture and cultural parameters of this person are different from mine/ because there is a big difference, which is access to information, so/ and ahm// the reactions are great!‖ Besides, they also point out that this type of activity is essential when working with culturally heterogeneous public, since they promote the inclusion of minority groups, valuing differences and the development of values of solidarity, tolerance and nondiscrimination. In the words of P7: ―(…) currently, values are falling. It is a fact that more children discriminate against others. For being different! I do not say that it is always because of the culture/ but increasingly, we have more people from different cultures in our schools. Many more! And then we must begin to value and begin to show children that they are normal people and we have to… Of course they have different cultures/ have different principles/ they do different things in the community but we have to value it! Being different does not mean being bad!‖ Finally, with regard to their needs for training on intercultural education, all respondents agree they would like to receive training in this area, either to recall previously constructed knowledge, whether to stay updated on the evolution of societies from the perspective of permanent training. Practices and conceptions on working in partnership We questioned the participants in order to assess whether working in partnership with other partners or with other community institutions was, or was not, a usual routine for them. According to the answers provided, all the participants state having already worked with other partners, namely with educative purposes. The eight teachers revealed that it is usual for them to work in partnership with other community institutions (governmental or cultural institutions), either in activities of lesson planning, development of projects or management of the school where they develop their professional activity. Four of them also mention partnerships with their students‘ parents. The remaining respondents affirm that the partnerships they establish usually involve the participation of other community institutions, including schools. By analysing the respondents‘ speech, it becomes clear that there are some discrepancies as far as their understanding of the concept of ‗partnerships‘ is concerned. In four situations, this concept is described as merely occasional contacts where one of the partners accepts an invitation or a request, presented by the other partner, to develop a previously defined activity, without any sharing of ideas or opinions between them. P1 gives us an example: "In the schools/ when they ask us to do something/ usually leave the job to our responsibility. Understand? They want us to do a certain thing/ (...)! Now it‘s up to us!‖ The other eight participants refer that there are situations when the work relationship is more occasional (as previously described) and situations when there is the development of a sustained work in which the participation of all the people involved is valued and encouraged. These last situations illustrate, in the participants‘ point of view, an effective collaboration. This collaboration is indicated in the words of P6: "We try to give everyone/ an active participation in meetings. Ahm / is important to know everyone's opinion and therefore everyone can collaborate.‖ 281 Our translation 830 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo P7 also supports this idea: "With the Parish Council (...) is teamwork. We are there to shape activities and to see if they want to participate/ (...) there is a continuous work, there is a beginning, middle and end." The data collected in these interviews indicate us, therefore, that the respondents seem to hold different representations of the concepts of ―working in partnership‖ and ―collaborative work‖ (Hernández, 2007). This fact may be the result of a certain difficulty in defining these concepts, associated with the lack of an explicit reflection about them (Veiga Simão et al, 2009). Following from that, we asked the participants to point out some advantages that they associate with their understanding of ‗work developed in partnership‘. The majority of the respondents (seven) indicated the enrichment of the work, as a result of the contribution of different partners, as one of the main advantages. For P8 "work is always much more positive" and to P9 "(...) there is also the possibility of developing other types of activities." The ―spirit of mutual help‖ was mentioned by five of the respondents and ‗sharing‘ by four. Two respondents pointed out the optimization of human and financial resources and other two indicated the deepening of knowledge. P1 e P11, the two partners who find themselves in a situation of immigration, pointed out the personal satisfaction of working with other people, as well as the difficulty of working alone. In addition, P6 referred that working in partnership gives greater visibility to the institution where he/she works: "(...) the institution may ahm/ work in the community/ the institution can be seen in the community (...) there are people who know the institution/ the work that is done there/ (...) and we try to break down barriers through these partnerships." On the other hand, when questioned about the constraints of working collaboratively with other partners, the answers were, once again, diversified. Four of the participants did not point out any constraint as far as this type of work is concerned. Other four mentioned the existence of some personal difficulties in building a relationship with partners, an idea which is well illustrated in the words of P7: "The difficulty of certain people to work in partnership‖ and P10: "(...) In the place where I used to work things were not going well. There were no partnerships with other institutions. (...) they were unwilling to participate/ not interested in participating. (...) There are very complicated cases, people are very suspicious. (...) there is a rivalry and I want to do better than you / I have to do better than you. " Two participants indicated that the main constraints are the fear of exposure and public speaking. P4 tells us: "And I think when we come to this kind of work/ many are willing to say something. But/ what will he think of me? Or/ I'll speak in public/ I get all flushed when I speak in public. And I think that is the biggest problem.‖ Other respondents indicated, as a constraint, an unbalanced distribution of roles (P12: "when / the protagonists ahm / / eventually take / gain prominence in relation to what really matters here in the partnership"), difficulties in conciliating different work schedules (P2, "we work with several/ with many people/ and sometimes the timings are difficult to conciliate...") and loss of individuality resulting from the participation of other partners. The respondents demonstrate, once again, differences in relation to their representations on the merits and constraints of the work developed in collaboration with other partners as well as to the different roles that participants in such work may take. Some respondents identified some constraints in partnership working, especially personal constraints. However, all agree that this type of work has more benefits than disadvantages. Among the benefits, the respondents point to the "job enrichment" as a result of sharing and mutual help. Consequently, they all affirm to be available for participation in future projects involving this type of work. Motivations and expectations for participation in a partnership project on intercultural education In a final moment, participants were asked about the reasons that led to the participation in the project proposed to them. Regarding the motivation for participating in the project, all participants indicated that they consider the issue of intercultural education very interesting. Nine of them added that they would like to acquire more knowledge in this area, and they saw the participation in this project as an opportunity for personal and professional development. Moreover, the fact that they already knew the other participants and the work they developed was one factor that led five of the respondents to be part of the project. Three interviewees focused on the professional interest in developing partnership working and two of them mention the personal pleasure of working with other people. Finally, regarding the expectations for participation in this network of partnerships, it was noted that a common factor is the concern for their attendance at meetings and the time it will be available for the development of possible activities. Besides, once they are willing to give their best, even if the circumstances are not the most favorable, they expect the other participants do the same, as is demonstrated by the response of P4: ―When I enjoy doing something it doesn‘t mean I will do an excellent job, but I'll do my best to do it. If I had more time maybe I could do a better job but it‘s the best I can do according to the time I have available. And I‘m sure I'll do my best! What we can under the conditions we have.‖ 831 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The same is verified in the words of Q2: ―Overall, I hope that from the moment that the partners become partners they actually fulfill the conditions of this partnership. And if those conditions imply the participation in meetings, sharing ideas, I expect them to do so. When they know they are not going to make it, it‘s better to say that it is difficult and not delay the group because then you have to go looking for other partners. " Thus, there is a major concern for partners to honor the commitment they are taking by agreeing to participate in this network, so that the group can achieve their aims. Conclusions The realization of an interview, in an early stage of this study, contributed to two essential objectives. On the one hand, we have to consider the work that is expected to be developed by the network of educational partners in the next phase of this study, i.e., the design, implementation and evaluation of a project on intercultural education. From this standpoint, the interview enabled us to gather data that allow us to envision how networking can take place, taking into account previous experiences and representations of the various partners with regard to this type of work. The fact that all partners have affirmed the previous participation in other studies involving partnerships show that they are aware of the responsibilities and constraints that such work entails, but also all the gains it may bring to their personal and professional development. However, it should be taken into account that the respondents' prior representations regarding the work developed in partnership differ, which indicates some uncertainty in the meaning of this concept and a possible need for further and explicit reflection on the subject. We also believe that prior knowledge of other partners with whom they will work and the recognition of the value of the work performed by them has led the participants to accept the invitation to join this network of partnerships. We believe that this factor may be what gives them the motivation and confidence to try to "give their best" and expect the other partners to correspond those expectations According to this, we expect that this journey may be a place for shared reflection, full of discoveries and achievements and an improvement in performance and personal and professional satisfaction of all participants (Damiani, 2008; Roldão, 2007). Moreover, it is our intention to include in the final phase of this study a new moment of survey to the participants in the network of partnerships. We intend, therefore, to know their views on the conduct of the work that has been done and assess the evolution of their representations not only about working in partnership but also on the theme of intercultural education. On this matter, we have already concluded that all respondents seem to be aware to the issues of interculturalism although this concept may still be confused with multiculturalism or even a mere cultural training (Abdallah-Pretceille, 2006; Dervin, 2010; Portera, 2008). However, they all claim they feel the need to acquire more knowledge on this subject. This seems to be another motivation that led them to accept the invitation to form the network of educational partners. In this sense, we think it will be important to include moments of training on intercultural education in the course of the project, enabling participants the co-construction of a collective definition of this concept. Such definition will be an essential guidance for the design of the activities to implement with their students and all the community. Thus, we believe that the development of this project can lead to rethink and improve intercultural practices of all partners of the network in order to provide students, parents and the community the necessary growth to become the best citizens in this intercultural world. References Abdallah-Pretceille, M. (2006). Interculturalism as a paradigm for thinking about diversity. Intercultural Education 17(5), 475-483. ACIDI. (2007). O que quero dizer quando penso em Educação Intercultural? Retrieved 4 de Março, 2009, from http://www.entreculturas.pt/DiarioDeBordo.aspx?to=214 Aguado, T., Jaurena, I. G., & Benito, P. M. (2005). Educaciñn intercultural: una propuesta para la transformaciñn de la escuela Madrid: Catarata. Aguado, T., & Malik, B. (2006). Intercultural education: teacher training and school practice. Intercultural Education, 17(5), 447-456. 832 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Angelides, P., Stylianou, T., & Leigh, J. (2007). The efficacy of collaborative networks in preparing teachers. European Journal of Teacher Education, 30(2), 135-149. Breeze, R. (2003). Dimensions of intercultural education in the twenty-first century. Estudios Sobre Educaciñn(4), 123-129. Campos, J. (2004). Escolas e Museus ―Parceiros na Educação‖. Lisboa: EDP. Canário, R. (2007). Escola/Famìlia/Comunidade para Uma Sociedade Educativa. Paper presented at the Seminário ―Escola/Famìlia/Comunidade‖, Auditñrio do Conselho Nacional de Educação, Lisboa. Damiani, M. F. (2008). Entendendo o trabalho colaborativo em educação e revelando seus benefìcios. Educar, 31, 213-230. Dervin, F. (2010). Assessing intercultural competence in Language Learning and Teaching: a critical review of current efforts. In F. Dervin & E. Suomela-Salmi (Eds.), New approaches to assessment in higher education. Bern: Peter Lang. Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S. B. (2006). Moving Forward: Ideas for Research on School, Family, and Community Partnerships In C. F. Conrad & R. Serlin (Eds.), SAGE Handbook for research in education: Engaging ideas and enriching inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Giménez, C. (2003). Pluralismo, multiculturalismo e interculturalidad. Educaciñn y Futuro, 8, 9-26. Guerra, I. (2008). A cidade multicultural e multiétnica. In Portugal, percursos de interculturalidade - Contextos e dinâmicas (Vol. II, pp. 97-118). Lisboa: ACIDI. Hernández, A. (2007). El trabajo en equipo del profesorado: 14 ideias clave. Barcelona: Grañ. Leite, C. (2005). O currìculo escolar e o exercìcio docente perante a multiculturalidade - implicações para a formação de professores. Paper presented at the V Colñquio Internacional Paulo Freire. Martins, E. C. (2009). Rompendo fronteiras: a escola aberta às parcerias e à territorialização educativa. Educação Unisinos, 13(1), 63-75. Miranda, F. (2004). Educação intercultural e formação de professores. Porto: Porto Editora. Ornelas, J. H., & Moniz, M. J. V. (2007). Parcerias comunitárias e intervenção preventiva. Análise Psicolñgica, 1(XXV), 153-158. Permisán, G. (2008). Es la formaciñn del profesorado la clave de la educaciñn intercultural? Revista Espaðola de Pedagogia, LXVI(239), 119-136. Rey-von Allmen, M. (2004). Towards an Intercultural Education. In Perspectives of Multiculturalism: Western and Transitional Countries. Zagreb: Faculty of Philosopy, Croatian Comission for UNESCO. Roldão, M. (2007). Colaborar é preciso: questões de qualidade e eficácia no trabalho dos professores. Noesis, 71, 2429. Soeiro, A., & Pinto, M. (2006). O projecto INTER e a educação intercultural. In Como abordar... a escola e a diversidade cultural. Porto: Areal Editores. UNESCO. (2006). Guidelines on Intercultural Education. Paris: UNESCO. Veiga Simão, A., Flores, M., Morgado, J., Fote, A., & Almeida, T. (2009). Formação de professores e contextos colaborativos. Um projecto de investigação em curso. Sìsifo, 8, 61-74. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: a guide to managing knowledge. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. 833 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 121 Title A name given to the resource Educational Partnerships and Intercultural Education in Primary School Author Author Santos, Marta de Araujo e Sa, Maria Helena Simoes, Ana Raquel Abstract A summary of the resource. Within the framework of a research study developed at the University of Aveiro, a group of educational partners representing local institutions was gathered. The aim was to conceptualize, implement and evaluate a collaborative research project on intercultural education. Each of the participants was interviewed (semi-structured interview), in order to know their perceptions in practices on intercultural and collaborative work and the reasons that lead to this collaborative participation and their expectations concerning the work that is still to be done. Their answers revealed that the intercultural issue is familiar to all participants and that they feel the need to learn more about this topic motivated them to participate in this collaborative project. Further more, all of them reported previous experience on collaborative work, acknowledging its assets in comparison to the work carried out individually. These data will allow us to guide the work that will be developed by the network of partners and also to analyze the evolution of their representations of intercultural education and work in partnership, through the application of a final interview. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f2cc6181e7b9af146d9a90536c2c29f.pdf 920f144c65ac8dc84a68b1f0c697130b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Some Unresolved Issues in an ELT New Media Age: Towards building an interlanguage semantics Larry Selinker NYU & Research Production Associates larry.selinker@nyu.edu INTRODUCTION ELT teachers, like all of us, are in the situation that is correctly called ―DATA DELUGE‖ (Gleick, 2011; Nunberg, 2011). We are in a data-deluged digital world, a world of increasingly large data sets, and we need to learn to manage them. Our students? It is worse for them; they are buried in these new SMART handheld mobile devices and who knows where that will lead237? I would like the reader to ponder this phrase: VAST AMOUNTS OF DATA IN A DATA-DELUGED DIGITAL WORLD Now, add consideration of interlanguage your learners are producing in bulk, and you come to my initial premise for this paper, simple in principle but one that can lead to great tension in practice: In order for ELT teachers to make intelligent pedagogical decisions, IE, more targeted teaching practices, teachers MUST understand and manage the vast amount of interlanguage data (written and oral) that pour out of the learners in front of them. I would now like the reader to ponder this phrase: VAST AMOUNTS OF INTERLANGUAGE DATA IN A DATA-DELUGED DIGITAL WORLD If we think of interlanguage data as information, we can‘t help wondering: How will we cope with vast amounts of this type of interlanguage information, amongst a vast number of other information, in a new media age? In a context where media and technology develop daily? If we take the ―Fundamental Difference Hypothesis‖ (Bley-Vroman, 1983) seriously, then NO NL NOR TL CATEGORIES CAN BE ASSUMED. We are thus into category proliferation, as well. This becomes exponentially true if we conceive of interlanguages as types of ―intersystems‖ that are basic to all types of learning. Where do we begin? First, here are the main themes I wish to put forward in this paper: - - a. There are a series of unresolved sets of issues in ELT & SLA with many if not most of these issues perspicaciously previewed in the earliest literature. - - b. None of these issues can be resolved without a serious interlanguage semantics, which we do not see at all. - - c. Maybe, just maybe, new media and new predictive technologies can help resolve some of the difficulties we have getting at interlanguage semantics and interlanguage intention. Though they are often more short-term product oriented, if we can, we should seriously consider joining forces with the many computational entrepreneurial efforts that often have resources which we lack, especially those trying to make sense of semantic problems in private computational endeavors 238. In trying to figure out what classical issues are still unresolved for today‘s world, my method is to start historically, attempting to dialogue with MY ―FOUNDING TEXTS‖ (Selinker, 1992)239. This is not history per 237 There are some student behaviours that are beginning to drive teachers I know, a bit mad. On the day I was writing this, the NYT had a poignant lead article discussing ―adjacent, but essentially alone‖ texting behaviour: ―Keep Your Thumbs Still When I‘m Talking to You‖, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/fashion/17TEXT.html?_r=1 Also, ―Cyberbullying and ―Facebook anxiety‖ are both apparently very real: http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=cyberbullying&aq=f&aqi=g-e6g1g-c1g1g-c1&aql=&oq= http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&source=hp&q=facebook+anxiety&aq=0&aqi=g5g-v5&aql=t&oq=FACEBOOK+ANX 238 This joining of forces with the entrepreneurial world makes even more sense in an age when governments insist on cutting funding across the board, even at times, demonizing teachers (think, Wisconsin), and, importantly. when some of the best researchers are in such private endeavors. I am gathering a list of private sponsorship of recent computational conferences, primarily where semantics is involved. 239 In Selinker (1992) I have presented this method of dialoguing with founding texts in detail, and provide a much more complete listing and discussion. 740 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo se but an attempt to understand foundation issues in a current context. I say ―my‖ founding texts, since I believe that each person will have DIFFERENT FOUNDING TEXTS. My suggestion is that each person discover which texts are founding texts for him or her, and what there is in the essence of each that speaks to current concerns, as these concerns evolve. So, my point here is that it is a worthwhile exercise to try to figure out what YOUR personal founding texts are and what issues in them speak to you, those that are international and those that are particularly important here in Sarajevo. In using such founding texts efficiently and wisely, especially if you are new to ELT and SLA, it is important that you approach this subject with a sense of where we have come from, since ‖reinventing the wheel‖ is a continual hazard of all academic life240. We next turn, therefore, to an interlanguage précis, from the point of view, of some of my own founding texts. I. AN INTERLANGUAGE PRÉCIS: Starting from the beginning, let us consider what interlanguage is and where the concepts underlying ―The Interlanguage Hypothesis‖ have come from. Remember, we are looking to dialogue with ―founding texts‖, heading toward trying to delineate sets of unresolved issues. Though there are very different views of interlanguage in various literatures (see the discussion on machine translation below), one useful way to look at interlanguage is that: Interlanguages are non-native languages which are created whenever people attempt to create meaning in a second language and are spoken wherever there is language contact. It has long been my view (Selinker, 1972) that people create these highly-structured interlanguages when trying to express meaning in ―meaningful-performance situations‖ in a second language. DICTIONARY DEFINITION OF ‗INTERLANGUAGE ..(in second-language acquisition) the linguistic system characterizing the output of a non-native speaker at any stage prior to full acquisition of the target language. (Unabridged Random House Dictionary of the English Language, 1987, p.995) These interlanguages historically derive from attempts to continually understand and up-date two central processes in SLA: 1) transfer from the native language (―language transfer‖), AND 2) learners ―getting stuck‖ in interlanguage patterns, often far from target language norms (―fossilization‖). Though transfer was known in Biblical times (the ―Shibboleth‖ story, Judges 12:4-6), the earliest modern reference is Whitney (1881), with discussion and assumptions by many linguists since that time until Harris in 1954 produced a full treatment, ―TRANSFER GRAMMAR‖, including the open methodological use of translation, a method we have abandoned to our detriment241. Weinreich(1953) interpreted transfer in a unique and important way, in terms of ―interlingual identifications‖: speakers in attempting to learn to speak a second language ―make the same what cannot be the same‖. This is cognitively profound. An INTERLINGUAL IDENTIFICATION EXAMPLE (Weinreich, 1953): if a Russian, as often happens, regularly says [tyaip] for English [thaip], ―type‖, he has made FOR HIM a palatalized /t/ the same as an aspirated /t/, even though to any observer, they are NOT the same. This fact puzzled Weinreich since it violates classical Saussurean principles of ―valeur‖ and ―system‖, and this paradox has never been resolved, remaining a profound mystery, except to note that there are many examples in the literature of such interlingual identifications, some very bizarre. It was recognized early that such processes occur on all levels of language, but it was not until Lado (1957) that we had the first clear language transfer hypothesis, spurring much research: … individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of 240 In my experience, it turns out that ―reinventing the wheel‖ is less a problem in the online entrepreneurial world than the academic world, since the bottom line is never far away, which can be a tough master for a small concern. 241 Translation is a neglected part of SLA methodology, but clearly it is used regularly by learners. It has long been my view (Selinker, 1992) that we would have a different SLA if translation were a prime ontological and methodological factor – an area waiting still to be explored, with translation taking on a concomitant role to transfer 741 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture.‖ That view, basically has now been corrected to where transfer occurs NOT directly to any foreign language/culture - impossible in principle - but to the individuals‘ developing and more permanent interlanguage (by extension, to interdialect/ interculture, see below). Out of Harris, Weinreich, and Lado one of first detailed attempts to empirically present thousands of exemplars of word order language transfer appears in Selinker (1966 revised as Selinker, 1969)242. Corder (1967), amongst many other seminal concepts, flushed out the fledging language transfer concept, showing us that ―errors‖, one type of interlanguage form, are a ―window to the learner‖. By contrast, the attempt to understand the phenomenon that apparently every learner experiences of (permanently) ―getting stuck‖, is more recent with scholars struggling for several decades to grasp it since it was named ―fossilization‖ in the ―Interlanguage‖ paper that codifies this and other interlanguage processes, developing a research agenda (Selinker, 1972, reframed as Selinker, 1992). Examples occur in Weinreich(1953) and Nemser(1971) but these scholars do not focus on the phenomenon of the cessation of interlanguage development, which occurs in spite of extensive exposure to target language input and massive opportunities for interactive production with such speakers. Without the concept of fossilization, I have long maintained (discussed in Long, 2003) that, there would be NO second language acquisition, that there would only be ―language acquisition‖ with only one underlying cognitive architecture, not potentially two latent psychological mechanisms, as discussed in Selinker (1972)243. It is Han & Odlin (2006) and Han & Cadierno (2010) who bring fossilization up-to-date, showing that fossilization is differential or selective by context. There is a long debate in second language acquisition about the place of universal grammar (Cf. eg. White, 2000), as to whether interlanguages are formed in terms of these principles, fully?, partially?, or not at all? But this tale is beyond our scope. Related to this universal issue, is it indeed EVER the case that interlanguage equals the language of NSs? This was much discussed early on and still is not settled. There is an interesting number much discussed in the literature, sometimes called ―the magical 5%‖ (passim), a suggestion presented in Selinker (1972) involving an estimate of the number of people whose interlanguage MIGHT equal that of native speakers (NSs) of the target language. Where this number comes from is a story, but one thing is clear and presented there: The vast majority‖ of second-language learners do NOT have an interlanguage that equals that of NSs of the target language. The theoretical point is that, if such a subset as the 5% exists, they are on a different track than interlanguage learners and may be safely ignored when establishing the constructs underlying the ―psychologically-relevant‖ data which control the formation and structure of the vast majority of interlanguages. Is this concept really true? A most important characteristic of interlanguages, maybe their prime characteristic, is that they become independent of both native and target language. The empirical fact supporting this view, forcing us to recognize the existence of interlanguage, is that speakers attempting to produce a second language produce NEW FORMS that are neither in native nor target language. The [t yaip] example above is a phonetic example of such a new form. A syntactic/phonological example involving primary stress is the situation of a Spaniard in London not being understood. He was overheard at a kiosk asking: ―How much cñst banana?‖ NS: ―Pardon?‖ When he was not understood, the interlanguage Spanish-English speaker, appearing frustrated, uses his interlanguage resources and rephrases and says: ―How much dñes cost banana?‖ This is a particularly interesting example as the Spanish speaker has taken two English grammatical rules - - do-support and do-emphasis - - that NSs use all the time but he uses them in different idiosyncratic ways than NSs would and has thus created a new construction in his interlanguage English, ―How much dñes cost banana?‖. Such examples have appeared a thousandfold in the literature. Everyone finds in their production data new forms, not in the native nor in the target language. 242 I was Robert Lado‘s student at Georgetown in the early 1960‘s and this empirical work was produced under his supervision. I owe him much for his generosity and encouragement. 243 A complication is how fossilization and transfer might be linked. There has been at least one attempt to link these together as causative variables in terms of the ―multiple effects‖ principle (cf. Selinker & Lakshmanan, 1992), but there is little empirical validation to date. 742 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Interlanguage is not a monolith. There are various types of interlanguage though a complete typology is lacking, e.g. ―learner languages‖ which usually occur in classrooms, often with rapid development are the type most language teachers are concerned with. There are so-called ―fossilized interlanguages‖ where the vast majority of linguistic forms in the interlanguage continue for years with little or no change. All sorts of individual sets of variations exist in interlanguage and a needed research project is to produce an empirical typology. Note that various overlapping terms cover different members of the set 244. It gets more complicated when one considers ―interdialect‖ with another of my founding texts: Trudgill (1988). Trudgill argues cogently for the existence of ―interdialect‖ by citing ―new forms‖ in second-dialect acquisition with many solid examples from Norwegian. I have seen this phenomenon with Americans in London who uniformly when first arriving, say ―tube stop‖, a form apparently not in American nor in British English (cf. ―tube station‖). The same cognitive phenomenon seems to happen when a person approaches a new culture, creating an ―interculture‖ (Kramsch (1998) calls this a ―C3‖). This seems particularly apt for NYC (cf. Garcia & Fishman, 2001). Thus, it seems reasonable that in many types of learning, we can hypothesize that there exists cognitively the creation by learners of an intersystem. The creation of a new intersystem seems true – even for native speakers, apparently. Cummins (NYU, 2001 lecture) stated that academic language is ―different and more complex‖ than conversational language and that there are ―moving targets‖ for young students; the research literature shows that it takes ―at least 5 years‖ to gain academic proficiency (cf. academic life as ―a secondary culture‖; Widdowson, 1983). One can compare the various case study linguistic examples of ―Latino students in American schools‖ in Valdes (2000)245. Above we looked briefly at what interlanguage is and where the concepts underlying the interlanguage hypothesis have come from. Remember, we are looking to dialogue with ―founding texts‖, heading toward trying to delineate sets of unresolved issues. Next we delineate such issues. II. SOME UNRESOLVED ISSUES: Following from the above, for me, here are 10 pressing, unresolved (and overlapping) sets of issues in ELT and SLA from an interlanguage perspective, issues which have been with us from our earliest days, reframed if possible for current concerns246: AREA 1: How much, and what sort of data is required for ―effective SLA‖ in terms of the learner‘s ―internal syllabus‖? (Corder, 1967) WHICH LEADS TO: - - How should we conceive of the dimensions and pathways of a learner‘s internal syllabus? - - How should we relate these to the various syllabi of teachers and school systems? AREA 2: Since input ≠ intake (Corder, 1967), how exactly does a learner edit input? WHICH LEADS TO: - - How do we, in a principled way, understand and treat learner output when it is ―comprehensible‖ and when not? (Swain & Lapkin, 1995). - - What exactly are the effects of input and interaction as learners attempt to convert input into intake (Gass & Madden. 1985; Mackey & Polio, 2010)? - - What happens to output, when it develops towards some desired ―target‖ V. when it remains partially or completely unaffected by language exposure (Han, 2003)? 244 The best known are ―transitional competence‖ (Corder 1967) where development is emphasized V. ―approximative system‖ (Nemser 1971) where fossilization (unnamed) appears to be more dominant. 245 My favourite example is from a task where a student named Elisa has ―to write about her school or her family‖ and Valdes reports that the particular text the student writes: ―... reflects Elisa‘s spoken language and her confusion between spoken and written English. The use of a for I, for example in: a learn a lot of English AND a do (esperimin). The text presented ―revealed that she produced a schwa-like sound for the pronoun I in speaking. She then transcribed this sound both as a and I (Valdes, 2000, 97). Note variable use here: we get a do (esperimin) and I like math. Valdes also shows expected ―transfer of native language syntax‖. 246 I would really like feedback at the above email on this point of reframing for current concerns. 743 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo AREA 3: - - What happens initially in a second language (Corder, 1967)? WHICH LEADS TO: - - Is Weinreich‘s (1953) concept of ―interlingual identifications‖, the fascinating and attested behaviour on the part of learners of ―making the same what cannot be the same‖? - - Or, is Corder‘s idea of (to put it in more current terms) ―matching‖ correct? ie. that one looks for what one already has in the input correct? - - Do universals of some sort kick in? (Adjemian, 1976 and all that UG SLA literature) OR is prior linguistic knowledge and information just too powerful, at least in some cases? AREA 4: - - When we do have attested influence from prior linguistic information, called ―language transfer‖, how is it governed ? (Lado, 1957) WHICH LEADS TO: - - Does the activation or blocking of transfer relate in any way to universal grammar principles of any kind? (Adjemian, 1976) - - Where there are at least two interlanguages involved in a multilingual context (Cenoz, et al, 2010) , what principles block transfer from NL and permit transfer to go through from Interlanguage1 to Interlanguage2 in the various and common multilingual settings247? AREA 5: Is it true that variation is a main characteristic of SLA (Tarone, 1983; 2004) and how is that to be integrated into any SLA theory? WHICH LEADS TO: - - Do we in fact see more and different types of variation in SLA, if like NS variation, every level of language shows interlanguage variation? - - In the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation by L2 learners, is there indeed ―considerable acquisitional difficulty‖ in one type of variation as opposed to another (Howard 2004)? - - If it is possible to successfully teach teachers how to do ―language learner analysis‖ (Tarone & Swierzbin, 2009), how exactly do we relate that endeavor to the outcomes of learners? AREA 6: In general, how should we understand getting stuck in an L2 (fossilization/ stabilization) often far from target norms and often with variable results amongst learners, even in the same context? (Selinker, 1972, 1992). WHICH LEADS TO: - - Why is it that such a large percentage of learners seem to get stuck in an L2, often far from target norms? Are factors like identity and social factors involved? - - How should we understand the relationship between development and getting stuck in an L2? - - Are there separate cognitive structures, some latent (Lenneberg 1967), perhaps that would account for differential and fossilized results in SLA? (Lenneberg, Selinker, 1972) - - Is this process of fossilization and its various relationships like other forms of learning or is there something ―special‖ about SLA? AREA 7: - - Where does a more recent focus on ―multilingualism‖ (Cenoz, et al, 2010), ―English as a Lingua Franca‖ (Seidlhofer, 2004; Jenkins, 2007) and ―translanguaging‖ in immigrant communities (Garcia, 2008) fit in? WHICH LEADS TO: - - Does the newer emphasis on more than two languages change everything in terms of governing SLA metaphors, as Jenkins argues? 247 Setting forth the principles as to when NL transfer is blocked allowing interlanguage transfer to occur remains an unanswered challenge in colleagues who put forth a multilingual perspective. One principle might be ―similarity of phonetic form‖ from interlanguage to desired target, though that will have to wait until another occasion. 744 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo AREA 8: - - Thus, how can anyone have all that attested knowledge of any language, say English, in his or her head? (Culcover, 2004, 135)248. WHICH LEADS TO: - - Is that a reasonable way to think of storage in long term memory? - - If we multiply that for a multilingual how do people keep it all sorted? - - If they don‘t ... , well, apparently, they mostly don‘t. AREA 9: - - What would a clearly specified ―theory of learning‖ for language learning look like? How would we handle the SLA uniqueness (?) of practice NEVER making perfect? WHICH LEADS TO, what is the place of: - - A behavioral theory of learning based on ST-R relations? (Fries, 1945) - - A more cognitive theory of learning based on rule learning? (White, 1985) - - A more socially-situated one based on stored and edited experiences? (eg, Gee & Hayes, 2011) If a mixed model is desired, with even behavioral theory having a place covering the learning of some interlanguage structures, would the opposition ―context-dependent‖ V. ―context-independent‖ make more sense in the learning of complex systems 249? AREA 10: - - How does one treat in a pedagogically-relevant way SLA results and still unanswered questions (Corder, 1973 and passim in the literature), here particularly reframed as understanding and using learner data as information in pedagogical contexts?. WHICH LEADS TO: - - What are the principled criteria that allow one to use SLA research results in a language classroom? - - How does one make sense to teachers of the shared space between research and teaching given the lack of time and energy teachers have given the difficult daily task of lg teaching: teaching 18+ hours a week, heterogeneous classrooms, pressures of hassled administrators, of angry parents ...? Other issues abound of course, which we have no space to discuss250. In Section II., we have focussed on sets of unresolved issues, issues where over the decades we have made some profound, but piecemeal, progress on the above issues for sure, but resolved? Not a one! If we had, we would have the equivalent of a periodic table and we don‘t. It is my assumption that we are blocked from making progress in every area above by our lack of understanding of the making of meaning in interlanguage. Consider, VARIATION: How can we know that two forms that are variants in NL or TL categories are variants in interlanguage categorization? And, the reverse is certainly true, where you have interlanguage synonymy and TL variation. To alleviate that in each area, we need to move more seriously to: THE INTERLANGUAGE MAKING OF MEANING WITHIN COMPLEX SYSTEMS. If we want to take the basic premise of ELT teaching sketched above seriously - viz. that teachers, in order to make intelligent pedagogical decisions, that is, more targeted teaching practices that will relate closer to the learner‘s ―built-in syllabus‖ (Corder, 1967), teachers must understand the vast amount of interlanguage data (written and oral) that pours out of the learners in front of them. Interlanguage intention and meaning must become a central part of that, since meaning is a central element of most, if not all linguistic activity. III. TOWARDS AN INTERLANGUAGE SEMANTICS 248 There is ample evidence that writing down the attested knowledge of any native language takes thousands of pages (e.g. Huddleston & Pullum, 2002). 249 I am very sympathetic to the attempts to treat SLA as a ―complex system‖, rather a series of complex systems, and like this quote: ―The processes for language acquisition, use, and change are not independent from one another but form aspects of the same complex adaptive system‖ (Ellis, 2008), though I am not sure of where ―adaptive‖ fits in. The major problem dealing with complex systems - one that drives systems people and neurologists nuts - is the coordination of all this information, especially in a reasonable model of the brain. 250 Early on there were some attempts at dealing with age effects in the creation of interlanguage (Hakuta, 1975 and Selinker, Swain & Dumas, 1977) and this strand of research has proven robust. Also, there are all sorts of methodological issues we will have to also leave aside here. 745 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We next move to the making of interlanguage meaning, trying to capture the notion of an ―interlanguage semantics‖, to draw upon learner intention being compatible, if we can, to intelligent automatic coding251. To date, what we have in SLA in the area of semantics is mostly lexically-oriented252, but we must dig deeper. We must attempt, no matter how hard it is, to go into its most deep representations to find out what is going on with our learners as they try to express intention in meaningful performance situations. In order to understand the mechanisms that create knowledge of interlanguage and drive its restructuring (when it occurs), we must code and analyze ―interlanguage in its own right‖, here in the semantic domain as well. ―Fundamental Differences‖ between the acquisition and structure of interlanguage V. native language needs a principled approach to such coding and analyzing! You get out of this comparative fallacy in principle, by NEVER assuming the correctness of target-language (or even native-language) categories to analyze interlanguage in its own terms? If we can move semantics of interlanguage into a sort of propositional logic, we find interesting work on machine translation. I am thinking now of the work by GOOGLE on machine translation which turns on their view of interlanguage and interlanguage semantics in a very different context: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Interlanguage_Semantics.svg where, though detail is hard to access, what Google seems to do is turn text, especially English text, into PROPOSITIONS, and when a text is needed to be translated, then one does not go from language to language, but from text to propositional storage to next language, something to ponder as we move to tr ying to get at interlanguage semantics, to see if there are indeed more and less universal interlanguage propositions, independent of the various NSs. The obvious problem with gaining access to an interlanguage semantics begins with the same difficulty as with any semantics: meanings, unlike sounds, are not physically manifest in sentences, either as manifested in sound or in graphic representation. One needs MENTAL DATA and cannot get away from that, requiring procedures to get at this mental data. We start with the premises that: - - ―meaning‖ is a central element of most, if not all linguistic activity. - - the ―making of meaning‖ always occurs in a situation or in a context. - - a learner who wants to convert intentions into language uses his (often limited & idiosyncratic) linguistic resources in what is essentially a potential matching task. - - in order to be understood, he needs to turn those intentions into semantics and language to match the semantics he has with the semantics of the listeners of that speech or writing. How are we going to restrict interlanguage semantics to some reasonable entity, to the meaning descriptions that learners create? In particular, we must include concepts of PRESUPPOSITION, ENTAILMENT, AND IMPLICATURES, as well as concepts of POLYSEMY, SYNONYMY AND CONTEXTUAL PARAPHRASE RELATIONS, IDIOMATICITY, AMBIGUITY and the like, concepts that in principle can become computational. A much later goal is to tie these concepts and relationships to interlanguage syntax, as it exists. AN EXAMPLEWHERE MEANING GOES BEYOND THE LEXICAL253 into a deeper semantics of presupposition, entailments. implicatures, and the like. This example actually led to misunderstanding in an 251 My experience here is limited to consultation on several LARGE INTERLANGUAGE DATA BASES in China and Japan, where I have seen first hand that Automatic Coding of Interlanguage involves multiple problems of the type hinted here, often involving semantic puzzles that remain unresolved (Cf. the papers by Tenfjord, et al, 2007; Izumi, et al, 2007). Additionally, I have explored two other new media areas: ―distance online interlanguage analysis‖, trying to develop a DOILA tool (Browne, Kinahan, & Selinker, 2002) and speech recognition by computer (Selinker & Mascia, 2002) 252 I do not wish to imply by anything I say here that I am intending a criticism of the current lexical semantics, ie. vocabulary acquisition that we have in SLA. My point is that the knowledge we gain from studies of the lexicon in SLA is far from the whole story, ie. we are dealing with necessary but not sufficient information. 253 This example is from data in my extensive diary studies as are other examples presented here, unless specifically referenced otherwise, are from my diary studies gained mostly in ordinary conversation; they are mostly digitalized and details are available upon request at email above. 746 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ongoing conversation, the source of data where interlanguage semantics must be coded in a divergent manner from native languages to get at underlying idiosyncratic semantic representation. Consider the context of the following sentence: in discussing some friends, a native Italian speaker says: - - ―but now they are broken‖? Native speakers in the conversation clearly do not understand and they starts to ask what they mean. Several exchanges follow and it took awhile til one of the Native Speakers said: ―oh, you mean they are broke.‖ ―Ah‖ went everyone else there. Now, in terms of this interlanguage semantics, there is a divergent association where ―broken‖ in being coded semantically and must associated with ―a person being broke‖ but ONLY IN THE INTERLANGUAGE254. This sort of idiosyncratic interlanguage association, the semantic linking of various forms of the word ―BREAK‖ differently in the native language and interlanguage cannot be predicted. This divergence between interlanguage (association of all the forms of ―break‖) and native language (no necessary association) shows what a difficult learning problem this is, because in terms of linguistic entailment, as Huddleston Pullam (2002) so clearly describe NATIVE ENGLISH SEMANTICS: 1. ―Frank broke the vase‖. ENTAILS 2. ―The vase broke‖. AND 3. ―The vase is broken‖. but the sentence ―Frank broke the vase‖ in Native English DOES NOT ENTAIL: 4. ―Frank knocked over the vase.‖. Thus, says Huddleston & Pullum (2002, ...) in their massive and impressive grammar of modern English. But they do not include any information on the many and various multilingual forms of English. By our extension to [+human} here, in Native English 1. ―Frank is broke‖ ENTAILS 5. ―Frank has no money‖, but the grammatical form ―broken‖ in: 6. Now they are broken‖. DOES NOT ENTAIL in Native English: 7. ―Frank has no money‖ as it does in this interlanguage. What is the divergent grammar? Clearly the subject of the verb must be human, but does that cover it all the time. The IL speaker is making a cognitive connection that native speakers do not, i.e. between ―broke‖ meaning no money and ―broken‖ the past participle of the verb ―break‖; this is the core of the interlanguage analysis. coded ―broke‖, not necessarily ―break‖ differently. With this sort of ―idiosyncratic association‖, we are back to Corder‘ idea (1973) of interlanguage as an ―idiosyncratic‖ system, in this case, a semantic IDIOSYNCRATIC ENTAILMENT, but such a particularity related to ONLY ONE FORM OF ONE VERB. But, to generalize, if we see it here from someone who knows English very well, we are ready to assume that this will happen whenever particular forms of a word take on specific idiomatic meanings but only with some of its grammatical forms, which is surely widespread, eg. if you say: 8. ―I am having trouble with my transmission.‖ you are probably talking about your automobile though there is nothing in the semantics of the core simple form ―transmit‖ to tell you that. This is the kind of ―semantic thing‖ - UNEXPECTED INTERLANGUAGE ENTAILMENTS - - - that abound in interlanguage, that lead to misunderstandings, and that must be accounted for in an interlanguage semantics, coming within range of computational coding, especially that deemed ―predictive‖. The oral version of this paper attempted to explore some of the unresolved areas outlined in II. above, starting with the idea that: 254 Note that in this context, in native language semantics, it is ―broke‖ only, and in certain contexts, but not ―break‖ or ―broken‖, that appently gets coded for the ―no money‖ entailment. 747 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo AN INTERLANGUAGE SEMANTICS REQUIRES AT LEAST 5 THINGS: 1. an understanding of ―information packaging‖ and how this works in interlanguage. 2. an understanding of ―conversational implicature‖. 3. an understanding of the ability to perform referential tasks (adequately?). 4. an understanding of how ―semantic networks‖ are created and persist in interlanguage. 5. paraphrase relations in the interlanguage, and how they are the same or different for more standard languages. These are some of the most important bits of interlanguage semantic information that must be coded in order to build an interlanguage semantics, one that in principle can be coded in ways that can be accessed by SMART predictive technology. TWO FURTHER EXAMPLES: I have in mind such interlanguage semantic information as: - - the coding of the academic idiosyncratic use of the word ―claim‖ in certain kinds of linguistic contexts, where the absence of presupposition is the presence of error. - - the unexpected use of reflexives inside a clause. amongst other types255. I attempted to sketch out key variables, as I understood them that day, concerned with the issue of the creation of an interlanguage semantics relatable to developing technologies, especially where machine learning and predictive technology is involved. This latter information technology perspective is developing daily and on the web page listed below my name, I will try to keep up-to-date information on what is true and what is false, as I understand it and compile it256. It is incumbent upon us to try to make as clear as possible the details of the applied aspect of the basic premise above, especially their relation to, that for more targeted teaching practices that will relate closer to the learner‘s ―built-in syllabus‖ (Corder, 1967), teachers must understand and manage the vast amount of interlanguage data (written and oral) that pour out of the learners in front of them, and the amounts and types of information relating to interlanguage semantics, machine learning, and predictive technology such teachers need to master and for what purposes. Below, I have added computational references which I hope will be helpful and would appreciate feedback, particularly the value of annotating those which intersect the unresolved areas presented in II. with computational semantic concerns. 255 Interlanguage coding of verbs like ―claim‖ presents a case of ―absence without presence‖ (Selinker, ) due to ―transfer of training‖, where teaching PREVENTS a presupposition known to technical writers, even to many NNS proficient technical writers. However, most NNS students I have worked with in technical & academic writing use ―claim‖ as a synonym for ―show‖ or even ―prove‖ and do NOT know that ―claim‖, in certain constructions, presuppose that you are about to deny, or at the least question, the proposition. A classical example would be the sentence: ―Chomsky claims that syntax must be autonomous of semantics.‖ where I the writer imply that I doubt it, without directly saying so, but note that the peculiarity that this truth condition may only hold in second and third person. EG, above, I have used ―claim‖ but with the first person subject and there was no presupposition I was about to deny my own claim: ―This is the kind of thing - unexpected entailments - that we claim abound in interlanguage, that lead to misunderstandings, and that must be accounted for in an interlanguage semantics.‖ Transfer-of-training comes in causally where grammar books, even enlightened ones such as Conrad & Biber ( 2009) miss this entailment and lump ―claim‖ together with other verbs such as ―argue, imply, postulate, indicate, propose, contend, maintain, suggest, hypothesize‖ under the vague heading of: ―reporting verbs‖ with a ―certainty level‖ of ―less certain‖, several of these verbs do not have this presupposition of denial. Another intriguing type of construction where interlanguage is involved concerns sentences like: "You put myself in this terrible situation." where without knowledge of interlanguage intention, the interlanguage is inherently ambiguous. You have to know that this NNS uses the NS ―island constraints‖ (Ross, 1968; Lakoff, 1971; amongst others) in the standard manner, NOT violating the standard syntactic rule but only when intending emphasis substituting ―themselves‖ for ―them‖, using the reflexive pronoun emphatically, allowing ―the pragmatic use of reflexive pronoun to take precedence over the syntactic rule forbidding reflexive pronouns in that slot in that construction.‖ (I thank John Lawler for discussing this issue with me.) 256 If you desire more current information than I have time to code, such as updated reference lists, please email me at the above email address. 748 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References This is a unified bibliography for both this paper and for oral presentation and its handout, which I can send to readers. Also, I have annotated several entries as an aid for new readers. Adjemian, C. 1976. On the nature of interlanguage systems. Language Learning 26, 2: 297-320 [The first paper to show that universal grammar principles might be working in the formation of interlanguage.] Allwright, R. & Hanks, J. 2009. The Developing Language Learner: An Introduction to Exploratory Practice. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. [This well-written book forms the theoretical background for the practical work of Tarone & Swierzbin (2009). They lay out ―a clear rationale for why it is that ESL/EFL teachers might want to improve their lives in the classroom by solving puzzles that come up there.‖ AND, learner language, as a type of interlanguage, is full of such puzzles. Ameka, F. (1987). ―A comparative analysis of linguistic routines in two languages: English and Ewe. Journal of Pragmatics 11, 299-326. Bley-Vroman, R. 1983. The comparative fallacy in interlanguage studies: The case of systematicity. Language Learning 33: 1-17 Browne, C., Kinahan, C. & Selinker, L. 2002. Distance online interlanguage analysis (DOILA): an aid to language learning. Thought Currents in English Literature, 77. 749 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cenoz, J. , Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (Eds.). 2010. The Multilingual Lexicon. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Clark, A. and S. Lappin (2010), Unsupervised Learning and Grammar Induction in A. Clark, C. Fox, and S. Lappin (Eds.), The Handbook of Computational Linguistics and Natural Language Processing, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. [Though this handbook is clearly out-of-date, it still provides a useful introduction to an important area of formal semantics, ―situation-based theories‖, which we will need if fossilization is truly ―selective‖ in Han‘s terms (refs. above). For a more up-to-date summary see: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/situations-semantics/ ] Cohen, A. D. & Macaro, E. Eds. 2007. Language Learner Strategies: Thirty Years of Research and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. USE THIS. [In great detail, the papers in this volume summarize where our knowledge stands in terms of the various types of strategies and their interactions with interlanguage.] Conrad S & Biber, D. 2009. Real Grammar: A Corpus-Based Approach to English. NY: Longman/Pearson. Corder, S. P. 1967. The significance of learners‘ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 5 (4): 161-70. Corder, S. P. 1973. Introducing Applied Linguistics. London: Penguin. Egbert, J., Akasha, O., Huff, L., Lee, H. 2011. Moving Forward: anecdotes and evidence guiding the next generation of CALL. International Journal of ComputerAssisted Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 1-15. Ellis, N. (2008). ―Language as a Complex Adaptive System‖. Videos of conference presentations: In celebration of Language Learning‘s 60th anniversary, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan. http://www.wiley.com/bw/podcast/lang.asp Fawcett, R. (2007) The Many Types of ‗Theme‘ in English: Their Semantic Systems & Functional Syntax. Centre for Language & Communication. Research Papers in Humanities No.4. School of English, Communication& Philosophy. Cardiff Univ. Gass, S. & Madden, C. (Eds.) 1985. Input in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. [One of the first full treatments of the interactionist hypothesis.‘ Garcia, O. 2008. Multilingual language awareness and teacher education. In Cenoz, J. & Horeberger, N. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2nd edition Vol 6. Knowledge about Language. Berlin: Springer, pp. 385-400 Garcia, O. & Fishman, J. (Eds) 2001. The Multilingual Apple. Languages in New York City (2nd edition). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gee, J. & Hayes, E. 2011. Language and Learning in the Digital Age. NY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge. [This is a very up-to-date effort to explore the exciting world of games as it takes over most entertainment funds, exhibiting and affecting types of learning, continuing the effort to understand the making of meaning ―on the fly‖ in context-dependent and ―flexibly-construed‖ situations, a most impressive effort.] Gleick, J. 2011. The Information: A History, a theory, a flood. NY: Pantheon Books. Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation, in P. Cole & J. Morgan (ed.), Syntax and Semantics, 3: Speech Acts, pp. 41–58, New York: Academic Press. Hakuta, K. 1975. Prefabricated patterns and the emergence of structure in second language acquisition. Language Learning 24: 287-97. Han, Z-H. 2003. Fossilisation: From Simplicity to Complexity. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 6:2 95-128. Han, Z-H. & Cadierno, T. (Eds). 2010. Linguistic Relativity in Second Language Acquisition: Thinking for Speaking. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Han, Z-H & Odlin, T. (Eds) 2006. Studies of Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Harris, Z. 1954. Transfer grammar. International Journal of American Linguistics. 20: 259-270. Howard, M. 2004. Sociolinguistic Variation and Second Language Acquisition: A Preliminary Study of Advanced Learners of French." SKY Journal of Linguistics 17: 143-165. [This paper provides a very nice literature review of recent work in SLA, and particularly interlanguage variation studies.] Izumi, E. Uchimoto, K. & Isahara, . (2007). Error annotation for learner English. Special issue of Rivista di Psicolinguistica Applicata on ―Current Issues in Interlanguage‖. 6:3. 109-122 Jenkins J. 2007. English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and Identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kempson, R. 1966. Semantics, pragmatics, and natural-language interpretation. In: Lappin, S. 1966. 750 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Kramsch, C. 1998. Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures. University of Michigan Press. Lappin, S. 1996. (Ed.) The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley and sons. Lewis, D. 1980. ―Index, Context, and Content,‖ in Philosophy and Grammar, Kanger, S. and Ohman, S. (eds.), Boston: Reidel. Long, M. 2003: Stabilization and fossilization in interlanguage development. In: Doughty, C. & Long, M. (Eds) 2003. Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell. [An extremely well researched case for the effect of fossilization (or not) on interlanguages.] Mackey, A. & Polio, C. (Eds.). 2010. Multiple Perspectives on Interaction: Studies in Honor of Susan M. Gass. NY: Routledge. McCawley, J. 1998.The syntactic phenomena of English (2 nd Edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Nemser, W. 1971. An Experimental study of Phonological Interference in the English of Hungarians. The Hague: Mouton. Nunberg, G. 2011. Review of Gleick, 2011, NYT Book Review, March 20, 2011. Schachter, J. & Rutherford, R. 1979. Discourse Function and Language Transfer. Robinett, B. & Schachter, J. Second Language Learning: Contrastive analysis, error analysis, and related aspects. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Seidlhofer B. 2004. Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Vol.24 Selinker, L. 1969. Language transfer. General Linguistics. 9: 67 92. Selinker, L. 1972. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 10: 209-231. Selinker, L. 1992. Rediscovering Interlanguage. London: Longman. Selinker, L. 2011. ―Interlanguage― entry in Robinson, P. (Ed). The Routledge Encyclopedia of Second Language Acquisition. NY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge. Selinker, L. & Douglas, D. 1985. Wrestling with ‗context‘ in interlanguage theory. Applied Linguistics. 6.190-204. Selinker, L. & Mascia, R. 2002. Interlanguage speech recognition by computer: implications for SLA & computational machines. Applied Language Studies. 1.1, 19-55. www.solki.jyu.fi/apples/ Selinker, L. & Lakshmanan, U. 1992. Language transfer and fossilization: The ‗Multiple Effects Principle‘. In Gass S. and Selinker, L. (Eds). Language transfer in language learning. (Revised edition). Amsterdam: Benjamins. [This paper attempts to tie these two concepts together theoretically and empirically, setting up language transfer as a privileged effect out of many potential in creating interlanguage.] Selinker, L., Swain, M. & Dumas, G. 1975. The interlanguage hypothesis extended to children.Language Learning. 25:139 152. Sevi, A. 2005. Exhaustivity. A Semantic Account of ―Quantity‖ Implicatures, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Tel Aviv, available online at scribd.com. Swain, M. and Lapkin, S. 1995. Problems in Output and the Cognitive Processes They Generate: A Step Toward Language Learning. Applied Linguistics, 16, 371-391 Tarone, Elaine E (1983). On the variability of interlanguage systems. Applied Linguistics, 4, 142-163. Tarone, E. 2004. Does Social Context Affect Second-Language Acquisition? The research evidence. Power point, Iowa State University lecture. [This power point neatly summarizes the variationist approach to the formation of interlanguage.] Tarone, E. & Swierzbin, B. 2009. Exploring Learner Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tenfjord, K., Hagen, J. E., & Johansen, H. (2007). The hows and whys of coding categories in a learner corpus. Special issue of Rivista di Psicolinguistica Applicata on ―Current Issues in Interlanguage‖. 6:3. 93108. Tsimpli, I.M. and Sorace, A. 2006. Differentiating Interfaces: L2 performance in syntax-semantics and syntaxdiscourse phenomena. BUCLD Proceedings 30: 653-664. Trudgill, P. 1988. Dialects in Contact. Cambridge: Blackwell. [This detailed study shows in great detail why interlanguage applies to interdialect in the case with Norwegian dialects.] Valdes, G. 2000. Learning and not Learning English. NY: Teachers College Press. Van der Wardt, V, Bandelow, S., & Hogervorst, E. (2010). The relationship between cognitive abilities, wellbeing and use of new technologies in older people. In W.-P. Brinkman & M. Neerincx (Eds.) European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics ECCE 2010: Caring technology for the future, Delft/The Netherlands: Mediamatica. 751 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in contact. The Hague: Mouton. [The key reference that demonstrates the centrality of ―interlingual identifications‖ in forming interlanguage and how bizarre such ―identifications‖ by learners can be, when ―they make the same what is not the same.] Weinreich, U. 1980. On semantics, ed. by W. Labov & B. Weinreich. Philadelphia, PA: Universityof Pennsylvania Press. Whitney, D. 1881. On mixing in language. Transactions of the American Philological Association. 12:1-16. Widdowson, H. 1983. Learning Purpose and Language Use. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yuanrong, D, & Mingcai, S. (2010). Analyzing Interlanguage of Non-English Majors by Proposed Semantic Criteria. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33:2. 752 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 110 Title A name given to the resource Some Unresolved Issues in an ELT New Media Age: Towards building an interlanguage semantics Author Author Selinker, Larry Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2b94ea91e963e9d6ea1760a004eadb31.pdf b40410093305f5a43615bffb2abeb729 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Screen Literature: gain or loss? Haya Shaukat Department of Social Sciences and Humanities FAST-NU, Pakistan hayashaukat@hotmail.com Abstract: With the advancement in science and technology everything has taken a different shape. Reading literature that was once considered to be a major source of entertainment and knowledge has now been transformed into screen literature by television, video games and movies. As a result of this critics have started debating the effectiveness of this shift. There are endless examples in this regard and many blockbusters are in fact based on some written books. Not only classics but also contemporary literature is now a part of the new genre called screen literature. Although it cannot be denied that these great stories and characters will live forever not only on paper but also on screen forever. Yet screen literature is not without its disadvantages. The aim of this study which is qualitative in nature is to assess the extent to which the literariness of the original text is affected with particular reference to the novel – Gone with the Wind by Margret Mitchell which was turned into movie in 1939 and appreciated as a blockbuster becoming a legendary classic of the American cinema. It was not only the first movie to bag ten Oscars for the very first time but maintained that record until Ben-Hur (1959). Key Words: Screen Literature, genre, novel, movie, theatrical translation, transformation Introduction For centuries literature remained the most popular form of entertainment encompassing poetry, drama and novel. Reciting poetry in royal courts and in groups etc. was a norm and performance of plays in public goes more than two thousand years back but with the passage of time a major shift came in. Poetry from the long epics and romances turned into sonnets and short poems and even though once it was the most famous genre, it started losing its popularity. It we look at the time line it can be seen that the long verse started getting replaced by the short one around the same as science made progress. Of course literature did not die altogether but a trend that started with the advent of cinema was that of movies based on pieces of literature. ‗Although adaptation has been practiced since the days of silent movies, its pervasiveness does not mean that it has been universally accepted. Some theorists have even rejected the strategy per se. numerous commentaries have given absolute preference to fiction over film or to film over drama‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 150). Certainly this phenomenon is by no means new but the trend is growing. Referring from a 1998 article that was published in Variety, Naremore pointed toward the fact that 20% of movies made the previous year, and this is only in America, were adapted from books whereas another 20% ‗were derived from plays, sequels, remakes, television shows, and magazine or newspaper articles. This means that only about half of the pictures seen by the public that year originated from scripts‘ (Naremore, 2000, 10). Performance of plays continued and theatre thrived in spite of growing popularity of the cinema. Today Broadway is still very popular even though most of the plays are easily available on DVD in the form of movies. Many movie adaptations of Shakespeare‘s plays are available including the famous ‗The Taming of the Shrew‘ and ‗A Midsummer Night‘s Dream‘. Transformations of Shakespeare‘s works have been given more attention as compared to all other aspects of film adaptation. According to Russell Jackson one of the reasons is probably that the Elizabethan text provides with more room for maneuver. The text can be cut to fit the ideal time of a movie that is under two hours, hence, using only 25-30% of the source text. This practice of condensing is accomplished by ‗cutting within speeches and scenes, making the dialogue leaner but (mostly) preserving the scene‘s original shape‘ (Jackson, 2000: 17). This phenomenon can be observed in Michael Hoffman‘s 1999 film adaptation of Shakespeare‘s A Midsummer Night‘s Dream. ‗Hoffman retains Shakespeare‘s language, albeit with cuts, but he moves and modernizes the setting. Although Hoffman‘s movie shifts the fiction forward, because it does not depart from the original story, it does not classify as an analogy in Wagner‘s terms‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 180). The reason for cutting these plays short has been best stated by British playwright Alan Bennett, ‗Film is drama at its most impatient‘ (quoted in Erskine & Welsh, 2000: xvi). 596 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Tennessee Williams‘ plays have also been transformed into movies that bear little resemblance to the theatrical version. Another great playwright Arthur Miller‘s plays have been turned into movies. Famous plays of Harold Pinter and Eugene O'Neill have been transformed into movies and no one can forget George Cukor‘s famous musical ‗My Fair Lady‘ sometimes referred to as an improved version of Bernard Shaw‘s ‗Pygmalion‘. Although a lot of criticism has been seen as far as screen literature is concerned there are those who have tried to justify and defend the practice. ‗The servitude of fidelity is undesirable for all concerned: even if it were possible, it would yield unstageworthy results. Collaboration with living authors is not always easy: the give and take of any interpersonal relationship may be complicated by an author‘s unwillingness to accept modification to a beloved text. But if the author respects the translator‘s judgment and open dialogue is possible, collaboration is ideal‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 5-6). Since theatre is essentially commercial it always aims ‗to connect with the sensibilities of today‘s spectator‘ (Cuadernos de Teatro Clasico 16, 2002:21). However, drama is not the only genre that has fallen victim to this practice. Novel has probably suffered more because novels are written for leisurely reading not performance. In his introduction to Film Adaptation (2000), James Naremore has cited a ‗cartoon that Alfred Hitchcock once described to Francois Truffaut: two goats are eating a pile of film cans, and one goat says to the other, ―Personally, I liked the book better.‖ ‘ (Naremore, 2000: 2). Although the trend of transforming novels into movies started quite early it kept growing with the passage of time and now it seems as if the trend is that as soon as a book is published and gains a certain level of fame and recognition, copyrights are bought and book is turned into a movie. Human beings are born with the gift of imagination and while reading we tend to create mental pictures and have a desire to see them in a vivid visual form. ‗We read a novel through our introjected desires, hopes, and utopias, and as we read we fashion our own imaginary mise-en-scene of the novel on the private stages of our minds‘ (Stam, 2000: 54). This imaginary mise-en-scene is inevitable but transforming a written text into a movie is not without its disadvantages and some of the problems faced are very similar to those faced in translation. ‗In 1992, when I first taught a graduate seminar, ―Literature into Film‖, I was struck by the similarities between translation and adaptation/transformation theory. The strategies and conventions of film are often described as a language. At the fidelity end of the scale, the goal in translating a play to a second natural language or transforming it for the screen is to carry the source text over into that other language with dynamic equivalence‘ (Zatlin, 2005: x). But how can these problems be overcome? In defining the relationship between film adaption and source text Dudley Andrew gave three modes that are now considered classic definitions: ‗borrowing, intersection, and fidelity of transformation‘ (Andrew, 1984: 98). Geoffrey Wagner has suggested using the original dialogue in the new genre exactly as it was in the source text. ‗Transposition‘, is the term used by Wagner and it involves ‗the minimum of apparent interference‘ (Wagner, 1975: 222). The trouble with this approach is, ‗How can one simultaneously be true to the author and yet reach the target audience?‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 5). Zatlin goes on to say, ‗Making a movie of a ―sacred text‖ can be risky‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 173). He admits, ‗In theatrical translation, however, some betrayal is a necessity‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 1). But at the same time he argues, ‗Fidelity is in the eyes of the beholder‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 171). Zatlin is one of the proponents of this practice. ‗Theatrical translators and authors of film adaptations should be aware that once a text is removed in time or space from its original context, it has the potential for transmitting new meanings, intentional or not, to some if not all spectators‘ (Zatlin, 2005: 188). Zatlin is not the only proponent in this regard. There are others who have favoured and defended the practice. ‗Much of the discussion of film adaptation quietly reinscribes the axiomatic superiority of literary art to film, an assumption derived from a number of superimposed prejudices‘ (Stam, 2000:58). ‗The language of criticism dealing with the film adaptation of novels has often been profoundly moralistic, awash in terms such as infidelity, betrayal, deformation, violation, vulgarization, and desecration, each carrying its specific charge of outraged negativity‘ (Stam, 2000: 54). And according to Robert B. Ray it would be more productive to analyze ‗how stories travel from medium to medium‘ (Ray, 2000: 41). Jane Austen, Emily Bronte, Charlotte Bronte, Victor Hugo, Louisa May Alcott, Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Alexandre Dumas, Leo Tolstoy, Bram Stoker, Mary Shelley, James M. Barrie, Gabriel Garcìa Márquez, Harper Lee, Truman Capote, H.G. Wells, Thomas Hardy, J. R. R. Tolkein, James Fenimore Cooper, William Wharton, Mario Puzo, John Steinbeck, Lew Wallace, Stephen King, Winston Groom, Hanif Kureishi, Bapsi Sidhwa, Ken Kesey, Thomas Harris, J. K. Rowling, Erich Segal, Stephenie Meyer, and Margaret Mitchell are among the few in the endlessly exhausting list of writers whose works have been transformed into movies. Aim of Study Greatest actors of all times have performed in these movies yet screen literature is not without its problems. The problems faced in film adaptation of drama are not as complicated and complex as when novels 597 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo are transformed into movies. Drama relies on dialogue whereas novel essentially relies on narrative and that is where the real problem comes in. The aim of the study is to ascertain as to what extent the essence of the original text is lost when it is transformed into a movie comprising of few hours with reference to Gone with the Wind. Method of the Study The study is purely qualitative in nature. The researcher herself is the subject and opinions have been given in the light of experiences both as a teacher as well as a student. An in depth analysis of the novel Gone with the Wind as well as the movie is there considering the differences between the two, using comparison and contrast to see how affected the novel appears to be when the novel and the movie are placed side by side. Findings and Discussion One of the major problems faced while transforming a movie into novel is that novel as a genre is essentially dependent on narrative and once words are not written and nothing is explained but only visual aspect can be used along with dialogue too many details are left out, leaving the story rather incomplete. Time is a major constraint in screen literature. Movie, as a genre, is essentially commercial. Since so much money is at stake it has to target the widest range of audience possible. The running time of the movie Gone with the Wind is 3:42 (excluding intermission), which according to the standards of an English movie is rather long. Although a classic and a great hit most of the young generation today finds it too lengthy to be tolerable and skips parts of it. Yet for a person who has read the novel with complete devotion the movie does not do justice to the novel. Transforming novels that belong to a different era can be extremely troublesome. Even language becomes a problem. However, that is not the case here because the movie was made not long after Mitchell wrote the novel. It was Mitchell who was criticized for the use of racist language when all she did was capture past in all its entirety. So basically the movie had to recapture what the author had already done. There are some errors pointed out in the movie which are more of bloopers. ―Factual error: Scarlett is seen walking on the main street on the way to the hospital. You can clearly see a light bulb in one of the street lights.‖ A critical aspect that cannot be neglected in the success of this novel as well as the movie is that one of the major themes is war. The novel was published in 1936 whereas the movie was released in 1939. World War I was not a distant memory and 1939 was the year when World War II started. The whole idea and experience of the war was very close to the sensibilities of the readers of the novel and the viewers of the movie. It would not be wrong to state that timing did contribute to the success of both the novel and the movie. This is not to demean the grandeur of either or suggest they would be not quite as amazing but movie being a highly commercial form of art is essentially dependent on these external factors for success. This novel is described as, ―Romance novel; historical fiction; bildungsroman (novel that charts the maturation of the main character)‖. Once we place the word bildungsroman in the description of the genre things become even more complicated. When the novel begins Scarlett O‘Hara is only a 16 year old country belle but by the end of the novel she is about 28. Same is the case in the movie. The problem arises that the movie only shows major events that seem to be transforming Scarlett as a person rather too suddenly, the most significant being her coming back home where one of the most dramatic scenes in the movie occurs and she vows she will never be hungry again. That seems to be the moment spanning over a few seconds in the movie that brings about a sudden change and based on that vow her future actions are determined. That is not the case in the novel. These dramatized dialogues, in contrast, appear to have been mentioned as if only in passing especially to someone who would have watched the movie first and read the novel later. It doesn‘t mean that the impact of these lines is not strong in the novel but they are by no means dramatized the way they are in the movie. It is not that the protagonist comes back to Tara and the changed circumstances bring about a sudden revolution. Whatever happens everyday, every night, every second, brings about evolution and a permanent fear of hunger. ―The narrator follows Scarlett almost exclusively, occasionally pulling back to give broad historical descriptions and analysis‖. Movies and even many novels tend to dramatize a few significant events and based on them characters go through major transformations. This is not how things work in real life. No doubt we are the sum of our experiences but to make things clear we can take life as a rock and events as water. One sudden gush might throw the rock from one place to another but it is never enough to break it. Those little drops of water constantly falling on the rock over a long period of time are the ones that finally crack it open. Same is the case with human beings. Major events might shake us but it is the continuity of certain circumstances and conditions that shape us. Simply put we can say the difference is whereas the movie is shaking Scarlett, the novel is shaping her. Mitchell has presented the picture of the Old South as a whole depicting it not only through narration of events but the society as a whole can only be shown through the interaction of different characters. This aspect is missing in the movie and what South once was and what it becomes is impossible to depict in the movie because 598 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo as mentioned earlier along with the loss of narrative quality time constraint is a major hindrance in making a movie. Each and every character in the novel has its own place and not a single character is out of place or brought in as a filler. Their place in the society as well as relationship with other characters is of vital importance. Some of the most important characters in the novel are not even mentioned in the movie. It is as if they never even existed. The character of Will Benteen, ―A one-legged Confederate soldier who becomes a fixture at Tara after the war despite his lack of family or wealth. Will makes Tara a marginally profitable farm. His competence allows Scarlett to move to Atlanta and leave him in charge‖. It is with Will that Scarlett shares most of her feelings and that brings out the softer and vulnerable side of Scarlett which is never to be seen in the movie where she is a woman with the will of iron doing everything all by herself without anyone‘s help or support. Whereas in the novel Will serves as a friend and confidant with the help and support of whom Scarlett makes it through the toughest of times. Another character that is missing is that of Archie. Archie is significant because it is not simply the incident of Scarlett being attacked in the Shantytown after Archie refuses to work for her since she has hired prison convicts to work in the mill. This is the event that leads to the involvement of men with the Klu Klux Klan and death of Frank Kennedy. Archie‘s refusal to work for her is not just about the cause and effect relationship but the rules and principles these people stood by even in the state of poverty. Refusing to give up what they believed to be true even after the apparent victory of the North is by all means something that becomes a major reason for conflict between Scarlett and the rest of the characters thus making her a rebel that stands out. Scarlett has two children from her marriages before getting married to Rhett Butler and those children are never mentioned either. Going through a terrible time in Tara when she meets Grandma Fontaine and has a conversation with her, the significant part of the conversation is where fear being pivotal to a woman is mentioned. ―Ah, well, that‘s been fifty years ago, as I said, and since that time I‘ve never been afraid of anything or anybody because I‘d known the worst that could happen to me. And that lack of fear has gotten me into a lot of trouble and cost me a lot of happiness. God intended women to be timid frightened creatures and there‘s something unnatural about a woman who isn‘t afraid…Scarlett, always save something to fear-even as you save something to love…‖ Although Scarlett is obviously ruthless yet it seems it is the fear of hunger driving her when in fact at the same time there is a strong element of lack of fear about her personality that leads her to be as ruthless as she is. This conflict leads to irony and lends amazing complexity to her character that cannot be explained or put into words. Mitchell has given a complete picture of the Old South falling apart and when so many characters go missing the picture of the society as whole is lost. Of course due to time limitation dialogues and thought process of the characters in the novel cannot be covered. With these aspects missing not only the complexity of characters but relationships is also lost. Ashley Wilkes and Rhett Butler are not the over simplified, obvious on the outside kind of characters as they appear to be in the movie. Watching the movie one gets an impression that Ashley Wilkes is a perfect Southern gentleman and Scarlett is blind to all his flaws. On several occasions in the novel Scarlett does see the obvious flaws in Ashley‘s personality but turns a blind eye to them. The sensitive side of Rhett‘s character never comes out in the movie except for toward the end and there too we get a glimpse of it for Melanie alone. His love for Scarlett beyond physical attraction is nowhere to be seen. The intimate moments full of love and care are missing. Scarlett‘s long thought process toward the end of the novel, the day Melanie dies serves as an overall commentary and in depth analysis of her relationship with Melanie, Ashley and Rhett. Looking back, even for the reader, this is the time to ponder and realize that Melanie all along has been stronger than the reader thought her to be. This is one of the amazing qualities of the novel that the reader and the protagonist recall many events that took place and understand them at length together. Melanie‘s death for Scarlett is like losing her mother all over again. That she was the strongest person who stood by Scarlett‘s side quietly through the years even though her strength is taken for granted not only by Scarlett but often underestimated by the reader as well. The fact that even though Scarlett was married to Frank Kennedy at the time, Rhett often accompanied her on her way to the mill whenever he was in town was not just for the sake of her company but to protect her as she passed through the dangerous Shantytown where an unfortunate incident does take place eventually when she is alone. Although many everyday events are left out altogether when it comes to the movie, however, certain events have been modified to fit the movie as they were too important to be left out altogether such as Gerald O‘Hara‘s death. In the novel Scarlett returns to Tara to attend his father‘s funeral and Will tells her that since men who swore loyalty to the Union will receive compensation for any property lost during the war, Suellen tries to make him sign papers and riding away in rage, trying to jump a fence he falls off and dies. It is after his death that the relationship between Mr. and Mrs. O‘Hara is analyzed at length. 599 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo It is not just the complexity of relationships that is lost when these incidents are left out and occasionally a modified version is presented in the movie but the characters lose the layers of complex human nature that Mitchell placed originally. Conclusion Gone with the Wind is only one novel among many that have been transformed into movies. Transforming a novel into a movie is not altogether evil in itself and perhaps in this time and age is inevitable but there is more to be lost than gained when this transformation takes place. In today‘s fast paced world a growing trend of replacing the original text with the movie among students as well as general readers is to be seen. Problem arises when one tries to substitute movie for a novel. Students giving book presentations have often been observed to base their analysis on the movie and are unable to comprehend details present in the book since they think the basic summary is all that is required to analyze a book. This without a doubt also comes from the weak education system of Pakistan where English courses are studied on the basis of summaries given in helping material. Students take the story of a novel as a whole instead of realizing that each and every line present in the book is significant in analyzing and understanding the text in all its complexity. Movie and novel are poles apart and thinking one can analyze a novel after watching a movie is a gross mistake. Movies are a mere adaptation of the novel not a replacement. Of course literature is no longer the sole major source of entertainment available but in these adaptations more is lost than thought to have been preserved. References (n.d.). Retrieved February 15, 2011, from http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/gonewith/facts.html (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2011, from http://www.moviemistakes.com/film553 Andrew, D. Concepts in Film Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984. Cuadernos de Teatro Clasico 16. La Compania Nacional de Teatro Clasico 1986-2002. Madrid: Compania de Teatro Clasico, 2002. Erskine, T. L. and Welsh, J. M. Video Versions. Film Adaptations of Plays on Video. With John C. Tibbettes and Tony Williams. Westport, C and London: Greenwood Press, 2000. Jackson, R., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000. Naremore, J., ed. Film Adaptation. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutger University Press, 2000. Ray, R. B. The field of ‗literature and film.‘ In J. Naremore, ed., Film Adaptation, 2000, 38-53. Stam, R. Beyond fidelity: The dialogics of adaptation. In J. Naremore, ed., Film Adaptation, 2000, 54-76. Wagner, G. The Novel and the Cinema. Cranford, NJ: Associated University Presses, Inc; London: The Tantivy Press, 1975. Zatlin, P. Theatrical Translation and Film adaptation. A Practitioner‘s View. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2005. 600 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 88 Title A name given to the resource Screen Literature: gain or loss? Author Author Shaukat, Haya Abstract A summary of the resource. With the advancement in science and technology everything has taken a different shape. Reading literature that was once considered to be a major source of entertainment and knowledge has now been transformed into screen literature by television, video games and movies. As a result of this critics have started debating the effectiveness of this shift. There are endless examples in this regard and many blockbusters are in fact based on some written books. Not only classics but also contemporary literature is now a part of the new genre called screen literature. Although it cannot be denied that these great stories and characters will live forever not only on paper but also on screen forever. Yet screen literature is not without its disadvantages. The aim of this study which is qualitative in nature is to assess the extent to which the literariness of the original text is affected with particular reference to the novel – Gone with the Wind by Margret Mitchell which was turned into movie in 1939 and appreciated as a blockbuster becoming a legendary classic of the American cinema. It was not only the first movie to bag ten Oscars for the very first time but maintained that record until Ben-Hur (1959). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a8b0365227d41e11c59d793e36b709bb.pdf 708271880814c068c6ab1f0e4b44b8a1 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Enhancing critical thinking in foreign language learners Servat Shirkhani Islamic Azad University, Khorram Abad Branch shirkhani10@yahoo.com Mansour Fahim Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch Dr.mfahim@yahoo.com Abstract: Critical thinking refers to the individuals‘ ability to think and make correct decisions independently. Critical thinking has been used in first language acquisition for a long time and has been recently introduced into foreign language teaching contexts. Nowadays enhancing critical thinking in learners is considered one of the foreign language teachers‘ tasks due to its high position in foreign language classrooms. There are various factors affecting language learners‘ critical thinking skills. Two of these factors are materials used and types of activities introduced and worked on in the classroom. Therefore, through managing classroom materials and activities, language teachers can help learners develop critical thinking skills. This presentations aims at introducing some ways in which language teachers can enhance critical thinking in foreign language learners through using materials and activities which require critical thinking on the part of learners. The teacher can prepare, choose, and/or adapt already existing materials so that they enhance learners‘ critical thinking ability. Also the teacher can choose activities which demand learners to develop critical thinking skills since not all activities lend themselves to critical thinking on the part of learners. In this presentation, some suggestions for language teachers to make sound choice of such materials and activities will be presented. Key words: critical thinking, language teaching, materials, activities. Introduction Critical thinking has been recently introduced and gained a high position in foreign language teaching (FLT) settings so that nowadays enhancing critical thinking in learners is considered one of the foreign language teachers‘ tasks. Many different factors can affect learners‘ critical thinking skills. Materials used and types of activities introduced and worked on in the classroom are two of these factors. This presentation argues that through managing classroom materials and activities, language teachers can help learners develop critical thinking skills. Critical thinking Many different definitions have been proposed for critical thinking by various educators such as Lipman (1991); Norris and Ennis (1989); and Siegel (1988). However, there is not much difference among these definitions. As Elder and Paul (1994) state, critical thinking refers to the ability of individuals to take charge of their own thinking and develop appropriate criteria and standards for analyzing their own thinking. Moreover, as Maiorana (1992) maintains, critical thinking aims at achieving understanding, evaluating different perspectives, and solving problems. Critical thinking in language teaching The promotion of critical thinking into the FLT classrooms is of high significance for several reasons. Firstly, if language learners can take charge of their own thinking, they can monitor and evaluate their own ways of learning more successfully. Second, critical thinking expands the learning experience of the learners and makes the language more meaningful for them. Thirdly, critical thinking has a high degree of correlation with the learners‘ achievements (Rafi, n.d.). Different studies have confirmed the role of critical thinking in improving ESL writing ability (Rafi, n.d.); language proficiency (Liaw, 2007); and oral communication ability (Kusaka & Robertson, n.d.).The learners may become proficient language users if they have motivation and are taught the ways of displaying critical thinking in foreign language usage, which signifies that the learners must have reflection on their production of ideas, and they may critically support those ideas with logical details (Rafi, n.d.). Language development and thinking are closely related and the teaching of higher-order thinking skills should be an integral part of an L2 curriculum. Educators have emphasized the importance of developing higher-order thinking skills in foreign language classrooms (Chamot, 1995; Tarvin & Al-Arishi, 1991) and empirical evidence supports the effectiveness of teaching critical thinking skills along with the foreign language (Chapple & Curtis, 2000; Davidson, 1994, 1995). 1091 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In fact, language learners who have developed critical thinking skills are capable of doing activities of which other students may not be capable. Implied in the study by Mahyuddin et al (2004) is that language learners with critical thinking ability are capable of thinking critically and creatively in order to achieve the goals of the curriculum; capable of making decisions and solving problems; capable of using their thinking skills, and of understanding language or its contents; capable of treating thinking skills as lifelong learning; and finally intellectually, physically, emotionally and spiritually well-balanced. However, in spite of the fact that there is little argument among theorists and educators about the importance of thinking skills in language development, in typical school settings, language learning and thinking skills are often treated as independent processes (Miraman & Tishman, 1988; Suhor, 1984). In other words as Pica (2000) states, in the tradition of English language teaching methodology, the integration of language and thinking skills has been peripheral. It is argued (e.g. Kabilan, 2000) that even communicative language teaching, which emphasizes the use of language as a communication tool, does not really help students to become proficient in the target language. He suggests that for learners to be proficient in a language, they need to be able to think creatively and critically when using the target language. So, it is implied that even communicative approaches to language teaching do not develop critical thinking among learners. Due to the advantages mentioned for enhancing critical thinking in language learners and also little practice in this regards in FLT settings, as Brown (2004) asserts, in an ideal academic language program, the objectives of the curriculum should go beyond linguistic factors to develop critical thinking among learners. In fact, the effectiveness of language teaching will depend upon what is being taught, in addition to language, which learners can consider as a purposeful and relevant extension of their horizons (Widdowson, 1990). Language teachers are among practitioners who can greatly influence the type of learning by language learners. Therefore, one of their responsibilities is to help learners develop critical thinking abilities. Maybe even more than L1 teachers, L2 teachers have reasons to introduce their students to aspects of critical thinking because if they do not (Davidson, 1998). As Lipman (2003) says, teachers are responsible for promoting critical thinking in the learners other than helping them to go from one educational level to the next. The responsibility of foreign language teachers is to help their learners acquire critical thinking skills while learning the language. As Mahyuddin et al (2004) assert, there is plenty of room for improvement in incorporating the thinking skills into our curricula. Enhancing critical thinking through materials Obviously the type of materials used in the foreign language classroom has a significant effect on the way of learning and trying to learn. Some materials are not appropriate in classes in which the promotion of critical thinking is a major goal; that is, they do not lend themselves to the type of learning promoting critical thinking. On the other hand, there are materials which require the learner to think critically if they want to develop critical thinking skills. For example, materials which can be analyzed, synthesized, discussed, argued about, classified in different ways, etc. are suitable for enhancing critical thinking among language learners. So as Scanlan (2006) suggests, critical thinking skills should be embedded in the subject matter and integrated with language teaching. Authenticity of the materials is a key factor in making the material appropriate for the purpose of promoting critical thinking in language classes. The reason is that the learners can see some meaningfulness in the materials which gives them encouragement and motivation to talk about it. The type of materials must also give the learners a degree of understanding of the relationship between taught material and the real world. When learners gain a deeper understanding of content matter and its relationship with self and society, their effort for controlling their own learning increases (Kusaka & Robertson, n.d.). Some authors argue for the appropriateness of content-based material for the development of critical thinking (e.g. Kusaka & Robertson, n.d.). They believe that a content-based approach reawakens the language learners‘ desire to study English, increases language acquisition, prepares learners for the role English will play in their future life, engages students‘ interest, helps them to become independent learners, and fosters their development as English speakers better than curricula which are built around textbooks that frequently change topics and show little real concern for content. Enhancing critical thinking through activities The second factor introduced here as having the capability of improving critical thinking skills among language learners is the type of activities used in the FLT context. In the previous section, the importance of materials used in the classroom was emphasized; however, the best type of material for this purpose can be useful only when they are introduced and worked on appropriately. In other words, the type of activities used in order to introduce and teach the materials must have the potential to promote critical thinking in the learners. The empirical findings indicate that the teachers subconsciously provide the answers to the learners (Kabilan 2000). In this way, the teachers get from the learners the opportunities and the rights to question, and the learners are not encouraged to reason and show higher order thoughts (Bruss & Macedo, 1985; Freire 1973). So we need to use activities which require learners to become more active and questioning. Activities such as 1092 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo group work, project-based work, and presentation skills which reflect the overall instructional goal (Kusaka & Robertson, n.d.) can be considered appropriate for this purpose. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2001-2002), a non-departmental organization sponsored by the Department of Education and Skills in the U.K., asserts that modern foreign language teaching must incorporate activities to help children reflect on their own thinking processes and language-learning strategies. It then outlines activities to include: (1) identifying and understanding the relations between the foreign language and first language in terms of lexis, syntax, and grammar; (2) drawing inferences from unfamiliar language and unexpected responses; (3) using their grammatical knowledge to guess the meaning of new words and structures; (4) using language creatively to express ideas, attitudes and opinions; (5) adapting and revising language for their own purposes; (6) identifying and using language patterns; and (7) managing their own use of language-learning strategies. These are fully in line with the type of activities needed to promote critical thinking among language learners. So classrooms aiming at developing learners‘ critical thinking ability must use such activities. Different authors have suggested different ways of increasing thinking skills among language learners. For example, Kabilan (2000) suggested the use of the pedagogy of questioning based on Freire‘s constructs (1970, 1973); Zainuddin and Moore (2003) in their experiment proposed a structured controversial dialogue technique for developing critical thinking among language learners; Kasper (2000) based on his experiment suggested engaging language learners in sustained content study within collaborative learning communities as well as using information technology resources to improve learners‘ linguistic and thinking skills. Of the suggested methods and techniques, content-based teaching (suggested by Brinton et al, 1989; Kusaka & Robertson, n.d.; Liaw, 2007; and Stoller, 1997) is an approach considered by many as an effective way to teach language skills while supporting the development of critical thinking. Among the skills that teachers should focus on for this purpose are forming relationships; comparing and contrasting; classifying; evaluating; ranking; identifying right from wrong, facts from opinion, cause and effect; summarizing; generalizing; interpreting; identifying main, supporting and detailed ideas as well as making decisions and solving problems (Mahyuddin et al, 2004). Classroom activities need to provide learners with different opportunities to share their ideas, reflect on their learning, and engage in extended communication with peers, teachers, and others both inside and outside of the classroom (Kusaka & Robertson, n.d.). Conclusion Critical thinking is what needs to be enhanced among language learners due to its significance in developing effective language learning. So promoting critical thinking skills is considered one of the tasks‘ of language teachers. They can do this task through various ways, including choosing appropriate materials and activities. 1093 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Brinton, D. M., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. B. (1989). Content-based second language instruction. Boston, Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle. Brown, H.D. (2004) Some practical thoughts about students- sensitive critical pedagogy. The Language Teacher, 28/ 7, 23-27. Bruss, N. and Macedo, D. P. (1985) Toward pedagogy of the question: Conversations with Paulo Freire. Journal of Education, 167/2, 7-21. Chamot, A. (1995). Creating a community of thinkers in the ESL/EFL classroom. TESOL Matters, 5(5), 1-16. Chapple, L., & Curtis, A. (2000). Content-based instruction in Hong Kong: Student responses to film. System, 28, 419-433. Davidson, B. (1994). Critical thinking: A perspective and prescriptions for language teachers. The Language Teacher, 18(4), 20-26. Davidson, B. (1995). Critical thinking education faces the challenge of Japan. Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, 14(3), 41-53. Davidson, B. (1998). A case for critical thinking in the English language classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 32, 119123. Elder, L. & Paul, R. (1994) Critical thinking: Why we must transform our teaching. Journal of Developmental Education, 18(1), 34-35. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: The Seabury Press. Freire, P. 1973. Education for critical consciousness. New York: The Seabury Press. Kabilan, K.M. (2000) Creative and critical thinking in language classroom. Internet TESL Journal, 6/6. http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kabilan-CriticalThinking.html Kasper, L. F. (2000). New technologies, new literacies: Focus discipline research and ESL learning communities. Language Learning & Technology, 4(2), 105-128. Kusaka, L. L., & Robertson, M. ().Beyond Language: Creating Opportunities for Authentic Communication and Critical Thinking. 14, 21-38. Liaw, M. (2007). Content-Based Reading and Writing for Critical Thinking Skills in an EFL Context. English Teaching & Learning, 31(2), 45-87 Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lipman, M. (2003) Thinking in education. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mahyuddin, R., Lope Pihie, Z. A., Elias, H., & Konting, M. M. (2004). The incorporation of thinking skills in the school curriculum. Kajian Malaysia, Jld, 22(2), 23-33. Maiorana, V. P. (1992). Critical thinking across the curriculum: Building the analytical classroom. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 347511). Mirman, J. and Tishman, S. (1988) Infusing thinking through connections. Educational Leadership, 45/7, 64-65. Norris, S. P., & Ennis, R. (1989). Evaluating critical thinking. Pacific Grove, California: Critical Thinking Press and Software. Pica, T. (2000). Tradition and transition in English language teaching methodology. System, 29, 1-18. 1094 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2001-2002). Using thinking skills. Retrieved December 10, 2004, from http://www.ncluk.net/gt/languages/teaching_thinkingskills.htm Rafi, M. S. (). Promoting Critical Pedagogy in Language Education. International Research Journal of Arts & Humanities (IRJAH), 37, 63-73. Scanlan, J.S. (2006) The effect of Richard Paul‘s universal elements and standards of reasoning on twelfth grade composition. Unpublished M.A thesis, School of Education, Alliant International University, US. Siegel, H. (1988). Educating reason: Rationality, critical thinking, and education. New York: Routledge. Stoller, F. L. (1997). Project work: A means to promote language content. Forum, 35(4), Retrieved December 10, 2004, from http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no4/p2.htm Suhor, C. (1984). Thinking skills in English—And across the curriculum. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 250693). Tarvin, W., & Al-Arishi, A. (1991). Rethinking communicative language teaching: Reflection and the EFL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 25(1), 9-27. Widdowson, H. (1990). Aspects of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zainuddin, H., & Moore, R. A. (2003). Enhancing critical thinking with structured controversial dialogues. The Internet TESL Journal, 9(6). Retrieved July 10, 2007, from http://iteslj.org/Technique/ZainuddinControversial.html 1095 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 586 Title A name given to the resource Enhancing critical thinking in foreign language learners Author Author Shirkhani, Servat Fahim, Mansour Abstract A summary of the resource. Critical thinking refers to the individuals‘ ability to think and make correct decisions independently. Critical thinking has been used in first language acquisition for a long time and has been recently introduced into foreign language teaching contexts. Nowadays enhancing critical thinking in learners is considered one of the foreign language teachers‘ tasks due to its high position in foreign language classrooms. There are various factors affecting language learners‘ critical thinking skills. Two of these factors are materials used and types of activities introduced and worked on in the classroom. Therefore, through managing classroom materials and activities, language teachers can help learners develop critical thinking skills. This presentations aims at introducing some ways in which language teachers can enhance critical thinking in foreign language learners through using materials and activities which require critical thinking on the part of learners. The teacher can prepare, choose, and/or adapt already existing materials so that they enhance learners‘ critical thinking ability. Also the teacher can choose activities which demand learners to develop critical thinking skills since not all activities lend themselves to critical thinking on the part of learners. In this presentation, some suggestions for language teachers to make sound choice of such materials and activities will be presented. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics