273 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1cb2439392d814d44577aababf5a21a1.pdf 101caff0b2f324fbbfc74b6c8992ea42 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Linguistic competence vs. Translation competence: A pedagogic approach Teodora Popescu ―1 Decembrie 1918‖ University of Alba Iulia Romania teo_popescu@hotmail.com Abstract:The aim of this paper is to address the issue of linguistic competence versus translation competence seen from a pedagogical perspective. I will start by reviewing the well-known distinction between competence and performance and their interrelatedness. Other dimensions will be added to linguistic competence, which together contribute to the process of language learning (either foreign or second): sociolingistic competence, pragmatic competence and intercultural competence. In close connection with linguistic competence I will try to delineate the components of translation competence, by outlining similarities and differences between the two processes. Some elements of translation competence, apart from those that are also inherent to linguistic competence will be analysed and exemplified: monitoring competence, ICT competence and content-knowledge competence. From a pedagogic viewpoint, in order for the students to attain a certain degree of translation competence, their level of linguistic competence must be fairly well-developed (at least upper-intermediate, or B2 according to the Common European Framework of reference for languages); however, when learning how to translate, students have to be able to further enhance their linguistic competence. Therefore, I will also attempt at providing a basic teaching methodology involving the use of translation in EFL/ESL classes, so as to increase students‘ both competences. Key words: linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, pragmatic competence, intercultural competence, translation competence. I. Introduction The relationship between linguistic competence and translation competence has been sparsely addressed by various researchers, however, with differing standpoints. The use of translation in foreign language classes was discarded as a teaching technique, especially after the grammar-translation method had fallen into disuse, and the proponents of the communicative approach started to frown upon teachers‘ resorting to L1 in their courses. Translation was entirely left to some specialist courses in translation theory and practice, particularly in curricula destined for the formal training of translators and interpreters. Nevertheless, as Rodgers (1986: 4) pointed out, ―Grammar Translation dominated European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.‖ Our main tenet here is that by interspersing the foreign language class with translation tasks, students will enhance both their linguistic and linguistic competences. We also start from the assumption that in order for a translator from L1 into L2 to be successful, they need to master a relatively independent-user stage in their language learning. This paper attempts at identifying the constituent elements of both competences, and their interrelations. Further on, different teaching methodologies used for the development of both linguistic and translation competences. In the end, a possible model is presented and discussed. II. Linguistic competence For taxonomical reasons, I will employ the term ―linguistic competence‖ in order to refer to a learner‘s ―knowledge of and ability to use, the formal resources from which well-formed, meaningful messages may be assembled and formulated‖ (CEFR, 2001:109), as opposed to the knowledge and skills required to deal with the social dimension of language use and/or the meaning and language use that are dependent on the speaker, the addressee and other contextual features. It was Chomsky who first made a distinction between competence (the system of linguistic knowledge) and performance (the way the language system is used in communication): Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its (the speech community‘s) language 1183 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance (Chomsky, 1965:3). The debate that ensued is well known to all scholars and students of linguistics. It was argued that it is not possible to study language is such a ‗purified‘ environment‘, as pictured by Chomsky, resting on the premise that a language without being used is no longer a language. The controversy was likened by Cook (1996) to a war ―waged as much in language teaching, in children‘s languages, or in computational linguistics, as it is in linguistics itself‖. Theoretical linguists, in particular, would welcome such a separate approach, while applied linguists are strongly opposed to the idea of learning a language as an abstract and isolated system. Other specialists scrutinised the issue from the perspective of teaching materials elaboration. According to Allen (1975:40), most language textbooks actually contain a limited number of completely abstract sentences or completely ‗authentic‘ utterances. The majority of classroom materials are based on sentences that are at the meeting point of the two extremes. It comes as no surprise that applied linguists would adopt a stance that favours second language instruction which aims at achieving native speakers‘ competence in a language. Undoubtedly, Chomsky‘s definition of language cannot be adopted as a language learning goal per se. It is not possible to teach students the abstract forms and rules of language and expect them to be able to use the language in real contexts in an appropriate manner. In Spolsky‘s (1972) words, linguistic competence ―is not enough for practical or educational purposes; we are interested not just in the fact that someone knows a language but that he knows how to use it‖. Language instruction should assist the student in competently using language forms, which can only come with practice and exposure to real-life contexts. In this terrain of discontent, Hymes‘ concept of ‗communicative competence‘ seemed to finally satisfy applied linguists. Stern (1992:73) points out Hymes‘ argument that besides linguistic competence, the native speaker possesses another rule system, according to which, he intuitively knows what is socially acceptable or unacceptable, and can adapt his language use according to the topic, situation and human relations at stake. By the same token, Widdowson (1989) comments that ―Hymes proposed his concept of communicative competence in reaction to Chomsky, and it is customary to present it as an improvement in that it covers aspects of language other than the narrowly grammatical‖. The concept of communicative competence, was nevertheless conceived from a sociolinguist‘s perspective, and only starting with Canale & Swain (1980) and Canale (1983) did this approach enter the area of second/foreign language teaching and learning. According to them, communicative competence is made of the following categories: - - grammatical competence: o phonology; o vocabulary; o syntax; o semantics. discourse competence - sociocultural rules having to do with language use; sociolinguistic competence - rules of discourse such as cohesion and coherence, strategic competence - the ability ―to compensate for breakdowns in communication‖ and ―to enhance the rhetorical effect of utterances‖ (Canale 1983:339). How to integrate these elements into language learning goals is yet another issue. Widdowson (1989:134) argues that ―[a]s soon as you talk about competence as ability, or what people can actually do with their language, you get into all kinds of difficulty‖, since ―there is so much you have to allow for in the way of individual differences, varying circumstances, attitude, and so on that specification becomes impossible‖. According to him, ―grammar needs to be in its place‖, while at the same time allowing for ―rightful claims of lexis‖, as the actual use of language may be more dependent on stocks of lexical items rather than the analysis of structures. In this, he seems to accept the idea that linguistic competence needs to be separated from language usage. Furthermore, Lyons (1996), departing from the premise that there exists a psychological difference between propositional (or declarative) knowledge (―knowing that something is or is not so‖) and performative (or procedural) knowledge (―knowing how to do something‖), tries to investigate the type of knowledge that linguistic competence falls under. He tends to consider it as a sort of procedural knowledge, i.e. being able to do something without being able to pin down the underlying rules. According to him, it is not necessary for a language learner to consciously ‗know‘ the language he internalises and to subsequently apply the rules, i.e. he does not need to possess meta-knowledge when actually using the language in real-life situations. 1184 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Another second language education standpoint is provided by Brown (1996:202), who constructs a developmental paradigm (a ―virtuous spiral‖, as she calls it), according to which a child first manifests competence consisting of fundamental constraints on the nature of human languages. Subsequently, the child‘s perception of the language which he/she is exposed to (performance) starts to mould competence, and the process continues in the same manner, with more and more performance changing performance. She maintains that ―just as performance modifies and restructures competence in the first language, so it modifies and restructures competence in the second language‖. According to this statement, mother tongue acquisition and second language acquisition rest on the same principles, as competence is transferable language ability inherent in the human brain, working alike for first and second language. An even more complex model for language education is advanced by Bachman (1990), through his hierarchical model of language competence, which is now divided into organisational competence and pragmatic competence. The former represents grammatical competence and textual competence; while pragmatic competence contains illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic competence. These consist of the following categories: - organisational competence: o grammatical competence - ―the knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and phonology/graphology‖ (p. 87). o textual competence - ―the knowledge of the conventions for joining utterances together to form a text‖ (p. 88). o illocutionary competence – the way we use words to do things, in terms of the speech acts theory (Austin 1962) and/or language functions (Halliday 1973, 1976) - sociolinguistic competence – the ability ―to perform language functions in ways that are appropriate to that context‖ (p. 94). More or less concurrently with the model developed by Bachman, the EU ‗Book‘ on language learning and teaching – The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages was produced in order to provide ―a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe‖ (CEFR, 2001:1). According to this manual, the communicative situations in which users and learners have to function entail the successful completion of certain tasks and activities. To this end, they ―draw upon a number of competences developed in the course of their previous experience‖ (CEFR, 2001: 101). At the same time, ―participation in communicative events (including, of course, those events specifically designed to promote language learning) results in the further development of the learner‘s competences, for both immediate and longterm use‖ (CEFR, 2001: 101). As a matter of fact, all human competences play a part in the language user‘s ability to communicate, and can in turn be considered as components of the communicative competence. Nevertheless, they may be categorized into competences more or less closely related to the linguistic competence. Here is the classification offered by the CEFR: A. General competences Declarative knowledge (savoir) Knowledge of the world Sociocultural knowledge Intercultural awareness Skills and know-how (savoir-faire) Practical skills and know-how Intercultural skills and know-how ‗Existential‘ competence (savoir-être) Ability to learn (savoir-apprendre) Language and communication awareness General phonetic awareness and skills Study skills Heuristic skills B. Communicative language competences Linguistic competences Lexical competence; Grammatical competence; Semantic competence; Phonological competence; Orthographic competence; 1185 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Orthoepic competence. Sociolinguistic competence Politeness conventions Expressions of folk wisdom Register differences Pragmatic competences Discourse competence Functional competence III. Translation competence Among the very few studies on translation competence development, mention should be made of Campbell‘s (1998) research based on applied linguistics methodologies. He explored translation competence of non-native speakers‘ translation from their mother tongue into English. His informants were native speakers of Arabic, studying translation and interpretation at an Australian university. Data analysis and interpretation led Campbell to design a three-layered model of translation competence: - textual competence – the ability to produce TL texts with ―structural features of formal, written English‖ (p. 73). Evaluation benchmarks are nominalizations, type/token ratios, word length, passives, prepositional phrases, etc. - disposition – translators‘ behaviours in choosing different words when contracting TL texts. The parameters he advances are: o persistent vs capitulating; o prudent vs risk-taking. Combinations of the above categories will create four types of disposition: o persistent and risk-taking; o capitulating and risk-taking; o persistent and prudent; o capitulating and prudent. - monitoring competence, consisting of two sub-categories: o self-awareness; o editing. o However, this model overlooks the crucial issue of translation equivalence (grammatical, semantic, pragmatic, cultural, etc.). A second model is provided by Sofer (1998), who puts forward ten commandments for professional translators: 1. A thorough knowledge of both SL and TL; 2. A thorough ―at-homeness‖ in both cultures. 3. Keeping up with changes in the language and being up-to-date in all of its nuances and neologisms. 4. Always translating from another language into one‘s native language. 5. Being able to translate in more than one area of knowledge. 6. Possessing ease of writing or speaking and the ability to articulate quickly and accurately, either orally or in writing. 7. Developing a good speed of translation. 8. Developing research skills, being able to retrieve reference sources needed in producing high quality translation. 9. Being familiar with the latest technological advances; 10. Being able to understand the type of potential one‘s language specialty has in a certain geographic area. (pp. 33-37) If we analyse the two models, we would see most of the characteristics are pragmaticallyoriented, and refer to personal skills that translators need to possess/develop. However, we should not overlook from among a translator‘s competence, the explicit ability to achieve equivalence at lexical, semantic, textual (discursive), pragmatic (see Mona Baker, 1992), cultural level (see David Katan, 1999). I reiterate the idea that translation competence cannot be achieved unless a translator already possesses good knowledge of both SL and TL [by this meaning linguistic knowledge, on the one hand, as well as socio-linguistic, pragmatic and (inter-)cultural knowledge]. I would like to state that at the intersection of the two competences, we would find the above elements: 1186 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fig. 1 Second language learning vs learning to translate The other components of translation competence would be, in synthesis, content-knowledge competence (economics, finance, medicine, law, etc.), ICT competence (hardware, operating system environment, packages used: Windows, Trados, etc., the Internet); monitoring competence (awareness of the quality of translations made) and research competence (the ability to resort to bibliographic and lexicographic resources). IV. Pedagogic implications I suggest therefore that the translation theory and practice syllabus for language learners should include as course aims the development of translation competence which includes all the elements pertaining to language learning (linguistic competence – phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, discourse; sociolinguistic competence; pragmatic competence and intercultural competence), as well as sub-competence pertaining to the translation profession proper (contentknowledge competence; ICT competence, Research competence and monitoring competence), as graphically represented in the figure below: 1187 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fig. 2 Learning objectives for a translation course Although there is relatively little research carried out in the field of teaching translation proper, as opposed to teaching a foreign/second language, there are references to the use of translation in different learning methodologies advocated by different stages in the history of foreign/second language learning. As previously mentioned, the Grammar Translation method was the one which made most use of translation in language instruction. It has numerous times come under attack, as it only concentrates on grammar and vocabulary structure and is very far from the real task of translation, being rather artificial. The typical exercise in this approach is ―to translate sentences from the target language into the mother tongue‖ (Celce-Murcia, 1991), and its aim is to enforce ―the vocabulary and grammar encountered in the current and earlier units‖ (Cook, 1998). Nevertheless, in recent years we have witnessed a revival of interest in using translation as a classroom technique. Translation was not encouraged by subsequent methodologies, such as the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method (where, according to Brookes, quoted in Richards & Rodgers, 1986: 58, there existed ―practice in translation only as a literary exercise at an advanced level‖), or Communicative Language Teaching. In the Humanistic paradigm (Community Language Learning (CLL) and Suggestopedia, teachers resort again to translation. In both methods, translation represents a sort of transition from the learner‘s mother tongue to the target language, and through it, learners‘ anxieties can be diminished. Translation tasks may interspersed in the language class, and it is particularly important to choose authentic and relevant texts to be translated from and into the mother tongue, so as for the students to understand the real usefulness and efficiency of good translation skills Conclusions I have tried to demonstrate through this paper that the role and importance of translation need to be reassessed in the foreign/second language classroom. Alongside the language teaching/learning, we need to try and develop students‘ translation competence as well. I have tried to decompose both linguistic competence and the associated sociolinguistic, pragmatic and intercultural competences, as well as give an inventory of elements that constitute the translation competence. It is argued that translation competence encompasses the linguistic one, therefore, all instructors who want to teach translation, need to pay heed first to students‘ foundation competences. 1188 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Allen, J.P.B. (1975). Some basic concepts in linguistics. In J.P.B. Allen, & S. Pit. Corder (Eds), The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics: Volume 2 (pp. 16-44). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Austin, J. L. (1962/2005). How to do things with Words (2nd ed.). Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Baker, M. (1998). Translation studies. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies (pp. 277-280). London: Routledge. Bassnett, S. (1991). Translation Studies. London: Routledge. Brown, J. D. (1996). Testing in language programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Campbell, S. (1998). Translation into the Second Language. Harlow, Essex: Addison Wesley Longman. Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In J.C.Richards, & R.W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication. pp. 2-27. London & New York: Longman. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to Second Language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics. 1(1), 1-47. Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Language teaching approaches: an overview. In Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.) (pp. 3-11). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf. Cook, G. (1998). Use of translation in language teaching. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies (pp. 277-280). London: Routledge. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the functions of language. London: Arnold. (Explorations in Language Study Series). Katan, D. (1999). Translating cultures. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Lyons, J. (1996). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rodgers, T. S. (1989). Syllabus design, curriculum development and polity determination. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Second Language Curriculum (pp. 24-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sofer, M. (1998). The Translator‘s Handbook (2nd ed). Rockville, Maryland: Schreiber Publishing, Inc. Spolsky, B. (1972). What does it mean to know a language? In K. Croft (Ed.) Readings on English as a Second Language (pp. 26-42). Cambridge, Mass: Winthrop Publishers. Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. (Series Eds. Patrick Allen & Birgit Harley). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H.G. (1989). Knowledge of language and ability for use. Applied Linguistics. 10(2), 128137. 1189 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 560 Title A name given to the resource Linguistic competence vs. Translation competence: A pedagogic approach Author Author Popescu, Teodora Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this paper is to address the issue of linguistic competence versus translation competence seen from a pedagogical perspective. I will start by reviewing the well-known distinction between competence and performance and their interrelatedness. Other dimensions will be added to linguistic competence, which together contribute to the process of language learning (either foreign or second): sociolingistic competence, pragmatic competence and intercultural competence. In close connection with linguistic competence I will try to delineate the components of translation competence, by outlining similarities and differences between the two processes. Some elements of translation competence, apart from those that are also inherent to linguistic competence will be analysed and exemplified: monitoring competence, ICT competence and content-knowledge competence. From a pedagogic viewpoint, in order for the students to attain a certain degree of translation competence, their level of linguistic competence must be fairly well-developed (at least upper-intermediate, or B2 according to the Common European Framework of reference for languages); however, when learning how to translate, students have to be able to further enhance their linguistic competence. Therefore, I will also attempt at providing a basic teaching methodology involving the use of translation in EFL/ESL classes, so as to increase students‘ both competences. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/35a9370944fa5d1f59a5919d765ead9c.pdf e89e14d72505142714683886fdfdac39 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo One Example of Balkanistic Discourse on Montenegro Olivera PopoviĤ Department of Italian language and Literature Univerzitet Crne Gore, Montenegro oljapop@yahoo.it Cvijeta BrajiĦiĤ Department of Italian language and Literature Univerzitet Crne Gore, Montenegro cvijeta82@yahoo.com Abstract: The aim of this study is to analyze the presence of balkanistic discourse in the article "Montenegro, land of stout hearts and stones", published in the Washington Post on December 3, 2010, and to indicate the factors involved in its generation and reproduction. We will pursue the specifics of the author's perception of the Montenegrin geographical and civilizational space and examine his writings in their relation to prior paradigms of travel narrative regarding Montenegro and other Balkan countries. Key Words: balkanistic discourse, travel account, Montenegro Introduction In recent years, travel literature has been increasingly studied, not only its literary but also the cultural and historical aspects. Due to the abundance of themes and to the variety of the information offered, travel books are particularly suitable for the analysis of traditional views of a country and for the identification of stereotypes and connotations that were tied to it. In fact, we do not consider travel accounts only as a personal testimony about the encounter with the Other or as a transfer of impressions and observations of phenomena in a given historical moment, but also as the construction of images of the Other and selective transfer of observations, opinions and facts through their generalization. Many critics have pointed out that travel narrative was the "birthplace" of many stereotypes concerning one nation that were built in a specific historical time to be later accepted as a generalization of the essential and timeless qualities of the people. As Sarup (1993) underlines in his Postructuralism ―every narrative simultaneously presents and represents a world, that is, simultaneously creates and makes up a reality and asserts that it stands independent of that same reality. In other words, narrative seems at once to reveal or illuminate a world and to hide and distort it.‖ Edward Said with his study Orientalism (New York, 1978) enhanced the research in the field of a priori schemes of perception and representation of otherness or strangeness that are imposed by a particular discourse in a particular context. The recent events of the war in the Balkans and the renewed interest of politicians, historians, writers and publicists in the South Eastern Europe have led to a flourishing production of various articles on the Balkan countries, offering rich material for analysis of that kind of narrative in comparison with the writings of previous epochs. Basing their research upon Said's works many critics have dealt with issues such as essentialization of cultural differences in a particular historical moment and their politicization and instrumentalization in subsequent historical contexts. Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova, dealing with the reception of the Balkans in the scientific and political circles in Europe and the United States, also approaches this issue from the aspect of discourse. In her book Imagining the Balkans (New York, 1997) she argued "that a specific discourse, balkanism, molds attitudes and actions toward the Balkans and could be treated as the most persistent form or ‗mental map‘ in which information about the Balkans is placed, most notably in journalistic, political, and literary output." As opposed to "Orientalism" which she characterizes as a "discourse about an imputed opposition" she defines Balkanism as "discourse about an imputed ambiguity ", believing that the Balkans were seen as the alter ego of Europe and its uncivilized element, designed as "an incomplete self". The Balkans is therefore treated as an area inextricably bound up with a special identity that pre-determines the character of its inhabitants, making them substantially different from the inhabitants of the surrounding countries. 1011 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Findings and Discussion The article "Montenegro, land of stout hearts and stones" written by Robert Rigney, published in the Washington Post 3/12/2010 provides numerous examples of some basic features of balkanistic discourse. This contribution can be characterized as travel reportage, although the description of the route is given only partially. The writer presented details of his travel through Montenegro and means of transport used, but did not mention where and how he came to the Balkans, nor gave any information on the return. Since he came to Montenegro by train from Serbia, we can assume that this visit is just one of the stages of his journey through the Balkans. The very title of this article, linking the words heart and stone, implies the image of the Montenegrins that Rigney wants to develop. The title also suggests that Rigney intends to use exotization and generalization in his reportage on Montenegro. This is reflected by his decision to use keywords such as "land of" followed by the conclusions applicable to all members of the country. Thus, "land of giants" means a country where there are no people of medium height or dwarves, a "land of stout hearts" attributed as trait to all its inhabitants, indicates the basic characteristics of this nation, by which it is substantially different from all the neighbors. Exotization of Montenegro is present from the very beginning of Rigney's stay in this country. The impression of "dramatic" train ride from Prijepolje to Podgorica while crossing a number of tunnels, over deep ravines and ―indescribably rocky mountains‖ is reinforced by his statement that people can not be seen in these areas because of the too inhospitable environment, ignoring the fact that those areas are inhabited by tens of thousands of people. This view corresponds to the perception of the Balkans present in the travel literature of nineteenth century where the Balkan countries are presented to readers as "Europe's Indian territory." (Todorova, 1997) Rigney made no attempt to conceal his perception of Montenegrin society as criminal and corrupted. After his arrival to Podgorica, the author compares the actual situation with the condition in the nineties, without revealing to the readers if he visited Podgorica in that period and if he had the opportunity to personally verify the assertion that the city was "rife with Mafiosi". Instead, without any inquiry into social conditions, Rigney affirms that "illicit atmosphere of those times still clings to the city" and compares the Montenegrin capital, where he spent a few hours around the train station, with the wild west. Other sites that Rigney managed to visit in Montenegro are the Ostrog Monastery, Cetinje, Herceg Novi and Budva. The first two places have great historical, cultural and spiritual significance for the people of Montenegro, while the other two are tourist centers. As the author himself claims, one of the reasons that encouraged him to visit Montenegro is its multi-ethnicity. Therefore, immediately after his arrival to Podgorica Rigney decides to visit the monastery of Ostrog, considered as a holy site by adherents of different religions. However, instead of believers that usually visit Ostrog, Rigney notes "all manner of religious kitsch", referring to the souvenirs, that are sold in front of many churches and monasteries in the world, and "a couple of cafes blaring the usual Serbian and Montenegrin national music, with waitresses wearing T-shirts emblazoned with the visages of Radovan Karadzic and other indicted war criminals." Rigney's opinion about the music that emerged in the '90 called turbo-folk, which, albeit very popular, can not be characterized as national since the state television channels and many radio stations do not broadcast it, is well known from his earlier writings on music in the Balkans. He undertakes to suggest: ―Turbo folk is a style of music unique to Serbia, but with equivalents in almost every developing country in the world, that blends elements of folk music with Western pop and is characteristic of societies in transition. Turbo folk is relentlessly upbeat, oriental, marked by maniacal keyboards and wailing Turkish style vocals with artists singing by turns of love and nationalism. The most famous practitioner at the time was Ceca, wife of murdered mafia boss and paramilitary leader Arkan―. Turbo-folk music without any doubt deserves a large number of objections, but it can hardly be proved that the connection of this kind of music and its fans to the nationalism is stronger than the connection of other kinds of music (pop, rap, rock, heavy metal ...) to the same phenomena. It seems that Rigney believes that the quality of music is directly related to the development of a country in which it arises, and that it can be expected that in the richer countries exists only quality music, which in addition celebrates the noble human feelings, while the poorer ones are dominated by the music devoid of art and other values. This progressionistic understanding of cultural development was present in some earlier works of travel writing genre regarding Southeastern Europe, where the Balkans were presented as an area "subject to the universal laws of evolution but theirs was a backward culture and civilization" (Todorova, 1997), while the culture in Western countries is assessed as advanced and superior in every way. Rigney repeats all the negative stereotypes about the Balkans that dominated the collective imaginaries of Western countries after the disintegration of Yugoslavia and often represents 1012 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the Balkan countries to his readers as a threat to European culture. Thus, in an article about Trumpet Festival in Guca, published on 16/09/2008 on a web page, entitled "European Balkan project, a cultural phenomenon, " Rigney concludes: "This was Serbia, a land of heated passions, and this was Guca, where nationalist sentiment is mixed with large quantities of alcohol made for a potentially dangerous mix. " In addition to showing surprise that at big music concerts in Serbia people drink alcohol (as it was specific only to Serbia and not a widespread phenomenon that characterizes major music events organized around the world) Rigney is also concerned about nationalism that, in his opinion, is promoted at these events. Rigney‘s intention to represent the Ostrog monastery as a gathering place for nationalist transpires in his description of two waitresses dressed in t-shirts with images of the Hague convicts. We can not verify the authenticity of this statement, nor claim that in Montenegro there are no people who support the military leaders concerned, but we were intrigued by other things that Rigney "saw" in Ostrog. There are, for example, cypress trees and olive groves which certainly do not grow there and our curiosity was also aroused by his assumption that the area probably was once inhabited by the "Albanian shepherds with fierce, wolflike dogs trained to fly at strangers‖. The first mention of this specific type of dogs can be found in the famous publication of Vialla de Sommieres Voyage Historique et Politique au Montenegro, published in the 1820th in Paris and later translated into English. This publication has served as a model for many authors who visited Montenegro and wrote about it. Rigney seizes the opportunity to present his reflections on nationalism in Montenegro during his visit to Cetinje (historical capital of Montenegro) and to the mausoleum on the Lovcen mountain which is the burial place of famous Montenegrin poet and ruler Petar II Petrovic Njegos. Rigney draws his readers' attention to the signs "perforated by bullets, fired by some drunken Montenegrin in an excess of glee, " which completes the fictitious image of Montenegro as the wild west. Upon arrival at the mausoleum he concludes that "The Nazis would have loved this place ". However, this observation applies not only to the "fascist architecture" but also to the "couple of Montenegrins in nationalist Tshirts" who were selling flags and ―patriotic souvenirs‖. While the sale of souvenirs is considered lucrative and desirable activity in other states, Rigney seems to think that in Montenegro this points to nationalism of its people and allows the categorization of souvenirs as patriotic and unpatriotic. In refering to the salesmen he cannot help noticing: "They would have preferred me to be a Serbian or a Montenegrin. They had at least hoped I was a Slav. Still, they could not refuse me a ticket. " It remains unclear to the readers what makes Rigney think that the salesmen are nationalists and racists when he only purchases the ticket without any discussion with them. The only dialogue that Rigney noted in his travel reportage is his conversation with the owner of a bookstore in Herceg-Novi. The conversation topic, the independence of Kosovo from Serbia, was chosen by the journalist after an unusual encouragement from the bookstore owner to ask him anything he wanted to know about Serbs and Serbia. This unnatural dialogue is more appropriate in situations where the speaker can not freely participate in the conversation and direct it to the topic of his interest, so he needs to find a way to suggest the questions he wants to be asked. After noting that the bookshop owner opposes the independence of Kosovo, Rigney quotes his words that may help the readers understand the bases of religiosity of the population in Montenegro: myths and fatalism. When asked if he is only the seller or the owner of the shop, the bookstore owner replies that everything belongs to God and explains his belief with a fairy tale about a farmer whose farm had been repeatedly burned until he realized that he needed to recognize that God owns everything on earth. Rigney's interlocutor shares his personal experience of surviving the earthquake in Montenegro in 1979, which warned him that he was nothing more than a "user" of things that belong to God. Dialogue is not the only form of narration used by Rigney to convey his thoughts on religion and spirituality in Montenegro. There are also descriptions: abandoned churches in the region of Budva, "dark Orthodox churches hung with icons and swimming in incense" in Herceg Novi, and we should not forget the random passerby who offered him a drive from the Ostrog monastery to Podgorica, in whose car at least four crosses were hanging from the rearview mirror. Rigney humorously explains their role. In his opinion, their presence "was perhaps an indication of how much he needed the grace of God to protect him on the road" because he was driving like a lunatic. We notice that Rigney pays particular attention to the values that he believes do not exist in Montenegro and that he nurtures an anachronistic and fabulous view on Montenegrins as fearless warriors. He claims that he decided to visit Montenegro because he was "inspired by the colorful history of the place, Montenegro's tradition of resistance to the Turks during the nearly 500-year Ottoman occupation of the Balkans". Therefore he quotes Rebecca West, who visited Montenegro in the thirties of the twentieth century, and says that the architecture of Cetinje depicts "the austere ways of the Montenegrins, who distinguished themselves mainly in the field of battle and never had much 1013 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo interest in the finer things of life ". Despite the fact that there is no longer a regular military service in Montenegro, Rigney is still fascinated by this very romantic mystification of Montenegrins in the spirit of a much older tradition of travel narratives and continues to exploit "the myth of Balkan rebellion and heroism" (ĥoloviĤ 2008). This confirms Maria Todorova's conclusion that the Balkans in the west are still seen as "The Volksmuseum of Europe." Climbing up to the mausoleum on LovĤen Rigney notices only desert and ruins which leads him to the following reasoning: ―I thought about the heroes who had once populated these valleys. In the words of Burns, it was once, perhaps a hundred years ago, "the birthplace of valor, the country of worth." The race has since all but died out. Left home. Moved abroad. The last representatives, big, quiet men, are to be seen sadly smiling behind the counter of some local restaurant. But up in the mountains, I thought about their ancestors, the race of mountain men who once nimbly trod these stones, armed to the teeth with guns and knives, accustomed to sleeping bareheaded in the rain at night in the mountains, ready to fight the Turks at a moment's notice. The whole landscape was full of the memories of these people; their ghosts lived in the stones.‖ In his article "Balkanistic discourse and its critics" Ivan Colovic points to the constitutive ambiguity of exotic discourse because "people and things that it ‘describes‘ do not have two kinds of characteristics, the bad and good ones, but those are mostly the same characteristics, differently interpreted. For example, in some circumstances use of force can be praised as a noble courage and grit, and in some other occasions this can be interpreted as barbarity and bullying." Also, according to Rigney, working in tourist sector, in other countries considered as one of the most important factors of development, in Montenegro is an indicator of degradation of social values. In his opinion, in the process of transformation into civil society Montenegro has lost much of its exoticism and authenticity. Therefore, disappointed in his expectations to see Montenegrins armed to the teeth, Rigney considers the warriors and heroes as guardians of real values, while he describes modern Montenegrin society as decadent and nationalistic. It is significant that Rigney wishes to present himself as an adventurous traveler, who, deprived of all conveniences of modern society, has to make his way through the rugged regions, and is even forced to deal with dangerous situations such as possible traffic accident, assault by wild animals or armed drunken Montenegrins, exposure to extreme weather conditions and so on. It is interesting, for example, that in the description of Montenegrin towns he does not mention their architecture which is a very r ich amalgam of various architectural styles, wherein the influences of various epochs find due expression. He also avoids to mention any hotel or resort, so the reader might wonder whether these facilities exist in Montenegro. He even chooses to stay in the old fort that was transformed into a bunker during the Second World War and to sleep in a tent, so the next day, "oppressed by the intolerable heat and deadly thirsty" he hardly manages to find a fishing village to quench hunger and thirst. Our traveler had no luck on this trip because he finds only closed shops, despite the fact that, due to the tourist orientation of the town, a large number of stores are open on Sundays in Budva. Also, after visiting the mausoleum on LovĤen, Rigney, exhausted from climbing the mountain, concludes that there is no question of returning, and is therefore forced to sleep on the mountain, without even taking into consideration the possibility to use some of very cheap taxi services. We conclude that the narrativization allows Rigney to create the image of Montenegro as an exotic area in which extraordinary experiences are expected. The climate is also one of the factors that contribute to exoticism of this small Balkan country. Rigney notices it immediately upon his arrival to Podgorica due to sudden changes in temperature and tropical heat. The experience of extreme climatic conditions is intensified by the description of a night spent in a tent on LovĤen: "That night, there was a thunderstorm that put the fear of God in me. I had never in my life heard such thunder. The heavens sounded like they were cracking open, and the ground shook under me. " In the atmosphere of intimidating nocturne the imagination of our traveler is captivated by the image of Njegos," who used to climb this mountain during thunderstorms to commune with the elements." This idea of geo-mystical symbiosis of man and nature, often present in romantic travel literature of the XIX century, is the only information about the famous Montenegrin poet and philosopher, died at an early age of 38 of a lung disease, that Rigney has chosen to share with his readers. Rigney concludes his article by quoting one Montenegrin who expressed his perception of the region claiming: "All we have is stones.", which effectively completes the picture of the country and the people that the American journalist wanted to present. Maybe it is a coincidence that the article was published in the Washington Post in December 2010, at the time when the EU members had to decide whether to grant Montenegro with 1014 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the status of a Candidate Country, but one should not lose sight of this fact in the analysis of Rigney's observations, especially after reading some of his articles about the Balkans published in online journals. Our search for other motives that have led Rigney to Montenegro and encouraged him to convey his findings to this reportage is inspired by his failure to accomplish his own goals. Thus, although he claims to have come to Montenegro to see the mountains and the sea, Rigney did not visit the north of the country nor mountain resorts which attract many tourists, and despite the assertion that he does not like crowds and tourists, he chooses to visit Montenegro during summer, in the months when this country has more tourists than residents, which prevents him from exploring the old town of Budva or other attractive tourist destinations. Conclusions and Recommendations The analysis of Rigney's description of his journey through Montenegro indicates the interpretative strategies and literary mystification of perception that are used to confirm a priori ideas about this Balkan country or to transform the desired perception into reality. Namely, it is noticeable that his experience of Montenegro is influenced by the "horizon of expectation" that he had prior to the arrival. His perception is based on images of travel writers who visited Montenegro in past decades, who also wrote their travelogues relaying on pre-existing cultural reference points, as well as on articles on the Balkans during the war. Nor did the author neglect the expectations of his readers or the audience for which the article was intended. Years of war and crisis have influenced the perception of the Balkans in Western countries. This rich depositary of images is dominated by ideological biases with negative connotations. The persistence of negative stereotypes in the collective imaginaries has also been influenced by film industry often linking the Balkans with nationalism, crime, violence, savagery and tyranny. Such fictitious images do not take into account decades of peaceful coexistence between people of different nationality and religion, but only years saturated with conflict, producing new images in order to reaffirm already adopted and ossified conventions of representation. Referrences : Berber, N. (2010). Unveiling Bosnia-Herzegovina in British Travel Literature (1844-1912), Pisa: PlusPisa university press. Bracewell, W. (2008). The Limits of Europe in East European Travel Writing, in: Under Eastern Eyes: A Comparative Introduction to Eas European Travel Writing on Europe, edited by Wendy Bracewell and Alex Drace – Francis, Budapest – New Yourk: Central European University Press. Bracewell, W. (2008). Travels through the Slav World, in: Under Eastern Eyes: A Comparative Introduction to Eas European Travel Writing on Europe, edited by Wendy Bracewell and Alex Drace – Francis, Budapest – New Yourk: Central European University Press. ĥoloviĤ, I. (2010). BalkanistiĦki diskurs i njegovi kritiĦari, Republika, glasilo graħanskog samooslobaħanja, no. 490 – 491, http://www.republika.co.rs/490-491/21.html ĥoloviĤ, I. (2008). Zašto se dičimo Balkanom, u: Ivan ĥoloviĤ, Balkan – teror kulture, Biblioteka XX vek. Goldsworthy, V. (2006). The Balkans in the Nineteenth-Century British Travel Writing, in: Travel Writing in the Nineteenth-Century: Filling the Blank Spaces, edited by Tim Youngs, London: Anthem Press. Hayden – BakiĤ, M., Hayden, R. (1992). Orientalist Variations on the Theme Balkans: Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics, Slavic Review, vol. 51, no. 1. Jezernik, B. (2008). Divlja Evropa, prevela s engleskog S. GlińiĤ, Biblioteka XX vek. 1015 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pratt, M. L. (1992). Imperial Eyes. Travel Writing and Transculturation, London and New York: Routledge. RaspudiĤ, N. (2010). Jadranski (polu)orijentalizam: Prikazi Hrvata u talijanskoj knjiņevnosti, Zagreb: Naklada JurĦiĤ d.o.o. Rigney, R. Belgrade not always likes the Electronic Trubaci, Norient: indipendent network for local and global soundscapes, http://norient.com/stories/shazalakazoo/ Rigney,R.(2010). Neukôlln‘s unwanted Gypsies, Exberliner: Berlin in English since 2002, http://www.exberliner.com/articles/neukllns-unwanted-gypsies/index.html Rigney, R. (2008). GuĦa, European Balkan Project: a cultural phenomenon, http://ebp.arthurengelbert.de/?p=41 Said, E. (2008). Orijentalizam, prevela s engleskog Drinka GojkoviĤ, Beograd: Biblioteka XX vek. Todorova, M. (2006). Imaginarni Balkan, (2. izdanje), prevele s engleskog A. B. VuĦen i D. StarĦeviĤ, Biblioteka XX vek. Todorova, M. (1997). Imagining the Balkans, New Yourk: Oxford University Press. Todorova, M.(2010) Balkanizam kao retorika drugosti, PeńĦanik, prevela sa engleskog Slobodanka GlińiĤ, http://www.pescanik.net/content/view/5623/1213/ Sarup, M. (1993). An introductory guide to post-structuralism and post-modernism, (second edition), London: Harvestar Wheatsheaf. 1016 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 571 Title A name given to the resource One Example of Balkanistic Discourse on Montenegro Author Author Popović, Olivera Brajičić, Cvijeta Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to analyze the presence of balkanistic discourse in the article "Montenegro, land of stout hearts and stones", published in the Washington Post on December 3, 2010, and to indicate the factors involved in its generation and reproduction. We will pursue the specifics of the author's perception of the Montenegrin geographical and civilizational space and examine his writings in their relation to prior paradigms of travel narrative regarding Montenegro and other Balkan countries. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2a2f01de7dc8b0e1ef82f4163fc38344.pdf f0582692656eee6ad3f3b13e690b3ae8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On Extinct Suffixes: -arium GEORGETA RAŢĂ BUASVM, TimiĢoara, România georgeta_rata@yahoo.com Abstract: There are two English nominal suffixes sharing the same meaning ―a place or device containing or associated with [something]‖: -arium and -ary (for the latter, the English language dictionaries mention only the meaning ―one that relates to or is connected with [something]‖). These two suffixes have produced, directly or indirectly, a considerable number of derivatives designating more or less ‗a place‘ (35), ‗a device‘ (33), or other realities (15). Diachronically, the suffix -arium produced most indirect derivatives in the 13 th c. and almost stopped producing any in the 20th c., the suffix -ary reached a peak in the 16th c. and stopped producing any in the 20th c., while Latin nouns in -arium were borrowed in considerable amounts in the 19th c. and almost stopped being borrowed in the 20 th c. The suffix -arium can, therefore, be considered extinct from the point of view of its productivity. For students in nature-related fields almost all the nouns in -arium and -ary are indicative of places and devices of interest for these fields. Keywords: Nominal suffix, derivation, derivative INTRODUCTION The suffix -arium (< L neuter of -ārius ‗-ary‘) is a noun suffix indicating ―a place or device containing or associated with‖ [AHDEL]. The suffix -ary is both a nominal suffix meaning ‗one that relates to or is connected with‘ and an adjectival suffix meaning ‗of or relating to‘ [Middle English -arie, from Old French, from Latin -ārius, adj. and n. suff.] [AHDEL] According to etymological dictionaries, the suffix -ary (in most cases < L -ārius, -ārium ‗connected with, pertaining to, the man engaged in‘) appears in words borrowed from Latin in Middle English. In later borrowings from Latin to French, it became -aire and passed into ME as -arie, subsequently -ary [OED]. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The corpus of derivatives in both -arium and -ary was made up using English language dictionaries and literature, as shown in References. Then, the derivatives were grouped as nouns in -arium and nouns in -ary derived directly and indirectly from Latin words in -arium and in each of the two groups we identified the nouns designating places, devices, and other cases. We have also compared chronologically the production of derivatives in -arium and -ary and analysed the productivity of the nouns in -arium and -ary to show how well these derivatives have turned Romanian nouns. 3. RESULTS 3.1. NOUNS IN -ARIUM There are 17 nouns in -arium in our inventory designating either a place or a device containing or associated with something: - place (14): aquarium ‗a place for the public exhibition of live aquatic animals and plants‘ [L aquārium ‗source of water‘ < neuter of aquārius ‗of water‘ < aqua ‗water‘] (1840-1850), cinerarium ‗a place for keeping the ashes of a cremated body‘ [L cinerārium < neuter of cinerārius ‗of ashes‘ < cinis, ciner- ‗ashes‘] (1875-1880), columbarium ‗a vault with niches for urns containing ashes of the dead, one of the niches in such a vault; a dovecote, a pigeonhole in a dovecote‘ [L columbārium ‗sepulchre for urns, dovecote‘ < columba ‗dove‘] (1840-1850), fumatorium ‗an airtight fumigation chamber in which chemical vapors are used to destroy insects and fungi on plants‘ [NL < L fūmāre ‗to smoke‘ < fūmus ‗smoke‘], herbarium ‗a place or an institution where a collection of dried plants mounted, labeled, and systematically arranged for use in scientific study is kept‘ [LL herbārium < L herbārius ‗one skilled in herbs‘ < 496 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo L herba ‗herb, vegetation‘] (1770-1780), leprosarium ‗a hospital for the treatment of leprosy‘ [ML leprosārium < LL leprosus ‗leprous‘] (1840-1850), oceanarium ‗a large aquarium for the study or display of marine life‘ [OCEAN + -ARIUM, modeled on aquarium] (1935-1940), planetarium ‗a building or room containing a planetarium, with seats for an audience‘ [NL < neuter of L planētārius] (1765-1775), sacrarium ‗the sanctuary or sacristy of a church; piscina‘ [ML sacrārium < L shrine < sacer, sacr- ‗sacred‘] (1700-1710), sanitarium ‗a resort for improvement or maintenance of health, especially for convalescents‘ [NL < L sānitās ‗health‘] (18501855), solarium ‗a room, gallery, or glassed-in porch exposed to the sun‘ [L solārium ‗terrace, flat housetop‘ < sol ‗sun‘] (1815-1825), termitarium ‗a nest built by a colony of termites; termitary‘ [NL termit (ēs), pl. Of termes TERMITE + -ARIUM] (1860-1865), terrarium ‗a small enclosure or closed container in which selected living plants and sometimes small land animals, such as turtles and lizards, are kept and observed‘ [NL < L terra ‗earth‘; TERRENE + -ARIUM] (1885-1890), and vivarium ‗a place, especially an indoor enclosure, for keeping and raising living animals and plants under natural conditions for observation or research‘ [L vīvārium < neuter of vīvārius ‗of living creatures‘ < vīvus ‗alive‘] (1590-1600). - device (4): aquarium ‗a tank, bowl, or other water-filled enclosure in which living fish or other aquatic animals and plants are kept‘ [L aquārium ‗source of water‘ < neuter of aquārius ‗of water‘ < aqua ‗water‘] (1840-1850), planetarium ‗an apparatus or a model representing the solar system; an optical device for projecting images of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena onto the inner surface of a hemispherical dome‘ [NL < neuter of L planētārius] (1765-1775), solarium ‗a room, gallery, or glassed-in porch exposed to the sun‘ [L solārium ‗terrace, flat housetop‘ < sol ‗sun‘] (1815-1825), and termitarium ‗a nest built by a colony of termites; termitary‘ [NL termit (ēs), pl. Of termes TERMITE + -ARIUM] (1860-1865). - other meanings (3): honorarium ‗a payment given to a professional person for services for which fees are not legally or traditionally required‘ [L honorārium < neuter of honorārius ‗honorary‘ < honor, honor‗honor‘] (1650-1660), polyzoarium ‗a bryozoan colony or its supporting skeletal structure‘ [NL Polyzoa phylum name; POLYZOAN + -ARIUM] (1875-1880), and septarium ‗an irregular polygonal system of calcite-filled cracks occurring in certain rock concretions‘ [L saeptum ‗partition‘; SEPTUM + -ARIUM] (1775-1785). 3.2. NOUNS IN -ARY The 30 nouns in -ary in our corpus also designate a place or a device containing or associated with something: - place (12): apiary ‗a place where bees and beehives are kept, especially a place where bees are raised for their honey‘ [L apiārium ‗beehive‘ < apis ‗bee‘] (1645-1655), aviary ‗a large enclosure for holding birds in confinement‘ [L aviārium < avis ‗bird‘] (1570-1580), columbary ‗a vault with niches for urns containing ashes of the dead, one of the niches in such a vault; a dovecote, a pigeonhole in a dovecote‘ [L columbārium ‗sepulchre for urns, dovecote‘ < Columba ‗dove‘] (1540-1550), estuary ‗the part of the wide lower course of a river where its current is met by the tides; an arm of the sea that extends inland to meet the mouth of a river‘ [L aestuārium < aestus ‗tide, surge, heat‘] (1530-1540), formicary ‗a nest of ants, an anthill‘ [ML formīcārium < L formīca ‗ant‘] (1810-1820), granary ‗a building for storing threshed grain; a region yielding much grain‘ [L grānārium < grānum ‗grain‘] (1560-1570), itinerary ‗a route or proposed route of a journey‘ [ME itinerarie < LL itinerārium ‗account of a journey‘ < neuter of itinerārius ‗of traveling‘ < L iter, itiner- ‗journey‘] (14251475), library ‗a place in which literary and artistic materials, such as books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records, and tapes, are kept for reading, reference, or lending, a room in a private home for a collection of literary and artistic materials, such as books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records, and tapes, are kept for reading, reference, or lending, an institution or a foundation maintaining such a collection; a commercial establishment that lends books for a fee;‘ [ME librarie < AN < L librārium ‗bookcase‘ < neuter of librārius ‗of books‘ < liber, libr ‗book‘] (1300-1350), piscary ‗a fishery‘ [ML piscārium < L piscis ‗fish‘ + L ārium ‗-arium‘] (1425-1475), sanctuary ‗a sacred place, such as a church, temple, or mosque; the holiest part of a sacred place, as the part of a Christian church around the altar; a sacred place, such as a church, in which fugitives formerly were immune to arrest; a place of refuge or asylum; a reserved area in which birds and other animals, especially wild animals, are protected from hunting or molestation‘ [ME < OF sainctuarie < LL sānctuārium < L sānctus ‗sacred‘] (1300-1350), seminary ‗a school, especially a theological school for the training of priests, ministers, or rabbis, a school of higher education, especially a private school for girls; a place or environment in which something is developed or nurtured‘ [ME seed plot < L sēminārium < sēminārius ‗of seed‘ < sēmen, sēmin ‗seed‘] (1400-1450), and vestiary ‗a dressing room, cloakroom, or vestry‘ [L vestiārius < vestis ‗garment‘; ME vestiarie < OF < ML vestiārium < L wardrobe < neuter of vestiārius ‗of clothes‘] (16151625). 497 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - device (19): bestiary ‗a medieval collection of stories providing physical and allegorical descriptions of real or imaginary animals along with an interpretation of the moral significance each animal was thought to embody; a modern version of such a collection‘ [ML bēstiārium < L bēstia ‗beast‘] (1615-1625), breviary ‗Ecclesiastical.a book containing the hymns, offices, and prayers for the canonical hours‘ [ME breviarie < OF breviaire < ML breviārium < L ‗summary‘ < brevis ‗short‘] (1540-1550), c(h)artulary ‗a collection of deeds or charters, especially a register of titles to all the property of an estate or a monastery‘ [ME cartularie ‗collection of documents‘ < ML cartulārium < L cartula, chartula ‗document‘] (1565-1575), corollary ‗a proposition that follows with little or no proof required from one already proven; a deduction or an inference; a natural consequence or effect, a result‘ [ME corolarie < L corollārium ‗money paid for a garland, gratuity‘ < corolla ‗small garland‘] (1325-1375), diary ‗a daily record, especially a personal record of events, experiences, and observations, a journal; a book for use in keeping a personal record, as of experiences‘ [L diārium ‗daily allowance, daily journal‘ < diēs ‗day‘] (1575-1585), dictionary ‗a reference book containing an alphabetical list of words, with information given for each word, usually including meaning, pronunciation, and etymology; a book listing the words of a language with translations into another language; a book listing words or other linguistic items in a particular category or subject with specialized information about them; Computer Science a list of words stored in machine-readable form for reference as by spelling-checking software; an electronic spelling checker‘ [ML dictionārium < L dictio, diction- ‗diction‘] (1520-1530), glossary ‗a list of difficult or specialized words with their definitions, often placed at the back of a book‘ [ME glosarie < L glossārium < glossa ‗foreign word‘] (1350-1400), itinerary ‗an account or a record of a journey; a guidebook for travelers‘ [ME itinerarie < LL itinerārium ‗account of a journey‘ < neuter of itinerārius ‗of traveling‘ < L iter, itiner‗journey‘] (1425-1475), lectionary ‗a book or list of lections to be read at church services during the year‘ [ML lēctionārium < L lēctio, lēction- ‗a reading‘] (1770-1780), library ‗a collection of literary and artistic materials, such as books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records, and tapes, are kept for reading, reference, or lending, especially when systematically arranged; a series or set of books issued by a publisher; a collection of recorded data or tapes arranged for ease of use; Computer Science. a collection of standard programs, routines, or subroutines, often related to a specific application, that are available for general use‘ [ME librarie < AN < L librārium ‗bookcase‘ < neuter of librārius ‗of books‘ < liber, libr ‗book‘] (1300-1350), nectary ‗a glandlike organ, located outside or within a flower, that secretes nectar‘ [NL nectārium < NECTAR] (1590-1600), ossuary ‗a container or receptacle, such as an urn or a vault, for holding the bones of the dead‘ [LL ossuārium < neuter of L ossuārius ‗of bones‘ < os, oss-‗bone‘] (1650-1660), ovary ‗the usually paired female or hermaphroditic reproductive organ that produces ova and, in vertebrates, estrogen and progesterone; Botany. the ovule-bearing lower part of a pistil that ripens into a fruit‘ [NL ovārium < L ovum ‗egg‘] (1650-1660), pessary ‗any of various devices worn in the vagina to support or correct the position of the uterus or rectum; a contraceptive diaphragm; a medicated vaginal suppository‘ [ME pessarie < LL pessārium < pessus, pessum < Gk pesos ‗oval-shaped stone, pessary‘] (1350-1400), rosary ‗Roman Catholic Church. a form of devotion to the Virgin Mary, chiefly consisting of three sets of five decades each of the Hail Mary, each decade preceded by the Lord‘s Prayer and ending with a doxology; one of these sets of decades; a string of beads of 5 or 15 decades on which these prayers are counted; similar beads used by other religious groups‘ [ME rose garden < ML rosārium ‗rose garden, rosary‘ < L rose garden < neuter of rosārius ‗of roses‘ < rosa ‗rose‘] (1400-1450), sanctuary ‗immunity to arrest afforded by a sanctuary‘ [ME < OF sainctuarie < LL sānctuārium < L sānctus ‗sacred‘] (1300-1350), spermary ‗an organ or a gland in which male gametes are formed, especially in invertebrate animals‘ [NL spermārium < LL sperma, semen] (1860-1865), syllabary ‗a list of syllables; a list or set of written characters for a language, each character representing a syllable‘ [NL syllabārium < L syllaba ‗syllable‘] (1580-1590), and vocabulary ‗all the words of a language; the sum of words used by, understood by, or at the command of a particular person or group; a list of words and often phrases, usually arranged alphabetically and defined or translated, a lexicon or glossary; a supply of expressive means, a repertoire of communication‘ [F vocabulaire < OF < ML vocābulārium < neuter of vocābulārius ‗of words‘ < L vocābulum ‗name‘] (1525-1535). - other meanings (2): electuary ‗a drug mixed with sugar and water or honey into a pasty mass suitable for oral administration‘ [ME electuarie < LL ēlēctuārium probably alteration of Gk ekleikton < ekleikhein ‗to lick up‘] (1350-1400) and salary ‗fixed compensation for services, paid to a person on a regular basis‘ [ME salarie < AN < L salārium ‗money given to Roman soldiers to buy salt‘ < neuter of salārius ‗pertaining to salt‘ < sāl ‗salt‘] (1350-1400). 3.3. OTHER CASES The 28 nouns ending in other suffixes but -arium or -ary but that originate in the L -arium also designate ‗a place‘ or ‗a device containing or associated with something‘: - place (9): ambry ‗Chiefly British. a pantry; a niche near the altar of a church for keeping sacred vessels and vestments‘ [ME almerie ‗place for safekeeping‘ < OF almarie < ML almārium < L armārium ‗closet‘ < arma ‗tools‘] (1200-1250), armoire ‗a large, often ornate cabinet or wardrobe‘ [F armoire < OF 498 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo armoire < L armārium ‗chest‘ < arma ‗tools‘] (1565-1575), cellar ‗a room or enclosed space used for storage, usually beneath the ground or under a building; a basement; an underground shelter, as from storms; a wine cellar‘ [ME celer < OF < LL cellārium ‗pantry‘ < L cella ‗storeroom‘] (1175-1225), foyer ‗a lobby or an anteroom, as of a theater or hotel; an entrance hall, a vestibule‘ [F social center < OF foier ‗fireplace‘ < VL *focārium < LL neuter of focārius ‗of the hearth‘ (unattested sense) < L focus ‗fire‘] (1855-1860), fumarole ‗a hole in a volcanic area from which hot smoke and gases escape‘ [It fumarola < LL fūmāriolum ‗smoke hole‘ diminutive of L fūmārium ‗smoke chamber‘ < fūmus ‗smoke‘] (1805-1815), fumatory ‗an airtight fumigation chamber in which chemical vapors are used to destroy insects and fungi on plants. [< L fūmāre ‗to smoke‘ < fūmus ‗smoke‘], garner ‗a granary‘ [ME < garner, garner ‗granary‘ < OF gernier, grenier < L grānārium] (1125-1275), larder ‗a place, such as a pantry or cellar, where food is stored; a supply of food‘ [ME < AN < ML lārdārium < L lārdum ‗bacon‘] (1275-1325), and rathskeller ‗a restaurant or tavern, usually below street level, that features the serving of beer‘ [ObsG restaurant in the city hall basement: German Rat ‗council, counsel‘ (< MHG rāt < OHG + G Keller ‗cellar‘ < MHG < OHG kellāri < L cellārium)] (1860-1865). - device (10): beaker ‗a wide cylindrical glass vessel with a pouring lip, used as a laboratory container and mixing jar; a large drinking cup with a wide mouth‘ [MD bīker ‗drinking vessel‘ and ME bekir < ML bicārius, bicārium probably < Gk bikos ‗jug‘ possibly of Egyptian origin] (1300-1350), calendar ‗any of various systems of reckoning time in which the beginning, length, and divisions of a year are defined; a table showing the months, weeks, and days in at least one specific year; a schedule of events; an ordered list of matters to be considered: a calendar of court cases; the bills on a legislative calendar; Chiefly British. a catalogue of a university‘ [ME calendar < OF calendier < LL kalendārium < L account book < kalendae ‗calends‘ (from the fact that monthly interest was due on the calends)] (1175-1225), chandelier ‗a branched, decorative lighting fixture that holds a number of bulbs or candles and is suspended from a ceiling‘ [ME chandeler < OF chandelier < VL *candēlārium alteration of L candēlābrum ‗candelabrum‘] (1655-1665), inventory ‗a detailed, itemized list, report, or record of things in one‘s possession, especially a periodic survey of all goods and materials in stock; the process of making such a list, report, or record; the items listed in such a report or record, the quantity of goods and materials on hand, stock; an evaluation or a survey, as of abilities, assets, or resources‘ [ME inventorie < ML inventorium alteration of LL inventārium < L inventus past participle of invenīre ‗to find‘] (1375-1425), mortar ‗a vessel in which substances are crushed or ground with a pestle; a machine in which materials are ground and blended or crushed; a portable, muzzleloading cannon used to fire shells at low velocities, short ranges, and high trajectories; any of several similar devices, such as one that shoots life lines across a stretch of water; any of various bonding materials used in masonry, surfacing, and plastering, especially a plastic mixture of cement or lime, sand, and water that hardens in place and is used to bind together bricks or stones‘ [ME mortar < OE mortere < OF mortier < L mortārium] (before 1000), pannier ‗a large wicker basket; a basket or pack, usually one of a pair, that fastens to the rack of a bicycle and hangs over the side of one of the wheels; a framework of wire, bone, or other material formerly used to expand a woman‘s skirt at the hips; a skirt or an overskirt puffed out at the hips‘ [ME panier < OF < L pānārium ‗breadbasket‘ < pānis ‗bread‘] (12501300), pitcher ‗a container for liquids, usually having a handle and a lip or spout for pouring; Botany. a pitcherlike part, such as the leaf of a pitcher plant‘ [ME picher < OF pichier alteration of bichier < ML bicārium ‗drinking cup‘ probably < Gk bikos ‗jar‘ possibly < Egyptian biķ ‗oil vessel‘] (1250-1300), primer ‗an elementary textbook for teaching children to read; a book that covers the basic elements of a subject‘ [ME < NF < ML prīmārium < neuter of prīmārius ‗first‘ < L < prīmus] (1350-1400), sampler ‗one who is employed to take and appraise samples, as of a food product; a mechanical device that is used to obtain and analyze samples; a decorative piece of cloth embroidered with various designs or mottoes in a variety of stitches, serving as an example of skill at needlework; a representative collection or selection; a variety, an assortment‘ [Partly ME model < AN *essamplur and partly short for ME ensampler < AN ensamplour < LL exemplārium ‗model, copy‘ < L copy] (1250-1300), and tiller ‗Nautical. a lever used to turn a rudder and steer a boat‘ [ME tiler ‗stock of a crossbow‘ < OF telier < ML tēlārium ‗weaver‘s beam‘ < L tēla] (1375-1425) - other cases (10): abecedarian ‗one who teaches or studies the alphabet; one who is just learning; a beginner‘ [ME < ML abecedārium ‗alphabet‘ < LL abecedārius ‗alphabetical‘ < A B C D + -ārius ‗-ary‘] (15951605), calamari ‗squid prepared as food‘ [It pl. of calamaro < LL calamārium ‗pen-case‘ < L calamārius relating to a reed pen < calamus ‗reed pen‘ (perhaps < the ―ink‖ the squid secretes)] (1560s), cellar ‗Slang. the lowest level, especially in the standing of an athletic team‘ [ME celer < OF < LL cellārium ‗pantry‘ < L cella ‗storeroom‘] (1175-1225), danger ‗exposure or vulnerability to harm or risk; a source or an instance of risk or peril; Obsolete. power, especially power to harm‘ [ME daunger ‗power, dominion, peril‘ < OF dangier < VL *dominiārium ‗authority, power‘ < L dominium ‗sovereignty‘ < dominus ‗lord, master‘] (1175-1225), dower ‗the part or interest of a deceased man‘s real estate allotted by law to his widow for her lifetime; money or property brought by a bride to her husband at marriage; a natural endowment or gift; a dowry‘ [ME douere < OF douaire < ML dotārium < L dos, dot- ‗dowry‘] (1250-1300), dowry ‗money or property brought by a bride to her husband at marriage; a sum of money required of a postulant at a convent; a natural endowment or gift, a talent; Archaic. the part or interest of a deceased man‘s real estate allotted by law to his widow for her lifetime‘ [ME 499 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo douerie < AN douarie < ML dotārium, doārium, doāria ‗dower‘] (1250-1300), exemplar ‗one that is worthy of imitation; a model; one that is typical or representative, an example; an ideal that serves as a pattern, an archetype; a copy, as of a book‘ [ME exemplere < LL exemplārium < L exemplum ‗example‘] (1350-1400), lekvar ‗a sweet spread or pastry filling made of prunes or apricots‘ [Hung lekvár ‗jam‘ < Slovak < Czech lektvar ‗electuary‘ < MHG lactuārje, latuērge < OF leituaire < LL ēlēctuārium ‗electuary‘] (1955-1960), quintal ‗a unit of mass in the metric system equal to 100 kilograms‘ [ME a unit of weight < OF < ML quintāle < Arabic qinţār < LGk kentēnarion < LL centēnārium (pondus) ‗hundred(weight)‘ < L centēnārius ‗of a hundred‘] (1425-1275), and seminar ‗a small group of advanced students in a college or graduate school engaged in original research or intensive study under the guidance of a professor who meets regularly with them to discuss their reports and findings; a course of study so pursued; a scheduled meeting of such a group; a meeting for an exchange of ideas, a conference‘ [G < L sēminārium ‗seed plot‘] (1885-1890). 4. DISCUSSION From a chronological point of view, the nouns in our inventory share the periods underlined in Figure 1. 12 10 8 -arium 6 -ary other 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Figure 1. Chronological distribution of nouns in -arium, -ary or other endings inherited or borrowed from Latin or other languages: 1: before 1000; 2: 1000-1099; 3: 1100-1199; 4: 1200-1299; 5: 1300-1399; 6: 1400-1499; 7 :1500-1599; 8: 1600-1699; 9: 1700-1799; 10: 1800-1899; 11: 1900-1999. Nouns in -arium have preserved their Latin plural and the most frequently used have also developed English plurals in -s (Table 1): Table 1. Plural forms of nouns in -arium Noun in -arium aquarium cinerarium columbarium fumatorium herbarium honorarium Plural form Latin plural Aquaria Cineraria columbaria Fumatoria Herbaria Honoraria English plural aquariums fumatoriums herbariums honorariums 500 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo leprosarium oceanarium planetarium polyzoarium sacrarium sanitarium septarium solarium termitarium terrarium vivarium Leprosaria Oceanaria Planetaria Polyzoaria Sacraria Sanitaria Septaria Solaria Termitaria Terraria Vivaria leprosariums oceanariums planetariums sanitariums solariums terrariums vivariums In their turn, English nouns originating in Latin nouns in -arium but that do not preserve any resemblance with the latter, have produced derivatives – mainly adjectival and verbal ones (Table 2). Table 2. Derivatives of English nouns originating in Latin nouns in -arium Noun abecedarian calendar cellar corollary dower estuary glossary inventory itinerary mortar nectary pannier septarium vestiary Noun Glossarist - Adjective abecedarian corollary estuarial glossarial itinerary nectarial panniered septarian vestiary Verb calendar cellar dower inventory mortar - 5. CONCLUSIONS … REFERENCES Online Etymology Dictionary. Online: http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=e. (OED) Soukhanov, A. H. (2008). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. (AHDEL) 501 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 75 Title A name given to the resource On Extinct Suffixes: -arium Author Author RATA, GEORGETA Abstract A summary of the resource. There are two English nominal suffixes sharing the same meaning ―a place or device containing or associated with [something]‖: -arium and -ary (for the latter, the English language dictionaries mention only the meaning ―one that relates to or is connected with [something]‖). These two suffixes have produced, directly or indirectly, a considerable number of derivatives designating more or less ‗a place‘ (35), ‗a device‘ (33), or other realities (15). Diachronically, the suffix -arium produced most indirect derivatives in the 13th c. and almost stopped producing any in the 20th c., the suffix -ary reached a peak in the 16th c. and stopped producing any in the 20th c., while Latin nouns in -arium were borrowed in considerable amounts in the 19th c. and almost stopped being borrowed in the 20th c. The suffix -arium can, therefore, be considered extinct from the point of view of its productivity. For students in nature-related fields almost all the nouns in -arium and -ary are indicative of places and devices of interest for these fields. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/04b4873dcc939db047ea81b1f0a79839.pdf b99c3088b9619e4a1b355ca80ea17e2b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of auxiliary selection in L2 Italian Dragana RadojeviĤ Department of Italian Faculty of Philology University of Belgrade, Serbia drradojevic@hotmail.com Abstract: Auxiliary selection (AS) with those Italian intransitive verbs (IVs) that can use both essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘, but with a change in meaning (e.g. È/Ha corso al parco ‗He ran to/at the park‘), represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. In this paper we argue that this is so largely because this phenomenon has not been treated adequately in relevant grammars, dictionaries and textbooks. In order to prove our argument we present a case study of AS with the IV correre ‗to run‘ involving university students of L2 Italian who are native speakers of Serbian. The results indicate that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and it is suggested that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of AS by learners of L2 Italian. Key Words: auxiliary selection, L2 Italian, contrastive analysis 1. Introduction There are two auxiliary verbs (AVs) used in analytic forms of Italian verbs: essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘. Italian grammars traditionally explain auxiliary selection (AS) in the Active Voice by the verbs‘ (in)transitivity. Namely, all transitive verbs take avere, whereas most intransitive verbs (IVs) take essere. However, many IVs take avere (e.g. esitare ‗to hesitate‘, tossire ‗to cough‘, divorziare ‗to divorce‘), including some verbs of motion (e.g. camminare ‗to walk‘, nuotare ‗to swim‘, gattonare ‗to crawl‘). Additionally, some IVs can take both AVs, but in some cases the AS does not cause any change in meaning (e.g. piovere ‗to rain‘, nevicare ‗to snow‘), whereas the meaning of others (e.g. correre ‗to run‘, volare ‗to fly‘, saltare ‗to jump‘) is determined by the selection of one or another AV (e.g. È corso al parco ‗He ran to the park‘, but Ha corso al parco ‗He ran at the park‘). As far as the last group of IVs is concerned, in order to explain the differences in meaning caused by the use of one or another AV, most grammars traditionally just give a small number of unclear examples for both AVs, with the additional comment that more detailed explanations should be sought in monolingual dictionaries. However, monolingual dictionaries provide insufficient examples that cannot account for all the different meanings, and bilingual dictionaries completely neglect the problem of AS with these verbs. Similarly, most L2 Italian textbooks do not take this issue into consideration leading to a low level of learner awareness of the problem. Therefore, since AS with those Italian IVs that can take both AVs has not been treated adequately in grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks, this phenomenon represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. The aim of this paper is to present a case study proving that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with the described Italian IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and consequently to suggest that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of this phenomenon by learners of L2 Italian. 2. Auxiliary selection in grammars, dictionaries and textbooks In RadojeviĤ (to appear) we analysed the most important grammars, dictionaries and textbooks of Italian as L2, usually used by learners in Serbia, in order to investigate to what extent and in what way AS of the IV correre ‗to run‘, as a representative of its group, is described in them. In this chapter we will give a brief overview of our findings and conclusions. 2.1. Auxiliary selection in Italian grammars Italian grammars differ from each other in that most of them completely neglect the problem of AS, while among those that deal with this phenomenon some of them traditionally do it very superficially and without success, whereas others give more precise and thorough explanations. 377 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo An important step for the explanation of this problem was made by Jernej (1965: 200; 1999: 94), who explicitly put the IV correre among those verbs that can take both complements expressing motion towards or from a place, and those expressing motion at or inside a place. However, he failed to emphasise the way in which that distinction affects the AS, i.e. that correre takes essere to express motion towards or from a place, and avere in order to express motion at or inside a place. The most systematic and thorough approach was applied by Salvi & Vanelli (2004: 50, 52), who introduced Aktionsart‘s categories into their explanation of the AS. They claim that correre takes avere when it is intransitive, durative, continuous, and atelic, whereas it takes essere when it is unaccusative, non-durative, resultative, and atelic.69 In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2.2.5) we argued that their durative vs. non-durative and telic vs. atelic distinctions could be very useful for the contrastive approach to the teaching of L2 Italian to native speakers of Serbian because of the fact that the same distinctions exist in Serbian. Namely, on the basis of their distinctions we claimed that the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is only the verb trčati ‗to run‘, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati (e.g. utrčati ‗to run into‘, istrčati ‗to run out‘ etc.), but not trčati itself. Although Salvi & Vanelli made a considerable contribution to the explanation of AS with correre, they still failed to place sufficient emphasis on the importance of the type of motion and the complement of place that influence the phenomenon of AS, which would have made their contribution more complete. However, the most precise explanation of the AS with correre was provided by Maiden & Robustelli (2004: 266-267), who were the first to explicitly introduce the concept of change of location, as that expressed by the AV essere with correre, into the explanation of AS. In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2.2.8) we suggested a completion of their explanation by introducing the concept of motion at a location as that expressed by the AV avere with correre. Although they are not expressed by AVs as they are in Italian, both concepts still exist in Serbian, where they are marked by the distinction between the bare verb and its prefixed derivatives, as described in the previous paragraph, as well as by different cases in prepositional phrases (PPs) even with the same preposition. Namely, many Italian PPs expressing space can have two Serbian equivalents, e.g. al parco can mean both u park ‗to the park‘ (accusative – change of location) and u parku ‗at the park‘ (locative – motion at a location), depending only on the AV used with correre.70 Therefore, the conclusion is that the introduction of the concept of motion at a location, as well as the aforementioned contrastive remarks, finally shed some light on the explanation of AS with those Italian verbs that can take both AVs, but with a change in meaning, thus making it complete and clear. 2.2. Auxiliary selection in Italian dictionaries An analysis of the following monolingual Italian dictionaries: Zingarelli (2010), Garzanti italiano (2009), Devoto–Oli (2007), Sabatini–Coletti (2005), and De Mauro (2000) showed that all of them provide every meaning of correre with the respective AV, but they do not pay enough attention to adequate complements of place nor do they insist sufficiently on the distinction between the different types of motion (change of location and motion at a location) affecting the AS. Therefore, their explanations and examples are neither complete nor clear-cut for learners of Italian as L2. Bilingual Italian-Serbian (Klajn, 1996) and Italian-Croatian or Serbian (DeanoviĤ–Jernej, 1984) dictionaries completely neglect the problem of AS. Although we are aware of the lack of space in dictionaries, in RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 3.2) we suggested that they should take into account this problem with all Italian verbs and especially with IVs that can take both AVs, but with a change in meaning, and that they should illustrate them with adequate simple examples, which would facilitate the acquisition of this phenomenon by Serbian learners of L2 Italian. 2.3. Auxiliary selection in L2 Italian textbooks Most L2 Italian textbooks treat the problem of AS in general very superficially and completely ignore the AS with IVs like correre. An analysis of: Balí & Rizzo (2002, 2003), Bidetti, Dominici & Piccolo (2009), Chiappini & De Filippo (2002, 2005), Marin (2008), Marin & Magnelli (2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2009), Mazzetti, Falcinelli & Servadio (2002, 2003), Mezzadri & Balboni (2000a, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b), Chiappini & De Filippo (2002), Ziglio & Rizzo (2001), and StojkoviĤ & Zavińin (2010), which are the most frequently used L2 Italian textbooks in Serbia from level A1 to C1, showed that the AS with the IV correre occurred only five times.71 We consider this fact to be a crucial contributory factor in the unsatisfactory awareness of the problem in learners of L2 Italian, because textbooks are the learners‘ primary source of 69 For more details see Salvi & Vanelli (2004: 50, 52). For more details about other relevant grammars see RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2). 71 For a more detailed analysis of these examples see RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 4). 70 378 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo information, whereas grammars and dictionaries are often only occasionally consulted and not always available to the majority of learners.72 3. Case study 3.1. Participants In order to prove our arguments we conducted an experiment involving eighty students from the Italian Department of the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philology, who are native speakers of Serbian. They were divided into four groups that consisted of twenty students belonging to the same undergraduate year of study. At the time the experiment was conducted the first year students had already reached the A1 level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and they were heading towards the A2 level, the second year A2 towards B1, the third year B1 towards B2, and the fourth year B2 towards C1. 3.2. Input All the groups had been exposed to the same traditional input regarding auxiliary selection in Italian, described in 1, during their education, independently of our experiment. However, in addition to the traditional input the second year group had also been given an explicit contrastive input on two separate occasions one month before the experiment. The additional input they received focused on the following three points: 1. correre uses essere to express change of location, whereas it uses avere to express motion at a location; 2. the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is trčati, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati, but not trčati itself; 3. many Italian PPs expressing space can have two Serbian equivalents, e.g. al parco can mean both u park ‗to the park‘ (accusative – change of location) and u parku ‗at the park‘ (locative – motion at a location), depending only on the AV used with correre. These explanations were illustrated by several clear-cut examples in both languages. 3.3. Hypothesis Consequently, our hypothesis was that the second year group would show significantly better knowledge of AS in L2 Italian compared to all the other groups since it was the only one that received the type of input that had taken into account not only the traditional explanation of AS in Italian, but also all the other relevant criteria important for such a phenomenon (described in 3.2), as well as the corresponding contrastive explanations and examples, which make AS more transparent to learners of L2 Italian, and, therefore, hopefully facilitate its acquisition. Among the remaining three groups we expected the fourth one to be the best, the third one the second best and the first one to be the worst because that order would correspond to their level of L2 Italian. Additionally, we expected the second year group‘s error percentage to be significantly lower compared to that of the other three groups. 3.4. Experiment For the purposes of our experiment all the students were given the same test consisting of ten sentences in Italian that they had to translate into Serbian. The tense used in all the sentences was the Passato Prossimo (the most frequently used Past Perfect Tense and the first analytic verb form taught to learners of L2 Italian) of the IV correre: five sentences had the AV essere and five avere. As described in 2.1 and 3.2, the Serbian equivalent of the Italian IV correre with the AV avere is trčati, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati. Every correctly translated sentence was assigned one point so that the maximum was ten points per student. The correct use of Serbian prepositions and cases expressing space was not assigned any points because the choice of correct verbs in Serbian logically led to the correct choice of corresponding prepositions and cases, whereas the use of incorrect verbs necessarily caused the choice of incorrect prepositions and cases. Or, if we look at it from the other way around, incorrectly understood Italian PPs led to the wrong choice of both verbs and prepositions and cases in Serbian. Therefore, these points would not have had any effect on the results. 3.5. Results 72 In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 4) we also gave some suggestions regarding possible ways of representing the problem of AS with the IV correre in L2 Italian textbooks in order to facilitate its acquisition even at the lowest levels. Future L2 Italian textbook authors might find them useful. 379 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The results of the test are shown in the following table and chart. The numbers in the table represent how many students had the respective number of points, whereas the chart shows the average points of each of the four years of study. Year Points 10 9 8 7 6 5 or less Average points I II III IV 6 8 2 2 2 0 8.7 12 6 2 0 0 0 9.5 8 5 4 3 0 0 8.9 10 3 4 3 0 0 9 Generally speaking, all the groups showed a satisfactory knowledge of AS in Italian, the average points ranging from 8.70 to 9.50 out of 10 points. However, the second year group is significantly better than all the others, as can be seen in the chart representing the average points. The difference between the second year group and all the others is even more obvious in the following chart, showing the error percentage for each year of study. While the error percentage for the first, second and third year ranges from 10% to 13%, the second year group‘s error percentage is significantly lower at 5%. This means that out of 200 sentences 20 second year group students made mistakes only in 10 of them and the remaining 190 were correct (as shown in the chart with the overall points), whereas the fourth year group students made twice as many mistakes despite there being a difference of two CEFR levels between them, as mentioned in 3.1. 3.6. Some examples The distribution of the two AVs in the test was equal, i.e. there were as many sentences with essere as with avere, as described in 3.4. The error percentage per sentence shows that there were slightly more mistakes concerning sentences with essere (52.56%) than with avere (47.44%). This means that the students overgeneralized the Serbian verb trčati and used it even in those contexts where its prefixed derivatives should have been used in order to correctly translate correre with essere. Generally speaking, in a large number of translations from Italian into Serbian made by Serbian learners of L2 Italian we have noticed this tendency to neglect the prefixation of verbs although it is a very productive morphological process in Serbian, but since we have not conducted any research into that phenomenon yet, we will not make any further claims about it. In order to illustrate the test, we will show only two sentences in which the students made the largest number of mistakes: Italian Serbian English Sentence 1 Ho corso al parco Trčao sam u parku I ran at the park avere trčati; u + locative motion at a location Sentence 2 Sono corso allo stadio Otrčao sam na stadion I ran to the stadium essere otrčati; na + accusative change of location The students‘ mistakes stemmed from the fact that they did not recognize that sentence 1 expressed motion at a location, so that their translation into Serbian was Otrčao sam u park as if in Italian it were Sono 380 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo corso al parco ‗I ran to the park‘; and similarly in sentence 2 they did not understand the change of location, so that they translated it as Trčao sam na stadionu as if the original Italian sentence were Ho corso allo stadio ‗I ran at the stadium‘. Our opinion is that the reasons for these mistakes are twofold. First of all, since in Serbian different cases are used to mark different types of motion (motion at a location – locative; change of location – accusative) although both cases can use the same preposition (e.g. u parku, u park), it is logical for our students to look for the type of motion in the Italian PPs. However, since most Italian PPs do not mark the type of motion, the students were not able to find it in them, and consequently they were likely to make mistakes. Secondly, since the first, third and fourth year students had not been exposed to the input suggested in this paper, they were not used to taking into account the distinctive contrastive features (i.e. that the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is trčati, whereas its equivalents with essere are its prefixed derivatives), so they did not look for the type of motion in the AV used, which would have led them to the correct choice of the respective Serbian verb. 4. Conclusion On the basis of the results of our experiment we can conclude that our hypothesis was correct. The second year group had significantly better results compared to all the other groups. Among the remaining three groups the fourth year group was the best, the third one the second best and the first one was the worst, which also corresponds to our hypothesis and to their level of L2 Italian. Additionally, the second year group‘s error percentage was significantly lower compared to that of the other three groups. Our conclusion is that the reasons for such results are that the second year group was the only one that received the type of input that had taken into account not only the traditional explanation of AS in Italian, but also all the other relevant criteria important for such a phenomenon (described in 3.2), as well as the corresponding contrastive explanations and examples. All these remarks made the AS much clearer to the students and, therefore, facilitated its acquisition. By taking into account only translations from Italian into Serbian, in this paper we have only examined the receptive abilities of Serbian learners of L2 Italian concerning the AS of the Italian IV correre. However, for further investigations we recommend an examination of productive abilities regarding the same problem because it might lead to some interesting and useful conclusions that could explain the phenomenon in question in greater depth and make its acquisition by learners of L2 Italian, independently of their mother tongue, much easier and more efficient. In addition, there are also some other Italian IVs belonging to the same group as correre, as far as the AS is concerned, such as volare ‗to flow‘ and saltare ‗to jump, that might be interesting for further research into this subject. References Jernej, J. (1965). Grammatica italiana descrittiva: su basi storiche e psicologiche. Bern / Mùnchen: Francke Verlag. Jernej, J. (1999). Talijanski jezik: priručnik za viši stupanj. Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. Maiden, M. & Robustelli, C. (2007). A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian. London: Hodder Education. Salvi, G. e Vanelli, L. (2004). Nuova grammatica italiana. Bologna: Il Mulino. RadojeviĤ, D. (to appear). Essere ili avere: pitanje je sad. In: Stavovi promjena – promjena stavova. Zbornik radova (VuĦo, J. & MilatoviĤ, B., eds.). NikńiĤ: Filozofski fakultet. Dictionaries Garzanti italiano. (2009). Milano: Garzanti. DeanoviĤ, M. i Jernej, J. (1984). Talijansko-hrvatski ili srpski rečnik. Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. De Mauro, T. (2000). De Mauro. Il dizionario della lingua italiana. Torino: Paravia Bruno Mondadori. Devoto, G. e Oli. G. C. (2007). Il Devoto-Oli. Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Firenze: Le Monnier. Klajn, I. (1996). Italijansko-srpski rečnik. Beograd: Nolit. Sabatini, F. e Coletti, V. (2005). Il Sabatini Coletti. Dizionario della lingua italiana. Milano: Rizzoli Larousse. Zingarelli, N. (2010). Lo Zingarelli. Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. 381 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Textbooks Balí, M. e Rizzo, G. (2002). Espresso 2. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. Balí, M. e Ziglio, L. (2003). Espresso 3. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. Bidetti, A., Dominici, M. e Piccolo, L. (2009). Nuovo progetto italiano 3. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedio-avanzato (B2-C1). Quaderno degli esercizi. Roma: Edilingua. Chiappini, L. e De Filippo, N. (2002). Un giorno in Italia 1. Corso di italiano per stranieri: principianti, elementare, intermedio. Libro dello studente con esercizi. Roma: Bonacci. Chiappini, L. e De Filippo, N. (2005). Un giorno in Italia 2. Corso di italiano per stranieri: intermedio, avanzato. Libro dello studente con esercizi. Roma: Bonacci. Marin. T. (2008). Nuovo progetto italiano 3. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedioavanzato (B2-C1). Libro dello studente. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2007). Nuovo progetto italiano 2. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedio (B1-B2). Quaderno degli esercizi. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2008a). Nuovo progetto italiano 1. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello elementare (A1-A2). Quaderno degli esercizi. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2008b). Nuovo progetto italiano 2. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedio (B1-B2). Libro dello studente. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2009). Nuovo progetto italiano 1. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello elementare (A1-A2). Libro dello studente. Roma: Edilingua. Mazzetti, A., Falcinelli, M. e Servadio, B. (2002). Qui Italia. Corso elementare di lingua italiana per stranieri. Quaderno di esercitazioni. Firenze: Le Monnier. Mazzetti, A., Falcinelli, M. e Servadio, B. (2003). Qui Italia. Corso elementare di lingua italiana per stranieri. Lingua e grammatica. Firenze: Le Monnier. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2000a). Rete 1. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2000b). Rete 1. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2001a). Rete 2. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2001b). Rete 2. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2002a). Rete 3. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2002b). Rete 3. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. StojkoviĤ, J. i Zavińin, K. (2010). Amici 4. Italijanski jezik za osmi razred osnovne škole. Beograd: Zavod za udņbenike. Ziglio, L. e Rizzo, G. (2001). Espresso 1. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. 382 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 57 Title A name given to the resource A contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of auxiliary selection in L2 Italian Author Author Radojević, Dragana Abstract A summary of the resource. Auxiliary selection (AS) with those Italian intransitive verbs (IVs) that can use both essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘, but with a change in meaning (e.g. È/Ha corso al parco ‗He ran to/at the park‘), represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. In this paper we argue that this is so largely because this phenomenon has not been treated adequately in relevant grammars, dictionaries and textbooks. In order to prove our argument we present a case study of AS with the IV correre ‗to run‘ involving university students of L2 Italian who are native speakers of Serbian. The results indicate that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and it is suggested that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of AS by learners of L2 Italian. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ab28b9daf7964bb83f6191cc0e3d9eb7.pdf 1f367623c7b003e3d709671ddd6b4c0d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo John Ashbery‘s Poetry: A Postmodern approach Masoumeh Rahimi Scientific society of English Language, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr Branch, Bushehr, Iran. Rahimimasoumeh20@gmail.com Abstract:Postmodernism has had its influences on different literary genres such as fiction, drama, and poetry. Truly, fiction has been the center of attention in many critical studies. But the manifestations of the movement can also be traced in poetry. John Ashbery is one of the contemporary poets whose poetry is best regarded as the postmodernist poetry. His works have been characterized by a free-moving and disjunctive syntax, experiments with linguistic elements, integrated humor and prosaic features. In his poems, the human mind and its workings are evident. He experimented radically with different elements of poetry such as linguistic and semantic aspects. Nowadays he appears to have been to the second half of twentieth century what Eliot was to the first: the most universally acknowledged of poets writing in English. The present essay elaborates on Ashbery looking back at poetic tradition while absorbing current techniques of combining present and past, centrality and marginality, and placing reader and writer side by side. Key Words: Postmodernism, poetry, John Ashbery, experimentation, centrality, Marginality Ashbery rank among the excellent postmodernist poets. His creative record of publication, beginning in 1956 and include twenty volumes of poetry, strongly corresponds with the arrival, rise, and climax of the postmodernist mode in North America. In addition, the moves in that long poetic occupation seem to parallel, when they do not actually predict, shifts in postmodernism across a range of cultural practices. Ashbery‘s early poetry, peaking in The Tennis Court Oath (1962), shows the first stage of postmodernism. Ashbery as an avant-garde writer and a key member of the so-called ‗New York School‘ of poetry occupy a controversial status in American poetry. Once he was a part of a marginalized opposition to the central poetic mode, and later turned into one of the most respected contemporary American poets, and he has influenced many other writers. His poetry is often felt to be meaningless. John Ashbery‘s works successfully display the poets‘ approaches to contemporary literature. A postmodern approach is mainly exemplified in Ashbery‘s poetry he has reworked past ideas and traditions of the former modernist period, resulting in his contemporary styles of writing that he is famous for. He historically attributed to the early appearance of postmodernism with the introduction of the New York School of Poets. Ashbery has borrowed from much of modern theory, often challenge these ideals, such as the rejection of subjectivity for an objective poetic voice. Professor Jeffrey T. Nealon in his analysis of postmodern literature, states, ‗Postmodern text destroys the language of the past to allow others to feed on its innovations and further open up the system to the possibility of thinking differently.‘ In fact modernist works of art and literature put emphasis to a subjective approach that demonstrates deeper meanings; a new postmodernist approach saw a contradicting method that was both objective and disloyal of the formerly established and traditional conventions. However, the postmodern movement demonstrated that it borrowed elements from modernism. For example, when an objective view was introduced in literature, it should be noted that this development could not have occurred without the influence of subjectivity as explored throughout the modernist period. This suggests that the existence of postmodernism lies in its ability to ‗work within the framework of the past,‘ but by doing so, ‗it must use the same language and acknowledge its tradition as representation.‘ Consequently, it can be argued that postmodernism is basically a representation of the old ideas demonstrated during the modernist period. John Ashbery employs the form of the dramatic monologue in his poem, Ashbery‘s poem is much like one continuous stream of thought with primarily long and complex lines. In order to lighten the tone of the poem ‗to escape the solemnity of the time, Ashbery noticed a need to ‗embrace popular culture.‘ He achieved this through his use of the ‗pop-cultural‘ character, Daffy Duck. This decision effectively enabled him to undertake the subject of historical and social change, but in a exclusively comedic manner. The first line of Daffy Duck in Hollywood illustrates Ashbery‘s ‗ability to be simultaneously silly and suggestive‘ when the narrative voice of Daffy Duck reveals, ‗Something strange is creeping across me‘ (1). This dramatic opening line immediately engages the reader and draws them in with such poetic force, encouraging them to continue reading. However, lines such as ‗He promised he‘d get me out of this one, / That mean old cartoonist!‘ (1011) remind the reader that when reading Ashbery‘s work, one must take him ‗both seriously and ironically at once.‘ 849 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ashbery‘s Late Echo represents the idea of a ambiguous title. Laughing Gravy is another title that provides no insight into the central theme of the poem, and appears to perhaps have no relation to the poem at all. A poem usually helps the reader to understand the title, it means usually summarizes the poem and reveal the poet‘s intentions in using this particular title. Of course, there is no such thing as a late echo, for as an echo is a repetition of a sound, it is essentially already late. Late Echo, which in fact, does not appear to display a key theme, nor does it reflect a particular thought. Some of Ashbery‘s poetry for example Late Echo illustrates the concept of referential uncertainty. Paul Hoover‘s in his introduction summarize the whole of postmodern poetry by listing its common and important issues he states: ―Postmodernism decenters authority and embraces pluralism. It encourages a ‗panoptic‘ or many-sided point of view. Postmodernism prefers ‗empty words‘ to the ‗transcendental signified,‘the actual to the metaphysical. In general, it follows a constructionist rather than an expressionist theory of composition. Method and intuition replace intention.‖ The readers see the repetition of words or sounds throughout the poem, but this idea does not hold any truth. Ashbery‘s opening lines, ‗Alone with our madness and favourite flower / We see that there is nothing left to write about‘ (1-2) also characterize referential uncertainty, for the reader, are left thinking whose ‗madness‘ (1) is being referred to here. Ashbery employs disorderly and unpredictable number of lines in his stanzas for example in Laughing Gravy which emphasizes the postmodern idea that poetry should not submit to any rules, but should undermine the concept of order. While the first stanza has three lines, the second has four, and the third and final one features just two lines. The poem presents itself as a stream of consciousness with apparently casual thoughts spread together to form a poem. To from the insight, ‗All these people coming in…‘ (4) to the next immediate thought, ‗The last time we necked / I noticed this lobe on your ear‘ (5-6), only highlights that the piece is contemporary. The uncertainty of the poet‘s thoughts constructs the narrative of Laughing Gravy and support the postmodern approach in its rejection to stick to specific or deeper meaning/interpretations. The use of parody, another poetic device, creates a satirical sense of foreboding early on in the first stanza when ‗the air sang Johnny, / Remember Me‘ (7-8). The lyrics to this love song demonstrate a comic warning to the reader of the tragedy that will occur in the seventh stanza: the woman‘s death. This reference to popular culture and the title of a pop song from the 1960s more illustrates the increasing regularity of popular culture in contemporary writing, which effectively combined high culture with popular culture, influencing and creating an updated pop culture. When Ashbery‘s publishing career began in the 1950s, his poetry was marginalized. At the beginning of the 1960s, a poem was generally expected to appear ―self-contained, coherent, and unified: that it present, indirectly to be sure, a paradox, oblique truth, or special insight‖, and in such a poem the speaker had to be someone separate from the author, but still a particular ―persona‖ (Perloff 1996: 107). The separation of the author and the speaker, in particular, is a New Critical principle. Many Poets were famous practitioners of this style of writing that was connected to Modernism in ―economy, wit, irony, impersonality, scrupulous handling of form‖, but hardly made use of such characteristics as ―extreme ellipsis, fragmentation, and discontinuity‖ Ashbery‘s work was characterized by avant-gardism and experimentation from the beginning. This was the atmosphere in which such works as Some Trees (1956) and The Tennis Court Oath (1962) were written, and the early work also established Ashbery‘s reputation as a ‗difficult‘ poet. The late 1950s also saw the rise of another mode of poetry which took its motivation from the New Critical rule of separating the speaker and the poet. This mode has been termed ‗confessional‘ poetry, which has its premise the poet‘s direct speech and naturalness of emotions. The convention is that the poet is the speaker. The poet becomes, in Breslin‘s words, ―a representative victim‖ who reflects on his or her self and predominantly negative feelings and experiences, and the reader‘s role is to empathize and to begin a reflection of his or her own experience (Breslin 1987: 42-43). A confessional poem is, then, meaningful in terms of one person‘s self, past and present, and the poem ultimately aims at revealing something about this one person. Breslin (1987: 218) states, Ashbery‘s poetry resists the ―earnestness about ‗experience‘‖ that succeeds in most of the poetry up until the 1980s, which partly explains why Ashbery‘s work became so highly praised at the time. This is also related to the confessional poetry of the 1960s, which was discussed earlier. While confessional poetry was partly a reaction to the New Critical mode of reading, it soon became established, and as Terrell Scott Herring (2002: 415) comments, it ―exemplified the irony and paradox structuring the ideal New Critical poem‖ because the relationship between ―public and private‖ was so clearly an issue. Therefore, confessional poetry provided good material for New Critical study (Herring 2002: 415). The practice was, then, ultimately close to New Criticism, even though a confessional poem might have been more open in terms of structure than earlier New Critical poems. Both of these poetic tendencies emphasize the centrality of the single voice and one identity or person whose presence provides the meaning of the insights or emotions presented in the poem. One feature of Language poetry is the challenge their work present to the idea of a unified voice and how that relates to Ashbery, but the centrality of experimentation for their poetics is useful to remember, as one approaches their work. Confessional poetry reduces in importance after that decade, but the centrality of ―earnestness‖ goes beyond it. A poem like ‗Litany‘, on the other 850 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo hand, foregrounds the nature of the self as a pronominal position, as a linguistically created starting point, rather than attempting to posit an illusion of a sincere subjective presence, and forces readers to consider the judgments they make on the basis of the pronouns for example about who is speaking and about the attitudes and tones of an utterance. The experiences and statements that are presented are thus placed not as essentially authentic and ‗earnest‘, but rather as examinations of how such experiences and points of view are expressed. Subjectivity is related to how ideas originate from a certain perspective or a mind that provides their organization and meaning. Identity and personality, on the other hand, are the property of ‗person‘. An identity entails characteristics that distinguish the person from all other persons. Personality and identity can be related to ‗characters‘ in a literary text, whereas subjectivity can simply be understood as a ―vantage point‖. In any case, pronominal relations like the centrality of the I in a poem encourage readers to perceive poems as the expression of a single speaker or subjectivity. Ashbery‘s poetry bears a relation to postmodernism because of the fragmentariness and the spreading of a unified subject. In postmodernist literature, single identities and particular personalities are no longer understood to be central, as Charles Russell sees, because ―individual subjects, voices, texts, or codes‖ always function within ―collective discourse‖ and larger societal structures (Russell 1985: 246-247). According to Russell (1985: 247) in postmodernism ―we are found to be constructs of discrete elements of social discourse‖. The languages and discourses that we use are central rather than individual personality, as the language that a person speaks is finally what defines him/her. Ashbery‘s poetry has always concerned with the chance of multiple voices and the spreading of a subjective position. However, because there is in most poems and I, his poems may come out subjective or private. Ashbery is often called a ‗solipsist‘, and his texts are repeatedly described as ‗meditations‘ on or around vague subjects. For example Harold Bloom ([1982] 1983: 271-273) says that Ashbery‘s poetry is essentially concerned with ―solitude‖. All in all, there are multiple meanings, polyphony of voices, and the poems also take the reader‘s position into account. In order to understand a ―vantage point‖ for a poem, several related concepts can be found: voice and speaker, self, subject and subjectivity, identity and personality. The reader try to create a voice or a speaker that brings together the totality of the text and charges the language with his or her presence and meaning, thus it serves as a point of reference. As observed in relation to ‗No Way of Knowing‘, normally upon encountering the pronoun I in a poem, one would expect to be able to create a regular voice that is obvious in the pronoun, but Ashbery‘s poetry presents a challenge to this expectation. His own, oft-cited account of his use of pronouns that he presented in an interview with the New York Quarterly is revealing: The personal pronouns in my work very often seem to be like variables in an equation.―You‖ can be myself or it can be another person, someone whom I‘m addressing, and so can ―he‖ and ―she‖ for that matter and ―we;‖… we are somehow all aspects of a consciousness giving rise to the poem and the fact of addressing someone, myself or someone else, is what‘s the important thing at that particular moment rather than the particular person involved. I guess I don‘t have a very strong sense of my own identity and I find it very easy to move from one person in the sense of a pronoun to another and this again helps to produce a kind of polyphony in my poetry which I again feel is a means toward greater naturalism. (Ashbery in Packard (ed.) 1987: 8990; my ellipsis) Ashbery‘s poems present steady interaction between unclearly defined and vague positions they are mostly clear only through pronouns. Usually the poems include the pronoun I, which marks a speaker, but a continuous presence or a persona is difficult to identify on the level of the whole text. Both the I and you are unclear and changing. ‗Person‘ in Ashbery‘s poems is evident only in fragments of different discourses and present only in ―the fact of addressing someone‖. Address is, then, also important for Ashbery‘s polyphony. The Tennis Court Oath has sometimes been rejected by critics as a point in Ashbery‘s career where he is merely experimenting while trying to develop a more ―mature‖ style. Mona van Duyn wrote that the ―state of continuous expectation, a continuous frustration of expectation‖ that the poems create does not really even correspond to her understanding of the kinds of effects poetry should offer (van Duyn 1962: 394).While this is also a matter of personal taste, van Duyn‘s comment illustrates a unwillingness to even consider what this different conception of poetry requires, and confirms to how a certain conception of poetry may prevail in the mind of one person or a group of people. It is, then, easy to understand why in the beginning of his career Ashbery was a marginal poet. In conclusion, the works of John Ashbery successfully demonstrate the poets‘ approaches to contemporary literature. He employs past ideas and traditions of the previous modernist period, the result is his contemporary styles of writing that he is famous for. He employs postmodern approach on his poetries. In facrt, Ashbery has borrowed from much of modern theory, often challenges these ideals, such as the rejection of subjectivity for an objective poetic voice. 851 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Ashbery, John. ―Laughing Gravy,‖ Wakefulness: Poems.New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1998. ----------. ―Some Trees‖. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1956. ----------. ―The Tennis Court Oath‖. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1962. ASHTON, JENNIFER. From Modernism to postmodernism , American Poetry and Theory in the Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Breslin, Paul. The Psycho-Political Muse: American Poetry since the Fifties. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987. BLASING, MUTLU KONUK .Politics and Form in Postmodern Poetry O'Hara, Bishop, Ashbery, and Merrill. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Brian, McHale. How (Not) to Read Postmodernist Long Poems: The Case of Ashbery‘s ―The Skaters‖. Volume 21. Duke University Press: 2000. Goring, Paul, Hawthorn, Jeremy, Mitchell, Domhnall. Studying Literature: The Essential Companion. London: Hodder Arnold, 2001. Bloom, Harold. Agon: Towards a Theory of Revisionism. New York: Oxford University Press, [1982] 1983. Herd, David. John Ashbery and American Poetry, Manchester: University Press, 2000. Herring, Terrell Scott. Frank O‘Hara‘s open closet. PMLA, 2002 117: 414-427. Hoover, Paul. Introduction, Postmodern American Poetry: A Norton Anthology. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. Perloff, Marjorie. Whose new American poetry? Anthologizing in the nineties. Diacritics 26 (3-4): 1996. 104-123 Perkins , David. A History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987. Siltanen, Elina. Forms of polyphonic communication in John Ashbery‘s poetry. Pro Gradu Thesis, English philology Department of English University of Turku, 2008. Russell, Charles. Poets, Prophets, and Revolutionaries: The Literary Avantgarde from Rimbaud through Postmodernism. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1985. : 246-247 Van, Duyn Mona. Ways to meaning. Poetry. 1962.100: 390-395. 852 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 123 Title A name given to the resource John Ashbery‘s Poetry: A Postmodern approach Author Author Rahimi, Masoumeh Abstract A summary of the resource. Postmodernism has had its influences on different literary genres such as fiction, drama, and poetry. Truly, fiction has been the center of attention in many critical studies. But the manifestations of the movement can also be traced in poetry. John Ashbery is one of the contemporary poets whose poetry is best regarded as the postmodernist poetry. His works have been characterized by a free-moving and disjunctive syntax, experiments with linguistic elements, integrated humor and prosaic features. In his poems, the human mind and its workings are evident. He experimented radically with different elements of poetry such as linguistic and semantic aspects. Nowadays he appears to have been to the second half of twentieth century what Eliot was to the first: the most universally acknowledged of poets writing in English. The present essay elaborates on Ashbery looking back at poetic tradition while absorbing current techniques of combining present and past, centrality and marginality, and placing reader and writer side by side. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b0347cd965f0e123927680b2ae96f04d.pdf a00421de9e2fabff2a29e664bbc7e075 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Iranian English Major vs. Subject-matter ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs and Instructional Practices in ESP Classes: A Comparative Study Peyman Rajabi Ph.D Student in TEFL, Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Campus, Tehran, Iran paymanrajabi2002@yahoo.com Gholam Reza Kiany Ph.D in TEFL,Tarbiat Modaress University, Tehran, Iran Parviz Maftoon Ph.D in TEFL, Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Campus, Tehran, Iran Abstract: Since the advent of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), plenty of controversial issues have been raised in the academic circles all over the world. As we know, one controversial aspects of ESP domain deals with the significant role of the teacher variable. In the present study, the investigators intended to compare and contrast Iranian English major ESP instructors with their subject-matter counterparts in terms of their beliefs and classroom practices in ESP classes. A total of 423 Iranian English major (ELT) and subject-matter ESP teachers participated in the study. The results revealed that theoretically a large and wide gap exists between English major and subject-matter ESP teachers while practically this difference is very slight. Key words: ESP, Classroom activities, Teachers‘ beliefs Introduction Teaching English for Specific Purposes (TESP) has been considered a separate undertaking from English language teaching. Dudley-Evans and ST John (1998) coined the term ―practitioner‖ for ESP teachers since, they believe, many pivotal roles such as course designers, materials developers, researchers, evaluators, and classroom teachers should be taken on by an ESP instructor. Bell (1981) believes that every language teaching program comprises three stages of input, process, and output; therefore, it is essential for an ESP teacher to have several roles which require both content and formal schema knowledge in a particular field of science. Since its infancy, many controversial issues have been raised to maintain whether the EFL teacher or the subject-matter in the field has the right to teach an ESP course. Some argue that ESP teachers are expected to have sufficient knowledge in content areas as well and be able to elicit knowledge from students. Generally, ELT teachers are linguistically superior over content or subject matter ESP teachers, but they may not be efficiently equipped with specific background knowledge of their learners' specialist academic disciplines. Moreover, there are other scholars who claim that ESP teaching is part and parcel of an English language teacher‘s career and that it is therefore their responsibility to design or teach such courses. However, we cannot neglect the fact that ESP teaching should focus on procedures appropriate for learners whose main goal is learning English for a purpose other than just learning the language system itself. Therefore, it is believed that for some basic aspects of its teaching, ESP has developed its own specific methodology and its research draws on research from various disciplines in addition to applied linguistics-- this may be the key feature which clearly characterizes ESP. Undoubtedly, the recent development in nations‘ political, cultural, social, athletic, business, touristic, and economic ties as well as the recent increase in ESP publications (textbooks or papers), conference presentations, professional and academic gatherings, invited lectures, and on-line workshops highlight the fact that ESP has gained a significant place not only among academic circles but also it has gained the shape of a ―New Industry‖ in the 21st century. Unfortunately, ESP programs in Iranian academic settings do not seem to sufficiently help the students acquire the kind of knowledge and skill they need whether inside or outside the class. Lack of sufficient ability to utilize their ESP knowledge efficiently, to communicate with their foreign counterparts, to participate in international 1017 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo conferences, or to utilize ESP for target situations all manifest the inappropriateness of ESP instruction in Iranian academic circles. In other words, despite the amount of time and energy spent, the learners fail to achieve the desired goals in ESP classes in Iran. This might be the output of a number of influential factors such as poor methodology, needs analysis, materials, curriculum, goal settings, beliefs and attitudes, policy making, and so forth. Despite the fact that materials and methodology are extremely important in any instructional program, it seems that the focal point in the teaching context is the teacher variable. Much have been said in the literature about the concept of authenticity in ESP programs, i.e. authentic texts, tasks, tests, or authentic materials, but , we believe, another type of authenticity has to be seriously taken into account and that is the ―individual authenticity‖- the reliable and competent ESP teacher. Most of us would assume that teachers are well qualified, dedicated, and willing to implement all the findings of research in the field, because they are simply "teachers" but little attention has been paid to the real and influential role of the ESP instructors in Iran. The scope of the present study is not focused on evaluating ―the ESP instructors‖, rather it aims at investigating any uniformity among Iranian ESP instructors in terms of their beliefs and methods of ESP instruction in their classes. To achieve such a goal the following questions were formulated: 1. 2. 3. Is there any significant difference between the pedagogical beliefs of Iranian English major and subject matter ESP teachers about ESP? Is there any significant difference between the instructional practices of Iranian English major and subject matter ESP teachers? What factors were mostly influential in shaping ESP beliefs among these instructors? Participants A population of 423 Iranian ESP teachers was selected to respond to a questionnaire which determined their personal beliefs as well as instructional practices in ESP classes. Geographically speaking, the respondents were from western, central, and northern provinces of Iran. The general profiles of these ESP instructors are shown in the following table: These ESP teachers are either TEFL or non-TEFL majors with university degrees of MA/Ms or Ph.D. Table 1: General Profiles of the Participants of the Study General Profile Age range Index 20-30 years 5% 31-40 years 80.4% 41-50 years 13.2% 51-60 years 1.4% Sex Male Female Degree MA/Msc. Field Frequency 83.7% 16.3% 82% PhD 18% English major 37.11% 1018 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Non-English major 62.89% 0-5 years 73.3% 6-10 years 23.2% 11-15 years 3.5% Little 3.3% Average Much 83.5% 13.2% Field 37.1% Studying Abroad 3.5% English classes 5.2% Self study 54.1% ESP teaching experience Satisfaction with ESP teaching Familiarity with English Instrumentation The instrument selected as measure in this study included a Survey Questionnaire. It targets close-ended sections that require teachers to respond to statements on a five point Likert scale. Firstly, it attempted to identify the beliefs ESP teachers have regarding ESP and its role in language learning and teaching in Iranian academic settings. Secondly, the questionnaire aimed to obtain information about teachers' reported classroom practices regarding the teaching of ESP courses. Results The first part of the second section of the questionnaire dealt with investigating the frequency of classroom activities carried out in Iranian ESP classes. To do this, we followed Farhady (2007). The results of ESP needs analysis project by Farhady (2007) revealed the most quoted real academic tasks included: general and technical listening, reading, speaking, and writing activities, note-taking, internet search, reading graphs and summarizing, translating, writing paper, submitting proposals, presenting papers in conferences, writing reports, writing CVs, writing research reports, and giving and receiving feedbacks from each other. Therefore, 16 highlighted classroom activities were chosen and given to a total of 423 Iranian ESP teachers. A 5-point-scale ranging from always (5 points) to never (1 point) was used to determine the frequency of 16 highlighted classroom activities in the ESP classes. The following table reveals the descriptive as well as inferential statistics for implementing instructional activities by Iranian ELT and subject-matter ESP teachers. Table 2: Iranian English Major vs Subject-Matter ESP Teachers‘ Classroom Practices Field Classroom Activity 1.Explaining technical words in Persian 2. Explaining grammar ELT never 0 seldom 1 Frequency sometimes 9 Chi-Square Test Results often 93 always 54 .000 S.M ELT 1 1 3 49 101 7 69 187 10 68 0 193 0 0 0 .314 S.M 1019 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Translating ESP texts into Persian ELT 0 0 1 23 133 S.M 0 0 2 27 234 ELT 0 2 20 102 33 S.M 3 1 29 207 26 5. Asking and answering questions in English ELT S.M 50 217 89 46 7 3 9 0 2 0 .000 6. Classroom presentations in English ELT 132 21 4 0 0 .065 S.M ELT S.M ELT 209 108 196 127 57 49 67 29 0 10 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S.M 195 68 3 0 0 9. Providing chances for students‘ classroom discussions in English ELT 38 86 32 1 0 S.M 171 92 3 0 0 10. Listening to audio files 11. Developing study skills activities ELT S.M ELT S.M ELT 41 177 7 102 102 53 84 44 72 51 40 5 83 92 4 23 0 20 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 S.M 181 82 3 0 0 13. Answering essay type quizzes in English ELT S.M 30 74 40 178 51 13 36 1 0 0 .000 14. Writing letters or articles in English ELT 120 22 15 0 0 .090 S.M ELT 217 52 36 71 13 26 0 8 0 0 .000 S.M 161 100 5 0 0 ELT 43 90 18 4 2 4. Doing reading comprehension exercises 7. Note-taking from classroom lectures 8. Writing classroom reports in English 12. Summarizing textbooks or pamphlets in English 15. Watching films or other video files 16. Conducting collaborative and cooperative activities in the classroom .680 .133 .113 .125 .000 .000 .000 .381 .062 S.M 64 197 5 0 0 The results of Chi-square test indicate that there are statistically significant differences between ELT and subject-matter ESP instructors in terms of 7 classroom activities while no significant difference between the two groups is reported concerning the rest 9 classroom activities (p<.05). Now let‘s look at each activity in brief. 1020 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo With regard to determining the frequency of the first classroom activity, explaining technical words in Persian, the results indicated that 34% of the ELT instructors and 72.5% of the non-ELT teachers ―always‖ did such a kind of activity in their ESP classes. About 59% of the English majors claimed that they ―often‖ do the first activity in their classes while 25.6% of subject matter ESP teachers followed the same trend. The Chi-square results indicate that since the Sig. value of .000 is smaller than .05, we can conclude that the proportion of English major ESP teachers who explain technical words in Persian is significantly different from those non-English majors. Moreover, subjectmatter ESP tend to use more Persian equivalents in describing technical words. Majority of the instructors in both groups claimed that they ―seldom‖ explained grammar to the ESP students. This approximately approves the fact that grammar is overlooked in most ESP classes. The Chi-square results indicate a value of 0.314 which is higher than the alpha value of 0.05. So, it can be concluded that there is not any significant difference between the two groups in terms of teaching grammar to ESP students. The third activity, translating the ESP texts into Persian, favored the common consensus of both groups. Among ESP instructors, 84.7% of the English majors as well as 87.6% of the subjectmatter teachers ―always‖ translate the ESP texts into Persian. The Chi-square test outputs reveal no differences between the two groups as well. This strongly supports the fact that Iranian ELT or subjectmatter ESP teachers have always viewed translation as the safest and most dominant classroom activity which seemed to meet the immediate needs of the ESP students. However, the poor English background of Iranian ESP students might have proliferated the application of translation in ESP classes. Naturally, the outputs of Table 1 show that English major instructors as well as their non-ELT counterparts predominantly ―often‖ do class activity 4, i.e. doing reading comprehension exercises. So, it seems reading comprehension has favored considerable superiority among language skills in Iranian ESP classes. The value of 0.133, which is larger than 0.05, testifies the fact that there is no significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in doing reading comprehension activities. Among non-English major ESP teachers, 81.6% claimed that they ―never‖ practice classroom activity 5 while only 31.8% of the ELT instructors overlooked the application of ―asking and answering questions in English‖ in their classes. The Chi-square results indicate a significance difference between the two groups in implementing classroom activity five. This signifies the fact that there is little interest among subject-matter ESP teachers to make use of verbal interactions as the facilitators of learning in their classes. However, we conservatively propose that this might have also been rooted in insufficient general English proficiency of subject-matter teachers as well. Classroom activity 6 deals with ESP students‘ classroom presentations in English. The majority of English and non-English ESP instructors clearly stated that they ―never‖ implement such a task in their classes. The inferential statistics approves the fact that there is no significant difference between these two groups of teachers in implementing such activity in ESP classrooms. The teachers were asked to determine the frequency of students‘ note taking from ESP classroom lectures. It seems that since few or no lecture may be presented in Iranian ESP classrooms, students are not accustomed to such an activity. Writing classroom reports in English comprised the eighth activity. The results of descriptive statistics show that 80.9% of the ELT instructors as well as 74.4% of their non-ELT counterparts ―never‖ ask their students to write classroom reports in English whereas only 0.6% of the English majors and 1.1% of the subject matter ESP teachers claim that they ―sometimes‖ ask their students to write classroom reports in English. The Chi-square results reveal that there is not any significant difference between both groups. Providing opportunities for students to hold classroom discussions in English comprise classroom activity 9. More than 64% of the non-English major ESP instructors ―never‖ favored the application of such a task while the same frequency was reported by only 24% of the ELT instructors. This gap may extensively be due to instructors‘ fields of study and interests. The Chi-square results reveal that there is a significant difference between these two groups in terms of doing classroom activity 9. The ESP teachers were asked to determine the frequency of activity 10 which dealt with listening activities of the students in ESP classrooms. The story of activity 9 is repeated here. Only 26% of the ELT teachers claimed that they ―never‖ do listening comprehension tasks in their ESP classes while this was strictly true for 66.5% of the subject matter teachers. Table 1 proves our claim by showing the significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors. 1021 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo With regard to determining the frequency of study skill activities in ESP classes, majority of non-ELT teachers (38.3%) ―never‖ assigned study skills activities while approximately 53% of the English majors claimed that they ―sometimes‖ utilize them in their classes. The Chi-square test results show the significant difference between the two groups. The ESP instructors claimed that they predominantly ―never‖ use summarizing texts or articles in English in their ESP classrooms. That‘s why writing is the most neglected and sacrificed skill among language skills in Iranian academic settings. The value of 0.381 strongly approves the fact that there is not any significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in implementing classroom activity 12. The frequencies of classroom activity 13, answering to essay type classroom quizzes, are shown in Table 1. Subject matter ESP teachers maintained that they ―seldom‖ have their students answer essay type classroom quizzes in English while the majority of ELT instructors ―sometimes‖ made use of such an activity in their classes. The inferential statistics testifies that there is a significant difference between the English and non-English major ESP teachers. The ESP instructors were supposed to determine the frequency of classroom activity 14 which dealt with students‘ article or letter writing in their specific fields. Over 76% of the ELT teachers as well as 81% of the subject matter ESP instructors ―never‖ utilized such an activity in their classrooms. This is mainly due to the fact that the whole objectives of ESP programs have not been clearly specified for our teachers. The value of 0.09 evidentially approves our claim that there is not any significant difference between the two groups in terms of implementing this classroom activity. The responses of the ESP teachers in terms of specifying the frequency of activity 15, watching films or video programs in specific fields, are presented in Table 2. The outcomes reveal that more than 60% of the subject matter instructors ―never‖ made use of technological aids in their ESP classrooms while only 33% of the ELT teachers did the same. The Chi-square test results show that there is a significant difference between the two groups regarding the manipulation of video aids. Majority of the instructors in both groups reported that they ―seldom‖ make use of students‘ cooperative activities in conducting their ESP classes, activity 16. This might be due to lack of sufficient time or insufficiencies in establishing student-centered atmosphere in ESP classes. The inferential statistics show that there is no significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in implementing such an activity in ESP environments. As noted earlier, the second part of the second section of the questionnaire deals with identifying Iranian teachers‘ beliefs about ESP and methods of instruction. Since it was too much difficult to include a large number of widespread beliefs in a very limited pool, the researcher decided to merely focus on some common and highlighted beliefs. Therefore, based on the present literature (Basturkmen, 2006; Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Hutchison & Waters, 1987; Jordan, 1997; Robinson, 1991; Strevens, 1988) and the outcomes of the EAP needs analysis project carried out by Farhady (2007), we specified 21 types of pedagogical beliefs on ESP domain. Three underlying constructs namely teaching ESP, students‘ needs, and beliefs about students‘ practice were explored for the aforementioned beliefs. Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs about the First Factor Item Field Frequency SA 1. content teaching ELT A 83 ChiSquare Test Results N D SD 10 3 1 .000 60 1022 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2.content familiar 3.sufficient English for others 4. content problems 5.technical word matching 6.non-English teacher better 7.multidiscipline 8.Persian language 9.language application 10.performting needs analysis Non-ELT 204 41 16 4 1 ELT 9 62 71 8 7 Non-ELT 2 3 201 38 22 ELT 120 32 5 0 0 Non-ELT 157 83 34 1 1 ELT .000 .000 1 3 10 51 92 Non-ELT 177 67 17 4 1 ELT 85 54 12 5 1 Non-ELT 160 80 24 1 1 ELT 0 0 0 0 157 Non-ELT 188 60 13 4 1 ELT 0 47 82 15 13 Non-ELT 0 7 189 35 35 ELT 97 55 4 1 0 Non-ELT 166 74 24 1 1 ELT 0 71 27 58 1 Non-ELT 2 26 69 167 2 ELT 89 55 11 2 0 Non-ELT 6 52 203 5 0 .000 .143 .000 .000 .333 .000 .000 As Table 3 shows, the difference between English major and subject matter ESP teachers is not significant in terms of the items 5 and 8. In other words, both groups had consensus on applying Persian as the medium language in Iranian ESP classes. Moreover, matching technical words with their Persian equivalents received the general agreement of both groups. The rest ten items demonstrate the significant difference between two traditions. The following table generally shows the frequency of ELT and non-ELT instructors‘ beliefs about the items which constituted factor 2, ESP teachers‘ beliefs about students‘ practices. The table also reveals the summarized inferential statistics to highlight the differences between these two groups. 1023 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 4: Descriptive Statistics for ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs about the Second Factor Item Field Frequency/Percentage SA 1. utw ELT A 3.8% N D SD 15.9% 43.3% 12.1% ChiSquare Test Results .000 24.8% 2. future needs 3. lg evaluation NonELT ELT NonELT ELT 0% 1.1% 6% 75.5% 17.3% 14.6 % 4.5 % 36.9% 16.9 % 47.1% 76.7% 1.3% 1.9% 0% 0% 25.5% 31.2% 42% 1.3% 0% NonELT 2.3% 16.9 % 78.9 % 1.9 % ELT 1.9 % 14% 57.3 % 26.8 % .000 .000 4. developing lg activities 0% 0% .001 5. study skills NonELT ELT 2.3 % 16.9 % 71.8 % 9% 0% 1.3 % 27.4% 61.1 % 10.2% 0% NonELT 2.3% 19.5% 69.5% .476 8.6% 0% The results of Table 4 clearly show the significant differences between the beliefs of English major and non-English major ESP teachers in terms of the first four items. As it can be seen from the table, except one item, the respondents predominantly had ―neutral‖ beliefs about the proposed ideas. This may be a reflection of conservatism among ESP teachers who did not take the risk of frankly stating their ideas. With regard to the last item which focused on developing study skills activities among students in ESP classes, the Chi-square test did not show any statistically significant difference between both groups. The following table generally shows the frequency of ELT and non-ELT instructors‘ beliefs about the items which constituted factor 3, beliefs about students‘ language needs. The table also reveals the summarized inferential statistics to highlight the differences between these two groups. Table 5: Descriptive Statistics for ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs about the Third Factor Item Field Frequency/Percentage SA 1. translation ELT A 54.1% N D SD 2.5% 1.9% 2.5% 4.5% 1.5% 0.4% 31.2% 43.2% ChiSquare Test Results .052 38.9% 2.independent speaking NonELT ELT 63.5% 30.1% 0.6 % 0.6% .001 23.6% 3. no listening speaking NonELT ELT Non- 0.8 % 0% 22.2% 6.4% 70.7% 0% 0.4% 37.6% 64.7% 24.2 % 34.6 % 34.4% 0.4 % 3.8 % 0% .000 1024 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. grammar ELT ELT 5.languageskills NonELT ELT 6. memorizing words NonELT ELT NonELT 6.4 % 12.7% 56.7 % 24.2 % 5.3% 19.9 % 72.9 % 1.9 % 0% 1.9 % 35% 58 % 5.11% 0% 2.3% 16.9% 72.2% 8.6% 0% 38.2 % 24.1 % 5.1 % 6% 1.3 % 1.5% 0.6 % 0.4 % 54.8 % 68% 0% .000 .000 .077 Table 5 represents the ESP teachers‘ beliefs about the third factor, students‘ language needs in ESP classes. There was not any statistically significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in terms of the first and the last items (the Sig. value are 0.52 & 0.77 respectively). The first item emphasizes the utilization of ―translation‖ as the foundation of ESP classroom activities. This is mainly seen through the frequency of considerable positive attitudes of both groups. Moreover, majority of both groups strongly agreed on the memorization of technical words as a necessary practice in ESP classes. No congruence was seen between English major and non-English major ESP instructors in terms of language skills such as listening- speaking activities and grammar teaching. The outcomes clearly show the gap between the two traditions. However, it is difficult to strongly claim that the main reason for such a difference lies on insufficient ESP knowledge of the nonELT group. In order to determine factors that affect teachers‘ decisions, the teachers were presented with a list of eight factors and asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 3, how important each of these factors were to them personally in deciding how to view ESP and the type of activities to use. Their responses to this question are shown in Table 6 below. Table 6: Factors Influencing ELT and non-ELT Teachers‘ Beliefs about ESP Factor 1.ESP teaching experience 2. Feedback from students 3. Dominant educational system 4. The current ESP textbooks 5. Teacher‘s personal information about ESP 6. Studying journal articles in ESP field 7. The way other ESP Level of importance Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Percentage ELT non-ELT 57.3% 27.4% 15.3% 41.4% 33.8% 24.8% 8.9% 6.4% 84.7% 14% 28.7% 57.3% 25.5% 35% 39.5% 87.3% 6.4% 6.4% 49% 47.4% 32% 20.3% 37.3% 18.8% 7.5% 15% 13.2% 71.8% 7.5% 23.3% 69.2% 52.6% 20.3% 27.1% 71.8% 25.9% 2.3% 36.5% 1025 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo instructors operate 8. Carrying out research projects in the field Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important 32.5% 18.5% 62.4% 20.4% 17.2% 40.2% 23.3% 65.1% 25.9% 9% Since the results of in Table 6 show, ―the dominant educational system in Iranian academic circles‖, ―the current ESP materials and textbooks‖, and ―ELT instructors‘ personal information about ESP‖ were the main influential factors which helped the formation of ESP beliefs and methods of instruction among the ELT instructors. ―Carrying out research projects in ESP field‖ and ―studying journal articles about ESP‖, factors 8 and 6 respectively, have received the last priority among English major instructors. This seems that ESP is still an intact field in Iranian academic circles. However, few research projects and/or dissertations have triggered ESP. Non-English major ESP instructors were asked to determine the most influential factors which shaped their beliefs about ESP and its methods of instruction. The results also reveal that ―the current ESP materials and textbooks‖, ―the dominant educational system in Iranian academic circles‖, and ―the way other ESP instructors operate‖ gained much priority among non-ELT instructors in shaping their beliefs about ESP. The first two factors mentioned by non-ELT instructors were similar to those highlighted by their ELT counterparts. This might reflect a kind of commonality among ESP teachers in terms of influential factors. But the third factor which focused our attention is somehow deliberative. It seems that non-ELT instructors follow the ways and patterns their fellow colleagues do in ESP classes. It is not clear whether these styles and patters follow any specific and logical principle in ESP field. Conclusions The first aim of the present study was to determine whether there was any meaningful difference between the beliefs of Iranian English major and subject matter ESP instructors about ESP courses and methods of classroom instructions. The results of the present study strongly highlight considerable difference between the beliefs of ELT instructors and their non-ELT counterparts. The main causes of such a gap lie in the fact that the non-ELT instructors may not be aware of integrating language and content instruction, since there is limited attention to language needs in the preparation of content teachers, and limited attention to either the specific discourse of academic disciplines or to the practical concerns of needs analysis, text adaptation, curriculum development, or collaborative teaching in most language teacher training programs (Crandall, 1998). The overriding belief of the 423 teachers who participated in this study was that ―translation‖ is a pivotal component of the language classroom. This appeared to be a ―resilient or core belief‖ (Clark & Peterson, 1986) that the teachers shared and showed that teachers generally favor translation. However, both groups had consensus on some items such as ―application of Persian language as a medium in ESP classes‖, ―technical word matching with their Persian equivalents‖, ―the emphasis on applying study skills‖, and ―memorizing English words‖. Moreover, the study aimed at finding out whether there is any significant difference between classroom practices of ELT and non-ELT instructors. The outcomes extracted from 423 ESP teachers revealed that ELT and content teachers differed greatly in frequency of doing a number of classroom activities such as ―explaining technical words in students‘ mother tongue‖, ―providing the students with speaking opportunities‖, ―listening to audio files‖, ―watching films‖, and ―asking students to answer essay type questions in classroom quizzes‖. The main reason for such a gap is insufficient knowledge or familiarity of non-ELT instructors with applying and integrating language skills in ESP classes. Language learning and content of subject matter could be brought together because a foreign language is most successfully acquired when learners are engaged in its meaningful and purposeful use. The integration of language and content involves the incorporation of content material into language classes. Content can provide a motivational and cognitive basis for language learning since it is interesting and of some value to the learner (Brewster, 1999). ESP programs are content-based, task-based, interactive programs which provide cooperative learning. Small groups of students work together to accomplish meaningful tasks in this approach to L2 learning so both cognitive and socio-cultural processes are at work together (Mitchell & Myles, 2004). Some believe in reading as the only skill to be developed: some others, however, take the four skills (reading, listening, speaking, writing) into account, dividing them into micro- and macro-skills. An initial and continuing focus in ESP has been on the skill of reading. This 1026 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo was for practical and international reasons, for example, many contexts throughout the world required the ability to read English passages. However, subsequent research and practice have taken the other three skills into account. For example, listening is crucial for lecture comprehension in English for Specific Purposes contexts, and speaking is considered important in English for Business Purposes as well as in ESP. Finally, writing is thought of as a necessary skill for non-native students in academic contexts. The results also highlighted no statistically significant difference between English and nonEnglish major ESP teachers in terms of the frequency of doing a number of classroom activities such as ― grammar teaching‖, ―translation‖, ―reading comprehension activities‖, ―classroom lectures in English by students‖, ―note-taking activities‖, ―writing classroom reports in English‖, ―developing study skills‖, ―summarizing text-books or articles in English‖, ―writing essays or letters in students‘ specific fields‖, and ―cooperative activities by the students‖. Cooperative Learning (CL) is the most widely used approach to ESP teaching because it is potentially beneficial for second language learners in a number of ways especially when performed through content. First of all, CL can provide more opportunities for L2 interaction and improve L2 proficiency (Swain, 2001). It can also help students draw on their first language (L1) while developing L2 skills (Cohen, 1986). But none of them was seriously taken into account by Iranian ELT and non-ELT instructors in ESP classes. The ESP instructors were asked to determine the influential factors responsible for shaping their beliefs about ESP and its method(s) of instruction. Among the suggested influential factors, ELT instructors referred to ―Iran‘s educational system‖, ―the present ESP textbooks‖, and ―teachers‘ personal information about ESP‖ as the most effective factors for shaping their beliefs. The non-ELT tradition, on the other hand, reported ―the present ESP text-books‖, ―Iran‘s educational system‖, and ―the way other ESP instructors operate‖ respectively determined the formation of such beliefs among them. Since ESP has been an ever-growing branch of EFL instruction in Iranian academic settings in the last three decades, there has been a great deal of improvement in curriculum development in this field. Presently, ESP courses form a remarkable part of the curriculums for almost all academic disciplines at university level. Since its infancy, materials development has seriously been the focus of interest and attention in the ESP domain. Specifically, the Iranian Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology has undertaken the responsibility of compiling ESP academic textbooks since 1980s. Meeting the learners‘ needs and enhancing the students‘ level of interest and motivation were two main factors which led the authorities of the Ministry to take the proliferation policy of publishing more than 230 ESP textbooks so far. However, the textbooks follow a rigid distribution of instructional exercises and activities for all academic disciplines with the emphasis on practicing microlinguistic aspects of reading skill. Therefore, it seems natural for us to see that both traditions select factors such as ―current educational system in Iran‖ and ―available text-books‖ as the dominant reasons for shaping ESP beliefs. The ELT and non-ELT groups only differed in terms of the third determining factor. English major instructors heavily determined ―their relevant knowledge about ESP‖ as the third priority in shaping their beliefs about ESP and its method(s) of instruction while non-ELT group reported that ―the way other ESP instructors operate in the field‖ constituted the third factor. Since non-ELT instructors predominantly did not have any prior and formal training in language science, they did believe that the way other ESP teachers operate has become a ―model‖ for them in conducting ESP courses. 1027 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Basturkmen, H. (2006). Ideas and options in English for specific purposes. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Bell, T. (1981). An introduction to applied linguistics: Approaches and methods in language teaching. London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. Brewster, J. (1999). Teaching English through content: Supporting good practice in innovation and best practice. London: Longman. Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers' thought processes. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Crandall, J. (1998). Collaborate and cooperate: Teacher education for integrating language and content instruction. FORUM. 36(1), 2. Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M.J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multidisciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Farhady, H. (2007). Needs analysis project (unpublished document). SAMT Organization. Hutchison, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jordan, R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610. Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (2nd ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. Robinson, P. C. (1991). ESP today: A practitioner's guide. London: Prentice Hall International Ltd. Strevens, P. (1988) ESP after twenty years: A real-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (ed.) ESP: State of the art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Swain, M. (2001). Integrating language and content teaching through collaborative tasks. The Canadian Modern Language Review,58, 44–63. 1028 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 573 Title A name given to the resource Iranian English Major vs. Subject-matter ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs and Instructional Practices in ESP Classes: A Comparative Study Author Author Rajabi, Peyman Kiany, Gholam Reza Maftoon, Parviz Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the advent of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), plenty of controversial issues have been raised in the academic circles all over the world. As we know, one controversial aspects of ESP domain deals with the significant role of the teacher variable. In the present study, the investigators intended to compare and contrast Iranian English major ESP instructors with their subject-matter counterparts in terms of their beliefs and classroom practices in ESP classes. A total of 423 Iranian English major (ELT) and subject-matter ESP teachers participated in the study. The results revealed that theoretically a large and wide gap exists between English major and subject-matter ESP teachers while practically this difference is very slight. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f41021843a1f901e1593d66d8aeff2e2.pdf c240fbb935ddaa4c399cdf1f64fce252 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Modernizam nasuprot postmodernizma – Ħitanje, razumijevanje, pouĦavanje Selma RaljeviĤ, M. A. Fakultet humanistiĦkih nauka Univerzitet „Dņemal BijediĤ― u Mostaru selma.raljevic@unmo.ba Saţetak: Namjera autorice jeste da ovim radom neposredno uporedi univerzalne i kulturalne specifiĦnosti u Ħitanju, razumijevanju i pouĦavanju knjiņevnog modernizma i postmodernizma s meħukulturalnog aspekta. U radu Ĥe se nastojati pobliņe osmotriti bogatstvo velikog knjiņevnog sazvijeņħa modernizma, kao i njegov diskutabilni zavrńetak u razmatranju nastanka sljedeĤe, joń uvijek prijeporno neprihvaĤene, nove knjiņevne epohe, uvjetno nazvane „postmodernizam―. S obzirom da su se ĦitalaĦke navike promijenile, i da se joń uvijek mijenjaju u postmodernom, a onda, recimo, i u post-postmodernom druńtvu kako u Zapadnom, tako i u cijelom svijetu, te pobliņe i u Bosni i Hercegovini, posebna paņnja posvetit Ĥe se knjiņevnom svijetu XX i tendencijama XXI stoljeĤa, kao i njegovom razumijevanju od globalne prema nacionalnoj perspektivi. , l KljuĦne rijeĦi: modernizam, postmodernizam, postavljanje u perspektivu, Ħitanje, razumijevanje, pouĦavan 1. Uvod: OpĤe knjiţevno-historijske odrednice modernizma Rasprave o knjiņevnoj epohi modernizma (prema latinskom modernus, franc. moderne – nov, savremen) u svjetskoj knjiņevnosti, o njenim poĦecima, nazivu, trajanju, razvoju, vode se od samog nastanka epohe, od zadnjih decenija XIX stoljeĤa, a posljednjih desetljeĤa njima se pridodaju i one o diskutabilnom zavrńetku modernizma u razmatranju nastanka sljedeĤe, nove knjiņevne epohe, uvjetno nazvane „postmodernizam―. Izmeħu mnońtva razliĦitih stajalińta i mińljenja u prouĦavanju savremenih knjiņevnih tokova i pouĦavanju o joń uvijek prijeporno neprihvaĤenoj i elokventno neodreħenoj, ali ipak zamjetljivoj, Ħak nametljivoj postmodernoj knjiņevnosti, posebno se mogu izdvojiti dvije opreĦne argumentirane moguĤnosti. Jedna zastupa viħenje da modernizam kao velika epoha svjetske knjiņevnosti joń uvijek traje, a da je unutar njega „kasni modernizam― ili „postmodernizam― najnovija razvojna faza ili razdoblje poput esteticizma i avangarde, koje su, takoħer, neki knjiņevni teoretiĦari i historiĦari odreħivali kao razdoblja unutar modernizma, za razliku od onih koji su ih shvatali i tumaĦili epohalno. Drugo shvatanje koje se najńire prihvata u Sjedinjenim AmeriĦkim Drņavama, odakle je i poteklo, sve vińe zaokuplja diskusije o savremenoj svjetskoj knjiņevnosti, bilo u analiziranju moguĤnosti ili ironiziranju takvih tumaĦenja, jeste da je knjiņevna epoha modernizma veĤ zavrńila, a da sedamdesetih godina XX stoljeĤa poĦinje postmodernizam, nova knjiņevna epoha opreĦna modernizmu. Modernizam se okvirno, ali i uvjetno, moņe odrediti na temelju protuslovlja prethodnom realizmu. Naime, on se manifestira kao svojevrsna kritika konvencijama i tradiciji realizma, mada takav stav unutar razvoja modernizma, kada se Ħak stjeĦe dojam tek relativnog nastavljanja na kasni realizam u sintezi realistiĦkih i njima opreĦnih tehnika, nije uvijek podjednako izraņen. Roman je najdominantnija knjiņevna vrsta realizma, a po svemu sudeĤi i modernizma, na osnovu koje se i mogu izvesti teoretske postavke i suprotnosti tih dviju knjiņevnih epoha. Teorija umjetniĦke proze i drame u epohi realizma temelji se uglavnom na objektivnom, vjerodostojnom, dakle pseudoscenskom mimetiĦkom opisu zbilje i nekih bitnih istina ņivota i svijeta. Nasuprot tome, u modernoj knjiņevnosti činjenice lebde u ambiguitetnom i/ili destabiliziranom, pa i ukinutom diegetiĦkom, prvenstveno paradoksalnom spoju subjektivnog i objektivnog u odnosu prema ņivotu i doņivljaju svijeta. U modernoj aluzivnosti i sloņenosti, raznolikom, virtuoznom i novom oblikovanju modusa knjiņevnog slova koje ponire u najdublju i Ĥutilnu nutarnjost, ali percipira i vanjske poticaje, knjiņevni stvaraoci 1082 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo modernizma, izmeħu ostalog, profiliraju naglańenost i autonomiju individualnosti, subverzivnost izraza i otvorenost djela. Karakteristike realizma je teńko ili gotovo nemoguĤe primijeniti na poeziju, pa se ona u ovoj knjiņevnoj epohi razvija u pravcu koji vińe odgovara romantizmu ili modernizmu. Upravo zbog toga se francuski pjesnik Charles Baudelaire (1821.-1876.), svojom originalnom, glasovitom i jednom od najutjecajnijih zbirki svjetske poezije Cvjetovi zla (Les Fleures du mal, 1857.), a zatim njegovi nastavljaĦi u francuskoj knjiņevnosti, prvenstveno Arthur Rimbaud (1854.-1891.) i Stéphane Mallarmé (1842.-1898.), smatraju zaĦetnicima moderne poezije, iako se njihova djela javljaju u epohi realizma. Epoha knjiņevnog modernizma, kao i knjiņevnost opĤenito, ne moņe se razumjeti bez shvatanja njene pojavnosti unutar kulturalne cjeline i druńtvenih okvira, kao i deńavanja i pojava koje su obiljeņile svjetsku zbilju tokom neńto vińe od stotinu godina, kako na historijskoj sceni, tako i u umjetnosti, filozofiji, nauci i religiji. Stranice historije XX stoljeĤa, moņda najkontradiktornijeg doba u ljudskoj historiji, potresle su i ispisale velika svjetska deńavanja, nauĦne spoznaje i saznanja, ubrzani razvoj tehnike i tehnologije, industrijalizaciju, urbanizaciju i globalizaciju. Prije svega, najveĤi utjecaj na knjiņevne teme i misao imao je Prvi svjetski rat (1914.-1918.), rat koji je prema zvaniĦnoj angloameriĦkoj propagandi trebao biti „kraj svih ratova―. Njegov zavrńetak je trebao oznaĦiti poĦetak nove, svjetlije buduĤnosti, ali velike nade i oĦekivanja malom Ħovjeku donijele su samo razoĦarenje i prazninu egzistencije. Upravo razoĦarenje zbog neispunjenih obeĤanja XX stoljeĤa ameriĦki knjiņevni kritiĦar i intelektualac Harry Levin (1912.-1994.), vidi kao prvu premisu modernizma. Prema njegovom mińljenju, druga premisa ove epohe jeste fascinacija, Ħak ponekad i opsjednutost, fenomenom vremena. Naime, poseban utjecaj na knjiņevni izraz imala je i „specijalna teorija relativnosti― fiziĦara Alberta Einsteina (1879.-1955.) iz 1905. godine, koja je otkriĤem da je i vrijeme relativno promijenila dotadańnju percepciju o pravolinijskoj koncepciji vremena. TreĤa bitnost stvaralańtva modernizma, kako to Levin prepoznaje, jeste tematsko-idejna supstanca fiziĦkog ili duhovnog otuħenja, izgnanstva, egzila i odricanja nacionalnog identiteta, ńto je vjerovatno najbolje iskazao irski titan modernizma James Joyce (1882.-1941.) svojim polu-autobiografskim Bildungsromanom – Portret mladog umjetnika (A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, 1916.). Pariz je bio centar „otuħenih― umjetnika, u kojem su se, u tutorstvu ameriĦke knjiņevnice Gertrude Stein (1874.-1946.) privremeno izgubili i mnogi ameriĦki stvaraoci. U njemu je i samoizgnani Joyce rekreirao svoj rodni Dublin, te uspjeńno ostvario eksperiment Uliksa (Ulysses, 1922.), jednog od najkapitalnijih djela moderne knjiņevnosti, za koje se moņe ustvrditi da i jeste, na svojstven naĦin, „proizvod― ili, bolje reĤi, „plod― grada. Tako nije iznenaħujuĤa intencija i nastojanje njenih stvaralaca da u svojim djelima rekreiraju sliku grada. Godina 1922, ne samo zbog objavljivanja Uliksa, ali svakako i zbog toga, smatra se kao Annus mirabilis modernizma iz vińe razloga, mada se zapravo cijela epoha moņe nazvati briljantnim sazvijeņħem u univerzumu svjetske knjiņevnosti. Pored niza bitnih deńavanja, u toj godini desila se Proustova (1871.-1922.) smrt i objavljivanje Sodome i Gomore (Sodome et Gomorrhe), sredińnjeg dijela njegovog golemog ciklusa romana pod zajedniĦkim nazivom U traganju za izgubljenim vremenom (À la recherche du temps perdu, 1913.-1927.), kao i prva pojava njegovih djela u Engleskoj. Iste godine, dakle, veliki ameriĦki profet modernizma engleskog knjiņevnog ukusa, pjesnik i knjiņevni kritiĦar Thomas Stearns (obiĦno T. S.) Eliot (1888.-1965.) objavio je „paradigmatiĦnu poemu modernizma― (RadeljkoviĤ, 2004: 99) pod nazivom Pusta zemlja (The Waste Land). Svjetska knjiņevnost obogaĤena je i odreħenim djelima: Davida Herberta (obiĦno D. H.) Lawrencea (1885.1930.), Virginije Woolf (1882.-1941.), Katherine Mansfield (1888.-1923.), Thomasa Hardyja (1840.1928.), Williama Butlera Yeatsa (1865.-1939.), Maxa Beerbohma (1872.-1956.), Paula Valéryja (1871.-1945.), Bertolta Brechta (1898.-1956.), Rainer Maria Rilkea (1876.-1926.), Sinclaira Lewisa (1885.-1951.), Eugenea O'Neilla (1888.-1953.), i drugih. 2. Modernizam u knjiţevnoj Bosni i Hercegovini U knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine kao Annus mirabilis modernog izraza mogla bi se oznaĦiti 1966. godina, kada su objavljeni svjetski poznati: roman Derviš i smrt, Mehmeda Meńe SelimoviĤa (1910.-1982.) i zbirka poezije Kameni spavač, Mehmedalije Maka Dizdara (1917.-1971.). PoetiĦki i knjiņevno-historijski razvojni procesi i pojave u bosanskohercegovaĦkoj knjiņevnosti u prvoj polovini XX stoljeĤa, pa sve do pojave Ive AndriĤa i njegovog romana, ne prate aktuelne evropske i svjetske knjiņevne tokove, s izuzetkom poetskog romana Grozdanin kikot (1927.) Hamze Hume (1895.-1970.) i romanesknih pokuńaja Novaka SimiĤa (1906.-1981.). Na Huminim zasadima poĦivaju poĦeci modernog knjiņevnog izraza, koji Ĥe se u knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine ozbiljnije razviti tek ńezdesetih godina XX stoljeĤa. Dominantni knjiņevni model bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti sve do tridesetih godina XX stoljeĤa jeste prosvjetiteljski, iako je u tom periodu ekspresionizam veĤ osjetno obuhvatio knjiņevne interese podneblja. Potpuno prevladavanje prosvjetiteljske dominacije desit Ĥe se 1083 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo uzletom poezije artizma, koja na podlozi ideje o knjiņevnoj samosvrhovitosti i autonomnosti oslobaħa umjetniĦku svijest od tradicionalnih sprega. Musa ģazim ģatiĤ (1878.-1915.) i njegova poezija na granici tradicije i moderne predstavljaju iskriĦavi bljesak u bosanskohercegovaĦkim poetiĦkim modelima toga doba i njihov zaokret prema evropskim i svjetskim knjiņevnim tendencijama modernizma. Tako Ĥe se i razvoj bosankohercegovaĦkog romana okvirno deńavati u ozraĦju dvaju perioda – kanonskog i nekanonskog. Odrednice prvog perioda, koji traje od kraja XIX do prve polovine XX stoljeĤa, jesu okońtali, kanonizirani, klasiĦni ņanrovi, a razvijaju se unutar prosvjetiteljskog i artističkog modela. Drugi, nekanonski period, zapoĦinje u drugoj polovini XX stoljeĤa procesom individualizacije identiteta unutar romanesknog iskaza, raskidom sa ideolońkim sistemom i eksperimentalnim istraņivanjima moguĤnosti knjiņevnog slova. Razvija se u okvirima artističkog i tzv. semiotičkog modela, koji dominira krajem XX stoljeĤa. Uvaņeni esejista i knjiņevni kritiĦar Enver Kazaz kategorizira bońnjaĦki i bosanskohercegovaĦki roman nekanonskog modela, pri Ħemu okvirno primjenjuje nacrt slike hrvatskog romana u periodu od 1945. do 1990. godine Cvjetka Milanje (Hrvatski roman 1945-1990, nacrt moguće tipologije hrvatske romaneskne prakse, 1996.), prema slijedeĤoj tipologijskoj shemi: 1. simplificirani mimetiĦki model, 2. sloņeniji tip mimetiĦkog modela, 3. egzistencijalistiĦki roman, 4. strukturalistiĦki model, 5. fantastiĦki model, 6. ņanrovski roman, 7. novopovijesni roman, 8. autobiografski roman, 9. teorijski roman. Meħutim, takva tipologija moņe se samo uvjetno primijeniti na romaneskni iskaz bosanskohercegovaĦkih knjiņevnika s obzirom na paradigmatiĦnost pojedinih romana, ńto primjeĤuje i Kazaz. On odstupanje od modela pojańnjava na paradoksu odreħenih romana koji obuhvataju nekoliko Milanjinih tipova, kakvi su npr. Derviš i smrt Meńe SelimoviĤa, Pobuna materije (1985.) Alije IsakoviĤa (1932.-1997.), i drugi. Modernizam ili moderna, prema usvojenom terminu bosanskohercegovaĦke, kao i pluralne juņnoslavenske literarne prakse, u knjiņevnim tokovima Bosne i Hercegovine javlja se u drugoj polovini XX stoljeĤa pojavom romana Ive AndriĤa (Travnička hronika, 1945; Na Drini ćuprija, 1945; GospoĎica, 1945; Prokleta avlija, 1954.), Meńe SelimoviĤa (Tišine, 1961; Magla i mjesečina, 1965; Derviš i smrt i TvrĎava, 1970.), Dervińa SuńiĤa (1925.-1990.) (Ja Danilo, 1960. i Danilo u stavu mirno, 1961.), novog lirskog iskaza individualnog glasa u poeziji Maka Dizdara (Kameni spavač) i Skendera KulenoviĤa (1910.-1978.) (Soneti, 1968.), ali i knjiņevne kritike i esejistike, poput one Ivana Fogla i Ivana Fochta. Moderni proces prevlasti individualnog i estetskog nad kolektivnim i ideolońkim zapoĦeo je, zapravo, u drugoj deceniji XX stoljeĤa Huminim panerotskim doņivljajem svijeta u romanu Grozdanin kikot i paradigmatiĦnim proznim tekstovima u kojima se isprepliĤu ekspresionizam, poetika avangarde i stanovite tradicionalne odlike pripovijedanja. U Sarajevu se moderno knjiņevno otkrovenje i zbacivanje okova ideologije deńavalo sporije nego u veĤim centrima poput Zagreba i Beograda. Tako Midhat BegiĤ (Raskršća IV, bosanskohercegovačke knjiţevne teme, 1987.) utvrħuje da prvi poratni period knjiņevnosti u BiH, socijalni realizam ili socrealizam, kasnije obiljeņen odrednicom simplificiranog, odnosno pojednostavljenog mimetičkog modela koji pripada prosvjetiteljskom ili kanonskom poetičkokulturalnom makromodelu, traje sve do 1954. godine. Iz rata je proizańla novonastala vrsta memoarske proze s najveĤim utjecajem na bosanskohercegovaĦku poratnu pripovijetku s posrednim ili neposrednim ideolońkim usmjerenjem da knjiņevni tekst djeluje u sluņbi Revolucije, veliĦa herojsku ratnu prońlost i podstiĦe na izgradnju, oĦuvanje i jaĦanje svijetle socijalistiĦke buduĤnosti. Pedestih godina XX stoljeĤa Sarajevo joń nije imalo znaĦaj velikog knjiņevnog centra, veĤ se smatralo, naroĦito van njega, knjiņevnom provincijom. To je bio jedan od razloga ńto su se mnogi bosanskohercegovaĦki pisci nastanili u Beogradu i Zagrebu, i time veĤinom postali srpski ili hrvatski. Meħutim, kako to zapaņa tadańnja i kasnija knjiņevna kritika, niti jedan pisac porijeklom iz Bosne i Hercegovine nije odlaskom iz nje napustio knjiņevni hronotop i tematiku rodnoga kraja. PolitiĦka uvjetovanost Bosne i Hercegovine unutar bivńe SFRJ utjecala je na nacionalnu opredjeljenost mnogih pisaca toga perioda. Tako se, na primjer, jedan od najveĤih bosanskohercegovaĦkih knjiņevnika Meńa SelimoviĤ samostalno deklarirao kao srpski pisac. Zbog toga i u savremenim gledińtima dolazi do konfuzije i svojatanja neupitnog bosanskohercegovaĦkog pisca u kanonskim odreħenjima srpske knjiņevnosti. Nov odnos prema svijetu, suprotan od okvira ideolońkih sprega, i po mnogo Ħemu drugaĦiju osjeĤajnost vjerovatno je prvi izrazio Mak Dizdar 1954. godine poemom „PlivaĦica―, „koja se s obzirom na trenutak moņe uzeti kao spontani proglas zaokreta koji je bosanskohercegovaĦka poezija doņivjela pedesetih godina.― (BegiĤ, 1987: 27) Osim toga, BegiĤ istiĦe znaĦaj pripovijetke Riste TrifkoviĤa, te romana ģamila SijariĤa (191.3-1989.) (Bihorci, 1956; Kuću kućom čine lastavice, 1962; Mojkovačka bitka, 1968.), Anħelka VuletiĤa (1933.) (Gorko sunce, 1957; Drvo s paklenih vrata, 1963; Deveto čudo na istoku, 1966.), SuńiĤa (Ja Danilo), Nedņada IbrińimoviĤa (1940.) (Ugursuz, 1968.), Vitomira LukiĤa (1929.-1991.) (Album, 1968.) i SelimoviĤa (Derviš i smrt), u sagledavanju moderne bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevne sveukupnosti. ModernistiĦka paradigma romaneskne orijentiranosti na poetsko-simboliĦku ispovijest, zaĦeta u Huminom romanu, potpuno se uobliĦila u djelu AndriĤa, 1084 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo jedinog bosanskohercegovaĦkog nobelovca (1961.). U vezi s tim, Kazaz istiĦe bitnost raskida sa ideolońkim sistemom u AndriĤevoj Prokletoj avliji kao presudni iskaz u odreħenju ukupnog diskursa bosanskohercegovaĦkog politiĦkog romana modernizma, iako Ĥe se potpuno osloboħenje od ideolońkih okova u knjiņevnom tekstu, prema njegovom mińljenju, desiti tek u antiratnoj postmodernoj poetici. On dodaje slijedeĤe: AndriĤ je, naime, otvorio put paraboličkom govoru o traumatičnom prezentu i to junakom apsurdnog iskustva koji ņivi unutar druńtva kao zvjerinjaka. Parabola je otud temeljna narativna figura bosanskohercegovaĦkog politiĦkog romana koji se metaforizacijom i parabolizacijom iskaza opire diktatu ideolońkog uma. U centru njegove priĦe je junak apsurdnog iskustva, a po prvi put u kontekstu bosanskohercegovaĦkog romana i deheroizirani junak... Figura heroja zamijenjena je figurom poraţenog čovjeka, figurom koja Ĥe postati dominantni iskaz bosanskohercegovaĦkog romana modernistiĦke paradigme. (Kazaz, 2004: 44, 46) Suprostavljanje vladajuĤem sistemu, ideologiji i dogmatizmu narativnom figurom poraņenog Ħovjeka, te propitivanje suńtine ljudske sadrņine, nakon Proklete avlije, nastavit Ĥe se u SelimoviĤevim romanima Derviš i smrti i TvrĎava. Svijest o smislu ņivota glavnih junaka ovih romana, Ahmeda Nurudina i Ahmeta Ńabe, izraņena je krikom koji se najĦeńĤe zamrzava, paralizira u unutarnjim sferama pojedinca kao zatoĦenika povijesnog bremena mraĦne moĤi druńtva, historije kao vjeĦnog vraĤanja istog zla i teńkog usuda malog Ħovjeka na putu prema posljednjem ishodińtu. SelimoviĤ na naĦin zapadnjaĦkih pisaca problematizira specifiĦni orijentalni islamski senzibilitet i dileme koje su daleko sloņenije od Ħvrsto ukorijenjenih religijskih dogmi, pa je tako lirski prostor njegovog knjiņevnog svijeta dramatiziran egzistencijalistiĦkim i kulturolońko-politiĦkim traumama bivanja u neteološkom modelu historije. Roman Derviš i smrt, preveden na nekoliko svjetskih jezika, smatra se jednim od najvrijednijih ostvarenja bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti i prvim modernim bońnjaĦkim romanom, kako ga je okvalificirala knjiņevna kritika. Kazaz naglańava da je to ustvari roman „modernističke paradigme koji svojim metatekstualnim aspektima najavljuje kasnija postmoderna romaneskna kretanja.― (Kazaz, 2004: 136) Najpreciznija odrednica bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti nekanonskog modela jeste opozicija okońtalim ņanrovima kanonskog perioda, odnosno opreka modernog izraza klasicizmu i realizmu. Moderna knjiņevna kretanja u knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine karakterizira, zapravo, fluidnost, neodreħenost, neuhvatljivost i raznolikost odrednica kod razliĦitih pisaca i pjesnika, ńto se odnosi i na razvoj modernog iskaza i njegove elemente unutar djela jednog knjiņevnika. Pisci i pjesnici druge polovine XX stoljeĤa razliĦito ispoljavaju paradigmatiĦnost moderne, pa tako njihova djela grade ńaroliki mozaik modernizma i/ili u spektru: neoromantizma, neorealizma, avangarde, naturalizma, simbolizma, ekspresionizma, egzistencijalizma i drugih eksperimentalnih moguĤnosti moderne. U skladu s tim, poetiku, odnosno, poetike modernizma u knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine oblikovali su, osim pomenutih stvaralaca, i slijedeĤi knjiņevnici: Mladen OljaĦa (1926.-1994.), Feħa ŃehoviĤ (1930.), Muhamed KondņiĤ (1932.-1966.), Tvrtko KulenoviĤ (1935.), Danilo Kiń (1935.-1989.), Husein BańiĤ (1938.-2007.), Jasmina MusabegoviĤ (1941.), Zuvdija HodņiĤ (1944.), Irfan HorozoviĤ (1947.), Zilhad KljuĦanin (1960.), i drugi. Pored Dizdara i KulenoviĤa, modernizam je procvao i u poeziji: Nikole Ńopa (1904.-1982.), Dare SekuliĤ (1931.), Huseina TahmińĦiĤa (1931.-1999.), Duńka TrifunoviĤa (1933.2006.), Veselka Koromana (1934.), Bisere AlikadiĤ (1939.), Abdulaha Sidrana (1944.), Mubere PańiĤ (1945.), Marka VeńoviĤa (1945.), Stevana TontiĤa (1946.), i drugih. Sve to dokaz je plodnog i specifiĦnog tla modernizma bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti, kao i njenog cjelokupnog identiteta osobitog multinacionalnog ustrojstva na raskrńĤu izmeħu Istoka i Zapada, koji i pored rasprava o njenoj marginaliziranosti, pa Ħak i o postojanju identiteta knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, obitava veĤ stoljeĤima. Posebna interkulturalna historija bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti istiĦe nezanemarivu mnogostuku povezanost sa procesima i pojavama na ńirem juņnoslavenskom kulturnom prostoru, svakako ne u davno prevaziħenoj konstrukciji „jugoslavenske knjiņevnosti―, veĤ u dugotrajnim knjiņevno-historijskim procesima susretanja, doticaja i prepleta naroda, kultura i umjetnosti. Moderni umjetnici od pera Bosne i Hercegovine stvorili su magijom svoga knjiņevnog slova iskriĦav sjaj u velikom sazvijeņħu svjetske poetike modernizma, koji uvijek iznova poziva na nova Ħitanja i ińĦitavanja. 3. Modernizam u svjetskoj knjiţevnosti Posmatrano hronolońki, u odreħenom smislu prva od mnogih modernih proklamacija radikalnog raskida sa tradicijom i prońlońĤu smatra se Komunistički manifest (Comunist Manifesto, 1085 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1848.) Karla Marxa (1818.-1883.) i Friedricha Engelsa (1820.-1895.), koji su razvili ideju o ljudskom otuħenju u kapitalistiĦkom druńtvu i potrebom za proleterskom revolucijom u cilju postizanja druńtvenih promjena. Znatnu ulogu preteĦa knjiņevnog modernizma, koji su Ħesto i asocijativno prisutni u njegovim gradbenim principima, imaju i mnoge liĦnosti, pravci i deńavanja u ostalim aspektima razvoja, promjena i manifestacija ljudske misli, u vezi s Ħim poseban znaĦaj, izmeħu ostalih, imaju: Charles Darwin (1809.-1882.), Sigmund Freud (1856.-1939.), Henri Bergson (1859.-1941.), Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844.-1900.), Ferdinand de Saussure (1857.-1913.) i, veĤ pomenuti, Albert Einstein. Tokom XIX stoljeĤa otkriĤa prirodnih nauka i racionalizam filozofije poljuljali su vjeru u validnost i kredibilitet dominantnih religioznih dogmi. S preobratom Ħvrsto ustoliĦenog starog reda najĦeńĤe se povezuje Darwinovo ime, Ħija su naĦela, izraņena u knjizi Postanak vrsta (The Origin of Species, 1859.), postala novim modelom spoznaje. Njegova teorija evolucije i socijalni darwinizam, s idejom o preņivljavanju najsposobnijih, pokrenuli su propitivanje dominacije religiozne ideologije nad naukom. Kontraverzne reakcije i efekat ńoka meħu ńirom javnosti izazvala su, takoħer, otkriĤa i djela austrijskog neurologa i tvorca psihoanalize u psihijatriji, Sigmunda Freuda. U tome prednjaĦe njegova formulacija Edipovog kompleksa (1897.), koncepta koji je razvio da bi objasnio razvoj djeĦaka kroz identifikaciju s ocem i ņelju prema majci, te djelo Tumačenje snova (Die Traumdeutung, 1900.), koje se temelji na analizi njegovih vlastitih snova. Zajedno sa osnivaĦem analitiĦke psihologije Carlom Jungom (1875.-1961.), svojim sljedbenikom s kojim se kasnije razińao, Freud je 1910. godine osnovao meħunarodno PsihoanalitiĦko udruņenje. U svojim djelima Freud je dokazivao da je Ħovjekov psihiĦki ņivot neprekidan dinamiĦki proces, u kojem se neprestano deńava sukob i izmirenje svjesnih teņnji i nesvjesnih poriva. On je prvi i ukazao na postojanje nesvjesnih podruĦja psihe, ńto je u potpunosti odudaralo od dotadańnjeg razumijevanja i tradicionalnog tumaĦenja Ħovjekovog biĤa. Prema Freudu, struktura liĦnosti sastoji se iz tri segmenta koji se, dakle, meħusobno sukobljavaju i osporavaju. To su: Ego – „Ja― kao Ħovjekova samosvijest, Id – „Ono― kao uroħena komponenta i podruĦje iz kojeg djeluje nesvjesno, i Super-ego – „Nad-Ja― kao neuroħeni dio psihiĦke formacije koji se razvija socijalizacijom i Ħijoj se strukturi Ħovjeka kao moralnog i druńtvenog biĤa njegov Ego Ħesto povinuje i protiv svoje volje. S druge strane, Ego balansira Super-ego da ne ode previńe u idealnost. Upravo takva slika Ħovjekove psihe pokazala se podsticajnom i ńiroko primjenljivom u knjiņevnom stvaralańtvu i tumaĦenju knjiņevnosti. Postulate novog razumijevanja stvarnosti, ńto je takoħer utjecalo na knjiņevnu rijeĦ, dao je i francuski filozof Henri Bergson (Time and Free Will, 1889.). On je smatrao da je subjektivni, nutarnji doņivljaj realnog vremena (Dureé) drugaĦiji od prostornog, linearnog, hronologijskog vremena historije (Temps). S obzirom da se prońlost moņe oĦuvati jedino u sjeĤanju, Bergson je isticao da nińta ne moņe biti zaboravljeno jer je sve pohranjeno u svijesti, Ħak i ako se to ne nalazi na njenoj povrńini. Mińljenje Ħuvenog ameriĦkog historiĦara religije i knjiņevnika rumunjskog porijekla Mircea Eliadea (1907.1986.) jeste da vrijeme protiĦe u zatvorenom krugu i da svaka nova godina oznaĦava poĦetak kozmosa. Prema njemu, potpuno prihvatanje linearnog, dakle historijskog vremena, jedan je od razloga modernih Ħovjekovih tjeskoba. Pored Einsteinove koncepcije vremena, nove tendencije i tumaĦenja promijenili su naĦin prikaza i recepcije vremena u modernoj knjiņevnosti, poĦevńi od Prousta, a zatim i u djelima: Forda Madox Forda (1873.-1939.), V. Woolf, J. Joycea, Windhama Lewisa (1882.-1957.), T. S. Eliota, Aldousa Huxleya (1894.-1963.), Williama Faulknera (1897.-1962.), i drugih. OpĤenito promijenjeni ili prońireni svjetonazor uzrokovao je, u naĦelu, degradaciju starih i razvoj novih tehnika u umjetnosti, pa time i u knjiņevnosti. U modernom romanu tako se prevazilazi stara pripovijedna tehnika i ostvaruje personalna perspektiva u tehnikama unutarnjeg monologa ili slobodnog neupravnog govora. U oba sluĦaja, kako to naglańava Viktor ŅmegaĦ, „roman nastoji pronaĤi stilski primjeren izraz za svoju najupadljiviju inovaciju u tom razdoblju: oblikovanje 'struje svijesti', dakle iregularnosti svakodnevnih psihiĦkih, tj. opaņajnih i refleksivnih, procesa – dakako, u onoj mjeri u kojoj narav knjiņevnosti takvo oblikovanje dopuńta.― (ŅmegaĦ, 2004: 316-317) Naziv „struja svijesti― potiĦe od ameriĦkog psihologa i filozofa Williama Jamesa (1842.-1910.), inaĦe brata poznatog romanopisca Henryja Jamesa (1843.-1916.). U djelu Načela psihologije (The Principles of Psychology, 1890.), W. James je konstatovao da je svijest poput rijeke ili strujanja, te ju je nazvao strujom misli ili svijesti. Vjerovatno najosobitije oblikovanje struje svijesti pomoĤu unutarnjeg monologa knjiņevnog lika predoĦavaju romani V. Woolf, J. Joycea i W. Faulknera. Woolfova je svoje shvaĤanje o moguĤnostima modernog romana, novom i nekonvencionalnom pristupu svakidańnjim ņivotnim pojavama izrekla u eseju „Moderna proza― (―Modern Fiction―, 1919.). Osim toga, u eseju „Gospodin Bennett i gospoħa Brown― (―Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown―, 1924), Woolfova pińe da je sklona vjerovanju, teńko dokazivom, kako dodaje, da se oko 1910. godine ljudska narav poĦela mijenjati. Ona istiĦe da su prijelomna razdoblja, kakvim poima i vrijeme prije Prvog svjetskog rata, obiljeņila duboke promjene u ljudskom shvaĤanju ņivota, pa tako i u knjiņevnosti, ńto se posebno 1086 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo odrazilo na romanu. Prema spisateljicinom mińljenju, ņiņa modernog romana treba da bude usmjerena na predoĦavanje lika ńto je, ponovo, radikalna suprotnost starim konvencijama. Jedna od krilatica modernizma u smislu osobene renovacije velike literature prońlosti koja postaje inovacija postala je fraza „Obnovi(te)!― (―Make it New!―, 1934.) Ezre Pounda (1885.-1972.), a koja je potekla iz KonfuĦijevog teksta o „zlatnoj sredini―. Krajem XIX, poĦetkom XX stoljeĤa, Ħovjek kao jedinka postajao je sve nezadovoljniji svrsihovitońĤu univerzalnog postojanja, ńto je razvilo i sumnje u Boņije prisustvo, kako u intelektualnoj sferi, tako i u graħanskoj masi. Sve je to utjecalo na razvoj misaonih supstrata modernizma, Ħemu je uveliko pridonijela i filozofija Friedricha Nietzschea, iako se on podjednako moņe shvatiti i kao snaņno dimenzionirani antimodernist. Prema Nietzscheu, ņivot je bjesomuĦna borba u kojoj je „umro Bog―, i gdje pobjeħuju sposobniji i jaĦi. Njegova filozofija poziva da se promijene sve okamenjene vrijednosti, kao i da se teņi novom idealu natčovjeka (prema njem. Übermensch) koji je iznad druńtvenog morala, ţelje za moći i vječnog ponavljanja. Nietzsche mijenja dotadańnje znaĦenje mita o vječnom vraćanju, i obrazlaņe koncept vječnog ponavljanja istoga kao dionizijsko i ontolońko naĦelo o vrtloņnom kretanju ņivota i bitka. Takvo naĦelo ne odnosi se na kozmiĦki dogaħaj izvan Ħovjeka, veĤ na onaj unutar samog njegovog biĤa. S obzirom da se na taj naĦin bitak nikada ne spoznaje, Nietzsche ovu filozofsku misao smatra zastrańujuĤom i paralizirajuĤom. Glasovite tvrdnje, aspekte i postavke njegove filozofije razjańnjavaju autorova kapitalna djela: S onu stranu dobra i zla (Jenseits von Gut und Böse, 1886.), Uz genealogiju morala (Zur Genealogie der Moral, 1887.), Tako je govorio Zaratustra (Also sprach Zarathustra, 1883.-1892.). Na razmeħu epoha, ne samo temporalnom, veĤ i knjiņevnom, revolucionarne inovacije desile su se i u jeziku. U poeziji se tako javlja slobodni stih; izraņavanje emocionalnog ņivota se individualizira, pri Ħemu se od Baudelairea pa nadalje nastoji postiĤi savrńenstvo jeziĦkog izraza, mada za to, u duhu modernizma, nisu ustanovljena nikakva opĤa pravila. Savremena lingvistika jeziĦnim pojavama pristupa na nov naĦin, a pod njenim utjecajem knjiņevno djelo u svojoj osobitosti poĦinje se razmatrati, prije svega, kao jeziĦka tvorevina. Utemeljitelj strukturalne lingvistike, Ferdinand de Saussure, formulira i definira pojmove bitne za razumijevanje i analizu, kako jezika, tako i knjiņevnosti. Njegovo razlikovanje jezika i govora, označitelja i označenog (ńto u najńirem smislu, ali ne i u odreħenim lingvistiĦkim teorijama, odgovara planu izraza i planu sadrţaja u teoretskom sagledavanju knjiņevnog djela), te dijahronije i sinhronije, kljuĦno je u razvoju teorije strukturalizma i tzv. poststrukturalizma, ali prvenstveno u shvatanju jezika kao sredstva sporazumijevanja u ńirokom prouĦavanju i raznovrsnoj analizi njegove specifiĦne strukture. 4. Nova knjiţevna epoha postmodernizma? Ono ńto je dominantno od sredine ńezdesetih godina XX stoljeĤa, u veĤ opĤeprihvaĤeno nazvanoj, mada diskutabilnoj – postmodernoj knjiņevnosti, u kojoj se iskuńava sve i svańta, i gdje sve prolazi (anything goes338), jeste da se jezik doņivljava kao igra, koja se igra prema sopstvenim odreħenim pravilima.U literarnu igru ukljuĦuje se i tradicija i knjiņevna prońlost, koje se doņivljavaju kao muzej znakova, a kojima se postmodernisti slobodno koriste. Jedno od osnovnih obiljeņja postmodernizma je ono ńto Jean Baudrillard (Simulacra and Simulation, 1998.) oznaĦava kao simulacrum, odnosno gubitak realnog, ńto predstavlja ińĦezavanje realnosti i suńtine iza prezentacije i povrńine. Dakle, slika dominira nad stvarnońĤu. Prema njegovom tumaĦenju, na taj naĦin brińu se granice izmeħu realnog i njegove slike, u Ħemu se izjednaĦava vrijednost izmeħu reprezentacije realnog i njene simulacije, gdje je simulacra, zapravo, kopija kopije (a copy of a copy). Na taj naĦin nastaje kultura hiper-realnosti. Baudrillard u objańnjenju simulacruma predoĦava Disneyland kao arhetipski primjer novog neautentiĦnog ameriĦkog krajolika. Uklanjanje znaĦenja iz knjiņevnog teksta, odnosno semiolońki skepticizam postmodernizma, kako to objańnjava Zdenko LeńiĤ (Teorija knjiţevnosti, 2005.), s jedne strane je posljedica nepovjerenja u jezik i njegovu sposobnost da ińta pouzdano oznaĦava, a s druge strane je izraz sumnje da se svijet uopĤe moņe razumjeti, pa Ħak i da on ima bilo kakvo znaĦenje. Postmoderna umjetnost, nadalje, brińe granice izmeħu „elitne― i „popularne― kulture, ima blagonaklon stav prema kiĦu, artificijelnosti, komercijalizaciji i elektronskom druńtvu kojoj i sama pripada. Ńtovińe, ona sama tako poprima obiljeņja neĦega ńto se uvjetno moņe nazvati komercijalnom umjetnosti ili proizvodom masovne kulture. Prema parafraziranim Levinovim rijeĦima iz njegovog 338 „... jedna od sredińnjih krilatica postmoderne... rijeĦi iz glavnog djela Popperova uĦenika Paula Feyerabenda, austrijskog teoretiĦara znanosti, koji je kao nastavnik na ameriĦkim sveuĦilińtima objavljivao i na engleskom jeziku. RijeĦ je o knjizi Against method. Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge (1975), koju autor naziva 'anarhistiĦnom' jer se suprotstavlja uvjerenju da posvoje posve pouzdani, logiĦki i racionalno neprijeporni metodolońki sustavi.― (ŅmegaĦ, 2004: 449) 1087 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo glasovitog eseja, Ħak iz 1962. godine, pod nazivom „Ńta je bio modernizam?― (―What Was Modernism?―), u umjetnosti epohe napredne tehnologije produkcija je zapravo reprodukcija, a njeni su stvaraoci uglavnom konzumatori umjetnosti. U knjiņevnosti postmodernizam karakterińu i autoreferencijalnost, hibridnost i intertekstualnost, pluralnost kao afirmacija razliĦitosti, te skepticizam, dekonstrukcija i konstrukcija unutar dekonstrukcije s beskrajnim nizom tekstualnih moguĤnosti unutar jeziĦke igre. Vjerovatno najtemeljitiji, ńiroko citirani prikaz karakteristika postmodernizma, posebno u njegovim odnosu prema modernizmu, dao je ameriĦki knjiņevni kritiĦar i pisac arapskog porijekla Ihab Hassan u „Pristupu pojmu postmodernizma― (―Toward a Concept of Postmodernism―, 1987.). Izmeħu ostalog, po njemu, razlike su sljedeĤe: ↨ Modernizam Forma (povezana, zatvorena) Namjera Plan Hijerarhija UmijeĤe/Logos UmjetniĦki predmet/Zavrńeno djelo Distanca Ņanr/Granice Semantika OznaĦeno ↔ Postmodernizam Antiforma (nepovezana, otvorena) Igra SluĦajnost Anarhija Iscrpljenost/Tińina Proces/Izvedba/Dogaħanje Participacija Tekst/Interkest Retorika OznaĦitelj (LeńiĤ, 2005: 507) Postmodernizam dijeli mnoge tehniĦke postupke i umijeĤe konstruiranja sa avangardom, ali se od nje razilazi u odnosu prema tradiciji, koju on ne osporava. Historija je samo joń jedna vrsta naracije sa kojom postmoderni tekst komunicira, bilo da je rekonstruira, prońiruje i uvaņava ili dekonstruira, ironizira i osporava. Dakle, postmodernizam realnost tumaĦi na posve osobit i nov naĦin, potpuno drugaĦiji od onoga svojstvenog knjiņevnoj epohi realizma, pri Ħemu se koristi i elementima masovne kulture, odnosno savremene tehnike i tehnologije. U tom smislu postoji tendencija za karakterizacijom ove osobenosti savremene knjiņevnosti u prikazu nove realnosti, ńto god da ona podrazumijeva, uvjetnom odrednicom „novi realizam―. Nadalje, u postmodernizmu se desila i smrt autora. To je fraza Rolanda Barthesa (1926.-1984.) i Michaela Focaulta (1915.-1980.) kojom se opisuje postmoderni tekst kao vińedimenzionalni prostor u kojem se stapaju i/ili sukobljavaju razna pisana djela, od kojih niti jedno nije originalno, a u kojem znaĦenja postaju posjed i dio igre tumaĦa, odnosno Ħitaoca. Zbog svega toga, a prvenstveno pod dojmom da roman u knjiņevnosti ne moņe ponuditi vińe nińta novo, povele su se duge rasprave, ponajvińe o tzv. „smrti romana―, a zatim i o globalnijem i apokaliptiĦnijem predskazanju o tzv. smrti knjiņevnosti. Izmeħu ostalih, tako je i svjetski renomirani knjiņevni kritiĦar Hugh Kenner (1923.-2003.) napisao esej „Posljednji romanopisac― (―The Last Novelist―, 1989.) u kojem se pita da li je veliki ameriĦki pisac William Faulkner zapravo i posljednji romanopisac. Mnogi knjiņevni historiĦari i teoretiĦari knjiņevnosti argumentirali su tvrdnje i mińljenja da je „roman umro― nakon Joycea i Faulknera, a nastankom lingvistiĦke igre Vladimira Nabokova (1899.-1977.), Johna Bartha (1930.) i Thomasa Pynchona (1937.), koji se smatraju utemeljiteljima postmodernizma. „Smrt romana― opsjedala je i ameriĦkog nobelovca kanadskog porijekla, Saula Bellowa (1915.-2005.). T. S. Eliot je Ħak iznio mińljenje da se kraj romana usljed gubitka forme desio sa Flaubertom i Jamesom (―Ulysses, Order and Myth―, 1923.). 5. ZakljuĦak UnatoĦ predviħanjima, proklamacijama i tvrdnjama o kraju ili smrti knjiņevnosti, njen opseņni krajolik iz dana u dan postaje sve ńiri. U njemu modernizam zauzima jedno od najplodnijih podruĦja nevjerovatne ljudske genijalnosti, koje su svojim djelima, osim dugog niza pomenutih knjiņevnih stvaralaca, obogatili i sljedeĤi pisci: Joseph Conrad (Teodor Joseph Konrad Korzeniowski, 1857.1924.), André Gide (1869.-1951.), Henri Barbusse (1873.-1935.), Thomas Mann (1875.-1955.), Mihail Bulgakov (1881.-1940.), Franz Kafka (1883.-1924.), Hermann Broch (1886.-1951.), Miroslav Krleņa (1893.-1981.), Francis Scott Fitzgerald (1896.-1940.), John Dos Passos (1896.-1970.), Erich Maria Remarque (1898.-1970.), Ernest Hemingway (1899.-1961.), Thomas Wolfe (1900.-1938.) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905.-1980.), Eudora Welty (1909.-2001.), Albert Camus (1913.-1960.), Carson McCullers (1917.-1967.), Truman Capote (1924.-1984.), te Flannery O'Connor (1925.-1964.). U sazvijeņħu 1088 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo modernizma zaiskrili su i pjesnici: Robert Frost (1874.-1963.), Wallace Stevens (1879.-1955.), Boris LeonidoviĦ Pasternak (1890.-1960.), Tin UjeviĤ (1891.-1955.), Paul Éluard (1895.-1952.), Federico Garcìa Lorca (1898.-1936.), Pablo Neruda (1904.-1979.), i drugi. Dramsko stvaralańtvo modernizma, izmeħu ostalih, obiljeņili su: Luigi Pirandello (1867.-1936.), Eugene O'Neil, Samuel Beckett (1906.1991.), Eugene Ionesco (1912.-1994.). Ńtovińe, bez obzira na objave o smrti knjiņevnosti, knjiņevna djela neĤe se naĤi u osmrtnicama nekih dnevnih novina, niti Ĥe to oznaĦiti kraj Ħitanja. ĥinjenica jeste da su se ĦitalaĦke navike promijenile, kao i da se joń uvijek mijenjaju u postmodernom, a onda, recimo, i u post-postmodernom druńtvu, u Ħemu sve ne moņe biti samo lońe, niti samo dobro. Zasigurno samo moņemo ustvrditi ono ńto je kontraverzni ameriĦki pjesnik Walt Whitman (1819.-1892.) konstatovao u jednoj od svojih poema: „Niko ne zna ńto Ĥe se sljedeĤe dogoditi.― (―No one knows what will happen next.―) (Whitman, 1892: 598) 1089 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References BegiĤ, Midhat, (1987) Raskršća IV, bosanskohercegovačke knjiţevne teme, Sarajevo: „Veselin Masleńa― – „Svjetlost―, str. 27. Kazaz, Enver, (2004) Bošnjački roman XX vijeka, Zagreb – Sarajevo: Naklada ZORO, str. 44, 46, 136. LeńiĤ, Zdenko, (2005) Teorija knjiţevnosti, Sarajevo: Sarejevo Publishing, str. 507. RadeljkoviĤ, Zvonimir, (2004) T. S. Eliot: Pusta zemlja, Sarajevo: Buybook, str. 99. Whitman, Walt, ―Years of Modern‖, (1892) Complete Poetry and Prose, New York: The Library of America, str. 598. ŅmegaĦ, Viktor, (2004) Povijesna poetika romana, Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, str. 316-317, 449. rns, national and global identities. In that context, the special focus theme proposed for the conference this time is universal vs. culture specific in the teaching foreign language and applied linguistics. 1090 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 584 Title A name given to the resource Modernizam nasuprot postmodernizma – Čitanje, razumijevanje, poučavanje Author Author Raljević, Selma Abstract A summary of the resource. Namjera autorice jeste da ovim radom neposredno uporedi univerzalne i kulturalne specifiĦnosti u Ħitanju, razumijevanju i pouĦavanju knjiņevnog modernizma i postmodernizma s meħukulturalnog aspekta. U radu Ĥe se nastojati pobliņe osmotriti bogatstvo velikog knjiņevnog sazvijeņħa modernizma, kao i njegov diskutabilni zavrńetak u razmatranju nastanka sljedeĤe, joń uvijek prijeporno neprihvaĤene, nove knjiņevne epohe, uvjetno nazvane „postmodernizam―. S obzirom da su se ĦitalaĦke navike promijenile, i da se joń uvijek mijenjaju u postmodernom, a onda, recimo, i u post-postmodernom druńtvu kako u Zapadnom, tako i u cijelom svijetu, te pobliņe i u Bosni i Hercegovini, posebna paņnja posvetit Ĥe se knjiņevnom svijetu XX i tendencijama XXI stoljeĤa, kao i njegovom razumijevanju od globalne prema nacionalnoj perspektivi. , Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7540e59f7e127e9ad3d3a7604a0108cf.pdf 7b3890a38554b16e7e074b76a9205e84 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Basic Colors and Their Metaphorical Expressions in English and Persian: Lakoff's Conceptual Metaphor Theory in Focus Abbass Eslami Rasekh Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics Faculty of Foreign Languages, University of Isfahan, Iran abbasseslamirasekh@yahoo.com Banafsheh Ghafel Department of English, Islamic Azad University Najafabad Branch, Isfahan, Iran banafshehghafel@yahoo.ca Abstract: Metaphorical language is an indispensable part of human life, involving language, thought and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1998). Accordingly, metaphor plays a major role in people's everyday language use and thinking. Our conceptual system is based on experiences we have gained with interacting with people and things surrounding us. In this respect, color plays an important role in convention metaphorical expressions in people's lives and daily communication. As a sub-category of metaphors, color terms are widely used literally and metaphorically in different languages and may also reflect cultural identities of language users. Replying on ―Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors‖ proposed by Barcelona (2001, cf. Soriano, 2003) as a cognitive qualitative method and on the basis of ―Conceptual Metaphor Theory‖ (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999, 2003; Grady 1997; Kôvecses 2000, 2002, 2005; etc), this paper tries to investigate the extent to which connotations of basic colors, as used in the structure of metaphors are varied in English and Persian on the one hand; and, as compared to their differences in their metaphorical mappings in the languages concerned, on the other hand. To do so, we collected English instances from The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms (Siefring, 2005) and The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (Speake, 2008) and some other dictionaries. Next, Persian instances were extracted from some Persian dictionaries. The findings of this comparative analysis show that, although the connotation of colors in the structure of metaphorical expressions are overlapping each other to some extent, most of the expressions are culture-bound and specific to each language. Key words: Metaphorical expressions; English; Persian; Conceptual Metaphor Theory; Metaphorical mapping; Color connotations; Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors Introduction Tacking the Etymology Online Dictionary as our trusted source as regards, the word 'metaphor' is derived from the Greek metaphora, which means 'transfer' , the composite meta, which means 'transfer, carry over', and pherin which is translated in English as 'to bear‘ , or ‗to carry'. Metaphor is common to all languages and cultures. It plays an important role in everyday life and is grounded in culture. Metaphorical expressions have penetrated the various aspects of our life including thought and action. Metaphorical language is an indispensable part of human life, involving language, thought and action. Writers and speakers use metaphor to express abstract, difficult-to-talk-about concepts in term of concrete entities which are easier to understand (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1993). Metaphorical expressions (MEs, hereafter) are the cream of a language. They reflect the relationship between language and culture. It is a fact that English-speaking people use over 3000 metaphors weekly on average (Littlemore, 2001, cf. Kômùr & Cimen, 2009); Persian is not an exception. Metaphoricity is the main feature of all human languages. In fact, a language or any form of language, without metaphorical traits is nonexistent (Goalty, 1997). It is not confined to language. It runs trough all veins of man's everyday life, including language, thought and action. Cognitive linguistics provides a framework within which metaphors can be described and understood. Cognitive linguists claim that metaphor is not merely a figure of speech, but it is a specific mental and neural 211 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo mapping that influences a good deal of how people think, reason and imagine in everyday life (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). As proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT, hereafter) indicates that human thought processes are largely metaphorical, and human conceptual system is structured and defined in a metaphorical way. Therefore, metaphor is defined as cross-domain mapping between source and target domain. A mapping is the systematic correspondence between constituent elements of the source and target domains. The relationship is in the form of 'TARGET DOMAIN IS SOURCE DOMAIN'. They are stored together in the mind (Lan & McGregor, 2009). However, under different cultures, cultural considerations play a crucial part while conceptual mapping is carried out. Accordingly, color plays an important role in convention MEs in people's lives. As a sub-category of metaphors, color terms are widely used both literally and metaphorically in different languages and may also reflect cultural identities of language users. Certain connotative values can be more generally associated with colors, so that they carry uncontrolled resonances in a given culture. They have also connotative meanings which can be specific to particular area of life and can differ across cultures (Phillip, 2006). In addition, connotative meanings of colors are incorporated into conventional linguistic expressions such as to feel blue (feel sad), to be in the pink (to be in the best condition), and to see red (become angry very rapidly) in English and ‫رٌص سفٍذ‬/ri:sh səfi:d/ white beard (experienced and knowledgeable/wise man),‫ چطن سفٍذ‬/chəshm səfi:d/ white eye (impudent; impertinent person), ‫ سٍاٍ بخث‬/ si:yˆh bæxt/ black fortune (bad fortune; unhappy one) in Persian. It is worthwhile to say that when we write about color metaphors, we deal with abstract associations. For example, the abstract associations include white with eternity, virtue, innocence, purity, heaven and light; and black with death, mourning, murder, sin and devils. In light of the aforementioned explanations, and given that color terms are known to portray connotative meanings, which may differ across languages and cultures, the present study aimed to investigate to what extent color connotations and their attributed metaphors can be different across English and Persian. In addition, it endeavored to put under scrutiny the metaphorical mappings in the languages concerned. 2. Metaphor, language and culture 2.1. Metaphoricity of language Metaphoricity is the main feature of all human languages. In fact, a language or any form of language, without metaphorical traits is nonexistent. (Goalty, 1997, p.1).It is not confined to language. It runs through all veins of man's everyday life including language, thought and action. Investigating conceptual metaphoric systems across cultures is enlightening in more than one aspect. It tells us whether the metaphoric concepts that shape our life are similar to, or different from, the other nations. Maalej (1999) stated that if the same conceptual metaphors are used to structure our lives, despite our belonging to different cultures (in our study English and Persian), we are conceptualizing the concepts in the same way; and in the case of different conceptual metaphors that structure our lives, the study of our respective metaphoric systems will highlight how we model our reality and how the understanding of these systems may contribute to further intercultural understanding. To clarify, we can focus on 'Pot calling the kettle black'. It is a metaphorical expression that is used in English when someone who criticizes someone else is as guilty as the person he or she criticizes. The construction of this ME originated from the fact that when cooking was done over fire, the smoke made cooking pots turn black (Oxford Idiom Dictionary, p.29; OID, hereafter). In Persian people use ' ‫دٌگ بَ دٌگ هی گٌْذ رٌّث‬ ‫ 'سٍاٍ اسث‬/di:g bə di:g mi:gu:yæd ru:yat si:yˆh æst/ (i.e.: pot calling the pot black). The underlying conceptual metaphor for these expressions is PEOPLE ARE THINGS metaphor (Kovecses, 2006) that uses the same metaphorical mapping to construct the concept. The other metaphoric concepts that are embedded in these expressions are that BLACK IS BAD and subsequently BEING GULTY IS BLACK. As we can observe, the metaphorical mapping is the same in English and Persian. Metaphor is not a ' special' use of language, but pervades all interaction (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 2000). They claim that metaphor in language is the result of analogical nature of human conceptualization. It is a conceptual phenomenon with external manifestations in everyday language and a key to the metaphorical nature of mind. It is argued that metaphor is conceptual and that a great number of our reasoning and thought processes are guided by metaphorical conceptions, although we may not realize it (Lakoff, 1995). 212 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this connection, our way of thinking, our experiences and our activities are all a mater of metaphorphenomena which are more or less automatically dealt with in everyday life. 2.2. Metaphor and culture Language is not only the carrier of information but also of culture. It is a mirror which reflects the society and has strong cultural characteristics. Metaphors, as a part of language, reflect the society and have strong cultural characteristics. Li (2007) stated that metaphors, as part of language, are closely associated with nation's history, culture and customs. Lakoff and Johnson (1980; 2003) describe the relationship between culture and metaphor as follows: "The most fundamental values in a culture will be coherent with the metaphorical structure of the most fundamental concepts in culture."(Lakoff & Johnson, 2003; 1980, p.22). Metaphors reflect the relationship between language and culture. Human beings' environment and the things that they use and experience are in many aspects similar; therefore, English and Persian metaphoric expressions are not exceptions and may have some similarities and differences in their cognitive mappings. Culture is the reflection and pattern of thinking and understanding. Thinking and understanding can be sometimes inevitably metaphorical, and then culture and metaphor would also fall into a relation of mutual promotion or restraint, depending on how this relation is interpreted. That is, culture plays a role in shaping metaphor and in return, metaphor plays a role in constituting culture. Corradi Fiumara (1995) noted that metaphors are more appropriate for conveying cultural concepts (cf. Fahad Al- Jumeh, In this respect, let us consider emotion within cultural metaphor type. There are several emotion subtypes within the FEELING IS COLOR metaphor (Apresjan, 1997). For instance in English 'green' is associated with envy and jealousy as in 'He was green with envy when he saw their expensive new car' (OID, P.147) but in Russian 'yellow' is associated with envy as in ' pozeletet' ot zavisti '(cf. Apresjan, 1997) that means' to turn yellow with envy ', but envy and jealousy does not have any color in Persian. Metaphor is common to all languages and cultures. Although the use of metaphor is universal, the choice of metaphor for interpreting the world may be culture- specific (Liu, 2002, cf. Leung, 2007). In a nutshell, metaphor plays an important role in every day life and grounded in culture. Hence, conceptual metaphors expressed in language can serve as indicator of culture and a good resource for investigating of cultural beliefs expressed in language. The application of metaphorical concept shows that the metaphor cognition is universal across cultures, but, at the same time, it has some differences in their application because of their different social and cultural backgrounds. 2.2.1. Metaphor and color Color terms are playing a more and more important role in human communication, especially in bilingual communication (Zhang, 2007). Colors terms in any language are not only express the colors themselves, but also are carved and endowed with rich cultural characteristics of each nation. The relation between culture and language leaves a great effect on connotations of color words (Wang, 2007). Color is a kind of natural phenomenon. Color terms play an important role describing things, expressing words' meanings and strengthening languages' influence, and also rich in cultural associations. That is to say, they can be used either literally to refer to different colors or metaphorically to convey their associative meanings. Colors in different languages and cultures may convey different associative meanings. According to what is cited in Phillip (2006), " the color metaphors are influenced by metonymy , because most of the connotative meanings assigned to colors see to be grounded , at least to some extent to reality"(Niemeir, 1998). Additionally, the connotative values of colors emerged from conventional linguistic expressions that are constructed around folk beliefs about color meaning. The language user can appeal to his or her linguistic knowledge to support a belief (Niemeir, 1998, cf.Phillip, 2006). Colors may convey different messages to people of different cultures. They play an important role in describing things, expressing words' meanings and strengthen languages' influence, and also quite rich in cultural associations. That is to say, they can be used either literally to refer to different colors or metaphorically to 213 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo convey their associative meanings. The conceptual meanings conveyed in different languages and cultures (English and Persian in this study) may convey different associative meanings. Color meaning is often supported by citation from language, in the form of set phrases such as green with envy(i.e., to be envious and jealousy), go as red as beetroot (i.e., embarrassment, anger, shame), to see in black and white (i.e., absolutely bad or good; wrong and right with no grades between them), the black sheep of the family(i.e., odd member of a group or family ), yellow-belly (i.e., cowardice ) etc. in English and ٍ‫پطث لبث سبش ضذ‬/ pu:shtə læbət sæbz shu:dəh/(i.e., maturity ), ‫ چزا سرد کزدی ؟‬/chərˆ zærd kærdi: / (i.e., to be cowardice), ‫رٌص سفٍذ‬ ‫بْدى‬/ri: sh səfi: d shu: dæn/ (i.e, to be experienced; wise; and knowledgeable person), ٍ‫سق سٍا‬/sæq si:yˆh/ (i.e. evil-speech person), etc. in Persian. Phillip (2006) in her study claimed that it is a fact that these phrases in current language is seen to add weight to their authority and appropriateness as examples of figurative meanings ascribed to colors , and the use of color words in the language . In a nutshell, color words are considered as a kind of common language for people of different countries and different association of meanings is certainly produced beyond the literal concept of color words under the effect of cultural differences of each nation. Because of different cultural backgrounds, English and Persian may vary in the connotations of colors. 3. Method 3.1. Data source and collection Researchers used a number of English dictionaries on idioms and proverbs to collect the data such as The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms for learners of English (Siefring, 2nd Eds., 2005). Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English (Soanes & Hawker, 2008); McGraw-Hill's Dictionary of American Idioms and phrasal verbs (Richard A.Spears, 2006); The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (Speake,5th Eds., 2008); and Online Etymology Dictionary. Besides, four dictionaries were used in Persian to find Persian metaphoric expressions. They included: Loghatnaamey-e-Dehkhoda; Amsal-o-Hekam-e-Dehkhoda; Farhang-e-Estelehat-e-Adabi (Hoseini, 2008); and Zarb-al-Masalhaay-e-Mashur-e-Farsi (Azarli, 1989). The researchers also searched the connotations of Persian colors in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the great Persian epic book, the Holy Qur'an and some works in Persian. 3.2. Procedure Idiomatic expressions of colors cover different source domains both in Persian and English. Therefore, this article focused on selected source domains including HUMAN BODY (e.g. BODY including emotion; health; illness; and BODY PARTS) and LIVING THINGS (e.g., ANIMAL and PLANTS) to limite the scope of the study. First, the researchers compiled the metaphoric instances in English and Persian from the sources mentioned above. Then English and Persian samples were classified according to the sources they contain. In addition, each Persian idiomatic expression with its English phonetic representation (EPR, hereafter) and its metaphorical meaning (MM, hereafter) were put in order. After that they were explained connotatively and exemplified in English and Persian (EE and PE, hereafter). PE's were translated literally in English (literal translation, LT, hereafter). Their cultural backgrounds were explained deeply, if someone wants to study culturebound metaphorical expressions, it is necessary to pay more attention to the cultural background besides the surface meanings. Later, their conceptual mappings were described, qualitatively. Researchers used Google search engine to exemplify the Persian idiomatic instances in the text. They were typed in the search engine in order to find the text which contained the metaphoric expression. Finally, English and Persian samples were compared to each other qualitatively. 3.3. Data analysis Having chosen a cognitive approach and considering CMT as a theoretical basis for the current study, the researchers used some factors of Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors method proposed by Barcelona (2001) as a complement to describe conceptual metaphor. 214 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.3.1. HUMAN BODY (1) He is green with envy Metaphorical meaning: To be envious and jealousy Green is often associated with jealousy and envy and it had taken its place in English by Shakespeare's time (cf. Phillip, 2006). The MEs 'Green with envy' (Green is associated with envy, so jealous suitors used green jade as a potion) and 'green-eyed' (the green-eyed monster in Othello) show the association of green with jealousy and envy clearly (Phillip, 2006). It is adhering to the same general concept as green with envy, i.e. to feel so envious that the bile makes you feel bad. Hippocratic medicine assigns yellow to the choleric personality, characterized by bile, which is yellowish-green in color (cf.Phillip, 2006). The metonymic connection between green, yellow and bile give rise to a set of expressions in English and other languages (Persian in our study). The conflict between green and yellow is not particularly surprising, as both of these colors correspond to the color of bile, and this metonymical connection gives rise to another set of expressions absent in English but present in Persian. While most of these emotional states are related to physiological state of nausea, English prefers green as the color of envy and jealousy. For instance, ' he was green with envy when he saw their expensive new car' (Oxford Idiom Dictionary, p, 147).In this example, the conceptual keys for this metaphoric expression are as in Table (1) Table 1: The conceptual keys for ' He is green with envy' Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTION ENVY IS A FLUID IN THE CONTAINER INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ENVY BECOMING ENVIOUS IS BEING GREEN IN COMPLEXION COLOR FOR EMOTION EMOTION IS COLOR ENVY IS GREEN Real, physiological sickness is the reaction of one's body to emotion of envy. A metaphorical mapping links the feeling of envy to this bodily sensation. Thus, envy is linguistically and cognitively conceptualized as a mental sickness. To some extent, this mapping can be consistent with the DISEASE mapping as green is a color associated with sickness, as people‘s skin takes on a slightly yellow/green tinge when they are seriously ill (cf.Kyive, 2007). EE: He was green with envy when he saw their expensive new car (OID, p, 147) (2) look green around the gills Metaphorical meaning: To be ill Green is the color used in English to describe the pallor of person's face caused by nausea, shock, fear and illness (Phillip, 2006). Green is a color associated with sickness, as people‘s skin takes on a slightly yellow/green tinge when they are seriously ill (Kyive, 2007); yet, the expression to look green around the gills is generally interpreted as an expression of illness, adhering to some general physiological manifestation in the complexion. Although in the 1800s white and yellow were paired with gills to suggest illness, the alternative green has survived them (American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms, 1997). 215 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table2: Conceptual keys for: ' to look green around the gills'. Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR ILLNESS THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF BECOMING GREEN STANDS FOR ILLNESS INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING GREEN IN FACE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING ILL IS BEING GREEN IN COMPLEXION ILLNESS IS GREEN English example (EE, hereafter): After a long flight my friend looked green around the gills, and I am very pitiful about it (OID, P.147). As you see, all the abovementioned conceptual mappings in (1) underlie this metaphoric expression in English except the two last ones. BECOMING GREEN IN COMPLEXION refers to ILLNESS mapping in this ME (i.e. people‘s skin takes on a slightly yellow/green tinge when they are seriously ill). (3)! ‫( روگ و رویت زرد شده‬ræng væ ru:yæt zærd shu:dәh! ' You look yellow in the face!') Metaphorical meaning: To be ill In Persian, MEs that are constructed around color yellow have associative meanings to illness, stagnation and death. It is the color of autumn, which reminded people of falling leaves of trees and stagnate vision. Therefore, the expressions like ‫ رًگ رٌّث سرد ضذٍ اسث‬/ræng væ ru: yæt zærd shu:deh æst / (i.e., your face turns yellow) connote someone's illness. Descriptions of human appearance focus on the color quality of skin and eyes as the factors revealing good or poor health. Colors occur naturally and are consistent in their manifestation under given sets of conditions. Liver disorders may well turn the skin yellow (Phillip, 2006). As mentioned in number (1), the Hippocratic medical view is also consistent in Persian. Ancient Persian medicine has classified people's personality (mezaj) based on the choleric (soda mezaaj), phlegmatic (balghami mezaaj), bilious (safraavi mezaaj) and sanguine (damavi mezaaj) into four groups (Internet, www.iranerooz.com/health/). The choleric personalities are bad-tempered and irritable because it is believed that they influenced by predominating in choler (Concise Oxford Dictionary), but phlegmatic personality is calm and unemotional. Bilious people were considered to be easily affected by vomiting and nausea. Therefore, this ME that is connoting ILLNESS is evoked on the basis of the following conceptual keys: Table 3: The conceptual keys for ræng væ ru:yæt zærd shu:dәh! Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR ILLNESS THE FACE IS A CONTAINER FOR ILLNESS BECOMING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION STANDS FOR ILLNESS INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING ILL IS BEING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION' ILLNESS IS YELLOW When someone is sick his or her skin looks pale and unhealthy but not the real yellow. Both (1) and (2) are different metaphoric indications of the same result (pallor) and differ only pragmatically in their cultural evaluation. English prefers green and Persian preference is yellow. PE: ...ٍ‫ ًطاى هً داد کَ چٌذ رّس اسث غذاي درسث ّ حسابً ًخْرد‬،‫رًگ ّ رّي سردش‬ (Collected from www.rasekhoon.net/Article/Show-50875.aspx) EPR: /ræg væ ru: yə zærdæsh nəshˆn mi:dˆd kə chænd ru:z æst qæzˆyə du:ru:st væ həsˆbi: næxu:rdəh æst/ 216 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LT: His yellow complexion showed that he did not eat food, properly. (4) ‫ چرا زرد کردی؟‬/chәrˆ zærd kærdi:/?( i.e., 'Why do you turn yellow?') Metaphorical meaning: To be cowardice Certain light colors posses a negative cultural connotation, if used with reference to facial color, e.g., yellow color. Yellow color cannot signify a positive emotion in Persian, even though it is a light color. In ‫چزا سرد‬ ‫کزدی؟‬, the metonymical connection of bile and liver is responsible for meaning of yellow, though the focus is different. The adrenal glands secrete the so-called fight or flight hormone, with cowardice relating to the later. In the case of cowardice/fear the fluid is bile. Given that the expression was coined at a time when the liver was believed to be the seat of courage (Allan, 2009), the conceptual key that underlies this Persian ME is THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR EMOTION metaphor. Table 4: The conceptual keys for 'chәrˆ zærd kærdi:'? Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR EMOTION THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR FRIGHT BECOMING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION STANDS FOR BEING COWRAD INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING ILL IS BEING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION FEELING IS COLOR FRIGHT IS YELLOW PE: ‫ حذاقل هزد باش ّ پای حزف خْدت ّاٌسا‬.‫بذجْری زرد کردی ُا‬ (Collected from www.hageghatnews4.wordpress.com) EPR: /hæd ju:ri: zærd kærdi: hˆ. hædə æqæl mærd bˆsh væ pˆyə hærfə xu: dæt vˆysˆ/ LT: You turn yellow, drastically. At least be a man and insist on your words. (5) ‫ ریش سفید بودن‬/ ‫ گیس سفید بودن‬/ri: sh sәfi: bu:dæn /, /gi:s sәfi:d bu:dæn/ (i.e.: ' To be white bread / to be white hair) Metaphorical meaning: To be experienced man/ lady According to Ferdowsi's great epic book, Shaahnameh, in ancient Iran, especially in Persian mythology, white is the symbol of superiority, spirituality and virtue. Additionally, knowledge ability of elderly people and their life experiences are referred to as white in Persian. Therefore, ‫ رٌص سفٍذ‬/ri: sh səfi:d/ (i.e., white bread) for male ones and ‫ گٍس سفٍذ‬/gi:s səfi:d/ (i.e., white hair) for female ones use metaphorically in Persian. People get old, and their hair, beard and mustache turning to be white because of their age. An old person has experienced the ups and downs of life more than others and therefore is a good counselor for the younger ones. In the Persian culture, such people are considered as wise and experienced. Therefore, younger ones refer to them and consult them to find a solution for their problems. rish sefid (for male ones) and gis sefid (for female ones) is used for an old man or lady, metaphorically. It is a kind of metonymy because the color of hair or bread stands for the whole person. The whiteness of the hair (as a part of the body) or bread is mapped for experienced person (the whole person). The conceptual keys that underlie this ME may be as follows: 217 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 5: The conceptual keys for (ri: sh sәfi: d bu:dæn / gi:s sәfi:d bu:dæn Conceptual Keys THE BODY PART STANDS FOR THE PERSON THE BREAD/HAIR STAND FOR THE PERSON WHITE COLOR OF THE HAIR/BEARD STANDS FOR WHOLE PERSON OLDNESS IS BECOMING WHITE IN HAIR AND BREAD OLDNESS STANDS FOR BEING WISE/KNOWLEDGEABLE BEING WHITE IN HAIR/BEARD STANDS FOR BEING WISE/KNOWLEDGEABLE WISEDOM IS WHITE (6) ‫ سق سیاه داشته‬/sæq si: yˆh dˆshtæn/ ( i.e.: To have black palatal) Metaphorical meaning: someone whose imprecation caught others In ancient Persian, black is the symbol of Ahriman (evil). It is bad and the symbol of wicked spirit. In addition, in the Holy Koran (cf. Ayatolahi, 1998) the heart and the face of bad people is black (Zakhraf, 17; Naml, 58; Al omran, 106; Joseph, 27). Black is a cue for evil and mischief (Bahar, 1997). The Holy Koran teaches that they who desire to dwell in the presence of God, to experience His blessing, are those who will live righteously and who will not badmouth. Imprecation is not accepted according to the Persian culture and their religious believes because this evil manner poisons the tongue. There is a metaphorical motivation for this expression. Considering the points mentioned before, BLACK IS BAD in Persian. This orientational metaphor motivates a lot of MEs (idiom, proverb, etc.) in Persian. It is believed that a person who speaks offensively in a way that his/her evil manner caught others is saqe siyaah (i.e., black palatal) (Internet, www.loghatnameh.com). Here the BADNESS of speech is mapped in a BODY PART (speech organ; PALATAL). Table 6: The conceptual keys for/ sæq si:yˆh dˆshtæn / (i.e.: ' To have black palatal') Conceptual Keys THE BODY PART STANDS FOR PERSON THE MOUTH (PALATAL) STANDS FOR PERSON BLACK FORCE IN PALATAL STANDS FOR EVIL SPEECH BLACK IS BAD (Soriano & Valenzuela, 2009) MANNER IS COLOR EVIL-SAYING IS BLACK PE: ٍ‫جْ چَ سق سٍاُی داری آقای کوالی! اس صبح ساٌحی کَ هٍشباى عکس هٌَ اس کار افحاد‬ EPR:/tu: chə sæqə si:yˆhi: dˆri ˆqˆyə kæmˆli æz su:bh sˆyti: kə mi:zbˆnə æksə mænəh æz kˆr u:ftædəh / LT: Mr. Kamali! What a black palatal you have! The website that is hosting my photo does not work from morning till now. (7( ‫ پشت لب سبس شدن‬/pu:shte læb sæbz shu:dæn/ (i.e. 'to be green behind the over lip') Metaphorical meaning: To begin to be mature; to be naive, to be young Green is an important color in nature. It is the color of grass and the leaves on trees, the color of most growing plants. In this connection, green always symbolizes the young, fresh and growing. It also can be taken of safety, hope, peace, and environment protection. (Lan & McGregor, 2009). Green also exhibits the idea of inexperience, an immature state. So it can be used ranging from unripe corn to person (Phillip, 2006). 218 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In Persian green is the color of vegetarian and nature. It is also associated with initial stages of maturation and youth. In the maturation period, the back of the boys' upper lip turns to be in darker color due to growing mustache and makes a green shed. It is similar to the way that grass come out of the earth at the first days of spring and shows a green shade on the land (Dehkhoda, 1999; Partoei Amoli, 1996). In this ME, the line of early growing grass is mapped to the growing of mustache on the back of boy's upper lip. This evokes conceptual links between PEOPLE and PLANTS. Lakoff's (1992) proposed conceptual metaphor PEOPLE ARE PLANTS that can underlie this ME. The freshness of people in their maturity and experience is mapped in plant domains. Table 7: The conceptual keys for /pu:shte læb sæbz shu:dæn/ (i.e. 'to be green behind the over lip') Conceptual Keys PEOPLE ARE PLANTS (Lakoff, 1992) BEING GREEN BEHIND THE OVERLIP STANDS FOR BEING NEW IN ADULTHOOD/YOUNG YOUTH IS GREEN PE: . َ‫ دٌگَ كن كن پطث لبن دارٍ سفٍذ هٍط‬.ٍ‫ "ٌُْس پطث لبث سبش ًطذٍ!" هً گذر‬:‫االى سالِا اس اّى رّسي كَ هادرم هً گفث‬ (Collected from www.qudsdaily.com/archive/1385/html/2/.../page50.html) EPR: æLˆn sˆlhˆst æz u:n ru:zi: kə mˆdæræm mi:gu:ft hænu:z pu:shtə læbət sæbz næshu:dəh mi:gzærəhØ di:gəh kæm kæm pu:shtə læbæm dˆrəh səfi:d mi:shəh LT: Nowadays, many years passed from the days that my mother had said that you were not green behind the lip. It turns to white little by little. (8) To catch someone red-handed. Metaphorical meaning: caught someone in the act of guilty or wrongdoing; caught with evidence In the American history, red does not have positive connotations. It connotes cruelty, battle, death, danger and revolution. As Itten observes (1961:34, cf.Phillip, 2006), red is the color of revolution because of its links with political favor and spilled blood. In this vein, the expression catch someone red-handed was originally a metonymy because it describes a situation in which a killer had his hands covered with blood; the red hands stood metonymically for the killing. Red-handed does not have a mythical origin. The term originated from Scotland. The earliest known printed version of red-handed is from Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, 1918 (Internet, www.phrases.org.uk). Therefore, the original conceptual key for this expression is RED IS BLOOD (Lan & McGregor, 2009). Red has traditionally been regarded as a symbol of guilt. Extreme anger can lead to crimes of passion and murderous intent clearly lies at the origin of the phrase. Kôvecses (2002, cf. Czepeczor, 2009) considers blood on the culprit‘s hands as the primary image and motivation for the use of red in the phrase (STAINED OR COVERED WITH BLOOD). This signification omitted through the time. Later it became a metaphor for all the individuals who are found to be behaving inappropriately, illegally and guilty because only exceptionally would a killer get blood on his hands and thus it became a metaphor for any form of wrongdoing besides murder. In other words, the abovementioned historical origin of the phrase is no longer perceived as relevant to its implied meaning. Today, the idea of being discovered in the middle of wrong-doing still remains with this expression. Therefore, the conceptual keys that underlie this ME may include: Table 8: The conceptual keys for' To catch someone red-handed' Conceptual Keys THE BODY PART STANDS FOR THE PERSON THE HANDS STAND FOR THE PERSON STAINED WITH BLOOD IN HANDS STANDS FOR BEING GUILTY WRONGDOING IS RED EE: A: How can you be sure that it was Rob who has been steeling the CDs? B: Linda saw him putting the in his bag during lunch break. He was caught red-handed (Wright, 2002, p.55). 219 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.3.2. LIVING THINGS (ANIMALS and PLANTS) (9) Black sheep of the family Metaphorical meaning: To be bad and odd one out In western culture, the black color is the sign of darkness. In the Bible, the black stands for the devil, the pain and misfortune (He, 2009). According to Jordan (1997), black was associated even in Elizabethan times with dirty, sinister and wicked qualities, as opposed to white which stood for beauty, virtue and goodness (Benczes, 2007). Considering the connotation of black ant its attribution, black sheep is used to connote the situation that the only person in a respectable and successful family , who has not achieve success, but instead has proven to be disappointment .HUMAN IS ANIMAL, HUMAN IS SHEEP (Goatly, 2006) and BLACK IS BAD underlie this ME. BLACK SHEEP as an Animal stands for HUMAN. This metaphoric expression refers to someone who is considered to have done something bad within every family or group to which they belong and make them to feel shame. Table 9: The conceptual keys for' The black sheep of the family' Conceptual Keys HUMAN IS ANIMAL(Goalty, 2006) HUMAN IS SHEEP (Goalty, 2006) ANIMAL STANDS FOR HUMAN BLACK SHEEP STANDS FOR BAD HUMAN BLACK IS BAD(Ruiz, 2007 ; Maalej, 1999) It is constructed around the fact that shepherds used to dislike black sheep because their wool was not as valuable as white wool (OID, p, 29). EE: Everyone in the family expected Susan to go to university like the rest of us, but she got a job in a casino on a ship. She was the black sheep of the family. (10) He went as red as a beetroot The redness of the beetroot is compared with the redness of people's complexion when they feel ashamed, embarrassment or angry. The physiological effects of some emotions increase the blood pressure. This phenomenon makes the complexion red in color. Blood is vital for our existence, and the metonymic use of red therefore carries the connotation over to other domains and areas of human existence and activity. The physiological effects of anger are supplemented by the metonymic pattern COLOR FOR ANGER. Considering the aforementioned observation, color red is coined from these two different domains and constructs this English expression, metaphorically. Therefore, the domain of physiological effect in human body is conceptualized in the domain of beetroot as plant to imply the abstract target domain of shame or embarrassment. The underlying conceptual keys can be as follows: Table 10: The conceptual keys for 'He went as red as a beetroot') Conceptual Keys PEOPLE ARE PLANTS PEOPLE ARE BEETROOT 220 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo BEING RED IN BEETROOT STANDS FOR RED IN COMPLEXION COLOR FOR EMOTION FEELING IS COLOR SHAME/EMBARRASMENT/ANGER IS RED )11( ‫ مثل لبو سرخ شد‬/mәslә læbu: su:rx shu:d/(i.e., 'He went as red as a beetroot') In this Persian expression, like number (10), the redness of the beetroot is compared with the redness of people's complexion when they feel ashamed, embarrassment, but here the source is boiled beetroot. As far as we all know, boiled beetroot is a beetroot that is boiled in water and is ready to eat. Therefore, in this case source domain is FOOD domain as like as its English counterpart. The only difference between them is that English speakers use beetroot in the construction of metaphor as raw food, but Persian speakers prefers it boiled form. It is important to say that the researchers did not find example that connote anger by using of this expression in Persian. Therefore, it seems that Persian speakers prefer to use this metaphoric expression just to connote embarrassment and shy not anger. Along these lines, both the connotation of color and the mental map for this expression seem to be the same in either language. They differ just lexically. Accordingly, the underlying conceptual keys can be as follows: Table 39: The conceptual keys for /mәslә læbu: su:rx shu:d/ (i.e., 'He went as red as a beetroot') Conceptual Keys PEOPLE ARE FOOD BEING RED IN BEETROOT STANDS FOR RED IN COMPLEXION COLOR FOR EMOTION FEELING IS COLOR SHAME/EMBARRASMENT IS RED PE: ... !‫پسزٍ خجالث کطٍذ سزش رّ اًذاخث پاٌٍي ّ مثل لبو سرخ شد‬ (Collected from www.parmisazar.persionblog.ir) EPR: /pəsærə xəjˆlæt kəshi:d. særæsh ræ pˆyi:n ændˆxt væ məslə læbu: su:rx shu:d/! Equivalence translation: The boy was ashamed, bend down his head and went as red as beet root. Good and evil, health and illness, elderly and youth, experienced and inexperienced, etc. were paradoxes in the color connotations of this study. As seen in the above instances, the connotations expressed by color names, though similar in some cases, are culture-specific; that is, the way each culture views and values the world in relation to color names is different. Although metaphoric expressions are representative of culture from which they arise, they demonstrate significant associations. Conclusion It is worthwhile to mention that the relation between language and culture creates a great effect on connotations of color words. Considering the metaphoric expressions of colors in this study, the researchers concluded that although colors share common connotative ground in two languages, this does not necessarily entail the use of similar expressions. They were more culturally oriented and specific to each language. For instance, BLACK IS BAD and WHITE IS GOOD are, as conceptual metaphors, are present in either language, but, as the data has shown, each language and culture fill them with specific concepts and shows different mental mappings. The data in our study has shown that construction of metaphorical expressions of colors in English and Persian are grounded in reality as well; cultural believes, and to some extent symbolism, may also have a role to play. In addition, the findings of this study showed that metaphorical expressions of colors, besides their universality, are also culturally-oriented, which implies that even though some mappings seem to be universal in their generic level, many of them, especially the more specific ones, are culture specific and reflect the socio- 221 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo cultural context in which they are used. For instance, considering BODY IS A CONTAINER metaphor in its generic level, the metaphorical expressions ' you look green around the gills' and ' ræng væ ru:yat zærd shodәh' are both constructed around the BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTION conceptual metaphor, but English filled the generic level with GREEN as DISEASE color and Persian filled it with YELLOW as DISEASE color. Therefore, we have differences at specific level, namely, GREEN IS DISEASE in English and YELLOW IS DISEAE in Persian. Our study also revealed that color-based metaphorical expressions are interpreted mental mappings of their users. For instance rish sefidy that connotes knowledge and wisdom was reflected a specific mental representation in Persian and there was not such mental mapping in English data of the present study. Metaphor research may help us build up language-specific cultural model as well as reflect cultural differences based on the model identified. Since language is a part of culture, cross-cultural studies like the present study can shed light on cross-cultural similarities and dissimilarities in ways of thinking and speaking. For instance, the emotion of envy does not have any color in Persian but as it is shown in the study English conceptualize it as ENVY IS GREEN. Even so, for some European countries ENVY IS YELLOW. All in all, this study indicates that detailed contrastive analysis can shed light on similarities and differences between English and Persian, and identify properties that may have been overlooked in analysis of either language in isolation. But, first and foremost, this study revealed how contrastive analysis of metaphorical expressions of color may hint at the pervasiveness of metaphor in language. References Allan, (2009). The connotations of English color terms: Color-based X-phemisms. Journal of 41(3), 626-637. Pragmatics, Al Jumah, FH. (2007). A Comparative Study of Metaphor in Arabic and English General Business Writing with Teaching Implication. [Online] Available: http://www.dspace.lib.iup.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/.../Fahad+Al+Jumah.pdf Apresjan, V. (1997). Emotion Metaphors and Cross-Linguistic Conceptualization of Emotions. [Online] Available: http:// www.dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/fichero_articulo?codigo=2526528...0 Benzes, R. (2007). North American Slavery: A Cognitive Linguist's Perspective. http://www.das.elte.hu/content/faculty/benczes/benczes_frank_t.pdf [Online] Available: Czepeczor, EG. (2009). Red and Czerwony as Cognitive Categories: a corpus based study. [Online] Available: http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTL17/pdf_doc/02.pdf Goalty, A. (1997). The Language of Metaphors. Londen. Routledge. Goatly,A.(2006).Humans,Animals and Metaphor. http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/library/594_sa1414.pdf [Online] Available: He.G. (2009). English and Chinese Cultural Connotation of Color Words in Comparison. Asian Social Science. 5 (7). Pp.160-163 Kittay, E.F. (1989). Metaphor: Its cognitive force and linguistic structure. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Kômùr and Cimen. (2009). Using Conceptual Metaphors in Teaching Idioms in a Foreign Language Context. [Online]Available:http://www.akademik.mu.edu.tr/.../12-ġevki%20Kômùr,%20ġeyda%20Selen%20Çimen.pdf Kovecses, Z. (2005). Metaphor in Culture Universality and Variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 222 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Kovecses, Z. (2006). Universality and Variation in the Use of Metaphor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ogarkova, A, (2007). Green-Eyed Monsters‖: a Corpus-Based Study of Metaphoric conceptualization of JELOUSY and ENVY in Modern English. [Online] Available: http://www.metaphorik.de/13/ogarkova.pdf Lakoff and Johnson (1980). The tenet of Conceptual http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~iclc/pdfs/a99.pdf Metaphor Theory. [Online] Available: Lakoff, G. (1993). The contemporary theory of metaphor. In Ortony, A. Ed. Metaphor and Thought (2nd Eds.). New York: Cambridge University Press Lakoff and Johnson, M. ([1980], 2003). Metaphor We Live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff.G. and Johnson, M. (2003). The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor George Lakoff [Online] Available: http://www.terpconnect.umd.edu/~israel/lakoff- ConTheorMetaphor.pdf Introduction. Lan, L. & McGregor. (2009). Color Metaphor in Business Discourse. Language for Professional Communication: Research, Practice and Training.pp, 11-24. Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Leung, WYY. (2008). A Contrastive Analysis of Chinese and English Metaphors of Marriage. LCOM Papers. (1), pp.21-35 Li, X. (2010). Conceptual Metaphor Theory and Teaching English and Chinese Idiom. Language Teaching and Research, 1(3), pp.206-210. Maalej, Z. (1999). Metaphoric Discourse in the Age of Cognitive Linguistics, with Special Reference to Tunisian Arabic (TA). Journal of Literary Semantics.189-206 Phillip, G. (2006).Connotative meaning in English and Italian color-word metaphor. [Online] Available: //metaphoric.de/10/Philip.pdf (accessed 28.06.2008) Perez, RG. (2008). A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Heart http://www.rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/10394/1/RAEI_21_03.pdf Metaphors. [Online] http: Available: Soriano, C.(2003). Some Anger Metaphor in Spanish and English: A Contrastive Review. IJES, 3(2), PP.107122 Soriano, C. and Valezuela, J. (2009). Emotion and Color Across Languages: Implicit Associations in Spanish Color Terms. [Online] Available: http://ssi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/48/3/421 Zhang, (2007).A Cultural Comparison of Color Terms and Their Translation. US- China Foreign Language, vol 4, 5, pp.28-32 Wang, J. 2007. Analysis on the connotations of Color Terms in English and Chinese Language. Asian Social Science, vol 3, 4, pp.46-48 Wright, J. (2002). Idiom Organizer. Language Teaching Publications by Heline, a part of Thomson Corporation. Boston, MA 02210, USA. English dictionaries: Siefring, J. (2005).The Oxford dictionary of idioms. (2nd Eds.).New York: Oxford University Press. Speake, J. (Ed.) (2008).The Oxford dictionary of proverbs. (5th Eds.).Oxford: Oxford University Press. Soanes & Hawker.S, (2008). Compact Oxford Dictionary of Current English (3rd Eds.) New York: Oxford University Press. Richard A. Spears (2006). McGraw-Hill's Dictionary of American Idioms and phrasal verbs. 223 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Persian references: Dehkhoda, (1999). Amsaal va Hekam-e-Dehkhoda. Tehran, Amir Kabir Publication. Hoseini.S (2008) Farhang-e-Estelehat-e-Adabi Tehran, Amir Kabir Publication. Najafi, A. (2010) .Farhang-e-Estelaahaat-e-Aamiyaaneh. Tehran, Amir Kabir Publication. Ayatolahi, H. (1998). Raang dar Quran. Daneshvar Quartl, 6 (21). Bahar, M. (1997). Pajuheshi dar Asaatire Iran. Tehran, Agah Publication. Partoei Amoli, M.( 1996). Rishehaay-e-Tarikhiy-e-Amsaal va Hekam. Azarli, K.(1989).Zarb-al-Masalhaay-e-Mashur-e-Farsi. Tehran: Arghavan Publication. 224 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 33 Title A name given to the resource Basic Colors and Their Metaphorical Expressions in English and Persian: Lakoff's Conceptual Metaphor Theory in Focus Author Author Rasekh, Abbass Eslami Ghafel, Banafsheh Abstract A summary of the resource. Metaphorical language is an indispensable part of human life, involving language, thought and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1998). Accordingly, metaphor plays a major role in people's everyday language use and thinking. Our conceptual system is based on experiences we have gained with interacting with people and things surrounding us. In this respect, color plays an important role in convention metaphorical expressions in people's lives and daily communication. As a sub-category of metaphors, color terms are widely used literally and metaphorically in different languages and may also reflect cultural identities of language users. Replying on ―Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors‖ proposed by Barcelona (2001, cf. Soriano, 2003) as a cognitive qualitative method and on the basis of ―Conceptual Metaphor Theory‖ (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999, 2003; Grady 1997; Kôvecses 2000, 2002, 2005; etc), this paper tries to investigate the extent to which connotations of basic colors, as used in the structure of metaphors are varied in English and Persian on the one hand; and, as compared to their differences in their metaphorical mappings in the languages concerned, on the other hand. To do so, we collected English instances from The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms (Siefring, 2005) and The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (Speake, 2008) and some other dictionaries. Next, Persian instances were extracted from some Persian dictionaries. The findings of this comparative analysis show that, although the connotation of colors in the structure of metaphorical expressions are overlapping each other to some extent, most of the expressions are culture-bound and specific to each language. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5073c0ab863a8741ef0cf46cec731d05.pdf ad74c726311fcd657a192e3b6d7c4bdc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Contributions of Diatopic Hermeneutics for Intercultural Education Carmen Domingues Reste CIDTFF. Department of Education. University of Aveiro. Portugal carmen.reste@ua.pt Maria Helena Ançã CIDTFF. Department of Education. University of Aveiro. Portugal mariahelena@ua.pt Abstract: The article intends to present data from the exploratory research of an ongoing doctoral project on reciprocal social representations between national and foreign students32. This research and intervention project is being developed by the LEIP (Laboratory of Research in Education in Portuguese / Line 2), coordinated by Maria Helena Ançã, University of Aveiro. Qualitative data collection occurred between January and April 2011 and its main goal was to approach the internal complexity of foreign students in Portuguese Schools, in order to identify reflection points for an intervention project in the future. We understand that there is a co-existing linguistic and cultural diversity amongst students, which does not seem valued and at times is even considered adverse, and could potentially encourage mutual interaction and enrichment. These observations lead us to advocate an intervention project based on intercultural dialogue and diatopic hermeneutics as a strategy for dialogue. Keywords: Intercultural Education; Diatopic Hermeneutics; Social Representations Introduction Regarding migrant education policy, Portugal is considered ―the best of the new immigration countries‖ (MIPEX, 2011: 159), namely for recognizing the importance of language of the destination country as an factor for integration, which led to the introduction of Portuguese as Non-Native Language in the National Syllabus of basic education since 2006 (Normative Order nº. 7/2006) and secondary education since 2007 (Normative Order nº. 30/2007). However, some authors state that in Portugal there has not been true intercultural education, where the school becomes a hegemonic characteristic of the dominant culture, meaning that minority cultures are symbolically (and collectively) suppressed (Cortesão & Pacheco, 1991; Pacheco, 1996; Dias, Ferrer & Rigla, 1997; Casa-Nova, 2005; Monteiro, 2010). There are also patterns of socio-cultural differences which heavily penalize young people with different ethnic backgrounds, i.e., white, Catholic, urban and Portuguese – Luso (Stoer, 2001). Vieira da Silva (2002) states that ―schools are discriminatory‖33 and the target of that discrimination – from both teachers and other students – are the students from ethnic and cultural minorities. According to Pires (2007), despite the fact that state members are obliged by the European Union to receive and treat children and young people in the same way, in reality this does not happen, ―the Basis Law of the Portuguese Educational System mentions Education for Citizenship but the claimed concern has not been directly proportional to reality‖34. Thus, we emphasize that Intercultural Education should instead replace cultural multi-experiencing by interaction and enrichment between diverse groups (Ouellet, 2002; Abdallah-Pretceille 2006). It should transform the mere presence of different cultures into an action plan which ensures mutual acknowledgment of each culture through increasing interaction (Cortesão, 1991). We agree that Intercultural Education is not only intended for schools where there are children of immigrants and ethnic minorities, but to all schools, in order to 32 - Project approved and financed by FCT. 33 - Our Translation - Our Translation 34 262 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo enable them to build a plural and democratic society (Neto, 2007). And it should not be restricted to certain subjects, nor solidarity and human rights campaigns, nor aimed at specific targets such as migrants (Cochito, 2004). Schools should become spaces of integration and socio-cultural diversity management, with a focus on cultural criticism, rather than on the self and a lack of appreciation for others. Nor should they accede to the interests of multinational corporations which promote the process of cultural homogenization, but rather promote reflection on cultural identity, under the acknowledgement and acceptance of its diversity (Castaðo, Moyano & Castillo, 1999). An essentialist notion of culture, with a monocentric tendency, bound up in tradition and memory, should be opposed to an ecologic, pluralist and interactionist notion, which perceives culture as dynamic and differential, a complex set of human relations with its environment, of thinking interactions in the social space. This implies looking critically at the concept of culture. (André, 2009, 2006, 2005; Benhabib, 2006). We are aware that respect and mutual understanding between cultures is only attained through dialogue (UNESCO, 2006), and is even potentially perceived as a ―synonym of Diatopic Hermeneutics‖ (Sousa Santos, 2006, 2004), which as an ―interpretation work‖ between different visions of the world and social practices promotes the conscience of ―cultural incompleteness‖ through ―self-reflection‖, and ensures a ―participative, interactive and intersubjective production of knowledge‖. Diatopic Hermeneutics proposes to combine the recognition of equality and difference (André, 2009). Finally, our research situates itself on the same level as Social Representations (SR) which are perceived as a set of concepts, propositions and explanations created in everyday life through communication between individuals, which in our society is equivalent to the myths and systems of beliefs of traditional societies (Moscovici, 1984, 1989). They are ways of practical knowledge or naive wisdom which help understand the world and communication, lending coherence to social dynamics (Jodelet, 1989; Vala, 1993). As interpretation systems, they dictate our relationship with the world and with others and they are also involved in processes as diverse as the diffusion and assimilation of knowledge, individual and collective development, identity definition and social transformation. Despite being a carrefour concept because it places itself at a crossroads of different subjects (Doise, 1986), some authors highlight its pertinence - even when contradictory - for the study of educational phenomena, enabling the adaptation of individuals to the reality with which they are confronted, keeping its own balance and its own need for coherence in their social practices and their relation with the environment (Gilly, 1989). In this way, the exploratory research we present seeks to understand the (de)valorization of linguistic and cultural diversity in schools through SR. The SR we have of others justifies the way we interact (Palmonari & Doise, 1986), and guide inter-group relations which allow us to anticipate the behavior of others and programme their strategy of action (Vala, 2010; Abric, 2000). Therefore, to analyze a social representation is to attempt understanding and explain the nature of social ties which bind individuals, their social practices, as well as intra and inter-group relations (Bonardi, 1999). As such, they are viewed in our project as tools which justify the pedagogical action (Dias, 1998). Method of the Study This exploratory study was developed through qualitative research which intends to emphasize the qualities of the entities and the processes and meanings which are not experimentally measured through quantity, volume, intensity or frequency (Denzin & Lincoln, 2006). Instead, they reinforce an interpretative position of behaviors and social phenomena, giving precedence to the subjective experience as a source of knowledge, to the study of social phenomena from the perspective of the ―other‖ and to the interest of knowing the way people experience and interpret the social world which they interactively build (Almeida & Freire, 2008; Bogdan & Biklen, 1994). The purpose of our study is to discover some aspects, ideas and hypotheses of work which could bring us nearer to the internal complexity of the participants (Amado, 2009) and to provide us with points of reflection for an intervention project in the future, from the perspective of the participants (Bogdan & Biklen, 1994). According to this purpose we aim to identify and characterize sociability between foreign and national students in the school context and the factors which enable or prevent these relations. However, we intend in this article to demonstrate the way linguistic and cultural diversity is experienced by the subjects of our study, which seems to justify the necessity of implementing projects based on intercultural dialogue and diatopic hermeneutics. 263 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sample Our sample consists of five students (S): Four are foreign, Bissau-Guinean and Cape Verdean, and one is a Portuguese national, who was chosen using a snowball sampling technique. These pupils study between the 7th and 12th years in schools of a medium-sized town in Northern Portugal, where foreign students from various nationalities are a minority. However, the universe of our study also included parents (P) (in the case of minors), a Ukrainian member of an immigration support association and a teacher whose opinions were used in order to obtain data triangulation or subjective contrasting in view of the consistency of the data collected and interpretations produced (Almeida & Freire, 2008). We would like to point out that this is a non-representative sample, so the opinions expressed cannot be applied to the general population. Age Occupation Interview 1 Interview 2 Interview 3 15 13 Over 40 Interview 4 19 Interview 5 Over 40 Interview 6 Interview 7 Interview 8 Interview 9 18 16 Over 40 Over 40 Foreign Student (S) Foreign Student (S) Parent (P) Portuguese student, the son of Portuguese parents (S) Ukrainian member of an immigration support association Foreign Student (S) Foreign Student (S) Parent (P) Teacher Country of Gender origin Cape Verde F Cape Verde M Cape Verde M Residence time in Portugal 1 – 2 years 1 – 2 years 1 – 2 years Portugal M Ukraine F +5 Guinea Bissau Guinea Bissau Guinea Bissau Portugal F F M F +5 +5 +5 Data Analysis Processes Data was collected through a semi-structured interview carried out by the researcher (R), and it was essential to ensure a trusting environment and anonymity, due to the fact that this was an interview about personal experiences. After an audio recording, with the permission of the interviewees, the interviews were transcribed, although we are aware that any transcription system is always semi-interpretative, so no transcription represents verbal phenomena with absolute accuracy (Andrade & Araöjo e Sá, 1995). Data treatment was carried out using Bardin‘s (2009) content analysis techniques, and we used the program Nvivo for codification and exploration. Findings and Discussion About the (de)valorization of foreign students in schools The Teacher interviewed stated that in the schools where he taught in the last twelve years there has been a noticeable increase in linguistic and cultural diversity. However, he differentiates between the integration of Ukrainian students from that of the PALOP (Portuguese-speaking African Countries) students, stating that the latter exhibited greater difficulties with the Portuguese language (PL) and socializing, even though PL is the official language of their home countries. This is mainly justified by the proximity of the Ukrainian students‘ parents to the school and by the importance they place on schooling, since most of them have degrees. The interviewed Portuguese national student sees the foreign pupil merely as one more student, and believes that their presence should not bring disruption or cause problems. This suggests either assimilation by the dominant culture or preservation of national identity (Cortesão, 2011): ―S: Well, this is the thing, I don‘t know if… I‘m not sure if it‘s good or not… I personally don‘t… don‘t think it‘s either good or bad… bad, well, it doesn‘t harm anyone, right? Because it‘s just another one, it‘s just another student like all the others… hum… I mean, it ends up being disruptive… if it‘s a student who isn‘t… integrated (…) so that the Teacher doesn‘t have to waste more time and… and not being able to give attention to other students (…) when they have the mentality and 264 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the spirit to… to adapt… not being so stiff and… not… being worried about, for example, speaking good Portuguese (…) if they‘re open… then they make it easier.‖ (Interview N. 4)35 This student also believes that the State should not finance, for example, the teaching of Portuguese as a non-native language to foreign students. He states that if people want to come to Portugal they have to take that risk, as nationals might not be subsidized in the future. The national student points out the ―support to those who arrive, and are destitute‖ as a characteristic of Portuguese students, whose country is known for being ―hospitable‖, highlighting a ―protective and helpful spirit‖. This specificity is accompanied by the ―pride‖ of being Portuguese, someone who is ―destined‖ to ―fight for a better country‖, emphasizing both the history, namely the ―Discoveries‖, and the current desire to give Portugal a ―better direction‖. The majority of foreign students are perceived as ―respectful, nice people‖, ―interested‖ in the destination country and, above all, ―hard-working‖, although there are differences between nationalities. Thus, Eastern European students demonstrate a ―much greater spirit of sacrifice‖ than the majority of other foreign students, ―work much harder‖, ―are interested in the subjects‖. In comparison, ―Brazilian students‖, with some exceptions, are seen as those who do not possess ―that spirit of sacrifice and struggle‖, ―trying to do their own thing‖, ―not caring as much‖. With regards to African students, the native pupil interviewed observes that they ―form cliques‖, ―speak Creole‖, ―do not fit in much with Portuguese classmates‖, which causes ―distance‖, and these situations are interpreted as self-exclusion ―on their part‖: ―S: (…) unlike Eastern European students who… are students with a completely different mentality, who have a much greater spirit of sacrifice and… work much harder and… are interested and enjoy learning… hum… for instance, if we see students from other countries, it is the majority, right? What I see… of course there are exceptions, for example, in a country… a Brazilian student normally doesn‘t have that same… that… that spirit of sacrifice, that fighting spirit, right? I think that he kind of tries to do his own thing and not… he‘s not too worried about (…) African students… they speak, also speak the same Language… but there‘s one thing I… I see today… is that… there are many hum… and that I see in our school, in my school, hum… is that… they try to… create groups, right? And speak… speak Creole (smiles), they don‘t speak, don‘t speak Portuguese, they don‘t fit in much with Portuguese classmates… hum… and that is bad for them, isn‘t it?... and for others… and for other Portuguese classmates might also be… also create… maybe some kind of dirty looks in this way…. ―those over there exclude themselves and create… their own group‖ and… and… causes distance‖ (Interview N. 4) Foreign students, in their turn, generally see themselves as being aware of the opportunities they have in Portugal for studying and ―fight‖ ―for a better future‖, although they recognize that there are cases where that does not happen. They also see themselves as less privileged, and not having the same opportunities for the future, mainly in the job market, even if they are granted Portuguese nationality. In comparison with native students, African students believe themselves to be more ―genuine‖ in their way of being. According to the following excerpt, foreign students believe themselves to be seen by native students as ―different‖ and ―weird‖, as those who arrive in Portugal to ―take away‖ from the Portuguese what belongs to them, for example jobs. The importance given to difference is such that they believe they are seen as someone who comes from ―another planet‖: ―R: How do you think Portuguese students characterize foreign students? Can you give me eight adjectives?‖ S: They see different… they think… foreigners come here to take what is theirs… R: What do you mean take? S: Oh, for instance, work, oh… I think it‘s that… work and that… hum… I think some even believe… that we are from… a different… a different planet. S: ―Some look from a different planet‖? 35 - Our translation 265 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A: Yes, it seems… like it S: Do you think it seems to Portuguese classmates that foreign classmates come from another planet? S: Yes… exactly… they find it weird… I think that‘s it… I don‘t have more… adjectives‖. (Interview N. 6) Native students‘ perceptions of foreign students are diverse. One of the interviewees admits that thanks to foreign students, national pupils learn about other cultures, believing that they are ―curious‖ to know more about them, via ―books‖ and the ―internet‖. Other students employ adjectives such as ―spoiled‖, ―ignorant‖, ―uninformed by their parents‖, ―antisocial‖, ―insensitive‖; someone who does not know another culture makes ―stupid comments‖, pays more attention to ―material goods, and what people wear‖. They are ―difficult people to deal with‖, ―unhelpful‖, ―say nice things‖ to classmates in their presence and ―bad things‖ when they‘re absent, ―judge by appearances‖ and ―not for what‘s inside‖. One of the foreign female students describes Portuguese students as not ―accepting‖ foreigners ―easily‖, ―always judging‖ and criticizing them. However, it is curious to note that, despite the negative adjectives used, the same student admits that in her home country there is a pre-conception of the Portuguese as being ―racist‖ and ―cocky‖, but regarding her class in the last academic year also with foreign students, she states they were ―very friendly‖, and there was a sense of togetherness, which leads her to believe that the previous description did not match reality: ―S: In Cape Verde we have a bad image, the majority has a bad image of the Portuguese and say ―oh they are racist and what have you‖ and when I arrived it was completely different, it‘s just that in last year‘s class if you were with one, you were with everyone, they were very friendly and I was a bit like.. because there we had a different image of the Portuguese, mainly youngsters and others, they think the Portuguese are cocky and so on and so on… but when we arrived here it was a different reality.‖ (Interview N. 2) When interviewed, the parents demonstrated close relations with the schools and class directors, and one of them was even a member of the Parents Association of one school. Only one identifies an occasional extra-curricular activity related to interculturalism and, although recognizing its potential, regretted that there were more parents - also in small numbers - than students participating. Another parent complained that, beyond the fact that there are no intercultural activities in the school, there is still a ―stigma‖ for not having been born in the country, and complained that her classmates mock her for being different: ―R: Those difficulties you initially felt, do you think they‘ve been overcome? P: Oh… yes… yes… the majority yes… because now they know the language better and are more or less integrated… and… yes, I can say that yes… occasionally there‘s one or two difficulties, but… there will always be because they weren‘t born here…they always carry that stigma, right? R: What do you mean stigma? P: Stigma… hum... maybe… for being… of…of certain habits… here they are not… things like that, right? Classmates notice that.(…) instead of appreciating they mock. They mock the difference.‖ (Interview N. 8) Another two situations are described where comments from teachers, regarding certain aspects of the students‘ home countries, were negatively received. In the second situation it is clear how comments from teachers, unintentional or not, can cause relationship problems between foreign students and their classmates, beyond mere ―embarrassment‖: ―S: (...) my class director now… something he says ―you think something or other of GuineaBissau and whatever‖… so, when he says something… we say something else, and he says ―oh, you think this is Guinea-Bissau and whatever‖… that kind of stuff. R: And you don‘t like when he says that? S: … I don‘t like it! And I say ―No, that hasn‘t got to do with anything!‖ R: And how do you feel when he says those things? S: Bad… R: Does he say it in class? S: In class! 266 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo R: In front of other students? S: (Nods).‖ (Interview N.7) ―P.: (…) they (teachers) make remarks which are… unhelpful… the fact they came from abroad, it‘s not… hum… regarding the recent arrival, it seems that some Teachers used to make remarks implying that our education system wasn‘t (good) and so they used to make those remarks in front of them (…) Then, when there were (good) results, Teachers used to make another type of remark, a remark meaning… which then created some confusion, hum… for example, ―look, that student came from Africa and… something or other… and came here and got better results than you!!!‖ I mean, how… in this case it is saying ―a student that came from Africa‖ and interpreting ―because it came from Africa can‘t have better results than…‖ (smiles). I think that… that situation upset her a lot at the time hum… I think it was Teacher X, something or other and she told me ―daddy, I‘m scared because the Teacher said this to me and that might create a relationship problem with my classmates‖, (…) and then… that, in fact, created some… some… some embarrassment (…).‖ (Interview N. 3) Conclusions and Recommendations Literacy cannot be seen solely as the development of basic skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic, ignoring citizenship participation both nationally and internationally; those skills, albeit necessary are not sufficient in our culturally diverse world, where it is also urgent to develop ―multicultural literacy‖ which consists of the development of skills which enable the concept of knowledge to be viewed from different ethnical and cultural perspectives, and help to create a more humane and fair world (Banks, 2004). The perceptions of the subjects in our study seem to suggest that there is multiculturalism, but not interculturalism, since we are in the presence of foreign students but diverse cultural groups do not encourage reciprocal cultural exchange, and even in some situations this presence is perceived as threatening or harmful. Therefore, the promotion of intercultural education seems urgent, beyond mere cultural teaching, since the former cannot be reduced to understanding cultural differences, as if it was a geometrization of these elements. It is necessary to see, to listen and to pay attention to others; above all to work towards an increased openness to diversity (Abdallah Pretceille, 2006). The issue of self-identity in relation to others is also part of the intercultural approach, since cultural diversity also exists within the group itself, as part of the human being. Notions of identity and culture are solely definable in an intersubjective structure, and are the result of discourses and relationships. The intercultural paradigm is one of the paths which hybrid, segmentary and heterogeneous thinking tries to follow. (Abdallah – Pretceille, 2006; Maalouf, 2002). To conclude, and considering that research in education implies ―an ethical commitment towards transformation and improvement of individuals, institutions and society in general‖ (Amado, 2009: 58), we propose a project of intervention based on intercultural dialogue and which, by using diatopic hermeneutics reciprocity, allows the sharing of personal experiences, discoveries and difficulties and not only knowledge. This proposal for intervention should not only target foreign students, but all students and other education agents inside and outside the school community. They should jointly promote the concept of cultural incompleteness, the production of knowledge in an interactive and intersubjective way, and the discovery that difference, which exists within each one of us, is not more important than the person and the ethical commitment it demands (Aguado & Malik, 2006; Abdallah Pretceille, 2001). In this way, it seems to us that such an intervention, which is adverse to ethnocentric behaviors and to a monoculture which hierarchizes differences, could contribute to an emancipatory education which would enable awareness of the cultural incompleteness of each group in relation to others (Cortesão, 2001), by promoting knowledge and affection in a permanent dialogue and interaction (André, 2009). 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Des Représentation Collectives aux Représentations Sociales: Éleménts pour une Histoire. In D. Jodelet (Ed.) Les Representations Sociales. Paris: PUF. Neto, F. (2007). Atitudes em relação à diversidade cultural: implicações psicopedagñgicas. Revista Portuguesa de Pedagogia, 41(1): 5-22. Ouellet, F. (2002). Les défis du pluralisme en éducation. Essais sur la formation interculturell. Sainte-Foy, Presses de l‘Université Laval-Paris: Editions L‘Harmattan. Pacheco, N. (1996). Da luta anti-racista à educação intercultural. Revista Inovação, 9 (1/2) : 1-14. Palmonari, A. & Doise, W. (1986). Caractéristique des représentations sociales. In W. Doise & A. Palmonari (Org.) L' étude des représentations sociales. (pp. 12-33). Paris: Delachaux & Niestlé. Pires, M. A. (2007). Educação e Cidadania: Consciência Nacional no Contexto Europeu. Revista Portuguesa de Pedagogia, 41(1) : 23-38. Sousa Santos, B. (2006). A Gramática do Tempo – para uma nova cultura polìtica. Porto: Edições Afrontamento. Sousa Santos, B. (Org.) (2004). Reconhecer para Libertar – Os Caminhos do Cosmopolitismo Multicultural. Porto: Edições Afrontamento. Stoer, S. (2001). Desocultando o voo das andorinhas: Educação inter / multicultural crìtica como movimento social. In S. Stoer, L. Cortesão & J. A. Correia (Org.) Transnacionalização da educação – Da crise da educação à ―educação‖ da crise (pp. 245-275). Porto: Edições Afrontamento. UNESCO (2006). Guidelines on Intercultural Education. Paris: UNESCO. Vala, J. (1993). Representações sociais – para uma psicologia social do pensamento social. In J. Vala, & M. B. Monteiro (Coords.) Psicologia social (pp. 353 – 384). Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Vieira da Silva, M. C. (2002). Discriminatio subtilis: estudo de três classes multiculturais – Dissertação de Doutoramento. Universidade de Lisboa. 269 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 40 Title A name given to the resource Contributions of Diatopic Hermeneutics for Intercultural Education Author Author Reste, Carmen Domingues Ança, Maria Helena Abstract A summary of the resource. The article intends to present data from the exploratory research of an ongoing doctoral project on reciprocal social representations between national and foreign students32. This research and intervention project is being developed by the LEIP (Laboratory of Research in Education in Portuguese / Line 2), coordinated by Maria Helena Ançã, University of Aveiro. Qualitative data collection occurred between January and April 2011 and its main goal was to approach the internal complexity of foreign students in Portuguese Schools, in order to identify reflection points for an intervention project in the future. We understand that there is a co-existing linguistic and cultural diversity amongst students, which does not seem valued and at times is even considered adverse, and could potentially encourage mutual interaction and enrichment. These observations lead us to advocate an intervention project based on intercultural dialogue and diatopic hermeneutics as a strategy for dialogue. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4bfc270d9e97543284233b0ab1109aa3.pdf 1406c8d47b130d494708db735ea72eea PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Individual Orientations Towards Intercultural Differences on The Basis of a Study Conducted Among The Polish Students of English Philology Piotr Romanowski Department of English State Higher School of Vocational Education in Krosno romanowskip@poczta.onet.pl Abstract: The aim of the present paper is to show how the Polish students of English Philology changed their orientations towards intercultural differences as a result of intercultural encounters they experienced and instruction in intercultural development offered to them. With increased levels of intercultural communication, their competence in intercultural relations magnified. As assumed, the students‘ initial emotional desire to acknowledge, appreciate, and accept cultural differences occurred to be weak. However, with the intercultural development, the levels of intercultural sensitivity being a component of intercultural competence, rose significantly. In effect the students were able to recognize certain values and pick up on verbal and non-verbal signals typical of other cultures allowing for further empathy being developed and adjusting to different scripts of communication. For the purpose of observing the varying levels of intercultural sensitivity and subsequently intercultural competence, the author decided to design a ranking questionnaire as a research instrument. It consisted of a series of statements marked by the respondents with numbers 1-5 to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with them. It was designed for comparative analysis of their responses. The interpretation of the collected data involved searching for relations between the investigated variables. Through careful examination of the questionnaire and its collected data, the author managed to notice a meaningful change in the attitudes, values and skills exhibited by his students in terms of their intercultural identities. Key words: intercultural communication competence, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural differences, English Philology Research objectives Answering an increasing need for developing intercultural communication competence at a continually growing number of speakers, the aim of the present paper is to measure the level of intercultural communication sensitivity of the students of English Philology at State Higher School of Vocational Education at Krosno. Following the findings of other researchers (Bennett, 1986, 1993; Chen and Starosta, 2000; Fritz and Moellenberg, 2002), three basic assumptions have been made to meet the objective. Firstly, it has been assumed that the role of extra-linguistic determinants of intercultural communication competence tend to be even more important than of the verbal language in a communication success of intercultural communicators, which accounts for the research being focused on their investigation. Secondly, intercultural sensitivity has been assigned the role of its essential non-verbal component and skill determining a proper development of other communication skills. Thirdly, building upon the research of Milton Bennett (1986) speakers‘ cognitive orientation towards cultural differences and thus their education tailored to their needs greatly account for intercultural development. The decision to examine intercultural sensitivity as the main dimension of intercultural communication competence is mostly grounded in the research of Milton Bennett (1986, 1993), GuoMing Chen and William J. Starosta (2000) and Wolfgang Fritz and Antje Moellenberg (2002). Milton Bennett (1993:107) considers intercultural sensitivity as the main variable accounting for a communication success of intercultural communicators. He understands it as the ability to be aware of other cultures and to accept the differences resulting from them. Based on his observations that if individuals are taught how to confront cultural differences by becoming more sophisticated and sensitive to them, they may predict at least some of them and diminish their misunderstandings and failures. 1029 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Also, for Chen and Starosta (2000:124) intercultural sensitivity is a basic dimension of intercultural communication competence. It is a person‘s ability to understand similarities and differences of other cultures, which embraces their emotional desire to acknowledge, appreciate, and accept cultural differences, their multiple perspectives on an event or behaviour, their recognition of own cultural values and those of others as well as their empathy and ability to adjust to different ways of communicating (Chen and Starosta, 2000: 155). In a more recent approach to intercultural sensitivity Wolfgang Fritz and Antje Moellenberg (2002) have concurrently isolated intercultural awareness and intercultural adroitness as equal and additional constituents of intercultural communication competence. Intercultural awareness is the cognitive dimension of intercultural communication competence, intercultural adroitness acts as a behavioural aspect, and ultimately intercultural sensitivity performs the role of affective aspect of intercultural communication competence. Profile of respondents and available methods The research sample consisted of the students of Year 3 of English Philology at State Higher School of Vocational Education at Krosno. The mission of the school is to educate students at the level of three-year long Bachelor programmes. Most of them start work as teachers of English in primary and secondary schools where they are the only language models for their learners to follow. It should be also mentioned that the students are not very mobile, which is of importance when their intercultural communication competence is concerned. Hence, the value of the course in intercultural communication, which is included in the study programme and the responsibility of the school to prepare them well for their future professional is of immense importance. The research methods widely used to measure intercultural sensitivity such as self-reflection, participant observation, qualitative interviews and questionnaires were borrowed from social sciences, ethnography and anthropology. To enhance their advantages and reduce their drawbacks, they tend to be combined together to allow for more objective and reliable results whose validity could thus be generalized. All of the above methods have been used for the purpose of the present research. Self-reflection preceded other methods and served to approach conceptually cross-cultural communication competence, formulate basic assumptions, working hypothesis as well as research questions which were used later in the questionnaire and interviews. It was made used of during the research to analyze the empirical data and draw conclusions. Its role was important in seeking for explanations of the results obtained by means of the questionnaire and interviews. Participant observation was used all the time because the author of the investigation lectures in the Department of English. His work allowed him to observe his students in a natural way, which facilitated him to check his assumptions, formulate and reformulate the research questions and also get explanations of the communication behaviours of his students and their experience as intercultural communicators. The type of questionnaire used for the purpose of the present investigation serves to measure intercultural sensitivity of the students of English Philology. The same sample of students (50 altogether) were involved completing the questionnaire consisting of ten pairs of questions, all of which refer to various behavioural aspects of intercultural communication. The respondents were asked to allocate to each statement a number from 1 to 5 to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with it – where 5 meant a strong agreement and 1 a strong disagreement respectively. The interpretation of the collected data involved searching for relations between the investigated variables. A statistical analysis allowed for obtaining quantitative results which made their qualitative interpretation more objective and reliable. Measuring intercultural sensitivity of the students of English Philology The choice of respondents was based on a random selection of students of Year 3 of English Philology. The research was conducted directly in the written form at two separate stages. The first stage was carried out before the commencement of the course in intercultural communication in December 2009 and the second stage after it was over when the students had managed to get their credits in June 2010. The questionnaire was administered twice to the same sample of students in order 1030 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo to learn about the evolution of their skills and attitudes as a result of their participation in the course. Among them, 33 were female and 17 were male. 34 participants marked towns/cities respectively as their place of residence and only 16 of them showed villages. The average age of the sample was 21.96. The total number of answers obtained in the present investigation reached 2000, 1000 responses per each stage of the questionnaire administration. The questionnaire is a result of a pilot study. It was conducted before the course in intercultural communication and its purpose was to identify all the problematic areas for students regarding their communication. The pilot study consisted of participant observation and interviews. Based on the outcomes of both methods the author came to the conclusion that for his students communication in a foreign language means mastering the four language skills and grammatical accuracy. As a matter of fact the approach implies mastering purely linguistic skills and developing linguistic communication competence. The students did not possess any awareness of how communication is dependent on non-linguistic factors, such as culture. The conclusion was a sound piece of evidence that the choice of non-linguistic dimensions of intercultural communication competence as the research area was a good decision. The statements were as follows: 1. I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. 2. I think people from other cultures are narrow-minded. 3. I am quite sure of myself when interacting with people from different cultures. 4. I find it very hard to talk in front of people from different cultures. 5. I always know what to say when interacting with people from different cultures. 6. I can be sociable when interacting with people from different cultures. 7. I don‘t like to be with people from different cultures. 8. I respect the values of people from different cultures. 9. I get upset easily when interacting with people from different cultures. 10. I feel confident when interacting with people from different cultures. 11. I tend to wait before forming an impression of culturally-distinct counterparts. 12. I often get discouraged when I am with people from different cultures. 13. I am open-minded to people from different cultures. 14. I am very observant when interacting with people from different cultures. 15. I respect the ways people from different cultures behave. 16. I try to obtain as much information as possible when interacting with people from different cultures. 17. I would not accept the opinions of people from different cultures. 18. I think my culture is better than other cultures. 19. I often show my culturally-distinct counterpart my understanding through verbal or non-verbal cues. 20. I have a feeling of enjoyment towards differences between my culturally-distinct counterpart and me. As already stated each of the statements refers to knowledge, skills or attitudes which should be mastered by intercultural communicators in the process of developing their intercultural sensitivity. Their specific value for assessing their role in intercultural communication sensitivity and also intercultural communication competence is shown by means of a content analysis of each statement. As for the interviews which followed the questionnaire stage of the research, they helped the author clarify and complete the information provided by the students by means of the questionnaire and get some additional knowledge which was either not evident or even absent from the respondents‘ answers. The number of students who participated in the interviews was smaller as only 31 respondents decided to take part in them. They were mainly women (26), which also confirms the 1031 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo gender composition of the group of students of Year 3 in the Department of English with a conspicuous prevalence of women. The levels of intercultural communication competence of the students of English Philology before and after the course The empirical material gathered by means of the questionnaire before the course in intercultural communication and after its completion was divided into two groups. The first group embraced the data implying the respondents‘ positive attitudes and skills and the second one included their negative repertoire. Generally speaking, the positive orientation towards interlocutors with different cultural backgrounds implied open, tolerant and friendly attitudes, ability to deal with stress, taking risk, a recognition of opinion diversity, a necessity to build relationships. It also included a conviction about equality of cultures and a need to work towards understanding among them. Out of the twenty statements from the questionnaire, statements 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 15, 16, 19 and 20 positively assess the respondents. The second group of statements refer to contradictory intercultural communicator‘s features and remain in opposition with the first group. They imply the respondents‘ disrespectful assertiveness and aggression. A few of them indicate negative attitudes, such as hostility, ambiguity within a society, low tolerance of differences and new situations and a lack or low acceptance of all sorts of otherness. These statements are 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 17 and 18. The analysis of the empirical data considered the following statistical phenomena: mean (average value), standard deviation, median, lower and upper quartiles. The average value is indispensable as it indicates how strong or weak a particular trait or dimension is. It points out how much variation there is from the average. A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean, whereas a high standard deviation indicates that it is spread out over a large range of values. Standard deviation is a widely used measure of variability or dispersion. In the present study the deviation is crucial as it gives further implications regarding the types of answers obtained from the students for a subsequent analysis. Also, the median is crucial as it is a dividing value of the data which is either located in the upper or lower halves. The upper half cuts off the highest 25% of data and is referred to as the upper quartile. Similarly, the lowest 25% of the cut off data is usually related to as the lower quartile. The significance of quartiles is enormous as they direct our attention to the middle value of the collected data and let us look at the skills the students have already developed (values in the upper quartile) as well as those, which need to be developed (values in the lower quartile) as a result of their participation in the course in intercultural communication. Before the respondents attended the course, in the first group of positive statements the results they scored ranged from the highest mean of 4.50 for statement 8 to the lowest one of 2.82 for statement 5. The disparity shows that some abilities and attitudes have been better developed than others and identifies the skills which need to be improved. The above-mentioned highest average proves that the students of English Philology highly respect the values of people from other cultures and display openness, lack of prejudice, tolerance and willingness, which consequently indicates low uncertainty avoidance and low power distance. Statement 1 as the next one, which has received the highest score of 4.38, is similar in a sense to the previous one since the students confirmed in it their willingness for interactions with people from different cultures. In statement 13 the students also acknowledged their open-mindedness to strangers by achieving the average value of 4.30. The statement proves that their openness and willingness for contacts have been enhanced and their respect for otherness will probably be fostered soon. They also show a lot of understanding towards foreign cultures, which is evidenced by statement 15 as the average value obtained in the questionnaire equaled 4.24. All the scored values also strongly confirm their ethnorelative attitudes. In statement 16 they see the urge to obtain as much information as possible about their interlocutors during interactions. With the average value of 4.20 they exemplify their tendency to develop curiosity and lack of prejudice, which is reinforced by the score for statement 6. It is high and amounts to 4.10. It reveals the students‘ propensity to be sociable when interacting with people from different cultures. Although in statement 20 the students reconfirmed their feelings of openness and enjoyment towards cultural differences between themselves and their culturally-distinct counterparts the mean of 3.62 suggests that they should work towards developing it in the future. The mean achieved for statement 19 which refers to their ability to use effectively either verbal or non-verbal cues is 3.50. It thus indicates that they should focus on improving it. A rather low mean of 3.44 was achieved for statement 10, which points out the respondents‘ level of confidence in intercultural encounters. The attitude is very important because it makes the interactors move from ethnocentrism towards ethnorelativism and thus deals directly with intercultural sensitivity. The aforementioned lowest value of all the positive 1032 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo statements received for statement 5 (only 2.82) stresses the students‘ lack of proper knowledge of how to behave or react in an intercultural exchange. The biggest change in the values obtained after the administration of the questionnaire has been noticed in statement 5 by 1.6, in statement 10 by 1.22, in statement 19 by 1.2, and in statement 20 by 1.16 respectively. Fluctuations in estimates by over 1 point, when the marking range maximum value is 5 and the highest scores received in Stage 1 – 4.5 in statement 8 and in Stage 2 – 4.84 in statement 6, signify an indisputable intensification of certain intercultural traits and attitudes. All the four statements, for which the highest increase in value has been noted, confirm the author‘s hypothesis that the students awareness, understanding and respect of otherness grew stronger, because by re-assigning higher values to the statements they showed a meaningful rise in their positive attitudes demonstrated by their interaction engagement and enjoyment (statements 5, 10, 19 and 20). This can consequently imply that since the statements have been earlier categorized as those displaying low uncertainty avoidance and low power distance, the author might presume that the students‘ levels of tolerance for certain diversities must have significantly risen. Additionally, their support for equality among societies has been stressed and enhanced. The values for the remaining statements are below 1 point and oscillate between 0.22 (statement 8) and 0.74 (statement 6). Although being relatively lower when compared to the others, they prove a major change in the attitudes of the students of the English Department as they indicate their respect for cultural differences and show their interaction attentiveness at the same time. The students have gained the skills to adapt their behaviour more easily and effectively by intentionally changing their communication style. In addition, their confidence in interaction has grown stronger and their willingness to be more sociable is another feature, which has heightened notably. Table 1. Students‘ positive attitudes towards cross-cultural differences (before and after the course administration) Questionnaire Statements 8 I respect the values of people from different cultures. 1 I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. 13 I am open-minded to people from different cultures. 15 I respect the ways people from different cultures behave. 16 I try to obtain as much information as possible when interacting with people from different cultures. 6 I can be sociable when interacting with people from different cultures. 20 I have a feeling of enjoyment towards differences between my culturally-distinct counterpart and me. 19 I often show my culturally-distinct counterpart my understanding through verbal or non-verbal cues. 10 Stage Mean Standard Deviation Lower Quartile Median Upper Quartile 1 4.50 0.79 4 5 5 2 4.72 0.67 5 5 5 1 4.38 0.64 4 4 5 2 4.76 0.43 4.75 5 5 1 4.30 0.71 4 4 5 2 4.76 0.43 4.75 5 5 1 4.24 0.82 4 4 5 2 4.80 0.40 5 5 5 1 4.20 0.78 4 4 5 2 1 4.78 4.10 0.42 0.58 5 4 5 4 5 4 2 4.84 0.37 5 5 5 1 3.62 0.67 3 4 4 2 4.78 0.42 5 5 5 1 3.50 0.68 3 3 4 2 4.70 0.46 4 5 5 1 3.44 0.67 3 3 4 1033 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo I feel confident when interacting with people from different cultures. 5 I always know what to say when interacting with people from different cultures. 2 4.66 0.48 4 5 5 1 2 2.82 4.62 0.77 0.49 2 4 3 5 3 5 The second group of investigated statements describes rather suspicious attitudes or even negative feelings shared by the students of English Philology towards intercultural differences. Some statements best characterize those individuals, who refuse all interaction with other cultures and have no interest in discovering cultural differences. That is why, the students, who exhibit such traits may also act aggressively during intercultural situations. Others can also wrongly evaluate foreign cultures to be inferior to their own culture and will constantly criticize the behaviour or thoughts of foreigners. The highest mean (4.24) of all the statements comprised by Table 2 was obtained for statement 14, which, in fact, may be viewed as neutral, because it does not reveal any enjoyment or respect towards intercultural differences on the part of the students. The same happens to statement 3 where mere confidence of the speaker without any engagement in intercultural encounters is manifested. It was valued with the average of 3.52. What is also noticeable among the students is the fact that some of them when faced with otherness become very observant. They tend to wait before they form an impression of culturally-distinct counterparts as it is demonstrated in statement 11, for which the mean equaled 3.42. The next common feature is the students‘ timidity, being explicitly exposed by statement 4 with the mean of 2.84. Statements 12 and 9, with the mean values of 2.28 and 2.16 respectively, are the two examples demonstrating the students‘ uneasiness, discomfort and discouragement in intercultural situations. The successive four statements: 18, 17, 7 and 2 confirm high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance, which are typical masculine features. Moreover, by judging other cultures negatively and putting their own culture in the focus and as being superior (statements 18 and 17), the students are showing their prejudice and stereotyping. Their bad attitudes and emotions are intensified in statements 7 and 2 exemplifying even their hostile behaviour. The average values obtained for the statements are as follows: 1.72, 1.60, 1.58 and 1.48 proving that the traits are not very strong, however they exist among some students. Table 2. Students‘ neutral or negative attitudes towards cross-cultural differences (before and after the course administration) Stage Mean Standard Deviation Lower Quartile Median Upper Quartile 14 I am very observant when interacting with people from different cultures. 3 I am quite sure of myself when interacting with people from different cultures. 1 4.24 0.69 4 4 5 2 4.86 0.35 5 5 5 1 3.52 0.84 3 3 4 2 4.70 0.46 4 5 5 11 I tend to wait before forming an impression of culturally-distinct counterparts. 4 I find it very hard to talk in front of people from different cultures. 12 I often get discouraged when I am with people from different cultures. 9 I get upset easily when interacting with people from different cultures. 18 I think my culture is better than other cultures. 17 I would not accept the opinions of people from different cultures. 1 3.42 0.84 3 4 4 2 4.70 0.58 4 5 5 1 2.84 0.84 2 3 3 2 1.46 0.54 1 1 2 1 2.28 0.88 2 2 3 2 1.44 0.50 1 1 2 1 2.16 0.93 2 2 2 2 4.80 0.40 5 5 5 1 1.72 0.95 1 1 2 2 1.40 0.49 1 1 2 1 1.60 0.61 1 2 2 2 1.48 0.50 1 1 2 Questionnaire Statements 1034 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 7 I don't like to be with people from different cultures. 2 I think people from other cultures are narrow-minded. 1 1.58 0.67 1 1 2 2 1.58 0.70 1 2 2 1 1.48 0.71 1 1 2 2 1.38 0.49 1 1 2 When examining the value changes for the negatively-oriented group of statements, it becomes noticeable that there exists a correlation between the two groups of analyzed statements. Since the statements were paired on the basis of positive and negative traits expressed each time, but they were still dispersed throughout the questionnaire, all the respondents could objectify their answers more specifically and had to think of a proper quality or skill twice. This phenomenon is reflected in the statistical data of the present study where a sudden fall in value for the negative group of statements can be perceived and a value rise for the positive set of statements respectively. The highest decline by 1.38 has been reported for statement 4, which obtained 2.84 during the first administration of the test and after the course in intercultural communication it dropped to 1.46. It may be stated similarly that the students‘ openness towards intercultural differences has expanded. As a result of that definitely stereotyping and prejudices have become less common. Another vital shift in the magnitude of values is noticeable in statement 12 with a drop of 0.84 when comparing the estimates for stages 1 and 2. Both statements express more willingness on the part of the respondents regarding their enjoyment and respect of other cultures. The conclusion which can be drawn clearly demonstrates that the students have improved in all the categories. The results of the course in intercultural communication had a positive impact on their attitudes and skills. The course allowed for an improvement of those skills, which the students had acquired informally before the commencement of the course as well as those, which used to be hardly noticeable, or did not exist at all. The positively-oriented values towards intercultural encounters have increased in strength, and those negatively-oriented at the initial stage have lowered in size. To be more specific, it seems vital to point out that the students of English Philology can comprehend cultural differences better and even accommodate to them. Although some of them showed their initial tendency to withdraw from intercultural encounters, their disinterest towards them, or even avoidance of interaction, it must be highlighted that most of the problematic issues, after a period of transition, have been successfully resolved. Individual orientations towards intercultural differences The collected data extracted from the questionnaire allows us to analyze the students‘ individual orientations towards cultural differences. A clear evolution of their intercultural sensitivity and an improved cultural profile of intercultural communicators could be noticed. As revealed by both a quantitative and a qualitative analysis of the choices of the positively and negatively oriented statements, ethnocentrism seems to be the dominating characteristics of the students‘ profile before their participation in the course. Consequently, they displayed their initial denial, disinterest and avoidance of intercultural situations, or interactions with culturally-distinct counterparts. Referring to the knowledge gained from the interviews, some students even tried to alienate themselves from their own intercultural experiences, either because they were uncomfortable with a complex multicultural identity, or because they could not manage to deal with intercultural perspectives. They also admitted to lack intercultural knowledge, skills and attitudes, which in turn accounts for their reactions overridden with fear, uncertainty, low self-esteem, low self-confidence and high risk avoidance. Furthermore, the interviews confirmed that most students are not placed in the privileged position in any way. They admitted that due to their economic situation they do not have many chances to exploit foreign cultures. Only a few have had an opportunity to visit other countries within the Erasmus Exchange Programme. The Internet and the media seem to be the sole sources of intercultural information, which provides them with mediated experience of multiculturalism. Their contacts with Erasmus students were limited, which marked their concept of multiculturalism and impoverished its experience. Consequently, their inability to see and exploit the cultural richness around them prevents them from developing intercultural sensitivity. The mutual correlation between intercultural communication sensitivity and experience of multiculturalism is very strong and resembles a vicious 1035 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo circle. Considering the environmental as well as psychological constraints, the majority of students demonstrated some difficulty in recognizing patterns of cultural difference in their own and other cultures. They could hardly adapt to and accept intercultural otherness by moving from a onedimensional to multi-dimensional reality and shifting their prospective behaviour into other cultural contexts. A shift towards enthorelativism and consequently a positive change in the intercultural communication sensitivity could be observed after the course was over. They have developed more self-confidence by stressing universal values of all cultures, which is typical of the minimization stage in the process of acquiring intercultural communication competence. When interviewed they claimed the importance of commonalities and similarities among cultures. They also assumed that although cultures differ across the globe certain cultural values, typical for Polish students, can be also found among their culturally-distinct interlocutors. Showing a strong commitment to the idea that people from other cultures are basically alike, they viewed the world in terms of common needs, interests and goals as well as values, norms, beliefs and practices. At the same time they were able to recognize basic patterns of cultural difference. Although their emerging ethnorelative attitude stemmed from generalizations and use of unsophisticated cognitive schemata it showed the beginning of a positive evolution. The big change was seen in their declarations that they are interested in interacting with culturally different people, which is enjoyable and enriching. A transitional change in the students‘ cultural identification with an acceptance of multicultural identity existing in today‘s worldviews among many young people could also be noticed. A positive change in the cultural profile of the respondents should serve as the most efficient motivation to make them continue towards the development of their intercultural communication competence becoming at the same time more effective in interpersonal contacts across cultures. References: Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards Ethnorelativism. A Developmental Model of Intercultural Senistivity. In R. M. Paige (ed.) Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press Chen, G. M., and Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication 3, 2-14 Fritz, W., Moellenberg, A. and Chen, G. M. (2002). Measuring International Sensitivity in Different Cultural Context, Intercultural Communication Studies 11/2002 (2), 165-176 1036 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 575 Title A name given to the resource Individual Orientations Towards Intercultural Differences on The Basis of a Study Conducted Among The Polish Students of English Philology Author Author Romanowski, Piotr Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the present paper is to show how the Polish students of English Philology changed their orientations towards intercultural differences as a result of intercultural encounters they experienced and instruction in intercultural development offered to them. With increased levels of intercultural communication, their competence in intercultural relations magnified. As assumed, the students‘ initial emotional desire to acknowledge, appreciate, and accept cultural differences occurred to be weak. However, with the intercultural development, the levels of intercultural sensitivity being a component of intercultural competence, rose significantly. In effect the students were able to recognize certain values and pick up on verbal and non-verbal signals typical of other cultures allowing for further empathy being developed and adjusting to different scripts of communication. For the purpose of observing the varying levels of intercultural sensitivity and subsequently intercultural competence, the author decided to design a ranking questionnaire as a research instrument. It consisted of a series of statements marked by the respondents with numbers 1-5 to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with them. It was designed for comparative analysis of their responses. The interpretation of the collected data involved searching for relations between the investigated variables. Through careful examination of the questionnaire and its collected data, the author managed to notice a meaningful change in the attitudes, values and skills exhibited by his students in terms of their intercultural identities. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics