272 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f126d060bd2203ebb4352fa95ebabea.pdf 43bbcba0b95d1fe5f2ea0e7151fabeed PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strategies Used in Producing English Lexical Collocations by Saudi EFL Learners Hashim Noor & Arwa Adubaib Department of Languages and Translation Taibah University, Saudi Arabia hnoor@taibahu.edu.sa Abstract: Thirty, with two distinct proficiency level, EFL Saudi English majors at Taibah University participated in this study. Two written elicitation tasks were used: a fill-in-theblank test which was accompanied by a self-checklist, and a translation test. In addition, retrospective data was also collected from the participants to elicit their reflections on their written production. The qualitative analysis of the data resulted in the development of a taxonomy of the strategies used by the participants of the study. The taxonomy was divided into five major categories: retrieval, L1 based strategies, L2 based strategies, reduction strategies, and test-taking strategies. The participants‘ overall use of strategies in producing unacceptable collocations was higher in frequency than their use of the strategies in producing acceptable collocations. The results also revealed that the participants relied on L2 based strategies more often than other strategies in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. The results also showed that the two groups seemed to have chosen the same strategies and have not differed much in their total number of use. The results revealed that HPS and LPS differed significantly in their use of strategies in producing acceptable collocations especially with regard to the retrieval strategy, L2 based strategies and L1 based strategies in favour of the HPS group. In the production of unacceptable collocations, on the other hand, there were statistically significant differences between the two groups especially with reference to the use of the reduction strategies and L2 based strategies in favour of the LPS group. The implications of the research findings for teaching English collocations are discussed, along with pedagogical recommendations. Key Words: English lexical collocations, language learning strategies, EFL learners, Saudi English learners 1. Introduction Producing English lexical collocations has largely posed a serious problem for learners‘ of English, (Brown, 1974; Howarth, 1998; Hussain, 1998; Nesselhauf, 2003; Mahmoud, 2005). While producing certain L2 collocational strings of language, learners may employ some strategies to fill a lexical gap. Difficulties that students encounter could be partly attributable to different strategies that they use when producing English lexical collocations. By investigating the strategies that learners use while attempting to come up with L2 acceptable collocations, the present study seeks to shed some light on the underlying processes that students adopt to compensate for the inadequacy in their L2 linguistic system. It was hoped that a thorough analysis of such strategies might lead to suitable methods for dealing with them. An understanding of such underlying mental processes could help teachers adjust their teaching methods and materials in the area of collocations more effectively. This study focuses on learners‘ production of collocations in English, a phenomenon which is frequently used in spoken and written interactions. Hence mastering it represents one major step towards approaching naturalness, precision, and therefore fluency in the foreign language. Many studies have proved that English as a foreign (EFL) learners encounter difficulties in collocating English words together in an acceptable way (Bahnas and Eldo, 1993; Farghal and Obiedat, 1995; Diab, 1997; Nesselhauf, 2003; Mahmoud, 2005). When confronted with such difficulties, learners are likely to use some strategies in order to fill in any lexical gaps in their L2 speech or writing. Although there has been an increasing interest among researchers in finding how L2 learners overcome linguistic problems due to inadequate command of the target language, not much attention has been paid to lexical strategies applied by L2 learners at different proficiency levels. Furthermore, very few studies have investigated learners‘ use of strategies in producing collocations. On the 574 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo other hand, many studies have dealt with strategies that students use in spoken interactions, whereas the present study focuses on students‘ use of strategies in written tasks. 2. Objectives of the Study This study is an exploratory study that attempts to: 1. identify and describe strategies that students use when seeking to come up with acceptable English lexical collocations in given tasks. 2. investigate how frequent do two groups of learners of two different proficiency levels use these strategies to produce acceptable or unacceptable collocations. The study focuses on strategies of language use and specifically communication strategies as they are mainly meant to deal with lexical problems (Ellis, 1994). 3. Questions of the Study The study attempts to answer the following questions: 1. What are the strategies used by EFL learners in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations? 2. How frequent do high and low English proficiency levels groups use these strategies to produce acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations? 4. Methodology 4.1. Subjects of the Study The subjects of the study were 88 fourth-year Saudi English major students at Department of Languages and Translation, Taibah University, Saudi Arabia. All subjects were native speakers of Arabic. 4.2. Data collection The data was collected from the written performance of students in the given tests. Production data was chosen for the study, because it reflects the ―underlying competence‖, i.e. learner‘s production competence (Brown, 2000:216). 4.3. Instruments First a proficiency test was conducted to identify the subjects‘ proficiency levels. After that two tests were conducted to meet the primary goal of the study, i.e. revealing strategies that students adopt while producing English collocations. 4.3.1. The proficiency test To identify the participants‘ English proficiency level (high-low), a proficiency test had been carried out. The general proficiency level of English of fourth year English majors was measured by applying Taibah University‘s Standardized Proficiency Test 196 to 88 students. The test was administered by the researchers together with members of the English department. Students were asked to answer all the questions and not leave any item unanswered. All test papers were scored. Out of 100 marks the highest score was 85 marks, whereas the lowest score was 35 marks. According to normal curve, the mean, and standard deviation of the scores were computed (See Table 1). As a result, 20 students were found to be high with scores ranging between 85-70 marks out of 100, and 25 were regarded low with scores ranging between 35-58 out of a 100. Table 1: Measures of spread of study‘s participants. No. of Students SD Mean 88 9.54 68.6 SD: standard deviation 196 The test consisted of 100 multiple choice items which measured the writing, reading, vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and pronunciation of participants. 575 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4.3.2. Test one The first test was an objective test comprising a fill-in-the-blank test which elicited students‘ production of a set of specific English lexical collocations. Besides, it elicited students‘ use of strategies. The test was divided into two parts. Each part was devoted to one type of collocations. The first part dealt with 12 items with (verb + noun) collocations, and the second covered 10 items with (adjective + noun) collocations. The study investigated participants use of strategies in the production of these types of collocations because they are the most common types of collocations in English (Newmark, 1988; Lewis, 1997b). Participants were asked to fill in the blanks in part one with a verb, and in part two with an adjective. The test was accompanied by a self checklist197. The use of the checklist in the fill-in-the-blank task had actually positive advantages to the current study. First the checklist was an instrument used in this study to help learners choose which strategy they used in responding to each item, since open ended questions such as ‗Why did you choose this word?‘ turned out to be impractical and resulted in vague answers by the participants in the pilot study conducted. The checklist contained nine options of strategies that were expected to be used by participants. Besides, an open-ended option orderly the tenth option was added for other strategies which might not appear in the checklist, but, were nevertheless, used by the participants. Second, participants were asked to clarify in a written form as a sort of written verbal report how they employed the strategy they marked in the checklist when responding to each item in an attempt to collect immediate reflections from participants about the strategies they used in filling the blanks at the time of performing the task. The self checklist was presented to participants in their native language ‗Arabic‘ to ensure clarity and understanding (see Appendix 1 for an extract of an English version). The data elicited by the checklist as Dornyei, (2003) sees it, would also help as a retrospective data for the interview, where respondents were to be asked to comment on their responses (p. 130). After completing the first two steps, students were asked to translate the sentences into their native language ‗Arabic‘ (see Appendix 1). The rationale behind asking students to translate the sentences of the fill in the blank task into Arabic could be summarised in the following: 1. It was expected that this step could reflect the participant‘s intended meaning. Thus it would clarify if the student had understood the meaning of the target sentence fully or not. And so it would show if his response in the blank was actually due to a full understanding or misunderstanding of the target sentence. 2. The translation could also help to refresh students‘ memory in the retrospective interview. It might help in reminding them of what they had comprehended of the sentence at the time of performing the test. 3. Because the researchers belong to the same native language as the participants, the translation of the target sentences could help the researchers spot occurrences of native language positive/negative transfer. Besides the written instructions given to students, an example was provided in the instruction page for the students to follow in order to carry out the task (see Appendix 1). 4.3.3. Test two The second test was a translation test. It aimed at eliciting students‘ strategies in translating sentences including collocations from Arabic into English. The translation test consisted of 18 short sentences with collocations. In this task, nine items contained (verb + noun) collocations, and nine items included (adjective + noun) collocations. It was expected that at least, one member of the collocations‘ sequence was known to the participants, so their challenge was to supply the other acceptable collocate. When translating these sentences, the participant either retrieved the correct collocation from their memory, or resorted to any possible means to convey the intended meaning. The test was expected to reveal some strategies that learners might use in order to communicate the meaning of the collocations presented in the give sentences (see Appendix 2). The use of the translation test in search of strategies used by participants had many advantages. Zimmermann and Schneider (1987) pointed out that despite the well-known fact that translating is in many ways an artificial form of L2 communication, at least as compared to everyday conversation, it seems to be the safest source of information about processes of lexical search, more so than reproductive exercises: the original intended meaning is mostly given for the analyst (except for misinterpretations of the source text) therefore (some aspects of ) learners‘ strategies can be pinned down with higher certainty (p.178). 197 ―A self-checklist is a list of several characteristics or activities presented to the subjects of the study. The individuals are asked to study the list and then to produce a mark opposite the characteristics they possess or the activities in which they have engaged for a particular length of time. Self-checklists are often used when researchers want students to diagnose or to appraise their own performance.‖ (Fraenkel & Norman 2003:130-131). 576 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Furthermore, in the translation test, the avoidance strategy could be easily identified. Blum & Levenston (1978) maintained that ―comparison of interlanguage usage, for instance, with expected nativespeaker usage in the same context- or of target language with source language in the case of translation- will show what is avoided‖ (p.401). On the other hand, when learners perform translation tasks, the influence of their mother tongue could largely be observed (Bahns,1993; Bahns &Eldaw, 1993; Farghal& Obiedat, 1995). The rationale behind selecting two types of collocations (verb + noun) and (adjective + noun) to be the target lexical collocations of this study was two-fold. First, these types of collocations were regarded as the most common types of collocations in English (Newmark, 1988; Lewis, 1997b). Second, the current study hopes that applying two common types of collocations could broaden the scope of our understanding of learners‘ use of strategies in the production of English lexical collocations, in an attempt to take one step forward to other studies which had focused on (verb + noun) collocations, Bahns & Eldaw (1993), Howarth, (1998), Al-Zahrani (1998), Bonk (2000), Nesselhauf (2003) and, Zughoul & Abdel Fattah (2003) to measure learners knowledge of English lexical collocations. Because the one aim of this study was to identify and describe strategies used by the participants of this study in producing English lexical collocations, the results of both tasks and both types of collocations were collapsed under the major category of English lexical collocations. Thus, the taxonomy developed, and the results obtained represented all strategies identified from all the tasks of both types of collocations used in this study. 4.3.4. Interviews The aim of conducting interviews with the participants of the study was to collect qualitative data about participants‘ use of strategies in the production of English lexical collocations. Retrospective interviews were the type of interview selected for this study because ―it is used primarily in an attempt to explore learners‘ thought processes and strategies by asking learners to reflect on their thoughts after they have carried out a predetermined activity‖ (Gass & Mackey, 2000:37-38). Poulisse, Bongaerts and Kellerman (1987), maintain that retrospection plays a very important role in the identification of compensation strategies (CpS), (the term the researchers used to specify a type of communication strategy by excluding reduction strategies). To them, in addition to providing independent support for the identification of communication strategies, students‘ retrospective comments helped them to identify CpS which would otherwise have remained unnoticed. Furthermore, they revealed CpS which were incorrectly identified as CpS. 4.3.5. Procedures As for the fill-in-the-blank test, written instructions, and an example of how to carry out the test were provided in the first page. In addition, instructions were read aloud to the participants. Oral explanations were also given both in English and Arabic concerning the strategies checklist to ensure full understanding on the part of participants. Participants were asked to follow the steps given in the instruction sheet and were encouraged to supply their written verbal report in the checklist. Participants were not allowed to use any dictionary as they were taking the tests. With regard to the translation test, students were asked to translate the given sentences from Arabic into English. After the tests were completed, one of the researchers started conducting the retrospective interviews. Because participants in the interviews were asked to clarify what strategy they had used in the given tasks, all the interviews were conducted in Arabic, the native language of the participants. Strategies were identified by investigating all items of both tests whether the participant produced acceptable or unacceptable collocations. 4.4. Method of analysis Before scoring participants‘ responses in the production of collocations in the given tasks, a criterion needed to be established upon which the judgment of the acceptability of collocations produced by participants was made. In judging the acceptability of collocations produced, three types of sources were used to determine whether each combination produced by the participants was acceptable or unacceptable. They were specialised dictionaries of English collocations, native speakers responses, and the Cobuild Concordance Sampler. To this 577 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo end, all collocations produced by participants in the production tasks were rated for acceptability according to the following criterion: 1. Dictionaries‘ consultation: In an attempt to ensure the accuracy of the judgments of all the responses produced by the participants in producing English lexical collocations, four specialized dictionaries of collocations were consulted to determine whether the collocations produced were acceptable or unacceptable. They included; - The BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations (Benson, et al., 1997) - Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (2002). - LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations (1997). - DAR El-ILM‘S Dictionary of Collocations (2007) 2. Native speakers‘ responses: To achieve this aim, in the fill-in-the-blank-task, three native speakers of English, (see Table 2) were invited to provide all the possible responses that are acceptable for native speakers to use in their variety of English. One of them was a bilingual native speaker of English (American) who had learned Arabic, and so he was also invited to provide his responses for the translation task. Native speakers responses were used by the researchers as a data base to validate the judgment of the acceptability of students‘ collocations in both tasks if the collocations produced by participants did not appear in the four dictionaries above. No. 1. 2. 3. Table 2: Native speakers participated in the study Nationality Qualification Major British M.A. Applied Linguistics American M.A. TESOL American M.A. TESOL 3. Corpus Concordance Sampler Another source for validating the acceptability of collocations produced by students in the case if the response did not appear in all the sources above was by consulting Corpus Concordance Sampler. The Corpus Concordance Sampler belongs to the Collins Word-bank Online English corpus198. In judging the acceptability of collocations used, there were a number of important considerations that had to be taken into account. The combinations of (verb + noun) and (adjective + noun) were considered acceptable if they occurred in the participant‘s production as identical as those combinations that appeared in the sources of the acceptability‘s judgment. A combination was regarded identical if it occurred in the same form (verb + noun, OR adjective + noun), in the same sense (i.e., the intended meaning of the sentence given in the production task) as that which appeared in sources of validity in the acceptability‘s criteria mentioned above. Because the acceptability criteria, in this study, focused on syntagmatic, lexical, and semantic features of the produced combinations, deviation in tense aspect, and spelling mistakes were disregarded. For example, in the case of tense aspect, if the participant used the collocation ‗did a favour‘ instead of what the sentence required ‗do a favour‘ the collocation was regarded acceptable on the lexical and semantic level. Here the participant‘s deviation is grammatical rather than lexical or semantic deviation. After classifying responses to acceptable or unacceptable collocations for each item produced by participants, they were scored as follows: - Correct responses (acceptable collocations) were given (1) mark, whereas - incorrect responses (unacceptable collocations) were given (0) marks. After scoring students‘ responses in the tests given, whether they produced acceptable or unacceptable collocations, a qualitative analysis of the data was processed to identify strategies used by each participant in each item. The researcher observed the following data sources in both tasks to decide what strategy the participant used in each item whether the lexical item or combination of lexical items produced formed acceptable or unacceptable collocations: Fill-in-the-blank Task 198 The corpus is composed of 56 million words of contemporary written and spoken text. It covers corpora from British books, radio, newspapers, and magazines, American books, and radio, and British transcribed speech. To search for collocations in the Corpus Concordance Sampler, the facility provides up to 100 of the statistically most significant collocates for the consulted word. It also provides 40 lines of concordance for the focused word in authentic utterances derived from sources mentioned earlier. (http://www.collins.co.uk/Corpus/CorpusSearch.aspx) 578 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Participants‘ responses in the blanks. Participants‘ selection of strategies from the checklist. Participants‘ immediate written verbal reports on each item. Participants‘ translation of the collocations in the given sentence. Participants‘ reflections on their responses in the interview. Researchers' review of related literature taxonomies of strategies. Translation Task: 1. The participants‘ responses. 2. Participants‘ contextual information of the written translation sentences. 3. Participants‘ reflections on their responses in the interview. 4. Researchers' review of related literature taxonomies of strategies. After investigating data qualitatively, strategies were identified. These strategies were numbered to facilitate data analysis. The strategies identified were then categorised under five major categories in a taxonomy. Finally, quantitative analysis was then carried out to provide the frequency and percentage of each strategy used in the data whether participants produced acceptable or unacceptable collocations. 5. Discussion of the Results 5.1. Participants‘ production of collocations in the elicitation tasks In the quantitative analysis of participants‘ responses, the number of acceptable collocations and the number of unacceptable collocations for each item responded by the participants was counted. As for the participants‘ overall performance in the elicitation tasks, Table 3 shows that out of a total of 1200 items responded by the participants of the study, only 369 (30.75%) responses resulted in acceptable collocations, and 831 (69.25%) produced unacceptable collocations. Table 3 Participants‘ overall production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations Students‘ production of collocations Students‘ Acceptable Unacceptable Total proficiency level collocations collocations No. % No. % No. % Low 110 9.17 490 40.83 High 259 21.58 341 28.42 Grand Total 369 30.75 831 69.25 1200 100 Figure 1: Participants‘ overall production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations To gain a clearer picture of each group‘s performance, Tables 4 and 5 display the results obtained from the elicitation tasks of this study. Considering that each group produced 600 responses with a total of 1200 responses for both groups, results revealed that both high and low proficiency students encountered difficulties in the production of acceptable English lexical collocations. However, as shown in Table 4, high proficiency students (HPS) produced more acceptable collocations compared to low proficiency students (LPS). Table 4: High proficiency students‘ production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations High proficiency students Task Acceptable Unacceptable Total collocations collocations 579 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo No. % No. % No. % 95 52.8 85 47.2 180 100 78 52 72 48 150 100 51 37,8 84 62.2 135 100 35 25.9 100 74.1 135 100 259 43.2 341 56.8 600 100 Fill-in-the-blanks verb + noun Fill-in-the-blanks Adjective + noun Translation verb + noun Translation Adjective + noun Grand Total Table 5 Low proficiency students‘ production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations Low proficiency students Acceptable Unacceptable Task Total collocations collocations No. % No. % No. % Fill-in-the-blanks 50 27.8 130 72.2 180 100 verb + noun Fill-in-the-blanks 29 19.3 121 80.7 150 100 Adjective + noun Translation 11 8.1 124 91.9 135 100 verb + noun Translation 20 14.8 115 85.2 135 100 Adjective + noun Grand Total 110 18.3 490 81.7 600 100 With regard to the elicitation tasks used in this study, Tables 4 and 5 also show that participants had more difficulties in producing English collocations in the translation task than in the fill-in-the-blank task. A possible explanation of this result is that in the translation task participants were required to produce the whole verb + noun, and adjective + noun English collocations, whereas in the fill-in-the-blank task they were required to supply only a single lexical item whether a verb or an adjective which collocates with the already existing noun in the given sentence. Therefore, while they were required to supply only 50% of the collocation in the fillin-the-blank task, they were asked to provide 100% of the collocation in the translation task. That is probably why their performance in the fill-in-the-blank task outdid that in a more demanding task such as the translation task. In general, Figure 2 shows that HPS produced 259 (43.17%) acceptable collocations, whereas LPS produced only 110 (18.33%) responses containing acceptable collocations. These results are also in line with earlier studies such as Al-Zahrani (1998); Lui (2000) which suggest that learners‘ knowledge of collocations may increase as their proficiency level advances. 580 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 2: High and Low proficiency students‘ production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations 5.2. Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of strategies in producing English lexical collocations Participants‘ overall use of strategies in the production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations for each subcategory as well as the major categories was computed by carrying out a frequency and percentage count. The data under investigation yielded a total of 1426 occurrences of strategies used by the participants of the study. It must be noted that the total number of strategies used was higher than the total number of items produced by the participants of this study because some participants used two and sometimes three strategies in their attempt to produce one response. In this respect, Paribakht (1985) maintains that ―very often a subject‘s statement contained several CS[communication strategies]. That is, they occurred within the framework of another CS. Each of these embedded strategies has been regarded a separate entry ‖ (p. 134-135). Following Paribakht (Ibid.), in this study, if an item elicited two or three strategies, each occurrence was counted within its separate subcategory. Frequency of occurrences and percentages of strategies were calculated along the five major categories of strategies of the developed taxonomy of this study. These major categories included the ‗retrieval strategy‘, ‗L1 based strategies‘, ‗L2 based strategies‘, ‗reduction strategies‘, and ‗test-taking strategies‘. Results of each major category are presented next. 5.2.1. Retrieval strategy The first major category is the ‗retrieval strategy‘. This strategy was used in 179 (12.55%) occurrences to produce acceptable English lexical collocations, and not occurring at all in producing unacceptable collocations (see Table 6). Table 6 Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of the‘ retrieval strategy‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations Retrieval Strategy Retrieval Total Grand Total Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations f % 179 12.55 179 / 12.55 % Collocations F % 0 0 1426 / 100% Frequency/Percentage 5.2.2. L1 based strategies The second major category in the taxonomy is ‗L1 based strategies‘. This category comprises 10 L1 based strategies (see Table 7). Strategies under this category occurred 425 times ( 29.80%) out of a total of 1426 occurrences, of which they occurred 99 times (6.94%) in producing acceptable collocations, and 326 times (22.86%) in producing unacceptable collocations. In the production of acceptable collocations in this major category, four subcategories were employed by the participants of the current study. The most used strategy was ‗positive transfer‘ which occurred 77 times (5.40%) indicating its popularity, followed by ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ which occurred 16 times (1.12%) , and 581 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo finally the least used strategies both ‗use of L1 non standard lexical items‘ and ‗L1 paraphrase‘ which occurred three times (0.21%) each. Table 7: Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations L1 based Strategies Negative transfer Positive transfer L1 synonyms L1 figurative expressions L1 Non-standard use Language switch Overextension of L1 lexical items Use of L1 related concepts L1 & L2 Phonemic similarities L1 paraphrase Subtotal Total Frequency/percentage Grand total frequency/ percentage Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations f % 0 0 77 5.40 16 1.12 0 0 3 0.21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0.21 99 6.94 425 / 29.80 % 1426 / 100% Collocations F % 140 9.82 24 1.68 62 4.35 3 0.21 16 1.12 2 0.14 11 0.77 5 0.35 5 0.35 58 4.07 326 22.86 As for the production of unacceptable collocations, participants used all subcategories in this major category. The most frequent subcategory was ‗negative transfer‘ which occurred 140 times (9.82%), followed by ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ which occurred 62 times (4.35%), and ‗use of L1 paraphrase‘ with 58 (4.07%) occurrences. The least used strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations were ‗language switch‘ which was used only twice (0.14%), ‗use of L1 figurative language‘ which occurred three times (0.21%), and ‗use of L1 related concepts‘ and, ‗L1 and L2 phonemic similarities‘ which both occurred five times (0.35%) each. Other strategies were in mid-position as displayed in Table 7. 5.2.3. L2 based strategies The third major category in the taxonomy is ‗L2 based strategies‘. This category comprises the largest number of subcategories, which includes 15 subcategories. In this category, 578 (40.53%) occurrences of L2 based strategies were employed by participants, of which 141 (9.89%) of the occurrences resulted in the production of acceptable collocations. On the contrary, and occurring with a high frequency, 437 (30.65%) of the occurrences produced unacceptable collocations. Table 8 below illustrates participants‘ use of ‗L2 based strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable collocations. In this category, 11 strategies were used by participants in the production of acceptable collocations. Among all the subcategories listed in Table 8, the strategy of ‗use of L2 common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ occurred with the highest frequency. Out of a total of 1426 occurrences of strategies, 71 (4.98%) occurrences of this strategy produced acceptable collocations. Strategies that ranked second in this category were ‗use of L2 synonyms‘, and ‗approximation‘ which both occurred 21 times (1.47%). The strategies that were used least in producing acceptable collocations in this category were ‗ use of L2 idioms‘, ‗ use of physical description‘ which each occurred once (0.07%) in the data, followed by ‗relying on grammatical clues‘ which occurred twice(0.14%). Next in frequency in this category were ‗use of L2 derivation‘, and ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred three times each (0.21%). Strategies that did not occur at all in the production of acceptable collocations were ‗word coinage‘, ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘, ‗overextension of L2 lexical items‘, and ‗use of an L2 different word class‘. The remaining strategies‘ in this category occurred with relatively low frequencies (see Table 8). 582 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 8:Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of ‗L2 based strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations L2 based Strategies Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations Collocations f L2 synonyms L2 paraphrase L2 common & de-lexicalized words Word coinage L2 Negation L2 Antonyms L2 figurative expressions L2 Derivation Approximation L2 physical description L2 grammatical clues Overextension of L2 lexical items Use of an L2 different word class L2 learning & personal experience L2 Idioms Subtotal Total Frequency/percentage Grand total frequency/ percentage % 21 1.47 3 0.21 71 4.98 0 0 5 0.35 7 0.49 0 0 3 0.21 21 1.47 1 0.07 2 0.14 0 0 0 0 6 0.42 1 0.07 141 9.89 578 / 40.53% 1426 / 100% F 36 88 150 7 10 4 3 0 65 8 7 5 45 9 0 437 % 2.52 6.17 10.52 0.49 0.70 0.28 0.21 0 4.56 0.56 0.49 0.35 3.16 0.63 0 30.65 In producing unacceptable collocations, however, participants used 13 strategies in this major category. The strategy which occurred with the highest frequency was again ‗use of L2 common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘, which occurred 150 times (10.52%), followed by ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred 88 times (6.17%), and ‗approximation‘ which occurred 65 times(4.56%), followed by ‗use of an L2 different word class‘ occurring 45 times(3.16%). The least used strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations were ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘ with three occurrences (0.21%), ‗use of L2 antonyms‘ with four occurrences (0.28%) and ‗overextension of L2 lexical usages‘ with five occurrences (0.35%). Two strategies were not used in this major category in the production of unacceptable collocations, ‗ use of L2 derivation‘ and ‗use of L2 idioms‘ Other strategies did not occur with a very high frequency either (see Table 8). 5.2.4. Reduction strategies The fourth major category in the taxonomy is ‗reduction strategies‘. It comprises three subcategories ‗total avoidance‘, ‗use of irrelevant lexical item‘, and ‗message abandonment‘. All three subcategories occurred 205 times (14.38%) in the production of unacceptable collocations only. None had occurred in the production of acceptable collocations. Two of the subcategories in this category occurred with a relatively high frequency, they were ‗total avoidance‘ which occurred 85 times (5.96%), and ‗use of irrelevant lexical item‘ with 99 times (6.94%) of occurrence. On the other hand, ‗message abandonment‘ occurred 21 times (1.47%) with a relatively low occurrence compared to the other two strategies. Table 9 shows frequencies and percentages of strategies used under this category in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations. 583 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 9:Frequency and percentage of participants‘ overall use of ‗reduction strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocation Reduction Strategies Total Avoidance Use of an irrelevant lexical items Message Abandonment Subtotal Total: Frequency/percentage Grand total: frequency/percentage Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations No. % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 205 / 14.38 % 1426 / 100% Collocations No. 85 99 21 205 % 5.96 6.94 1.47 14.38 5.2.5. Test-taking strategies The fifth major category in the taxonomy deals with ‗test-taking strategies‘. It includes two subcategories ‗use of words that appeared earlier in the task‘, and ‗use of contextual information‘. Strategies under this category were used 39 times (2.73%). The strategy of ‗use of words that appeared earlier in the task‘ had not occurred in the production of acceptable collocations, but was employed four times (0.28%) in producing unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, use of contextual information occurred 16 times ( 1.12%), in the production of acceptable collocations, and 19 times (1.33%) in the production of unacceptable collocations (see Table 10). Table 10 Frequency and percentage of of participants‘ overall use of ‗ test-taking strategies‘ in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations Test - taking Strategies Use of words that appeared earlier in the task Use of contextual information Subtotal Total: Frequency/percentage Grand total: frequency/percentage Acceptable Unacceptable Collocations No. % 0 0 16 1.12 16 1.12 39 / 2.73 % 1426 / 100% Collocations No. % 4 0.28 19 1.33 23 1.61 5.2.6. Participants‘ overall use of the major categories of strategies in producing English lexical collocations To summarize the results displayed earlier in this section, Table 11 shows all five major categories‘ frequency of occurrences and their percentages. Out of a total of 1426 occurrences of strategies, ‗retrieval‘ occurred 179 times (12.55%) in producing acceptable collocations only, none had occurred in the production of unacceptable collocations. ‗L1 based strategies‘ occurred with a frequency of 99 times (6.94%) in producing acceptable collocations, and 326 times (22.86%) in producing unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, ‗L2 based strategies‘ occurred with a high percentage in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. It occurred with a frequency of 141 times (9.89%) in the production of acceptable collocations, and 437 times (30.65%) in the production of unacceptable collocations. On the contrary, ‗reduction strategies‘ occurred only in the production of unacceptable collocations with a frequency of 205 times (14.38%). ‗Test- taking strategies‘ were the least used strategies in both the production of acceptable and unacceptable collocations. They occurred 16 times (1.12%) in the production of acceptable collocations, and 23 times (1.61%) in the production of unacceptable collocations. Table 11 An overall frequency and percentage‘s count of the major categories of strategies used by the participants in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations 584 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strategies Retrieval L1 based strategies L2 based strategies Reduction strategies Test-taking strategies Subtotal Total Participants strategy use Acceptable Collocations Unacceptable Collocations No. % No. % 179 12.55 0 0 99 6.94 326 22.86 141 9.89 437 30.65 0 0 205 14.38 16 1.12 23 1.61 435 30.50 991 69.50 1426 / 100 % Figure 3. A comparison between frequencies resulted from participants‘ use of the major categories of strategies in producing acceptable and unacceptable English lexical collocations. Figure 3 shows that more strategies were employed in producing unacceptable collocations compared to those which produced acceptable collocations. In producing acceptable collocations, the ‗retrieval strategy‘ ranked first, ‗L2 based strategies‘ ranked second, ‗L1 based strategies‘ ranked third, ‗test-taking strategies‘ ranked fourth, and the ‗reduction strategies‘ did not occur at all in the production of acceptable collocations. In producing unacceptable collocations, however, ‗L2 based strategies‘ ranked first, followed by ‗L1 based strategies‘, ‗reduction strategies‘ ranked third, ‗test- taking strategies‘ ranked fourth, whereas ‗retrieval strategy‘ did not occur at all in the production of unacceptable collocations. 5.2.7. Frequency and percentage of participants‘ use of strategies with reference to their proficiency level in producing English lexical collocations The results of this study showed variations in the performance of the participants. The subcategories within each major category varied in their frequency of occurrence in two dimensions. First, they varied with regard to the frequency of occurrence among subcategories used by the same group. Second, they differed with regard to the difference between both groups in employing strategies categorized in each major category. To give an overview of data, high proficiency level students (HPS) employed a total of 715 strategies, whereas low proficiency students (LPS) used a total of 711 strategies in producing English lexical collocations. A detailed description of each group‘s performance is presented in the next section. 5.2.7.1. Retrieval strategy The first major category in the taxonomy was the ‗retrieval strategy. As stated earlier, this strategy was only used in the production of acceptable collocations, and was not used at all by both groups in the production of unacceptable collocations (see Table 12). As for the two groups of participants use of this category, HPS used this strategy 145 times (20.28%), whereas LPS used it 34 times (4.78%) in the production of acceptable collocation. This indicates that LPS with apparently a smaller inventory of L2 vocabulary used ‗retrieval‘ with a low frequency compared to the HPS who probably possess a larger size of L2 vocabulary. 585 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 12. A comparison of the Frequency and percentage of the retrieval strategy used by each group in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations HPS Retrieval Strategy Acceptable Collocations Retrieval Total Grand Total F % f 145 20.28 0 145 / 20.28 % 715 / 100% LPS Unacceptable Collocations Acceptable Collocations % Unacceptable Collocations f % 34 4.78 34 / 4.78 % 711 / 100% 0 f % 0 0 5.2.7.2. L1 based strategies The results showed that both groups used ‗L1 based strategies‘ in the production of collocations (see Table 13). Out of a total of 715 occurrences of strategies used by HPS, 221 (30.91%) ‗L1 based strategies‘ were employed by HPS, of which 62 occurrences (8.67%) produced acceptable collocations, and 159 occurrences (22.24%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, LPS used ‗L1 based strategies‘ 204 times (28.69 %) of which 37 occurrences (5.20%) produced acceptable collocations, and 167 occurrences (23.49%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. A closer look at each group‘s use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ in the production of collocations is presented in the following section. Table 13 A comparison of the frequency and percentage of the ‗L1 based strategies‘ used by each group in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations Acceptable HPS Unacceptable Acceptable LPS Unacceptable L1 based Strategies Negative transfer Collocations f % 0 0 Collocations f % 68 9.51 Positive transfer 47 6.57 11 1. 54 L 1 synonyms 11 1.54 35 4.90 L1 figurative expressions L1 Non standard use of lexical items Language switch Overextension of L1 lexical items Use of L1 related concepts L1 & L2 phonemic similarities L1 paraphrase 0 0 1 0.14 1 0.14 4 0.56 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal Total: Frequency/percentage Grand Total Collocations f % 72 10.13 0 Collocations f % 0 0 4.2 30 2 0.7 5 0 0 0 0.2 2 8 0 0 10 1.40 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 0.42 62 8.67 13 1.83 27 3.80 2 0.28 12 1.69 2 0.28 0 1 0.14 0 0 5 0.70 0.56 0 0 1 0.14 26 3.64 0 32 4.50 159 22.24 37 0 5.2 0 167 23.49 221 /30.91 % 204 / 28.69 % 715 / 100 % 711 / 100 % As shown in Table 13, out of the 10 subcategories of strategies in this major category, HPS used only four strategies in producing acceptable collocations. They were ‗use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ which occurred 47 times (6.57%), ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ occurred 11 times (1.54%), ‗use of L1 nonstandard lexical items‘ which occurred only once (0.14%), and ‗use of L1 paraphrase occurred three times 586 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (0.42%). This indicates that ‗use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the most used strategy by HPS in the production of acceptable collocations, whereas, ‗use of ‗L1 non-standard lexical items‘ was the least used by HPS in the production of acceptable collocations. In contrast, in the production of unacceptable collocations, HPS used 8 out of 10 of the strategies in this category. The two remaining unused strategies were ‗language switch‘, and ‗use of L1 related concepts‘. As for the eight used strategies, the most used strategy in the production of unacceptable collocations was ‗negative transfer of an L1 single lexical item‘ which occurred 68 times (9.51%), followed by ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ with an occurrence of 35 times (4.90%), and ‗use of L1 paraphrase‘ which occurred 26 times (3.64%). Among the least used strategies in producing unacceptable collocations, were ‗use of L1 figurative expressions‘ which occurred once (0.14%), ‗use of L1 non-standard lexical items‘, and ‗use of L1 & L2 phonemic similarities‘ which both occurred four times (0.56%). The overall use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ by HPS indicates these strategies‘ high occurrence in their production of unacceptable collocations. The performance of LPS in the production of lexical collocations with regard to use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ major category to produce acceptable collocations did not vary greatly than that of HPS. A closer look at Table 23 shows that LPS used only three strategies in the production of acceptable collocations. They were ‗ use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ which occurred 30 times (4.22 %), ‗ use of L 1 synonyms‘ occurred 5 times (0.70%), ‗ use of L1 non-standard lexical items‘ twice (0.28%). Other strategies were not used at all by LPS in the production of acceptable collocations. In the production of unacceptable collocations, on the other hand, LPS used all strategies in this category. Strategies in this category varied in their frequency of occurrence as shown in Table 14. For example, the strategy of ‗negative transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the most used strategy with a frequency of 72 occurrences (10.13%), followed by ‗use of L1 paraphrase‘ which occurred 32 times (4.50%), next in frequency was ‗use of L1 synonyms‘ which occurred 27 times (3.80%). The least used strategies, however, were ‗ use of L1 & L2 phonemic similarities‘, ‗over-extension of L1 lexical items‘, which occurred once each(0.14%), followed by ‗ language switch‘ and ‗ use of L1 figurative expressions‘ which occurred twice each(0.28%). The remaining strategies were in mid-position between the highlighted subcategories. Table 13 also shows that HPS and LPS did not vary greatly in their use of ‗L1 based strategies‘ with regard to the total number of strategies used by each group in this category. Nevertheless, results suggest that HPS were relatively more successful users of ‗L1 based strategies‘ in the productions of acceptable collocations with 62 occurrences (8.67%) compared to the LPS who used them 37 times (5.20 %). The most successful strategy in the production of acceptable collocations in this category was ‗positive transfer of an L1 single lexical item‘ which was used by the HPS 47 times (6.57%), and 30 times (4.22%) by the LPS. With regard to the production of unacceptable collocations, however, both groups had employed strategies in this major category with a relatively high frequency. For example, HPS used ‗L1 based strategies‘ 159 times (22.24%), and LPS employed them 167 times(23.49%). The strategy used most by both groups in the production of unacceptable collocations was ‗negative transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ which was used by HPS with a frequency of 68 occurrences (9.51%), and by the LPS 72 times (10.13%) indicating its common use among both groups. 5.2.7.3. L2 base strategies In employing strategies in this major category, both groups used most of the strategies listed in Table 14. Out of a total of 715 occurrences of strategies used by HPS, 293 occurrences (40.98%) of ‗L2 based strategies‘ were employed of which 92 occurrences (12.87%) produced acceptable collocations, and 201 occurrences (28.11%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. On the other hand, out of a total of 711 occurrences of strategies used by LPS in this study, ‗L2 based strategies‘ were used 285 times (40.08 %) of which 49 occurrences (6.89%) produced acceptable collocations, and 236 occurrences (33.19%) resulted in unacceptable collocations. In the production of acceptable collocations, the HPS used 11 subcategories in this major category. The strategies that were used most in the production of acceptable collocations by HPS were ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ which occurred 39 times (5.45%), followed in frequency by ‗approximation‘ which occurred 15 times (2.10%), next in frequency was the‗ use of L2 synonyms‘ which occurred 14 times (1.96%). The least used strategies, however, were ‗use of L2 idioms‘ and ‗use of physical description‘ which both occurred once (0.14%) followed by, ‗use of L2 derivation‘, and ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ both of which occurred 3 times (0.42%). The remaining strategies, as shown in Table 14, did not occur with high frequency of occurrence either. Some strategies were not used at all, such as ‗word coinage‘, ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘, ‗relying on L2 grammatical clues‘, ‗use of an L2 different word class‘, and ‗overextension of L2 lexical usages‘. 587 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo HPS used ‗L2 based strategies‘ also in the production of unacceptable collocations but with a higher ratio. All strategies in this category were used except ‗use of L2 idioms‘ which did not occur at all in the production of unacceptable collocations. With regard to the most used strategies in this section, ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘, ranked first with a frequency of 64 times of occurrences (8.95%), followed by ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred 32 times (4.48%), ‗use of L2 synonyms‘ occurred 22 times (3.08%), and ‗use of an L2 different word class‘ which occurred 21 times (2.94%). Among the least used strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations, HPS used ‗relying on L2 grammatical clues‘ only once (0.14%), ‗use of L2 negation‘, ‗use of L2 antonyms‘, and ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘ 3 times (0.42%) each. Other strategies frequencies of occurrence and percentage appear in Table 14. In producing acceptable collocations, LPS used 6 out of 15 strategies in this category, other strategies were not used at all (see Table 14). Out of a total of 711 occurrences of strategies employed by LPS, the strategy that was used most in the production of acceptable collocations by LPS was ‗use of common words and delexicalized verbs‘ which occurred 32 times (4.50%). The least used strategies were ‗use of L2 antonyms‘, and ‗recalling from an L2 learning and personal experience‘ which occurred only once (0.14%) each, and ‗relying on grammatical clues‘ which occurred twice (0.28%). Other strategies occurred with low frequency in this category, such as ‗use of L2 synonyms‘ which occurred 7 times (0.98%), and ‗approximation‘ which occurred 6 times (0.7%). In producing acceptable collocations, LPS used ‗L2 based strategies‘ with a relatively low frequency with a total number of 49 occurrences (6.89%) of strategies used in this category. Table 14 A comparison of the frequency and percentage of the ‗L2 based strategies‘ used by each group in producing acceptable or unacceptable English lexical collocations Acceptable HPS Unacceptable Acceptable LPS Unacceptable L2 based Strategies L2 synonyms L2 paraphrase L2 common and delexicalized words Word coinage L2 Negation L2 Antonyms L2 figurative expressions L2 derivation Approximation L2 physical description L2 grammatical clues Overextension of L2 lexical items Use of an L2 different word class L2 learning & personal experience L2 idioms Subtotal Total: Frequency / percentage Grand Total Collocations f % 14 1.96 3 0.42 Collocations f % 22 3.08 32 4.48 Collocations f % 7 0.98 0 0 Collocations f % 14 1.97 56 7.88 39 5.45 64 8.95 32 4.50 86 12.10 0 5 6 0 3 15 1 0 0 0.70 0.84 0 0.42 2.10 0.14 0 4 3 3 3 0 30 7 1 0.56 0.42 0.42 0.42 0 4.20 0.98 0.14 0 0 1 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0.14 0 0 0.84 0 0.28 3 7 1 0 0 35 1 6 0.42 0.98 0.14 0 0 4.92 0.14 0.84 0 0 4 0.56 0 0 1 0.14 0 0 21 2.94 0 0 24 3.38 5 0.70 7 0.98 1 0.14 2 0.28 1 92 0.14 12.87 0 201 0 28.11 0 49 0 6.89 0 236 0 33.19 293 / 40.98 % 285 / 40.08 % 715 / 100% 711 / 100% In producing unacceptable collocations by LPS, results revealed that strategies used in ‗L2 based strategies‘ category varied in their frequency of occurrence as shown in Table 14. They also indicate that most strategies in this category were used by LPS except the strategies of ‗use of L2 idioms‘, ‗L2 derivation‘, ‗L2 figurative expressions‘ which did not occur at all. Out of 711 strategies used by LPS, the most used strategy in 588 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo this category was ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ which occurred 86 times (12.10%). Next in frequency of occurrence was ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘ which occurred 56 times (7.88%), followed by ‗approximation‘ with an occurrence of 35 times (4.92%), and ‗use of an L2 different word class‘ which occurred 24 times (3.38%). In contrast, the least used strategies were ‗use of L2 antonyms‘, ‗use of L2 physical description‘, and ‗overextension of L2 lexical usages‘ all of which occurred once (0.14%), followed by ‗recalling from an L2 learning and personal experience‘ which occurred twice (0.28%), and word coinage which occurred 3 times (0.42%). The remaining strategies occurred in mid position as shown in Table 14. Results in Table 14, also indicate that both groups did not differ greatly in their use of ‗L2 based strategies‘ in general as they were employed by HPS 293 times (40.98%), and by LPS 285 times (40.08%). However, they did differ in their frequency of use on subcategory‘s level and on the bases of the acceptability of the collocations used. In general, in producing acceptable collocations, HPS were more successful users of ‗L2 based strategies‘ with a frequency of 92 occurrences (12.87%), compared to LPS which used them 49 times (6.89%). HPS also used more of the subcategories in this major category than the LPS. In producing unacceptable collocations, however, both groups used ‗L2 based strategies‘ with a relatively high frequency, as they were used by the HPS 201 times (28.11%), and by the LPS 236 times (33.19%). Results also suggest that the most used strategy by both groups in producing acceptable and unacceptable collocations was ‗use of L2 common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘. Some strategies were used by one group only, such as ‗use of L2 figurative expressions‘, ‗use of L2 derivation‘, and ‗use of L2 idioms‘ which were used by the HPS only. Table 14 shows how the frequency of occurrences within subcategories in this major category varied between the two groups. 6. Conclusion The results of this study reveal that in the production of unacceptable collocations HPS, use of the major categories followed this order: first, ‗L2 based strategies‘, second, ‗L1 based strategies‘ third, ‗reduction strategies‘, and last, ‗test-taking strategies‘ whereas the ‗retrieval strategy‘ did not occur at all. On the other hand, the use of LPS of strategies in the production of unacceptable collocations had the following order: ‗L2 based strategies‘ ranked first, ‗reduction strategies‘ ranked second, ‗L1 based strategies‘ which ranked third, and ‗test-taking strategies‘ in final position, whereas the ‗retrieval strategy‘ did not occur at all in the production of unacceptable collocations. Though some studies admitted that most of learners‘ collocational errors could be attributable to negative transfer from their L1 which is the only resource from which learners can rely upon (Bahns & Eldo, 1993; Bahns, 1993; Farghal & Obiedat, 1995; Huang, 2001, Zughoul & Abdul-Fattah, 2001, 2003; Nesselhauf, 2003), the results obtained in this study revealed that there are other intralingual factors that resulted in learners‘ collocational errors. This was manifested in participants‘ use of more ‗L2 based strategies‘ than ‗L1 based strategies‘ in producing unacceptable collocations. In this regard the results of this study supported the findings reached by Wang & Shaw (2008) which suggested that not only L1 transfer was responsible of learners‘ collocational problems but also there are other intralingual factors. Furthermore, the results of this study showed that both groups relied on ‗L2 based strategies‘ more often than ‗L1 based strategies‘, in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. It must be noted that in these major categories of strategies there were one or more subcategories that were used with a higher ratio than the other existing subcategories. Some strategies were more dominant than others in each category. For example, in employing ‗L2 based strategies‘, the most common strategy used by both groups was ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘, followed by ‗use of L2 paraphrase‘, and ‗approximation‘ respectively. In the major category of ‗L1 based strategies‘, on the other hand, the strategy of ‗use of positive transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the most used strategy by both groups in the production of acceptable collocations. In the production of unacceptable collocations, however, the strategy of ‗negative transfer of a single L1 lexical item‘ was the strategy that was used most by both groups. Such strategy choices made by learners could be a reflection of their teachers‘ teaching practices of simplifying the new vocabulary introduced through probably using strategies such as ‗L1 transfer‘ ‗used of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ ‗approximation‘, and ‗paraphrase‘. It is well known that collocational strategies (CSs) are used with the primary goal to compensate for inadequacies resulting from a limited L2 linguistic system to promote communication especially in L2 oral language production. For this reason, researchers investigating learners‘ language oral production called for teaching them in order to encourage learners‘ communication in L2. In this regard, the results of this study 589 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo revealed that both high and low proficiency students drew on almost similar strategies in producing acceptable or unacceptable collocations in terms of the type of strategy chosen. This suggests that learners from both groups of different proficiency levels share certain ability that is referred to as ‗strategic competence‘. HPS though did not differ greatly on their choice of strategies than LPS, they differed with regard to the frequencies of occurrences of most of the strategies used particularly in the production of acceptable collocations. This finding suggests that higher proficiency level could promote learners‘ production of acceptable collocations. Based on this finding, it can be inferred that in the area of collocational production, CSs teaching may not enhance learners‘ production of acceptable collocations, whereas explicit teaching of English lexical collocations could hopefully improve learners‘ production of acceptable collocations. In this sense, this study strongly supports Bialystok‘s (1990) view that: The more language the learner knows, the more possibilities exist for the system to be flexible and adjust itself to meet the demands of the learner. What one must teach students of a language is not strategy, but language. (p. 147) 7. Pedagogical Implications and Recommendations for Teaching English Lexical Collocations for EFL learners In this study, a taxonomy of CSs employed by the participants of this study was developed. This taxonomy could serve as a useful tool to teachers in understanding their students‘ performance when seeking to produce English lexical collocations. Such a taxonomy, as well as, the quantitative results of this study may assist teachers to emphasise areas of strength that may help students‘ produce acceptable collocations. It may also direct teachers to discourage those ineffective strategies such as ‗reduction strategies‘ that lead to the production of unacceptable collocations. Since the retrieval strategy turned out to be effective in the production of acceptable collocations, it is advisable to find ways to enhance learners‘ ability to retrieve acceptable English collocations. To this end, early exposure to collocations is recommended from the earliest stages of L2 learning (Lewis, 1993; Hill, 2000). To achieve this, collocations should be introduced through intensive reading and listening programmes at the earliest stages of L2 learning to provide an L2 collocational input which may later lead to an output on the part of learners. In this respect, Hill (2000) maintains that ―what the language learners are exposed to from the earliest stages is crucial. Good quality input should lead to good quality retrieval‖ (p. 54). Therefore, when L2 vocabulary items are first introduced to learners they must be presented with their frequent partners in their L2 typical use. Such partnership between lexical items should be stressed as early as possible. Hence, learners would hopefully recognise such partnerships whenever they encounter them, thus they may learn and later retrieve them as whole chunks. The results of this study also revealed that participants overused employing a specific subcategory of ‗L2 based strategies‘, i.e., ‗use of common words and de-lexicalized verbs‘ with high frequency compared to other ‗L2 based strategies‘ in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. Based on Lewis, Morgan (2000), and Hill (2000 ) view about using the language that learners already have to extend their collocational competence, it is recommended that learners are introduced to already known common verbs and adjectives together with their frequent noun collocates (Lewis, 1993). For example, it is advisable to introduce de-lexicalised verbs such as make, do, have, get, take, give ,and put, or common adjectives such as, great, full, complete, quick, little, big, large, strong, good, and bad with a wide range of their noun collocates. Hence, students will be encouraged to explore the collocational ranges of such common verbs or adjectives and then practise them in their typical use. In this sense, students‘ attention must be drawn to consider that ―learning more vocabulary is not just learning new words, it is often learning familiar words in new combinations‖ (Woolard, 2000, p. 31). Students‘ attention should also be drawn to L2 collocational restrictions between lexical cooccurrences. Such collocational restrictions impose limitations on their substitution by other lexical items. Students must be directed that semantically compatible lexical items are not necessarily collocationally interchangeable. Although synonyms are words with mostly similar meanings, they may not be substituted one for another in some contexts. Hence, students need to have adequate knowledge of the L2 lexicon particularly with sense relations. Recognition of paradigmatic as well as syntagmatic relations of the target language promotes their use of such ‗L2 based strategies‘ in the production of acceptable collocations. By the same token, students may substitute de-lexicalised words which relatively carry little meanings in themselves unaware that each word may have a different collocational range. Therefore, it is recommended that such L2 collocational 590 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo restrictions be explicitly taught. Furthermore, special emphasis should be given to restricted collocations, for they may pass unnoticed by learners during traditional vocabulary teaching classes. Students ought to be directed towards noticing and recording such combinations to observe their collocational ranges in different L2 contexts. Hence, this would encourage learners‘ independence for exploring this important area of L2 lexicon. Results also revealed that participants of this study relied heavily on their ‗L1 based strategies‘ to provide responses to the given tasks in the production of both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. The predominant strategy that produced acceptable collocations was that of ‗use of positive transfer of a single lexical item‘, whereas ‗use of negative transfer of a single lexical item‘ was the prevailing strategy that resulted in unacceptable collocations. Interestingly enough, the same strategy of ‗use of positive transfer of a single lexical item‘ had also resulted in unacceptable collocations. This suggests that positive transfer of single lexical items does not always produce acceptable collocations. A possible explanation for that is that participants used to transfer word for word without probably being aware of the collocational restrictions of the produced combinations. In this sense, it is advisable as Lewis (1997) suggests that learners should aim at transferring chunk for chunk rather than word for word. Raising students‘ awareness of the phenomenon of collocation is crucial for effective L2 learning. Explicit teaching of collocations is advisable in order to raise learners‘ awareness of the nature of this phenomenon and its importance for their L2 production. To this end, vocabulary should be introduced as whole chunks rather than isolated lexical items. Words are not normally used alone but with other words which habitually co-occur with them in a language. This reflects the need for learning L2 lexical items in their frequent typical pattern of actual use. Explicit teaching of collocations should be put into practice with the help of improved language course books, trained teachers, effective teaching practices, and motivated independent learners. Learners could immensely benefit from getting access to important resources for noticing collocational patterns by consulting specialised dictionaries of English collocations. Therefore, it is recommended that learners make use of such specialised dictionaries in exploring how words collocate together in English, and how other unexpected combinations do co-occur to form an acceptable collocation. Dictionaries also help learners to frequently revisit already learned material. In addition, they offer other new alternatives of lexical items that can collocate with the target lexical item in question in specific contexts. They may also provide learners with a variety of collocations that can help them produce precise and natural L2 writing. Encouraging learners to use English collocations‘ dictionaries could help them experience different collocational forms of English. Hence, dictionaries of collocations can serve as resources that enrich learners L2 mental lexicon with new combinations. 591 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Abu-Ssaydeh, A. (1995). An Arabic-English collocational dictionary: Issues in theory and methodology. Babel,41 (1),12-23. Abu-Ssaydeh, A. (2005). Dictionary of semantic extensions similes and conceptual metaphors ( EnglishArabic). Beirut: Dar El-Elm Lil- Malayin. Allerton, D. (1984). Three (or four) levels of word cooccurrences restriction. Lingua, 63, 17-40. Al-Zahrani, M. (1998). Knowledge of English lexical collocations among male Saudi college students majoring in English at a Saudi University. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania. Ba-Dwais, M. O. (1994). A collocational study of the language of the Glorious Qur'an. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Girls' College of Education, Jeddah. Bahns, J. (1993). Lexical collocations: A contrastive view. ELT Journal,47 (1), 56-63. Bahns, J. & Eldaw, M. (1993). Should we teach EFL students collocations? System, 21 (1), 101-114. Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A coursebook on translation. London: Routeldge. Benson, M., Benson, E., & Ilson, R. (1997). The BBI dictionary of Englishword combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bialystok, E. (1983). Some factors in the selection and implementation of communication strategies: in C.Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp.110-118). London: Longman. Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication strategies: A psychological analysis of second language use. Oxford: Blackwell. Blum-Kulka, S. & Levenston, E.A. (1983). Universal of lexical simplification, in C. Faerch & G Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp.119-139). London: Longman. Bolinger, D. (1976). Meaning and memory, Forum Linguisticum, 1.1, 1-14. Bolinger, D. & Sears, D. (1981). Aspects of Language. Fort Worth: HPJCollege Publishers. Bongaerts, T. & Poulisse, N. (1989). Communication strategies in L1 and L2: Same or different?. Applied Linguistics 19 (3), 253-268. Bonk, W. J. (2000). Testing ESL learners' knowledge of collocations. Report-Research. (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. 442309). Brown, D. F. (1974). Advanced vocabulary teaching: The problem of collocation. RELC Journal,(2). 1-11. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Longman. Carter, R. (1998). Vocabulary: Applied Linguistics Perspectives. London: Routledge. Chen, L. (2005). Lexical strategies of Chinese learners of English in L1-L2 Translation. Dissertation Universitat Marburg. Chen, S. Q. (1990). A Study of communicative strategies in Interlanguage production by Chinese EFL learners. Language Learning 40 (2), 155-187. Coady, J. & Huckin, T. (1997). Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cohen, A. D. (1996). Second language and use strategies: Clarifying the issues. Revised version of a paper originally presented at the symposium on Strategies of language learning and use , Seville, Spain.(1994). Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using A Second Language. London: Longman. 592 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Corder, S. P. (1974). The significance of learners errors. In J. Richards (Ed.), Error Analysis (pp. 36-47). London: Longman Corder, S. P.(1983). Strategies of communication, in C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp.16-19). London: Longman Cruse, D. A. (1986). Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cruse, D. A. (2000). Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics .Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crystal, D. (1997). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell. Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Diab, N. (1997). The transfer of Arabic in the English writings of Lebanese students. The ESPecialist (sic). 18, (1) 71-83 Dornei, Z. & Thrrell, S. (1991). Strategic competence and how to teach it. ELT Journal.V45 (1) 16-23. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University press. Emery, P. (1988). Collocation: A problem in Arabic/English translation. Quinquereme, 11 (1), 178-184 Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (1983). Strategies in Interlanguage Communication, London: Longman. Farghal, M. & Obiedat, H. (1995). Collocations: A neglected variable in EFL. IRIAL, 33(4), 315-331. Firth, J. R. (1957). Papers in Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press. Firth, J. R. (1968). A synopsis of linguistic theory, 1930-55. In F.R. Palmer (Ed.), Selected papers of J.R. Firth 1952-1959 Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Fisiak, J. (Ed.). (1981). Contrastive linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford: Pergamon Press Flyman, A. (1997). Communication strategies in French as a foreign Language. Working Papers 46 ,56-73. Gass, S. & Mackey, A. (2000). Stimulated Recall Methodology in Second Language Research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Gazala, H. (1995). Translation as Problems and Solutions. Aleppo-Syria: Dar AL KALAM AL-ARABI. Gazala, H. (2004). Essays in Translation and Stylistics. Beirut: Dar El-Elm Lil-Malayin. Gramley, S. (2001). The Vocabulary of World English. London: Arnold. Greenbaum, S. (1974). Some verb-intensifier collocations in American and British English. American Speech, 49, 79-89. Hafiz, A. (2002). "Throw a party" with collocations: The need for an Arabic combinatory dictionary. International Journal of Arabic-English Studies (IJAES), 3 (1-2), 1-15 Hafiz, A. (2004). Al-Hafiz Arabic Collocations Dictionary. Beirut: Librairie du Liban. Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and second language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 19 (1) 22-44 Hussein, R. F. (1998). Collocations revisited. Journal of King Saud University,Vol,10, languages and Translation. 39-47. Jakson, H. (2002). Lexicography: An Introduction. London: Routeldge. James, C. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman. Kasper, G. & Kellerman, E. (1997). Communication Strategies: Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic Perspectives. London: Longman. Lengo, N. (1995). What is an error. Forum.33(3), 20. 593 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lewis, M. (Ed.). (2000). Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications. Littlemore, J. (2001). An empirical study of the relationship between cognitive style and the use of communication strategy. Applied linguistics. V. 22 (2), 241-265. Lue, C. (2000). A study of strategy use in producing lexical collocations. (Eric doc reproduction service No: ED 482936) Mahmoud, A. (2005). Collocation errors made by Arab learners of English. Asian EFL Journal. V. Teachers Article (2) Retrieved August 19, 2005 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com Malmkjaer, K. (1998). Translation and language teaching: Language Teaching and Translation. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. McCarthy, M. & O'Dell, F. (2005). English Collocations in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McIntosh, A. (1961). Patterns and ranges. Language, 31, (3) 325-337. Nesselhauf, N. (2003). The use of Collocations by advanced learners of English and some implications for teaching. Applied Linguistics, 24 (2), 223-242. Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a Learner Corpus. Amesterdam: John Benjamins Newmark, P. (1982). Approaches to Translation. New York: PHONENIX. Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. London: Prentice Hall. Noor, H. (2007a). Competency in first language: Does it affect the quality of second language writing? Drasat published by Center of Scientific Researches, Jordan University, Amman, Jordan. Noor, H. (2007b). The influence of L2 on the syntactic processing of L1. SJI, Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics, Vol. 1, Issue 1, http://www.scientificjournals.org/journals2007/j_of_language_and_literature.htm Noor, H. (2009). Positive effects of second language learning on the use of first language: A case study of Arab students‘ learning English. Society & Change Vol. III, No. 3: 7-22., July-September 2009. Noor, H. & M. Fallatah (2010). An investigation of some difficulties in idioms encountered by Saudi learners of English. IJEAS (International Journal of Arabic-English Studies), Vol. 11, pp. 147-174, Libairie du Liban Publishres. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford Collocations dictionary for students of English. (2002). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Paribakht, T. (1985). Strategic competence and language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 6, 123-46. Poulisse, N. (1993). A theoretical account of lexical communication strategies. In R. Schreuder & B. Weltens. (Eds.). The Bilingual Lexicon ( pp. 157-189). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Poulisse, N. (1997). Compensatory strategies and the principles of clarity and economy. In G. Kasper & E. Kellerman (Eds.). Communication strategies: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 4964). London: Longman. Poulisse, N., Bongaerts, T. & Kellerman, E. (1990). The Use of Compensatory Strategies by Duch Learners of English. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. 594 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Rababah, G. (2002). Second language communication strategies: Definitions, Taxonomies, Data Elicitation Methodology and Teachability. ( Eric doc reproduction ED 472698) Schreuder, R. & Weltens, B. (Eds.) (1993). The Bilingual Lexicon. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Selinker, L. (1974). Interlanguage., in J. Richards (Ed.), Error Analysis: Perspective on second language acquisition (pp 31-54). London: Longman. Sinclair, J. M. (1966). Beginning the study of lexis. In Charles E. Bazell et al. (Eds), In memory of J.R. Firth. (pp. 410-430.) Sinclair, J. M. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, M. Jones, S. & Daley, R. (2004). English Collocation Studies: The OSTI report. London: Continuum. Singleton, D. (1999). Exploring the Second Language Mental Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tarone, E. (1980). Communication strategies, foreigner talk, and repair in interlanguage. Language Learning: Vol., 30 (2) 417-431. Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of ―communication strategy‖. In Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (Eds.) Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp. 61-74) London: Longman. Varadi, T. (1980). Strategies of target language learner communication: Message adjustment. IRAL,18, 59-71. Republished in Faerch & Kasper (Eds.). (1983), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication.( pp.79-99). London: Longman. Wei, Y. (1999). Teaching collocations for productive vocabulary development. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the teachers of English to speakers of other languages, New York (Eric Document Reproduction Service No.457690). Wright, W. (1967). A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zughoul, M. & Abdel Fattah, H. (2001). Collocational competence of Arabic speaking learners of English: A study in lexical semantics. Journal of the College of Arts ( Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan),1(1), 1-19. Zughoul, M. & Abdel Fattah, H. (2003). Translational collocational strategies of Arab learners of English. Babel, 49 (1), 59-81 595 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 87 Title A name given to the resource Strategies Used in Producing English Lexical Collocations by Saudi EFL Learners Author Author Noor, Hashim Adubaib, Arwa Abstract A summary of the resource. Thirty, with two distinct proficiency level, EFL Saudi English majors at Taibah University participated in this study. Two written elicitation tasks were used: a fill-in-theblank test which was accompanied by a self-checklist, and a translation test. In addition, retrospective data was also collected from the participants to elicit their reflections on their written production. The qualitative analysis of the data resulted in the development of a taxonomy of the strategies used by the participants of the study. The taxonomy was divided into five major categories: retrieval, L1 based strategies, L2 based strategies, reduction strategies, and test-taking strategies. The participants‘ overall use of strategies in producing unacceptable collocations was higher in frequency than their use of the strategies in producing acceptable collocations. The results also revealed that the participants relied on L2 based strategies more often than other strategies in producing both acceptable and unacceptable collocations. The results also showed that the two groups seemed to have chosen the same strategies and have not differed much in their total number of use. The results revealed that HPS and LPS differed significantly in their use of strategies in producing acceptable collocations especially with regard to the retrieval strategy, L2 based strategies and L1 based strategies in favour of the HPS group. In the production of unacceptable collocations, on the other hand, there were statistically significant differences between the two groups especially with reference to the use of the reduction strategies and L2 based strategies in favour of the LPS group. The implications of the research findings for teaching English collocations are discussed, along with pedagogical recommendations. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/afb557ff9d00400ef910a8e6d11878b5.pdf 65f40d3ebbad68a95f32139bbd863f58 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Methodology Focused on Child (Example: Bosnia and Herzegovina) Nudţejma ObraliĤ English Language School Internationa University of Sarajevo Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina obralicn@gmail.com Abstract: In the project of the EU reform of general education in Bosnia, very important place in the profile of the reformed schools definitely take teaching methods aimed at children. Motivating activities, dramatic teaching and feedback can have very important role in teaching. There are varied activities which provide motivation in class and help students to enhance more knowledge. Dramatic teaching is also very important for to enhance both the relatonship between us as teachers and our students and relationship between the students themselves. At the same time, dramatic teaching can help students create interest, clarify information, assist in organizing thoughts, promote understanding and relieve boredom while students work on their cases. Pedagogical value of different activities may also help in teaching. Feedback activities help students revise they have learned. Key words: enhancing knowledge, foreign language, dramatic teaching. In the project of the EU reform of general education in Bosnia, very important place in the profile of the reformed schools definitely take teaching methods aimed at children. Far traditional teaching has led many more accounts of the teaching content rather than the student who learn the lecture. It is necessary to make learning at school learning, which partially confirms and partially develops students' vitality326. Traditionally, also classroom work was done by using basic form of classroom teaching. The teacher adresses the whole group, who responded in unison or one by one, which is known as frontal teaching. And the other was when students were set work to do alone. The teaching process was mainly based on verbal learning without connecting with the environment in which students live and work. Also, in practice so far very little attention is paid to respecting the interests and abilities of students that had consequences for the impact on learning, but also on personality development in general. The reasons for the failure of the students were mostly due to maladjustment of work in education, skills and personality traits, difficult and extensive lecture, poor knowledge and low level of development of work habits. A student who is experiencing a failure is in constant conflict with the environment and himself. All of this requires certain specified changes in our educational system, change of the attitudes of teachers toward students, school and learning. These difficulties can be overcome by organizing modern teaching where methodology focused on child must be a regular practice, and the role of teachers should changed. Basic characteristics of this methodology are individual approach, a balance between working in a large group, small groups, pairs and individually, combining different methods (researches, experiment, debate, problem solving, demonstration); stimulating environment for active learning, thematic planning, continuous monitoring; evaluation and assessment and balancing activities. Many people believe the old pedagogical truth - that every teacher has ''his'' in way of working with students. What works well for one teacher may fail miserably for another. Teaching is an art - because the teacher must choose the best methods and forms of work in learning situations. Therefore, the methods applied by the teacher are recognizable style of his educational and teaching work. It is necessary to make only one more step to focus our activity on students, to develop learning process from teaching and further towards creativity. Concerns about the ability to manage the class are common among all teachers. If we want all to work out the best way, we suggest the following model, and it is desirable that you find yourself a different activity which aims would understand the possibilities and limitations of our own personality in the process of reform. Teachers need to feel safe and comfortable with whom they are as a classroom manager. Before defining our activities it is necessary to 326 Slatina, M: Nasatvni metod, CIP- Katalogizacija u publikaciji, Nacionala I univerzitetska biblioteka, Sarajevo,1998. 1005 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo build your own classroom management profile and answer the question ''I think I'm...?'', ''Who am I in the classroom, whether I am the head or leader'' and ' 'Formulate attitudes''. Prof. Dr. SuziĤ formulated the attitudes as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. The teacher should try to help students understand the lecture, The teacher must have a clear view of the central issues of teaching, The teacher must work effectively, The teacher must have a clear expression of the underlined terms, The teacher must show tolerance and respect for students, The teacher must have a good plan and a system of work (design), The teacher should be proud of their profession, The teacher students must listen to him and respect, The teacher must use multiple methods and tools, The teacher must improve his work in teaching, The teacher must have a tendency to self-reflection. This process won't happen overnight, it's long process. It takes a long time experimenting with different classroom situations. The teacher must define his target by following paragraph: ‗‘ I've come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in the classroom. It's my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher, I possess a tremendous power to make a child's life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humor, hurt or heal. In all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or de-escalated and a child humanized or dehumanized.‖ (Haim Ginott, American psychologist and teacher) THE REVIEW OF THE RESEACH DONE IN BOSNIA, NOVEMBER, 2010. The research was done among thirty (30) English teachers in The Sarajevo Canton. The Advantages of Using Different Dynamics 1. Teachers said that they prefer frontal teaching when they teach grammar or lectures that students are not able to find related resources to use. While doing reading and writing activities students might be set for induvidual work. 2. 1006 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Do you underestimate the value of the ''student - teacher''? 4% yes no 96% It's very important not to underestimate the value of the student – teacher realationship. By allowing our students to work in pairs or gruops they develop their skills for creating interesting ideas, comparing and contrasting their ideas, passing information to each other, and gaining self – confidence. But according to the results of the research, we found out that the teacher is able to spend more time working individually with students, especially with ones who are having difficulties, either on their own or in groups. 3. Disadvantages of pair and group work: a. b. c. d. students speak in their native language dividing class into different groups necessities standing up and moving around passive students don‘t do anything in groups it causes too much noise We found out that younger students are highly egocentric and they demand individual attention, but it is obvious that mixed abilities students should be given different tasks according to their abilities. Finishing first, students want to do something else. We can tell them take a rest. We can give them a short little task to complete while they are waiting.327 Many teacher do not allow their students walk around in the class. The school day is long and we cannot expect them to sit at the desks all day. It's known that younger students need to move around physically during a lesson. The teacher is meant to prepare more tasks which include activities moving around in the classroom. Try to include at least one moving activity in each lesson. 327 Jeremy, H.: The Practice of English Language teaching, Longman. 1007 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Activities with motions sometimes may cause another problem, such as too much noise. We have to underline that Discipline is not Classroom management, it's a part of it. And it often involves how teachers try to teach individual students better behaviour. 4 What are the problems you face during the lesson? We cannot always expect from our students to work in silence and behave appropriately. Working with specific discipline problems may require additional knowledge of a student, his family and environment. It is a big problem if his misbehaviour becomes chromic or seriously disruptive. Students can easily get angry, when called down, sometimes without specific reason. Teachers should be flexible as possible. They should always be ready to change the the order of activities in their lesson plans to take into account the mood of their students because they can get very passive during the lesson. For teachers, passivity may be sometimes a trouble more than misbehaviour or discipline problems in classroom. To avoid misbehaviour in classroom teachers must be consistent and open minded. Sometimes students don't follow the teacher's instructions and don't know what they are supposed to do, they usually don't behave appropriately and misbehave for they want to get teacher's attention. Teachers should decide in advance what they want their students to learn and how to behave, and at the same time, they should make their expectations clear. We shouldn't label students as '' difficult'' and expect them to be good always. Teacher's personality and core beliefs are important. There is a room for flexibility as long as student feels safe, respected and able to learn well. Here, are different characteristics teacher should behave according to and tend to be: a. active listener b. communucative c. able to collaborate d. responsible e. tolerant f. flexible g. open-minded h. self-critical i. objective j. humane k. visionary l. sympathetic One of the main rules is: 'Never let students feel incapable to understand the lecture'. Teachers are supposed to support them. There are different ways of supporting students. 1008 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 5 a. What is the best way to emphasise and reinforce the good things students do? Using proverbs: ''Well done! '' 15% 42% 33% Praising, getting them presents giving extra points 10% public encouragement b. How would you like your teacher to emphasise and reinforce the good things you do? Using proverbs: ''Well done! '' 22% Praising, getting them presents 39% 16% giving extra points 23% public encouragement It's important to emphasise and reinforce the good things that students do. There are many forms depending on the education level of the students. We can see that students love public encouragement. They like other students hear teacher praising them and appreciating their work or conduct. When acknowledged for their efforts, they are likely to be more receptive to new challenges. Every student needs his praise. Here are some examples of effective praising and appreciating students' efforts: Examples of Positive Instructions Use the ''do'' instead of ''do not'' ―Please go through the hallyway slowly and silently ― instead of ― do not run‖ Say Claerly What You Want ''It is necessary to do this, to move on to another activity''. Use Constructive Criticism ''Your handwriting may be better''. Encourage in a Positive Way „All you have done so far is true. Try to do this one― 1009 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Praise Concrete Work on Procedure ― It is nice to hear that you was not late for morning lecture‖ 6. Classroom manager or leader is a teacher who follows actions to take in order to maintain order in the classroom which enables learning to take place. Being boss and leader are closely linked. So, we can say that classroom management and discipline are closely linked. Management and leadership involve a total plan to adress the variety of circumstances, while discipline is more individualized. We should not forget that teachers should never humiliate or use their advantage of age and experience, and belittling a student. Conclusion: All theoretical discussions about the impact of different kinds of motivation to students in the learning process could be reduced to two aspects: 1. 2. approach in which the teacher is in the center, approach of active learning where the focus is on srudents The traditional method focuses on the idea of frontal teaching. Teaching program was aimed to transfer information from teacher to students. Exchanging information between teachers and students has consisted of short questions and answers. Motivation in this form of teaching seems to be unnecessary. We found out that some studies estimated that 80% of the classes is carried out as described above. The latest approach is based on the understanding that the curriculum has a focus on the learning outcomes, which is actually what students should learn, not what the teachers should teach. Classes which inspire students, make them feel curious, creative and encouraged to think individually, trained for emotional intelligence and social skills (communication, self-control, self-evaluation, etc.), may at the same time provide encouragement and atmosphere for demonstration of student's personality, have an opportunity to change educational way and prepare students for life. ''Effective teaching may be the hardest job there is.‘' BY William Glasser Referrences: Goleman, D: Emotional Intelligence, Bantman Books, 1995. Hadfield, J: Classroom dynamics, OUP, 1992. Jeremy, H.: The Practice of English Language teaching, Longman. Slatina, M: Nasatvni metod, CIP- Katalogizacija u publikaciji, Nacionala I univerzitetska biblioteka, Sarajevo, 1998. 1010 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 569 Title A name given to the resource Methodology Focused on Child (Example: Bosnia and Herzegovina) Author Author Obralić, Nudžejma Abstract A summary of the resource. In the project of the EU reform of general education in Bosnia, very important place in the profile of the reformed schools definitely take teaching methods aimed at children. Motivating activities, dramatic teaching and feedback can have very important role in teaching. There are varied activities which provide motivation in class and help students to enhance more knowledge. Dramatic teaching is also very important for to enhance both the relatonship between us as teachers and our students and relationship between the students themselves. At the same time, dramatic teaching can help students create interest, clarify information, assist in organizing thoughts, promote understanding and relieve boredom while students work on their cases. Pedagogical value of different activities may also help in teaching. Feedback activities help students revise they have learned. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/74cca6b6c7c7834fe07d36df712b9d5c.pdf c7ab76c9550f1535eefeacf8cc154bd5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Do we need a specific grammar for non-canonical expressions? A description and analysis of definitions of some NC constituents José M. Oro Cabanas Departmento de inglés y alemán. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela e-mail: josemanuel.oro@usc.es Abstract: Needless to say that from a linguistic point of view a clear and cut distinction between canonical and non-canonical expressions is to be made for language explanations but especially for translation analyses, due to the fact that a good number of realizations belonging to the Gray Areas (GA) of language may arise from recurrent combinations of specific types of combined lexical items. The resultant lack of interaction between L1 propositions and L2 representations, identical or not, is often explainable and clarified by the Error Analysis (EA) method. Data collected and analysed here for this presentation have been chosen at hazard from different sources. Key words: error analysis, canonical expressions, non-canonical expressions, collocations, idiomatic expressions, identity, equivalence, adequacy, diversity, linguistic, socio-cultural, world referents, linking, cohesion. Introduction As the title of this theoretical and analytical proposal indicates, it is our intention to clarify some controversial aspects of linguistic behaviour within the field of the gray areas of language, to give light both to understand theoretical proposals and to contribute and correct practical deviations in his type of language realisations. This study is based upon a corpus of present day English. We have analysed the general and more specific behaviour of idiomatic expressions, considering either their semantic or formal different linguistic nature. All data have been taken at random, from the Sunday Times and Internet sources. Some oral productions which I have heard at some time or other while in England, have been included but they are not representative, since not all data included in the corpus have not been recorded. It is our intention to provide linguistic explanations of Non-canonical Phrases and illustrations of their formal, functional and semantic behaviour. State of the art For the purpose of this study we need to clarify what do we understand by canonical and non-canonical expressions. In English, for example, lame is a simple word or a simple lexical unit of adjectival nature which begins with a different sound than fame or with a different second sound than lane but which rhymes with them and it means someone having a deformed leg and duck contains the same final consonantal sound as pack and as park, but they differ on their vowel phonemes and their initial consonantal segments, and means a type of swimming bird lamed in one leg, but when we say that Bill Clinton behaved as a LAME DUCK in his affair with M. L., it seems a bit difficult for natives and especially for non-native to predict the meaning of the whole out of the meaning of the parts, as what it means is [ineffectual person, one who has no power to bring about change]. This kind of knowledge of the vocabulary belongs to the study of the mental lexicon, an area which has, over the years gradually emerged from obscurity to occupy a central stage in the study of language. The expressions of all levels which show some kind of formal or semantic atypical deviation might be considered non-canonical. This items can be organized in groups forming new lexical items by extension and movement far from canonicity at least from a semantic point of view. In English grammars, these expressions are often referred to, among other labels, as: idiomatic expressions and figures of speech. They are usually the very last result of linguistic involution with cognition and they represent the most advanced linguistic representations elaborated by mental processes, resulting in realisations of the type a), and resulting from processes such as those in b) 2 a) Idioms, collocations, figures of speech (metaphors, etc.) Some are far from formal canonical representations and others, though formally canonical, are far from the basic meaning of the words composing the resulting lexical unit. 700 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo b) and also the misuse of the language, expansion, movement & enlargement of basic meanings, the tendency to economise, etc. They include a great variety of linguistic realisations, showing both typical and atypical behavior as far as word order and meaning are concerned, such as: idioms, proverbs, sayings, collocations, inner terms, etc. Some scholars distinguish between canonical expressions or free combinations, and non-canonical expressions (including in the latter are collocations or in Chomsky's terminology loose associations between words and also those items characterised by showing some sort of either formal or/and semantic idiomacity). Besides, terminology varies according to the different linguistic levels under which language was/ is and will be analysed. Thus, canonical expressions refer to regularity of behaviour and non-canonical expressions to irregularity and in most situations to idiomacity. Besides there is a formal view and a semantic view of language which is to intervene in their analysis. It is a general idea that description of language and linguistics is a technical activity consisting in a system for choosing, realising and signalling meanings as result of linguistic behavior, through formal realisations, following either canonical patterns or belonging to the gray areas of language. Due to several aspects that will be analysed all along this paper, a rule-based description of the facts is very difficult as cause-time effects change the language. The evolution and reactions of the individuals conforming the society itself have a lot to do with it as well. As is well-known, the English language, as well as many other languages, varies in space (USA, Australian, African and other Englishes of the world). Besides, variation in situation has to be taken into account as different rolls change linguistic realisations in the home, office, police station, park, etc. given rise to hurried, unhurried and formal spoken realizations and also to written counterparts in certain situations. Lexical variation [Morphological, Syntactical and Semantic variation], according to style or even location seems to be normal though sometimes unnatural. In this sense you can buy a condom, French letter - prophylactic rubber - sheath - condom - Durex in Britain and other English spoken places but you might buy a frenchie1 using colloquial Australian English, a hypochoristic form from French which makes the word condom be considered of the nature of a pet name. This way of showing pejorative connotations denote an irregular behaviour, very often capricious of the community to express situations through language data and this type of actuation is what is provided by concrete manifestations of language as far as arbitrariness and unsystematic procedures are concerned. Besides, all this deserves a specific treatment that would make a theory of lexicon meeting levels of adequacy more and more complex. Thus, we will be immersed within the concept of appropriateness rather than correctness considering that languages vary in time, space and situation, analysing inherent properties in English and specific difficulties which arise during the process of translation to other languages. Research shows, on the one hand, that language expressions which follow canonical patterns, morphologic general patterns to form the items which composed them, cover a wide variety of meanings within the same pattern through common syntactic processes such us substitution, addition, deletion, elision, combination andtransformation. NonCanonical expressions, on the other hand, do usually show a much more restricted behaviour from a lexical point of view. In the tradition, NCs are conditioned by their idiomatic nature and they are treated as irregular items. In some cases they cannot be altered; in other cases their meaning cannot be deduced adding together the meaning of the items that compose that piece of language. Non-canonicity moves from word-level to phrase and clause level; some of the latter labels have to be treated as proper lexical items, at least from a semantic point of view. They often show formal irregularities of specific performances which block the general behaviour of similar canonical patterns. A great many of them do not usually affect the use of normal language (written and spoken); they are most often used for literary purposes and they are often included under the general term: figures of speech. 1 Frenchie (plural Frenchies) 1.Alternative spelling of Frenchy. 2. (Dated) (Australian) a condom, abbreviated form of French letter. Retrieved from "http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Frenchie" 3 And the question is, are these expressions so abundant and complex in the English language to deserve a specific treatment at least for advanced native and non-native students of English? Do we really need specific grammar books, essays or a thorough research on opaque idiomatic expressions? Should grammars be categorised as canonical and non-canonical, assigning the former for elementary levels and the latter for advanced students? In the last decade some scholars have intended to grammaticalise differently the spoken medium from the written medium; others have suggested the need of specific grammars for different standard representations. In general, we can say that non-canonical expressions are structure dependent on fixed canonical patterns from a formal point of view and that the same canonical structure can be subject to various formal modifications and to semantic expansion. Canonical expressions, however, are used as units of form and meaning showing certain limitations at some or all lexical levels, Method of the Study 701 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The central core of research for this descriptive study is the morphological, syntactic and semantic blocking of general principles applied to canonical expressions in English, or as it might be called in traditional references focusing on grammar behaviour, especially in relation to 'the breaking off the rules‘ concerning a good number of realisations and the specific behavior of non-canonical lexical items. The fact that languages can be considered of unlimited linguistic production leads us to distinguish noncanonical expressions from regular expressions. A regular expression is a pattern that describes a set of strings. In concrete manifestations of language regular expressions are constructed in a similar way to arithmetic expressions, by using various operators to combine smaller expressions. For example, a sentence is said to be canonical if it follows the normal patterns that a language follows; thus, it might consist of a predicate (the essential constituent), and the sometimes optional ones, the subject and complement. At the level of phrase that constituent which contains or is not restricted to include the normal constituents the various types of phrases do accept. At the level of word, those realisations following the conventional rules of formation. Lexical items at any of the levels above, which do not follow formal or semantic conventional parameters, are considered to belong to the gray areas of language and to be non-canonical from either a formal or a semantic point of view. Though they can be considered to be of irregular nature, they do not belong to the field of irregularities already incorporated into the language. From the point of view of teaching, this field in general, has not been exhaustively analysed since it has been maintained as something that has to be learnt by heart. This is probably true, due to the fact that attention has been paid to form, and to internal meaning deciphering, but not to internal grammatical understanding. It is our purpose to provide new ways of focusing the treatment of these structures in combination. To prepare this study the following steps have been followed: -to-date data in Mass Media (written and oral data) and other sources, such as recording spontaneous oral data, lectures, and TV material. linguistic levels and some of the main ways of focusing them. order to have information about the number of occurrences. g them into general or specific principles State of the art Until now, formal canonical expressions, with the exception of a great number of atypical semantic deviations, would depend on grammar centrality as interpreted during the classical and Chomsky‘s earlier period. Ross (1967), for example, proposed several syntactic constraints on the operation of grammatical rules. Constraints 4 on canonical expressions have been stated either in purely syntactic terms, which reflect organising principles apparently unique to grammar that are assumed to be universal or applying in semantic concepts, especially those concerned with meaning interpretation. Within the GAs of language, constituents that form lexical modules proper in their own right, at least from a semantic scope, do often range from a transparent or semi-transparent interpretability to the totally opaque one. Especially the latter, are formed by units which very often present problems for internal interpretation, due to the fact that they are normally fixed expressions, which are not frequently used, that refer to very specific and concrete actuation of a community or of individuals in a community. Canonical expressions are regular expressions. A regular expression is a pattern that describes a set of strings. Regular expressions are constructed analogously to arithmetic expressions, by using various operators to combine smaller expressions. These expressions –from a lower to a higher rank- follow general formation, realisation and functional patterns, either alone or in combination. In general, they do not present problems neither for the native users at any linguistic level nor for foreigners understanding of most constructions during the learning process. They normally range from basic and transparent communicative messages to semi-transparent interpretable realisations. They constitute essential basic communicative constructions for all or most communities, as shown in table 1 SUBJECT Verb Indirect Object Direct Object ENGLISH I BROUGHT YOU [FOR YOU ------THIS MATERIAL SPANISH 702 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ESTE MATERIAL (YO) TRAJE [OS ]PARA VOSOTROS--GALICIAN (EU) TROUXENVOS ESTE MATERIAL RUMANIAN TI-AM ADUS TI-¿ ACEST MATERIAL Table 1: Sentence pattern IV The corpus of data Put at its simplest, the data, object of this study, were the result of an exhaustive and contrastive reading as well as of the analysis of different textual sources. Examples for this study were culled from daily press mass media and oral sources chosen at hazard, at an initial stage, ing should distinguish specific principles from general ones or rules, rences, which could reject this hypothesis. The corpora in GA are being annotated at various levels and in two mediums to enhance their value in linguistic research. At the written level, reportage‘s from Internet: The Sunday Times and other Internet sources, prose and poetry literary texts and students' essays have been analysed. Annotations include the following types of noncanonical pieces of language inserted in canonical texts and they are tagged for word class: o Idioms (I): (Transparent (T); Opaque (O), Extended from or in relation to a Canonical referent (ECR) o Clishés (CL) o Non-canonical expressions proper or inner terms (NC) o Collocations (CO) At the spoken level, casual conversations, Academic lectures and some TV programmes have been and will be taken into account for this purpose, of which only a few samples have been recorded for this purpose; Some instances have been recorded but the majority of them were transcripted directly. The tagset is largely based on the way Quirk et al (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language has presented canonical realisations, and previous works on statistical data, as well as those of Cofer (1975), Oro (1987, 1988,1989) and Biber et all (1999) The Longman Grammar of English.5 The main intention is to propose a suitable method to study the gray areas of language and through this contribute to interpret some of the inherent features of this type of expressions. The unscripted data to be analysed thoroughly in order to select scripted data were selected at random in order to avoid subjectivity and conditioning. Put at its simplest it is our purpose to propose a clear idea in the sense Pierce2 1878: 286 has put it, of the behavior of some of these units of language which might behave as lexical items proper from a semantic point of view, from a formal point of view or both. Table nº 1 labels the sources used for the selection of one of the types of items of our corpus of data and shows the number of occurrences of one of the four types of lexical items, idioms, compiled and studied for this purpose. Those showing an opaque semantic nature have been distinguished from those with a semi-transparent nature (see tables 3, 4 & 5). The connection between the frequency of the different types of non-canonical expressions presented in spoken and/or in the written medium reflects their difference in use as well as their complexity and their importance for instructional or informative purposes. IDIOMS Spoken Texts (70) Dialogues (20) Private (10) face-to-face conversations 6 Public (10) classroom lessons broadcast discussions 10 4 703 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Monologues (50) Unscripted (20) spontaneous commentaries demonstrations 15 5 Scripted (30) Broadcast film broadcast talks non-broadcast speeches 7 11 12 Written Texts (430) Non-printed (45) Non-professional writing (45) student essays student examination scripts internet mail 15 10 20 Printed (100) Non-Academic writing Reportages The Sunday Times & internet sources (239) CRYING OF A LOT PRAIRIE SKETCHES Idioms at clause level (73) (RP) Daily press ( RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 26 47 0 0 Idioms at word level (6) (RP) Daily press (RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 3 3 0 0 Idioms at phrase level (24) (RP) Daily press (RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 24 0 0 704 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 0 Verbs and particles (86) (RP) Daily press (RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 66 14 0 16 Creative writing --20Idioms at clause level Idioms at word level Idioms at phrase level 10 0 10 Table 2: sample of the corpuses studied for unit one 2 A clear idea is defined as one which is so apprehended that it will be recognized wherever it is met with, and so that no other will be mistaken for it. If it fails of this clearness, it is said to be obscure. 6 Sampling selected at hazard The corpus contains samples of speech (SD) and writing (S.T. /CDI) by both males and females, and it includes a wide range of age groups. The following behave, belonging to our spoken corpus of data, very much in the same way, at least from a semantic point of view. Some of them, for example number 7 below, no doubt, do block the general morphological rules of language behavior, as far as the formation of verbs is concern. 1. You put all your generative knowledge before the horses, etc. (SD) 2. Many kids who run away from unhappy homes discover they‘ve jumped out of the frying pan and into the fire. (S. T.) 3. a) You know, he is at it again but he really wants you know just to sit down (SD) b) Like they just talk about how they both feel a) Out of the frying pan into the deep freeze this time 4. Teaching at the local college is his bread and butter. 5. Unemployment and taxes are the bread and butter issues of this campaign. [CDI] 6. At the moment, she says, all Saints are flavour of the week (S.T. teen. 8-9:11) 7. You can chomsky-adjoin the sentence now. In spite of being grammatically peripheral and somewhat or completely idiomatic, they form part of language and they make us believe that some of them will probably have their own place in grammars in a near future. Table III, below, includes examples of non-canonical expressions or inner terms from a formal point of view. They include expressions which might be considered by some as atypical expressions or even errors from a grammatical point of view. In general, they are specific realizations which block realizations considered to be canonical. Thus, considering these realizations, a common question arises: is a new grammar needed for spoken and/or informal writing? The number of occurrences, as shown in table 1, and examples used in this paper will prove that there is a tendency to use utterances which do not follow the common patterns grammars of English tend to teach us: *I seen him, etc. Spoken language Sources Examples (The Devil‘s own) 8 Sheila, pass the vegetables, please. -Yes. May I serve you? 9 Because they say the word peace, you know, but end of the day all they want is surrender. 10 -D´you wanna know what´s the single biggest problem trying to raise money 705 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in this country? 11 -How much time? -Six, eight weeks. Written language Poetry (Prarie Sketches: 64) 12My Sara is as rare as Indian Pearl! Internet & Non academic writing 13Don't have the cable hook-up yet? http://www.lfmn.com/r/sr.asp?u=100374762&v=4911&s=73&url=1&p=13&c=6 033 14A new ABCNEWS poll finds patients‘ rights and Social Security outranking taxes and gun control. 15What's going on at the OTA http://www.hcu.ox.ac.uk/ota/public/index.shtml (Saturday , 11th. September, 1999) 16What's up? 17What's up with 9/9/99? 18What about my cup of tea? 19 I seen him (student‘s essays, grammar sampling, etc.) [Reportages, Daily press] 20 the number of five to seven-year-olds in large classes, (...) (S.T. 26th December) 21 The Roslin researchers say that overall their results show that (...) (S.T. 26th Dec.) 22 (...) but it is a fraud on a consumers. (S.T. 26th December) 23 Villa continued to create the better opportunities, and (...)(Sport,p.1).(S.T.8Nov.1998) Table3: examples & sources The examples in table 3 show salient deviations from normal linguistic patterns and as Quirk and Startvik (1966), among others, would indicate, they do not form part of a ‗linguistic core‘, as for they would block general linguistic patterns of structures and vocabulary applied to use. 7 Findings and Discussion In this part of the study, questions concerning whether the grammaticality, acceptability and potentiality in use of some of the expressions included can, of course, be formulated and discussed. A good number of expressions of various ranks (word, phrase, sentence) of idiomatic nature or showing formal irregularities have been found and incorporated to our data corpus.. Among the former the following types will be briefly analysed here: - Idiomatic and figurative expressions in general, that is expressions the meaning of which cannot be deduced adding together the separate items which make up that piece of language. Their formal behavior is fixed. Thus, some accept optional modifiers and others do not. They do not accept determiners variability, Plurals take O article. Numeratives are nominalized. The syntactic order cannot be altered. In sum, they cannot be modified by any of the syntactic processes which modify canonical expressions. They include: Proverbs, proverbial expressions, anti-poverbs or preverbs3, Phrasal verbs4 [Phrasal: look after; prepositional: look up; and phrasal-prepositional: look forward to]. Non-canonical expressions proper or inner terms which follow formal canonical patterns or not, such as: (minor sentences : just a minute, ) (what about‘s types) (if only‘s) etc. (NC) expressions include expressions5 of what about's type, as in What about the financial assistance?; expressions like if only (...), as in If only we haven't lost our way; here one needs a type of tense control, but one is free to fill the gaps very freely; For example, Spanish and Galician languages would follow different patterns to represent the identical lexical meaning, a canonical expression in the former and a subjunctive mode in the latter; or even expressions like 'The more (....) the more', whereas, certainly you expects a comparative form as the second constituent as in: The more you ask the less you get or Better for women better for men (S.T. Title of the article: Teen girls urged to admire Role Model Spice) - Collocations: [sequences of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance: so as to, by accident, strong tea, heavy drinker, black shoes, etc] The collocational process is a general linguistic process in language behaviour that can be split into: The associational process which ranges from loose to tight lexical units and derives into proper collocations or idiomatic phrases, normally set phrases or compounding. In most occasions they constitute the first step for the compounding resultant state (well known rd 706 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ard-inlaw; bull‘s eye), which is the result of combining two or more words to form a single unit. Clishés; expressions whose basic and conceptual meaning has been lost. They are used as connectors in conversation and their use should be avoided in the written medium, especially in formal language in favour of proper linguistic connectors. These are ready-made expressions but not necessarily idiomatic. From a formal point of view they are usually built up with canonical constituents; However, some are non-canonical expressions in the sense that they block the general principles of grammar, as in A little knowledge is a dangerous thing [kowdlege for learning] or in The Devil can quote Sripture for his purpose [quote for cite] though it can be argued that quote is common in AE, where they don't say cite). Due to semantic variation by extension and movement of meaning a normal canonical expression, or a minor sentence can very easily become clichés when they lose their conceptual meaning and they are applied for a different purpose as in ‗Can I help you?‘ or ‗Good morning!‘. In general, a cliché is a metaphor characterised by its overuse. 3 According to Mieder 1985:119; also in Mieder 1993:24, proverbs, i.e. unchangeable sentences and proverbial expressions, i. e. sentences which permit alterations to fit their grammar [sentences of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorised forms, handed down from generation to generation]; antiproverbs or preverbs [the transformation of a stereotype word sequence – as e. g. a proverb, a quotation or an idiom for humorous effect. To have full effect, an anti-proverb must be based on a known proverb 4 According to Tom McArthur: (...) the term ‗phrasal verb‘ was first used by Loagan Pearsall Smith in ―Words and Idioms‖ (1925), in which he states that the OED Editor Henry Bradley suggested the term to him] 5 Here there can also be included expressions which block the general syntactic principles in relation to canonical expressions, as in: "Historians will look back on this project as most important thing we did (S.T. Chronicle Future, p.12), (...) but it is a fraud on a consumers. (S.T. 26TH DECEMBER) 8 Table 4 shows a good number of items which can be categorised under any of the labels indicated above. Some are considered opaque6 as the meaning cannot be deduced out of their separate parts and others are considered as semitransparent7 as they can be deduced adding together the parts. This is important for both native and non-native speakers. However, non-native speakers would have more problems for contextualisation. Native speakers, in general, do have some sort of probabilistic relationship which might help them to deduce the meaning of both types, opaque and semitransparent, after considering them in detail. TYPE OF ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS TRANSLATION INTO TYPE EXPRESSION MEANING SPANISH GALICIAN IDIOMS Kick the bucket To pass away To die Estirar la pata, palmar Estirar la pata, palmar To be sent to Coventry To be excluded from society Take after To take care, to care Cuidar Coidar COLLOCATIONS Lame duck Inconclusive Patoso Patoso CLISHES Can I help you? High!, Hello! Good morning ¿Qué desea? ¿Qué quere? INNER TERMS What about you? And you? what do you ---- of this, about it? Y tö, que? E tì, qué? Table4 Table 5, below, includes idiomatic units consisting of two or more lexical or grammatical units, which behave formally and/or semantically differently. For example, whereas prepositional verbs, consisting of a verb + a 707 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo preposition which cannot be separated in ‗construtctio‘, as in he is looking after the dog and they need to take a direct object, phrasal intransitive verbs can be separated as in he turned it down. It also includes different types of idiomatic expressions which range from collocations to compounding and in spite of being formed by more than one lexical constituent. The translation into Spanish shows, as well as many other languages, that attending to the basic or conceptual meanings of their collocates might lead to funny realisations in the other language. In spite of this, some are integrated into other languages, especially those used for commercial purposes. There are many cases of calques from English into Spanish but also of loan translations as illustrated with the word for word translation of ‗hotdog‘ into Spanish. Very specific cases which block all the general formal patterns of word-formation are the English resultant noun ‗bull‘s eye‘ unique compound made up 6 Opaque realisations: - can't be deduced adding together the meaning of the parts, [put away/put something where it belongs] - can't be deduced linguistically, as the meaning goes beyond its conceptual meaning. Some can't be deduced through socio-cultural understanding [battling windmills]; They probably have to be learnt as separate lexical units, by heart and the meaning goes back to diachronic meaning, at least that of one of the parts that compose the whole. 7 Transparent realisations: the meaning can be deduced from the separate parts that constitute these pieces of language, [take care/ care] - from an already fixed idiomatic expression by extension [her children had flown the nest/ Flow from one place to another] - from the expansion of a canonical term (...) towers above (One computer manufacturer towers above (=is bigger and more successful than) all the rest). [I usually + adv/prep] from socio-cultural undefined interrelations (nest egg) 9 from a Saxon genitive or the Spanish blended one puenting (bungee jumping), i.e. describing the action, adding the English –ing form to the Spanish noun Puente(bridge). NON- CANONICAL EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH [OF (O) OR (ST) INFORMATION] IDIOMS PHRASAL VERBS LEXICAL ITEMS MEANING O To put away to give up to account for to look into to pass away to take after To put something where it belongs To stop To explain To examine To die To care ST To take care To care SAYINGS O [kick the bucket *kick the enormous bucket] Teaching at the local college is his bread and butter. Bright and breezy Stand head and shoulders over Straight from the horse‘s mouth Flying by the seat of your pants A blind alley (INL) A close shave/call (INL) A red letter day (INL) Pull someone‘s leg To die Basic needs of life To be happy and confident. Clearly superior to someone or something. 708 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Straight from the source, right from the origin. (To do something without planning, (SD)/ Decide a course of action as you go along. -A situation or method that you have tried and discovered to be of no use. (CDI), -(A situation where something unpleasant or dangerous nearly happened. (CDI), -(A day that is very important or very special. (CDI). [informal: to tell someone something that is not true as a way of joking with them] ST Run up a bill and run up a big bill. With friends like these (who needs enemies), To put people on a pedestal‘ To put in prison Still in the darck Be in the blank To be in the red Accumulating a debt friends behave like your worst enemy To admire Imprison Still unsure about it (be operating at a profit) In debt Table 5 (CO)8, a problematic linguistic term is interpreted as a lexicalization of two or more lexical and/or grammatical items put together producing one single unit of meaning. The concept of (CO), which plays an important role in British linguistics where it originated, seems to be vague and neutral in dealing with word classes and to which element acts as to modifier or head. This term, however, is one of the key concepts of functional 8 Even though the invention of the term collocation as applied in linguistics was attributed to Firth and extended by Halliday, the process itself has worried many scholars as mentioned above since classical times. Mellville, A. 1946. Spoken English. An Idiomatic Grammar for foreign students. Edimburg: Oliver and Boyd, (originally designed as a manual of English Grammar for Dutch students), includes a good number of examples with collocates: 1) I have never seen him so out of temper (angry); 2) The violinist is out of the tune (discordant, not in harmony) In fact he concentrates on collocates of various kinds, combined with prepositions, compound conjunctions and verb combinations. Neither must one forget the non-canonicity of certain verbs in English, commonly known as irregulars. 10 grammar proposed by Firth9 and developed by Halliday. Probably we could, even say that it has its origins in wordassociation of the syntactic type in spite of the word-class, due to the fact that they are paradigmatically linked by this process. According to Firth, it seems to be the case that we know a word by the company it keeps and he considers collocation to this 'relationship between words', to be part of its meaning (see also, Palmer 1976: 94ff, Carter 1987: 36 ff. And 48 ff.) In sum, the idea of (CO) is extremely far reaching, and furthermore, the users must realise that some language is deliberately eccentric and creative in that kind of way. Not all languages ( as can be seen in the Spanish translation, in the table below) would use the same formal correlates to represent these semantic lexical units. NON- CANONICAL EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH [OF (O) OR (ST) INFORMATION] COLLOCATIONS COLLOCATIONS LEXICAL ITEMS MEANING O Lame duck (patoso *pato cojo) Clever bunny A person or thing that is not able to function properly What a clever boy! ST 709 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fill in the gaps (cubrir los huecos) Solve a problem (solucionar un problema) Cure a decease (curar una enfermedad So as to ( de manera que, para) rough draft (borrador) Fill in the blanks Find a solution, resolve Restore to health, make well. In order to, in order that, so that A plan or sketch COMPOUNDS O Hotdog [perrito caliente] Greenhouse [invernadero] Bull‘s eye [ojo de buey] Frunkfurter sausage in a bun A house where vegetables grow Small circular window or opening ST Dog days (dias de perros) A blind date ( Una cita a ciegas) A blind spot (Un punto ciego) A red-letter day (un dìa especial, memorable) A blind alley (Un callejñn sin salida) Very hot days in summer Date between two people who have never met Area in the retina of the eye which cannot see. A special day A route that leads nowhere, a dead end Table 6 Conclusions and Recommendations On the basis of this empirical research, we can conclude that only some of these expressions are to be considered lexical items proper. The majority of them follow normal formal canonical patterns and meaning may rouse raging from the transparent or semitransparent of the constituents to the totally opaque, or they keep on going with the conceptual meaning. Opaque expressions are more formally restricted than semitransparent ones. Whereas he former would not accept transformation on some way or other the latter can be transformed to widen or reduce the intended meaning. Results show that the collocational process is a general Linguistic process in Language behaviour that can be split into: the associational process and the resultant new lexical units: proper collocations or idiomatic phrases, normally set phrases, but other processes of language are as well involved in. In general this process can be understood as the previous step for compounding, i.e., the movement from syntagmatic relations of language to a paradigmatic state or function. Everyday non-canonical and idiomatic phrases are an integral part of the English language that are used and heard constantly. Some of them are very common phrases widely and frequently used, well understood and generally agreed upon meaning. However, very often, the widely understood meaning of the phrase seems to have nothing to do with the words that compose the phrase and they keep forming a big area of realisations in both oral and written mediums. Given that language is in constant development, they need to be revised constantly in order to incorporate new realisations, but care must be taken, as some only enjoy a certain period of time. Now and thanks to development of technology this task, in spite of its complexity is easy to hold. In general one can assume that those expressions are to be treated independently both for theoretical analysis and for tuition purposes. 710 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Aarts, B. (1997) English Syntax and Argumentation. Newcastle: Modern Linguistic Series Anderson, J. M. (1977) ‗On the formal description of inflection‘. Papers from the thirteenth Regional meeting of the Chicago linguistic society, 15-44. ____________ (1985) Case Grammar and the Lexicon. Ulster: University of Ulster. Anderson, S. R. (1980), ―On the development of morphology from syntax‖, en Historical morphology, pp. 51-69. Aronoff, M. (1976) Word Formation in Generative Grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT press Beaugrande, R. and W. Dressler (1981) Introduction to text linguistics. London: Longman. Benson, Morton, Evelyn Benson & Robert Ilson (1986). Lexicographic Description of English; Amsterdam. Bartsch, S. (2004) Structural and Functional Properties of Collocations in English: A Corpus Study of Lexical and Pragmatic Constraints on Lexical Co-Occurrence,. Gunter Narr Verlag. Benson, M. (1989) ‗The Structure of the Collocational Dictionary‘. International Journal of Lexicography, Vol. 2 N1 1: 1-13. Bever, T. G. (1970) ‗The cognitive basis for linguistic structures‘, in Cognition and the Development of Language, pp 279-362, J. R. Hayes (ed.), New York: Wiley, Biber, D. et all. (1999) The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman Bresnan, Joan. 1988. The Mental representations of Grammatical Relations. Cambridge: The Mit Press. Brown, G. (1884) 'Grammar of English Grammars'. Philological Museum, Vol. I. Chafe, W. and D. Tannen. (1987) ‗The relation between written and spoken language‘, Annual Review of Anthropology, 16: 383-407. Cofer, Thomas M. (1975) ‗Performance Constraints on Relative Pronoun Deletion‘, Linguistics 157, 13-32. The Hague: Mouton. Coopans, P. & M. Everaert (1988)The Simplex Structure of Complex Idioms: The Morphological Status of laten. In: Everaert, M., A. Evers, M.A.C. Huybregts, M. Trommelen (red.) Morphology & Modularity. In Honour of Henk Schultink, Dordrecht: Foris Publications, 75-104. Crystal, D. /1971) Linguistics. London: Penguin. _________ 1986. Who cares about English usage? London: Penguin. Dressler, W. (1985) ‗On the predictiveness of natural morphology‘. Journal of Linguistics 21: 321-37 ----------------(1986) ‗Explanation in natural morphology, illustrated with comparative and agent-noun formation‘, Linguistics 24: 519-48. Emmoroy K. D. and Victoria A. Fromkin (1988) ‗The mental Lexicon‘. Linguistics: The Cambridge Survey. Cambridge: U.P. V. III, pp. 124-149. Feuer, Lewis S. (1953) ―Sociological Aspects of the Relation between Languages and Philosophy‖, Philosophy of Science 20: 85-100. Firth, John R. (1951) Papers in linguistics, 1934–1951. Oxford University Press. Firth, R. P. & F. R.Palmer, (1968) Selected Papers of J.R. Firth, 1952–1959. London:Longmans Jackendoff, R. (1995) ‗The boundaries of the Lexicon‘ in Everaert, M. Et al. Idioms: Structural and Psychological Perspectives. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Jespersen, Otto (1917) Negation in English and Other Languages. Copenhagen: A.F. Høst. Mellville, A. 1946. Spoken English. An Idiomatic Grammar for foreign students. Edimburg: Oliver and Boyd Mieder, Wolfgang. (1982; 1990; 1993) International Proverb Scholarship: An Annotated Bibliography, with supplements. New York: Garland Publishing. Oro Cabanas, J. M. (2008) Some Keynotes on Language, Linguistics and Grammar. Lugo: Unicopia. _______________ (2007. Teorìa lingùìstica y gramatical. Fundamentos claves para su aprendizaje. Lugo: Unicopia. 711 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ________________(2002a.) Current Trends in Linguistics. An English Morphology based Study. Lugo: Unicopia. ________________(2002b.) ‗On the Gray Areas of Language‘, incl. in The teaching of English as a Foreign Language: A European Perspective, pp. 31-63. ________________ (2002c.) ‗A Practical Approach to the Study of Non-canonical Expressions in English‘, incl. in The teaching of English as a Foreign Language: A European Perspective, pp.323-367 Palmer H.E. (1938) A Grammar of English Words. Longmans, Green Peirce, Charles S. (1878) !How to Make Our Ideas Clear!. Popular Science. Monthly 12 (January 1878), 286-302. Quirk, R. (1957) ‗Relative Clauses in Educated Spoken English‘, English Studies 38, 97-109. Quirk, R. y J. Starvik. (1966) Investigating linguistic acceptability. The Hague: Mouton. 12 Statistics (all included) Pages: 11 Words: 5656 Paragraphs: 441 Lines: 924 712 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 105 Title A name given to the resource Do we need a specific grammar for non-canonical expressions? A description and analysis of definitions of some NC constituents Author Author Oro Cabanas, José M. Abstract A summary of the resource. Needless to say that from a linguistic point of view a clear and cut distinction between canonical and non-canonical expressions is to be made for language explanations but especially for translation analyses, due to the fact that a good number of realizations belonging to the Gray Areas (GA) of language may arise from recurrent combinations of specific types of combined lexical items. The resultant lack of interaction between L1 propositions and L2 representations, identical or not, is often explainable and clarified by the Error Analysis (EA) method. Data collected and analysed here for this presentation have been chosen at hazard from different sources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72087b3f4102ef94ffb65270dc7c03a0.pdf c7827e8b3ac58e2795839c2e016b7933 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mentor Feedback for the Professionalism of the Teacher Candidate Dr. Ilknur PEKKANLI Uludag University Faculty of Eucation ELT Department ilknurp@uludag.edu.tr Abstract: In Turkey, foreign language teacher candidates, registered at a faculty of education, have compulsory teaching experience courses which are conducted under the guidance and supervision of mentors- namely the practicing school teachers and faculty field supervisors. These experiences are important collaborative processes between the teacher candidates and their mentors because the constructive feedback received from the mentors are vital for the teacher candidates‘ professional growth and success. However, at times the teacher mentor may not be skillful in giving feedback pertaining to various reasons such as refraining to give knowledge to the candidate due to avoiding conflict or perhaps even lack of pedagogical knowledge. Within the framework of such concerns, the aim of the present study is to become familiar with the types of feedback that the teacher candidates receive from the teacher mentors during or after the candidates teaching experience performances. In order to investigate this situation, data collection for the study is comprised of a questionnaire administered to 70 final year students at a faculty of education English language teaching department. The questionnaire consisting of 20 items was originally designed and published by the author. The results of the study display that the feedbacks are mainly based on the following dimensions; the ensuring of learner participation and interaction, the development of communicative competence in learners, the improvising of teaching methodology, and current trends in language teaching. Key Words: feedback, mentoring, teacher candidate. Background to the study In Turkey, English Language Teaching undergraduate programs conducted at a Faculty of Education are composed of both theoretical language teaching courses and also practicum courses such as the ―School Experience II‖ and ―Teaching Practice.‖ These two compulsory courses are conducted in the fourth/final year of the program and are important prerequisites for graduation. Both courses are conducted theoretically at the university and the practicum is carried out in the participating school which is in partnership with the university. The practicum, under the supervision and assistance of mentors, provide field experiences offering teacher candidates the chance to practice their teaching and to reflect on their experiences with their mentors. At these schools which are in partnership with a state university, the classroom teachers who are assigned for the mentoring of the teacher candidates are monetarily compensated. This application has been adopted because the role of the mentor is crucial in the assistance of the inexperienced teacher candidate and it is assumed that the duty of mentoring can be made more attractive by awarding the mentor teachers financially. In addition, another major reason for the provision of the compensation is due to the fact that in a majority of state schools, the classrooms are already overcrowded and the teachers working hours are overloaded. Therefore, under these competing pressures it is difficult to find mentor teachers who are not only willing to share their own classrooms but also to able to deal with each of the teacher candidates individually. ―Many experienced and highly skilled practitioners also do not volunteer or reject offers to act as mentors as they perceive that it is time consuming, takes them away from their prime job of teaching, offers few benefits or incentives to participate and may become an enduring commitment from which they cannot escape (Long, 1997).‖ In a situation as stated above, where there are authoritative policies offering incentives and support for mentor teachers in order that they can prepare teacher candidates more effectively for the profession, it is the duty of educational researchers to investigate more than surface knowledge on this major component constituting teacher programs. Although explorations in educative mentoring are ―grounded in Dewey‘s (1938) model of educative experience and influenced by theories of socially constructed cognition (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Vygotsky, 1978), the learning of the mentors and mentees occurs through meaningful social communication, interactions and practice in reaching co-constructed goals (He, 2009; 269).‖ To date, within this educational experience in order ‗to provide the best opportunities for pre-service and in-service teachers to become reflective practitioners, we as TESOL professionals must first gain a better understanding of how the teacher-supervisor relationship can enhance, or hinder, professional development (Chamberlin, 2000; 654).‘ 1321 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In the article titled ―The state of mentoring research: A qualitative review of current research methods and future research implications,‖ the researchers‘ Allen et. al. (2008) state the importance of focusing on methodology within the mentoring literature is critical because methodological choices influence both the breadth and depth of what we know about these important organizational relationships. Therefore, within this perspective the present study was undertaken in an attempt to increase awareness on the importance of mentoring in the development of the professionalism of the teacher candidate by providing a grounded picture of the personal and professional support constituted by the mentor‘s verbal feedback. Allen et. al. (2008) also stress that as within any area of research, the failure to use content and construct valid measures leads to serious threats of validity and interpretive problems. Along these lines, it must be noted that the present study is the second stage of a former research which was built on the author‘s first investigation of designing a reliable and valid questionnaire on mentor feedback. This questionnaire can be found in the article titled ―Designing a questionnaire attempting to discover mentors‘ feedback in the professionalism of the foreign language teacher candidate (Pekkanli, 2011).‖ The present study is the second stage in which the questionnaire is implemented and the findings are evaluated. This stage also aims to stress the point that teacher candidates, provided that the feedback is both objective and constructive, must be able to not only monitor the feedback but also be able to evaluate the value and objectives of the feedback in order to enhance and refine their teaching skills. Mentoring and Feedback According to Feiman-Nemser (1993) since the early 1980‘s mentoring had burst into the educational scene as part of a broad movement aiming to improve education and as a result, policy makers and educational leaders pinned high hopes on mentoring as a vehicle for reforming teaching and teacher education. Therefore, for years the issue of mentoring in pre-service and in-service teacher training has been investigated in detail. Research based on mentor teacher investigations in teacher training contexts range from mentor preparation to roles and functions (for eg. Penny et. al., 1996; Arnold, 2006; Allen et. al., 2008; Hobson et. al., 2009). Within the range of investigations, it is possible to observe that various studies have reached consensus on the point that being a teacher does not mean that one can also be a teacher mentor. For example, according to Brooks and Sikes (1997) ―not everyone can, or should be, a mentor. Simply being a good teacher is not enough, for mentoring is not a straightforward extension of being a school-teacher. Different perspectives, abilities, aptitudes, attitudes and skills are necessary (p. 66).‖ Mentoring requires preparation to fulfill the tasks of supporting the teacher candidate in ―classroom management, basic lesson design and delivery, evaluating student progress (Little & Nelson, 1990; 2).‖ According to Little & Nelson (1990) mentors must be able to not only "describe and demonstrate underlying principles of teaching and learning but also need to learn how to "talk clearly and straightforwardly about teaching without offending the teacher (p. 4).‖ Mentors feedback comprised of a flux of shortcomings and negative criticisms relating to the observed lesson can demoralize the teacher candidate and have a negative impact on his teaching behavior. Whereas, between the mentor and the teacher candidate ―the opportunity to exchange insights is embraced as a chance to develop skill and experience with feedback, participants can gain heightened awareness of the power of their positive and negative comments, finding optimal ways to offer guidance that inspires rather than disheartens (Stillwell, 2009; 354).‖ Methodology Participants and Procedure In the academic year of 2009-2010, there were approximately more than 220 fourth/final year students enrolled at Uludag University, Faculty of Education, ELT Department. In order to assist internal validity of the study, a total of 70 students/teacher candidates achieving to pass the ―school experience II‖ and ―teaching practice‖ courses with high scores (BA and AA) participated in the present study. Teacher candidates were administered a structured questionnaire eliciting data on constructive feedback (see Pekkanli, 2011). The teacher candidates answered the questionnaire according to the feedback they gained from their mentors at the secondary schools where their practicum courses were conducted. The questionnaire consists of three dimensions covering 20 items which are designed on a five-point Likert scale. The five points range from the end points being labeled as ‗1= strongly disagree‘ and ‗5=strongly 1322 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo agree‘. The three dimensions; I-mentor effectiveness, II- mentor openness, and III- mentor support, are individually examined so as to shed light on which dimensions displayed marginal differences in the total percentages. In order to determine the types of feedbacks gained, percentages of the options marked were calculated (see Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3). However, since the questionnaire aims to determine constructive feedback, in the comparison of the three dimensions (see Table 4) the negatively stated items 7, 13, 19 and 20 were reversely scored. Data Analysis and Results Dimension I of the questionnaire has the following eight items (see Table 1) concerning statements based on feedback that are associated with the mentor‘s effectiveness in terms of meaningful social interaction, enhancement of teacher candidate‘s self-assessment, and supporting the teacher candidate‘s professional development. Table 1. Dimension I – Mentor Effectiveness Item Number 2- My mentor acknowledges and works through conflicts openly with me. 6- My mentor checks for my comprehension of the verbal messages. 8- My mentor evaluates the effectiveness of the task and processes that I perform. 9- My mentor assists me in developing my personal skills in planning. 10- When giving me feedback my teacher first praises me. 12- Before giving feedback my mentor asks me to self-assess first. 15- My mentor limits what s/he is covering when giving feedback. 16- My mentor concentrates on what I can change for the better in the teaching practice. Strongly Disagree N=70 % 0.0 Mildly Disagree N=70 % 18.6 Neutral N=70 % 40.0 Mildly Agree N=70 % 31.4 Strongly Agree N=70 % 10.0 0.0 37.1 48.6 14.3 0.0 0.0 8.6 37.1 54.2 0.0 0.0 31.4 31.4 37.1 0.0 0.0 18.6 37.1 37.1 7.1 0.0 31.4 42.9 12.8 12.8 0.0 42.9 37.1 12.8 7.1 0.0 20.0 37.1 42.9 0.0 As can be seen in Table 1, the highest percentages gained for mildly agree was 54.2 for item number eight. This finding shows that slightly more than half of the teacher candidates perceive their mentor to be able to effectively evaluate their performances. The highest percentage gained for ‗mildly disagree‘ was 42.9 for item number fifteen. This item also gained 37.1 for ‗neutral,‘ these percentages display the point that the mentors lack the skill of limiting what they are covering when giving feedback. Another notable finding is that before the feedback, a third of the teacher candidates are not asked to self -assess first. The second dimension of the questionnaire (see Table 2) named as ‗mentor openness‘ aims to identify whether the mentor provides feedback relating to teacher candidates‘ experiences on classroom management, and the familiarization of classroom tools and material. Table 2. Dimension II - Mentor Openness Item Number 1- My mentor respects and is tolerant of the individual differences of the teacher trainees. 3- My teacher works for consensus on decisions with me. 5- My mentor trusts, supports and has genuine Strongly Disagree N=70 % 0.0 Mildly Disagree N=70 % 7.1 Neutral N=70 % 48.6 Mildly Agree N=70 % 31.4 Strongly Agree N=70 % 12.8 0.0 48.6 25.7 25.7 0.0 0.0 31.4 48.6 20.0 0.0 1323 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo concern for my development. 11- My mentor encourages my usage of various classroom tools and materials. 14- When there is conflict between the students and myself, my mentor handles the situation. 17- My mentor develops my awareness of the tools and material which can be used in the activities. 18- When giving feedback my mentor comments on specific behaviors and achievements. 19- When giving feedback my mentor gives me general comments. 12.8 12.8 42.9 31.4 0.0 0.0 31.4 42.9 12.8 12.8 0.0 31.4 54.2 14.3 0.0 0.0 25.7 65.7 8.6 0.0 0.0 18.6 31.4 37.1 12.8 Table 2 displays the results of the teacher candidates‘ tendencies towards the aspect of being ‗neutral‘ for six of the eight statements. This distinctive finding sheds light on the point that the teacher candidates were not able to identify their mentor‘s strengths of providing feedback for the two separate constructs of classroom management and strategies of implementing instructional tools. Dimension III, under the heading of ‗mentor support‘ has only four statements dwelling on the issue of the mentor‘s understanding and support of the teacher candidate‘s emotional satisfaction with the experience and the mentor‘s ability of positively questioning of the experience. Table 3. Dimension III – Mentor Support Item Number 4- My mentor shares openly my personal feelings and opinions about the teaching situation. 7- The tone of voice of my mentor makes me feel inferior. 13- When giving me feedback my mentor criticizes my teaching. 20- While I am getting feedback from my mentor, I feel accused of my teaching practice. Strongly Mildly Neutral Disagree Disagree N=70 N=70 N=70 % % % 0.0 48.6 25.7 Mildly Agree N=70 % 25.7 Strongly Agree N=70 % 0.0 7.1 37.1 24.3 31.4 0.0 7.1 24.3 24.3 44.3 0.0 7.1 14.3 35.7 35.7 7.1 Table 3 highlights the general view of the teacher candidates‘ total scores in this dimension to be the highest for item thirteen. The teacher candidates, when getting feedback are criticized for their teaching. The mentor‘s act of criticizing, whether positive or negative, can be interpreted as the mentor‘s behavior to be authoritative rather than collaborative. Table 4. Comparisons of Dimension I, II, and III Dimension I Mentor Effectiveness II Mentor Openness III Mentor Support Disagree (-) % 26.07 Neutral (0) % 38.92 Agree (+) % 35.00 31.42 45.00 23.57 36.42 27.50 36.07 The feedback questionnaire responses highlighting the degrees of mentor feedback in terms of mentor effectiveness, mentor openness, and mentor support are presented in Table 4. For this comparison the options ‗strongly disagree‘ and ‗mildly disagree‘ were grouped as ‗disagree‘. Likewise, ‗mildly agree‘ and ‗strongly agree‘ were grouped as ‗agree‘. As can be observed from Table 4, teacher candidates are mostly ‗neutral‘ for 1324 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo mentor effectiveness and mentor openness. However, mentor support is a dimension which displays opposing views between more a third of the teacher candidates ‗disagreeing‘ and ‗agreeing‘. Discussion and Conclusion Though mentoring is viewed as essential in the teacher candidates‘ professional development, the mentors addressed in the present study were not formally trained for the process of mentoring. These mentors were either assigned by the school principal or the principal had called for them amongst the volunteering staff. Therefore, for these mentors there is no such aspect of the ―guarantee that the mentoring role is clearly delineated with the necessary tasks and skills mapped against a formalized program of mentee development (Gagen & Bowie, 2005, as cited in Long, 2009). Consideration of such a background and the findings of the present study, it can be stressed that the mentor teachers assigned in supervising the teacher candidates during the practicum or pre-service period require mentor training notably in the area of assistance skills for providing constructive feedback to the teacher candidates. The concept ―assistance skills‖ formerly mentioned in the recommendation above refers to the concept defined by Stroble and Cooper (1982). These researchers had proposed for training programs for supervising teachers and mentor teachers where they will be taught and trained on assistance skills, ―that is, clinical supervision skills of observation, analysis of teaching, interpersonal communication, and support (p.236).‖ With these skills the mentors who are able to ―concentrate on helping others to reflect and come to conclusions for themselves will likely have more fulfilling post-conference discussions, as they can more candidly explore the successes and failures of the various techniques employed (Stillwell, 2008; 359).‖ Teaching is a challenge and in the preparation of the teacher candidate for this challenge, the mentor feedback generating negative memories and developing a feeling of inferiority within the teacher candidate can only hinder the teacher candidate‘s motivation and passion for this challenge. To sum up, being a teacher is not a sufficient criteria or standard for taking on the role of mentoring because not all teachers are equipped of being able to effectively communicate and provide constructive feedback to the teacher candidate. Therefore, before the commencement of the ‗school experience II‘ and ‗teaching practice‘ courses, it is essential for Uludag University to provide a mentoring program or even establishing a short training course for the school teachers who are assigned or volunteering to act as mentoring teachers. References 1325 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., O‘Brien, K. E., & Lentz, E. (2008). The state of mentoring research: A qualitative review of current research methods and future research implications. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, pp. 343-357. Arnold, E. (2006). Assessing the Quality of Mentoring: Sinking or Learning to Swim? ELT Journal. Vol. 60/2 pp. April, pp.117-124. Brooks, V. and P. Sikes (eds.) (1997). The Good Mentor Guide: Initial Teacher Education in Secondary Schools. Buckingham: Open Uni. Press. Chamberlin, C. R. (2000). TESL Degree Candidates‘ Perceptions of Trust in Supervisors. TESOL Quarterly, 34, pp. 653-673. Feiman-Nemser, S., Parker, M. B., & Zeichner, K. (1993). Are mentor teachers teacher educators? In D. McIntyre, H. Hagger, & M. Wilkin (Eds), Mentoring: Perspectives on school-based teacher education (pp. 147-165). London: Kogan Page He, Y. (2009). Strength-based mentoring in pre-service teacher education: a literature review. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning. Vol. 17, No. 3, Aug. 2009, pp. 263-275. Hobson, A. J., Ashby, P., Malderez, A. and Tomlinson, P.D. (2009). Mentoring beginning teachers: what we know and what we don't. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 25(1), pp. 207-216 Leung, K., S. Su & M. W. Morris. (2001). When Is Criticism Not Constructive? The roles of fairness perceptions and dispositional attributions in employee acceptance of critical supervisory feedback. Human Relations, Vol. 54 (9) ps. 1155-1187. Sage Pub. New Delhi. Little, J. W., & Nelson, L. (Eds.). (1990). A leader's guide to mentor training. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development. Long, J. (2007). The dark side of mentoring. Australian Educational Researcher, 24 (2), pp.115-133. Long, J. (2009). Assisting beginning teachers and school communities to grow through extended and collaborative mentoring experiences. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning. Vol. 17, No. 4, Nov. 2009, pp. 317-327. Pekkanli, I. (2011). ―Designing a questionnaire attempting to discover mentors‘ feedback in the professionalism of the foreign language teacher candidate,‖ Journal of Language Teaching and Research. (Due for publication in Issue 3, May 2011). Penny, A. J. , Harley, K. L. and Jessop, T. S. (1996). Towards a language of possibility: critical reflection and mentorship in initial teacher education. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice 2, pp. 57-69. Stillwell, C. (2002). The Collaborative Development of Teacher Training Skills. ELT Journal. Vol. 63/4 October, pp. 353-362. Stroble E. and M. Cooper. (1988). Mentor Teachers: Coaches or Referees? Theory into Practice . Vol. XXVII, No. 3, pp. 231-236. Zeichner, K., Liston, D., Mahlios, M., & Gomez, M. (1987). The structure and goals of a student teaching program and the character and quality of supervisory discourse. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4, pp.349-362. 1326 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 683 Title A name given to the resource Mentor Feedback for the Professionalism of the Teacher Candidate Author Author PEKKANLI, Ilknur Abstract A summary of the resource. In Turkey, foreign language teacher candidates, registered at a faculty of education, have compulsory teaching experience courses which are conducted under the guidance and supervision of mentors- namely the practicing school teachers and faculty field supervisors. These experiences are important collaborative processes between the teacher candidates and their mentors because the constructive feedback received from the mentors are vital for the teacher candidates‘ professional growth and success. However, at times the teacher mentor may not be skillful in giving feedback pertaining to various reasons such as refraining to give knowledge to the candidate due to avoiding conflict or perhaps even lack of pedagogical knowledge. Within the framework of such concerns, the aim of the present study is to become familiar with the types of feedback that the teacher candidates receive from the teacher mentors during or after the candidates teaching experience performances. In order to investigate this situation, data collection for the study is comprised of a questionnaire administered to 70 final year students at a faculty of education English language teaching department. The questionnaire consisting of 20 items was originally designed and published by the author. The results of the study display that the feedbacks are mainly based on the following dimensions; the ensuring of learner participation and interaction, the development of communicative competence in learners, the improvising of teaching methodology, and current trends in language teaching. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/758ac7f622bcf51e6a71f178d43bfc19.pdf 73e39227639daf57fca387326c15f5a5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo IRAK’IN YENiDEN YAPILANDIRILMASINDA AİLE EĞİTİMİ ve AİLE İŞLETMELERİNİN ÖNEMİ VE KATKISI Zeynel POLAT Yunus Emre Enstitùsù ozbekturk04@hotmail.com Ahmet DĠNÇ Ishik University Ahmet24dinc@hotmail.com Irak, Suudi Arabistan, Kanada ve Ġran‘dan sonra ispatlanmıĢ 115 milyar varilin ùzerinde petrol rezerviyle dùnyada dôrdùncù sırada yer almaktadır. Tùrkiye‘nin Gùneydoğu komĢusu olan Irak‘ın kuzeyinde çoğunluğu Kùrtlerden oluĢan Kùrt Bôlgesel Yônetimi vardır ve onlardan kısaca bahsetmek istiyoruz. Nùfusu yaklaĢık 3 ila 6.5 milyon arasında değiĢen Duhok, Erbil ve Sùleymaniye valiliklerinden oluĢan bu bôlge yaklaĢık 40,000 km karedir. Bôlgeyi kalkındırma amaçlı dùzenlemeler 2006 yılından itibaren hayata geçirilmekte ve yabancı sermayeyi çekebilmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Son yıllarda komĢu Tùrkiye ile ikili ticari anlaĢmalar artmaktadır. Bu çalıĢmada baĢlıca Irak genelindeki ve ôzel olarak Kùrt bôlgesel yônetimi içerisindeki Kuzey Irak bôlgesinde ailenin ônemi ve aile iĢletmelerinin ekonomideki yeri ùzerinde çalıĢtık. Bu çalıĢmamızda devletten ve ôzel sektôrden, birinci elden bilgi toplama gayretimizle bu bôlgede bulunmanın avantajını kullanmayı hedefledik. Ama ùlkenin geçirmiĢ olduğu sıkıntılı ve istikrarsız yapısından kaynaklanan nedenlerden dolayı bilgiye ve istatistiki dataya ulaĢma sıkıntıları hȃlȃ mevcuttur. Kısaca iktisat tarihine değindikten sonra iĢletmeler için (aile iĢletmeleri ve yabancı yatırımcıları da kapsayan) gerekli olan kanuni dùzenlemeler ùzerinde duruldu. Yapılan taramalardan 10‘a yakın aile Ģirketiyle irtibata geçildi. Onlar hakkında kısa malømatlardan sonra içlerinden birinin yôneticisiyle irtibat sağlanarak yùz yùze mùlakat yapıldı ve detaylı bilgi alındı. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı Irak‘ta çok sayıda var olan aile Ģirketlerinin durumu, hangi sektôrde ağırlık kazandıkları, ikinci veya ùçùncù kuĢak devamı var mı? Ne tùr yasal dùzenlemeler vardır? Sorularına cevap aramaktır. Bu çalıĢma kısmen Irak geneli ama ôzelde Kuzey Irak bôlgesi aile eğitimi iĢletmeleri ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Irak‘ın gùney kısımları Bağdat ve Musul gibi ônemli kentlere gùvenlik sebebiyle gidip gôzlemleme imkanımız olmadı ama Kuzey‘de 1307 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bulunan baĢkent Erbil, Sùleymaniye ve Duhok illerinde gùvenliğin varlığından dolayı aile Ģirketlerini birebir gôzlemleme imkanımız oldu. Anahtar Kelimeler: Irak, Aile eğitimi, Aile iĢletmesi, Yasal dùzenlemeler, Yeniden yapılandırma, Katkı 1. GĠRĠġ Irak, Suudi Arabistan, Kanada ve Ġrandan sonra ispatlanmıĢ petrol rezerviyle dùnyada dôrdùncù sırada yer almaktadır. DıĢ ticaret gelirinin bùyùk bir bôlùmùnù oluĢturan petrol geliri ùlke ekonomisinde hakim sektôrdùr. 1980‘lerde Ġran‘la sùren 8 yıllık savaĢ Irak ekonomisinde bùyùk mali kayıplara sebep olurken; Irak, 1968‘den 2003‘e kadar Baas Partisi yônetimi altında idi. Amerika‘nın 2003 yılında koltuğundan ettiği Saddam Hùseyin 1979‘dan beri ùlkeyi yônetmekteydi. 2009 yılı sayımına gôre ùlkenin nùfusu 31,234,000 kiĢiden oluĢan Irak vatandaĢlarının çoğunluğu Araplar da olmak ùzere Kùrtler, Asurlular, Mandeans ve Tùrkmenlerden oluĢmaktadır. Yabancı ve yerli yatırımcıya kapılarını açan Irak, yeni yatırım kanununu 2006 yılında yùrùrlùğe koydu. Hùkùmet zor dônemden çıkıĢ yolunu seçebilmek ve ùlke istikrarını sağlayabilmek için ve bu zorlu sùreci baĢarılı kılmak için yatırıma ağırlık vermektedir. Ülkenin zorlu dônemecini ve bir dizi yeni teĢviklerle yasalarını yùrùrlùğe koydu. Yabancı yatırımcının yerli yatırımcıdan farkı yoktu. Irak halkının kùltùrù aile iĢletmelerine yatkın olduğundan çok sayıda aile iĢletmeleri de bu yeni yatırım kanunlarından faydalanmaktadır. YapmıĢ olduğumuz bu çalıĢmada baĢlıca Irak ve Kuzey‘de bulunan Kùrt bôlgesel yônetiminde aile ĠĢletmelerini incelemeye çalıĢtık. Irak, 1979‘dan 2003 yılına kadar Saddam Hùseyin‘in kontrolùnde sıkıntılı gùnler yaĢamaya devam etti. 1980‘lerde baĢlayan ve 10 yıla yakın sùren Ġran-Irak savaĢı, I. ve II. Kôrfez savaĢları, uluslararası birliklerden uygulanan ambargolar ùlkenin tarihinde ônemli yer teĢkil eden ve istikrarsızlığın nedenini açıklayan en ônemli geliĢmelerdir. (U.S. Department of State vd. 2010) Bu çalıĢmamızda Irak aile yapısını inceledik. Bunun ekonomiye katkısı ùzerinde olumlu etkisi olup olmadığını araĢtırdık. Çùnkù biliniyor ki ùretim faktôrlerinden en ônemlisi iĢ gùcùdùr. SavaĢ ortamında eğitimin olmaması veya yeterli olmaması sonucu aile içinde yetiĢim veya bùyùklerinden gôrùp yetiĢme halk dilinde çekirdekten yetiĢme bu eksikliği hangi ôlçùde giderir? Sorusunun cevabını aradık. Irak kùltùrùnde bùyùklerin ôzellikle de babanın ağırlığının hissedilir ôlçùde olduğu kanaati oluĢtu bizde. SavaĢlarla boğuĢan Irak bu hengameden çıkıĢ yolu olarak yatırım gôrdùğùnden çalıĢmamızın ikinci kısmını yatırım dùzenlemeleri almaktadır. Yeni yatırım kanunları teĢvik edici gôrùlmùĢtùr. Üçùncù olarak ôzel sektôrù analiz ettik. Aile iĢletmelerinin ùlkede hissedilir derece ağırlığının olması Irak kùltùrùyle yakın ilintili olmasından kaynaklandığı sonucuna vardık. 2. AĠLE EĞĠTĠMĠ, ÜNĠVERSĠTELER VE BUNLARIN EKONOMĠK KALKINMAYA KATKISI Irak‘ta nùfusun geneli, Kuzey Irak Kùrt Özerk Bôlgesi‘nde yaĢamaktadır. Bu bôlgede yaĢayan Kùrt nùfusunun toplam 3 milyon civarında olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. SavaĢ sonrasında genel veya bôlgesel nùfus sayımı sağlıklı yapılamadığından, bôlgesel nùfus mùbadelesinin veya gôçùĢmenin yoğun Ģekilde yaĢanması nùfusun tam olarak nekadar olduğunu verememektedir. 1991 ve 2002 yılı sonrası Gùney Irak‘ta yaĢayan halk, savaĢ tehlikesinin yanında Sùnnî-ġiî tehdidinden kaçarak, Kuzey Irak‘a yerleĢmiĢtir. Bu sebeple Kuzey Özerk Bôlge‘de karıĢıklıktan uzak durmak isteyen Arap nùfusunda da artıĢ olmuĢtur. Özellikle Bağdat‘ın eğitimde kendini ıspatlamıĢ ùniversitelerindeki eğitim kadrosu da bu gôçte yerini almıĢ, bu hadise Kuzey Irak‘ın eğitim alanında gùnden gùne tırmanıĢına yardımcı olmuĢtur. Gôçler sebebi ile Kuzey Irak nùfusu tam olarak kestirilememektedir. Kuzey Irak bôlgesinde aile, gelenek ve kùltùrlerine sahip çıkmıĢ bir dùzen içindedir. KomĢularla iliĢkilerini sıkı tutan, onlarla Kùrt-Ġslam Kùltùrlerini yaĢatma gayreti gôsteren dùĢùnceye sahipler. Genelde kendi aralarında kız alıp verdikleri gôrùlùr. Bu davranıĢ Ģekli, kendilerini soyutlama anlamında dùĢùnùlmemelidir. Aile Ģirketinin devamı olarak algılansa, bôlge halkı hakkında sosyo-ekonomik açıdan yaklaĢmıĢ oluruz. Eğitim reformlarından ônce evlenme yaĢı 15-18‘ lerde iken, reform sonrası ise 20 yaĢın ùzerine çıkmıĢtır. Kuzey Irak‘ta soy-kabile iliĢkileri korunduğu için sosyo–ekonomik iliĢkilerin yine aile eğitim sistemi dairesinde geliĢip, korunduğuna Ģahit olmaktayız. Halk da hayatını idame ettiği topraklarda XI.yy. itibari ile gùnùmùze kadar olan sùreçte eğitimlerini medreselerde devam ettirmiĢtir. Bu sebeple medreseler bôlgedeki halkın ekonomik ve kùltùrel yaĢam tarzlarına Ģekil vermiĢtir. Dinî ilimlerin yanında mùsbet ilimleri (pozitif ilimler) fizik, kimya, astronomi, matematik, tıp, coğrafyayı yine bu medreselerde okuyarak kendilerini yetiĢtirmiĢlerdir. Bu medreseler bilim ve eğitim hayatına kazandırdıkları ile kendi toplumunun sosyal değiĢimine yônelik etkileri gùn yùzùne çıkmaktadır. Edebiyat alanında da durum bôyledir. TanınmıĢ Kùrt edebiyatçılarına bakıldığında edebî eser 1308 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sahiplerinin hemen hemen hepsinin medreselerden yetiĢtiğini gôrmekteyiz.353 Kuzey Irak‘ın Eğitim sistemi çok zayıf gibi gôrùnse de gùnden gùne bu açığını kapatma gayreti, azmi ve çalıĢmaları içindeler. Okur-yazarlık oranı savaĢ ôncesi ve savaĢ sonrası olmak ùzere iki dôneme ayrılabilir. SavaĢ sebebi ile cephede bulunan veya değiĢik sebeplerle eğitimini tamamlayamamıĢ halk için gece okulları, dıĢarıdan eğitim, ders geçmede kolaylıklar sunulmaktadır. SavaĢ sonrası eğitimdeki reformlar ve yeni yaklaĢımlar sonucu, gùnden gùne ôzel ôğretimin de artmasına, buna bağlı olarak eğitimin doğru orantıda kaliteli olmasına yansımıĢtır. Bu yeni uygulama farklı etnik ve dinsel kimlikleri birleĢtirici rol oynamaktadır. Kùrt Özerk Bôlgesi'nden taĢralı bir ilkôğretim ôğrencisi. Toplumsal ve siyasi çatıĢmaların yaĢandığı toplumlarda daha huzurlu bir hayat yaĢamak için eğitimin rolù hiçbir zaman yadsınamaz. 2.1 ÇalıĢan kadınlar: Kuzey Irak‘ta yaĢayan nùfusta Erbil, Sùleymaniye gibi bùyùk yerleĢim yerleri dıĢında kalan yerlerde kadının çalıĢma hayatı içinde daha çok tarım iĢkolu ile sosyal ve kiĢisel hizmetler iĢkolunda yer aldıkları gôrùlmektedir. Eğitime bağlı olarak kadının iĢ istihdamı gùnden gùne artıĢ gôstermektedir. Kuzey Irak Bôlgesel yônetim dahilinde kadının iĢ istihdamı eğitime bağlı olarak değiĢim sùreci içine girmiĢtir. Bôlgede atılım gôsteren Tùrk iĢverenlerince açılan yeni birimlerde istihdam edilmekteler. Eğitim seviyesi dùĢùk ve kırsal kesimde olan kiĢiler daha çok tarım ve hayvancılık ile uğraĢmaktadır. Tùrkiye sınırına yakın bir tarlada çalıĢan Iraklı kôylùler . 2.2 Kamu çalıĢanları: SavaĢ sonrası Kuzey Irak‘ın eğitim seviyesindeki hızlı ilerleme neticesinde mahalli idareler, doktorluk, hemĢirelik, akademisyenlik, basın - yayın ve ôğretmenlik en çok kabul gôren mesleklerdir. Bùro iĢi yapma ve devlet memuru olma tercihi yaygın hale gelmektedir. Çağı yakalama aĢamasında Kuzey Irak Bôlgesi‘nde hizmet eden devlet ve ôzel ùniversiteler bulunmaktadır. Bu ùniversitelerin baĢında en çok ôğrencisi ile devlet ùniversiteleri Erbil Salahaddin Üniversitesi (Zankoi Salahaddin), Sùleymaniye Üniv. Kôysancak Üniv. Duhok Üniv. gelirken; çağdaĢ eğitimi ile Erbil ve Irak geneline hizmet eden ôzel ùniversitelerden Ishık Üniv. Cihan Üniv. Kùrdistan Üniv. gibi ùniversiteler Irak‘ın eğitim, siyasi dùĢùnce, ekonomik, yapılanmasında bùyùk rol oynamakta, kamu ve ôzel sektôre insan gùcù kazandırmaktadır. 353 Tarih Vakfı tarafından ġubat 2009 – Temmuz 2010 Tarihleri arasında gerçekleĢtirilen ―Toplumsal ve Siyasal ÇatıĢmaların YaĢandığı Toplumlarda UzlaĢma Aracı Olarak Eğitimin Rolù‖ Projesinde hazırlanan kitap 1309 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo SavaĢ sonrası eğitim faaliyetlerine hız veren Kuzey Irak, eğitimde kılık kıyafet basta olmak ùzere eğitim ve ôğretim alanında ôzgùrlùğù de benimsemiĢtir. ùniversite ôğrencileri kendi dinî ve millî kimliklerini aksettiren kıyafetleri ile derslere devam edebilmektedir. 3. YENĠDEN YAPILANDIRMADA UYGUN ORTAM VE YASAL DÜZENLEMELER Yatırım kanunlarıyla dùnya ticaret ôrgùtù içinde yerini almak isteyen Irak yatırımı ve modern teknoloji transferini gerçekleĢtirebilmek için Irak Hùkùmeti yabancı yatırımcıya bir dizi imtiyazları ve garantileri kanunlaĢtırdı. Iraklı ve yabancı yatırımcı toplu konut projelerinde yer almaları halinde bakanlığın onayıyla ulusal komisyon tarafından Ģartları belirlenmiĢ Ģekilde toprağı kullanma hakkına sahip oldular. Toprak sahibinin spekùlasyon hareketi kontrol altına alındı. Komisyon toplu konut projesi için gerekli toprağın alımını da kolaylaĢtırdı. Yerli ve yabancı yatırımcılar bu kanunlardan nasıl fayda gôrecekler sorusunun cevaplarını Ģôyle sıralayabiliriz: 1- Kanuna gôre yatırımcı dıĢardan aldığı ve vergisini ôdediği kapitali çıkarabilecektir. 2- Yabancı yatırmcı borsadan bono ve hisse alabilecek. 3- 50 yıla kadar toprak kiralayabilecek. 4- Proje, yerli veya yabancı sigorta Ģirketine sigortalabilinir. 5- Irak içinde veya dıĢında Irak Dinarı veya istenilen para cinsinden hesap açılabilir. 6- Irak‘ta çalıĢtırılacak iĢçi için firmanın isteği doğrultusunda istenilen ùlke vatandaĢı iĢçi olarak kabul gôrùp ikamet izni alabilecek. 7- Irak‘ta çalıĢan iĢçiler maaĢlarını kendi ùlkelerine transfer yapabilirler. Irak hùkùmetinin onayladığı bu yeni yatırım kanunları hem yerli hem yabancı yatırımcılar için geçerlidir. Yine bu teĢvik kanununda 10 yıllık vergi muafiyeti vardır. Eğer yabancı firma bir Iraklı ortağa sahipse ve yerli ortağın hissesi %50 den fazla ise 10 yıllık vergi muafiyeti 15 yıla çıkar. Hastahane, turizm bùrosu, otel, sağlık kuruluĢu, rehabilitasyon merkezi, bilim merkezi vb. yatırımlar da yurt dıĢından getireceği ofis mobilyaları ve benzeri ithal mallardan vergi alınmayacaktır. Bu kanunlar Kuzey Irak Yônetimi bôlgesi için geçerli kanunlar değildir. Kuzey Irak Bôlgesel Yônetiminin kendine has kanuni dùzenlemeleri mevcuttur. (Saiflaw, 2010) 2006 yatırım kanunu yatırımcılara hak ve sorumluluklar yùklemektedir. Yatırım için kurulan ulusal komisyon yatırım lisansı vermektedir. 7. maddeye gôre baĢvuru yapıldıktan sonraki 45 gùn içinde komisyon lisans verme kararını veriyor. Eğer yatırım projesi 250 milyon doları geçiyorsa lisansa baĢvurmak için bakanlar kurulunun onayı gerekir. 12. Maddede yabancı yatırımcıların ve iĢçilerin Irak‘a giriĢ-çıkıĢ kolaylığı belirtilmektedir. Bu kanunda Irak vatandaĢı iĢçilerin istihdam edilmesine ôncelik verildiği de vurgulanmıĢtır. 14. Maddeye gôre yatırımcı ekonomik ve teknik kolaylığı olan uygun yatırım kontratı sağlamalıdır. Yatırıma baĢlama tarihi ve iĢ planının aĢamaları bildirilmelidir ve bildirilen Ģartlara uygun hareket edilmelidir. 15.-18. Maddelerde bir dizi yatırım muafiyetleri var. Yukarıda bahsedildiği gibi bunların baĢında 10 yıllık vergi muafiyeti yer almaktadır. 21. Madde yatırımın Ģeklini tanımlamaktadır; ôdeme, aktiflerin değeri, gereçler ve teknik ustalık, patent ve hizmetleri içeren hakların tanımı vardır. Uluslararası yatırım sôzleĢmelerinde bulunan yatırımın tarifi baz alınmıĢtır. Yatırımcı ne çeĢit ve hangi sektôrde yatırım yapacağının farkında olmalıdır. 27. Madde, anlaĢmazlık halinde Irak mahkemelerine yargılama hakkı verir. 30. Madde bakanlar kuruluna kanunu yùrùrlùğe koyma yetkisi verir. (Iraq LegalGuide, 2010) Yatırımcılar hȃlȃ gùvenliği ônde tutan bir dùĢùnceyle hareket etmektedirler. 2008‘den 2010‘a geçerken ve bugùnlerde bile oteller ve devlet dairelerini hedef alan bombalama hadiseleri mevcuttur. Ama bu hadiseler ônceki yıllara nazaran dùĢmeye devam etmektedir. Bu dùĢùĢ durumu bile Irak devletine, ôzel sektôre ve yabancı Ģirketlere Irak‘ta yatırım imkanı tanımaktadır. Irak hùkùmeti baĢta petrol olmak ùzere birçok 1310 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo yabancı Ģirketle anlaĢmıĢ ve lisans vermiĢtir. Yapılan kontratlar Irak‘ın petrol ihraç kapasitesini son 7 yılda %500 arttırabilir niteliktedir. (Stategov, 2010) Bùyùk Ģirketlerin yanında kùçùk ve orta ôlçekli iĢletmeler, gùvenlik maliyeti, hantal ve ĢaĢırtıc prosedùr, devletin yatırım karĢılığı ôdeyeceği meblağın uzun vadeli olması gibi zorluklarla karĢılaĢılabilir. Dùnya bankasının yaptığı dùnyada en kolay iĢ yapma sıralamasında ırak 183 ùlkeden 153. Arap ùlkeleri arasında ise 16.sıradadır. (The World Bank, 2010) Bu sayılan zorluklar Irak‘ın Kuzey bôlgesel yônetiminde gôrùlmemektedir. Irakın kuzeyinde gùvenlik problemi olmamakla birlikte bôlgesel yônetimin yatırım teĢvikleri de vardır. Kuzeyde bulunan bôlgesel yônetim baĢkent Erbil olmak ùzere Sùleymaniye ve Duhok Ģehirlerinden oluĢmaktadır. Bôlge 40.000 km2 alanıyla Irak‘ın %18‘ini oluĢturmaktadır. Bôlgede yaĢayan Kùrt nùfusun yaklaĢık 3 milyon olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Yer altı kaynakları bakımından bôlge zengin petrol ve gaz rezervlerinin yanında kômùr, demir ve bakır rezervlerine de sahiptir. Bôlgenin gùvenlik sorunu olmaması yatırımın çekilmesinde baĢlıca sebeptir. Irak‘ta veya Kuzey Irak‘ta yatırım yapmak isteyen yerli ve yabancı yatırımcılar için bu bôlge adeta giriĢ-çıkıĢ kapısı rolù de gôrmektedir. Bôlgenin Ġran-Tùrkiye-Suriye‘ye sınırı olması Irak için adeta kapı konumunda olmasını ve ticarette de ùstùnlùk sağlıyor. Bôlgenin daha gùvenli olması sebebiyle yerli ve yabancı yatırımcıların dikkatini çekmiĢ ve bu da kiĢi baĢına dùĢen gelirin artmasıyla sonuçlanmıĢtır. 2007 yılında kiĢi baĢına gelir 2300 - 2500 Dolar‘dan (Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, 2007) 2010 yılına gelindiğinde 3300 - 4500 Dolar‘a kadar çıktığı gôzlemlenmiĢtir. (Fathi M. Ali- Mudaris, 2010) - Yeni dùzenlemede yabancı firmaların yerli ortağı olma ihtiyacı ortadan kaldırıldı. Yabancı yatırımcıya Iraklı biri gibi ùlkede firma kurma kolaylığı getirildi. Erbil, Sùleymaniye ve Bağdat merkezli ùç ayrı yerde yatırım yaptırmak isteyenler için kayıt yeri vardır. Kayıt yaptırmak isteyen firma avukatlar birliğine ùye bir avukat tutmak zorundadır. Yabancı yatırımcı herhangi bir Iraklı vatandaĢın haklarına sahipçesine firmasını Kuzey yônetim bôlgesinde kurabilir. Yabancı firma, yerli veya aile Ģirketi olması herhangi bir fark gerektirmemektedir. 1-Ülkesinde kayıtlı olan herhangi bir yabancı firma kayıtlı olduğu sertifikası, Irak bùyùkelçiliğinde veya Kuzey bôlgesel yônetiminin temsilciliği varsa onun mùhrùyle mùhùrlenmelidir. 2-KuruluĢ sertifikasının bir fotokopisi veya kurulduğu ùlkedeki resmi otoritede onaylı tùm belgeler kurucular veya temsilci tarafından imzalanmalı ve Irak elçiliği tarafından mùhùrlenmeli. 3-ġube açacak firmanın kurucu ùyeleri kiĢiyi (yônetici-avukat-iĢçi) resmi bir yazıyla atamalı ve bu atama yazısı Irak elçiliği tarafından onaylanmalı. (Atanan insanların bôlgesel yônetimden oturum izni almalıdır.) 4-Yabancı firmanın atadığı kiĢi hakkında yetkililere doğru bilgi verilmelidir. 5-Merkez firmanın son yılın finansal raporları Irak elçiliği tarafından onaylanmalı. 6-Tùm gerekli resmi evraklar Ġngilizce ve Arapça olmalıdır. Bu evraklar Irak elçiliği tarafından onaylanmalıdır. 7-Kayıt ùcreti 200.000 Irak dinarıdır. 8-Kuzey Irak Bôlgesel Kùrt Yônetimi‘ndeki Ģirketin kira sôzlenmesi. 9-SôzleĢmede belirtilen Ģirketin faaliyet alanı hakkında bilgi verilmelidir. 10-Tutulan barolar birliğine kayıtlı avukatın kontratı ve muhasebeciler birliğine kayıtlı muhasebe yetkilisinin kontratı belirtilmelidir. 11-Gerekli formlar doldurulmalıdır. (formlar websitesinde mevcuttur -www.br-iraq.com-) (Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, 2007) Özel ve aile Ģirketlerini ilgilendiren bazı kanunlardan ve dùzenlemelerden bahsedersek: 1997 yılında 21 numaralı bu kanun 2003 yılında değiĢime uğradı. A-ġirket Kayıt Kanunu; 1- Kaydını yaptıran Ģirket yabancı veya yerli olsun ayrım yoktur. 2- Yabancılar Ģirketin %100‘ ùne sahip olabilirler. Yani yabancı Ģirket için yerli ortakla iĢ yapmak zorunluluğu olmayacaktır. 3- ġirket çeĢitli sektôrlerde aynı anda iĢ yapabilecektir. 4- Yabancı iĢçi çalıĢtırabilecektir. B-Sanayi GeliĢimi Kanunu; 1-ġirketler fabrika kurabilirler. 2- Ġmal edeceği ùrùnùn ôn fizibilite çalıĢması sunulmalıdır. 3- Yetkililer fabrika için dùĢùk maliyetli toprak sağlamasında kolaylık gôstereceklerdir ve hammade sağlanması için lisans verilecektir. C- Ticaret ve sanayi bakanlığı yerli ve yabancı Ģirketler için ithalat ve ihracaat lisansını bir yıllığına verecektir gerektiğinde bu sùre uzatılabilecektir. Ġthal mallardan; gıda, ilaç, tıbbi malzeme, kitap ve kırtasiye, inĢaat malzemeleri, çimento ve çelik hariç % 5 vergi vardır. (Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, 2007) 1311 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. AĠLE ĠġLETMELERĠNĠN SEKTÖREL ANALĠZĠ VE ÜLKE KALKINMASINA KATKISI Aile iĢletmeleri ùlke ekonomisinde bùyùk bir yer tutmakta ve ùlke ekonomisinin belkemiğini oluĢturmaktadır. Dùnya genelinde iĢletmelerin %65 ila %80‘inin aile iĢletmesi olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Fortune Dergisinin ilk 500 listesinde % 40‘ını aile iĢletmeleri oluĢturmaktadır. (Ward vd, 2001: 3) Amerika‘daki iĢletmelerin % 90‘ı aile Ģirketlerinden oluĢmaktadır. Ayrıca aile iĢletmelerinin Amerika‘nın gayri safi milli hasılasındaki ve tùm çalıĢanlara ôdenen ùcretlerdeki payı da yùzde 50 dir. (Bowman-Upton, 1991). Tùrkiye‘deki aile iĢletmelerinin oranı da yùzde 95 civarındadır. (Erdil vd, 2004, 2) Aile iĢletmeleri bir ailedeki bireylerinin sorumluluğu, kontrolù ve ortaklığı içerisindeki iĢletmelerdir. Aile iĢletmelerinin tanımlanması ile ilgili gôrùĢ farklılıkları olsa da ortak intiba aile iĢletmelerinin hisselerinin bùyùk çoğunluğunun aile bireylerine ait olması yanında yônetim biçim ve tarzının da aile fertleri tarafından belirlendiği iĢletmeler olduğu kanısı ortak dùĢùncedir. (Pazarcık, 2004: 2-3) Bu tanım ıĢığında aile iĢletmeleri aile içinden bir kuĢaktan diğer kuĢağa devredilebilen iĢletmeler olarak da tanımlanmaktadır. Yônetimin devri aile iĢletmesinin yaĢamında ônemli bir dônùm noktasıdır. Aile iĢletmelerinin en ônemli sorunlarından biri sùreklilik ve gelecek planlamasıdır. Ġstatistikler de devir iĢleminin tipik sorunlu bir konu olduğunu doğrulamaktadır. Yapılan araĢtırmalar ùçte birinden daha az oranda aile iĢletmesinin 1. kuĢaktan 2. kuĢağa geçebildiğini, bunların ise ancak yarısının 3. kuĢağı gôrebildiklerini ortaya koymaktadır. (Bowman-Upton, 1991) Aile tarafından kurulmuĢ ve bu ôzelliğini yitirmeden yùzyılı aĢkın sùredir baĢarı ile ayakta kalmıĢ birçok Ģirket vardır. Bu tùr Ģirketlerin dùnya ôrnekleri arasında Bosch, Prada, Miele, De Beers, Tùrkiye ôrnekleri icinde de Hacı Bekir, Kurukahveci Mehmet Efendi, Komili ve Konyalı sayılabilir. Ekonomik yapı geliĢmeler ıĢığında değerlendirildiğinde Irak ekonomik yônden incelendiğinde istikrarsızlıklar gôzlemlenmektedir. 1980‘lerde Irak-Ġran SavaĢı, 1990‘larda Kuveyt‘in iĢgali ùzerine baĢlayan uluslararası askeri harekat ve 2003 yılında Amerika‘nın askeri mùdahalesinin dônùm noktasını teĢkil ettiği son 30 yılda Irak ekonomisi oldukça istikrarsız bir yapı sergilemiĢtir. Çesitli dônemlerde yùrùrlùğe konan ekonomik ambargolar da Irak‘ın uluslararası ekonomiye entegrasyonunu gùçlestirmistir. 1991 – 1995 yılları arasında BirleĢmiĢ Milletler (BM) tarafından Irak‘a sunulan petrol karĢılığı gıda ithalatı ônerisi, Irak Hùkùmeti tarafından kabul gôrmemiĢ ve petrol geliri elde edilemediği için ùlkede fakirlik hızla artmıĢtır. 1996 yılında, Irak Hùkùmeti, BM tarafından ônerilen Gıda KarĢılığı Petrol Programı (OFF) ônerisini kabul etmek durumunda kalmıĢtır. Bu programla, Irak hùkùmetine sınırlı miktarda petrol ihraç etme ve bunun karĢılığında gıda ve insani malzeme ithal etme izni verilmiĢtir. 22 Mayıs 2003 tarihinde, BM Gùvenlik Konseyi 1483 Sayılı kararı kabul etmiĢ ve Irak ùzerindeki tùm ticari yaptırımların bittiğini ilan ederek, OFF programını yùrùrlùkten kaldırmıĢtır. Amerika‘nın askeri mùdahalesinin ardından kurulan Irak‘ın Yeniden Yapılandırılması ve Ġnsani Yardım Kurumu (ORHA- Yeniden ĠnĢaa ve Ġnsani Yardım Ofisi) ùlkede idari ve ekonomik yapıyı yeniden oluĢturmakla gôrevlendirilmistir. Bununla birlikte, 2003 yılında Irak ekonomisi savaĢın ve savaĢ sonrası gùvenlik durumunun kôtùleĢmesinin yanı sıra ùlkedeki devlet kurumlarının tamamına yakınının tasfiye edilmesi, gerekli idarelerinin tesis edilememesi ve artan istikrasızlık gibi nedenlerle kôtùye gitmistir. (Deik, 2010: 3) Kùrt bôlgesel yônetiminin tarihi ve ekonomik yônùnù de kısaca izah etmemizde fayda mùlahaza ettik. Kuzey yônetimi ôzerkliğini 11 Mart 1970‘te yapılan anlaĢmayla merkezi hùkùmetten almıĢtır. Ancak bu durum 3 sene sùrmùĢ ve anlaĢma 1974 yılında dùĢmùĢtùr. Bôlge yônetimi 1991 yılı Ekim ayında de facto (fiili) olarak ôzerkliğini almıĢtır. 2005 yılında da Geçici Irak Yônetimi tarafından tam ôzerklik verilmiĢtir. (U.S. Department of State vd. 2010) Kuzey Bôlgesel Yônetiminin ekonomisi petrol baĢta olmak ùzere tarım ve turizm gelirlerine dayanmaktadır. Bu yônetimin altındaki ùç yôresel idare (Duhok, Erbil ve Sùleymaniye) Amerikan ordusu tarafından tùm Irak‘ta ―gùvenli‖ kabul edilen tek yerlerdir. Bu durum bôlgenin Irak‘ın diğer yerlerine gôre daha fazla geliĢmesine ve yatırımın bu alanda yoğunlaĢmasını sağlamıĢtır. Bôlge yônetimi Saddam Hùseyin dôneminde BM‘in uyguladığı ―Gıda için Petrol‖ programı çerçevesinde alınan petrol gelirlerinin yùzde 13‘ùnù almaktaydı. Bu oran Ģimdilerde yùzde 17‘ye çıkmıĢtır. Bôlgede 2003 yılında Amerikan çıkarması baĢladığı andan itibaren koalisyon askerine karĢılık bir giriĢim vuku bulmamıĢtır. Ayrıca yeni çıkartılan yatırım teĢvik kanunlarında kuzey bôlgesi cazip bir duruma gelmiĢ ve kısa zamanda yùzlerce yeni yatırımcı gelerek onlarca yeni firma kurmaya baĢlamıĢtır. (KRG vd, 2010) Tablo 1‘de 2004 yılında Irak Planlama ve Kalkınma Bakanlığının hazırladığı raporda Amerikan çıkarması ôncesindeki resmi olarak Aile ĠĢletmelerinin sayısı ve hangi illerde kurulduğunu gôrebiliriz. 1312 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Tablo 1. Iraktaki Aile ĠĢletmeleri Sayısı ve Faaliyet Yerleri YERĠ AĠLE ĠġLETMELERĠ Amara 10 Bakuba 17 Bağdat 6 Basra 2 Divaniye 16 Dohuk 9 Erbil 4 Hilla 21 Kerbela 12 Kerkùk 3 Kut 21 Musul 11 Necef 4 Nasariye 2 Ramadi 25 Selahaddin 25 Samava 10 Sùlemaniye 16 Kaynak: Irak YaĢam Standardları ÇalıĢması, 2004 BirleĢmiĢ Milletler GeliĢim Programı ve Ġstatistik ve Bilim Teknoloji Merkez TeĢkilatı Irak Planlama ve Kalkınma Bakanlığı. Tablo 1‘den gôrùldùğù ùzere resmi olarak faaliyette olan aile iĢletmelerinin sayısı çok azdır. Firmaların bùyùk bir çoğunluğu 1. veya 2. kuĢak iĢletmeleridir. Bunun nedeni yukarda açıklandığı ùzere istikrarsızlıktan kaynaklanması olabilir. Yaptığımız araĢtırmalar sonucunda çok az sayıdaki firmanın 3. kuĢak tarafından idare edildiği gôzlemlenmektedir. SONUÇ Yaptığımız açıklamalar ıĢığında değerlendirildiğinde hem Irak genelinde hem de Kuzey Bôlgesel Yônetim alanında ticaret ve ekonominin 2003 yılı ôncesinde istenilen seviyede geliĢme gôstermediğini anlayabiliriz. Irak‘ta kurulan iĢletmelerin tùm dùnya genelinde olduğu gibi bùyùk oranını aile iĢletmeleri teĢkil etmektedir. Irak aile yapısı da bunu beslemekte ve aile bireylerinin birbirilerini iĢ partnerleri olarak gôrmesi de hemen hemen kurulan bùtùn iĢletmelerin aile iĢletmesi olarak kurulmasına yol açmaktadır. (Metz, 1988: 44) Toplumsal ve siyasal çalkalanmaların yaĢandığı toplumlarda eğitimin rolù bùyùktùr. Bu sebeple ùniversite destekli aile eğitiminin ùlke kalkınmasına katkısı çoktur. ġu anda bile Irak devleti savaĢ ortamında olduğundan dolayı gùçlù bir aile eğitimi ihtiyacı ôn plana çıkmaktadır. Bôlgede faaliyet gôsteren devlet ve ôzel ùniversitelerin savaĢ sonrası için eğitimli, tam techizatlı personel ihtiyacını karĢılama vazifesi bilinci içinde olup, ona gôre hareket etmelilerdir. 1313 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES The World Bank, Doing Business in the Arab World, International Finance Corporation, Abu Dhabi, 2010, p. 14 Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, Kurdıstan The commercial gateway to Iraq, Ministry of Trade & Industry, Minara publishing house, Erbil, 2007 Fathi M. Ali- Mudaris, A short guide to the KRG‘s trade policies, regulations and procedures, Ministry of trade & Industry, Erbil, 2010 Erdil, Oya, Çiğerim ErĢan ve Gôk ġahin (2004) ―Aile ĠĢletmelerinde Yônetim Biçimleri Üzerine Bir Literatùr AraĢtırması‖ Aile ĠĢletmeleri Kongresi, Kongre Kitabı 2.Baskı s. 2 Pazarcık, Orhan (2004), ―Aile iĢletmelerinin Tanımı KurumsallaĢması ve YônetiĢimi‖ AĠK 04 1. Aile ĠĢletmeleri Kongresi, Kongre Kitabi 2. Baskı, syf 2-3. Nancy Bowman-Upton 1991, ―Transferring Management in the Family-Owned Business‖, U.S. Small Business Administration. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6804.htm#profile [EriĢim 1.9.2010] Deik 2010, Irak Ülke Bùlteni ġubat 2010, http://www.deik.org.tr/Lists/Bulten/Attachments/130/Irak%20Ulke%20Bulteni,%20Nisan%202010_TR.pdf, [EriĢim 11.9.2010] KRG, (2010), Kurdistan Regional Government Fact Sheets, http://www.krg.org/articles/detail.asp?rnr=272&lngnr=12&smap=01060100&anr=25488[EriĢim 11.9.2010] Randel S. Carlock ve Prof. John L. Ward(2001), Strategic Planning for The Family Business: Parallel Planning to Unify the Family and Business, Palgrave) Metz, Helen Chapin(1988), Iraq: A Country Study, Family and Society, Washington: GPO for the Library O f Congress, p44-45. www.saiflaw.com/iraq.html, EriĢim, 08.08.2010) (http://trade.gov/iraq/LegalGuide2008.asp, EriĢim, 02. 08. 2010) (www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2010/138084.htm, EriĢim, 25.07.2010) 1314 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 681 Title A name given to the resource IRAK’IN YENiDEN YAPILANDIRILMASINDA AİLE EĞİTİMİ ve AİLE İŞLETMELERİNİN ÖNEMİ VE KATKISI Author Author POLAT, Zeynel DİNÇ, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Irak, Suudi Arabistan, Kanada ve Ġran‘dan sonra ispatlanmıĢ 115 milyar varilin ùzerinde petrol rezerviyle dùnyada dôrdùncù sırada yer almaktadır. Tùrkiye‘nin Gùneydoğu komĢusu olan Irak‘ın kuzeyinde çoğunluğu Kùrtlerden oluĢan Kùrt Bôlgesel Yônetimi vardır ve onlardan kısaca bahsetmek istiyoruz. Nùfusu yaklaĢık 3 ila 6.5 milyon arasında değiĢen Duhok, Erbil ve Sùleymaniye valiliklerinden oluĢan bu bôlge yaklaĢık 40,000 km karedir. Bôlgeyi kalkındırma amaçlı dùzenlemeler 2006 yılından itibaren hayata geçirilmekte ve yabancı sermayeyi çekebilmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Son yıllarda komĢu Tùrkiye ile ikili ticari anlaĢmalar artmaktadır. Bu çalıĢmada baĢlıca Irak genelindeki ve ôzel olarak Kùrt bôlgesel yônetimi içerisindeki Kuzey Irak bôlgesinde ailenin ônemi ve aile iĢletmelerinin ekonomideki yeri ùzerinde çalıĢtık. Bu çalıĢmamızda devletten ve ôzel sektôrden, birinci elden bilgi toplama gayretimizle bu bôlgede bulunmanın avantajını kullanmayı hedefledik. Ama ùlkenin geçirmiĢ olduğu sıkıntılı ve istikrarsız yapısından kaynaklanan nedenlerden dolayı bilgiye ve istatistiki dataya ulaĢma sıkıntıları hȃlȃ mevcuttur. Kısaca iktisat tarihine değindikten sonra iĢletmeler için (aile iĢletmeleri ve yabancı yatırımcıları da kapsayan) gerekli olan kanuni dùzenlemeler ùzerinde duruldu. Yapılan taramalardan 10‘a yakın aile Ģirketiyle irtibata geçildi. Onlar hakkında kısa malømatlardan sonra içlerinden birinin yôneticisiyle irtibat sağlanarak yùz yùze mùlakat yapıldı ve detaylı bilgi alındı. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı Irak‘ta çok sayıda var olan aile Ģirketlerinin durumu, hangi sektôrde ağırlık kazandıkları, ikinci veya ùçùncù kuĢak devamı var mı? Ne tùr yasal dùzenlemeler vardır? Sorularına cevap aramaktır. Bu çalıĢma kısmen Irak geneli ama ôzelde Kuzey Irak bôlgesi aile eğitimi iĢletmeleri ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Irak‘ın gùney kısımları Bağdat ve Musul gibi ônemli kentlere gùvenlik sebebiyle gidip gôzlemleme imkanımız olmadı ama Kuzey‘de bulunan baĢkent Erbil, Sùleymaniye ve Duhok illerinde gùvenliğin varlığından dolayı aile Ģirketlerini birebir gôzlemleme imkanımız oldu. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3c6ef6cc5e5a1c48fc788d38d2977cca.pdf 9cbf7d7ab5a6f93cac3a0ad38174419b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo COGNITIVE PROCESS OF WRITING FOR SECOND LANGUAGE YOUNG LEARNERS Abdullah Pamukcu International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina pamukcu74@hotmail.com Dzenan Salihovic International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina dzeno19@hotmail.com Azamat Akbarov International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina aakbarov@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Writing is a pleasant and seminal task, but writing is used as multi-leveled teaching instruments, but instead difficulties, challenging and cognitively demanding. Writing requires different skills. Students can improve these skills with some outside support. In this paper, we will try to demonstrate that writing is not only self product of an individual, but also an outcome of socio-cultural activity, and a cognitive process. In particular, answers will be sought for the following questions: What factors do affect the cognitive process of second language young learners‘ writing? How does schema help in cognitive writing process? How can basic writers be helped to improve their writings? Introduction Writing is not only an innate skill that comes naturally. It is also an acquired ability learned or culturally influenced in an instructional setting in different environments. Writing skills need practice and studying with previous experience. Students who write and speak in a foreign language are socially and cognitively challenged. They are cognitively challenged because the language, the means of communication, is different. They are also socially challenged because of lack of adequate skills to build normal social relations with others. Vygotsky regarded language as a critical bridge between the socio-cultural world and individual mental functioning. (Berk & Winsler, 1995, p. 12) Vygotsky's (1978, 1986) socio-cultural framework of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding writing (Bodrova & Leong, 1995, 1996; Ross, 1976) are used as the theoretical basis to study the development of second language writing. Naturalistic approach, Krashen‘s (1982, 1984) theories, the way children learn their first language, and the apparent ease which they are able to pick up other languages with were acknowledged as relevant to SLA in general.. Furthermore, certain social and cognitive factors related to second language acquisition indicate that strategies involved in the language learning process also affect L2 writing. The culture-specific nature of schemata--abstract mental structures representing our knowledge of things, events, and situations--can lead to difficulties when students write texts in L2. Knowing how to write a "summary" or "analysis" in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to accomplish these in English (Kern, 2000). 8 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cognitive process of second language learners‘ writings Cognitive and psychological developments build the background of the individual knowledge is the first thing that comes to mind when talking about on individual‘s background. Knowledge was deal with the theory of Piaget‘s as mind and schema, that how infants function in the world surrounds them, how this influences their mental stability. Learning happens with environmental issues, especially equilibrium. When the infant figure out a problem, that‘s the infant learns, and the knowledge constructed by the action of that child. Learning comes with the environment, environment brings the knowledge, and then knowledge brings the acquisitions. According to the behaviorist school, as opposed to cognitive theory, learning happens through observable behaviors. The cognitive theory asserts that knowledge is acquired through communication and mind. Behaviorists come up with a different approach different view stating that learning is a product of stimulusresponse and environment. A neutral stimulus is not responded first. Then later on the organism learns to respond to stimuli with the help of reinforcement. If this is a positive reinforcement the response repeats. If the reinforcement is a negative, the response is not likely to repeat. Repetition of this process, that is the response given to stimuli, affects later learning. This is called positive and negative transfer .Effects of phonology and morphology of the first language means transfer. Both negative and positive transfer can help the second language learning. Positive transfer occurs when the rules are used correctly for the second language. Negative transfer, occurs when the rules are used incorrectly for the second language. Transfers affect the whole system of learning acquisitions. Cognitive Factors, acquisition is a product of the complex interaction of the linguistic environment and the learner's internal mechanisms. With practice, there is continual restructuring as learners shift these internal representations in order to achieve increasing degrees of mastery in L2 (McLaughlin, 1988). Children invent, interact, react, and extend writing activities throughout the process of literacy acquisition. Language transfer is another important cognitive factor related to writing error. Transfer is defined as the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired (Odlin, 1989). The study of transfer involves the study of errors (negative transfer), facilitation (positive transfer), avoidance of target language forms, and their over-use (Ellis, 1994). As mentioned previously Vygotsky, regarded language as a critical bridge between the socio-cultural world and individual mental functioning. According to, Berk & Winsler (1995, p. 12), language is such an interesting tool that it both provides communication and learning simultaneously. One can communicate while trying to use a foreign language on the one hand and he/she constantly improves language skills on the other. Both social and cognitive factors affect language learning. Exploration of social factors gives us some idea of why learners differ in rate of L2 learning, in proficiency type (for instance, conversational ability versus writing ability), and in ultimate proficiency (Ellis, 1994). Writing also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of "writing down" on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end (Omaggio Hadley, 1993). Much of the research on L2 writing has been closely dependent on L1 research. Although L2 writing is strategically, rhetorically, and linguistically different in many ways from L1 writing (Silva, 1993), L1 models have had a significant influence on L2 writing instruction and the development of a theory of L2 writing. However, a look at two popular L1 models will give us some insight into the problem of developing a distinct construct of L2 writing. [-2-] Cognitive writing process work Although it is often said that linguistic ―competence‖ in the sense defined by Chomsky (1965) involves some kind of ―knowledge‖ of the grammatical rules of a language, this ―knowledge‖ is ordinary out of conscious awareness … nevertheless, some adolescents and adults (and even some children) can be made to demonstrate an awareness of the syntactical structure of the sentence they speak … even among adults there are large individual differences in this ability, and these individual differences are related to successes in learning foreign languages, apparently because this ability is called upon when the student tries to learn grammatical rules and apply them in constructing and comprehending new sentences in that language. (pp. 7-8). Young children who learn a second language bring up all of the knowledge about language learning they have acquired through developing their first language. For these children, then, second-language acquisition is not a process of discovering what language is, but rather of discovering what this language is (Tabors, 1997, p. 12). And also we have to remember the existence of another impact on the L1 and L2 acquisition. The ―talent‖ for learning foreign language consists of three components. The first is verbal intelligence, by which is meant both 9 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo familiarity with words (this is measured in the Language Aptitude Battery by the ―Vocabulary‖ part) and the ability to reason analytically about verbal materials (this is measured by the part called ―Language Analysis‖). The second component is motivation to learn the language … The third component … is called ―auditory ability‖ … (Pimsleur, 1966, p. 182). There have been many researches that have come up with similar results. Edelsky (1982) analyzed the relationship between first language and second language writing of young writers in a bilingual contex.The texts writen by the same children in Spanish and English were analyzed.Edelsky found that a young writer knows about writing in the first language forms the basisi of new hypotheses for writing in another language. Furthermore Edelsky argued that certain L1 writing processesa are used in L2 writing .( Cahyono, B.2001) Moreover, several studies have looked at the effect of composing in the L1 and then translating into the L2 (Cohen & Brooks-Carson, 2001; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1994). These studies have found that the lower L2 proficiency writers benefit from composing in the L1 and then translate into the L2, a result that highlights the importance of using L1 composing strategies for lower L2 proficiency writers. (Wolfersberger, M.2003) Besides, at present some thinkers explain the knowledge with intelligence. Especially they are discussing the concept of multiple intelligence. The capacity of an individual‘s mind and intelligence at the environment in which person grew up might contribute to person aptitude for literature. Discussion Younger children learn grammar of the L2 more slowly than older learners so that although they start earlier with language learning they make slower progress and overall gains are not straightforwardly link to the time spend learning (Harley et. al 1995) The "problem-solving activity" is divided into two major components: the rhetorical situation (audience, topic, assignment), and the writer's own goals (involving the reader, the writer's persona, the construction of meaning, and the production of the formal text). By comparing skilled and less-skilled writers, the emphasis here is placed on "students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116). Writing teachers should be aware of how the instrumental motivation of their L2 students will influence the effectiveness of their lessons. Common purposes for learners writing in an EAP context include writing a research paper for publication in an English-speaking journal or writing a business report for a multinational company. These learners may be less motivated to write stories or poetry, because they perceive that these tasks are not related to their needs. Even writing a standard research essay may seem like a waste of time for those who will need to write project reports and memos. ( Myles, 2002, vol, 2 no 6) Keeping in mind all these, young learners need to build up a sound vocabulary enriched with ones‘ culture and background to produce writing, that ways to help basic writers improve their writings. Furthermore, improving writing skills depend on detailed plan and grammatical knowledge. Cognitive strategies and working memory capacity became the central focus for analyzing how writing expertise develops. It became very apparent that the well-developed writing experience comes with working memory capacity and long-term memory knowledge. Memory capacity improves as writers mature or gain writing experience. New learners lack experience in understanding reader‘s purposes, they need the oral language foundation and, rhetorical skills in order to select the most appropriate pattern through which to present their content, young learners face with weird characters, vocabulary, grammar and punctuation or inappropriate content. Environmental factors may provide a good motivation for one who just begins writing. However, equally importantly, if not more, inner motivation is also a key for writing. CONCLUSION Writing is not an instinctive talent; rather it is acquired later on. During this acquisition process several factors come into play. Either the way Piaget explains through the solution of environmental problems or through receiving help, as Vygotsky explains, the most important factors are knowledge and its acquisitions. Acquisition of knowledge is mostly about individual‘s cognitive process. These primary acquisitions affect the learning process of the first language. These acquisitions also affect the way a person learns a foreign language as the individual bases the second language on them. Therefore, the importance of writing becomes clear in the process of learning a second language. For those who start writing in a second language, there should be inner and outer factors of motivation are needed along with socio-cultural impacts. 10 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children.s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. (ERIC Document No. ED384443) Cameron, L.( 2001) Teaching languages to young learners Cambridge University Press 2001 Cahyono, B. Research Studies in Second Language Writing And In Contrastive Rhetoric Volume 3 number 1 (p, 40) Grabe, W. (2001). Notes toward a theory of second language writing. In T. Silva and P. Matsuda (Eds.), On second language writing (pp. 39-58). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kaplan, R. (1987). Cultural thought patterns revisited. In U. Connor & R. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 9-21). Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley. Kern, R. (2000). Literacy and language teaching. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Krashen,S (1988) Second Language acquisition University of southern California McLaughlin, B. (1984). Second language acquisition inchildhood: Vol. 1. Preschool children (2nd ed.). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum. (ERIC Document No. ED154604) Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. New York: Cambridge University Press. Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Meridian Books. Piaget, J., (1983). Piaget‘s theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. History, theory, and methods. New York: Wiley. Tabors, P. (1997). One child, two languages. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (ERIC Document No. ED405987 Srivani, N (Y0342) An integrated approach to how children acquire language Project report (p,7) Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL research and its implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 657-677. Wolfersberger, M (2003). L1 to L2 Writing Process and Strategy Transfer: A Look at Lower Proficiency Writers, Vol. 7. No. 2 A-6 September 2003 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 4 Title A name given to the resource COGNITIVE PROCESS OF WRITING FOR SECOND LANGUAGE YOUNG LEARNERS Author Author Pamukcu, Abdullah Salihovic, Dženan Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing is a pleasant and seminal task, but writing is used as multi-leveled teaching instruments, but instead difficulties, challenging and cognitively demanding. Writing requires different skills. Students can improve these skills with some outside support. In this paper, we will try to demonstrate that writing is not only self product of an individual, but also an outcome of socio-cultural activity, and a cognitive process. In particular, answers will be sought for the following questions: What factors do affect the cognitive process of second language young learners‘ writing? How does schema help in cognitive writing process? How can basic writers be helped to improve their writings? Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/77ed4800380fcd1890989eb81598b342.pdf 967da2fc7262e9996e4ee1499a51dbcc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Raising Language Learners‘ Pragmatic Awareness and Intercultural Competence in Increasingly Multilingual Environments Michał B. Paradowski Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw m.b.paradowski@uw.edu.pl Abstract: Pragmatic fluency forms crucial part of a language user‘s competence. Norms of politeness, communicative styles, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in describable ways, FL realizations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learner where the relevant contextual factors are not self-evident, or are ignored when they inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena. Even positive L1 transfer is not activated if the learner has not been trained, whereas handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom is conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. A promising perspective for successful intercultural and pragmatic training is the Interface Model, which proceeds from an explication of how relevant principles operate in the learners‘ L1 (culture) through an explanation of pertinent L2 norms and subsequent modification of the L1 principle to accommodate L2 data, to practice first expecting the learner to apply the appropriate FL strategies and speech acts against an L1 (!) context. By such a gradual, multi-stage method the learner becomes ‗pragmatically fluent‘ before commencing to use the operational principles in the TL itself. The juxtaposition and use of L1 and L2 principles alongside lead to successful automatization and internalization of the material and the development of pragmatic multicompetence – L2 users differ significantly in their employment of pragmalinguistic strategies from monolingual speakers of either language, transferring similar speech acts back and forth between the tongues in their command. The Interface Model enables them to transfer those patterns of interactional behavior which will be appropriate. Key Words: pragmatic fluency, interface model, explication, awareness-raising, pragmatic transfer Like nature, the L1 creeps back in, however many times you throw it out with a pitch fork. (Cook, 2001: 405) Introduction It is an empirically supported psychological fact that learning invariably progresses by relating new information to the already familiar, relying on existing knowledge to facilitate new learning (e.g. Kielhôfer, 1994; that is why we learn in terms of prototypes, and that is why the uptake and use of linguistic features are highly correlated with their input frequencies; N. Ellis, 2010; see also Bowerman, 2008; Kittredge & Dell, 2008; Taylor, 2008); the inherent comparative expectations evident in the very question ―What does it look like?‖ From very early on, our brain organises our experienced and incoming information into categories (Vosniadou, 2008); the more narrow and restricted the cataloguing, the more effectual it seems to be (since broader categories make it easier to overshoot the mark; Bowerman, 2005). Meaning is constructed when the brain perceives relationships, relevant or consequential connections motivating it to focus and activate prior knowledge (Caine & Caine, 1994: 4). The very essence of learning lies not just in taking in new knowledge, but in integrating it with the already known knowledge structures, and subsequently—with time—extending it to new situations, refining its range of application, and employing it in appropriate ways. Constructing meaning involves the cognitive skills of: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ focusing; predicting; inferring connections; organizing information; generalizing; analyzing; sorting relevant and irrelevant information; evaluating; and labeling. (Jackson, 2002: 4) 910 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Even a cursory analysis of the nature of these skills and strategies will reveal that crucial to all is the ability to draw upon prior knowledge. This general truth has been incorporated in Chapter 5.1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages under the label of savoir apprendre—the ability to learn, knowledge how to learn effectively—which is recognized as part of the general (i.e. not limited to the linguistic domain only) competences of a language learner/user: In its most general sense, savoir-apprendre is the ability to observe and participate in new experiences and to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge, modifying the latter where necessary. (CoE, 2001: 106) This transfer of general skills is, of course, no CEF discovery. As we will learn from Coe et al. (1983), for instance, in late 1970s and early 1980s skills and strategies used when performing a listening, speaking, reading or writing activity were frequently taught through specific materials, where the students were encouraged to recognize that they already possessed skills in their L1 which they could transfer into the TL (Keddle, 2004: 45). By the same token, learners who are already bi-/multilingual are more aware of the learning and communication strategies which they had developed over time, and are able to apply these to yet another language. The familiar in FLL We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language… Language is not simply a reporting device for experience but a defining framework for it. (Benjamin Lee Whorf, 1936; cf. also 1940/56: 212) Thus, new knowledge is internalised by integrating it with the already available. The familiarity is equally vital in the process of foreign language learning (FLL). Here the familiar is, of course, the students‘ mother tongue, which is why—whether they are ordered or forbidden—they will inevitably try to explain a new L2 item to themselves and make sense of it in NL terms and comparing it with their L1, making a conscious (even if unarticulated) link to the L1, as well as fall back on translation (especially at the earlier stages of proficiency). The L2 is always mediated by the L1, a base language which the learner strives to transform, rearticulate, reformulate (Filatova, 2010), and a clear vestige of concepts from the L1 remains even in advanced L2 users (Verspoor, 2008; Lowie, Verspoor & Seton, 2010). FL learners invariably attempt to incorporate the new language in the framework of the known one; they seek a safe passage from the TL to their mother tongue. These attempts are instinctive and made irrespective of the classroom methodology employed; learners compare languages with or without being instructed to do so, as proven by experiments from various disciplines (cf. e.g. Williams & Hammarberg, 1998; Franceschini et al. 2003; de Bot, 2004). Drawing on the learner‘s L1 (or another mastered tongue) and showing comparisons and contrasts between the languages mirrors, facilitates and accelerates the processes which occur independently in his/her mind. If our learners had no benefit of having been raised in a multilingual environment, the teacher should be obliged to make them at least partially conscious of their L 1 competence through metalinguistic awareness-raising. The role of pedagogic intervention is unquestionable, as transfer of operations from the L1 to the FL usually requires correction and clarification (cf. A. A. Leontiev, 1981): the transition [from operations in the mother tongue to these used in the foreign tongue] is not automatic, and the learner will not immediately or without effort come up with the foreign equivalent to the utterance in the mother tongue, remember the rules, and successively apply them. (op. cit.: 27) Yet, paradoxically, where most teachers are more than content when their students display the ability to transfer skills or extend strategies taught to new contexts, this has seemed not to concern language instructors, with late 20th-century ELT methodology discouraging the use of the L1 in the classroom. The overwhelming majority of language course books and grammar reference materials on the market (with a few notable exceptions where contrastive grammar boxes are present) provide English-language explanations and totally ignore the relations holding between the students‘ L1 and the TL. Such mainly Euro- or Amerocentric books moulded in the generic approach are, using James‘ (1980: 24) term, ―universally valid [but] for purely commercial reasons.‖ Many students—and teachers as well—are not fully aware of the common properties of the TL and their L1, which could be beneficially put to use in the teaching and learning process. A truly pedagogical grammar should be contrastive (especially with linguistically homogeneous FL groups in mind). This entails that competence in the FL should be built by exploiting the common ground. As Singleton (2005) observed, even with the Audiolingual Method, where no occasions were provided for making semantic-associative links between L2 and L1 words, such links were undoubtedly forged anyway. This links with the observation made by Wolff (2005) that learners can only comprehend items which they can assimilate with the knowledge structures already available. Noticing Having mentioned the role of conscious processes in the internalisation of a FL one cannot but revert to the notion of noticing. In a detailed diary study of Robert Schmidt‘s (1990) 22-week stay in Brazil and his acquisition of 911 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Brazilian Portuguese over that period, the author reported his conviction that he usually noticed—and subsequently began to acquire—forms in out-of-class input only after they had been taught. Schmidt and Frota (1986) substantiate the hypothesis that in order to acquire communicative aspects of linguistic competence, the learner‘s attention must first be directed to them, causing noticing. Their (1986: 310) ―notice the gap‖ premise posits two kinds of noticing that are necessary for uptake of novel linguistic forms to occur: 1. 2. in order for the input to become intake, learners must attend to the linguistic forms and features therein; 303 in order to make progress, learners must notice the ―gap‖ between their output (their developing IL) and the input (the TL system; op. cit.: 311; Swain & Lapkin, 1995: 388); what has also been called ―matching‖ (Klein, 1986: 62) or ―cognitive comparison‖ (Ellis, 1995: 90).304 Rephrased by Lewis (1993: 154), the ―process of acquisition is best aided by making students aware of features of the target language, and, in due course, of how their production of the target language differs from its norms.‖ This important point gains validation from Sajavaara‘s (1981: 115) remark that at the onset of SLA, the learner‘s perceptual (―cue detection‖) mechanisms are tuned to the phenomena and processes available in his/her L 1, and not to picking up relevant TL features! Thus, the learner will tend to hear the TL utterances in terms of categories and structures of his/her NL, and substitute its elements for the target ones.305 This belief was reiterated by White‘s (2000: 137) assertion that the L1 functioning as an active filter may prevent aspects of L2 input from being noticed (and hence lead to fossilisation) – thus presenting an L1-mediated UG access perspective which, under this view, is practically tantamount to ―no access‖306 (Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c., 2007, Feb. 19). Noticing requires the allocation of focal attention and rehearsal in short-term memory (Robinson, 1997: 225); hence, detection alone without conscious registration is not conducive to learning (Schmidt, 1993; 1994: 17). Language tasks designed with the aim of promoting noticing should make the learner devote some attention to form, and facilitate comparisons between IL output and TL models. Reformulation, where students‘ flawed performance is weighed against a well-formed exemplar and where they obtain the chance to draw conclusions and learn from the comparison is very suitable here (Piechurska-Kuciel, 1999: 18). The dictogloss, where the learners reconstruct a previously heard (or read) text is another useful task, as it helps them attend to and recognise linguistic problems (Swain & Lapkin, 1995: 373). Conscious attention also plays a role in the acquisition of TL pragmatics. Arguing that a connectionist framework is a suitable representation for such noncategorical knowledge Schmidt (1993) makes the case that conscious attention (explicit learning) is necessary to establish connections and acquire pragmatic competence in the L2, with mere exposure to pragmatically significant experience inconducive to learning. Thus, the learner should not only have a knowledge of the linguistic resources available for realising particular communicative intentions and pragmatic effects, but also knowledge of their appropriate socio-contextual use. Concentrating on foreign language learning All the aforementioned factors are particularly consequential in FL learning, where the environment differs substantially from that in SLA, rendering direct evidence inevitable. Firstly, with a limited attention span, learners happen not to pay too much heed to what is going on in the classroom, and even if they do, they focus on the 303 This is why Ellis (1989: 305) uses the term ―explicit instruction‖ interchangeably with ―external manipulation of the input‖. Widdowson (1978: 13; 1979) distinguished two kinds of rules: reference rules, in absentio, knowledge of the FL (imposed by the teacher) to which reference can be made when required, constituting the learner‘s linguistic competence, and expression rules, in presentio, assumed by the learner to be the norm in a given situation, which determines what the learner actually does with the language and allows him/her to generate linguistic behaviour meeting the communicative needs even without sufficient linguistic competence (Krzeszowski, 1977/81: 75). Consequently, with a constant deficit of reference rules, ―a learner‘s errors are evidence of success and not of failure [because it is] the consequence of success in developing context rules‖ (i.e., IL; Widdowson, 1979: 190). 305 A similar hypothesis is now being entertained in explaining the difficulty of acquiring native-like pronunciation: it is conceivable that once the child becomes accustomed to a certain range of phonemes, his/her ―mental phonetic perception grid‖ becomes filled, not allowing new forms to enter and seeking their closest retrievable equivalent for substitution. 306 Since resorting to L1 mechanisms is less costly than preserving and accessing UG once the mother tongue has been established, and in most cases it is practically impossible to determine which of the two is at play during SLA (Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c., 2007, Feb. 19). 304 912 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo propositional content of the utterance rather than form (VanPatten‘s Primacy of Meaning Principle; 2004: 18) and fail to retain the structure. This is our universal propensity: we listen to language predominantly to understand the message, paying little attention to the precise wording; in Wilberg‘s (1987) words, ―we eat the sweet but discard the wrapper.‖ Secondly, while in an immersion situation learners have ample opportunity and occasions for out-of-school interaction with NSs and repeated and varied exposure to a very robust linguistic environment and will, hopefully, ultimately absorb a lot (which is why Krashen dubs natural settings ―acquisition-rich environments‖), this is not readily available in the conventional classroom (educational settings constituting an ―acquisition-poor environment‖), not least because the time factor does not allow sufficient exposure. And, thirdly, indirect linguistic evidence need not necessarily be 100% well-formed. There is one more reason why I concentrate on language learning. The critical/sensitive period hypothesis claims that after puberty a language cannot be acquired naturally. At the same time, adolescent and adult learners are already holders of a ―driving licence‖307 in one language—their NL—and will have some assumptions and expectations concerning the highway code of the TL (Łukasiewicz, 2006: 8). If we agree with Schachter that Universal Grammar only controls core linguistic competence and that the bulk of language data, ―up to two thirds of the contents of the pedagogical grammar‖ cannot fall within its scope (1996: 72), it follows that the overwhelming peripheral idiosyncrasy of language—whether in L1A, SLA, or FLL—simply has to be swotted anyway, irrespective of the age of the learner. After prolonged debate, recent research has positively settled that while teaching should not be limited to formal instruction, formal instruction should not be excluded from the language syllabus either. Without full access to UG and prolonged access to indirect positive evidence, the grammatical system of a FL will never be internalised without the compensatory remedy of formal instruction, a ―catalyser‖ in the words of Maria Dakowska (p.c., March 12 2007). The Language Interface Model ―Well,‖ said Owl, ―the customary procedure in such cases is as follows.‖ ―What does Crustimoney Proseedcake mean?‖ said Pooh. ―For I am a Bear of Very Little Brain, and long words Bother me.‖ ―It means the Thing to Do.‖ ―As long as it means that, I don‘t mind,‖ said Pooh humbly. —Alan Alexander Milne Winnie-the-Pooh (1926: Ch. 4: In Which Eeyore Loses A Tail and Pooh Finds One) This is not, however, the end of the story. The basic reason why we look for familiar orientation points and similarities when in a new situation is our natural need for safety. We feel more comfortable and at ease at home, in our district and city, than at a new venue, even though the latter may be objectively better-appointed, more attractive and safer, just because in the former we could take more things for granted that would bother us elsewhere. This is also why the target language should literally be taught in the framework of the learner‘s L1 – as in the Language Interface Model (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003a), which proves appreciably more successful than other approaches, with the results and enhanced retention preserved long after the instruction period has ended. The method bases on the model of pedagogical grammar charted in Gozdawa-Gołębiowski (op. cit.: 201–9; 2003b), with a couple of minor modifications and expansions on my part. What is so new here? The model builds upon the long-known Contrastive Analysis, but in a novel, eclectic fashion, by forging an interface between the learner‘s L1 and the TL, supplemented with an explication of the underlying grammatical system, thus leading to an enhanced understanding of the ―how‘s‖ and ―why‘s‖ of the material to be mastered. But let us first delineate the modus procedendi step by step: 1. The method usually commences by initial exposure (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003a: 196ff; 2003b: passim; James, 1994: 210; 1998: 261) of new language material in a natural context, accompanied by its direct translational equivalent, but without aiming at structural decomposition. Preferably—for the learner to pay 307 This knowledge of language, including some awareness of deep structure phenomena, may be called—extending Rusiecki‘s (1980) term beyond the realm of vocabulary—latent bilingualism. The learning difficulty would then be seen as lying in discovering the idiosyncratic rules whereby the L2 relates DS to SS and the phonetic representations (Zybert, 1999: 24). 913 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo attention to the relevant grammatical information given the limited capacity to process information—the context should be a short sentence, as such are easier to process than discourse (Wong, 2004: 38–42); 2. Imprinting – the same invariant sequence of words will be exposed to the learner a few more times at reasonable intervals until TL-NL meaning equivalence has been established; for instance, moving from the sentence to a passage or connected discourse (as recommended by Wong, ibid.) into which the language point has been written. The new structure is intended for holistic (gestalt) processing and easy recall; 3. Explication of how the rules of a given grammar area operate in the learners‘ steady-state L1: examining, demonstrating, and bringing to the surface relevant facts and rules in the source language that are only subconsciously known to the learners, thus leading to L1 awareness.308 That is, the learner is introduced to rules and particulars s/he intuitively knows and subconsciously applies in performance, but which s/he may have never consciously pondered upon. More attention here is being paid to higher-order rules of use than lowerorder rules of formation. Thus, the first major step is getting the learners to observe and notice patterns in their NL. This finds support e.g. in Gabryś-Barker‘s (2005) evidence that source language proficiency is influential on L2 development. Things that have once been explicated have the preponderance of not becoming obliterated and can be recalled as the need arises. This has one more advantage: we can explicate only those L1 items that are relevant to the L2, disregarding ones that may cause confusion. We should also bear in mind the fact that learners often cope with structures that are totally different from their equivalents in the students‘ native language precisely because they are so unexpected and ―bizarre‖ and stick in the memory, which can thus further enhance retention. 4. A passage is subsequently made to the explanation of relevant L2 regularities – something more novel this time, being the target proper of the instruction. Since the learners are already au fait with some representative exemplars of the construction in question, the anxiety before having to master some new principles is reduced appreciably, with the reassuring feeling of a déjà vu (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: 126) or déjà entendu. What happens now is raising the learners‘ consciousness of FL features—accumulating insight into what the learners do not yet know in the FL, without necessarily directly instilling the rules (Rutherford, 1987; James, 1998: 260)—revealing the underlying TL pattern and offering a rule, but without losing sight of the L 1 principle, showing parallels between both languages. New knowledge representations are not assimilated and stored in an isolated area of the brain, but will always be related (by neural circuits or other means) to areas storing some other information – for instance, implicit L1 knowledge that has become explicated (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: 123). This is necessary for making the new knowledge structures available for effective and efficient recall. Unlike in isolated item-leaning, the NL and TL facts are presented as systemically and systematically related (op. cit.: 126). Language-awareness tasks sensitize the learner to language phenomena which are present in both his/her L1 and the TL, but whose overt realization in the two languages may differ. Learners discover whether the L1 rules are operative in the L2 and vice versa (cf. Fraser‘s (2008) point that teachers expect modelling to work, while imitation without prior comparing and contrasting is by no means simple, and Paradowski‘s (2007) concise overview of comparative linguistics rationale).309 The teacher‘s task is to demonstrate to the learners through comparative analysis that they already know something which they have so far regarded as mysterious. This eases the burden and is greatly facilitative in lowering the affective filter – a factor not to be disregarded. It is essential to note at this point that at the two stages—especially at early levels of proficiency or where the subject-matter is complicated or would require the introduction of complex taxonomy otherwise—in order to maximize efficiency the explanations had preferably be formulated in the mother tongue of the learners ―as a more accessible and cost-effective alternative to the sometimes lengthy and difficult target-language explanation‖ (Ur, 1996: 17; cf. also e.g. Wilen et al. 2004, or Temple et al. 2005). Using the learner‘s L1 to provide examples and clarify explanation saves time, makes the input more comprehensible than might be possible with the ―sink-or-swim English-only approach‖ (Temple et al. 2005: 498), and relieves frustration caused by not understanding classroom instruction presented in the TL only (Balosa, 2006). Humans are limited capacity processors – when learning to drive a car, we will not be taking a turn at a busy crossroads, glancing in the rear-view mirror, keeping a 308 Language awareness means sensitisation of the learner to the functioning of a mastered language, ―an ability to contemplate metacognitively a language over which one has therefore developed a coherent and relatively stable set of intuitions: ‗ implicit knowledge that has become explicit‘‖ (James, 1994: 209; emph. added). 309 The use of mother-tongue exercises is also recommended to vividly help students realise that what works in their mother tongue may not work in the L2. 914 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo conversation going, operating the CD player, and applying mascara (the fairer sex) all at the same time, 310 unless our destination is massacre. When introducing a new concept or piece of information about the language system, care should be taken not to rock the boat too much, to ensure that the learners concentrate on the content of the rule, rather than direct all intellectual effort at painstakingly deciphering its metalinguistic wording. As a rule it is more important for the learners to understand a concept or grammar point than it is for it to be explained exclusively in the TL. A FL learner will—even at very advanced stages—still think in the L1 when performing more and less complex mental operations, such as e.g. mathematical calculations (only 23% of the full-time first-year students at the Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw who were asked by the author in an anonymous questionnaire in which language they perform simple addition, subtraction or multiplication tasks when abroad, indicated English). Similarly, many errors had better be discussed in the L1. 5. Once the relevant material has been explained, an interface—a contact area between the two language systems—is forged, usually consisting in modifying the L1 rule to accommodate relevant L2 data (GozdawaGołębiowski, 2003a: 206). This has already been advocated by Leontiev, though surprisingly the implications of the relevant passage have gone unnoticed in the literature and praxis: As teachers, our task is to ―get rid‖ of the intermediate stage as quickly as possible and to bring the psychological structure of the utterance in the foreign tongue as close as possible to that which operates in the mother tongue. This means providing the student expediently with a system of operations which will not only correspond to the real psychological structure of the speech act, and will be easy to convert and put into effect, but will also ensure maximum support from the habits for the construction of utterances in the mother tongue. … The learner should not so much be acquainted with the rules of translation from the mother tongue to the foreign one … as, more importantly, with the rules governing the transition from the speech operations of the mother tongue to those of the foreign one. (A. A. Leontiev, 1981: 27; emph. added) The Language Interface Model meets this postulate successfully, allowing the language learner to link new language items with his/her present knowledge or experience; i.e., placing it within his/her Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1934/1962), taken to denote ―the layer of skill or knowledge… just beyond that with which the learner is currently capable of coping‖ (Williams & Burden, 1997: 40); ―the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers‖ (Vygotsky, 1934/1978: 86), thus somewhat reminiscent of Krashen‘s ―i + 1‖ axiom. The rationale can be lucidly represented in the following manner: ZPD selfregulation Figure 2: The Zone of Proximal Development The inner circle of self-regulation denotes the learner‘s independent mental capabilities, e.g. strategic behaviours engaged in by learners with the aim of helping them to guide and monitor their actions when confronted with difficulty in performing a task. Beyond this area lie activities which can only be performed with external assistance. In the case of language learning, a new item can be internalized when the learner is able to connect it with his/her present knowledge or experience; i.e., when it lies within the person‘s idiosyncratic ZPD; any goal beyond is inaccessible (van Lier, 1996: 190–1). Naturally, with the aid of pedagogical intervention, or scaffolding, the learner‘s command and comprehension of the FL system gradually expands, s/he can carry out tasks at higher levels without the guidance of the teacher, slowly approximating to the TL system. Thus, pedagogic intervention ought to be tailored to the learner‘s needs; a postulate which logically connects with the cognitive mediation theory of Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein (Feuerstein et al. 1980), which takes the role of the mediator (teacher) to be the key factor in the process of learning, placing him/her between the learner and the material. His/her role is to select, 310 Attention may be freed up to focus on these other matters while weaving through the traffic ―non impediti ratione congitatonis‖ [unencumbered by the thought process; as goes the motto of radio show Car Talk aired from Cambridge, MA] only once the routine has been automatised. 915 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sequence, pace, frame, highlight, compare, interpret, review, break down, synthesize and present stimuli in a way most apt to facilitate optimal learning, making them both accessible and meaningful; to diagnose the learning potential and then provide support in transforming it into performance (Salo, 2006). This includes taking into account the learner‘s current knowledge and past experiences311 (which also implies the mother tongue!). Subsequent carefully monitored practice first expects the learner to apply the FL rules to L1 (!) examples. Precisely that: foreign rules are to be applied to mother-tongue texts. Focusing on the meaning and form at the same time overcomes the problem mentioned by Niżegorodcew (2005) that form-oriented input (principally morphosyntactic, as lexical and phonological feedback are typically perceived correctly; Gass, 2008) is unsuccessful if not interpreted as such (see also Gass‘ (op. cit.) observation that feedback may fail to be accurately perceived, going over the learners‘ heads); the shift of focus to the linguistic code simultaneously results in a deeper semantic processing of the message‘s content (Heine, 2008). This may look like building the L2 on the L1—which, to a certain extent, it is—but the mother tongue only acts as foundations upon which the construction proper is mounted, which with time become invisible, but remain present at all times. 6. Only then does the teaching move to more traditionally sanctioned TL exercises, but even then in a progressive, transitional fashion: the first assignments being translational equivalents of the L1 examples (in order to preserve the familiarity appeal), subsequently moving on to entirely novel ones, where the learner tackles the tasks without the aid of a déjà vu – as in real-life contexts. Thus, the tasks are sequenced by escalation of their cognitive complexity on the resource-dispersing dimension (i.e. by increasing the performative/procedural demands) from simpler ones, whose aim is to stabilise the new elements of the IL system, to pushed output, conjectured by Robinson‘s (2001, 2005, 2010) Multiple Resources Attentional Model and his extension of Cromer‘s (1974) Cognition Hypothesis to promote control and automatisation of the learner‘s existing L2 resources by directing his/her attention to aspects of the language, thereby leading to enhanced retention. 312 The resulting L1:L2 merger is expected to become automatised and—with sufficient frequency of use— proceduralised, thus conducive to accuracy-cum-fluency and compensating for the lack of native intuitions (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: passim). Additionally, such gradation of task complexity has been proven to diminish output processing anxiety (Robinson, 2010). The aim of this competence expansion stage, effected through the wisely constructed meaning-focused tasks, is making the learners collapse their already conscious knowledge of the FL system with their already explicit representations of their subconscious L1 competence and integrate the rules, ultimately expecting submersion and subconscious absorption thereof, bringing about multicompetence effects and allowing for the obliteration of the rules governing the structure of the utterance from the learner‘s conscious mind (A. A. Leontiev, 1981: 23). This is consistent with James‘ (1998: 263) observation that ―explanation is, in effect, comparative description: quite simply EA [error analysis].‖ Although formula memorization poses a lighter learning burden, rule internalization is undeniably more successful. Additionally, reflection about the best way to translate conceptual content into an adequate linguistic form in the problem-solving tasks promotes a deeper semantic processing of content, as it carries the potential of consideration of the semantic relationships between the concepts, an effect intensified by switching to the FL (Heine, 2008), as in this last stage of the LIM. 311 The teacher‘s task is, therefore, also to identify how to tap into the strengths within each learner‘s repertoire as well as the weaknesses. In the Feuersteinian approach emphasis thus shifts from product to process, where developing learning strategies assumes at least as crucial importance as the subject knowledge itself, with the goal of the qualitative teacher-learner interactions to equip the latter with skills and strategies strengthening his/her personal motivation and competence to learn, thereby helping him/her move along the continuum ―from dependence on the mediator to independence from the mediator‖ (Levine, 2001: 4), when the learner has internalised the strategies taught and can apply them to contexts outside of the instructional content. Mediation can thus be seen as promoting learner autonomy, assisting him/her in the acquisition process (Williams & Burden, 1997: 67–8). 312 Basing on findings of air traffic communication studies, Robinson (p.c., March 11, 13, 2008) theorizes that gradual increase of the cognitive demands of tasks will push learners to greater accuracy and complexity in L2 production also in situations when a car driver communicates with his/her pilot over route directions. However, there are three qualitative differences between the two situations. Primo, owing to an aircraft‘s cruising speed, decisions taken on board must be made in fractions of the time available on the road, where you can slow down or even pull over (which only choppers and the Mig-21 can do in the air, and even then for but three seconds). Secundo, an airline pilot has to take the vertical dimension into account, a coordinate largely irrelevant on the ground (even in F1 racing). Tertio, the fatal risks involved in a false manoeuvre are much higher in the air, with meagre cha nces of survival. Consequently, the former situation is in itself inherently more complex, therefore requiring precision of expression as repetition and reformulation may be costly; cf. the well-known case of the Spanish passenger plane nearly shot down when the pilot‘s announcement ―Fire on board‖ was understood by the air traffic control as ―Three men on board‖, or the 2006 air crash on the Canary Islands owing to miscomprehension of the term ―at take-off‖. 916 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Results Winwood Reade is good upon the subject,‖ said Holmes. ―He remarks that, while the individual man is an insoluble puzzle, in the aggregate he becomes a mathematical certainty. You can, for example, never foretell what any one man will do, but you can say with precision what an average number will be up to. Individuals vary, but percentages remain constant. So says the statistician. —Sir Arthur Conan Doyle The Sign of the Four (1890: Ch. 10. The End of the Islander) The findings of a prolonged controlled classroom experiment indicate enhanced performance and retention in experimental population taught via the Language Interface Model over control groups even in a deferred post-test, 2 to 5 months after the instruction in the grammar areas taught was over (Paradowski, 2007: 149–200). The testing tools covered six distinct areas of English grammar, both structural and lexical in nature: articles, relative pronouns and adverbs, ―reported speech‖, preparatory ―there‖ vs. ―it‖, ―as‖ vs. ―like‖, and conditional structures (four of these, sc. articles, relativisation patterns, word order in reported questions, and existential constructions, are aspects which feature on Odlin‘s (2005) list of points whose presence or absence in the NL of the learner impinges on the success of SLA). Where raw final test data are concerned, only one CTR group failed to yield results which would be significantly below the performance of the EXP group. With the analysis shifting to analyse progress counterbalanced against a pre-test baseline, all the results prove significant. It thus seems that overall the Language Interface Method does perform its task satisfactorily, even though not many students from the treatment population declared independent attempts at metalingual reflection. Even if the effectiveness is not necessarily supreme in all areas of grammar, it is, at least, rarely significantly inferior to other methods (enjoying an average advantage of 13.1 per cent for the EXP UP progress and 21.38 per cent for the admittedly patchier EXP ADV data), and the participants‘ performance was maintained several months following the treatment; facts not to be ignored by language teachers and methodologists alike. The method seems particularly suited to teaching traditional systemic areas requiring manipulation of form (such as ―reported speech‖ and conditionals), although it also proceeds fairly well where the task merely demands the insertion of a lexical item (expletives, relativizers, and ―as‖ vs. ―like‖). One area where amelioration is clearly needed is the procedure for enhancing learners‘ awareness of the article system.313 The essential benefit of the LIM is that the results of the instruction hold when the learners have ceased receiving it for some time – a long-term pedagogical goal certainly more desirable, commendable and far-reaching than just short-term retention displayed in an immediate follow-up test. Importantly, the method turns out to be particularly successful for less-advanced learners as, despite strong correspondence between the participants‘ initial and final proficiency (r = .5356 for EXP UP and .6281 for EXP ADV), progress correlated negatively with the initial proficiency in both groups (r = -0.3907 and -0.4235, correspondingly)! Thus—barring articles—LIM appears to be more effective in helping FL learners master the relevant properties of English than other approaches. The model‘s potential Now this is not the end. This is not, even, the beginning of the end. —Winston Spencer-Churchill‘s (1942, Nov 10) speech given at Lord Mayor‘s Luncheon, Mansion House, London, in response to the Allied victory over the German Afrika Korps at the Second Battle of El Alamein The model can successfully be implemented in other fields of FL communicative competence. Thus for instance in a course on L2 writing conventions, discourse organization, structure of information and information packaging, the learners could first experimentally be taught the principles and asked to apply these in their mother tongue—say, a guided composition or two—before struggling with composing a FL text, which will probably provide several other challenges than just requiring to remember the principles that were mentioned during one or two classes at most. If the learners manage to successfully apply L2 strategies in L1 texts, thus becoming better trained in learning to ―think‖ in the way preferred in the target language, success lies within reach. By such differences I mean for instance, in terms of clause combining, the preference for coordination in English contrasted against more intensive use of subordination devices found in French, as pointed out by Chuquet and Paillard (1987), or the English preference for non-finite clauses vs. tensed ones in French, mentioned by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). 313 The findings might suggest that inasmuch as articles need to be employed in nearly every utterance, each speaker‘s idiosyncratic usage is so entrenched that it is resilient to change (the variation between the initial and final measure—per group— rarely exceeded 5 per cent in a test containing 122 gaps). It is also conceivable that where the rules of grammar may seem ephemeral, intangible or conflicting—as it may seem in many instances of article usage—participants‘ performance becomes erratic and not quite reflecting their competence. Alternatively, the weaker results over this one area of grammar might act ually validate the LIM showing that it is most effective where you have something to transfer from (rather than a functional category nonexistent in the learners‘ L1; Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c. 2007). 917 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Similarly, if not more importantly, a crucial part of expertise in ELF is ―pragmatic fluency‖ (House, 2006). The importance of developing pragmatic competence—the ability to employ TL resources in an appropriate way for particular contexts—has been ascertained in current models of communicative competence. The suggestion that contrastive analysis include a pragmalinguistic dimension is by no means new – cf. e.g. Gleason (1968), Hartmann (1977), Sajavaara (1977/81a), or Riley (1979/81). House (1997) argues that the notion of TL awareness be extended beyond aspects of the linguistic system to the communicative use of the language in context. She calls forth several enjoyable examples from both authentic interaction and role-plays between native speakers of English and German to demonstrate how not only words and idioms, but also lengthier formally analogical constructions can turn out to be deceptive faux amis, leading to inadvertent misunderstanding and irritation on the part of the interlocutor (2003:129-130). She thus emphasises the necessity of the acquisition of linguistically and culturally contrastive knowledge, of knowledge about the diversity of languages in general, and the worth of multilingualism and multiculturalism, so emphatically promoted especially in the CEF ideology. If communicative behaviour—e.g. Grice‘s (1967) conversational maxims or Lakoff‘s (1976) rules of politeness—were of universal nature across different languages (as assumed by critics of the Communicative Approach in late 1970s, cf. e.g. Mùller 1977), the universality of communicative skills and the possibility of their transfer from the L1 would void any discussion of the benefits or necessity of awareness in FLL. Yet, a succession of research studies in the last three decades indicate that communicative norms, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in certain, describable ways (House 1997:70). Thus, for instance, Brown and Lewinson‘s (1987) claims to the universality of their model of politeness quickly drew flak, especially from researchers dealing with non-western languages and cultures (e.g. Watts et al. 1992; Ide et al. 1992), who demonstrated that e.g. AngloSaxon and Japanese norms of politeness differ so profoundly that in no way can universality be invoked: the Japanese being characterised by the obligatory choice of a linguistic indicator and so-called ‗discernment‘, through which the speaker is obliged by certain social conventions to use ‗polite‘ speech, while Anglo-Saxon speakers are free in their choice of linguistic means. Further examples of this sort abound; e.g. a French compliment is never followed by an expression of thanks (a ‗Merci beaucoup‘ might sooner be interpreted as an ironic commentary; Riley 1979/81:122). Also Leech‘s (1983) Politeness Maxims cannot be taken as universal communicative principles, as demonstrated by Thomas‘ (1995) numerous examples of their culture-specific realisations. For instance the Tact Maxim, though central to western concepts of politeness in that certain speech acts such as requests or summons are customarily emasculated by a proposal of ‗optionality‘, this is not so in e.g. Chinese (Spencer-Oatey 1992). Several differences were proven even between so closely related languages and cultures as English and German, e.g. concerning the Agreement Maxim and indirectness in the realisation of various illocutionary acts (cf. e.g. House 1996a, House & Kasper 1981, 1987). Even within one language, interactive behaviour may clearly differ: Riley (1979/81:135) contends that it is the case with meetings, business negotiations, telephone calls, causal encounters and other situations on either side of the English Channel. All these and several other studies quoted in House (1997:71f.) provide evidence that norms of politeness, communicative styles and preferences vary depending on language and culture. It is therefore de rigueur for learning FL in use and for the development of communicative competence to recognise that these norms form an essential component and as such should be explicitly taught. Crucially, in Schmidt and Frota‘s (1986) ‗notice the gap‘ principle, it is not merely the linguistic forms that require attention, but also—simultaneously—the relevant contextual factors (functions) and pragmatic principles (context) regulating the application of these forms in a certain cultural macrocontext. This channelled attention brings the contextualised and regularly used forms to awareness. Schmidt (1993:31) hypothesises a close connection between noticing what is in the input—the linguistic form and its broadened context—and the corresponding intentional learning (where consciousness as ‗intentionality‘ plays a role). Thus, necessary for the acquisition of L2 pragmatic factors is directed attention to the linguistic form, its functional meaning, and the relevant contextual factors. For a thorough learning and retention of these, the learner‘s attention should be consciously directed at certain pragmatic phenomena in the input and s/he should try and analyse their meaning for deeper linguistic and conceptual generalisations. Schmidt (op. cit.:36) emphasises that FL realisations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learners, insofar as the relevant contextual factors that require attention are not self-evident (are ‗non-salient‘), or are ignored because they so inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena314. It may thus happen that the FL learner will pass years without directing his/her attention at the important pragmatic factors and realising the pragmatic differences between the L1 and the TL. Contrary to what Schmidt (ibid.) proposes, House (1997:82) argues that the fact this is not so during the acquisition of the mother tongue, when children together with lexico-grammatical competence pari passu acquire communicative competence, cannot be explained away by the positioning of a ‗Pragmatic Acquisition Device‘, whose strength weakens with age to become inert after a critical period, but it stands in direct connection with the continual effort on the part of the parents and other caretakers to explicitly teach this communicative competence. If, however, one did 314 Although consider for instance the shift from rejecting to accepting compliments, visible among young Poles (probably as yet another aspect of globalisation). 918 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo assume the existence of such a ‗PAD‘ and of an early and sustained contact with the target language and culture as a precondition for acquiring native pragmatic competence (many studies document the non-native pragmatic behaviour of advanced language learners), this would at least show that positing a NS norm for post-pubescent learners again misses the point (House & Kasper 2000:115). While mere transfer of knowledge and skills from the L1 does not warrant development of appropriate communicative competence in the L2, handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom has been proven to be conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. Thus, House calls for promoting communicative awareness, i.e. knowledge of communicative act, comprising not just the so-called ‗acts of speech‘ (e.g. apologising), but also the weaving of these acts into the whole discourse (1997:68). Equally important is the fact that this is what learners themselves appreciate. An experiment carried out by House and Kasper (1981), in which a communicative course was run in two versions, an ‗explicit‘ one raising awareness of the communicative phenomena that were being imparted, and an ‗implicit‘ one, without the benefit of metalanguage or directed attention, only increased input and practice in a wider range of scenarios, revealed that only the former corresponded with the advanced adult FL learners‘ expectations. Also Tateyama et al.‘s (1997) study of learners of Japanese confirms the hypothesis: the groups taught explicitly performed overall better, and the participants of both (explicitly and implicitly taught) declared unequivocal preference for the explicit teaching method, where forms, functions and distribution of language routines is brought to consciousness. In a longitudinal, 14-week study of two university groups in a communicative course House (1996b) investigated whether ‗pragmatic fluency‘ (appropriacy and fluency in the realisation of communicative acts) can be achieved in the FL classroom through mere provision of input coupled with intensive and extensive practice opportunities (including teacher correction; implicit course variant), or whether additional, explicit, consciousness/awareness-raising conveyance of language routines (oral explanation and detailed handouts on their form, function and distribution) and the use of metalanguage in conjunction with input and TL practice leads to improved results. An important factor in the explicit variant of the course is a contrastive juxtaposition of the norms of interaction in the L1 and the TL (cf. e.g. House 1996a, 1997). The explicitly, metapragmatically taught group superseded the other in the use of opening gambits in that they could realised a repertoire of speech acts that was richer, more varied, norm-sanctioned and interpersonally effective (i.e. referring to the interlocutor), while the group taught implicitly displayed a visible orientation at the content of the message, and less consideration of their interlocutor. However, when it came to responsive expressions, both groups displayed similar deficits (unconventional, non-customary expressions and unexpected, non-normative, minimalist ‗impolite‘ expressions). House (1997:78-80) puts forward three plausible hypotheses which can account for this lack of attestable impact of metapragmatic awareness on the improvement of responsive behavior of the learners in everyday interaction: 1. 2. 3. Through the Auto-Input Hypothesis (Sharwood-Smith 1988), which posits that raising awareness of one‘s own output is conducive to competence expansion in the FL (those learners who were regularly invited to confront their own output with metapragmatic explanations eventually displayed improved ‗pragmatic fluency‘); The underrepresentation of interpersonally focused routines in the realisation of gambits and discourse strategies could be explained through pragmatic transfer from the learners‘ L1 (German). Although pragmatic transfer occurred in routine usage of both groups, it was less pronounced in the explicit one, whose classes included the promotion of analysis and contrastive juxtaposition of the use of the routines in the L 1 and the TL. Thus, pragmatic transfer can be counteracted and reduced through directed attention at and awareness of L 2-specific routines, also in the conviction of the students themselves (House 1996b); Through cognitive overload during responding. Môhle (1994) proposed that the biggest problem for advanced adult L2 learners in the development of communicative competence and the acquisition of representations in the mental lexicon is not the representation of pragmatic and discoursal knowledge in the first place, but deficits in procedural knowledge. Thus, the deficits in response routines evidenced by House‘s learners could be accounted for by the lack of ‗control of processing‘ on their part, in the sense of Bialystok‘s (1993), i.e. underdeveloped control strategies, with whose help input must be efficiently processed and knowledge representations summoned. Such strategies are of utmost importance for the achievement of communicative competence: the provision of metapragmatic knowledge alone is insufficient; the acquisition of procedural know-how and the availability of ‗executive mechanisms‘ must come in as a prerequisite for spontaneous, ready-to-use FL communicative competence in the form of a corresponding procedural representation of means of speech. Still, the study indicated that consciousness (as ‗attention‘, ‗awareness‘, and ‗control‘) plays a judicious and beneficial role in the development of pragmatically appropriate and fluent communication in the FL, and that the provision of metapragmatic information and the raising of awareness of pragmatic and discoursal phenomena is 919 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo essential as counterpoise to transfer from the L1, as a means of acquiring a differentiated, interpersonally potent repertoire of linguistic routines, and of promoting ‗pragmatic fluency‘ (House 1997:80-81). It seems insufficient to expose FL learners to sociolinguistically appropriate varied input and to trust that pragmatic and discoursal knowledge will develop by and of itself. FL learners do not activate universally pragmatic competence or even positive L1 transfer, if these have not been taught reaching their attention and awareness. For the transmission of such knowledge a classroom setting is, according to House (op. cit.:81f.) very well suited. The importance of this area of language also gains support from other authors. In an empirical study Bardovi-Harlig and Dôrnyei (1997), for instance, reveal the difference between the role of the thus far largely neglected awareness-raising of pragmatic-discoural phenomena in the learning of ESL and EFL. Rather than these, in the latter setting, teachers and students were more cognizant of grammatical phenomena, and they evaluated grammar mistakes as more severe, which was the opposite in the case of ESL. The authors thus emphasise that, especially in the EFL context, ―awareness raising and noticing activities should supplement the introduction of pragmatically relevant input and structured L2 learning‖ (op. cit.:27). Even though this may be more difficult to implement in linguistically heterogeneous classes, with the increasing importance of ‗intercultural competence‘ House insists on bringing learners‘ awareness of linguistic and cultural similarities and differences, differences in value systems, mentalities, communicative preferences and conventions to the foreground of FL teaching. Her examples demonstrate that even in so closely related languages as English and German, the communicative styles differ markedly – to what extent would that have to be between typologically distant languages, with totally different cultural traditions to boot (2003:131)? Thus, the awareness of pragmatic and discourse phenomena in FLL should include an understanding of the contrasts and similarities in these areas between the TL and the L1 (L2, Ln…). Pragmatic competence would yield perfectly to the languageinterface rationale; an appropriate research project is being prepared in this regard. If the learners transfer pragmatic patterns anyway, let us enable them to transfer ones which will be appropriate. Moreover, research proves that the provision of explicit pragmatic information is only beneficial when it is not merely based on unreliable NS intuitions, but on the results of contrastive-pragmatic research (cf. e.g. House 1994, 1995, 1997), especially as comparison of course and authentic dialogues revealed frequently discomfittingly gross discrepancies (cf. e.g. Bardovi-Harlig et al. 1991), thus once again reinforcing the contrastive rationale. Of beneficial influence on the development of communicative competence is the combination of intensive communicative practice with explicit awareness-raising, e.g. observation tasks wherein the learner‘s attention is directed at specific characteristic communicative features of interactional FL behaviour (cf. e.g. Bardovi-Harlig et al. 1991; Rose 1997), especially at the pragmatic contrasts between linguistic behaviour in the L1 and the TL (House 1997:82f.). What is important, House (ibid.) emphasises, is that the pragmatic norms should merely be brought to the learners‘ awareness so that—if they so wish for themselves—they know when and how they contravene them in given circumstances, and can predict the repercussions and sanctions of such deviations; not necessarily accept and adopt these NS norms. Through awareness-raising learners should in no way be expected to become ―like the L2 NS‖; rather, they should be empowered to actively indicate their distance or proximity (consciously create their own ―sphere of interculturality,‖ Kramsch 1993), and to form their subjective decisions concerning what is appropriate for them, so that they are not forced into—as Harder (1980) aptly called them—adapted crippled ―reduced personalities,‖ desperately attempting to be like indigenous native speakers to whom they will never belong. Thus, rather than adaptation and convergence with the NS norm, the FL learner had better be conceived as someone inbetween. Such a move away from the dominating (and frustrating) norm, advocated in the previous chapter of this dissertation, is easier to effect when the learner is aware of it (House 1997:83). In this way, communicative awareness helps the learner be more efficient cognitively, more flexible socially, and more enriching personally (ibid.). While incipient research in IL pragmatics focused on the learners‘ deviations from NS norms, blaming pragmatic failure on interference from the L1, evidence shows that L2 users differ significantly in their employment of pragmalinguistic strategies from monolingual speakers of either language (Ewert & Bromberek-Dyzman 2006), hence indicating IL  L1 transfer at the pragmatic level. Recognised as the Intercultural Style Hypothesis (BlumKulka 1991), this states that the influence between the L2 and L1 is bidirectional, which is why advanced L2 learners will employ similar pragmalinguistic strategies in relevant situations in either language. If so, this offers a promising perspective indeed for an interfacial model of TL pragmatic training of the learners, where appropriate strategies and speech acts would first be practised on the grounds of the L1. 920 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES: Balosa, David (2006, Mar) Three examples of better English learning through the L1. Essential Teacher Compleat Links 3.1. Retrieved April 22, 2006 from http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/secetdoc.asp?CID=1222&DID=5720 Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen, Beverly A. S. Hartford, Rebecca Mahan-Taylor, Mary J. Morgan & Dudley W. Reynolds (1991) Developing pragmatic awareness: closing the conversation. ELT Journal 45/1: 4–15. Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen & Zoltán Dôrnyei (1997, Mar) Do language learners recognize pragmatic violations? Pragmatic vs. grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. paper delivered at the annual conference of the American Association of Applied Linguistics, Orlando, FL. Bialystok, Ellen (1993) Symbolic representation and attentional control in pragmatic competence. In Kasper, Gabriele & Shoshana Blum-Kulka (Eds) Interlanguage Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press, 43–57. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana (1991) Interlanguage pragmatics: The case of requests. In Phillipson, Robert, Eric Kellerman, Larry Selinker, Michael Sharwood Smith & Merrill Swain (Eds) Foreign/Second Language Pedagogy Research. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 255–72. Bowerman, Melissa (2005) Why can‘t you ―open‖ a nut or ―break‖ a cooked noodle? Learning covert object categories in action word meanings. In Gershkoff-Stowe, Lisa & David H. Rakison (Eds) Building Object Categories in Developmental Time. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 209–43. Bowerman, Melissa (2008, Mar 12) Language acquisition and semantic typology. Plenary address delivered at the 33rd International LAUD Symposium ‗Cognitive Approaches to Second/Foreign Language Processing: Theory and Pedagogy‘. Landau/Pf. Brown, Penelope & Stephen Levinson (1987) Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Caine, Renate Nummela & Geoffrey Caine (1994) Making Connections. Teaching and the Human Brain. Parsippany, NJ: Dale Seymour Publications. Chuquet, Hélène & Michel Paillard (1987) Approche linguistique des problèmes de traduction anglais-français. Paris: Ophrys. Coe, Norman, Robin Rycroft & Pauline Ernest (1983) Writing Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 921 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cook, Vivian J. (2001) Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes 57/3: 402–23. Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Also available for download from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf Cromer, Richard (1974) The development of language and cognition: The cognition hypothesis. In Foss, Brian (Ed.) New Perspectives in Child Development. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 184–252. de Bot, Kees (2004) The multilingual lexicon: Modeling selection and control. International Journal of Multilingualism 1/1: 17–32. Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan (1890) The Sign of the Four. Lippincott‘s Monthly Magazine. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 147–225. Ellis, Nick C. (2010) Construction learning as category learning. In: Pùtz, Martin & Laura Sicola (Eds) Cognitive Processing in Second Language Acquisition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 27-48. Ellis, Rod (1989) Are classrom and naturalistic acquisition the same? A study of the classroom acquisition of German word order rules. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 11/3: 305–28. ———— (1995) Interpretation tasks for grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly 29/1: 87–105. Ewert, Anna & Katarzyna Bromberek-Dyzman (2006, May 18) The Intercultural Style Hypothesis: Semantic strategies in L1 and L2 refusals. paper delivered at the XVIIIth International Conference on Foreign/Second Language Acquisition, Szczyrk. Feuerstein, Reuven, Ya‘acov Rand, Mildred B. Hoffman & Ronald Miller (1980) Instrumental Enrichment: An intervention program for cognitive modifiability. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press. Filatova, Ksénia L. (2010) Third language acquisition, macrocategories and synonymy. In: Pùtz, Martin & Laura Sicola (Eds) Cognitive Processing in Second Language Acquisition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 85-96. Franceschini, Rita, Daniela Zappatore & Cordula Nitsch (2003) Lexicon in the brain: what neurobiology has to say about languages. In Cenoz, Jasone, Britta Hufeisen & Ulrike Jessner (Eds) The Multilingual Lexicon. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 153–166. 922 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fraser, Helen (2008, Mar 12) Cognitive theory as a tool for teaching pronunciation. Plenary address delivered at the 33rd International LAUD Symposium ‗Cognitive Approaches to Second/Foreign Language Processing: Theory and Pedagogy‘. Landau/Pf. Gabryś-Barker, Danuta (2005) Aspects of Multilingual Storage, Processing and Retrieval. Katowice: University of Silesia Press. Gass, Susan M. (2008, Mar 11) Interaction: From description to explanation. Plenary address delivered at the 33 rd International LAUD Symposium ‗Cognitive Approaches to Second/Foreign Language Processing: Theory and Pedagogy‘. Landau/Pf. Gleason, Henry Allen, Jr. (1968) Contrastive analysis in discourse structure. In Alatis, James E. (Ed.) Contrastive Linguistics and its Pedagogical Implications [Monograph Series on Languages and Linguistics 21. Report of the 19th Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies] Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 39–63. Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, Romuald (2003a) Interlanguage Formation. A Study of the Triggering Mechanisms. Warsaw: Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw. ———— (2003b) Pedagogical grammar rules: towards a new taxonomy. Anglica 13: Exploring: literature, culture and language: 119–31. Grice, Paul (1967) The logic of conversation. Unpublished MS. Berkeley: University of California. Harder, Peter (1980) Discourse and self-expression – on the reduced personality of the second-language learner. Applied Linguistics 1: 262–70. Hartmann, Reinhard R. K. (1977) Contrastive textology and some of its applications. paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the British Association for Applied Linguistics. Heine, Lena (2008, Mar 10) Focus on form and focus on meaning: Contrasting L1 and L2 use in problem solving situations. Paper presented at the 33rd International LAUD Symposium ‗Cognitive Approaches to Second/Foreign Language Processing: Theory and Pedagogy‘. Landau/Pf. House, Juliane (1994) Kontrastive Pragmatik und interkulturelles Lernen: von metapragmatischem Wissen zu kommunikativem Handeln. In Bausch, Karl-Richard, Herbert Christ & Hans-Jùrgen Krumm (Eds) Interkulturelles Lernen im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Tùbingen: Narr, 85–96. ———— (1995) Metapragmatische Bewußtheit, sprachliche Routinen und interkulturelles Lernen beim Wortschatzerwerb im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In Bausch, Karl-Richard, Herbert Christ, Frank G. Kônigs & Hans-Jùrgen Krumm (Eds) Erwerb und Vermittlung von Wortschatz im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Tùbingen: Narr, 92–101. 923 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ———— (1996a) Contrastive discourse analysis and misunderstanding: the case of German and English. In Hellinger, Marlis & Ulrich Ammon (Eds) Contrastive Sociolinguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 345–62. ———— (1996b) Developing pragmatic fluency in English as a foreign language: routines and metapragmatic awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18: 225–52. ———— (1997) Kommunikative Bewußtheit und Fremdsprachenlernen. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 26: 68–87. ———— (2003) Übersetzen und Missverständnisse. In Barkowski, Hans & Armin Wolff (Eds) Jahrbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Intercultural German Studies 29. Mùnchen: iudicium Verlag, 107–34. ———— (2006, Feb 9) The role of English as a lingua franca in multilingual and cross-cultural communication. plenary paper delivered at the conference on Multilingualism & Applied Comparative Linguistics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel. ———— & Gabriele Kasper (1981) Zur Rolle der Kognition in Kommunikationskursen. Die Neueren Sprachen 80: 42–55. ———— & Gabriele Kasper (1987) Interlanguage pragmatics: requesting in a foreign language. In Lôrscher, Wolfgang & Rainer Schulze (Eds) Perspectives on Language in Performance. Tùbingen: Narr, 1250–88. ———— & Gabriele Kasper (2000) How to remain a non-native speaker. In Riemer, Claudia (Ed.) Kognitive Aspekte des Lehrens und Lernens von Fremdsprachen [Cognitive Aspects of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning]. Festschrift für Willis J. Edmondson zum 60. Geburtstag. Tùbingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 101–18. Ide, Sachiko, Berverly Hill, Yukiko M. Carnes, Tsunao Ogino & Akiko Kawasaki (1992) The concept of politeness: an empirical study of American English and Japanese. In Watts, Richard J., Sachiko Ide & Konrad Ehlich (Eds) Politeness in Language: Studies in its History, Theory and Practice [Trends in Linguistics – Studies and Monographs 59] Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 281–97. Jackson, Yvette (2002) Comprehension and discipline literacy: the key to high school achievement. Retrieved from www.newhorizons.org/strategies/literacy/jackson.htm James, Carl (1980) Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman. ———— (1994) Explaining grammar to its learners. In Bygate, Martin, Alan Tonkyn & Eddie Williams (Eds) Grammar and the Language Teacher. New York: Prentice Hall, 203–14. 924 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ———— (1998) Errors in Language Learning and Use. Exploring error analysis. London: Longman. Keddle, Julia Starr (2004) The CEF and the secondary school syllabus. In Morrow, Keith (Ed.) Insights from the Common European Framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 43–54. Kielhôfer, Bernd (1994) Wôrter lernen, behalten und erinnern. Neusprachliche Mitteilungen aus Wissenschaft und Praxis 47: 211–20. Kittredge, Audrey K. & Gary S. Dell (2008, Jun 23) When crossing a rift, every word counts. Paper presented at the 3rd International Conference on Cognitive Science, Russian Academy of Science Institute of Psychology/Interregional Association for Cognitive Studies/Russian Language Development Centre, Moscow. Klein, Wolfgang (1986) Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kramsch, Claire (1993) Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krzeszowski, Tomasz P. (1977) Contrastive analysis in a new dimension. Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics 6: 5–15 [Reprinted in Fisiak, Jacek (Ed.) (1981) Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford: Pergamon, 71–85] Lakoff, Robin (1976) Language and society. In Wardhaugh, Ronald & H. Douglas Brown (Eds) A Survey of Applied Linguistics. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 207–28. Leech, Geoffrey N. (1983) Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman. Leontiev, Aleksei Alekseevitch (1981) Psychology and the Language Learning Process [James, C. V. (Ed.)] Oxford: Pergamon, ch. 3. Levine, Dori (2001, Aug) Kindling the spark: One Canadian school‘s adaptation of an Israeli Cognitive Modifiability Model. paper delivered at the International Conference and Training Workshops ‗Unlocking the Human Potential to Learn,‘ August 18–25, Winnipeg, MB. [Also by Levine, Dori, Michael G. Luther & Gabrielle Wagner in Gamlin, Peter J., Michael G. Luther & Gabrielle Wagner (Eds) Exploring Human Potential. Facilitating growth in the new millennium. North York, ON: Captus Press] Lewis, Michael (1993) The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward. Hove: Language Teaching Publications. Lowie, Wander, Marjolijn Verspoor & Bregtje Seton (2010) Conceptual representations in the multilingual mind: A study of advanced Dutch students of English. In: Pùtz, Martin & Laura Sicola (Eds) Cognitive Processing in Second Language Acquisition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 135-148. 925 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Łukasiewicz, Maria (2006) Implementing the interface model in adult foreign language education. Linguistic and psychological considerations. Unpublished MA dissertation, Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw. Milne, Alan Alexander (1926) Winnie-the-Pooh. London: Methuen and Co. Môhle, Dorothea (1994) Deklaratives und procedurales Wissen in der Repräsentation des mentalen Lexicons. In Bôrner, Wolfgang & Klaus Vogel (Eds) Kognitive Linguistik und Fremdsprachenerwerb. Tùbingen: Narr, 39–50. Mùller, R. (1977) Kommunikative Kompetenz und Arbitrarität – pragmalinguistische Irrwege der Fremdsprachendidaktik. Linguistik und Didaktik 8, 63–77. Niżegorodcew, Anna (2005, May 20) Second Language Acquisition and L2 classroom input. paper presented at the XVII International Conference on Foreign/Second Language Acquisition, Szczyrk. Paradowski, Michał B. (2007) Exploring the L1/L2 interface. A study of advanced Polish EFL learners. Doctoral dissertation, Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw. Piechurska-Kuciel, Ewa (1999) The influence of language awareness training on acquisition of English articles. Doctoral dissertation, University of Opole. Riley, Philip (1979) Towards a contrastive pragmalinguistics. Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics 10: 57– 78 [Reprinted in Fisiak, Jacek (Ed.) Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford: Pergamon, 121–46] Robinson, Peter (1997) Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19/2 [special issue on Laboratory Studies of Second Language Acquisition. Guest edited by Jan H. Hulstijn & Robert DeKeyser]: 223–47. ———— (Ed.) (2001) Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ———— (2005) Cognitive abilities, chunk-strength, and frequency effects in implicit artificial grammar and incidental L2 learning: Replications of Reber, Walkenfeld, and Hernstadt (1991) and Knowlton and Squire (1996) and their relevance for SLA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27/2: 235–68. ———— (2010) Situating and distributing cognition across task demands: The SSARC model of pedagogic task sequencing. In: Pùtz, Martin & Laura Sicola (Eds) Cognitive Processing in Second Language Acquisition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 243-68. 926 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Rose, Kenneth (1997, Mar) ‗Go-ahead – make my day‘ – Film data in pragmatic research. paper delivered at the annual conference of the American Association of Applied Linguistics, Orlando, Mar 8–11. Rutherford, William E. (1987) Second Language Grammar: Learning and Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Sajavaara, Kari (1977/81a) Contrastive linguistics past and present and a communicative approach. In Sajavaara, Kari & Jaakko Lehtonen (Eds) Contrastive Papers. Jyväskylä Contrastive Studies 4, 9–30. Jyväskylä: Department of English. [Reprinted in Fisiak, Jacek (Ed.) Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford: Pergamon, 33–56] Salo, Olli-Pekka (2006, Jun 9) How to make use of ZPD in foreign language education? The case of teaching Swedish grammar to Finnish learners. paper delivered at the conference ‗Language in Action – Vygotsky and Leontievian legacy today‘, University of Jyväskylä. Schachter, Jacquelyn (1996) Learning and triggering in adult L2 acquisition. In Gillian Brown, Kirsten Malmkjaer & John Williams (Eds) Competence and Performance in SLA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 70– 87. Schmidt, Richard W. (1990) The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics 11/2: 129– 58. ———— (1993) Consciousness, learning and interlanguage pragmatics. In Kasper, Gabriele & Shoshana BlumKulka (Eds) Interlanguage Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press, 21–42. ———— (1994) Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. In Hulstijn, Jan H. & Richard Schmidt (Eds) Consciousness in Second Language Learning. AILA Review 11: 11–26. ———— & Sylvia Frota (1986) Developing basic conversational ability in a second language. In Day, Richard (Ed.) Talking to Learn. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 237–326. Singleton, David (2005, May 19) Conceptions of the Second Language Mental Lexicon and approaches to Second Language vocabulary teaching: a historical perspective. Plenary paper delivered at the XVII International Conference on Foreign/Second Language Acquisition, Szczyrk. Spencer-Oatey, Helen (1992) Cross-cultural politeness: British and Chinese conceptions of the tutor-student relationship. Unpublished dissertation, Lancaster University. Swain, Merrill & Sharon Lapkin (1995) Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics 16/3: 371–91. 927 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Tateyama, Yumiko, Gabriele Kasper, Laura P. Mui, Hui-Mian Tay & Ong-on Thananart (1997) Explicit and implicit teaching of pragmatic routines. In Bouton, Larry F. (Ed.) Pragmatics and Language Learning 8: 163–77. Urbana, IL: Division of English as an International Language, University of Illinois, at Urbana-Champaign. Taylor, John R. (2008, Mar 13) Language in the mind. Plenary address delivered at the 33 rd International LAUD Symposium ‗Cognitive Approaches to Second/Foreign Language Processing: Theory and Pedagogy‘. Landau/Pf. Temple, Charles A., Donna Ogle, Alan N. Crawford & Penny Freppon (2005) All Children Read: Teaching for literacy in today‘s diverse classrooms. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Thomas, Jenny (1995) Meaning in Interaction. London: Longman. Ur, Penny (1996) A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Van Lier, Leo (1996) Interaction in the Language Curriculum. London: Longman. VanPatten, Bill (2004) Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Commentary. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Verspoor, Marjolijn H. (2008) What bilingual word associations can tell us. In Boers, Frank & Seth Lindstromberg (Eds) Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Vocabulary Teaching. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 261-90. Vinay, Jean-Paul & Jean Darbelnet (1995) Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A methodology for translation. [translated and edited by Juan C. Sager & Marie-Josée Hamel]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. [Original work published 1958: Stylistique compare du français et de l‘anglais. Paris: Didier.] Vosniadou, Stella (2008, Jun 24) The problem of conceptual change in the learning of science and mathematics. Plenary address delivered at the 3rd International Conference on Cognitive Science, Russian Academy of Science Institute of Psychology/Interregional Association for Cognitive Studies/Russian Language Development Centre, Moscow. Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich (1962) Thought and language (Eugenia Hanfmann & Gertrude Vakar, Eds & Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, chs. 5 & 6. [Original work published (1934b) Мышление и речь. Moscow: Соцэкгиз]/(1987) Thinking and speech (N. Minick, Trans.). In Rieber, Robert W. & Aaron S. Carton (Eds) The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky: Vol. 1. Problems of general psychology. New York: Plenum, 39–285. ———— (1978) Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cole, Michael, Vera JohnSteiner, Sylvia Scribner & Ellen Souberman (Eds). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [Original Проблема развития и распада высших психических функций delivered at the conference Ин-та 928 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo эксперимент медицины, Apr. 28 1934. Also in (1960) Развитие высших психический функций. Мoscow: Изд-во АПН РСФСР, 364–83] Watts, Richard, Sachiko Ide & Konrad Ehlich (1992) Introduction. In id. (Eds) Politeness in Language. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1–17. White, Lydia (2000) Second language acquisition: from initial to final state. In Archibald, John (Ed.) Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 130–55. Whorf, Benjamin Lee (c. 1936) A linguistic consideration of thinking in primitive communities. In Carroll, John B. (Ed.) (1956) Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 65–86. ———— (1940) Science and linguistics. Technology Review 42: 227–31, 247–8. [Reprinted in Carroll, John B. (Ed.) (1956) Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 207–19] Widdowson, Henry G. (1978) The significance of simplification. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 1/1: 11–20 ———— (1979) The significance of simplification. In (1979a: 185–93). Wilberg, Peter (1987) One to One. Hove: Language Teaching Publications. Wilen, William, Margaret Ishler Bosse, Janice Hutchison & Richard Kindsvatter (2004) Dynamics of Effective Secondary Teaching [5th edn] Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Williams, Marion & Robert L. Burden (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Williams, Sarah & Bjôrn Hammarberg (1998) Language switches in L3 production: implications for a polyglot speaking model. Applied Linguistics 19/3: 295–333. Wolff, Dieter (2005, May 20) Integrating language and content in the classroom: the added value of CLIL. plenary paper delivered at the XVII International Conference on Foreign/Second Language Acquisition, Szczyrk. Wong, Wynne (2004) The nature of processing instruction. In VanPatten, Bill (Ed.) Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Commentary. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 33–63. Zybert, Jerzy (1999) Errors in Foreign Language Learning. The Case of Polish Learners of English. Warsaw: Institute of English Studies. 929 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 556 Title A name given to the resource Raising Language Learners‘ Pragmatic Awareness and Intercultural Competence in Increasingly Multilingual Environments Author Author Paradowski, Michał B. Abstract A summary of the resource. Pragmatic fluency forms crucial part of a language user‘s competence. Norms of politeness, communicative styles, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in describable ways, FL realizations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learner where the relevant contextual factors are not self-evident, or are ignored when they inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena. Even positive L1 transfer is not activated if the learner has not been trained, whereas handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom is conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. A promising perspective for successful intercultural and pragmatic training is the Interface Model, which proceeds from an explication of how relevant principles operate in the learners‘ L1 (culture) through an explanation of pertinent L2 norms and subsequent modification of the L1 principle to accommodate L2 data, to practice first expecting the learner to apply the appropriate FL strategies and speech acts against an L1 (!) context. By such a gradual, multi-stage method the learner becomes ‗pragmatically fluent‘ before commencing to use the operational principles in the TL itself. The juxtaposition and use of L1 and L2 principles alongside lead to successful automatization and internalization of the material and the development of pragmatic multicompetence – L2 users differ significantly in their employment of pragmalinguistic strategies from monolingual speakers of either language, transferring similar speech acts back and forth between the tongues in their command. The Interface Model enables them to transfer those patterns of interactional behavior which will be appropriate. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1d677e89698ce1065512accfdd33c53e.pdf 5af510bc33d9771329a4f037a8ecbc6a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Communicative language teaching and socio-cultural competence: An ongoing process Elisabetta Pavan Department of Linguistics and Comparative Cultural Studies Ca‘ Foscari University of Venice, Italy epavan@unive.it Abstract: Communicative language teaching is undoubtfully the most widely adopted teaching approach, however sometimes the learners turn out to be ‘fluent fools‘, especially when the balance between language forms (accuracy/usage) and language functions (fluency/use) are not linked to culture. Culture should not be considered a fifth skill, neither something to be taught deductively, reduced to a list of features to be learned. Culture is always in the background, challenging our ability to make sense of the world around us, so the teacher must raise students‘ awareness and develop a broad communicative competence encompassing linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences, especially when he/she teaches a lingua franca such as English. In this paper I will try to formulate a practical model offering some principles that may prove useful for the development of skills and methods appropriate to a lingua franca speaker, or rather, an intercultural speaker. Thus becoming an intercultural speaker implies developing a solid basis of intercultural awareness, and this implies a shift from description (usually linked to cross-cultural studies), to modelling, in order to design a process of competence building. Descriptions cannot be taught, they can be memorized and are useful only when the right situation appears, while models can be taught and competences, based on models, can be developed and adapted to many different situations. Key Words: intercultural education, pragmatics, language teaching methodology Communicative Language Teaching and communicative competence Communication is defined as an exchange of ideas and information between two or more persons (Crystal 1992, Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary 1980). A communicative system consists of at least three components: a medium, a sender, and a receiver. A message is shaped by the sender, it may be verbal or nonverbal. It is then encoded into the nervous and muscular system. The message leaves the sender and is transmitted via air (ear - spoken mode) or paper (eye - written mode) to the brain of the receiver, where it is decoded and converted into concepts. The communicative approach to language teaching refers to the principle of language as communication. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) dates back to the Seventies and can be considered one of the current dominant methodologies, together with CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In the communicative approach the main purpose of teaching a foreign, or second language, is communication. CLT desired outcome is for the learner to communicate successfully in real situations using the target language, with conscious knowledge of the rules governing that language as a secondary outcome. The goal of language teaching is to develop, in learners, what Hymes (1964, 1972) termed communicative competence, as opposed to Chomsky‘s (1965) theory of competence (linguistic competence vs. performance). Hymes (1972) explained what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent, and assumed that a person who acquires communicative competence will have also acquired both knowledge of and the ability to use the language of communication. The notion of developing learners‘ ability to use language appropriately in sociocultural contexts has been reformulated by later scholars such as Canale and Swain (1980) and van Ek (1986). Their interpretations of communicative competence cover two aspects: linguistic competence and pragmatic competence. Canale and Swain have identified four dimensions in communicative competence: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences. Grammatical competence refers to Chomsky‘s linguistic competence and to Hymes‘ possibility (formally possible); it refers to language codes (grammar and lexis). Sociolinguistic competence refers to 413 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo knowledge and understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, the different relations between and purposes of the actors. It deals with the socio-cultural use of language: a speaker must know how to appropriately use words (vocabulary choice), register, style, in a given situation. Discourse competence encompasses the way meaning is represented, hence how message elements are interpreted and inferred, in the context of the entire discourse or text. Strategic competence implies knowledge of verbal and nonverbal communication strategies, as well as the strategies used to initiate, terminate, maintain and repair a communication. Grammatical competence refers to accuracy and usage, while sociolinguistic competence to fluency and use. According to the Council of Europe (COE 2001), communicative language competence can be considered as comprising several areas: linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic. Each of these components is postulated as comprising, in particular, knowledge and skills and know-how. Hymes (1972) stated that competent speakers should not only be able to generate appropriate sentences but also should be aware that sociolinguistic rules must be included in the analysis of a language, arguing that language study cannot be restricted to discussion of linguistics rules. A speech act refers to the performance of a certain act through words. Olshtain and Cohen (1983) defined sociolinguistic competence as ―the speakers‘ ability to determine the pragmatic appropriateness of a particular speech act in a given context. At the production level it involves the selection of one of several grammatically acceptable forms according to the formality of the situation and to the number of available forms‖. Crystal (1985) affirmed that pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of users, in particular, of the choices they make, of the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and of the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication. Pragmatics is the study of communicative action in its sociocultural context; it includes not only speech acts such as requesting, greeting, and so on, but also participation in conversation, engaging in different types of discourse, and maintaining interaction in complex speech events. Learners of a second language have to learn the conventionalized forms in the new language, as well as specificities of interactional styles. Intercultural communicative competence Intercultural communicative competence widens the concept of communicative competence to include intercultural competence. Appropriateness and effectiveness of communicative actions and of speech acts such as politeness strategies, requesting, greetings, apologizing, are culturally bound. In a foreign language not only does the linguistic realization of the same speech act differ in terms of lexical choices, the intention and the force of the act are different as well. For example, in Italian culture, accepting an offer immediately may be considered impolite, so it is better to refuse at least twice before accepting and, depending on the situation, the refusal may be strong in terms of vehemence. Intercultural competence is the term used to describe the ability to work across cultures with an understanding of cultures on a general level, it includes communication and knowledge of the world. Language teaching and learning involves the knowledge of a new language and in some cases of new contents related to a subject (such as in CLIL methodology). Students must be offered a new frame of reference in terms of culture specific and culture general knowledge and of insights into the way in which culture affects language and communication. The idea of offering foreign language students a structured world-view is not new; it can be traced back to the 17th Century, to Comenius‘ Orbis Pictus. However any representation of the target culture must be carefully constructed: sometimes folkloristic stereotypes may correspond to the traditional way a people see themselves and they can be used, but in order to develop sociocultural knowledge and intercultural skills it is much more productive to consider a model with three components, which Balboni (2006) identified as: • • • software of the mind communication software context software Software of the mind refers to the cultural factors which affect communication during the exchange of messages between two or more people who are pursuing specific goals through communicating with others. This software works like the software in a computer: the user is unaware of it until a warning message appears on the screen. This software is our cultural values. 414 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Communication software refers to the verbal and nonverbal codes in use. The communicator‘s attention is mainly focused on verbal acts, and little or no consideration is given to non-verbal communication, which, in many cases, is (wrongly) thought to be universal. Context software is the socio-pragmatic software which governs the beginning, the direction, and the conclusion of a communicative event (whether monocultural or intercultural). Pragmatic competences are concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources in scenarios or scripts of interactional exchanges and it is very important to stress the major impact of interactions and cultural environments in which such abilities are constructed. Sociolinguistic competences refer to the sociocultural conditions of language use. Highly sensitive to social conventions, the sociolinguistic component strongly affects all language communication between representatives of different cultures, even though participants may often be unaware of its influence. When two strangers lightly bump into each other, if they are British and Mediterranean people they may evaluate this bump similarly in terms of degrees of seriousness, and as a result they may not have similar conceptions as to whether a verbal apology is required. Richards & Sukwiwatt (1983) referred to a situation in which a Japanese learner (JE) has to express gratitude in English to a native speaker (E) may go as follows: E. Look what I‘ve got for you (maybe a gift) JE: Oh! I‘m sorry (thank you does not sound sincere enough in Japanese) E: Why sorry? Indeed Italians often add: ―We must have lunch /a coffee together sometime‖ to their repertoire of leavetaking formulae, which in English are: See you, Take care, Goodbye, and other formal or informal phrases, depending on the situations. But what Italians add is not meant to be a suggestion, it is a formula, and the foreign interlocutor may be puzzled, waiting for an invitation that doesn‘t come. To an offer in English, Italians may answer: ―Yes, thank you‖ instead of ―Yes, please‖ if they don‘t master the offers, refusals and requests speech acts. Intercultural awareness Learners of a second language have to learn the conventionalized forms in the new language, as well as peculiarities of interactional styles. The Council of Europe (2001) has stated that the need for communication presupposes a ‗communication gap‘, which can however be bridged because of the overlap, or partial congruence, between the mental context of the user in focus and the mental context of the interlocutor(s). The effect – and often all or part of the function – of a communicative act is to increase the area of congruence in the understanding of the situation in the interests of effective communication so as to serve the purposes of the participants. Differences in values and beliefs, politeness conventions, social expectations, etc. in terms of which the parties interpret the interaction are more difficult to bridge, unless the latter have acquired the necessary intercultural awareness. In Gass and Neu (1995:2) the following incident is reported: One morning, Mrs. G, a native speaker of English now living in Israel, was doing her daily shopping at the local supermarket. As she was pushing her shopping cart she unintentionally bumped into Mr. Y, a native Israeli. Her natural reaction was to say ―I am sorry‖ (in Hebrew). Mr. Y turned to her and said ―Lady, you could at least apologise.‖ On another occasion the very same Mr. Y. arrived late for a meeting conducted by Mr. W (a native speaker of English) in English. As he walked into the room he said, ―The bus was late‖, and sat down. Mr. W, obviously annoyed, muttered to himself, ―These Israelis, why don‘t they ever apologise!‖ (Olshtain and Cohen, 1989). What the incident tells us is that saying ‗I‘m sorry‘ in Hebrew is considered not strong enough by the native Israeli; on the other hand the native speaker of English cannot decode the words Mr. Y. utters as an apology. In the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) (COE 2001) cultural awareness is defined as: Knowledge, awareness and understanding of the relation (similarities and distinctive differences) between the ‗world of origin‘ and the ‗world of the target community‘ produce an intercultural awareness. It is, of course, important to note that intercultural awareness includes an awareness of regional and social diversity in both worlds. It is also enriched by awareness of a wider range of 415 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo cultures than those carried by the learner‘s L1 and L2. This wider awareness helps to place both of these in context. In addition to objective knowledge, intercultural awareness covers an awareness of how each community appears from the perspective of the other, often in the form of national stereotypes. The intercultural dimension of language education and intercultural competence has been widely researched by Byram and Flemming (1998), Byram (1997), and Byram and Zarate (1997). Communicating in a lingua franca and the intercultural speaker The use of English, or another language, as a lingua franca and the growing awareness that while it might resolve a specific communication problem between people, could not provide a basis for real communication. It is a useful shortcut and may help; nonetheless, according to Crystal (1997) language has no independent existence, it lives in some sort of mystical space apart from the people who speak it. It exists in the brains, mouths, ears, hands and eyes of its users, and when they succeed on the international stage, their language succeeds, and when they fail, their language fails. When two people conversing are from different countries, speaking in a language which is a foreign or a second language for one of them, or which is foreign to both of them, they may still be highly aware of their national identities. This awareness leads to feeling the other is different and such a situation may influence what they say and how they say it, because they see the other person as a representative of a country, or a nation. This focus on national identity, and the accompanying risk of relying on stereotypes, reduces the individual from a complex human being to someone who is seen as representative of a country or ‗culture‘. Regardless of the language, individuals must thus be sensitized to what underlies communication: the fact is that using a lingua franca is not always a suitable or successful solution to all problems. They must learn to cope with the complexities of intercultural communication, where grammatical or lexical correctness, important though they are, may not be the decisive factor in communicative success. Neither may a satisfactory control of language functions be enough (Jackobson 1963; Halliday 1973), however essential it may be. Even a basic generalized knowledge of the foreign language‘s culture may not be a guarantee of success, as it may lead to or enhance existing stereotypes (Steele and Suozzo 1994). Kramsch (1998). According to Byram (2001) linguistic and grammatical competence are part of the process of teaching a foreign language, nonetheless a reflection on the nature of interaction between native speakers of a language and foreign speakers of that language, or between foreign speakers of a language which is serving them as a lingua franca, has led to the recognition that it is neither appropriate nor desirable for learners to model themselves on native speakers with respect to the learning about and understanding another culture. The term intercultural is normative and carries values, as opposed to cross-cultural which is considered neutral, a mere description of elements that may vary in different cultures. Interculturality has moral and ethical dimensions for it incorporates respect for what is different and underlies a contact, a change, in both the sender and the receiver, which, after the encounter, will be an irremediable change (Pavan 2009). Being an intercultural speaker implies being able to engage with complexity and multiple identities, and so avoiding the stereotyping which accompanies perceiving someone through a single identity. It is based on perceiving the interlocutor as an individual whose qualities are to be discovered, rather than as a representative of an externally attributed identity. According to Kramsch (1998) this implies a language learner who acts as a mediator between two cultures, interprets and understands other perspectives, as well as questions what is taken for granted in his/her own society. Byram (2001) affirms that the intercultural speaker is: ―someone who has an ability to interact with ‗others‘, to accept other perspectives and perceptions of the world, to mediate between different perspectives to be conscious of their evaluations of difference (Byram and Zarate, 1997; see also Kramsch, 1998). Where the otherness which learners meet is that of a society with a different language, they clearly need both linguistic competence and intercultural competence‖. He adds that intercultural competence is necessary whether a different language is present or not. 416 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From description to modelling Being an intercultural speaker implies developing a solid intercultural awareness, and the practice described above indicates a shift from description to modelling, in order to design a process of competence building. Descriptions cannot be taught, they can be memorized and are useful only when the right situation appears, while models can be taught and competences, based on models, can be developed and adapted to many different situations (Balboni 2007). Balboni states that a model is a generative framework, i. e. a pattern or a structure which can include all possible occurrences, it is able to generate behaviour and it is often internally structured in a hierarchical manner. He also states that the higher the level of a model, the greater its complexity, which does not necessarily lead to complexity in extensio, but rather in profundis, exactly like a website homepage. and finally he affirms that models are forms of declarative knowledge which must generate procedural knowledge. A model becomes a competence when it is able to generate behaviour, this occurs when the model is applied to a context of performance. Competence cannot be taught, but must be constructed, filling in the elements of the model with the information, declarations and procedures to be used in the performance phase. Balboni concludes that, since intercultural communication competence is a competence, it cannot be taught, nonetheless once a reliable model of it has been provided, it can be built up. Respect for cultural models is central to developing cultural awareness, a knowledge sometimes taken for granted. However it is often difficult to understand one‘s own models because we tend to assume our behaviour is natural and do not realise it is conditioned by our culture(s). Balboni‘s (2007) explanation leads to performance, and to intercultural awareness, which is the foundation of communication and involves the ability to stand back from ourselves and become aware of our cultural values, beliefs and perceptions, crucial knowledge we must have when interacting with people from other cultures. As the Council of Europe (2001) states, intercultural awareness is the knowledge, awareness and understanding of the relation (similarities and distinctive differences) between the ‗world of origin‘ and the ‗world of the target community.‘ The model of intercultural communication competence proposed in Balboni (2007) has already been described above, these are the three components that are crucial to a model of intercultural communication competence. Adopting Hofstede‘s (1991) metaphor, they are:  software of the mind, which refers to the cultural factors which affect communication;  communication software, which refers to the codes used, both verbal and nonverbal;  context software, which refers to the socio-pragmatic software that governs the beginning, the course and the conclusion of an interaction, of a communicative event as described by Hymes (1972). The first two elements, cultural and communicative, constitute the competence, the ability to do something, while the third, the ‗context software‘ makes it possible to move from competence to performance, the setting where ‗real‘ communication occurs. Conclusion In a world of change, where people are more and more mobile, where travel and communication are available at low prices to increasing numbers of travellers, the marketplace is global and the presence of non-native (foreign) students is a solid reality in the classroom, foreign language education must become intercultural. Foreign language education is, by definition, intercultural, since introducing a foreign language in a classroom implies connecting the students to a new world. Furthermore the primary goal of foreign language education should be real-life communication and the developing of critical-thinking skills in a variety of situations. Thus the challenge is that of promoting the teaching of foreign languages and the acquisition of intercultural competencies within a framework where the issue should be, as far as possible, learning by doing. If valid communication and co-operation are to exist, language teaching should also contribute to an active, critical understanding of each person‘s own culture and of the others‘ cultures too. 417 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Balboni, P.E. (2007). La comunicazione Interculturale. Venezia: Marsilio. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (2001). ―Introduction‖. In Byram et al. (Eds.), Developing Intercultural Competence in Practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 1-8. Byram, M. & Fleming, M. (Eds.). (1998). Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective: Approaches through Drama and Ethnography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Byram, M. & Zarate, G. (Eds.). (1997). The Sociocultural and Intercultural Dimension of Language Learning and Teaching. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). The theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1 (1), 1-47. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Boston: MIT Press. Cohen, A. D. & Olshtain, E. (1981). Developing a measure of socio-cultural competence: The case of apology. Language Learning, 31(1), 113-134. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Crystal, D. (1985). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Crystal, D. (1992). An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Language and Languages. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gass, S.M. & Neu, J. (Eds.). (1995). Speech Acts across Cultures: Challenges to communication in a Second Language. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Halliday, M. 1973. Explorations in the functions of language. London: Edward Arnold. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hymes D. (1972). On communicative competence, in Pride J.B. & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 269-293. Hymes, Dell (Ed.). (1964). Language in culture and society. New York: Harper and Row. Jackobson, R. (1963). Essais de linguistique générale. Paris: Editions de Minuit. Kramsch, K. (1998). The privilege of the intercultural speaker. In M. Byram & M. Fleming (Eds.), Language learning in intercultural perspective: approaches through drama and ethnography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 16–31. Newmark, L. (1966). How not to interfere with language Teaching. In C.J. Brumfit & K. Johnson (Eds.), The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Olshtain, E. & Cohen, A. D. (1983). Apology: A speech act set. In N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language acquisition. Rowley: Newbury House, 18-35. Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (1980). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 418 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pavan, E. (2009). Communicating in the Mediterranean Area: a Matter of Cultural Awareness. International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies, 2, (1), 121-139 Richards, J. C. & Sukwiwat, M. (1983). Language Transfer and Conversational Competence. Applied Linguistics 4 (2). 113-125. Steele R. & Suozzo A. (1994). Teaching French culture: Theory and practice. Lincolnwood: National Textbook. van Ek, J. A. (1986). Objectives for foreign language learning. (Vol. 1): Scope. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. 419 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 61 Title A name given to the resource Communicative language teaching and socio-cultural competence: An ongoing process Author Author Pavan, Elisabetta Abstract A summary of the resource. Communicative language teaching is undoubtfully the most widely adopted teaching approach, however sometimes the learners turn out to be ‘fluent fools‘, especially when the balance between language forms (accuracy/usage) and language functions (fluency/use) are not linked to culture. Culture should not be considered a fifth skill, neither something to be taught deductively, reduced to a list of features to be learned. Culture is always in the background, challenging our ability to make sense of the world around us, so the teacher must raise students‘ awareness and develop a broad communicative competence encompassing linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences, especially when he/she teaches a lingua franca such as English. In this paper I will try to formulate a practical model offering some principles that may prove useful for the development of skills and methods appropriate to a lingua franca speaker, or rather, an intercultural speaker. Thus becoming an intercultural speaker implies developing a solid basis of intercultural awareness, and this implies a shift from description (usually linked to cross-cultural studies), to modelling, in order to design a process of competence building. Descriptions cannot be taught, they can be memorized and are useful only when the right situation appears, while models can be taught and competences, based on models, can be developed and adapted to many different situations. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1d0e8b168c49cc12aa4d1305781245b7.pdf 15e6a8034e20e126680ac7fbe3ef62bc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LeksiĦke greške u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika Deja PiletiĤ Faculty of Philosophy, NikńiĤ University of Montenegro, Montenegro dejacet@t-com.me Abstract: This paper deals with classification and explanation of the reasons of the most frequent lexical errors which occur in the translations of the undergraduate students of the Department of Italian Language and Literature (University of Montenegro). The corpus of the research consists of the written translations from the Italian as a foreign language into the Montenegrin as a mother tongue. The translations have been made in class, at home and during the exams on the second and the third year of the mentioned courses of undergraduate studies. Key words: pedagogical translation, translation, lexical errors, error analysis Ovaj rad nastoji da razvrsta, opińe i objasni najĦeńĤe leksiĦke greńke koje se srijeĤu u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika i predstavlja dio jednog sveobuhvatnijeg istraņivanja, koje ima za cilj analizu i klasifikaciju najuĦestalijih prevodnih greńaka karakteristiĦnih za razliĦite jeziĦke nivoe. Korpus na kome se navedeno istraņivanje sprovodi obuhvata prevode studenata II i III godine osnovnih studija na Odsjeku za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. U nastojanju da pribliņimo kontekst spomenutog istraņivanja, u uvodnom dijelu rada reĤi Ĥemo neńto o ńkolskom prevoħenju i o ciljevima koji se njegovom primjenom u nastavi ņele postiĤi. 1. Školsko prevoħenje i školski prevod Iako je u okvirima razliĦitih lingvistiĦkih teorija i glotodidaktiĦkih metoda Ħesto dovoħen u pitanje, dugotrajan i kompleksan odnos izmeħu prevoħenja i nastave stranih jezika nikad nije u potpunosti prekinut, a gledano iz perspektive savremenih nauĦnih saznanja Ħini se da je ovaj odnos prirodan, te da do njegovog prekida ne moņe i ne treba ni da doħe. ĥak i kada je, u jeku popularnosti audiovizuelnog metoda i prilikom raħanja komunikativnog pristupa, prevoħenje u svakom svom obliku bilo odbacivano iz nastave stranih jezika, ono nikad nije u potpunosti napustilo nastavni proces, posebno kada je u pitanju izuĦavanje jezika na univerzitetskom nivou. Danas je sve veĤi broj autora, koji nastoje da uklone talog nevjerice i nepovjerenja u odnosu na prevoħenje u didaktici stranih jezika za Ħije je nastajanje odgovorna upravo njegova neumjerena i neadekvatna upotreba u okvirima i u maniru gramatiĦko-prevodnog metoda. ZasnivajuĤi svoje stavove i argumente na rezultatima modernih istraņivanja na polju nauke o prevoħenju, kognitivne lingvistike i metodike nastave, ovi autori58 pozivaju na preispitivanje i ponovno vrednovanje znaĦaja, uloge i mjesta prevoħenja u savremenoj glotodidaktici. Oni na razliĦite naĦine nastoje da dokaņu da, ukoliko se primjenjuje na pravi naĦin, s pravim ciljem i u pravoj mjeri, prevoħenje moņe da bude od velike koristi i da pruņi odliĦne rezultate u uĦenju i nastavi stranih jezika. PojaĦano interesovanje za prevoħenje, naroĦito u posljednje tri decenije, povezano je, meħutim, ne samo sa njegovom didaktiĦkom ulogom veĤ i sa njegovom didaktikom. Naime, s poveĤanjem svijesti o znaĦaju prevoħenja, ubrzano se razvija nauka o prevoħenju, a sama djelatnost uzdignuta je na akademski nivo. Profesionalnim prevodiocem postaje se, dakle, sticanjem univerzitetske diplome mahom specijalistiĦkih i postdiplomskih studija, a prevoħenje se doņivljava kao vjeńtina za koju nije dovoljan samo prirodni talenat, veĤ koja se stiĦe kombinovanjem teorijskih znanja i prakse. Dakle, u kontekstu prevoħenja i nastave moņemo govoriti o prevoħenju kao „sredstvu― i prevoħenju kao „cilju―, o ńkolskom (gloto-didaktičkom) odnosno profesionalnom (stručno-didaktičkom) prevoħenju, tj. o 58 Calvi (2003), Gonzales Davies (2004), Sewell (2004), Carreres (2006), Di Sabato (2007), Landone (2008), House (2009), itd. 350 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo prevoħenju u funkciji jeziĦke vjeņbe, provjere znanja i objańnjenja pojedinih jeziĦkih sadrņaja59 na jednoj i prevodilaĦkoj kompetenciji kao svrsi i glavnom cilju upotrebe prevoħenja u nastavnom procesu na drugoj strani. U istom kontekstu pravi se razlika izmeħu ńkolskog i profesionalnog prevoda. Naime, preneseno na univerzitetski nivo sticanja znanja iz jezika odnosno iz prevoħenja, studentski prevod koji nastaje kao proizvod prevoħenja na osnovnim univerzitetskim studijama bliņi je ńkolskom, dok je studenstki prevod na specijalistiĦkim ili master studijama prevoħenja bliņi profesionalnom, iako se sa njim joń uvijek ne moņe poistovjetiti. Pojedini autori insinsistiraju na jasnoj distinkciji izmeħu gloto-didaktiĦkog i struĦno-didaktiĦkog prevoħenja. Ne ņeleĤi da negiramo razliku, koja nesumnjivo postoji, mi dijelimo mińljenje onih koji dovode u pitanje potrebu i uopńte moguĤnost povlaĦenja ońtre granice izmeħu njih 60. Naime, upotrebom ńkolskog prevoħenja, koje svakako prethodi profesionalnom, kroz praktiĦan rad61, zajedno sa jeziĦkim, studenti se po prirodi stvari istovremeno upuĤuju u prevodilaĦki proces i neizbjeņno upoznaju neke od osnovnih prevodilaĦkih vjeńtina. To, po nańem mińljenju, svakako treba posmatrati kao dodatnu korist. Na ovakvom stavu zasnovani su i ciljevi vjeņbi prevoħenja u okviru osnovnih studija na Katedri za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. 2. Ciljevi školskog prevoħenja sa stranog na maternji jezik Dva su osnovna cilja koja se ņele postiĤi ovom vrstom prevoħenja: - Usvajanje, upotreba, utvrħivanje i prońirivanje znanja koja se tiĦu italijanskog jezika i kulture; - Usmjeravanje studenata ka sticanju sposobnosti reprodukovanja ciljnog teksta funkcionalno ekvivalentnog sa izvornim. Iako je drugi od navedena dva cilja vezan prije svega za pofesionalno prevoħenje i podrazumijeva vladanje vińim stupnjevima jeziĦke kompetencije, smatramo da ga nije nemoguĤe dostiĤi ni na nivou o kojem mi ovdje govorimo. Treba imati u vidu, naime, da je ovdje rijeĦ o prevoħenju autorskih tekstova 62 (kraĤi odlomci iz savrmenih knjiņevnih djela i novinskih Ħlanaka) Ħiji je izbor uslovljen predviħenim nivoom jeziĦke kompetencije studenata druge, odnosno treĤe godine osnovnih studija Italijanistike. Tome ide u prilog i Ħinjenica da se prevodi na maternji jezik, pa se pretpostavlja sposobnost studenta-prevodioca i da intuitivno bira elemente iz jeziĦkog repertoara sopstvenog jezika. Gore navedeni ciljevi, dakle, podrazumijevaju:  razvoj jeziĦkog znanja na svim nivoima;  razvoj kompetencije razumijevanja pisanog teksta;  usavrńavanje kompetencija vezanih za maternji jezik;  upuĤivanje studenata ka nekim od osnovnih nivoa prevodilaĦke kompetencije: -upoznavanje sa prvim koracima u pocesu povezivanja izvornog i ciljnog teksta; -razvijanje kreativnosti, upornosti, samokritike, samouvjerenosti; razvijanje autonomije; -razvijanje sposobnosti da se prepoznaju pojedini prevodilaĦki problemi i sposobnosti njihovog prevazilaņenja; -upoznavanje studenata sa razliĦitim savremenim prevodilaĦkim pomagalima i sa njihovom upotrebom. Treba svakako napomenuti da su ciljevi ovdje predstavljeni uopńteno, te da se u zavisnosti od nivoa studija (II ili III godina) prednost daje jednima u odnosu na druge. 59 Eksplikativno prevoħenje. U tom smislu slaņemo se sa Carreresovom:―Modern language departments cannot and should not try to double up as translator training institutions. However, I believe that bringing classroom work closer to the professional world can only be of benefit to our students. In my view, the divide between the teaching of translation as a language learning tool and as a professional activity has been overemphasized to the point of preventing useful dialogue and exchange‖. (Carreres 2006:12) 61 Nagalńavamo kroz praktičan rad iz razloga ńto na osnovnim studijama nijesu predviħeni predmeti koji se tiĦu opńte teorije prevoħenja, prevodilaĦkih tehnika, analize teksta i sl, a koji se podrazumijevaju na kursevima za obuĦavanje profesionalnih prevodilaca. 62 Suprotno od gramatiĦko-prevodnog matoda koji podrazumijeva prevoħenje vjeńtaĦkih, dekontekstualizovanih reĦenica, ili tekstova nastalih u namjeri da se izvjeņba odreħeno gramatiĦko pravilo. 60 351 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Evaluacija školskog prevoda Evaluacija tj. provjera kvaliteta prevoda kljuĦni je pojam koji se tiĦe kako ńkolskog tako i profesionalnog prevoħenja. BuduĤi da ove dvije vrste prevoħenja u osnovi imaju razliĦite ciljeve, razliĦitu publiku i razliĦite „ocjenjivaĦe‖, ocjena kvaliteta prevoda kao njihovih ishoda zasniva se na razliĦitim kriterijumima i nema istu svrhu. Ranije u tekstu smo spomenuli da je jedna od funkcija pedagońkog prevoħenja provjera znanja i napretka kod studenata u dostizanju ciljeva odreħenih nastavnim planom. Ova provjera ne podrazumijeva uvijek dodjelu ocjena i kredita, ona se sprovodi tokom cijele ńkolske godine kako bi usmjerila dalji rad kako studenata, tako i profesora. U namjeri da, izmeħu ostalog, utvrdimo i koje su to najvece prepreke na putu ka postizanju navedenih ciljeva, pokrenuli smo nańe istraņivanje na korpusu studentskih prevoda. Ovom prilikom, baviĤemo se, kao ńto smo na samom poĦetku rekli, najĦeńĤim leksiĦkim greńkama i njihovim uzrocima. 4. Korpus studentskih prevoda Korpus istraņivanja Ħine studentski prevodi raħeni na kolokvijumima, pismenim vjeņbama, zavrńnim ispitima i pismenim domaĤim i ńkolskim zadacima, u toku ńkolske 2008/2009. i 2010/2011. godine. RijeĦ je o prevodima odlomaka savremenih knjiņevnih djela i novinskih Ħlanaka, prilagoħenih planiranom i pretpostavljenom nivou jeziĦke i, uslovno reĦeno, prevodilaĦke kompetencije, studenata druge i treĤe godine. Od prevodilaĦkih pomagala na ispitima i kolokvijuma studenti se koriste jednojeziĦkim rjeĦnicima, prilikom rada na Ħasu raspolaņu i pristupom internetu. 5. Binarne i ne-binarne greške U teņnji da napravi razliku izmeħu prevodilaĦkih i jeziĦkih greńaka u studentskim prevodima, Antony Pym (1992:280) nudi jednu opńtu podjelu na „binarne― (binary) i „ne-binarne― greńke (non-binary errors). Ova podjela zasnovana je na autorovoj opńtoj definiciji prevodilaĦke kompetencije, koja po njemu predstavlja jednistvo sljedeĤe dvije vjeńtine: -vjeńtine stvaranja niza ciljnih tekstova - target texts (TT1, TT2...TTn) kao ekvivalenata za jedan izvorni tekst – source text (ST) i -vjeńtine izdvajanja samo jednog iz spomenutog niza ciljnih telstova, u odnosu na posebnu namjenu i ciljnu publiku izvornog teksta. Osnovna razlika izmeħu ove dvije vrste greńaka je sljedeĤa: „binarne― greńke uzrokovane su izborom pogreńnog odgovora, a „ne-binarne― ne predstavljaju pogreńan odgovor, veĤ samo jedan od moguĤih, ali ne i najprihvatljiviji. A binary error opposes a wrong answer to the right answer; non-binarism requires that the TT actually selected be opposed to at least one further TT1 which could also have been selected, and then to possible wrong answers. For binarism, there is only right and wrong, for non-binarism, there are at least two right answers and then the wrong ones. (Pym 1992: 282) 5.1. Binarne greške LeksiĦke greńke koje Ĥemo analizirati na korpusu studentskih prevoda, prema ovoj podjeli, spadaju najveĤim dijelom u „binarne― greńke, tj. greńke uzrokovane pogreńnim prevodom odreħene rijeĦi ili izraza u datom kontekstu. Pod pogreńnim prevodom u ovom sluĦaju podrazumijevamo potpunu promjenu znaĦenja rijeĦi. NajrazliĦitije uzroke ove vrste greńaka mogli bismo svesti na pet opńtih: -nedovoljno vladanje kompetencijom Ħitanja tj. razumijevanja teksta63; -praznine u jeziĦkom znanju na razliĦitim nivoima (sintaktiĦkom, leksiĦkom, morfolońkom); -stvaranje laņnih parova/laņnih prijatelja/kalkova -nedovoljno razvijene neke od osnovih prevodilaĦkih potkompetencija (prije svega vjeńtine pravilne upotrebe prevodilaĦkih pomagala) i osobina poput istrajnosti i preciznosti; -praznine u enciklopedijskom znanju (znanje iz opńte kulture), neobavijeńtenost. 5.2. Ne-binarne greške 63 Evropski jeziĦki portfolio (Little, Perclova 2003: 116, 120) za nivoe jeziĦke kompetencije B2 i C1, Ħije je dostizanje predviħeno u toku II i III godine osnovnih studija, kada je u pitanju vjeńtina Ħitanja, podrazumijeva, izmeħu ostalih i sljedeĤe sposobnosti: „Mogu da razumijem Ħlanke i izvjeńtaje o aktuelnim temama u kojima se izraņavaju posebni stavovi i brane odreħene pozicije. Mogu da razumijem specijalizovane Ħlanke izvan mog domena, pod uslovom da mogu s vremena na vrijeme da se posluņim rjeĦnikom― odnosno: „Sa lakoĤom mogu da Ħitam savremene knjiņevne tekstove. Mogu da prepoznam druńtveni, politiĦki ili istorijski kontekst nekog knjiņevnog djela. Mogu da se udaljim od fabule u nekom literarnom teksu i prepoznam poruke, ideje i implicitne odnose. Mogu da razumijem kompleksne tekstove izvjesne duņine―. 352 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Na istom korpusu uoĦili smo i „ne-binarne― greńke tj. one koje su, uslovno reĦeno, vińe prevodilaĦke nego jeziĦke prirode. Za nańu analizu one su takoħe bitne, buduĤi da prevoħenje na univerzitetskim studijama jezika, kao ńto smo ranije napomenuli, podrazumijeva i upuĤivanje studenata u proces prevoħenja i u neke od osnovnih prevodilaĦkih tehnika. U ovu vrstu greńaka moņemo svrstati prevode koji naruńavaju stil ciljnog teksta, ili njegovu pragmatiĦku funkciju, ali ne i njegov smisao. ĥesta pojava u studentskim prevodima jeste i izostavljanje pojedinih rijeĦi i suprotno, dodavanje vińe varijanti prevoda jedne iste rijeĦi. Uzroke nastanka ovih greńaka pronalazimo u nedostatku upornosti, istrajnosti, kreativnosti i samouvjerenosti, osobina koje podrazumijeva prevodilaĦka kompetencija. 6. Omaške Nepreciznost, brzopletost, dekoncentrisanost stoje u osnovi omańki. Ove izazivaju pogreńan prevod, koji polazeĤi sa nivoa rijeĦi nerijetko uzrokuje niz greńaka na razliĦitim jeziĦkim nivoima. Na ovaj naĦin kao proizvod prevodilaĦkog procesa dobijamo tekst sa promijenjenim smislom, ili joń ĦeńĤe, tekst lińen smisla. 7. Klasifikacija leksiĦkih grešaka prema uzroku nastanka U prethodnom poglavlju nastojali smo da pobrojimo opńte uzroke nastanka jeziĦkih i prevodilaĦkih greńaka i omańki na nivou leksike. Sada Ĥemo nastojati da ih klasifikujemo nezavisno od njihove prirode i teņine. U ovu klasifikaciju Ĥemo uvrstiti i omańke, s obzirom da imaju ozbiljne posljedice po smisao ciljnog teksta. Sve Ĥemo potkrijepiti primjerima pronaħenim u okviru istraņivaĦkog korpusa. LeksiĦke greńke o kojima je rijeĦ karakterińu oba prethodno spomenuta nivoa uĦenja jezika. NeĤemo, meħutim, praviti poreħenja u cilju utvrħivanja koje su od njih prisutnije na niņem, odnosno na vińem nivou. To ostavljamo za neku drugu priliku. Neophodno je takoħe napomenuti da je u priliĦno velikom broju sluĦajeva leksiĦka greńka uzrokovana spregom vińe razliĦitih uzroka, kao i to da jedna greńka Ħesto za sobom vuĦe niz drugih. To Ĥe se uostalom vidjeti i u samim primjerima. 7.1. Stvaranje laţnih parova Kod Ivira (1984: 106) nailazimo na sljedeĤu definiciju: „Laņni parovi su parovi jeziĦnih (ne samo leksiĦkih) jedinica u dva razna jezika koje imaju neńto zajedniĦkog, ali nisu u svemu jednake―. Isti autor dalje navodi: „DjelimiĦna sliĦnost jeziĦkih jedinica na kojoj prevodilac gradi svoje shvaĤanje o njihovoj jednakosti moņe biti u sliĦnosti oblika [...], zatim u zajedniĦkom metajeziĦkom nazivu koji obuhvaĤa obje jedinice [...], te napokon u nekim, ali ne svim aspektima semantiĦkog sadrņaja [...]―. Laņni parovi su najizrazitiji upravo na nivou leksike. Ivir (1984: 108-122) navodi sljedeĤe vrste laņnih parova koje odlikuje isti ili sliĦan oblik: 1. Laņni parovi s jednakim znaĦenjima 2. Laņni parovi sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjima 3. Laņni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem u znaĦenju 4. Izmińljeni parovi 7.1.1. Laţni parovi sa istim znaĦenjem To su parovi rijeĦi dva razliĦita jezika koje imaju sliĦan oblik i isto znaĦenje, ńto, meħutim, ne znaĦi da ih odlikuje ista upotrebna vrijednost i kolokacijski potencijal tj. moguĤnost kombinovanja sa drugim rijeĦima i stvaranje manje ili vińe Ħvrstih leksiĦkih sklopova. (Ivir:108). laņni par izraz karakteristiĦan za netaĦan prevod predloņeno rjeńenje lansirati alarm diĤi uzbunu italijanski novinski jezik lanciare – lansirati allarme - alarm lanciare l'allarme (II i III god.) LeksiĦki parovi sa istim/sliĦnim oblikom i istim znaĦenjem Ħesto pripadaju tzv. internacionalizmima – rijeĦima koje su Ħesto oba jezika preuzela iz nekog treĤeg. Ukoliko se ne radi o struĦnim tekstovima, stilskom nivou ciljnog teksta najĦeńĤe odgovara domaĤi termin (pod pretpostavkom da postoji). Evo nekoliko primjera takvih parova koje nalazimo na obraħenom korpusu: 353 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo internacionalizmi primjer moguĤa prevodna rjeńenja internazionale: ...l'agenzia internazionale per l'energia atomica... ...internacionalna (bolje: meĎunarodna) agencija za atomsku energiju...(III god) contaminare: ...il tratto immediatamente antistante ...pojas neposredno preko kontaminirati la centrale di Fukushima [...] zagaditi è fortemente contaminato. puta centrale u Fukuńimi [...] jako je internacionalni meħunarodni kontaminiran (bolje: zagaĎen). (III god.) SliĦno je i sa primjerom: adolescenza - adolescencija (pubertet), immaginazione-imaginacija (mašta) i sl. 7.1.2. Laţni parovi sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjima To su parovi koji imaju sliĦan oblik, ali im se znaĦenja ne preklapaju. (Ivir: 109) laņni par reĦenica netaĦan prevod Se accetti oltre Stipendio- stipendija ad avere un aumento notevole stipendio... di Ako prihvatiń, osim ńto Ĥeń imati znaĦajno veĤu stipendiju... (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Ako prihvatiń, osim ńto Ĥeń imati znaĦajno veĤu platu... SliĦno je i sa pogreńnim prevodnim sparivanjima poput: frase-fraza, evidenziare-evidentirati i sl. na koje smo naińli prilikom analize nańeg korpusa. Ova vrsta greńaka ne nastaje, meħutim samo usljed homonimije/homofonije meħu rijeĦima maternjeg i stranog jezika koji se uĦi, veĤ moņe nastati i usljed negativne interferencije iz nekog drugog stranog jezika kojim studenti (djelimiĦno ili u potpunosti) vladaju: caldo-cold (engl.), parente- parent (engl.), matto- mattar (španski) itd. laņni par reĦenica Matto - lud Il re che andava matto per quella figliuola... Mattar - ubiti 7.1.3. netaĦan prevod Kralj, koji bi ubio zbog te djevojĦice... (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Kralj, koji je bio lud za tom djevojĦicom... Laţni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem u znaĦenju Kako Ivir (111) navodi, laņni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem znaĦenja rijetko se spominju kao laņni parovi, ali su ipak oni potencijalno daleko opasniji kao izvor prevodnih greńaka nego pravi laņni parovi. Ovu Ħinjenicu autor objańnjava psiholońkim razlozima koji su, kada je u pitanju pogreńno poistovjeĤivanje leksiĦkih 354 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo jedinica iz dva jezika znatno jaĦi nego u sluĦaju laņnih parova sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjem, buduĤi da, kako on kaņe, ovdje djeluje i pritisak sliĦnog oblika i zajedniĦkog dijela znaĦenja. predloņeno rjeńenje laņni par primjer iz prevoda netaĦan prevod studio-studio A lanciare l'allarme è Na uzbunu poziva Na uzbunu poziva jedan studio uno studio di Nielsen Media. jedno istraţivanje/jedna studija Nielsen Media. (II god.) Insegno da anni Godinama predajem Godinama predajem u in un istituto tecnico u jednom jednoj tehničkoj školi istituto-institut kompanije „Nielsen Media― tehničkom institutu (III god.) [...] alla fine dell'anno ...ako neki student ...ako neki učenik nije dobro prońao nije dobro prońao... se uno studente iz nekog predmeta – iz nekog predmeta – non va bene in una primjera radi iz primjera radi iz materia - per esempio in matematica- supera matematike – prelazi u matematike – prelazi u studente- student l'anno con un «debito». naredni razred sa jednim naredni razred sa jednim „dugovanjem― „dugovanjem― .(II god.) Ovaj sluĦaj ilustruju i parovi poput: tecnico-tehničar, impianto-implant i sl. 7.1.4. Izmišljeni laţni parovi O ovoj vrsti laņnih parova Ivir (115) kaņe sljedeĤe: Prevodioci su ponekad spremni, pogotovu kada prevode na strani jezik kojim ne vladaju dosta dobro stvoriti leksiĦki par u stranom jeziku po uzoru na rijeĦ svojega maternjeg jezika, u punom uvjerenju (bez provjeravanja!) da ta rijeĦ doista postoji u tom stranom jeziku. U nekim sluĦajevima to znaĦi stvaranje cijele rijeĦi, a u drugima samo pogreńno spajanje pojedinih djelova rijeĦi – obiĦno sufiksa i prefiksa s osnovom. Ova pojava se, meħutim, moņe sresti i u prevodima na maternji jezik. data rijeĦ nepostojeĤi oblik prevod collaboratore kolaborator (II god.) saradnik irriverente iriverentan (III god.) drzak; neuĦtiv carbone karbon (III god.) ugalj 355 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Za graħenje nepostojeĤih rijeĦi u prva dva od navedenih primjera najvjerovatnije je odgovorna analogija nańeg imeniĦkog sufiksa -ator i pridjevskog sufiksa –entan sa italijasnkim sufiksima –tore i -ente koji imaju zajedniĦko porijeklo u latinskom jeziku. Naime, sufiks–ator, kao i njegov italijanski „roħak― – tore, koriste se za izvoħenje imenica sa znaĦenjem vrńioca radnje. Tako je, vjerovatno pod uticajem pravih parova poput: comunicatore-komunikator, coordinatore-koordinator i sl. Nastao izmińljeni par: collaboratore-kolaborator. SliĦno je i sa pridjevom irriverentan. Student ni ne dovodi u pitanje postojanje ovog pridjeva u svom maternjem jeziku. On mu naprosto „dobro zvuĦi― buduĤi da sliĦni parovi veĤ postoje (irrilevante - irelevantan, latente latentan, trasparente-transparentan i sl.) 7.2. Greške usljed pogrešnog izbora znaĦenja rijeĦi u kontekstu reĦenica ...i tecnici giapponesi hanno ora cambiato strategia e smesso di irrorare i noccioli con acqua di mare, per il timore che il sale corroda gli impianti. pogreńan prevod ...japanski tehničari su sada promijenili strategiju i prestali da kvase lješnike morskom vodom iz straha da Ĥe so nagristi biljke64 (III god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...japanski stručnjaci su sada promijenili strategiju i prestali da kvase jezgra [nuklearnih postrojenja] morskom vodom iz straha da Ĥe so izazvati koroziju postrojenja. Osim ńto ukazuju na neadekvatnu upotrebu rjeĦnika, ove greńke su pokazatelj nemara i povrńnosti kod studenata, koji prevode izvorni tekst preskaĦuĤi i prvu i posljednju fazu prevodilaĦkog procesa tj. Ħitanje sa razumijevanjem, odnosno provjeru gotovog prevoda. To potvrħuje Ħinjenica da ovakve prevode vrlo Ħesto karakterińe odsustvo ikakvog smisla. Postavlja se pitanje kako prevaziĤi ovu vrstu greńaka. BuduĤi da se rad studenata kod kuĤe ne moņe nadgledati, preostaje vrijeme provedeno na Ħasu tokom kojeg se oni moraju „natjerati― da se u velikoj mjeri posvete analizi samog teksta i utvrħivanju problema, prije nego ńto poĦnu da prevode. 7.3. Greške uzrokovane zamjenom hiperonima i hiponima KarakteristiĦan primjer za ilustraciju ove vrste greńaka jeste italijanska imenica uomo, koja oznaĦava ljudsku vrstu (čovjek), ali i njenog pripadnika muńkog pola (muškarac). SliĦno je i sa italijanskom imenicom: bestia koja oznaĦava ņivotinjsku vrstu uopńte, a moņe da ima i uņe znaĦenje: stoka, dok se u sintagmi, Ħiji drugi element biva Ħesto izostavljen: bestia (feroce), prevodi nańom imenicom: zvijer. Navedena znaĦenja u studentskim prevodima Ħesto bivaju zamijenjena. reĦenica ...E non soltanto gli uomini si disinteressano di questo spettacolo ma anche le bestie. pogreńan prevod ...Ne samo da se za ovaj dogaħaj ne interesuju muškarci veĤ ni zvijeri. (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...ne samo da se ljudi ne iteresuju za ovaj dogaħaj, veĤ ni ţivotinje. ...Tu abbracciatelo bene, baciagli l'orecchio che gli uomini perdono la testa quando gli baci l'orecchio... ...Ti ga snaņno zagrli, poljubi ga u uho, jer ljudi gube glavu kad im ljubiń uho. (III god.) Ti ga snaņno zagrli, poljubi ga u uho, jer muškarci gube glavu kad im ljubiń uho. 7.4. Greške uzrokovane nepoznavanjem sintaktiĦkih i tvorbenih svojstava rijeĦi reĦenica In quel tempo ero innamorato di mia di moglie: rotonda, 64 pogreńan prevod Tada sam bio zaljubljen u svoju ņenu: okruglastu, blijedu, predloņeno rjeńenje Tada sam bio zaljubljen u svoju ņenu onako privlačnu bijele puti, rumenu i s oblinama O ovoj vrsti greńaka vidi u poglavlju 7.6. 356 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bianca e rosa, appetitosa. ...per assistere alla levata del sole rumenu, halapljivu/dobrog apetita (II god.) ...da bismo pomogli izlasku sunca (II god.) ...da bismo prisustvovali izlasku sunca U prvom primjeru voljena supruga umjesto epiteta: privlačna, poţeljna dobija epitet halapljiva, zato ńto u osnovi izvedenog pridjeva student prepoznaje imenicu appetito (apetit), ne obraĤajuĤi paņnju na sufiks -oso koji joj donosi novo, pridjevsko, znaĦenje. Ova greńka povlaĦi za sobom i greńku u odabiru prevoda za pridjev rotonda. Naime, ako je veĤ „dobrog apetita―, onda je dama o kojoj se govori prirodno i okruglasta, buckasta, debeljuškasta ili elegantno popunjena (II godina). Drugi primjer ilustruje nerazlikovanje prelaznih i neprelaznih oblika pojedinih glagola, pa samim tim i njihovih znaĦenja. 7.5. Greške uzrokovane prevoħenjem metodom rijeĦ za rijeĦ Doslovni prevodi najĦeńĤi su uzrok greńaka na frazeolońkom nivou i na nivou stila, a vrlo Ħesto naruńavaju i smisao prevoda. reĦenica Ho messo l'occhio allo spioncino... ...aveva alzato un po' troppo il gomito. Per questo aveva dormito sodo netaĦan prevod Stavila sam oko na ńpijunku...(III god.) ...malo je previńe podigao lakat, pa je zato tvrdo spavao. (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Pogledala sam kroz ńpijunku... ...malo je više popio, pa je zbog toga čvrsto spavao. 7.6. LeksiĦke greške uzrokovane „unutarjeziĦkim― formalnim sliĦnostima izmeħu pojedinih rijeĦi Ovakve greńke najvjerovatnije nastaju usljed sliĦnosti po zvuku izmeħu rijeĦi Ħije je znaĦenje student ranije usvojio i neke druge rijeĦi iz nje izvedene ili jednostavno samo po obliku sa njom sliĦne, ali potpuno drugaĦijeg znaĦenja. reĦenica ...uno scrittore che ritiene gli uomini discendenti dagli spiriti netaĦan prevod ... pisac koji zadrţava/drţi ljude... (III god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...pisac koji smatra da su ljudi potekli od duhova... uzrok greńke - sliĦnost: ritenere – rattenere/detenere U analiziranom korpusu naińli smo na veliki broj sliĦnih primjera: campus-campo, zotico-esotico, sentiero-sentimento, complesso-complicazione, impianto-pianta itd. 7.7. Greške do kojih dolazi uslijed nepaţljivog Ħitanja teksta Iako spadaju u omańke, ovakve nepaņnje Ħesto potpuno obesmisle prevod utiĦuĤi dalje na krajnji ishod prevoħenja. reĦenica netaĦan prevod taĦan prevod uzrok greńke: La regina era morta di parto Kraljica djelimično god.) Kraljica je umrla na poroĎaju parto-parte je bila mrtva (II Po istom principu pramenovi kose Tine Tarner u jednom prevodu postaju „...sjajni i crni kao ugljenik― (lucidi e neri come carbone/ carbonio) (III god.). 7.8. Greške uzrokovane pogrešnim odabirom registra u ciljnom tekstu Ova vrsta greńke moņe da se javi na raznim nivoima u tekstu. Mijeńanje registara nije nińta manja greńka od pogreńnog odabira registra na nivou teksta kao cjeline. U ovom sluĦaju govorimo o leksiĦkim greńkama Ħiji uzrok leņi u pogreńnoj registarskoj obojenosti koja nije u skladu sa pragmatiĦkom funkcijom izvornog niti ciljnog teksta. 357 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo reĦenica C'era una volta un Re che aveva una bimba. La regina era morta di parto, e il Re aveva preso una balia che gli allattasse la piccina… A Vittorio Emanuele le donne belle, alte [...] erano sempre piaciute. Se a volte ―s‘infervorava‖ di piccole e brutte... netaĦan prevod Bio jednom jedan kralj koji je imao jednu kĤerku. Kraljica bjeńe umrla na poroħaju, pa je kralj morao da unajmi bebisiterku kako bi mu čuvala dijete― (II god.) Viktoru Emanuelu su se oduvijek sviħale lijepe, visoke ņene. Ako bi se ponekad „primao― na male i ruņne... predloņeno rjeńenje Bio jednom jedan kralj koji je imao jednu kĤerku. Kako je kraljica umrla na poroħaju, kralj je morao da uzme dojilju kako bi dojila djevojĦicu. Viktoru Emanuelu su se oduvijek sviħale lijepe, visoke ņene. Ako bi se ponekad „zagrijao― za neku sitnu i ruņnu... U prvom primjeru imenica bebisiterka, iako se u rjeĦniku nalazi pobrojana meħu sinonimima italijanske imenice balia, suvińe je moderna da bi za nju mogla predstavljati dobro prevodno rjeńenje u bajci koja veĤ prvom reĦenicom smijeńta radnju u davna vremena. Osim imenicom bebisiterka, balia je prevoħena i kao: ţena, sluškinja, sluţavka, hraniteljka, dadilja, pa Ħak i babica, a ni u jednom od studentskih radova nije se nańla rijeĦ dojilja, ńto je joń jedan od dokaza da studenti veoma Ħesto ne vode raĦuna o ńirem kontekstu i da ne sagledavaju tekst u cjelini. Na konkretnom primjeru je oĦigledno kako jedna greńka za sobom povlaĦi i niz drugih. Izbor da se balia prevede kao dadilja, ţena, sluţavka, bebisiterka uticao je i na pogreńan prevod glagola allattasse (dojiti), koji je u ovim sluĦajevima preveden kao čuvati/brinuti se o/podizati/odgajati. Student koji se odluĦio da balia prevede kao babica ostatak teksta prilagodio je „na svoju ruku― tom odabiru: „...a kralj je doveo babicu koja je porodila djevojčicu―. 7.9. Greške uzrokovane prazninama u enciklopedijskom znanju Znanje iz opńte kulture i obavijeńtenost igraju vaņnu ulogu u razumijevanju izvornog teksta, pa samim tim i u prevodilaĦkom procesu. Praznine u tom tzv. enciklopedijskom znanju mogu da uzrokuju greńke na razliĦitim nivoima teksta. BuduĤi da je jezik jednog naroda nerazluĦiv od njegove kulture u najńirem smislu te rijeĦi, uĦeĤi jedan jezik, uĦimo i o naĦinu ņivota i pogledu na svijet naroda koji se tim jezikom sluņi. U tom pogledu prevoħenje nam pomaņe i u podizanju svijesti ne samo o jeziĦkim veĤ i o kulturnim sliĦnostima i razlikama izmeħu dva razliĦita naroda. Kao primjer za ovu vrstu greńke, posluņiĤe nam prevod jednog segmenta teksta koji govori o amajlijama koje Italijani najĦeńĤe koriste protiv malera. Tu, naime, cornetti rossi (Ħuveni crveni roščići) postaju crvene kifle, crveni konac, crvene potkovice, bijeli luk. U prvom sluĦaju nepoznavanje tog karakteristiĦnog simbola, vezanog posebno za kulturu juņnog dijela Italije, uticalo je na to da se imenica cornetto ne prepozna kao deminutiv imenice corno-rog, veĤ se, bez razmińljanja, uzima u svom drugom znaĦenju – kroasan, kifla. Ostale varijante prevoda ukazuju na negativnu interferenciju kulture ciljnog jezika. Naime, crveni konac, potkovica, pa i bijeli luk jesu znaĦenjski ekvivalenti crvenih roščića u nańoj kulturi, ali im nikako nije mjesto u tekstu Ħija je osnovna namjera da nam pruņi informacije koje vezano za fenomen sujevjera karakterińu upravo Italijane. Ispravan prevod dobijen je samo u sedam od ukupno petnaest ispitnih tekstova. 8. ZakljuĦak Cilj ovog rada bio je da se prikaņu leksiĦke greńke koje su uoĦene na korpusu prevoda studenata II i III godine osnovnih studija na Odsjeku za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. Ovdje nijesmo govorili o tome koje su od navedenih greńaka karakteristiĦnije za niņi, a koje za vińi stepen uĦenja italijanskog jezika na spomenutom univerzitetskom nivou. To ostavljamo za neku drugu priliku. StatistiĦki obraħeni i uporeħeni rezultati, zajedno sa rezultatima analize greńaka na ostalim jeziĦkim nivoima istog korpusa, pomoĤi Ĥe nam da utvrdimo kako teĦe proces usvajanja planom predviħenih jeziĦkih znanja, i u kojoj mjeri su ostvareni glavni ciljevi vjeņbi prevoħenja. Na taj naĦin dobiĤemo smjernice koje Ĥe nas uputiti u poboljńanje pojedinih segmenata nastavnog procesa. Ono ńto je oĦigledno jeste da studentima treba bolja „obuka― u korińĤenju jednojeziĦnog rjeĦnika i interneta prilikom prevoħenja. U tom smislu, treba insistirati na njihovom korińĤenju na samim vjeņbama. Koliko god to vremena od Ħasa oduzimalo, profesor, kao koordinator procesa prevoħenja, ne bi trebalo da daje rjeńenja prevodilaĦkih problema, veĤ da natjera studente da sami do njih doħu, eventualno uz pomoĤ njegovih smjernica. 358 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Doprinos u savladavanju uzroka najfrekventnijih greńaka mogao bi da pruņi i potencijalni udņbenik za prevoħenje65 koji bi sadrņao dodatak sa malim rjeĦnikom laņnih parova i sa napomenama o kontrastivnim razlikama izmeħu dva jezika koje su se u rezultatima istraņivanja pojavile meħu ĦeńĤim uzroĦnicima greńaka na razliĦitim nivoima. Joń jedno veoma vaņno pitanje koje se nameĤe i o kome treba povesti raĦuna jeste usklaħenost teorijskih predmeta i vjeņbi iz jezika, buduĤi da sam Ħin prevoħenja predstavlja spregu svih steĦenih jeziĦkih i vanjeziĦkih znanja. References Calvi, M. V.(2003). La traduzione nell‘insegnamento delle lingue e nello studio dei linguaggi specialistici. http://www.ledonline.it/ledonline/tradurrespagnolo/tradurrespagnolo_02_calvi.pdf Carreres, A. (2006). Strange bedfellows: Translation and Language teaching. The teaching of translation into L2 in modern languages degrees; uses and limitations. http://www.cttic.org/ACTI/ papers/Carreres.pdf Di Sabato, B.(2007). La traduzione e l'apprendimento/insegnamento delle lingue. http://www.glottodidattica.net/Articoli/articolo1_04.pdf House, J.(2009). Translation, Oxford University Press Ivir, V. (1984). Teorija i tehnika prevoĎenja. Novi Sad: Centar «KarlovaĦka gimnazija» Sremski Karlovci zavod za izdavanje udņbenika. LazareviĤ, R. (2009). ZnaĦaj upotrebe rjeĦnika u nastavi stranog jezika. U VuĦo, J, MilatoviĤ, B (priredile), Individualizacija i diferencijacija u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti (str: 207-213). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ. LazareviĤ, R., PiletiĤ, D. (2009). Predlog udņbenika za vjeņbe prevoħenja s italijanskog jezika na vińim godinama studija. U VuĦo, J, MilatoviĤ, B. (priredile), Autonomija učenika i nastavnika u učenju i nastavi jezika (str. 313-317). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ Little, D, Perclová, R. (2003) Evropski jezički portfolio namijenjen nastavnicima i mentorima. Podgorica: Ministartvo prosvete i nauke Pym, Anthony (1992). Translation Error Analysis and the Language Teaching, in: Cay Dollerup & Anne Loddegaard (priredile), The Teaching of Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 279-288 SamardņiĤ, M. (2008). Studentski prevod izmeħu ńkolskog i profesionalnog ocenjivanja. U VuĦo, J. (priredila), Evaluacija u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti. Zbornik radova (str.133-145). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ. 65 O tome u LazareviĤ, R., PiletiĤ, D. (2009) 359 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 52 Title A name given to the resource LeksiĦke greške u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika Author Author Piletić, Deja Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper deals with classification and explanation of the reasons of the most frequent lexical errors which occur in the translations of the undergraduate students of the Department of Italian Language and Literature (University of Montenegro). The corpus of the research consists of the written translations from the Italian as a foreign language into the Montenegrin as a mother tongue. The translations have been made in class, at home and during the exams on the second and the third year of the mentioned courses of undergraduate studies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/45702958ffbc3b4de30388d481ad5fd4.pdf 9b64b288f39d434086d4d51b6a5b22bb PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Adult Education: Using Motivating Strategies and Techniques Alma Piric Department of English Language and Literature University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina almapiric@gmail.com Abstract:Motivation is a key to success. It helps us understand why we do the things we do, or why we learn and thrive to further develop our abilities to do something. In language learning motivation plays a crucial role, because only the motivated students will succeed. Without motivation our performance is diminished. Learners who are not motivated tend to be distracted, bored, unfocused, and even frustrated. On the other hand, motivated learners are eager to find out more, learn new things, pay attention in class and conduct additional research at home in order to better understand a given topic. That is why many teachers/instructors consider motivation a crucial part of the instructional process. As teachers/instructors, we can certainly contribute to the motivation of our students. We can motivate learners through interesting classes, positive attitude as well as attractive exercises. This paper will look into different types of motivation and their influence on the learners as well as some techniques and strategies teachers/instructors can use to motivate their students. Keywords: Adult education, andragogy, motivation Introduction Knowing what motivation is and that there are different types of motivations is not enough. Instructors need to find out more, explore what they can do to further motivate their students and thus help them learn not only the language they teach but also some skills that will help the learners in real life situations. There are some common characteristics as well as strategies and techniques that every instructor can learn in order to make the language learning experience a successful one for both the learner and the instructor. Types of motivations: According to Gardner and Lambert (1972) there are two main types of motivation: integrative and instrumental motivation. Integrative motivation is the desire to become one with the target-language culture, while instrumental motivation reflects the desire to succeed in a field of study or at workplace. Although these are important distinctions, teachers rather look at motivation as intrinsic and extrinsic, the first one being the cognitive drive that pushes the learner to learn for his/her own sake, whereas the extrinsic motivation is derived from external incentives, for example if a learner completes a language course he/she will get a promotion. Intrinsically motivated learners believe in what they are doing and consider it worthwhile. Extrinsically motivated learners do not learn because they want to. They learn because they expect a reward, praise from their parents or a promotion at workplace. Brown (1987) make s a distinction between global, situational, and task motivation. While the global motivation reflects the overall attitude of the learner toward language learning, situational motivation focuses on the context in which the learner finds him/herself. Task motivation is the most focused on, analyzing how the learner approaches a specific task. Types of learners: There is a huge difference between pedagogy (the study of teaching children) and andragogy (the study of teaching adults). While pedagogy has to reflect on the learner‘s abilities and attention spans at a given age, andragogy focuses on learners who can greatly contribute through collaboration with the instructor as well as each other. Andragogy recognizes the maturity of an adult learner. Given the maturity level of the learners, the classes can be learner centered. Instructors can conduct a survey at the beginning of the given course to find out what the adult learners would like to learn (in this case the learners do not determine the overall course description, but rather the focus of the lessons in a given field of studies). Another benefit of adult learners is that they bring in past experiences, which can for example confirm some of the theoretical parts of the course. At the end of each course, the learners can evaluate the course and make suggestions as to where they would like to see improvements. The instructors can then redesign the course based on these evaluations. 96 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Being a Motivating Language Instructor: No matter which type of motivation, one is clear; the learners have a reason for taking a language course, and it is up to the instructor to help the student reach their goal. So how do we recognize motivated learners? A motivated learner is someone who is willing to take risks and appreciates challenges. He or she promotes a positive self-image and has specific goals that he/she wants to reach. A motivated learner is ambitious and not discouraged when he/she makes mistakes. But motivated learners are not a recipe for a successful language course, the language instructor needs to be motivated as well. Here are some common characteristics that can be learned for the purpose of becoming a motivating language instructor. 1. Offer expertise (both knowledge and preparation) Learners deserve to have knowledgeable and prepared instructors. An instructor does not need to have the knowledge of all things, but at the same time, it is wise to review some grammar points or the essay structure prior to teaching them. There are times when the instructor simply does not have the answer to a question the learner raises. There is no need to be ashamed; instead the instructor can use it to his/her advantage. Tell the student that you do not have the answer right at that moment, but that you will look it up and answer it next time you have class. You can then make a whole lesson about it if you feel that the rest of the learners would also benefit from knowing this. Instructors whose native language is not English should not feel uncomfortable if they do not know how to pronounce something. All they need to do is spend more time preparing for the class. Today, there are many online dictionaries that not only provide the definition, but also the pronunciation of a given word. An instructor‘s job is not only to be present in class, but also to prepare for it. Every now and then we all improvise, but it is unfair to the learners if the instructor constantly improvises. Just as the learners are dedicating their time and effort into the course they are taking, the instructors are expected to invest time in preparing the lessons. Adult learners are more likely to notice it if the instructor is unprepared. This will certainly cause them to be less motivated in class. NOTE: Too many ―ums‖ and ―ahs‖ may cause your adult learners to question your competence. 2. Have empathy Adult learners are most likely parents and have jobs. The instructors need to keep that in mind. Instead of assigning lots of homework, the instructor can design the class so that most of the work is done there and then. It is important to have rules, but at the same time, when it comes to adult learners, the instructors have to be more flexible with the schedule and the attendance. Afternoon and late evening courses are better than morning classes for those who are employed. Attendance should be taken seriously, but the instructors need to understand that every parent will spend time with a sick child rather than attend a class. The instructors can ask that the learners notify them if they will miss a class, so that the instructor can adjust the lesson or some of the activities (if necessary) to a smaller group of students. 3. Be enthusiastic If we show that we love what we do, people will notice and approach it with a positive attitude. Instructors need to be enthusiastic about their positions and transfer the positive attitude to their students. Grammar is dry, but with the right approach, the instructor can make it fun and thus more interesting. 4. Be clear Instructors should use the power of language and organization to make sure that every aspect of their course is clear. A very helpful tool is a syllabus. If it is clearly written, distributed at the very beginning of the course and followed by the instructor there will be less confusion. Additional Motivating Strategies: In addition to the motivation that the learner brings to the classroom, teachers can contribute through interesting lessons, as well as positive feedback. How do we make sure that we add to learner‘s motivation? There are several strategies and techniques that guaranty success and thus motivate students. 1. Friendly atmosphere Learners need to feel recognized and valued. Learning is much easier if the learners feel safe and comfortable. Sometimes it is not enough to praise correct answers only. Instructors need to pay close attention 97 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo to learner‘s progress and acknowledge it. It is not always the matter of grading. Instructors can simply point out that the progress is noticeable by nodding when the learner raises his/her hand and thus acknowledging the learner. These seemingly small gestures help the learner build confidence and further develop his/her intrinsic motivation, as well as encourage him/her to participate more. NOTE: Some instructors tend to push their students. This approach my actually help in a given situation, but the downside of it is that the learners do not learn to be responsible, because every time they are in the classroom setting the instructor pushes them to produce language, for example. 2. Sense of accomplishment Another way to ensure motivation is through tests and competitions. Learners want a reward, and in the classroom the reward comes in form of a grade. So, testing and grading students will certainly be a motivating factor. Though taken individually, tests are used to compare the learners‘ abilities. Instead of focusing on tests only, instructors can also organize competitions through which the learners will have an opportunity to present their knowledge. If the individual learners do not feel comfortable being on their own in a competition, they can be paired up, or even put into small groups. If the competition is not graded, the instructors can come up with a small reward, such as movie theater tickets or a book for each member of the group that has won the competition. If the student who usually does not win or get a very high grade finds him/herself on the winning team, he/she will be intrinsically motivated to continue the good work, as they will feel the sense of accomplishment. 3. Connecting language to learner‘s interests and needs outside of class Each learner has interests outside of class. Instructors can ask the learners to share those and then focus the lessons on these topics. For example, if the learners play a particular sport, the instructor can create a lesson on the history of the given sport. Lots of times, the learners do not have the necessary vocabulary to describe things, so the instructor can ask that each learner prepares a short presentation in which he/she will present their favorite sport (how it‘s played, what the rules are, naming some teams and competitions, etc.). 4. Creating life situations in the classroom Adult learners usually take language courses to improve their skills for a specific purpose. A lawyer may have some new clients who speak another language; a businessman may be conducting business with foreigners and feels the need to speak their language. If, at the beginning of the course, the learners share the purpose of their language learning, the instructor can make connections to their needs. For example, one whole class can be dedicated to teaching learners how to make phone calls and leave a message. Adult learners appreciate the pragmatic aspects of a class, especially if they end up using the things they have learned in class in real life situations. Conclusion: It can be concluded that along with the intrinsic and the extrinsic motivation that the learner brings to a language course, the instructor can also greatly contribute by offering expertise, having empathy, being enthusiastic, and clear. There are also some additional strategies and techniques such as creating a friendly atmosphere, acknowledging the progress a learner has made, basing the lessons on the learners‘ interests outside of class, and or creating real life situations in the classroom to teach learners how to handle them in a foreign language, that can contribute to the learners‘ existing motivation to learn. Instructors should be aware of the fact that all these skills and characteristics can be easily learned. They need to keep an open mind and be willing to try the suggested strategies and techniques. 98 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs NJ: PrenticeHall. Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation: Second Language Learning. Newbury House. Larson-Freeman, D., & Long, M.H. (1994). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Longman. 99 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 18 Title A name given to the resource Adult Education: Using Motivating Strategies and Techniques Author Author Piric, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. Motivation is a key to success. It helps us understand why we do the things we do, or why we learn and thrive to further develop our abilities to do something. In language learning motivation plays a crucial role, because only the motivated students will succeed. Without motivation our performance is diminished. Learners who are not motivated tend to be distracted, bored, unfocused, and even frustrated. On the other hand, motivated learners are eager to find out more, learn new things, pay attention in class and conduct additional research at home in order to better understand a given topic. That is why many teachers/instructors consider motivation a crucial part of the instructional process. As teachers/instructors, we can certainly contribute to the motivation of our students. We can motivate learners through interesting classes, positive attitude as well as attractive exercises. This paper will look into different types of motivation and their influence on the learners as well as some techniques and strategies teachers/instructors can use to motivate their students Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics