271 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/630d8a0aeefdc68a37ed7fda07bc28d5.pdf 57a2ec7b778e354b1a705d539a248ce1 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The Concept and Development of the Civil Dialogue at EU Level Indira Hasanovic International University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina indira.hasanovic@gmail.com This paper analyzes the concept of civil dialogue as well as its development in the EU level. Civil dialogue is an expression of participatory democracy; therefore the participation of citizens in decision-making and policy is essential to democracy. However, democracy becomes quite complicated when discussing the issue at the European level because of the structure of the European Union which is based on an ad-hoc approach. The other reason for the increasing validity of the dialogue with citizens in the Union should search for partial and troubling results of public opinion surveys that show a low level of understanding of mechanisms of action of the European institutions among citizens of the member states of EU. As result, French and Dutch referenda on the Constitutional Treaty have shown that there is a serious disconnection between citizens and policy makers at the European level. Therefore, the role and contribution of CSOs (especially NGOs) in the process of EU policy is extremely increased, in the last decades. Civil dialogue between civil society and public institutions at all levels is seen as a powerful tool that could help improve communication and citizen participation in decisions and policies made. Still difference in the level of development of the dialogue between the various EU institutions and NGOs is directly related to the degree of their work. From all EU institutions, European Commission has made the most progress in formalizing and institutionalizing consultations and dialogue with NGOs. Importance of growing engagement NGOs within the EU is indeed evaluated, both in terms of the policy process, and as a contribution to solving the democratic deficit through more participating forms of participation. The aim of this paper is to review the current practice of the civil dialogue at EU level through the analysis of several cases, and through them deficiencies and problems of previous practices of dialogue between the EU and NGOs will be shown. Keywords: European Union, Civil Dialogue, Democratic Participatory Democracy, Ngos, European Commission. 171 Deficit, � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ebba7db4a8e667c004a73832d4315249.docx 8147a2ef6aedd14917f3f2f299b1e5af https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/295126f93b779658f9c18c20ec89a62e.pdf 75f96e1c23de44efbee1dd433cc5fed6 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The Concept and Development of the Civil Dialogue at EU Level Indira Hasanović International University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina indira.hasanovic@gmail.com Abstract This paper analyzes the concept of civil dialogue as well as its development in the EU level. Civil dialogue is an expression of participatory democracy; therefore the participation of citizens in decision-making and policy is essential to democracy. However, democracy becomes quite complicated when discussing the issue at the European level because of the structure of the European Union which is based on an ad-hoc approach. The other reason for the increasing validity of the dialogue with citizens in the Union should search for partial and troubling results of public opinion surveys that show a low level of understanding of mechanisms of action of the European institutions among citizens of the member states of EU. As result, French and Dutch referenda on the Constitutional Treaty have shown that there is a serious disconnection between citizens and policy makers at the European level. Therefore, the role and contribution of CSOs (especially NGOs) in the process of EU policy is extremely increased, in the last decades. Civil dialogue between civil society and public institutions at all levels is seen as a powerful tool that could help improve communication and citizen participation in decisions and policies made. Still difference in the level of development of the dialogue between the various EU institutions and NGOs is directly related to the degree of their work. From all EU institutions, European Commission has made the most progress in formalizing and institutionalizing consultations and dialogue with NGOs. Importance of growing engagement NGOs within the EU is indeed evaluated, both in terms of the policy process, and as a contribution to solving the democratic deficit through more participating forms of participation. The aim of this paper is to review the current practice of the civil dialogue at EU level through the analysis of several cases, and through them deficiencies and problems of previous practices of dialogue between the EU and NGOs will be shown. Keywords: European Union, civil dialogue, democratic deficit, participatory democracy, NGOs, European Commission. Introduction Development of an idea of civil society is coming from different roots, where many scholars have contributed by their discourses and definitions. John Locke was the first in modern times who defined civil society "as a separate entity independent from the State."(Schade, 2000, p.10) According to his definition people are the members of the community in which their social life is developed without government interference. He believes that the state should be preserve, complete and regulate the natural state of society. Unlike Locke, Thomas Paine considers the ideal civil society as one in which civil society regulates its own affairs in order to leave as less space as possible for the interference of the government. On the other hand, Alexander de Tocqueville emphasizes that the role of an independent association of a civil society, is where "associations are 1 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo schools of democracies where the democratic thinking, attitudes and behaviors are taught in order to protect individual rights against potential authoritarian regime." (Paffenholz and Spunrk, 2006, p.4) He also believes that these associations should be on a voluntary basis and be built at all levels (local, regional, national). Jurgen Habermas has focused his concept of the role of civil society in the public sphere. Habermars believes that "the political system needs to articulate the interests of the public space by putting different views on the political agenda," (Habermas, 1992, p.374) while marginalized groups should be organized and a way should be found in order to articulate their interests. This is necessary primarily because the political parties and parliaments should "take into account public opinion outside the established structures of power", (Habermas, 1992). The conclusion to be drawn from this review of the basic principles of the concept of civil society is that different understandings and interpretations of civil society have influenced the theoretical debate and empirical research as well as the historical relationship of political emancipation of citizens. In an early stage, the civil society in Western Europe (18th and 19th century) was enhanced by economic and academic elites who demanded civil and human rights and political participation. The Definition and Role of Civil Society In 1960 new social movements such as the liberalization of women, environmental movements were emerging which significantly expanded the scope of activities of civil society. Eastern Europe has faced political, economic and social transformation where civil society played an important role in the establishment of democratic structures. Their success is dependent on various factors, the incorporation of democratic procedures in its own structure and organization, especially after the changes of the system. Democratic functions of civil society are the ones that build and increase the level of democratic political culture and develop appropriate democratic values, and create the conditions for democratic institutions of government action. "The basis for considering all variants of concepts and practices of civil society is an ideal-typical paradigm of civil society and legal state." (Vujadinovic, 2007, p.22) Edward's model of the concept of civil society is reflected by three items as the "civil society means different things to different people" (Edwards, 2004, p.3): 1. Civil society as a world of voluntary association that aims to develop values such as tolerance and cooperation. 2. Civil society as the good society aims to foster positive norms and values, where activities are directed towards specific social and political goals. 3. Civil society as part of the public space that aims to provide a space in which citizens can discuss issues of common interest. This role is essential when it comes to finding appropriate solutions and making decisions that are important to society.(Edwards, 2004, p.18-54) Edwards' main hypothesis is that each of these roles can independently achieve results in terms of social change, as well as other results that are usually attributed to civil society. "Civil society is based on the principles of autonomy (for the autonomous, voluntary, spontaneous highlighting the identity of the citizen), associatively (self-organization of citizens and associative effects on the spontaneous association in the form of civic initiatives, social movements, non-governmental organizations) and the public (for the public and media disclosure issues and goals of activities and specific actions of self-civil society actors with the aim of problems resolved individually, pressing the government)."(Vujadinovic, 2007, p.23) Civil society activism is the control mechanism in 2 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo the political control of the actions of state bodies, holders of political power. Seven basic functions of civil society are: 1. The protection of citizens, whose main function consists of the protection of life, liberty and property, and the state of despotism 2. Monitoring responsibilities, but mainly monitoring activities that may relate to different issues, such as human rights advocacy 3. Public communications which are based on lobbing interest especially of marginalized groups, as well as raising public awareness of issues important to society. 4. Socialization, which should contribute to the creation of democratic attitudes among citizens, mutual trust and tolerance 5. Building community through participation in voluntary associations that strengthen ties between citizens 6. Mediation between the state and citizens, i.e. role of balancing power and negotiations with the government, the establishment of relations among various interest groups. 7. Provision of services is an important part of the activities of civil society groups. (Paffenholz and Spunrk, 2006, p.23) State-civil society relations consider well organized state that guarantees the rights that enable the functioning of civil society. The discourse of civil society in the last decade appears to struggle against the totalitarian form of government, which contributes to the destruction of civil society. Namely the development of a democratic political culture is essential for civil society, which is itself in a reciprocal relationship. From the above mentioned, we see that these factors influence the development of civil society as the quality of political culture, political institutions, the law and public opinion, etc. Thus, civil society is defined as a public space in which citizens seek to actively and freely participate in all spheres of social life through self-organization, in order to publicly control and evaluate the work of government institutions, raise public awareness and knowledge of performance authorities outside of the state institutions. According to many contemporary theorists, the definition of civil society is in relation to the "totality of institutions, organizations and individuals located between the family, the state and the market, where people voluntarily join to contribute to the common interest."(Anheier, Regina, 2005, p.54) Here the concept of civil society is based on democratic ideals of liberalism in which a citizen is referred to as an individual, who participates in various elements of a democratic and community life. This vision of society means that citizens are formed into groups or associations to influence the political process, i.e. "creating channels of communication between citizens and government directly and indirectly."(Mavrikos-Adamou, 2010, p.516) This means that civil society occupies a key site between the elite and the citizens, and between the state and the market. Civil society is experiencing its expansion in the 1980s and early 1990s in Eastern Europe, the emergence of mass movements that aimed at the democratization of society, which until then was almost unheard of. As a reason it could be also included, the collapse of the Soviet Union which opened many discussions about: what is actually civil society and their actual role. Deepening of the integration process, the EU has a growing direct influence on the everyday issues of EU citizens. The Treaty of Amsterdam further contributed to the development of civil society, transferring some of the areas subject to interstate cooperation in justice and home affairs. This is also contributing to greater EU powers and this rank the issues on the agenda of the EU. European Citizen Action Service (ECAS) i is one of the first organizations that the EU has contributed to strengthening of the NGO sector in relation to the EU institutions in order to develop Europe’s citizenship. According 3 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo to many writings, the development of civil society at the European level initiated in the last decade a very strong effect and great interest of the European institutions, primarily because the concept of civil society is offered as an universal solution to social and political problems. The definition of civil society organizations and their role in participatory democracy at the EU level Today there is controversy in terms of different interpretations about what is the role of civil society in modern societies, and which correlation is between the civil society and the state. Starting from Theda Skocpola that emphasizes "the crucial role of the state is in the development of civil society" (Howard 2003, p.44), Jonah Levy insists that “the relationship between state and society civil should not be hostile, and that the state exclusion is not enough to develop a good civil society."(Howard 2003, p.38) From this we can conclude that the citizen as an individual modern society should have the opportunity to pursue their interests in a social space. Most citizens are the easiest to realize their interests through involvement in the work of civil society organizations (CSOs). From a legal point of view there are several different names for the civil society organizations that can be classified into several forms such as: associations, NGOs, cooperatives, non-profit sector, voluntary organizations, etc. The way in which the citizens will act depends on their interest, which can be characterized as a professional activity within the civil society through voluntary work, providing public support for the initiative or for an exit to the street. The meaning of civil society should primarily lie in the strength of arguments and supporting certain values and interests. Michael Edwards believes that "the organization of the civil society should be part of the public sphere, and their actions in the public arena can contribute, and thus positively affect the rendering of a decision."(Edwards, 2005) According to many authors, civil society organizations are considered "social phenomenon which represent fifth economic power in the world."ii In further defining civil society, Wesley Scott and Likanen see civil society as "the political power of the central development of values and social goals of the community that is reflected in the function of modernization and democratization of the state and social relations." (Wesley Scott J. and Likanen, 2010, p.424) From this we see that civil society is a major political factor in articulating and shaping social and collective rights. Different interpretations of the role of civil society are coming from different historical experiences, which are in the process of globalization, the changing role of the state in everyday life. "Thus, in the Western countries to strengthen civil society linked to any questioning of the traditional role of the state in social protection …….or the development of civil society will be brought into connection with dissatisfaction progress in economic development .... while in Central and Southern Europe, the development of modern society civil is most commonly associated with the collapse of the socialist concept of the state and changes in the model of collective behavior." (Žeravčić, 2011, p.4) For the definition of civil society, the EU institutions typically use the definition adopted by the European Committee Economic and Social Committe gave in his opinion, "The Role and Contribution of Civil Society Organizations in the Building of Europe."iii Civil society organizations include: 1. Participants in labor market (i.e. trade unions and employers' associations, socalled. social partners) 2. Organizations representing social and economic participants which are not social partners in the strict sense (consumer organization) 3. Non-profit organization (NGOs) 4 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo 4. Organizations in the community, i.e. organizations established within the company level following goals focused on the members (youth associations, all organizations through which citizens participate in local and city life) 5. Religious communities. (Petrenko and Kallins, 2007, p.29) Contemporary debates increasingly put emphasis on civil society when it comes to the process of democratization and social reform as an important player in the overall political, social and economic development. The assignment of the role of civil society organizations is reflected in their increasing efforts to solve social problems, and representing the general interests through participation in the political process. By this we mean the participation of civil society in the formulation, adoption and implementation of public policy in society. According to Diamond, civil society organizations are "important in strengthening democracy as opposed to authoritarianism, check the state and make it accountable to the citizens, to represent the interests of citizens, enabling the flow of information, stimulate democratic participation by improving democratic values."(Kunac, 2066, p.16) As a direct result of the challenges that representative democracy is facing in the context of contemporary global trends appear to participatory democracy and civil dialogue. Citizen participation in the decision-making and enforcement is an integral part of participatory democracy. However it is important to emphasize that participatory democracy is not replaced for a representative democracy, i.e. it does not eliminate the powers of the representatives of the executive and legislative powers in decision-making and enforcement. The purpose of representative democracy in principle would mean that the citizen through the electoral process give his/her voice for legitimacy to certain parties that make political decisions which represent their interests. Together with representative democracy, participatory democracy is the foundation on which the modern democratic society is based. However, globalization has caused significant social and political changes, and therefore as a result people develop feelings that through representative democracy they cannot directly influence the factors that have an impact on their lives. The process of decision-making has become more or less technical work that could enable more citizens through their representatives to contribute to quality of life. The inability of representative democracy to allow ordinary citizens to participate in decision-making is born in the idea of participatory democracy, which is now standard in developed countries. The idea of participatory democracy is based on two key principles: 1. Individuals should have the opportunity to participate in political decision making, which directly determines the quality and direction of their lives 2. Society should be organized to encourage individuals (citizens) to participate in political decision-making and to ensure public media space for joint participation in the process. (Žeravčić, 2011, p.3) In addition to enabling the continuous participation of citizens in the political process, participatory democracy allows citizens to advocate and defend their interests in policymaking. The role of civil society in this process is very important, "first by enabling citizens to successfully advocate for their interests over the public authorities, and second direct protection of enjoyment of certain rights from which the right to participate in the decision-making process derives"(Žeravčić, 2011, p.3) These two reasons mentioned above and the role of CSOs in the process of adoption and application of the law has been recognized in international documents, the Lisbon Treaty of the EU and Recommendations of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe to member states on the legal status of civil society in Europe. EU Lisbon Treaty, Article 11. “Institutions' of Union allows citizens and organizations to express their views and share public opinion in all areas of Union action. It also states that institutions maintain an open, transparent and 5 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo regular dialogue with civil society organizations and civil society"(EU Lisbon Treaty, 2010). According to the recommendations of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe states that all levels of government need to provide an effective and equal participation of civil society in dialogue, exchange of views on issues of importance to the community. It also points out that "civil society organizations should be consulted on draft legislation and other documents affecting their status."(Council of Europe, 2007) What is important to emphasize is that the institutional mechanisms citizen participation in the legislative process and other public policy differs from country to country. Differences appear in the scope of mechanisms, types of documents and entities involved in this mechanism. From this we see that the CSOs plays a very important role in providing public services that take place in cooperation with the authorities. Their functioning as informal actors in the political process allows them to influence the decision-making process, the formulation of alternatives and keeping up the pressure for better implementation of decisions. It is important to emphasize that the role of NGOs in the political process is not only influencing the decision-making power but also an attempt to find solutions to specific problems. The increasing engagement of civil society based on participatory democracy makes the democratically elected government more transparent and closer to the citizens. One of the most important activities of CSOs to influence the process is best described by the term advocacy (policy advocacy). The concept of advocacy by Reid means "to influence social groups in shaping social and political outcomes in government and society." (Reid, 2003, p.3) Advocacy is "raising the voice" on important issues and guide them towards a resolution in favor of those who "do not hear" or those who are not “loud enough”. When we talk about the orientation towards advocacy Reid suggests two types of advocacy: 1. Advocacy directed at government relating to actions to public institutions, i.e. decision-making and the process of making and implementing policy. 2. Advocacy oriented society emphasizes the important role of NGOs in creating public opinion, setting priorities and actions of citizens. This type of advocacy NGOs is responsible for the analysis, interpretation and transmission of information in society, which is usually carried out through public media campaigns, education, publications, and act. (Reid, 2003, p.6). It should be noted that the state is still obliged to immediately accept all requests and suggestions from civil society organizations, but it shall maintain a dialogue based on arguments and facilitate the participation of the same conditions to all civil society organizations wishing to participate in the creation and implementation of public policy. It is important to emphasize that the structured dialogue between the state and civil society can contribute to strengthening the role of civil society and thereby strengthen the state to cope with modern challenges. The role of NGOs and advisory mechanisms of dialogue at the European Union level Modern democratic society means a society that allows its citizens to achieve its set objectives within the public space. Citizens' interests can be divided into economic, social or political. The citizen is to realize "their social interests within civil society formation, or engaging in the work of civil society" (Žeravčić, 2010, p.6). NGOs are considered the most distinguished actors of civil society. When it comes to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and their definition it is often described as very diverse, heterogeneous organizations with very different goals, motivations, structures, but the important point is 6 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo that NGOs are very deeply rooted in the development of civil society. We can say that by giving greater importance to civil rights in Europe, people increasingly founded such organizations which dealt with social issues and needs and protection of interests of citizens. Because of the different definitions of non-governmental organizations, the general definition of non-governmental organizations should include the following elements as basic: 1. NGO are independent, especially the government and other public bodies. 2. NGOs act in the public interest, i.e. addressing issues related to the welfare of the people and society. 3. Non-profit organization’s 4. Democratic organizations that are formed voluntarily (COM, 2000). Specifically, the role of non-governmental organizations in EU policy has a particularly important role in the broader European management; we can say that the European decision-making very much depends not only on several European institutions and nations. Based on this we can conclude that the dialogue with non-governmental organizations play a crucial role in European governance. Traditional forms of democracy should be strengthened by including citizens and their associations in a consistent dialogue on certain issues and thus contribute to EU policy. Civil society needs to find a way to increase their abilities, acting as an intermediary in the exchange of information and opinions between citizens and government. Also, one of the reasons for giving greater importance of dialogue with NGOs and EU are worrisome poll results by which it was found that EU citizens have very little knowledge and understanding of the structure and mechanisms of action of the European institutions. These results were reflected in a declining turnout of citizens in elections for the European Parliament, as well as a rejection of the Irish people in the referendum to give their support to the ratification of the Nice Treaty. "Thanks to the new institutional and symbolic framework as given by the Treaty of Maastricht and the concept of citizens' Europe, a sudden increase in the number of networks of NGOs actively involved in lobbying and dialogue with the European institutions and the gradual explicit recognition of their role in the strategic documents of the EU"(Vidačevak, 2008, p.238). Out of all institutions, the European Commission has made the greatest progress in formalizing and institutionalizing consultation and dialogue with non-governmental organizations. In 1997 the issuing of the first important document that sets the principles based on which the cooperation of European institutions with NGOs are developed. Notification of the European Commission entitled Promoting the role of voluntary organizations and associations in Europe.iv This document is intended to promote a stronger civil dialogue at European level, to highlight the growing role of nongovernmental organizations within the EU, and to point out the problems and challenges they face. Another goal of this paper is to enhance the role and capacity of NGOs to be involved in the process of European integration. In 2000, followed by a Discussion paper European Commission called the Commission and NGOs: Building a Stronger Partnershipv, standing in the same, had two goals: "The first objective is to review the existing relations between existing problems of the European Commission and NGOs, and the second is to suggest possible guidelines in order to strengthen mutual relations” (COM, 2000, p.2). According to this document the existing cooperation and desire to improve relations between the European Commission and NGOs would be based on five main guidelines: 1. Participation in the democratic decision-making process in the EU is primarily legitimized by the elected representatives of European citizens. However, NGOs can contribute to promoting more participatory democracy in the European Union 7 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo 2. 3. 4. 5. and beyond. The fundamental right of the citizens is the freedom to form associations for mutual benefit. Belonging to an association provides an opportunity for citizens to participate actively in the new modes of action in addition to options for action through political parties and trade unions. The role of the association is recognized as an important component of civil society in supporting the democratic system of government, which is of particular importance in the context of EU enlargement. According to the so-called Copenhagen criteria, EU membership requires that the candidate country has achieved stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of human rights and respect and protection of minorities. Non-governmental organizations can make a significant contribution to the development of democracy and civil society in the candidate countries. Representing the views of certain groups of citizens before the European institutions-The role of NGOs is that the views represented in front of the European institutions, certain groups of people (such as people with disabilities, ethnic minorities) or on specific issues (such as environment, life standard). In particular, many NGOs have the opportunity to come into contact with the poorest and most vulnerable groups of the population, and to ensure that they are the voice for those who are not loud enough through other communication channels. Their participation in the shaping of policy principles and policy implementation is of great importance for the EU. In some cases, they can act as a balance of activities and exchange views with other stakeholders in the society. Contribution to decision-making is the specific expertise of non-governmental organizations that put them in political debates. Through connections at local, regional, national and European level, NGOs can provide assistance in the development of EU policy. In particular, NGOs can provide feedback on the performance or other results of certain political decisions, and thereby contribute to the task of the Commission in defining and implementing policies. There are also a number of institutional mechanisms for consultation with NGOs that are significantly different in terms of the degree of openness, technical details, as well as the actors involved in it (for example, forums for dialogue sessions hearing at the European Parliament, individual consultations with members of the committee NGOs, focus groups, round tables, workshops, seminars, etc.). Contribution to manage project-specific expertise that NGOs can bring to the management, monitoring and evaluation of projects funded by the EU. The contribution of NGOs Especially important in the fight against social exclusion and discrimination, protecting the environment and providing humanitarian and development assistance. The expertise and dedication of NGO staff and their willingness to work in difficult operating conditions makes NGOs a vital partner of the Commission, both within the EU and beyond. Contribution of European integration-encouragement of national NGOs to work together to achieve goals, a European network of non-governmental organizations provide an important contribution to the formation of a "European public opinion" in order to recognize NGOs as a true European political entity. At the same time, through a convenient way they contribute to support of European integration. The strengthening of relations between the European Commission and NGOs can help both parties to be successful in achieving their goals. At the same time, the Commission should recognize and support the development and independence of NGOs (COM, 2000, p.4-5). 8 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo With this document, the Commission has recognized NGOs as partners in policy as representative of different groups of people and project management. The Commission also considered that the involvement of NGOs in the policy process could be a way of solving the problem of "democratic deficit" in the EU. "The impact of this particular document confirms many reactions to the document that were received from Member States and candidate countries." (COM, 2000) In response to the results of public opinion in the Member States which show a very low level of trust in the EU institutions and informing the citizens about the work thereof, the Commission in the midyear of 2001 published a White Paper on European Governancevi. White Paper on European Governance is the Commission's effort in upgrading and creating greater accountability, transparency and obligations of the parties involved in the policy process. It is very important that the Commission consultative process include mechanisms for response, evaluation and review, and also NGOs are expected to provide mechanisms to monitor the consultation process and to contribute to the creation of more transparent, open and accountable system. In addition to these general principles, the Commission has established minimum standards for consultation of the consulting process with NGOs. Minimum standards of consultation are meant for the general public and refer to "clear the contents of the consultation, publication of documents that are subject of counseling in a format adapted to a wider range of target groups, information (raising awareness about a particular counseling, for example. portal Your Voice in Europevii) the time limit for participation in a particular consultation and the establishment of mechanisms to check and pending feedback on the proposed new legislative measures and proposals for new policies." (COM, 2001) Minimum standards are systematically applied to all relevant policy initiatives. Civil society groups are becoming more active in lobbying in the European Union over the past decade, but this engagement, even when successful, often does not coincide with the interests of private interest groups. As Varleigh points out, "the EU's position towards civil society groups in the past was questionable, because the Commission shall be responsible for consultation only with certain non-governmental organizations that are essentially supportive of the Commission's policy, and sometimes even its role in the institutional process” (Warleigh, 2006, p.200). It is clear that in designing consultative forum for members experts are invited. The Commission has launched a debate on the role of civil society on the management of the European Union. She believes the institutionalization of relations with civil society as part of new management methods to increase legitimacy European Union through participation, thus empowering civil society. White Paper on Governance refers explicitly to the transnational public sphere as a single in which "the consultation becomes part of the discussion on the re-legalization of complementary models (representative) democracy" (Garcia, 2009 p.179). The Commission still refuses to grant consultative status to official associations; today there is no register of associations that lobby at the Commission. The only elements that have a registration system database is a CONECCS (Consultation, the European Commission and Civil Society)viii, founded by the Commission for greater transparency. "As part of the consultative forums and boards standards and criteria have been created which the Commission should follow in determining the relevant NGOs who will be involved in the consultation process."ix Into consideration following factors will be taken: "the potential impact of proposed policies in other areas, need for specific experience, expertise or technical knowledge, previous participation in consultations and the need for a balance where it matters, i.e. among representatives of large and small organizations, social and economic subjects, rower target groups and organizations from EU and non-member states"(Vidačevak,2008, p.242). Although not legally binding force, these codes should 9 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo confirm its value over time and thus become the foundation on which to develop dialogue between NGOs and the European institutions, as well as a step in the harmonization of policies towards non-governmental organizations at the national level of the current and future Member States. Cooperation between the European Commission and non-governmental organizations in the process of EU enlargement The literature says that the EU has a benevolent impact when it comes to the process of democratization in post-communist countries, "but notes that the EU Member States, as well as potential members strengthen the executive and bureaucratic power without adequate active participation of citizens" (Goetz and Hix, 2000). The integration into European structures largely depends on the potential candidates, namely that any country who wants to became a full member state must accept the values and standards of the EU. However, when it comes to the EU accession process it is very important to note that the rules are a big difference when it comes to the countries of Eastern and Central Europe and the Balkan countries. Both groups of countries are countries of the communist regime, but the difference between the first and second group of countries is that the second group of countries certainly gave a picture of instability, ballast of the past, historical events, etc. However, efforts of the EU when it comes to joining the post-communist Balkan countries certainly have made progress along the results, but still in front of them there is a huge task when it comes to meeting the set criteria. The Copenhagen political criteria set for the EU membership candidate countries seeking stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, development, human rights, and particularly the respect for and protection of minorities at the EU's increasing attention to points. According Pridhamu, the EU's influence on the democratization of the candidate countries varies between three phases: 1. Phase 1 negotiations which preceded, when necessary to meet the Copenhagen criteria before negotiations 2. Phase 2 negotiations, when supplemented regularly monitors compliance policy conditions 3. Phase 3 after admission to membership, as a direct impact of the EU on a new application of weak countries, but also strengthen the indirect effects of European integration in the consolidation of democracy intensified creating networks that EU membership brings (Pridham, 2002, p.15). Based on this we can conclude that the most effective phase of democratization in postcommunist countries is 1 and 2, because from experience it is known that negotiations can begin without all the political conditions satisfied, and the establishment of provisional membership negotiations or termination of negotiations for serious violations of political conditions given. When the second case in the process is slow due to procedural reasons. "The whole process of implementation of institutional changes and a law course sees as great importance the development of civil society and exclusion of non-governmental organizations which complement the country. For the EU, NGOs are very important, independent source of information, and also they can act as a control mechanism in the field of reforms that are sensitive in political terms"(Pridham, 2002, p.17). The European Commission in its document entitled "Dialogue of civil society organization between the EU and the candidate countries" in 2005 confirmed its views that NGOs play a key role in the ongoing reforms for the candidate countries and potential candidates. In what the European Commission insists is "the need for stronger civil dialogue among civil society in the EU and candidate countries with understanding the best practices when it 10 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo comes to the enlargement process in which NGOs have an important role and a significant contribution" (Pridham, 2002, p.17). The EU's insistence on strong dialogue stems from the experience of the previous enlargement during which citizens demonstrated a low level of awareness of EU enlargement. Dialogue with non-governmental organizations for years is seen as an integral part of the political and social culture in member countries. However, the fulfillment of the above mentioned requirements is a prerequisite for joining the EU, as well as a complete success of the process of European integration. Dialogue with non-governmental sector for decades in the EU Member States an integral part of the political, social and economic culture cannot be passed as regulation or directive into the country or organizations because of its political history, this culture could not be developed. Exchange of experiences and knowledge among current and future member states are very important in building a civil society because there are no clearly defined standards when it comes to cooperation between governmental and non-governmental organizations. In helping meet the criteria for EU membership, the European Union has launched a series of initiatives to strengthen the role of civil society in these countries. This primarily refers to the pre-accession aids that act as the development of democratic processes, strengthening the capacity of NGOs in the sectors which are relevant for the implementation of the acquis. The Concept of the Commission on the role of civil society in the Western Balkans is set in the Enlargement Strategy 2010 which states that: "The activities of civil society are essential for a more mature democracy, respect for human rights and the rule of law. Such activities should improve political accountability, and encourage and expand the space for dialogue on social choices and strengthen the consensus for a pluralistic society; tolerance and reconciliation in society also contribute to more open, participatory and dynamic democracy. "Here we see the emphasis on tolerance and reconciliation because they are clearly recognized in the EU policy in the region that has not yet developed a pluralistic society among the fellowship. The EU has significant power in influencing the path of development, and proposes concrete and practical level for the Commission: "The culture of acceptance and appreciation is the role that civil society needs to take in order to enable the organization of civil society an engagement in effective political dialogue. Public consultation on policy initiatives and draft laws should be considered as general principles. Support to civil society by the government is often hampered by a lack of transparency and under-developed criteria “(COM, 2010, p.13). As you can see from the above example, a key objective of the Commission is to involve NGOs in effective dialogue with public and private actors, as well as involvement in monitoring the developments in the field of rule of law and respect for fundamental rights. In line with the previous extension the Commission insists on strengthening the role of civil society not only through communication and cooperation between the Member States and the candidate, but also to pay considerable attention to the role of civil society in the process of democratization and reconciliation which take place in these countries. "One of the main objectives of the program of NGOs is involvement of candidate countries in the activities of the networks and platforms of NGOs operating at EU level" (COM, 2010, p.14). The experience of the candidate countries and EU member states and the role of NGOs in the process of joining the EU Challenges which European Commission faced in regards to relations between the European Union and the new democracies established in the Central and Eastern Europe, were different for the Commission from all the other experiences she faced so far which were related to the enlargement of the European Union. Commission as a representative of 11 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo the Member States of the European Union has managed to capture a significant independent role in the eastern extension when it comes to formal policy proposals that have shaped the relationship between the candidate countries and potential candidates. The Commission as the institutional representative of the European Union, through capacity building and compliance functions within the process is the closest in the various activities of the candidate. The process of involving the civil society in the process of expansion has been slow, which included a contradiction. "In some of the aspects, the prominence of civil society in bringing down the communist regime in the late 1980s led to unexpected progress and impact of the civil society in the reconstruction and consolidation of democratic institutions and associations in post-communist Europe" (Bostic 2011, p.9). All this has led the European Union to administer first opportunity for civil society to participate in the political context of the enlargement process, in cooperation with the European Commission. "Under pressure from the EU, and encouraged by the need to gain popular support for reforms that require adjustment of the EU, most of the applicant countries have developed certain formal and informal mechanisms for participation in the NGO sector."x For example, "the Slovenian government, through its Office of European Integration at the start of negotiations for EU, sent a public invitation to NGOs to get involved in the preparation of the country for accession to the Union. Consultation with NGOs is conceived as a public conference to precede the development of the draft positions for specific thematic areas of the acquits in the various ministries. It was only after discussion with NGOs, the negotiating position is forwarded to the Government, the Parliament, and then Brussels" (Vidačevak,2001, p.244). Conducted research revealed very low turnout organizations, and obstacle to the establishment of a structured civil dialogue were discovered as well. In this research the main problem is the lack of a separate level of knowledge and awareness among NGOs, and the lacks of mutual trust between the government and NGOs. During 2001,the "Slovenian government adopted a regulation providing for a better structuring of its dialogue with the associations, most notably the establishment of the Commission for cooperation with civil society organizations, horizontal body of government composed of government officials from various ministries and activities that would gradually create a common government strategy for the development of civil society" (Vidačevak,2001, p.244). Specifically decision was made on the establishment of more formal forms of cooperation with NGOs. Another example is Poland, by whose establishment of the Office for European Integration launched a process of consultation with NGOs and other civil society organizations. The process of consultation took place in the partner groups, i.e. professional advisory bodies that participated in parallel with working groups set up to draft negotiating positions for each of the chapters of the acquis. The dialogue between the negotiating team and partner groups was significantly hampered mainly because of language in EU documents, "intelligible only to a small circle of employees in the administrative structures and the additional hurdle an inadequate knowledge of foreign languages, because it was feasible to translate hundreds of pages of documents for each EU meeting with the partner groups" (Vidačevak,2001, p.245). “These obstacles have led to a gradual weakening of links with partner groups, and are in an advanced stage of negotiations, dialogue with representatives of NGOs from consulting into a briefing on the progress of negotiations."(Hausner and Marody, 2001). Challenges faced by Slovenian and Polish governmental and non-governmental sector are largely paradigmatic for the other countries of Central and Eastern Europe. One of the preconditions for a constructive dialogue with the government is certainly organization and coordination. This problem was tried to be resolved in few candidate 12 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo countries by establishing the center, forums and networks that should facilitate the consultation process. To facilitate the process of counseling the candidate countries the NGO Centre of Slovenia (CNVOS), the National Forum of Hungarian NGOs called Civil Europe - Civil Hungary and the Polish Forum of Non-Governmental Initiatives (FIP) were founded. In Slovenia CNVOS 2002 was involved in policy and decision-making which resulted with creation of Resolution on normative activities in 2009 by the government, which guarantees a minimum standard of advice when it comes to the public and legal basis for the inclusion of NGOs as partners. "One of the great successes of the Polish NGO Forum initiative, which has served as an incentive to NGOs in other candidate countries is the establishment of the Polish NGO Office in Brussels," the organizational and technical support to organization European Citizens Action Service (ECAS) and the Charities Aid Foundation (CAF)."xi The primary objective of the Office is to establish contacts with the European institutions, the work of sectorial networks and platforms of NGOs at the EU level, participation in seminars, the possibilities of EU financial assistance and regular information on the work of the European institutions. "Notwithstanding any effort by the EU to invest in supporting the development of civil society in the candidate countries, in most of these countries are characterized by a high degree of confidence in the relationship of governmental and nongovernment sectors."(ESC, 1999) Main reason for this is the fact that the civil society in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe is considered as an opposition idea. Therefore, "the culture of consultation and dialogue as the basic democratic process is not continuously rooted in the tradition of these countries." (Rosenblum and Post, 2002). As cause of mistrust a technical nature of the negotiations and adjustments Union is considered. The neglection of dialogue with citizens and a large emphasis on the normative and technical aspects of the adoption of the acquis, including major "causes of the poor population support the candidate, accession to the EU."xii When it comes to the Western Balkan countries, which are currently undergoing various processes of democratization and reforms when it comes to EU membership. Many strategic reforms were undertaken in each of the Western Balkan countries and adoption of laws and policies to improve the state of the sector and the participation of NGOs in the process of participation in decisionmaking were established. Conclusion Civil society involvement in EU governance can improve democratic representation and also provide citizens with better means for affecting EU policy. Importance of involvement of civil society can also increase political inequality. Civil society participation in EU governance should not be seen as alternative, rather as a compliment, because by participation of civil society EU legitimacy crises can be reduced. It is more than obvious that national governances and regional authorities are not yet prepared to include civil society organizations into decision-making process and policy implementation. Opinions expressed are often not taken into account in European decisions, because groups have only access to the Commission and barely to the Council and the Parliament, which take the decisions. Still there are many restrictions to political participation in the institutional structure of the EU, but also there are more thing that are needed to be done, for example make political participation more representative, more democratically legitimized and more effective. 13 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo References Anheier, H. K. (2005). Riječnik civilnog društva, filantroije i neprofitnog sektora. Routledge. London. 54. Bostic, A. (2011). The role of the EUs Civil Society Development Assistance in the Process of Peacebuilding: The Case of EU Enlargement. Central European Journal of International & Security Studies. 5(1). 9. Bouza, G.L. (2009). Can Segmented Publics foster a general public sphere in the EU? An example from the Consultation process practices of the European Commission. Observatorio Journal. 9. 179. Commission of the European Communities. (1997).Communication: Promoting the Role of Voluntary Organizations and Foundations in Europe. Brussels. COM (97). 2-5. Commission of the European Communities. (2000). Discussion Paper: European Commission and Non-Governmental Organizations: Building a Stronger Partnership. Brussels. COM(2000). 2-5. Commission of the European Communities. (2001).White Paper on European Governance. COM (2001). 4. Commission of the European Communities. 2000.Discussion Paper: Commission and Non European Economic and Social Committee. (1999). The Civil Society Organized at European Level. Proceedings of the First Convention. Brussels. Edward, M. (2004). Civil Society. Cambridge:Polity. 3,18-54. Edwards, M. (2005). Civil Society in The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. Retrieved March 30, 2012, from: www.infed.org/association.civil_society.htm European Commission. (2010). Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2010-2011. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and Council. Brussels COMM(2010).13-14. Goetz, Hix. in: Pridham, G. (2002). Implementacija evropskih standarda dekokratije u procesu pridruživanaja EU: Usporedba Slovačka i Rumunija. Politička misao. Zagreb. 12. Habermas, J. (1992). Role of Civil Society and Public Policy. in: Between Facts and Norms. Frankfurt A.M.:Suhrkamp. 374. Hausner, J. and Marody, M. (2001). The Polish Talk Show: Social Dialogue and European Integration. Krakow: Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Howard, M. M. (2003). The Weakness of Civil Society in Post-Communist Europe. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 38-44. 14 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Kunac, S. (2006).Vrijednostivrednota, civilnodruštvoiHrvatskademokratija. Zagreb: B.a.B.e. 16. Mavrikos-Adamou. (2010). Challenges to Democracy Building and the Role of Civil Society. Demokratization. 17(3). 516. Paffenholz T. and Spunrk C. (2006). Civil Society, Civic Engagement and Peacebuilding. Social Development Paper. 4-13. Petrenko, A. and Kallins. (2007). Guide to EU Associations. European Citizen Action Service. Belgium. 29. Pridham, G. (2002). Implementacija evropskih standarda dekokratije u procesu pridruživanaja EU: Usporedba Slovačka i Rumunija. Politička misao. Zagreb. 1517 Reid, E. J. (2000). Understanding the Word Advocacy: Context and Use. in: Structuring the Inquiry into Advocacy. The Urban Institute. 1. Washington. 6. Rosenblum, N. L. and Post, R. C. (ed.). (2000). Civil Society and Government. Princeton University Press. Oxford. Schade, J. (2000). Civil Society: A complex debate. INEF, University of Duisburg. 10. Vidačevak, I. (2008). Nevladinsekorivlada: dijalogzaEvropu. Institut za međunarodne odnose. Zagreb. 238, 242-245. Vujadinović, D. (2007). Beograd. 22-23. Civilnodruštvoipolitičkakultura. PravnifakultetuBeogradu. Warleigh, A. (2006). Civil Society and Legitimate Governance in a Flexible Europe: Critical Deliberativisam as a Way Forward, in: S. Smismans (ed.) Civil Society and Legitimate European Governance. 200. Wesley, S. J. i Likanen, I. (2010). Civil Society and the Neighborrhood – Europeanization trough Cross-Border Cooropration?. Journal of Europan Integration. 32(5). 424. Žeravčić, G. (2011). Civilni društvo u procesu civilnog dijaloga. CIDI. Sarajevo. 3-6. i European Citizen Action Service (ECAS) was founded in 1991 as an international non-profit organization which is independent of political parties, commercial interests and the EU institutions. ECAS mission is to enable organizations and individuals to make their voice heard in the EU, providing advice on how to lobby and defend the rights of European citizens. ii This assertion has been relied by many authors OSNV research by Professor Lester Solomon to the cause of the 22 countries comparing GDP realized in the framework of civil society in the 22 states with the social production of certain states. In this study produced the data that the nonprofit sector in the 22 countries employing more people than jobs than some industries. Also this research has shown that depending on the democratic tradition there is a significant difference in the structure of the CD in some countries. The results 15 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo of this researching show very high importance that nonprofit sector has not only on the level of development of democratic and pluralistic values of a society, but also the degree of social cohesion, employment and economic development. iii Opinion on 'The role and contribution of civil society organizations in the building of Europe' CES 851/1999 Detailed information available at: http://www.eesc.europa.eu/resources/docs/ces8511999_ac_en.pdf iv Commission of the European Communities, 1997.Communication: Promoting the role of voluntary organizations and foundations in Europe. Brussels, COM (97) 241 final; 6.6.1997. v Commission of the European Communities, 2000.Discussion Paper: European Commission and Non Governmental Organizations: Building a Stronger Partnership. Brussels, COM (2000) 11 final, 18.1.2000. vi White Paper defines the principles and guidelines for the strengthening of relations with the European institutions, non-governmental organizations, as well as the active involvement of NGOs in the process of formulating and implementing policy. Following the White Paper was followed by several attempts to define a framework for dialogue, though they have not set up a structural framework, coherent and all encompassing dialogue, and therefore do not define the framework for counseling than just key principles to guide the process. vii More information on: http://europe.eu.int/yourvoice viii This database Contains information about the system and working methods of the Advisory Forum and other bodies through which the Commission shall consult with NGOs and civil society organizations in a formal and structured manner, as well as a directory of such organizations at the EU level. ix It should be noted that the Economic and Social Committee proposed a set of criteria that European NGOs if they want to become active participants in policy dialogue at EU level. These are permanently at the EU level; enabling direct access to the expertise of its members as a precondition for constructive consultation; representation of general interest that are consistent with the interests of European society, active member organizations in most EU Member States; responsibility to the membership; authority to represent and act on European level; independence and detachment instructions from external bodies; transparency of financing and decision-making structure (ECS, CES 357/2002). x Detailed information on page of the Slovenian Government, available at: www.gov.si/svez/uk/mainmenu xi Detailed information available at: www.eu.ngo.pl and www.ecas.org xii Latest Euro barometer survey on the attitudes of public opinion in the candidate countries for EU membership shows that in half of these countries support for the EU is lower than 50% (from 33% in Latvia to 46% in the Czech Republic). For more complete information see: European Commission - Euro barometer, 2002 16 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1644 Title A name given to the resource The Concept and Development of the Civil Dialogue at EU Level Author Author HASANOVIĆ, Indira Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper analyzes the concept of civil dialogue as well as its development in the EU level. Civil dialogue is an expression of participatory democracy; therefore the participation of citizens in decision-making and policy is essential to democracy. However, democracy becomes quite complicated when discussing the issue at the European level because of the structure of the European Union which is based on an ad-hoc approach. The other reason for the increasing validity of the dialogue with citizens in the Union should search for partial and troubling results of public opinion surveys that show a low level of understanding of mechanisms of action of the European institutions among citizens of the member states of EU. As result, French and Dutch referenda on the Constitutional Treaty have shown that there is a serious disconnection between citizens and policy makers at the European level. Therefore, the role and contribution of CSOs (especially NGOs) in the process of EU policy is extremely increased, in the last decades. Civil dialogue between civil society and public institutions at all levels is seen as a powerful tool that could help improve communication and citizen participation in decisions and policies made. Still difference in the level of development of the dialogue between the various EU institutions and NGOs is directly related to the degree of their work. From all EU institutions, European Commission has made the most progress in formalizing and institutionalizing consultations and dialogue with NGOs. Importance of growing engagement NGOs within the EU is indeed evaluated, both in terms of the policy process, and as a contribution to solving the democratic deficit through more participating forms of participation. The aim of this paper is to review the current practice of the civil dialogue at EU level through the analysis of several cases, and through them deficiencies and problems of previous practices of dialogue between the EU and NGOs will be shown. Keywords: European Union, Civil Dialogue, Democratic Deficit, Participatory Democracy, Ngos, European Commission. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c747e5392a7c68471de0bf2184cd36e2.pdf 35f9dca322b13cc17e90ac358df640a2 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The concept of ―embryo‖ between the Indo-European and the Semitic worlds: a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis. Francesca Bertonazzi Università degli Studi di Parma francesca.bertonazzi@studenti.unipr.it Abstract: The present contribution aims to a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis of the concept of ‗embryo‘ both in Indo-European and Semitic worlds. The question about embryo‘s status is strictly linked to the present ethic and medical scientific environments. Leaving out bioethical problems, this contribution sketches the main features of the concept of embryo mostly from a linguistic point of view and then tries to value some cultural consequences. Starting with the presentation of the Garbhopaniṣ ad, an ancient Sanskrit text, composed between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, that illustrated the development of embryo from the fertilization and the very first weeks of pregnancy to birth, through a representative selection of Greek and Latin Authors who explicate embryo‘s nature, its features, its development and the moment in which a foetus can be considered a human being (the exempla are selected from both medical and philosophical classical texts), we close with a few words about the ―embryo‖ in semitic languages and cultures. The analysis is about linguistics (with a close terminological examination) and cultural studies. Key words: multilinguistic and multicultural analysis; Indo-European and Semitic languages; cultural studies; embryo; applied linguistics. Introduction The concept of ―embryo‖ is hard to define nowadays, and so it was in the ancient world. Modern tecnologies help us in defining stages of development and features, but many problems emerge talking about the existence before birth: why some parts take shape before others? Why are some embryos male and others female? When does the sparkle of life enter into the foetus allowing it to be considered a person? Today some of these questions find a complete answer in medicine and biology. This presentation wants to display how the Indo-European world answers to the questions mentioned above and a few others. In some cases, Semitic culture will be examinated for a comparison. Starting point of the presentation is a Sanskrit medical-philosophical essay, the Garbhopaniṣ ad, which illustrates, in a chronological order, the development of the embryo (garbhas in Sanskrit) from the fertilization to the birth: for every stage of development there will be a comparison with other significant texts from Greek, Latin and Semitic culture, underlining linguistic and cultural affinities or differences. Texts regarded for this paper: Garbhopaniṣ ad (hereafter abbreviated as Garbh.Up.), Aristotle‘s Tw%n periè taè z§%a i|storiéon (History of Animals, H.A.), Aristotle‘s Periè z§éwn geneésewv (Generation of Anilmals, G.A.), Hippocrates‘ Periè gonh%v (On generation, On Gen.), Hippocrates‘ Periè fuésiov paidiéou (On the nature of the Infant, Nat.Inf.), Macrobius‘ Somnium Scipionis (Dream of Scipio), Aulus Gellius‘ Noctes Atticae, Censorinus‘ De Die Natali, the Bible, the Torah, the Koran. This short presentation of the embryo‘s question does not claim to be complete and exhaustive 106; only significant texts will be presented and discussed; in particular only the most significant pieces of the Latin tradition, largely related to the Greek one, will be offered. 106 For a general bibliography see at least: Benveniste (1945), Edde (1993), Filliozat (1943; 1975), Hoernle (1905), Krug (1990). 464 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo All translations from Sanskrit, Greek and Latin are mine; for Hebrew and Arabic the translations are provided by the critical edition of texts. A short linguistic apparatus in the endnotes, especially for the Sanskrit pieces, is aimed at a better understanding of the text. Stages of development Fertilization The traditional idea, accepted by most of the ancient authors, is that the embryo is formed from the union of blood (woman‘s product) and sperm (man‘s product). In the very beginning of Garbh.Up. the anonymous Author claims that the embryo has ―two origins‖107, and further in the text he adds: ―the embryo is born of the union of blood and sperm‖108; more precisely blood is produced by a sort of liquid secreted by the body whereas sperm originates from the spinal cord109. Hippocrates instead joins two different theories: according to the first one, sperm comes from all over the body; while, according to the second one, it comes from the brain and through the spinal cord arrives into kidneys and then into testicles110. In Garbh.Up. there is no an indication of when a woman can surely know she is pregnant; Aristotle on the contrary says she can be sure of it because of the dryness of the womb, ideal condition for sperm to remain into uterus; if it does not slide out within seven days, the woman is pregnant111. Another question is how the gender of the embryo can be established; Garbh.Up. makes the issue clear in few words: ―A male is created by a male flux excess, a female is created by a female flux excess‖ 112. Similarly Hippocrates: ―If the weakest semen is bigger than the strongest one and controls it, (the embryo) becomes female; if instead the strongest semen is bigger than the weakest one and controls it, (the embryo) is male‖113. Aristotle, on the other hand, amply deals with the gender issue and presents different hypothesis elaborated by Greek philosophers in order to refute them. First of all, Anaxagoras asserts that the opposition of gender is in the semen: a male embryo places itself on the right part of the uterus, a female embryo on the left part. According to Empedocles, a hot uterus generates a male, a cold one a female: high or low temperature is caused by menstruation flow; Democritus affirms that the difference is due to the prevalence of sperm over the blood (G.A., 4,1 764a). However, the Aristotle‘s position is very clear: ―the male's semen is different, because the male possesses in itself the principle that can make it able to move and to concoct the nourishment, instead the female's semen contains material only‖114. After defining the causes which create a male or a female foetus, Aristotle adds that the complete development of each part of the female embryo is slower than the development of the male one: as a matter of fact, girls born at ten months are more common than boys 115; the reason of this delay is the different heat between male, whose flesh is hotter, and female, whose flesh is warmer. Similarly Hippocrates considers the female semen weaker and moister and this is the reason of the delay in the growth of female foetus116. 107 ―dviyoni ‖. Dvi-: two; yoni-: womb, from √yu- ―to join‖. ―śukraśo itasa yogād āvartate garbho‖. śuklo: ―white; sperm‖, attested also as śukras-, from √śuc- ―to shine‖; śo itā-: ―blood‖; garbha-: ―embryo‖, from √grah- ―to receive‖. 109 ―rasāc cho ita (āvartate); majjātaḥ śukra (āvartate)‖. Rasa- ―liquid secreted by the body‖; cho ita = śo itā ―blood‖; majja- ―spinal cord‖. 110 ―[...] teiénei gaèr kaiè e\v tou%ton e\k pantoèv tou% swématov, kaiè diacwrei% e\k tou% e\gkefaélou e\v thèn o\sfuèn kaiè e\v paèn toè sw%ma kaiè e\v toèn mueloén, kaiè e\x au\tou% teiénousin o|doié, w$ste kaiè e\pieénai tou% u|grou% e\v au\toèn kaiè a\pocwrei%n. \Ephèn deè e!lq+ e\v tou%ton yoèn mueloèn h| gonhé, cwrei% paraè touèv nefrouèv: tauèt+ gaèr h| o|doév e\sti diaè flebw%n, kh!n oi| nefroiè e|lkwqeèwsin, e!stin o£te kaiè ai/ma sumfeéretai: paraè deè tw%n nefrw%n e!rcetai diaè tw%n o\rciéwn mesaétwn e\v toè ai\doi%on [...]‖. On Gen., 1,2-3. 111 ―Giénetai deè shmei%on tou% suneilhfeénai tai%v gunaixién, o£tan eu\quèv geénhtai metaè thèn o|miliéan o| toépov xhroév [...]. \Eaèn deè e|ptaè e\mmeién+ (toè speérma) h|meérav, faneroèn o£ti ei!lhptai: ai| gaèr kalouémenai e\kruéseiv e\n tauétaiv giénontai tai%v h|meéraiv.‖. H.A., 7,3,583. 112 ―pitū reto‘tirekāt puruṣo bhavati | mātūḥ reto‘tirekāt striyo‖. Pit - ―father‖; retas-: ―flux‖; ‘tirekāt: ati+reka: ―excess‖; puruṣa: ―male‖; māt - ―mother‖; striyo: ―female‖. 113 ―h!n gaèr poll§% pleéon toè a\sqeneèv speérma +& tou% i\scuroteérou, kratei%tai toè i\scuroèn kaiè micqeèn t§% a\sqenei% e\v qh%lu perihneécqh: h!n deè pleéon +& toè i\scuroèn tou% a\sqeneéov, krathq+% te toè a\sqeneév, e\s a!rsen perihneécqh‖.On Gen., 6,2. 114 ―Diafeérei deè toè tou% a!rrenov speérma, o£ti e!cei a\rchèn e\n e|aut§% toiauéthn oi£an kinei%n kaiè e\n t§% z§é§ kaiè diapeéttein thèn e\scaéthn trofhén, toè deè tou% qhéleov u£lhn moénon.‖. G.A., 4,1 766b. 115 ―Teéwv meèn ou&n pa%san thèn teleiéwsin tw%n moriéwn braduéteron a\polambaénei toè qh%lu tou% a!rrenov, kaiè dekaémhna giénetai ma%llon tw%n a\rreénwn‖. H.A., 7,3, 583b. 108 116 ―Ai!tion d‘ e\stin o£ti toè qh%lu ph%gnutai u£steron kaiè a\rqrou%tai,o£ti h| gonhè a\sqenesteérh e\sti kaiè u|groteérh th%v qhleéhv h! tou% a!rsenov: kaiè a\naégkh e\stiè kataè tou%ton toèn loégon u£steron toè qh%lu ph%gnusqai h! toè a!rsen [...]‖. On Gen., 18,8. 465 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From initial stages to 3rd month As regards the growth of each part of the body, Aristotle claims that is not so easy to define an exact order: ―it is not easy affirming if the parts formed first are those which exist with a view to something else, or if something else exists with a view to those‖ 117. A philosophic answer can be found few lines ahead: ―the parts formed first are those which contain the principle and are on the top of the body. Indeed the head and the eyes are more developed in the appearing of embryo, instead the bottom parts, like legs, are small‖118. Starting point of Aristotle‘s theory is totally rational and philosophical, unlike the Garbh.Up.‘s point of view: as all the aspects of life, the order of embryo‘s growth is governed by a deity119 too, and so there is no uncertainty about development. ―At the right time, from perfect union, in one night, the embryo becomes a infinitesimal part, in seven nights roundness, after half month spherical mass, in a month compact structure, in two months the head is formed, in three months the feet are too‖120. The Authors disagree about the very initial stages: Aristotle affirms that after the fertilization a thin membrane surrounds sperm, taking the form of egg (H.A. 7,6,586a), but he does not specify how long it takes. Hippocrates claims that female and male semen, joining together, make a single semen; staying in the uterus, being warmed up, it receives and emits a breath; then it grows and surrounds itself with a continuous and viscous membrane. At a certain point, something thin comes out (i.e. umbilical cord) while the rest of semen becomes a sphere into the membrane (Nat.Inf. XII,6). Then he describes accurately a six-day embryo: ―It is like removing the shell from an egg, in which the liquid inside membrane is clear; the mass is red and spherical; in the membrane, there are white and thick fibres, rolled up with a light-red and thick liquid, and around it, on the external side, some blood clots. In the middle of the membrane, something leans out, and it seems the umbilical cord: it enables inspirations and expirations‖121. Similarly Gellius, quoting Marcus Terentius Varro, claims that, after fertilization, in seven days the embryo coagulates and takes shape; in four weeks penis, head and spinal cord are formed; in seven weeks a foetus completes its shaping in the uterus122. In a piece of numerology in his Somnium Scipionis, talking about the number seven, Macrobius quotes Hippocrates about the description of a six-day embryo123, then, two other philosophers, Straton and Diocles, about the development of the embryo in following weeks 124. The opinion that, at beginning of life, embryo has a round shape is shared by both Koran and Torah. The very first Sura revealed by God to Muhammad is just about al'alaq, the clot125. Also a well-know psalm, Psalm 139,16, states: ―Your eyes saw my golem; all the days ordained for me were written in your book before one of them came to be‖126; golem can be translate roughly as 'unformed body', suggesting an idea of something living, 117 ―Dioè ou\ r|çédion dielei%n poétera proétera tw%n moriéwn, o£sa a!llou e£neka, h! ou/ e£neka tau%ta‖. G.A., 2,6, 742a. ―Kaiè diaè tou%to prw%ton meèn toè e!con thèn a\rchèn giénetai moérion, ei&t‘ e\coémenon toè a!nw kuétov. Dioè taè periè thèn kefalhèn kaiè taè o!mmata meégista kat‘a\rcaèv faiénetai toi%v e\mbruéoiv, taè deè kaétw tou% o\mfalou%, oi/on taè kw%la mikraé‖. G.A., 2,6 742b. 119 In Garbh.Up. Prajapati, the demiurge who had created Universe and material world. 120 ― tukāle sa prayogād ekarātroṣita kalala bhavati saptarātroṣita budbuda bhavati ardhamāsābhyantare a pi ḍo bhavati māsābhyantare ka hino bhavati māsadvyena śiraḥ sa padyate māsatrayena pādapradeśo bhavati‖. Sa prayogād: ―perfect union‖; kalala : ―infinitesimal part‖; budbuda : ―roundness‖; pi ḍo: ―spherical mass‖; ka hino: ―compact structure‖; śiraḥ: ―head‖; pādapradeśo: ―feet‖. 121 ―[...] oi/on ei! tiv §\ou% w\mou% toè e!xw lepuérion perieéloi, e\n deè t§% e !ndon u|meéni toè e!ndon u|groèn diafaiénoito: o| troépov meén tiv h&n toiou%tov a$liv ei\pei%n: h&n deè kaiè e\ruqroèn kaiè strogguélon: e\n deè t§% u|meéni e\faiénonto e\neou%%sai i&nev leukaiè kaiè paceéai, ei\lhmeénai suén i\cw%ri pacei% kaiè e\ruqr§%, kaiè a\mfi toèn u|meéna e!xwqen ai|maélwpev: kataè deè meéson tou% u|meénov a\pei%ce leptoén ti o$ moi e\doékei ei&nai o\mfaloév, ka\keién§ thèn pnohèn kaiè ei!sw kaiè e!xw poiei%sqai toè prw%ton: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 13,3. 118 122 ―'Nam cum in uterum' inquit 'mulieris genitale semen datum est, primis septem diebus conglobatur coagulaturque fitque ad capiendam figuram idoneum. Post deinde quarta hebdomade, quod eius virile secus futurum est, caput et spina, quae est in dorso, informatur. Septima autem fere hebdomade, id est nono et quadrigesimo die, totus' inquit 'homo in utero absoluitur'‖. Noctes Atticae, III,10,7. 123 ―Verum semine semel intra formandi hominis monetam locato, hoc primum artifex natura molitur ut die septimo folliculum genuino circumdet umori ex membrana tam tenui qualis in ovo ab exteriore testa clauditur et intra se claudit liquorem‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,63. For the original Hippocrates‘ text see endnote n.16. ―Straton vero Peripateticus et Diocles Carystius per septenos dies concepti corporis fabricam hac observatione dispensant, ut hebdomade secunda credant guttas sanguinis in superficie folliculi de quo diximus apparere, terzia demergi eas introrsum ad ipsum conceptionis humorem, quarta humorem ipsum coagulari ut quiddam velut inter carnem ac sanguinem liquida adhuc soliditate conveniat, quinta vero interdum fingi in ipsa substantia humoris humanam figuram, magnitudine quidem apis, sed ut in illa brevitate membra omnia et designata totius corporis liniamenta consistant‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,65. 125 ―Read! In the name of the Father who had created! Who had created human being from a clot‖. Sura 96th, 1-2. 126 ―Golmi ra'u 'enèkha / we'al sifrekha kullam jikkatèvu / jamim jutztzàru / welo' echad bahem‖, Psalm 139,16. 124 466 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of human being nevertheless. Similarly a passage by Jeremiah 127 and another one by Isaiah128 seem to grant a status of person to the embryo. However, an extract in the Book of Exodus, which deals with crimes, claims that punishment is heavier in case of injury for the woman, but not in case of premature birth 129. From 4th to 6th month ―In four months ankles, digestive system and hips (are formed), in five months the back and the vertebral column, in six months mouth, nose, eyes, ears‖130. According to Garbh.Up., during the fourth month a very important stage takes place: the foetus is provided with internal organs and bones; from this moment, the foetus can receive nourishment from its mother through the umbilical cord and it is able to move into the uterus. Hippocrates does not provide exact time of each stage of development, but he draws up a list of each part 131: ―Bones hardens due to heat; so the foetus ramifies like a tree. The internal side and the external one become more articulated. The head is fixed on shoulders; arms and forearms on sides; legs are separated; tendons are connected with joints; nose and ears lean out of flesh and becomes punctured; eyes are filled with crystal liquid and gender is known. Internal organs becomes complete‖ and then the foetus starts breathing. Special attention must be paid to growth of bones and tendons. In Archaic Greek there was not a specific word to define ―living body‖ 132, however a stock expression ―gui%a kaiè meélh‖133, suggesting the union of tendons and limbs, is attested. Recognized as fundamental parts of the human being, skin, flesh, bones and tendons are what God created first in a man according to Job134. The anonymous Author of Garbh.Up. says that tendons are produced from fat and bones from tendons135, and both develop themselves during the fifth month. According to Aristotle, tendons and bones are created from the same elements, that is spermatic and nutritional residual; that is why they do not develop in adulthood, instead nails and hair grow lifelong because they receive an external nourishment136. Tendons and bones are deprived of moistness due to interior heat, and so they become strong and fire can not burn them, like clay137. One more detail: both in Garbh.Up. and in Aristotle, nails and hair are considered as impurities: ―there are three kind of impurity‖138, ―Nature makes flesh and the other sense organs with a better material, and with residual it makes bones, tendons, hair, nails, hooves and similar parts‖139; Hippocrates instead does not consider them as impurities, however he claims that nails and hair grow up at the same time140. 127 ―Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart: I appointed you as a prophet to the nations‖. Jeremiah,1,5. 128 ―Before I was born the Lord called me: from my mother's womb he has spoken my name‖. Isaiah 49,1. 129 ―If men who are fighting hit a pregnant woman and she gives birth prematurely but there is no serious injury, the offender must be fined whatever the woman's husband demands and the court allows. But if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise‖. Exodus, 21,22-25. 130 ― ṣ | ṣaṣthe māse mukhanāsikākṣ ‖. Gulpha-: ―ankles‖; ja hara-: ―digestive system‖; ka a-: ―hips‖; ṣ -: ―back‖; : ―vertebral column‖; mukha-: ―mouth‖; nāsikā:- ―nose‖; ākṣi:- ―eyes‖; śrotrā-: ―ears‖. 131 ―Kaiè taè o\steéa sklhruénetai u|poè th%v qeérmhv phgnuémena: kaiè dhè kaiè diozou%tai w|v deéndron: kaiè a\rqrou%tai a!meinon kaiè taè ei!sw tou% swématov kaiè taè e!xw: kaiè h£ te kefalhè giénetai a\festhkui%a a\poè toi%n w!moin, kaiè oi| braciéonev kaiè oi| phéceiv a\poè tw%n pleureéwn: kaiè taè skeélea diiéstatai a\p‘ a\llhélwn: kaiè taè neu%ra e\pai^ssetai a\mfiè taèv fuésiav tw%n a!rqrwn kaiè au\taè stomou%tai: kaiè h| r|ièv kaiè taè ou!ata a\fiéstatai e\n t+%si sarxiè kaiè tetrhénetai: kaiè oi| o\fqalmoiè e\mpiéplantai u|grou% kaqarou%: kaiè toè ai\doi%on dh%lon giénetai o|koéteroén e\sti: kaiè taè splaégcna diarqrou%tai: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 17,2-3. 132 In fact, the homeric word sw%ma suggests the dead body, the cadaver. 133 For the explanation of this stock expression see Snell (1948). 134 ―Did you not pour me out like milk / and curdle me like cheese, / clothe me with skin and flesh / and knit me together with bones and tendons?‖. Job, 10, 10-11. 135 ―medasaḥ snāyavaḥ snāyubhyo ‘stīni ‖. medo: ―fat‖; snāyavaḥ: ―tendons‖; asthi: ―bone‖. 136 ―Toèn au\toèn deè troépon toi%v o\stoi%v kaiè taè neu%ra suniéstatai kaiè e\k tw%n au\tw%n, e\k th%v spermatikh%v perittwésewv kaiè th%v qreptikh%v. !Onucev deè kaiè triécev kaiè o|plaiè kaiè keérata kaiè r|uégch kaiè taè plh%ktra tw%n o\rniéqwn, kaiè ei! ti toiou%ton e£teroén e\sti moérion, e\k th%v e\pikthétou trofh%v kaiè th%v au\xhtikh%v, h£n te paraè tou% qhéleov e\pikta%tai kaiè th%v quéraqen. Diaè tou%to taè meèn o\sta% meécri tinoèv lambaénei thèn au!xhsi ‖. G.A., 2,6, 744b-745a. 137 ― |Upoè deè th%v e\ntoèv qermoéthtov taé te neu%ra kaiè taè o\sta% giénetai, xhrainomeénhv th%v u|groéthtov. Dioè kaiè a!lutaé e\sti taè o\sta% u|poè tou% puroév, kaqaéper keéramov‖. G.A., 2,6, 743a. 138 “ ”; tri-: “three”; mala-: “impurity”. “Ou£twv e\n toi%v ginomeénoiv au\toi%v h| fuésiv e\k meèn th%v kaqarwtaéthv u£lhv saérkav kaiè tw%n a!llwn ai\sqhthriéwn taè swémata suniésthsin, e\k deè tw%n perittwmaétwn o\sta% kaiè neu%ra kaiè triécav, e!ti 139 467 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From 7th to 10th months, pregnancy duration and birth As far as the last stages of gestation are concerned, Garbh.Up. affirms that in seven months the foetus becomes a human being, it is viable and can survive in case of premature birth; during the eight month the foetus has in nuce its characteristics and features, and at ninth month it is born completely provided with sense organs and cognitive ability, it remembers the previous life and knows good karma from evil karma141. Also Aristotle declares that the foetus is not able to live before the seventh month; if it is born during the seventh months, it is possible that some parts like ears and nostrils are not completely formed, but they can develop after birth and the baby can live nevertheless142. Common experience teaches that the normal duration of pregnancy is 38 weeks, that corresponds to nine months and a half. Obviously the ancient texts confirm this situation, some in implicit way (like Garbh.Up., see further), some in explicit one, like Aristotle: ―Pregnancy lasts seven, eight, nine months, usually ten months; for some women it lasts until eleventh month‖143. Macrobius, more interested in numerology than in medicine, says that Nature has fixed the term for birth at nine months, but in some cases, due to a mathematical calculation, it can be anticipated at seventh144. Instead Censorinus displays a Chaldean theory which explains that men can be born only at seventh, ninth or tenth month because of the position of the stars and the Sun 145. Normally the foetus, in the initial stages, has the head at the top of the uterus, then during the last weeks of gestation, it turns itself until it puts the head at the bottom of the uterus, and it is born from the head; this natural fact is confirmed by Aristotle146, nevertheless Hippocrates seems to doubt about it147. The moment of birth is considered from foetus‘ point of view both in Hippocrates' text and in Garbh.Up.: ―But the foetus, who was in a condition of happiness, arrived to uterus‘ opening, with its mind oppressed by a mechanic grip, unhappy, new-born, touched by Visnu‘s wind, does not remember previous births and deaths and does not know good karma from evil karma‖148. Hippocrates asserts the foetus, having no enough nourishment from its mother during the tenth month149, breaks with hands and legs one of membranes in which is surrounded and then is able to be born (Nat.Inf., 30,1). Instead Aristotle presents birth from mother‘s point of view. He focuses on the pain the woman feels: ―if the pain is very hard and concentrated on the womb, birth will be faster; if it is concentrated on ankles, birth will be painful; if it is concentrated on the bottom of the womb, birth will be fast‖ (H.A. 7,9,586b ). d‘ o!nucav kaiè o|plaèv kaiè paénta taè toiau%ta: dioè teleutai%a tau%ta lambaénei thèn suéstasin, o£tan h!dh giénetai periéttwma th%v fuésewv‖. G.A., 2,6,744b. 140 ― £Ama deè toi%sin o!nuxi kaiè ai| triécev e\n t+% kefal+% r|izou%ntai […]‖. Nat.Inf., 20,1. 141 ―saptame māse jīvena sa yukto bhavati / aṣ ame māse sarvasa pūr o bhavati [...] atha navame māsi sarvalakṣa a pūrno bhavati pūrvajāti smarati k tak ta ca karma vibhāti śubhāśubha ca karma vindati‖. Saptame: ―seven‖; jīvena: ―life‖; aṣ : ―eight‖; : ―full of features‖; navame: ―nine‖; sarvalakṣ : ―full of features and provided with sens organs‖; : ―previous life‖. 142 ― £Osa meè ou&n giénetai proétera tw%n e|ptaè mhnw%n, ou\deèn ou\dam+% duénatai zh%v: taè d' e|ptaémhna goénima giénetai prw%ton, a\sqenh% deè taè pollaè (dioè kaiè spargaou%sin e\riéoiv au\taé), pollaè deè kaiè tw%n poérwn e\niéouv e!conta a\sciéstouv, oi/on w!twn kaiè mukthérwn: a\ll' e\pauxanomeénoiv diarqrou%tai, kaiè biou%si pollaè kaiè tw%n toiouétwn‖ . H.A., 7,4, 584b. 143 ―[...] kaiè gaèr e|ptaémhna kaiè o\ktaémhna kaiè e\nneaémhna giénetai, kaiè dekaémhna toè plei%ston‖. H.A., 7,4, 584a. 144 ―Humano partui frequentiorem usum novem mensium certo numerorum modulamine natura constituit, sed ratio sub adsciti senarii numeri multiplicatione procedens etiam septem menses compulit usurpari‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,14. 145 ―Sed nunc Chaldaeorum ratio breviter tractanda est, explicandumque cur septimo mense et nono et decimo tantummodo posse hominnes nasci arbitrentur [...] Itaque eum (Sun), qui stellas ipsas quibus movemur permovet, animam nobis dare qua regamur potentissimumque in nos esse moderarique, quando post conceptionem veniamus in lucem‖. De Die Natali, VIII, 13. 146 ― !Ecei d o|moiéwv paènta taè z§%a thèn kefalhèn a!nw toè prw%ton: au\xamoémena deè kaiè proèv thèn e!xodon o|rmw%nta kaétw periaégetai, kaiè h| geénesiév e\stin h| kataè fuésin e\piè kefalhén‖. H.A., 7,8,586b. See also On Gen., 4,9,777a. 147 ―Toè deè paidiéon e\n t+%si mhétr+sin e\oèn twè cei%re e!cei proèv t+%si geénusi kaiè thèn kefalhèn plhsiéon toi%n podoi%n: kaiè ou\k e!stin a\trekeié+ kri%nai, ou\d h!n i!d+v e\n t+%si mhétr+si toè paidiéon, poéteron thèn kefalhèn a!nw e!cei h! kaétw: e\k deè tou% o\mfalou% tetameénoi ei\sièn oi| u|meénev, a\nteécontev au\toé.‖. Nat.Inf., 28,1. 148 ―atha jantuḥ ranprīyo niśata ḍyamāno mahatā duḥkhena jātamātrāstu vaiṣ ṣ ‖. 149 ―Ou£tw deè kaiè toè paidiéon, o|koétan au\xhq+%, ou\k e!ti duénatai h| mhéthr trofhèn pareécein a\rkeéousan: zhteéon ou&n pleiéw trofhèn th%v pareouéshv toè e!mbruon a\skariézon r|hégnusi touèv u|meénav, kaiè luqeèn tou% desmou% cwrei% o|mou% e!xw: kaiè tau%ta giénetai e\n deéka mhsiè toè makroétaton‖. Nat.Inf., 30,9. 468 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Twins, malformations, sterility In short, few words about some marginal aspects. According to Garbh.Up., twins are generated from the separation of man's semen in two parts by the action of (sacred) wind150. Similarly Hippocrates affirms that twins are generated from one fertilization only151; when man's semen comes into the uterus, it divides itself in two parts, and each of these is surrounded by one membrane152. If the semen into one part only is strong, embryo becomes male; if it is weak, it becomes female; if the strong semen comes into both parts, there will be two males, if the weak one comes into both, there will be females 153. Aristotle specifies the maximum number of twins is five; in one special case only, a woman generated twenty newborns in four pregnancies, five each time; he affirms also that for the human beings (unlike others animals) few twins survive if they are male and female twins (H.A. 7,4,584b ). As regards of malformations, Aristotle says they are caused by an excessive lack of movement of spermatic residual154; similarly Garbh.Up.'s Author affirms the cause of blindness, limp, hump and dwarfism is excessive quantity of tamas155. Hippocrates contemplates only cripples: ―if foetus is a cripple into the uterus, I say that is the product of a contusion, due to a mother's blow or fall or some kind of violence; [...] or foetus can be a cripple for another reason: if uterus' space is too small for the complete articulation, body moves backwards and foetus becomes a cripple inside the uterus‖156. In conclusion, sterility is due to equality of male and female semen in Garbh.Up., instead in Deuteronomy it is caused by a devine punishment157. Conclusions Despite the differences carried by the classical texts - especially about the gender issue, the first weeks' development and each part's formation - there is a substantial agreement among the authors about the main questions of the embryo‘s growth: both male and female‘s semen are involved in its formation; in the beginnig it has a nearly round shape; the fetus is viable from the seventh month and it may be born from that time until the tenth month of gestation. Most of all, a common feature between Indo-European and Semitic culture is the idea of human life's beginning connected with a round form (see endnotes n.15, 20 and 21): the embryo is considered like a clot or a lump, something already potentially viable, as the Biblical God talks to it in its mother‘s womb (endnotes n.22 and 23). However, unlike Greek and Latin tradition, an accurate description of the stages of embryo and foetus‘ prenatal life seems generally to lack in the Semitic texts. 150 ―anyonyavāyuparipīḍitaśukradvaividhyāt tanuḥ syāt tato yugmāḥ prajāyante‖. Yugmāḥ: ―twins‖. 151 ―Diéduma deè giénetai meèn a\f‘ e|noèv lagneuématov: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 31,1. ―[...] £Otan deè h| gonhè tuéc+ scisqei%sa e\v duéo koélpouv a\fikomeénh kaiè ai| mh%trai deéxwntai thèn gonhèn kaiè toi%n koélpoin mhdeéterov e\v toèn e£teron calaés+, cwrisqei%sa dhè e\n e|kateér§ koélp§ u|menou%tai kaiè zwou%tai t§% au\t§% troép§ §/per kaiè toè e£n ei!retai‖. Nat.Inf., 31,1. 153 ―[...] \Ev o|koéteron d‘ a!n tw%n koélpwn tuéc+ h| gonhè pacuteérh kaiè i\scuroteérh e\selqou%sa, kei&qi a!rsen giénetai: e\v o|koéteron d‘ a!n u|groteérh kaiè a\sqenesterhè, kei&qi qh%lu giénetai: h!n d‘ e\v a!mfw i\scurhè e\seélq+, a!mfw a!rsena giénetai: h!n deè a\sqenhév, a!mfw qhélea giénetai [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 31,3. 154 ―Kaq' o£son d' a!n e\lleiép+ h! u|perbaéll+, h! cei%ron a\potelei% h! a\naéphron toè ginoémenon [...]‖. On Gen., 2,6,743a. 155 ―vyākulitamanaso‘ndhāḥ khaðjāḥ kubjā vāmanā bhavanti ‖. Andhāḥ: ―blind‖; khaðjāḥ: ―limp‖; kubjā: ―hump‖; vāmanā: ―dwarf‖. Tamas, ―passive power‖, is one of the three nature's elements with rajas (passionate power) and sattva (rational power). 156 ―Toè deè phrwqeèn e\n t+%si mhétr+si paidiéon fhmiè au\toè h! flasqeèn phrwqh%nai th%v mhtroèv plhgeiéshv kataè toè e!mbruon h! pesouéshv h! a!llou tinoèv biaiéou paqhématov prov genomeénou t+% mhtrié:[...] h! e|teér§ troép§ toi§%de phrou%tai paidiéa, e\phèn e\n t+%si mhétr+si kataè toè cwriéon kaq‘ o£ ti kaiè h\rqrwéqh stenoèn +&, a\naégkh e\n sten§% kineumeénou tou% swématov phrou%sqai kat‘ e\kei%no toè cwriéon: [...]‖. On Gen., 10,1-2. 157 ―And he will love thee, and bless thee, and multiply thee: he will also bless the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy land, thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep, in the land which he sware unto thy fathers to give thee. Thou shalt be blessed above all people: there shall not be male or female barren among you, or among your cattle‖. Deuteronomy, 7,13-14. 152 469 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Armisen-Marchetti, M. (2001). Macrobe, Commentaire au Songe de Scipion, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Benveniste, E. (1945). La doctrine médicale des Indo-Européens. Revue de l‘histoire des religions, n. 130 (1945) 5-12. Cavazza, F. (1985). (a c. di), Aulo Gellio, Le notti attiche, Bologna: Zanichelli editore. Edde, G. (1993). La medicina indiana, Milano: Xenia. Filliozat, J. (1943). Magie et médicine, Paris: Presses universitaires de France. Filliozat, J. (1975) La doctrine classique de la médicine indienne; ses origines et ses parallèles grecques, Paris: Ecole francaise d'Extreme-Orient Fontanella, V. (1992). Censorino, Il giorno natalizio, Bologna: Zanichelli editore. G.A. = Louis (1961) H.A. = Louis (1964) Hoernle, A. F. (1905). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Joly, R. (1970). Hippocrate, De la Génération, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Joly, R. (1970). Hippocrate, De la Nature de l‘Enfant, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Krug, A. (1990). La medicina nel mondo classico, Firenze: Giunti. Louis, P. (1961). Aristote, De la Génération des Animaux, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Louis, P. (1964). Aristote, Histoire des Animaux, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Nat.Inf. = Joly (1970) On Gen. = Joly (1970) Snell, B. (1948). Die Entdeckung des Geistes. Studien zur Entstehung des europäischen Denkens bei den Griechen, Hamburg: Claasen Verlag. 470 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 70 Title A name given to the resource The concept of ―embryo‖ between the Indo-European and the Semitic worlds: a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis. Author Author Bertonazzi, Francesca Abstract A summary of the resource. The present contribution aims to a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis of the concept of ‗embryo‘ both in Indo-European and Semitic worlds. The question about embryo‘s status is strictly linked to the present ethic and medical scientific environments. Leaving out bioethical problems, this contribution sketches the main features of the concept of embryo mostly from a linguistic point of view and then tries to value some cultural consequences. Starting with the presentation of the Garbhopaniṣ ad, an ancient Sanskrit text, composed between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, that illustrated the development of embryo from the fertilization and the very first weeks of pregnancy to birth, through a representative selection of Greek and Latin Authors who explicate embryo‘s nature, its features, its development and the moment in which a foetus can be considered a human being (the exempla are selected from both medical and philosophical classical texts), we close with a few words about the ―embryo‖ in semitic languages and cultures. The analysis is about linguistics (with a close terminological examination) and cultural studies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 897 Title A name given to the resource The Concept of International Theme in the Works of Henry James and E. M. Forster Author Author Mijanovic, Ljiljana Abstract A summary of the resource. From Henry James, the central theme for the writers of Modernism is something which Peter Nicolas called ``shock of exile`` or cultural contrast. Starting his works with the idea of cultural contrast. Henry James made popular the international theme in literature, which would be followed successfully by many writers. Modernism is known as urban literal movement, but it was evident in that period many writers created outside of their native countries. Henry James and many writers of his generation their desires for something new, different from their own culture satisfied, having travelled across Europe. During the imperial expansion at the end of XIX century some writers such as Joseph Conrad, R. Kipling or E. M. Forster and many other writers, went outside of European borders, having written about cultures and civilizations completely different from European cultural heritage. E. M. Forster his concept of international theme based on comparison of cultural differences in Europe, but his creative interest was directed as well as toward eternal contrast between the Orient and the Occident. Modern texts registered new conscious about cultural heterogeneity which marked modern world. Whether it is word about fiction or travelling literature of modernism, meeting with the other culture and at the same time changes of both structures of cultures in contact are unavoidable, which Henry James and E. M. Forster emphasized in their works. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ed2c0e1ee00466d19baee7c1b9be1897.docx 804bd37fbc4731a5b08ce206714aa536 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6e290aea1226bc6b96e6edc82d40d0b1.pdf ab569ffc7195b1ee5e61a46002f639a9 PDF Text Text The Concept of Language in Sándor Márai: the Exile in Naples Judit Papp University of Naples "L'Orientale"/ Naples, Italy Key words: Márai, Exile, Naples, Language, Diaries ABSTRACT The famous Hungarian writer Sándor Márai (1900-1989) spent, with his wife Lola and adopted son János, his first period of voluntary exile in Naples (Italy) between October 1948 and April 1952. The Diaries which Márai started to keep already in 1943 represent an interesting source to reconstruct his experiences and everyday life in the Mediterranean city only a few years after the war. Among others, he had to find a way to communicate with the local inhabitants for everyday purposes, he met outstanding exponents of the intellectual and cultural life of the city and he frequented the libraries and museums. Also in this new, ‘foreign’ context in a certain number of entries he continues to deal with the question of language(s) and with the role that the Hungarian language played in his life and he describes also the extremely slow creative process that lead to his poem Funeral Sermon. Thereby, in this paper I’ll concentrate on these specific passages to throw light on how the exile affected and shaped Márai’s concept of language. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1829 Title A name given to the resource The Concept of Language in Sándor Márai: the Exile in Naples Author Author PAPP, Judit Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Márai, Exile, Naples, Language, Diaries ABSTRACT The famous Hungarian writer Sándor Márai (1900-1989) spent, with his wife Lola and adopted son János, his first period of voluntary exile in Naples (Italy) between October 1948 and April 1952. The Diaries which Márai started to keep already in 1943 represent an interesting source to reconstruct his experiences and everyday life in the Mediterranean city only a few years after the war. Among others, he had to find a way to communicate with the local inhabitants for everyday purposes, he met outstanding exponents of the intellectual and cultural life of the city and he frequented the libraries and museums. Also in this new, ‘foreign’ context in a certain number of entries he continues to deal with the question of language(s) and with the role that the Hungarian language played in his life and he describes also the extremely slow creative process that lead to his poem Funeral Sermon. Thereby, in this paper I’ll concentrate on these specific passages to throw light on how the exile affected and shaped Márai’s concept of language. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6eb72e0f6d78b6a636303dd001eed1ee.pdf 0e60b273d59627e6ea0a451a658fb5e5 PDF Text Text The Conceptual Direction of Prevention Informational Threats in Academic and Educational Publications Sarvar Mahmudov & Muhayo Umaralieva Uzbek Scientific-Research Institute of Pedagogical Sciences, Uzbekistan Abstract In this article the ability (potentialities) of pedagogical publications in information security through analysis and monitoring of published materials, developmentcriteria for evaluating their content revealed; the structure of the concept of prevention of information threats in scientific – pedagogical and educational publicationsis presented. Key words. Pedagogical publications, information threats, psychology, manipulation of consciousness, information, content. Introduction After Uzbekistan’sindependence, the mass media, in particular, scientific-pedagogical and educational-methodical publications turned into a tribune of free expression of their thoughts, attitudes, and positions of scientific and pedagogical community (public) and professionals. Therefore, (accordingly) the pedagogical publications facing the challenge (teaching editions of the task)to protect of the recipients of education from the negative effects on their culture and spirituality through publications submitted materials, information and recommendations.In this context, the pertinentquestions are: (of) studying the main reasons for the emergence in the academic and educational publications not scientifically grounded materials, informationthat leads(leading) to a negative conclusion, monitoring and acceptance of necessary measures on prevention of negative influence of the ideas alien to our society and psychological manipulation through media; the development of criteria for evaluation of materials prepared for publication and the implementation of public control in this direction. In his congratulatory message to the media and the press in connection with their national holiday, the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan stressed that from time to time, there is a sense of nostalgia for an outdated system and ideology of the past, and not to fall into dependence on these sentiments.It is necessary to open the eyes of our people, especially the youth to the true value, in connection with which all increased the role and responsibility of the media in the education of the �person with solid convictions and a strong will. As a result of studying and analyzing the problems associated with the prevention of information risk in the academic and educational publications. some activities have been identified that need to be urgently implemented. These include: – development and introduction of a mechanism of public control and assessment of the content presented in the academic and educational publications; – revision and improvement of the procedure and recommendations for publication of articles, analytical materials, represented in mass media publications, and their expertise; – definition of the role of scientific-pedagogical and educational-methodical publications in the strengthening of spiritual and moral positions, pedagogical and psychological ideology (Outlook) of the teacher’s, their political views and beliefs; – providing continuous protection from potential threats in the media, development of appropriate scientifically grounded concept in this area. Stages of monitoring and implementation A mechanism to counter information threats through monitoring of scientific-pedagogical and educational publications implies implementation of the following functions: Social. The identification of the essence (entity) of (to) ensuring information security in academic and educational publications, i.e. formation and development of critical views, evaluations in relation to information, that represents threat and negatively affects the research and teaching community. Spiritual and moral. The strengthening of the teacher’s ability to counter information threats through scientific-pedagogical and educational-methodical publications, the strengthening and development of socially significant qualities of critical thinking in relation to values and norms accepted by the society, the mechanism of protection of spiritual, social and psychological health. Cultural. The development and adoption among the scientific and pedagogical community of culture of information consumption. In the course of our study we turned to teachers of educational institutions with a request to answer the survey questions.Read: "Is there a (do you) need to perform a special study on ways to counter information threats through research and teaching and methodical publications, to monitor them, to instill in teachers the threat of the confrontation of information risk, to introduce into the curricula and programs of courses of retraining and the improvement of of teachers qualifications, the theme of combating �information threats by means of scientific-pedagogical and educational publications?"Almost all the teachers and faculty respondents gave a positive answer. According to the result of the study, it was concluded that a threat to society may come from submitting materials to be published in pedagogical publications with the aim of changing attitudes in a negative way on national history, folk traditions and customs, national culture, development of education in the country, national and universal values, spiritual and moral qualities, political and socio – psychological principles, or informationprepared (is executed) at a low professional level that does not meet scientific-methodical requirements. Therefore, material or information that is not scientifically grounded, does not have a clear structure, is defective in the scientific-theoretical attitudecan be (it is also possible to) classified as informationallydangerous.In order to prevent informational threats from the materials published in pedagogical publications (journals), it is necessary to develop and openly publish criteria to assess the content of materials from the point of view of their safety.In our opinion, it should befocusedon the following indicators: – disclosure of human abilities and satisfaction of its educational requirements, ensuring the priority of national and universal values, the harmonious interaction of man, society and the environment; – enrichment of the aesthetic worldview of the recipients of education, formation of their high spirituality, culture and inventive thinking; – the preservation and enrichment of national history, national traditions and customs in their continuity and connection with national culture, development of the national education system; respect for the history and culture of other peoples; – the intrinsic link (unity) of training and education, the focus of the education process at comprehensive development of personality; – the formation of spiritual-moral qualities, work skills, creative thinking, conscious attitude to the environment and career choices on the basis of educational and scientific and cultural knowledge, national and universal values; – implementation of the principles of building a democratic state and fair (just) civil society; – implementation of the principle of priority of a combination of personal interests and education in the state social policy; – the perception of the concepts of national consciousness, patriotism, national pride as the basis of a rich national cultural – historical traditions and intellectual heritage of our people; – refusal of the ideological views of the past; – continuous implementation of the requirements of high spirituality and morality, corresponding to the level of developed democratic countries (States). �– the approach to defining the content of education from the point of view of prospects of socio-economic development of the country, the needs of society, modern science, culture, engineering and technology; – the use of productive forms and methods of spiritual and moral upbringing and education of recipients of education; –ensuring effective integration of education, science and production. The concept of information security in academic and educational publications includes the following structural parts. 1.An analysis of real (practical) state of the availability of information threats in the media, in particular, in scientific-pedagogical and educational publications. 2.The principles of prevention of informational threats to scientific-pedagogical and educational publications. 3.Informational-logical model of counter information threats through scientific-pedagogical and educational-methodical publications. 4. Characteristics of the objects, participants, public co-executors of opposing information threats through scientific-pedagogical and educational-methodical publications. 5.The stages of the movement. Conclusion Today is quite acutely felt the impact of the threats, ideological propaganda and cultural expansion in education and spiritually - moral education of students: so it's important to remember about the organization of effective protection of young people from information risk. References: 1. Богатырева Ю. Подготовка будущих педагогов к обеспечению информационной безопасности школьников. – Тула.: 2014. 2. Белов Е.Б., Лось В.П., Мещеряков Р.В., Шелупанов А.А. Основы информационной безопасности. Учебное пособие для вузов. – М.: Горячая линия, 2006. 3. Бохеньский Ю. Духовная ситуация веремени. // вопросы филисофии. – 1993. 4. Глобализация, энциклопедия. Под ред. И.И.Мазур и А.Н.Чумакова. – М., 2003. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3282 Title A name given to the resource The Conceptual Direction of Prevention Informational Threats in Academic and Educational Publications Author Author Mahmudov, Sarvar Umaralieva, Muhayo Abstract A summary of the resource. In this article the ability (potentialities) of pedagogical publications in information security through analysis and monitoring of published materials, developmentcriteria for evaluating their content revealed; the structure of the concept of prevention of information threats in scientific – pedagogical and educational publicationsis presented. Key words. Pedagogical publications, information threats, psychology, manipulation of consciousness, information, content. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3701b29e6a1c18e8fac7dd6a8ce05461.pdf 841840f66e129317321f9b05e144a361 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills Ali GÖKSU Res. Assist., Bitlis Eren University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, English Language and Literature Department, BĠTLĠS, TURKEY agoksu@beu.edu.tr Melih KARAKUZU Assist. Prof. Dr., Atatùrk University, Faculty of Education, English Language Teaching Department, ERZURUM, TURKEY karakuzu@atauni.edu.tr Gencer ELKILIÇ Assist. Prof. Dr., Kafkas University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, English Language and Literature Department, KARS, TURKEY gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com Ali DĠNÇER Res. Assist., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education, English Language Teaching Department, ERZĠNCAN, TURKEY adincer@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: European Language Portfolio (ELP) recently created by the Council of Europe not only has an important role in language education policy within Europe and the expanding world, but also helps partners to describe the levels of proficiency req uired by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons between different systems of qualifications. Cambridge ESOL exams are aligned to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) published by the Council of Europe. This study aims to investigate the contribution of Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. Firstly, twenty students were selected as the study group according to the results of questionnaire which contains items of levels A2, B1 and B2 in the CEFR. And then, self-assessment checklist in CEFR was conducted as pre-test and post-test to cross-check the study group both at the beginning and at the end of the fall term. Readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also applied during the study. Besides, KET as a standardized test was also conducted as pre -test and posttest both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Then obtained scores were analyzed by using SPSS 15. T-test analysis of KET scores was computed, and no significant difference was found out according to the gender. The results indicated that ELP and KET were effective to improve reading skills of foreign language learners in Turkey. Key Words: language teaching, reading, KET, ELP, CEFR 1. Introduction Throughout history, people have learned and spoken foreign languages. When there was no advanced technology, reading and reading comprehension played a major part in the learning process (Lee, 2004). Today, foreign language learners use reading as a way of learning new vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and cultural diversities. In addition, reading has been still cared as an important method of learning a foreign language in non-English speaking countries throughout the foreign language learning process. European Language Portfolio (ELP) has been created recently by the Council of Europe for a better learning and teaching process. The European Language Portfolio is an instrument that facilitates recording, planning, and validation of lifelong language learning both within and beyond English language teaching (Vosicki, n.d.). 67 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The ELP is a tool for recording our language and intercultural experiences at school and across a lifetime of learning in our daily life. It is also a document to illustrate our language competences as well as our knowledge and experiences of other cultures through sample of work (Ministry of Education & Council of Europe, 2003). The ELP consists of three parts. These are language passport, language biography, and dossier. (1) Language passport provides an overview of the individual‘s proficiency in different languages at a given point in time. (2) Language biography facilitates the learner‘s involvement in planning, reflecting upon and assessing his or her learning process and progress. (3) Dossier offers the learner the opportunity to select materials to document and illustrate achievements or experiences recorded in the Language Biography or Passport (Council of Europe, 2000; p.3). The European Language Portfolio (ELP) is also connected with the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) as a pedagogical language learning and reporting instrument. The CEFR is a comprehensive descriptive scheme offering a tool for reflecting on what is involved not only in language use, but also in language learning and teaching. It provides a common basis and a common language for the elaboration of syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, textbooks, teacher training programmes, and for relating language examinations to one another. It also defines foreign language proficiency at three main levels (basic user, independent user, proficient user) in relation to five skills (listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production, writing) (Martyniuk, 2005). For Cambridge ESOL Examinations which is a department of Cambridge University, CEFR offers a valuable frame of reference for our work and for our stakeholder community. The quality of the relationship between the CEFR and Cambridge ESOL exams is perhaps best judged by the extent to which together they enable language learning to flourish, encourage achievements to be recognized and so enrich the lives of individuals and communities (Taylor & Jones, 2006; p.4). KET (Key English Test), one of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations, is a certificate that shows a person can use everyday written and spoken English at a pre-intermediate level. These examinations are recognized by thousands of employers throughout the world. KET is also at Level A2 of the CEFR an internationally recognized framework (ESOL Examinations, n.d., retrieved from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/). 2. Methodology This study is quantitative in nature, which aims to investigate the contribution of KET to achievements of Turkish speakers of English studying with the ELP in reading skills. 2.1. Participants of the Study This study was conducted on 45 students who were in the 9th grade in a private high school in Erzurum, Turkey. Ages of students ranged about 14. Since there were both male and female students in the study group, gender factor was taken into consideration. The study was implemented nearly a term from the beginning of October to the end of December in the 2009-2010 academic year. A questionnaire consisting of language proficiency levels A2, B1 and B2 from the self-assessment grids in CEFR was conducted on 45 students, and according to given responses, level classes were arranged as A2, B1 or B2. The study group was the level A2 so that we would study with only a level class at school. 2.2. Instruments Data were collected from the students at the beginning and at the end of the fall term (between October and 2009-December 2009). In order to find out the contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills; questionnaires, self assessment checklists and KET were main data instruments of the study. 2.2.1. Questionnaire Council of Europe (2001; p.25) expressed that self-assessment grid in the CEFR has shown major categories of language use at each of the six levels. It is also intended to help learners to profile their main language skills, and decide at which level they might look at a checklist of more detailed descriptors in four basic skills in order to self-assess their level of proficiency. In this study, questionnaire consisted of language proficiency levels such as A2, B1 and B2 from the self-assessment grids in the CEFR. The questionnaire provided us determine the study group which we studied together during the implementation. At the beginning of the term, the questionnaire was conducted on 45 students, and then classes were arranged as the levels A2, B1 or B2 according to the given answers. 68 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2.2.2 Self Assessment Checklist Checklist is a common instrument used in ELP. Little (2006) states that checklists are important advance for self-assessment in language learning, as they make it possible for learners assess themselves using the same objective scales that in principle may underpin the test and examination they are required to take. In addition, the presence of such checklists as a key element in the ELP adds a significant new dimension to portfolio based language learning and assessment. At the beginning and at the end of the study, self-assessment checklist consisting of sample ―Can-Do‖ statements of only reading part of the level A2 in the CEFR was conducted on study group as pre and post tests to cross-check the level A2 again. Self-assessment checklist having the sort of five-likert scale had choices such as (5) Always, (4) Frequently, (3) Occasionally, (2) Rarely, (1) Never. In this way, the study group was crossedcheck more detailed in their own reading skills again. Besides, it was observed whether there was a significant difference between them. 2.2.3. Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL Exams CEFR plays a key role in language and education policy within Europe and the wider world – perhaps in ways not originally envisaged by its authors. Within Europe it is believed to serve policy goals of fostering linguistic diversity, transparency of qualifications, mobility of labour, and lifelong language learning. Beyond Europe it is being adopted to help define language proficiency levels with resulting implications for local pedagogy and assessment (Taylor & Jones, 2006; p.4). Today, Cambridge ESOL Examinations are also aligned to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: published by the Council of Europe. This internationally recognized framework describes language ability in a scale of levels which ranges from A1 for beginners to C2 for those who have mastered a language. (ESOL Examinations, n.d., retrieved from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/). KET (Key English Test) from the Cambridge ESOL Examinations has been applied around the world by British Council. The equivalences between British Council courses and the Council of Europe levels are shown in Table 1 (Manasseh, 2004; p.3). Table 1. British Council courses for learners and Council of Europe levels British Council Level Council of Europe Level Beginner A1 Starters 6–8 Elementary A1 Movers, Flyers 6- 10 Pre Intermediate A2 Intermediate 1 B1 Intermediate 2 B1 PET (Preliminary English Test) 11- 16 Pre advanced B2 FCE (First Certificate in English) 14 – 18 Advanced 1 C1 Advanced CAE C1 Very Advanced C2 Very Advanced 2 C2 Cambridge exams KET (Key English Test) Age ranges 10 – 16 10- 16 14 – 18 CAE (Certificate in Advanced English) 14 – 18 14 – 18 CPE (Certificate of Proficiency in English) 14 – 18 69 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this study, KET was used as a standardized test from Cambridge ESOL exams. As seen in Table 1. Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams and A2 from the Council of Europe levels are at the same language level. The questions in the KET were prepared beforehand using in the ―Key English Test‖ of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations (2006). The reading proficiency part of KET, which consisted of fifty questions each of which had two points, was applied to the study group as pre and post tests both at the beginning and at the end of the study. During the implementation of the study, readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also done. After the results of both pre and post tests were compared and t-test analysis of KET scores was computed, it was observed whether there was a significant difference between them. 2.3. Data Collection and Analysis Procedures In this study, instruments of data collecting were questionnaire from the self-assessment grids in the CEFR, self-assessment checklists in the CEFR as pre and post tests, and KET from Cambridge ESOL exams as pre and post tests. The study started at the beginning of October 2009 and ended in last week of December. KET was analyzed by using SPSS 15, while questionnaires and self-assessment checklist were analyzed quantitatively. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Results of the Questionnaire At the beginning of the study, the questionnaire consisting of statements of four basic skills (reading, listening, speaking and writing) of A2, B1 and B2 levels from the self-assessment grids in the CEFR was conducted on 45 students in order to determine the study group. According to obtained results of questionnaire, classes were arranged as levels A2, B1 or B2. According to the ELP, the level B2 class consists of successful students, while level A2 consists of less successful students. Levels of Students 11 20 A2 B1 14 B2 Figure 1. Levels of the Students According to the results of the questionnaire shown in Figure 1, there were 20 students for the level A2, 14 students for level B1 and 11 students for level B2. We decided to study with the level A2 as a level class at school. Because number of the students in a class at school has consisted of 20-25 students, and there were not enough students at levels B1 or B2 to study with only a level class. As a result, questionnaire indicated that the level of the study group was A2. 3.3. Results of Self-Assessment Checklists After the level of the study group determined as A2, at the beginning and at the end of the study, pre and post self-assessment checklists consisting of sample ―Can-Do‖ statements of reading part of the level A2 in the CEFR was conducted on the study group. These ―Can Do‖ statements used pre and post self-assessment checklists have included more detailed than reading part of A2 used in questionnaire. Both self-assessment checklists having the sort of five- point likert scale had choices such as (5) Always, (4) Frequently, (3) Occasionally, (2) Rarely, (1)Never. With the help of both self-assessment checklists, it was aimed not only to 70 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo frequently rarely occasionally never frequently rarely occasionally cross-check level A2 again, but also to find out whether students had any changes in their reading skills at level A2. Figure 2. The Results of Pre-Post Self-assessment Checklists As shown in Figure 2. there was an important increase from pre-test to post test. According to the results pre and post self-assessment checklists, pre and post tests confirmed again that the level of the students was A2. In addition, when both of the self-assessment checklists were compared, it could be observed that there was a significant difference between them. For example, 57.5% of the students said Always in the post selfassessment checklist, whereas 46% of students said Always in pre self-assessment checklist. Besides, the students said 40% for Frequently and 2.5% for Occasionally in the post test, while the students said 34.5% for Frequently, 16.8% for Occasionally and 2.8% for Rarely in the pre test. Therefore, we can conclude that the percentage of the post self-assessment checklist has increased more according to the percentage of the pre-selfassessment checklist. Furthermore, students have seen themselves stronger for their reading skills at the end of the study (term). In addition, one can observe easily that almost all students (57.5% for Always and 40% for Frequently) in the study group studying with ELP felt better and were more successful in their own reading skills. 3.3. Results of Key English Tests (KET) In this study, questions in KET consisted of only reading proficiency part of KET, and they were prepared beforehand using in the ―Key English Test‖ of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations (2006). It included fifty questions each of which had two points. KET as a standardized test was applied to the study group as pre 71 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and post tests both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Furthermore, students also studied with materials supporting KET during the study. After the data analyzed according to the descriptive statistics, the frequencies for the KET were found. When the results of pre and post tests were compared, it was observed that there was a significant difference between pre and post tests. Table 2. Paired-Samples T-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores M 64.80 86.30 Pre-test Post-test N 20 20 SD 12.50 8.36 T 11.50 df p 19 .00 A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the intervention on students` scores. There was a statistically significant increase from pre-test (M = 64.80, SD = 12.50) to post-test (M = 86.30, SD= 8.36), t (19) = 11.50, p<.05. Table 3. Difference between Pre-test and Post-test Scores according to Gender Gender Mann-Whitney U N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks female male 11 9 9.09 12.22 100.00 110.00 34.000 p .23 A Mann-Whitney U Test was run to explore if there was a significant gender difference between pretest and post-test scores. As seen from the Table 3, there is no statistically significant difference between females and males (U = 34,000, p>.05). It was observed that there was a significant difference between the results of pre and post tests applied to the study group. Furthermore, according to the results of pre and post tests, KET had not only an important role in improving learners` reading skills, but also positive effects on achievements of students studying with the ELP in reading skills. 4. Conclusion and Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills in a private high school in Erzurum, Turkey. The questionnaire determined language levels of students. The results of the questionnaire showed the level of the study group as A2 at the beginning of the study. With the help of the questionnaire, students could learn English better as a foreign language in their own levels. Because, according to the ELP, everybody in the class had the same level, and their teacher also taught them according to their levels. Therefore, the ELP can be a significant tool to improve the reading skills of learners. Pre and post self-assessment checklists having sort of five-point likert scale were conducted on the study group at the beginning and at the end of the study in order to cross check in detail the study group in reading skills. The results of both of the tests indicated again that the level of the study group was A2. Besides, when the percentages of the pre and post self-assessment checklists were compared, it was observed that the percentage of the post self-assessment checklist increased more according to the percentage of the pre-selfassessment checklist. Students studying with the ELP also saw stronger themselves in their reading skills at the end of the study. The Key English Test (KET) conducted as pre and post tests at the beginning and at the end of the study showed us whether the KET contributed to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. The findings analyzed with statistical program for the pre and post KET indicated that there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores. According to analysis of t-test, there was a statistically significant increase from pre-test to post test. Furhermore, no significant difference was found out according to gender. In addition, it was observed that students studying with the ELP were more successful in KET when the frequencies of pre and post tests were compared. According to all findings obtained from the instruments, KET had an important role and contribution in improving learners` reading skills. Besides, the ELP also provided that all learners in study group studied KET in their own levels. Thus, ELP was both a useful and helpful tool for learners in foreign language learning process. Moreover, all these findings also indicated that KET had a positive effect not only to improve reading skills of students studying with the ELP, but also to increase achievement levels of the students in reading skills. Consequently, KET contributes positively foreign language learners to improve their reading skills. 72 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Cambridge Key English Test 4. (2006). Examinations Papers from University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, Cambridge University Press. Council of Europe. (2000). European Language Portfolio (ELP): Principles and Guidelines, Document DGIV/EDU/LANG. Strasbourg, Council of Europe. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press Lee, C.H. (2004, January). Reading-Developing Reading Skills. Retrieved October 08, 2011 (Available from http://elc.woosong.ac.kr/english/html/databank/data2_list.html?board=board_lecturepds_english&state= download&uid=19). Little, D. (2006). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Content, purpose, origin, reception and impact, Language Teaching, 39, 167–190. Manasseh, A. (2004). Using the Common European Framework to develop English courses for teenagers at the British Council Milan. Paper presented at the De-Mystifying the European Language Portfolio, British Council Brussels, Belgium. Martyniuk, W. (2005, May). Relating Language Examinations to the Council of Europe`s Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Paper presented at the ALTE Berlin Conference, Berlin, Germany. Ministry of Education & Council of Europe, (2003). Avrupa Dil Portfolyosu 15-18 YaĢ. Retrieved March 23, 2011, from http://adp.meb.gov.tr/15-18.php Taylor, L. & Jones, N. (2006). Cambridge ESOL exams and the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations: Research Notes, 24(1), 2-5. University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations (n.d.). Retrieved January 28, 2011, from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/general-english/ket.html Vosicki, B. F. (n.d). Piloting the European Language Portfolio in the Higher Education Sector: An ELC/CEL transnational Project. University of Lausanne: CH. Retrieved December 29, 2010, from http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/elc/bulletin/6/en/forster.html 73 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 14 Title A name given to the resource The contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills Author Author GÖKSU, Ali KARAKUZU, Melih ELKILIÇ, Gencer Dinçer, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. European Language Portfolio (ELP) recently created by the Council of Europe not only has an important role in language education policy within Europe and the expanding world, but also helps partners to describe the levels of proficiency req uired by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons between different systems of qualifications. Cambridge ESOL exams are aligned to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) published by the Council of Europe. This study aims to investigate the contribution of Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. Firstly, twenty students were selected as the study group according to the results of questionnaire which contains items of levels A2, B1 and B2 in the CEFR. And then, self-assessment checklist in CEFR was conducted as pre-test and post-test to cross-check the study group both at the beginning and at the end of the fall term. Readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also applied during the study. Besides, KET as a standardized test was also conducted as pre-test and posttest both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Then obtained scores were analyzed by using SPSS 15. T-test analysis of KET scores was computed, and no significant difference was found out according to the gender. The results indicated that ELP and KET were effective to improve reading skills of foreign language learners in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/973663bf0ae386c74e668b0598e6af35.pdf 076e47855af6402fd83269ed979aa4b9 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Contributions on the Urban Ecology of Green Spaces in the Context of Sustainable Urban Development Serpil ONDER Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty Landscape Architecture Department, Konya, TURKEY sonder@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: The world is increasingly becoming an urban place. Urbanization increases the distance between people and natural space. Urban ecosystems differ from natural or rural ones in many obvious ways. Green space is an important part of complex urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally and economically. In order to improve the environmental quality in cities and ensure its sustainability, it should be paid an attention to the establishment of green areas. This paper carried out to describe the importance of urban open green spaces which effect on urban climate, air quality, biological diversity and prevents erosion, noise and visual pollution within the framework of sustainable urban development. Keywords: sustainable urban development, urban ecology, urban green spaces. Introduction Some 65% of the world’s population is expected to be urban by the year 2025 (Schell and Ulijaszek 1999). As a result of urbanization,the world’s population has become increasingly concentrated in cities. Due to fast urbanization, natural ecosystems areincreasingly replaced by urban development. Urban green spaces are an important component of the complex urban ecosystem. They have very important functions in the creation of a sustainable city. Green space has significant ecosystem services, which are defined as “the benefits human population derives, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions” (Costanza et al. 1997). In particular, for people living in large and dense cities, a good quality of life depends largely on the quality of the urban environment(Van Leeuwen et al.2006). Originally, merely a decorative elementintowns and cities, green space has now taken on a new value and function,the importance of which is widely acclaimed within the parameters of sustainable development (Sanesia and Chiarello 2006). The aim of this paper isto explanation importance of open green spaces forthe quality of urban life within the framework of sustainable urban development. Urban ecosystem Ecology is used to indicatethe study of relations between living organisms (man, animals and plants) and their environment. Urban ecology is usually associated with ‘nature in cities’. The city is also a part of nature; the processes of abiotic and biotic nature do not stop atthe urban fringe. Sustainable urban developmentis bound to ecologicallimits. Urban ecology is the study of urban ecosystems. The city as a whole and parts of it can be described as ecosystems (Tjallingii 1992). Urban ecosystems differ from natural or rural ones in many obvious ways and are also often of poorer quality than their rural equivalents (Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Human activities,such as building,traffic, orindustrial production affectthe quality of air, water,and soil which impacts ecosystems in many ways (Sukopp 2004). The future of earth ecosystems is increasingly dependent on the patterns of urban growth because cities are growing rapidly worldwide. Human activities are part of these systems and an analysis of their impact on the biotic and abiotic fields may provide us with guidelines for the planning of urban ecosystems. Thus ecological urban planning may become a way of planning all urban functions and areas. Ecological planning includes nature conservation and improvement, open and green space systems and environmentalimpact assessment studies. 258 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable urban development concept Sustainability, in general terms, is the ability to maintain balance of a certain process or state in any system. It is now most frequently used in connection with biological and human systems. In an ecological context, sustainability can be defined as the ability of an ecosystem to maintain ecological processes,functions, biodiversity and productivity into the future. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so thatthese needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations to come. The term was used by the Brundtland Com mission. The Brundtland Com mission, formally the World Com mission on Environment and Development (WCED), known by the name of its Chair Gro Harlem Brundtland was assembled by the United Nations in 1983. The com mission was created to address growing concern "about the accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration for economic and social development." According to this report,sustainable development was defined as “meetsthe needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of future generations to meettheir own needs” (Anonymous 1991). The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken intothree constituent parts:environmentalsustainability,economic sustainability and sociopolitical sustainability (Goodland 1995). Environmental sustainability means of ensuring continuity of natural resources includes biodiversity, human health, air, water and soil quality, protection of animal and plant life. Sustainable city planning is possible with ecological planning which is based on sustainability of natural resources. Urban green spaces have taken on a new value and function, the importance of which is widely acclaimed within the parameters of sustainable development. Urban green spaces functions Urban green spaces are an important component of the complex urban ecosystem. Scottish Greenspace (2008) defined green spaces as pieces of vegetated land within or adjoining an urban area, including parks, gardens, natural or semi-natural areas, green corridors,and otherfunctional green areas.More studies on benefits of green space in urban setting can be found in the literature. Green spaces, an important part of urban ecosystems, have significant ecological, social, cultural and economic functions. Their ecological functions can be explained as follows; - Urban green spaces have intrinsic ecological value; they often have a variety of habitattypes, which allows for high species diversity,including rare and threatened species (Chace and Walsh 2006). - Green spaces improve air quality. They reduce air pollution, help to settle out,trap and hold particle pollutants (dust, ash, pollen and smoke) (Yang et al. 2005),can sequester carbon dioxide emissions and adsorb other dangerous gasses (Nowak and Crane 2002; McHale etal. 2007), produce oxygen, purify air(Jo 2002). - Green spaces modify local climate,regulate microclimates and reduce the heatisland effect (Shin and Lee 2005). Trees help cool the "heat island" effect in our inner cities. These islands result from storage of thermal energy in concrete, steel and asphalt. Heat islands are 3 to 10 degrees warmer than the surrounding countryside. The collective effect of a large area of transpiring trees (evaporating water) reduces the air temperature in these areas. They lower airtemperature through shade,increase humidity in dry climates through evaporation of moisture reduce glare on sunny days and wind speed. - Green spaces conserve water and reduce soil erosion (Jim 2001). They reduce surface runoff of water from storms, soil erosion and sedimentation in streams, increase groundwater recharge that is significantly reduced by paving, reduce wind erosion of soil,lesser amounts of chemicalstransported to streams. - Green spaces can reduce noise (Fang and Ling 2003). They absorb and block noise from the urban environment. Tree belts situated between the noise source and the receiver can reduce the noise level perceived by the receiver. - Urban green spaces play a pivotalrolein preserving biodiversity (Attwell 2000). Trees and associated plants create local ecosystems that provide habitat and food for birds and animals. They offer suitable miniclimates for other plants that could otherwise be absent from urban areas. Biodiversity is an important part of urban forestry. Furthermore, green spaces such as public parks, natural areas and golf courses can have a statistically significant effect on the sale price of housesin close proximitytothose resources (Luttik 2000; Kong et al. 2007) They contributes to public health and produce a vitamin ‘‘G’’ for health, well-being and social safety (Groenewegen et al. 2006). They create feelings of relaxation and well-being, provide privacy and a sense of solitude and security, shorten post-operative hospital stays when patients are placed in rooms with a view of trees and open spaces. People are eagerto access these green spaces for recreation and to experience nature (De Groot and Van den Born 2003; Lynn and Brown 2003). Green spaces introduce the natural into the urban environment. They foster a connection between community residents and the natural environmentthat surrounds 259 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo them, thus allowing for a more liveable city. This is essentialin order for a community to be sustainable. Trees add beauty and natural characterto our cities and towns, provide us with colours,flowers,and beautiful shapes, forms and textures, screen harsh scenery, soften the outline of masonry, metal and glass, can be used architecturally to provide space definition and landscape continuity. Results Green space has significant ecosystem services, which are defined as “the benefits human population derives, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions”. To manage progress towards sustainable urban development, it is essential to develop suitable indicators, one of which is the quality and quantity of green spaces and related elements in the city. The planning and management of urban greening is of significance to urban sustainable development. In future, the social and spatial implications of new lifestyles, values, attitudes to nature and sustainability will even lead to higher demands for urban green space. Green spaces provide numerous ecological, social, economic, health, and recreational benefits. To counter these trends, itis important to make sufficient provision of quality green space within urban areas as well as improve access to the countryside around towns. Consequently, the management of urban green areas is an increasingly important issue. At the end of the evaluation of urban green spaces functions, some suggestions are cited: -The management of urban green space including planning, design and resource management requires the collaborative working ofmany disciplines at different spatialscales. -Urban green and open space planning policies need to be developed locally in order to satisfy local needs and to assist also in the achievement of national and international sustainability objectives. -More integrated approaches as well as active involvement of the urban com munity, local authorities, local businesses and voluntary groups (e.g., NGOs),forthe development and management of urban green spaces are needed. -An improvement of quantity, quality and accessibility of green spaces in order to form the basis for a vision for urban green space is needed. -To improve the quality of urban green spaces an up-to-date informative database is needed. -The orderly and careful maintenance (irrigation, pruning, struggle with undesirable plant and animals etc.) must be followed after presentation of green spaces. References Anonymous. (1991). Our Common Future, Turkish Environmental Problems Foundations, p:452. Önder Publisher, Ankara. Attwell, K.. (2000). Urban land resources and urban planting – case studies from Denmark. Landscape and Urban Planning 52, 145–163. Bolund, P., & Hunhammar, S. (1999). Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecological Economics 29, 293–301. Chace, J.F., & Walsh, J.J. (2006). Urban effects on native avifauna: a review. Landscape and Urban Planning 74, 46–69. Costanza, R., D’Arge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Laskin, R., Sutton, P., & Van den Belt, M. (1997). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387 (15), 253–260. De Groot, W.T. & Van den Born, R.J.G. (2003). Visions of nature and landscape type preferences: an exploration in The Netherlands. Landscape Urban Planning 63, 127–138. Fang, C.F. & Ling, D.L. (2003). Investigation of the noise reduction provided by tree belts. Landscape and Urban Planning 63, 187–195. Goodland, R. (1995). “The Concept of Environmental Sustainability”, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol.26, s.17 Groenewegen, P.P., Berg, A.E., Vries, S. & Verheij, R.A., 2006. Vitamin G: effects of green space on health, well-being, and social safety. Study Protocol, BMC Public Health 6, 149. Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/149S (accessed 1 February 2009). 260 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Jim, C.Y. (2001). Managing urban trees and their soil envelopes in a contiguously developed city environment. Environ. Manage. 28 (6), 819–832. Jo, H.K. (2002). Impacts of urban green space on offsetting carbon emissions for middle Korean. Journal of Environmental Management 64, 115–126. Kong, F., Yin, H. & Nakagoshi, N. (2007). Using GIS and landscape metrics in the hedonic price modeling of the amenity value of urban green space: a case study in Jinan City, China. Landscape and Urban Planning 79, 240–252. Luttik, J. (2000). The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house prices in The Netherlands. Landscape Urban Planning 48,161–167. Lynn, N.A. & Brown, R.D. (2003). Effects of recreational use impacts on hiking experiences in natural areas. Landscape Urban Planning 64, 77–87. McHale, M.R., Mc Pherson, E.G. & Burke, I.C. (2007). The potential of urban tree plantings to be cost effective in carbon credit markets. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 6 (1), 49–60. Nowak, D.J. & Crane, D.E. (2002). Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution 116, 381–389. Sanesi, G. & Chiarello, F. (2006). Residents and urban green spaces: the case of Bari. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 4 (3–4), 125–134. Schell, L.M. & Ulijaszek, S.J. (1999). Urbanism, Health and Human Biology in Industrialized Countries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Scottish Greenspace. (2008). What is green space? Available at: http://www.greenspacescotland.org.uk// (accessed 1 May 2009). Shin, D-H. & Lee, K-S. (2005). Use of remote sensing and geographical information system to estimate green spacetemperature change as a result of urban expansion. Landscape and Ecological Engineering 1, 169–176. Sukopp H. (2004). Human-caused impact on preserved vegetation. Landscape and Urban Planning 68, 347-355. Tjallingii S. (1992). Strategies fort he urban ecosystem. 7th Conference on Urban and Regional Research. p: 72-83, 29 june3 july 1992. Ankara, Turkey. Tyrva¨inen, L. (1997). The amenity value of the urban forest: an application of hedonic pricing method. Landscape and Urban Planning 37, 211–222. Van Leeuwen, E.S., Vreeker, R. & Rodenburg, C.A. (2006). A framework for quality of life assessment of urban green areas in Europe: an application to District Park Reudnitz Leipzig. International Journal of Environmental Technology and Management 6 (1/2), 111–122. Yang, J., McBride, J., Zhou, J. & Sun, Z. (2005). The urban forest in Beijing and its role in air pollution reduction. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 3, 65–78. 261 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 475 Title A name given to the resource The Contributions on the Urban Ecology of Green Spaces in the Context of Sustainable Urban Development Author Author ONDER, Serpil Abstract A summary of the resource. The world is increasingly becoming an urban place. Urbanization increases the distance between people and natural space. Urban ecosystems differ from natural or rural ones in many obvious ways. Green space is an important part of complex urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally and economically. In order to improve the environmental quality in cities and ensure its sustainability, it should be paid an attention to the establishment of green areas. This paper carried out to describe the importance of urban open green spaces which effect on urban climate, air quality, biological diversity and prevents erosion, noise and visual pollution within the framework of sustainable urban development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/589e9ca6285f8f51e4d5050147b87741.pdf 25aec2348281af54812931ed254ee723 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The Course of Change for Meeting the Global Responsibility Challenges for Business Ghulam Rasul Awan University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan drglamrasul@hotmail.com At present social, economic and political challenges are growing at a faster pace and affecting businesses, especially in developing countries, more than ever before. In the years to come, these challenges are expected to increase further. To determine the shape of business in future, there must be an identification of the forces that will shape the future. American Society for Quality (ASQ) conducts future studies after every three years, in which globalization and global responsibility have emerged as the top ranking forces that will shape the future of business. Developing countries exhibit a much lower understanding about both these forces, but they have to recognize the importance of future requirements for the longer term perspectives of business. This paper, taking into consideration the ASQ future studies, aims at developing a strategic approach for turning future challenges into opportunities and to meet the requirements of future businesses. A model has been developed as charting the course of change for developing countries by integrating the UN Global Compact with the organizational system. The integration of UN Global Compact in the proposed model finds its justification due to its initiative to spread the benefits of economic development globally while sharing values and principles for social responsibility. This model has been considered as the most convenient route to meet the requirements of business in future. Keywords: Future Studies, Globalization, Global Responsibility, Global Responsibility Challenges, UN Global Compact. 127 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1554 Title A name given to the resource The Course of Change for Meeting the Global Responsibility Challenges for Business Author Author AWAN RASUL, Ghulam Abstract A summary of the resource. At present social, economic and political challenges are growing at a faster pace and affecting businesses, especially in developing countries, more than ever before. In the years to come, these challenges are expected to increase further. To determine the shape of business in future, there must be an identification of the forces that will shape the future. American Society for Quality (ASQ) conducts future studies after every three years, in which globalization and global responsibility have emerged as the top ranking forces that will shape the future of business. Developing countries exhibit a much lower understanding about both these forces, but they have to recognize the importance of future requirements for the longer term perspectives of business. This paper, taking into consideration the ASQ future studies, aims at developing a strategic approach for turning future challenges into opportunities and to meet the requirements of future businesses. A model has been developed as charting the course of change for developing countries by integrating the UN Global Compact with the organizational system. The integration of UN Global Compact in the proposed model finds its justification due to its initiative to spread the benefits of economic development globally while sharing values and principles for social responsibility. This model has been considered as the most convenient route to meet the requirements of business in future. Keywords: Future Studies, Globalization, Global Responsibility, Global Responsibility Challenges, UN Global Compact. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a9cbe0c17802f0cf9b54410d5a3b3a8e.pdf 465dbc5949ef05da71349b494b8b4466 PDF Text Text PREGLEDNI NAUČNI RAD Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova The Court Settlement – a New Approach to Resolving Disputes Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić Općinski sud u Tuzli, stručni saradnik e-mail: asmira.besic@hotmail.com Sažetak: Sudska nagodba je jedan od načina rješavanja građanskopravnih sporova. Regulisana je odredbama važećeg Zakona o parničnom postupku FBiH, ali je nedovoljno primjenljiva. Sudska nagodba je dispozitivna parnična radnja kojom stranke uređuju svoje odnose, neposredno pred sudom. Cilj je smanjenje broja predmeta, zadržavanje ili poboljšanje poslovnih odnosa, obostrano zadovoljstvo stranaka bez isčekivanja sudske odluke. Nedostaci se ogledaju u prigovorima nepristrasnosti sudije, stranke slobodno ne izražavaju svoje misli jer se izlažu riziku vezanosti izjavama i prijedlozima u slučajevima da pregovori ne uspiju. Međutim, sudija kao stručna osoba može jasno i pravno strankama obrazložiti pravnu prirodu njihova spora, pozicije u sporu, a prema iznijetim činjenicama i dokazima, u određenim slučajevima direktno pred strankama pročitati i upoznati stranke sa važećom odredbom zakona. Ključne riječi: mirno rješavanje sporova, nepristrasnost sudije, interes stranaka, izmiritelj. JEL klasifikacija: K19 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO152110 Historija članka Dostavljen: 14.06.2014. Recenziran: 12.01.2015. Prihvaćen: 23.01.2015. Mirenje je oblik rješavanja sporova na temelju interesa, kada izmiritelj usmjerava znatnu pozornost prema uspostavljanju prekinute komunikacije među strankama, vodeći računa o emocijama i poremećenim odnosima. Rad razmatra sudsku nagodbu i mirenje, kao neophodne u praksi rješavanja sporova u BiH. Cilj rada je da ukaže na neophodnost u prihvatanju i regulaciji instituta mirenja koji bi uz postojeću regulaciju sudske nagodbe trebao predstavljati novi pristup sudije u rješavanju sporova. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 251 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić Abstract: The court settlement is one way of resolving civil disputes. Regulated by the provisions of the applicable Code of Civil Procedure Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but is not sufficiently applicable . The court settlement is dispositive procedural action by which parties regulate their relations to be dispositive, immediately before the court. The aim is to reduce the number of cases, preservation or improvement of business relations, the mutual satisfaction of the parties without the expectation of judicial decisions. The disadvantages are reflected in the impartiality of judges objections, the parties can not freely express their thoughts, because they run a risk of attachments that his statements and proposals in case the negotiations fail. However, the judge as a professional person can clearly and legally parties to explain and explain the legal nature of their dispute, their position in the dispute, and to set out the facts and evidence, in some cases, directly in front of customers to read and learn about the party with the applicable provisions of relevant laws. Ključne riječi: mirno rješavanje sporova, nepristrasnost sudije, interes stranaka, izmiritelj. JEL klasifikacija: K19 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO152110 Historija članka Dostavljen: 14.06.2014. Recenziran: 12.01.2015. Prihvaćen: 23.01.2015. Mediation as an alternative method of dispute resolution found is very broad and successful application in practice of resolving disputes in modern western societies. The paper discusses a court settlement and mediation, as required in the practice of dispute resolution in BiH. The aim is to point out the necessity of accepting and regulating institution of conciliation with the existing regulation of court settlement should represent a new approach to judges in resolving disputes. 252 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova 1. Uvod U zapadnim i susjednim zemljama, pravosuđe je manje opterećeno jer se mnogi sporovi riješe nagodbom. Bosanskohercegovačko pravosuđe karakterišu nagomilani predmeti, sporovi koji se rješavaju godinama i strankama koje se iscrpljuju u višegodišnjim procesima. Kako bi se smanjio broj zaostalih predmeta i poboljšala efikasnog rada, provode se razne metode: „Planovi rješavanja starih predmeta“1, održavaju se okrugli stolovi kao jedna od aktivnosti Projekta unapređenja efikasnosti pravosuđa,2 prenose se nadležnosti sa suda na notare, podstiču se postupci medijacije, itd. Sudska nagodba, kao jedan od načina rješavanja sporova, ugovor je kojima stranke uređuju svoje građanskopravne odnose kojima mogu slobodno raspolagati. Kao jedan od načina rješavanja sporova pronašla je veoma uspješnu primjenu u praksi rješavanja zapadnih zemalja i susjednih zemalja, npr. Hrvatske i Slovenije. U svakoj od tih zemalja stvorene su formalne pretpostavke za potpunu primjenu zakonskih odredbi o sudskoj nagodbi kao mirnom načinu rješavanja spora. U Hrvatskoj je 24.10.2003. g. stupio na snagu Zakon o mirenju.3 Brčko Distrikt BiH je prije ostalog dijela BiH kroz odredbe Zakona o parničnom postupku4 uveo 1 Visoko sudsko i tužilačko vijeće Bosne i Hercegovine (u nastavku VSTV BiH) je na svojoj vanrednoj sjednici održanoj 01. i 02. decembra 2010. godine u Mostaru, između ostalog, donijelo zaključak kojim je usvojilo Uputstvo za izradu plana rješavanja starih predmeta prema starosti inicijalnog akta (u nastavku Uputstvo). U cilju adekvatnog praćenja pravilne primjene Uputstva VSTV je Odlukom broj 08-02-1710/2011 od 12. maja 2011.godine, kao stalno tijelo, formirao Stalnu komisiju za praćenje implementacije Uputstva za izradu plana rješavanja starih predmeta prema starosti inicijalnog akta i efikasnosti pravosuđa (u nastavku Stalna komisija), koja će pored navedenog, pratiti i procenat riješenih starih predmeta na mjesečnom nivou u skladu sa Uputstvom, te na temelju rezultata analiza predlagati konkretne mjere VSTV-u u pogledu preduzimanja određenih koraka potrebnih za uspostavljanje efikasnosti pravosuđa. www.hjpc.ba/pr/msword/RealizacijaPlanovaI2012ver2.doc, 26. oktobar 2013. 2 Projekt unapređenja efikasnosti pravosuđa ima za cilj promociju alternativnih načina rješavanja spora. Voditelji projekta su VSTV BiH i Kraljevina Norveška i Švedska. 3 Zakon o mirenju, Narodne novine RH br. 163/03. Člankom 1. Zakona o mirenju uređuje se mirenje u građanskim, trgovačkim, radnim i drugim sporovima o pravima kojima stranke mogu slobodno raspolagati. 4 Stari Zakon o parničnom postupku Brčko Distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine, Službeni glasnik Brčko Distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine br. 5/2000, 1/2001, 6/2002, odredio je da u slučaju da stranke ne postignu nagodbu pred sudijom, upućuju se na rješavanje spora pred drugim parničnim sudijom istog suda. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 253 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić posredovanje, koje ima elemente medijacije. Primjenjivao se u svim građanskim i porodičnim stvarima.5 U FBiH, sudska nagodba kao jedan od načina rješavanja sporova, zajedno sa medijacijom regulisana je odredbama Zakona o parničnom postupku FBiH,6 ali je nedovoljno primjenljiva. Razlozi su različiti: nedovoljna regulacija, stranke nisu dovoljno upoznate sa mogućnosti rješenja spora sudskom nagodbom, stranke žele dobiti sudsku presudu, sudija nije neutralan jer kada stranke ne postignu sporazum on je ovlašten da donese odluku o njihovom sporu, stranke nisu slobodne u izražavanju, jer se boje rizika vezanosti svojim izjavama u slučaju da pregovori ne uspiju, sadržaj i provedbu nagodbe određuje sudija, pri čemu se neke sudije drže veoma krutih pravnih stavova u potrazi za odgovarajućim rješenjem, dakle nisu im bitni interesi u pozadini, ili zastupnici stranaka nisu ovlašteni za zaključenje sudske nagodbe, najčešće općinska pravobranilaštva. Predmet ovog rada je sudska nagodba kao učinkovit način rješavanja građanskopravnih sporova. Prednosti sudske nagodbe najbolje se ogledaju kroz mogućnosti u primjeni jer je regulisana pozitivnim propisima. Uloga sudije, pri tome, ne smije biti pasivna, načelo nepristrasnosti sudije mora se široko posmatrati, komunikacijske vještine su neizostavne. Sve to nije dovoljno za širu primjenu sudske nagodbe jer je potrebno stvoriti formalne pretpostavke koje će se u ovom radu izložiti, a u svijetlu prijedloga de lege ferenda. 2. Istorijat razvoja načina rješavanja sporova Od nastanka čovječanstva pa do danas postojali su odnosi između dvije ili više strana koji imaju nepomirljive stavove, tzv. konflikti. Zavisno od stepena razvoja društveno ekonomskih odnosa, konflikti su se rješavali na različite načine. Kao najznačajniji mogu se izdvojiti načini rješavanja na temelju moći, prava i interesa. Rješavanje sporova na temelju moći, tipično je bilo za period prvobitne zajednice, robovlasništva i feudalizma, a rješavanje sporova na temelju moći i prava vezuje se za period kapitalizma te razvoja države. Strankama u sporovima pomagale su treće 5 „U BiH postupak posredovanja primijenjen je u parničnoj proceduri Brčko Distrikta BiH. Postupak posredovanja ili medijacije vodi sudija posrednik ili medijator ukoliko ne postoje procesne smetnje za dalje vođenje parnice“, R.Račić, „Postupak posredovanja u parničnoj proceduri Brčko Distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine“, Centar za promociju civilnog društva, Pravni savjetnik, mjesečni stručni časopis, 4/2004, 43. 6 Zakon o parničnom postupku FBiH - ZPP, Službene novine FBiH, br. 53/03., 73/05. i 19/06. 254 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova nepristrasne osobe da se iznađe sporazum i rješenje prije utemeljenja sudskog, od države organiziranog i prisilom praćenog, načina rješavanja sporova.7 Sa pojavom države i prava, sporovi se rješavaju uz primjenu državnog aparata koji primjenjuje apstraktne pravne norme i rješava pojedinačne slučajeve. Sa brzim razvojem nauke i tehnologije, razvojem ekonomskih odnosa, komunikacija, te pojavom demokratije društveni odnosi postaju tako široki da država sa svojim pravosudnim sistemom nije bila u mogućnosti da ih reguliše. Društvo, pa i država su bili prinuđeni da potraže alternativu, koja se u početku odnosila na vansudske, a u zadnje vrijeme i sudske načine rješavanja spornih odnosa: mirenje, nagodba ili medijacija. Prilikom suočavanja sa konfliktom, sve više se akcenat stavlja na interese stranaka i razlike u nivoima zahtjeva koje stranke u konfliktu iznose kao željena rješenja.8 Strana iskustva pokazuju mirenje kao jedan od načina rješavanja sporova. U SAD-u, mirenjem i drugim alternativnim načinima, prije petnaestak godina rješavalo se preko 90 % trgovačkih sporova, u Njemačkoj oko 20 %, a i Engleska ima korisna iskustva i rezultate.9 Dok se u razvijenim pravnim sistemima uveliko primjenjuju i učinkoviti su alternativni načini rješavanja sporova, u bosanskohercegovačkom pravu još uvijek se pronalaze i izučavaju načini i oblici suđenja za rješavanje sporova. Nagodba nije novi način rješavanja sporova, nego način u koji bi morale biti uvrštene savremene metode i tehnike s ciljem efikasnosti u provođenju poznatog načina rješavanja spornih odnosa. 3. Načini rješavanja sporova u Bosni i Hercegovini Zakon o parničnom postupku FBiH,10 prije 2003. g., regulisao je samo jedan način rješavanja sporova mirnim putem, a to je sudska nagodba kojom se 7 M.Lasić, „Europska smjernica 2008/52/EZ o određenim aspektima mirenja u građanskim i trgovačkim predmetima“, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Mostaru, br. XXI, 2010, 131. 8 „Tokom mirenja traži se rješenje koje je u interesu obje stranke, pri tome izmiritelj mora u prvom redu obratiti pozornost na ponovno uspostavljanje komunikacije između stranaka kako bi one bile u stanju pregovarati. Za razliku od sudskog postupka, ovjde se svi detalji spora iznose na vidjelo, a ne samo njihova pravna interpretacija“, S.Šimac, Hrvatska pravna revija, Inženjerski biro dd Zagreb, 6/2004,100-110. 9 M.Lasić, 131. 10 Službene novine FBiH, br. 42/98. i 3/99. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 255 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić rješavao najmanji broj sporova. Za to vrijeme i prije u nekim zemljama mirenjem se rješavalo preko 90 % predmeta (poput SAD-a), a u drugim zemljama otvarane su mogućnosti za rješavanje sporova nagodbom (poput Austrije, Njemačke i Norveške). BiH kao zemlja u tranziciji, kojoj je u interesu da prati evropske standarde, donošenjem sada važećeg ZPP-a uvodi novi institut rješavanja sporova, a to je „medijacija“. Medijacija je jedan od načina tzv. „alternativnog rješavanja sporova“ prihvaćen u velikom broju zemalja koji je trebao naći mjesto i u BiH.11 Medijacija predstavlja vansudski način rješenja spora uz pomoć trećeg nepristrasnog lica, tzv. medijator. Ukoliko je povodom spora u toku sudski postupak, principe i postupak medijacije, uslove za obavljanje medijacije i ulogu medijatora u procesu, te pretpostavke i rokove za vođenje postupka medijacije, regulisani su donošenjem Zakona o postupku medijacije.12 Od aprila 2004. do aprila 2006. godine trajali su pilot projekti uvođenja medijacije u predmetima Osnovnog suda Banja Luka i Općinskog suda Sarajevo, koje je realizovalo Udruženje medijatora u BiH uz pomoć programa za razvoj poduzetništva u Jugoistočnoj Evropi.13 U tom periodu održano i provedeno je oko 600 medijacija od kojih je oko 56% završeno dogovorom stranaka. U oko 90% slučajeva stranke koje su potpisale sporazum, dobrovoljno su ga djelimično ili u potpunosti izvršavale, što je značilo da medijacija i djeluje, jer se ti predmeti neće vraćati u izvršni postupak. Prihvatanje i zakonsko regulisanje postupka medijacije jedan je od elemenata sveobuhvatne reforme sudskog sistema od kojeg se očekivalo da će smanjiti ogroman broj zaostalih predmeta koji su trebali završiti pred sudom. Medijacija se pokazala kao pogodan i brz način rješavanja sporova, ali samo dok je trajao pilot projekat jer 11 Z.Kulenović et al., Komentar Zakona o parničnom postupku u Federaciji BiH i Republici Srpskoj, Savjet/Vijeće Evrope i Evropska komisija, Sarajevo, 2005, 166. 12 Službeni glasnik BiH br. 37/04. 13 Udruženja medijatora u BiH, glavni je nosilac ideje i aktivnosti u uvođenju i primjeni medijacije u Bosni i Hercegovini. Udruženje je osnovala grupa polaznika programa obuke „Treća neutralna strana“ koju je provodio Kanadski institut za rješavanje sukoba, u okviru projekta jačanja kapaciteta i edukacije zaposlenih u institucijama i organizacijama koje djeluju na polju ljudskih prava, povratka izbjeglica i interetničkog pomirenja (1998.-2002.). U ovoj obuci u najvećem broju učestvovali su aktivisti nevladinih organizacija, socijalne službe, prosvjetni radnici, a od 2000. godine za program obuke se zainteresovao i sve veći broj sudija i tužilaca. Program je obuhvatao teorijsku i praktičnu obuku o pristupima rješavanju sukoba, neutralnosti, facilitaciji, medijaciji, rješavanju sukoba u grupama, itd. 256 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova nakon što je pilot projekat završen stranke su same morale da snose troškove postupka medijacije, što je po ocjeni šire javnosti jedan od osnovnih uzroka što medijacija BiH nije se pokazala kao uspješan alternativni način rješenja sporova. U to vrijeme kao i sada odredbe ZPP-a FBiH upućivale su sud i stranke na mogućnost zaključenja sudske nagodbe. Iako je takav način rješenja spora bio jeftiniji u odnosu na medijaciju, rijetko se primjenjivao. Posljedica potrebe stranaka da spor riješe sa manje troškova i nedovoljna primjena zakonske mogućnosti rješavanja sporova sudskom nagodbom, dovela je do velikog broja sudskih predmeta, koji su dalje proizvela velika opterećenja, prije svega za ekonomiju ali i za druge odnose poput domaćih i inostranih ulaganja. Sve navedeno, rezultiralo je prvim treninzima inostranih stručnjaka za stavljanje fokusa na sudsku nagodbu. Provode se aktivnosti u okviru Projekta unapređenja efikasnosti pravosuđa, s ciljem promocije alternativnih načina rješenja spora i smanjenja broja zaostalih predmeta, te poboljšanje efikasnosti u njihovom radu. 4. Sudska nagodba kao jedan od načina rješavanja sporova Sudska nagodba je poravnanje stranaka o predmetu spora. Sudska nagodba je dispozitivna parnična radnja kojom stranke uređuju svoje odnose kojima mogu slobodno raspolagati, pri čemu sud neće uvažiti ona raspolaganja stranaka koja su u suprotnosti sa prinudnim propisima.14 Stranke u parnici ne moraju dokazivati poseban pravni interes za zaključenje sudske nagodbe. Za razliku od ZPP-a FBiH koji nagodbu definiše kao dispozitivnu parničnu radnju, Zakon o parničnom postupku Republike Hrvatske sadrži odredbu o obaveznosti nagodbe. Osoba koja namjerava podnijeti tužbu protiv Republike Hrvatske dužna je prije podnošenja takve tužbe obratiti se nadležnom državnom odvjetništvu sa zahtjevom za mirno rješavanje spora.15 U Njemačkoj već više godina postoji model obveznog mirenja, propisan odredbama Uvodnog zakona za njemački zakon o parničnom postupku, na osnovu kojeg su pojedine njemačke zemlje donijele zakone kojima se u pojedinostima uređuje navedena materija.16 14 Član 3. ZPP-a. Član. 186 a. Zakona o parničnom postupku RH – ZPP RH, Narodne novine, br. 53/91, 91/92, 58/93, 112/99, 88/01, 117/03,88/05, 02/07, 84/08, 123/08, 57/11,148/11 i 25/13. 16 S.Krešimir, „O mirenju kao alternativnom načinu rješavanja privatnopravnih sporova“, Pravo u gospodarstvu, Zagreb, 2/2007, 13. 15 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 257 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić Sudsku nagodbu stranke mogu zaključiti tokom cijelog postupka, do njegovog pravosnažnog okončanja pa i tokom postupka pred drugostepenim sudom. ZPP FBiH nije predvidio posljedice zaključenja sudske nagodbe nakon što je donesena prvostepena presuda. Ni pravna teorija i sudska praksa nisu izgradile stavove, tako da postoji više mišljenja. Prema jednom mišljenju rješenje ovog problema bi se trebalo kretati od stava po kome bi sud trebao konstitutivnom odlukom ukinuti donesenu presudu, pa do stava po kome bi samo zaključivanje sudske nagodbe oduzimalo pravno značenje pobijanoj presudi, jer uzrokuje gašenje parnice u stadiju u kome presuda još nije postala pravosnažna.17 Ovakva nedoumica o pravnim posljedicama zaključenja sudske nagodbe bi se mogla riješiti jednostavno izmjenama Zakona o parničnom postupku FBiH koji bi propisao obavezu prvostepenog suda da bez odgode provjeri kod drugostepenog suda da li je odlučeno o povodu žalbe, te ga obavijesti o namjeri stranaka da zaključe nagodbu. Drugostepeni sud bi u takvom slučaju morao zastati s postupkom, dok se postupak zaključenja nagodbe ne dovrši. Sud pred kojim je nagodba zaključena rješenjem bi morao staviti van snage prvostepenu odluku i utvrditi da je tužba povučena, osim ako stranke nešto drugačije nisu dogovorile u sudskoj nagodbi.18 Zakonske odredbe o zaključenju sudske nagodbe ne ograničavaju stranke da sklope nagodbu izvan suda i tokom cijelog postupka, samo im nameću obavezu da obavijeste sud, npr. povlačenjem tužbe od strane tužitelja bez da objašnjava zašto je to učinio. Mirenje kao jedan od načina rješavanja sporova, regulisano je odredbama Zakona o obligacionim odnosima-ZOO.19 Prema članu 19. ZOO-a, sudionici u obaveznim odnosima dužni su da svoja uzajamna prava i obaveze rješavaju uzajamnim popuštanjem. Za zaključivanje sudske nagodbe uzajamno popuštanje stranaka nije obavezno. Regulacijom sudskog poravnjanja, strankama nije oduzeto pravo da vansudskim putem riješe spor. Međutim, sudska nagodba daje strankama određenu sigurnost jer ima snagu izvršnog naslova,20 dok takvo svojstvo vansudsko poravnanje nema. 17 Triva-Belajec-Dika, Građansko parnično procesno pravo, Zagreb, 1986, 472. Vidjeti slično u članku 321. stavak 8. ZPP RH-e. 19 Službeni list SFRJ br. 29/78, 39/85, 45/89, 57/89 i Službeni list R BiH, br. 2/92,13/93, 13/94. 20 Član 91. ZPP.a 18 258 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova Sudska nagodba je i sudijama jedan od najdražih načina okončanja sudskih postupaka jer se postiže obostrano zadovoljstvo stranaka bez isčekivanja nepovoljne sudske odluke. I troškovi postupka su svedeni na minimum, ne zahtijeva se izrade pismenog otpravka presude sa obrazloženjem, a samim tim ni obaveza pružanja pravne zaštite samo jednoj od stranaka u postupku. 5. Aktivna uloga sudije u zaključenju sudske nagodbe, mogućnosti i ograničenja Aktivnosti sudije prilikom zaključena sudske nagodbe imperativnog su karaktera jer su jasno određene članom 88. ZPP-a. Iz dikcije tog člana proizilazi dužnost suda da na način koji ne ugrožava njegovu nepristrasnost tokom cijelog postupka nastoji da stranke zaključe sudsku nagodbu. To nastojanje se ogleda kroz obavezu ocjene sudije, kada je to osnovano, da strankama predloži sudsko poravnanje, vodeći računa o željama stranaka, prirodi spora, odnosima među strankama i drugim okolnostima.21 Shodno tome, sudija će kada ocijeni da je potrebno radi pokušaja mirnog rješenja spora, postavljati pitanja strankama i nastojati razjasniti sporna pitanja, pokušat će utvrditi u kojim dijelovima njihovog spornog odnosa postoji najmanje nesporazuma, itd. Nakon što sudija utvrdi činjenice oko kojih su se stranke usaglasile i oko kojih nisu, trebao bi ih predočiti strankama i neposredno dovesti u vezu sa daljnim troškovima postupka ukoliko do nagodbe ne dođe. U ranijoj teoriji, smatralo se da sud strankama koje pokazuju volju za mirnim rješenjem spora može pomoći tako što će im ukazati na uslove pod kojima bi to mogle postići, a kad je potrebno, postavljanjem pitanja strankama razjasniti obim i sadržinu njihovog sporazuma.22 Aktivna uloga sudije prilikom zaključenja sudske nagodbe, ne znači da sud ima obavezu i pravo da stranke konstantno navodi na zaključenje nagodbe ili da inzistira da stranke istu zaključe. Sud je dužan da strankama ukaže na mogućnost zaključenja sudske nagodbe, te da se aktivno uključi na način da strankama predloži 21 „Prije svega da bi raspravni sudac mogao strankama uopće predložiti da se njihov spor okonča sudskom nagodbom potrebno je da je isti dobro upoznat sa predmetom, da dobro poznaje pravnu problematiku u svezi merituma spora i da isti ocijeni da je u određenom slučaju moguće spor riješiti sudskom nagodbom“, D.Kontrec, „Uloga raspravnog suca radi mirnog rješavanja sporova u građanskim predmetima“, Pravo u gospodarstvu, Zagreb, 2/2006, 167. 22 B.Poznić, Građansko procesno pravo, Beograd 1989, 337. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 259 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić kako da se nagode.23 Sudija bi morao jasno i pravno obrazloženo objasniti strankama pravnu prirodu njihovog spora, kao i njihove pozicije u sporu, obzirom na iznijete činjenice i dokaze.24 Problemi koji mogu proizaći iz nastojanja sudije da stranke zaključe sudsku nagodbu su prigovori nepristrasnosti sudije, zatim što tužilac ukoliko smatra da ima jak uticaj u parnici kada sud uputi prijedlog za zaključenje sudske nagodbe, može shvatiti kao negativno stajalište suda u odnosu na njegov mogući uspjeh, odnosno može smatrati da sud prejudicira buduću odluku. Ograničenja sudije u nastojanjima zaključenja sudske nagodbe, imajući u vidu odredbu člana 88. ZPP-a, ne mogu se utvrditi na prvi pogled jer se radi o odredbi koja je imperativnog karaktera i nalaže sudu dužnost da nastoji da stranke zaključe sudsku nagodbu. Prema nekim mišljenjima, ograničenja sudije u zaključivanju sudske nagodbe, ogledaju se u obavezi očuvanja sudske nepristrasnosti, ne vršenje pritiska ili uticaj na volju stranke da zaključi sudsku nagodbu, stavljanjem u izgled eventualno nepovoljnog rješenja spora po tu stranku.25 Dakle, radi se o materijalnim ograničenjima. Međutim, to ne znači da sudija kao stručna osoba ne može jasno i pravno strankama obrazložiti i objasniti pravnu prirodu njihova spora, njihove pozicije u sporu, a prema iznijetim činjenicama i dokazima, u određenim slučajevima direktno pred strankama pročitati i upoznati stranke sa važećom odredbom relevantnog zakona.26 Materijalna ograničenja se mogu shvatiti kao pravilo u odnosu na procesna ograničenja. Procesna ograničenja mogu se odrediti kao pretpostavke za zaključenje sudske nagodbe: sudska nadležnost, pravilan sastav suda, sposobnost ugovarača, pravni interes za zaključenje ugovora u vidu sudske nagodbe, dopuštenost predmeta, sadržaj i propisana forma ugovora o sudskoj nagodbi.27 23 Aktivna uloga sudije u zaključenju sudske nagodbe je u prilog načela ekonomičnosti postupka, prema kojem je sud dužan da provede postupak bez odugovlačenja. Ostvarenju tog načela trebalo bi poslužiti nastojanje suda da stranke zaključe sudsku nagodbu jer se na taj način brže i s manje troškova pravosnažno završava postupak. 24 „Sudac pri tome mora voditi računa da se njegovi navodi i izjave tijekom rasprave ne bi smjele moći interpretirati u smislu da se raspravni sudac opredijelio za jednu od parničnih strana. Te izjave uvijek moraju biti davane uvjetno „ako je, ukoliko je, pod uvjetom da su činjenice te i te“ i sl. te u takvom slučaju ocijeniti izvjesnost spora i sa strane tužitelja i tuženog“, D. Kontrec, 168. 25 T. Ralčić et al., Zakon o parničnom postupku sa komentarom, sudskom praksom, obrascima i registrom pojmova, Beograd 1980, 513. 26 Ovakvo postupanje može se podvesti pod odredbu člana 88. stav 2. ZPP-a. 27 Član 69. ZPP-a. 260 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova 5.1. Pravila koja onemogućavaju sudiju u zaključenju sudske nagodbe Pravila koja onemogućavaju sudiju u zaključenju sudske nagodbe, mogu se podijeliti na ona koja su određena ZPP-om i ona koja su izvan određenja ZPP-a. U toku izvršavanja obaveze prethodnog ispitivanja tužbe sud ukoliko utvrdi da je podnijeta povodom predmeta spora o kojem je zaključeno sudsko poravnanje, donijet će rješenje kojim će odbaciti tužbu.28 Pred sudom se ne može zaključiti nagodba u pogledu zahtjeva kojima stranke ne mogu raspolagati.29 Sud je u obavezi da primijeni raspravno načelo u odnosu na načelo materijalne istine.30 ZOO-om nije regulisana mogućnost sudije da pruži pomoć neukim strankama, što ne znači da je onemogućen, a i u obavezi je da stranke, pa i neuke pouči na način da im predloži i predstavi njihov interes kroz prijedlog nagodbe.31 Troškovi zastupanja stranaka u postupku najčešće onemogućavaju sudiju da sklopi sudsku nagodbu. Punomoćnici stranaka često puta odgovaraju stranke od sporazumnog rješenja spora uvjeravajući ih da su njihovi zahtjevi u potpunosti opravdani i da će sasvim sigurno u konačnici uspjeti u sporu, krijući se iza svojih ekonomskih interesa. 5.1.1. Ranije zaključena sudska nagodba Sud je dužan u toku cijelog postupka po službenoj dužnosti paziti vodi li se parnica o predmetu u kojem je ranije bila zaključena sudska nagodba. Ako ustanovi da se parnica vodi o predmetu o kojem je zaključena sudska nagodba, odbacit će tužbu kao nedopuštenu. Ako je odlučeno i o zahtjevu o kome je već zaključena sudska nagodba, uvijek postoji povreda odredaba parničnog postupka, pa je drugostepeni sud dužan ukinuti presudu i odbaciti tužbu.32 Iako se u ZPP-u to izričito ne navodi, sudska nagodba se po svom procesnopravnom učinku izjednačava sa pravosnažnom presudom.33 28 Član 62. u vezi sa članom 67. i 93. ZPP-a. Član 7. ZPP-a. 30 Član 124. ZPP-a. 31 Član 88. ZPP-a. 32 Član 227. stav 2. 33 Presuda je pravosnažna ukoliko se ne može više pobijati žalbom, član 196. ZPP-a. Sudsko poravnanje ima snagu izvršnog naslova i može se pobijati samo tužbom, član 91. i 92. ZPP-a. 29 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 261 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić 5.1.2. Sudska nagodba o zahtjevima s kojima stranke ne mogu raspolagati Pred sudom se ne može zaključiti nagodba u pogledu zahtjeva kojima stranke ne mogu raspolagati. Predmet sudske nagodbe mogu biti samo oni građanskopravni odnosi koji mogu biti predmetom raspravljanja i odlučivanja u parnici i koji su uređeni dispozitivno pravnim normama, tako da njima stranke mogu slobodno raspolagati.34 Ako postoje takvi zahtjevi stranaka, sud je dužan upozoriti stranke da ne mogu zaključiti sudsku nagodbu, ali ako stranke uprkos upozorenju to zahtijevaju, nagodbu mora unijeti u zapisnik. Ako sud, u toku postupka, utvrdi da stranke pokušavaju da sudskom nagodbom raspolažu zahtjevom kojim po zakonu ne mogu raspolagati, donijet će rješenje kojim ne dopušta nagodbu stranaka, a protiv tog rješenja dopuštena je posebna žalba.35 5.1.3. Preovladavanje raspravnog načela u odnosu na načelo materijalne istine Sud je prema raspravnom načelu pasivan jer su stranke dužne iznijeti sve činjenice na kojima zasnivaju svoje zahtjeve i izvoditi dokaze kojima se utvrđuju te činjenice. Prilikom pokušaja zaključenja sudske nagodbe, ZPP-e je sudiji nametnuo obavezu aktivne uloge, ne u smislu prikupljanja činjenica ili dokaza, već da zajedno sa strankama, prema iznijetim činjenicama i dokazima istraži mogućnost zaključenja sudske nagodbe. 5.1.4. Pružanje pomoći neukim strankama Sud, prema odrebama ZPP-a nije ovlašten da stranke poučava o njihovim pravima i obavezama, ali to ne znači da nije u mogućnosti, vodeći računa o jednakosti stranaka, da kroz prijedlog zaključenja sudske nagodbe, pruži pravnu pomoć. Prigovor zastarjelosti potraživanja i prigovor prebijanja su materijalnopravni prigovori o kojima sud ne smije parnične stranke poučavati.36 Primjenjujući načelo otvorenog pravosuđenja,37 ukoliko neka od stranaka, najčešće tužilac potražuje neko pravo od datuma koji nije utemeljen u zakonu, sud je dužan, obzirom na iznijete 34 Član 3. ZPP-a. Član 89. ZPP-a. 36 Član 2. ZPP-a. 37 Načelo otvorenog pravosuđenja podrazumijeva da sudac, prilikom pokušaja pomoći strankama da sklope sudsku nagodbu, jasno i pravno obrazloženo objasni strankama pravnu prirodu njihova spora kao i njihove pozicije u sporu, obzirom na iznijete činjenice i dokaze, D. Kontrec, 186. 35 262 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova činjenice i dokaze jasno i pravno obrazložiti da tužilac ne može uspjeti sa takvim pravom, a prema iznijetim činjenicama i dokazima. 5.1.5. Interesi punomoćnika stranaka ili advokata Punomoćnici stranaka, tokom postupka, često stranke odgovaraju od sporazumnog rješenja spora, vodeći se svojim ekonomskim interesima-„naplata što više troškova zastupanja“. Kako bi se onemogućilo da troškovi zastupanja stranaka u postupku često predstavljaju uzrok nesklapanja sudskih nagodbi, trebalo bi iste na neki način stimulirati u postizanju mirnog rješenja spora. Prema mišljenjima nekih autora trebalo bi izmijeniti tarifu za naknadu troškova zastupnicima stranaka (odvjetnicima).38 Rješenje ovog problema najbolje bi bilo pronalaziti u pružanju mogućnosti sudiji, ukoliko ocijeni da je interes punomoćnika-advokata da se naplati u sporu, da pozove parničnu stranku da neposredno učestvuju u postupku. 5.2. Načelo nepristrasnosti sudije u okviru ovlaštenja zaključivanja sudske nagodbe Pod nepristrasnosću se podrazumijeva da sudija ne pokazuje naklonost ili favoriziranje prema jednoj od stranaka. Načelo nepristrasnosti je jedno od temeljnih standarda etičkog ponašanja sudija u BiH, koji su određeni Kodeksom sudijske etike.39 Sudiji se često prigovara da ukoliko predloži zaključenje sudske nagodbe, prejudicira sudsku odluku, te samim tim favorizira tuženog, jer tužilac ne bi podnio tužbu da je uspio mirnim putem riješiti spor sa tuženim. Ako se krene od definicije načela nepristrasnosti, da je sudija nepristrasan kada pokazuje interesovanje za stranke i predlaže im opcije koje će obje zadovoljiti, prijedlog načina poravnanja ne bi se smio tretirati kao povreda načela nepristrasnosti. U prilog tome su odredbe člana 88. stav 2. ZPP-a FBiH jer će sud predložiti nagodbu tek kada uzme u obzir želje stranaka, prirodu spora, odnose među strankama i druge okolnosti. 38 Ibid. Ovaj kodeks razrađuje temeljne standarde etičkog ponašanja sudija u Bosni i Hercegovini. Svrha ovog kodeksa je da pomaže sudijama kad su suočene sa etičkim i profesionalnim dilemama, a izvršnoj i zakonodavnoj vlasti i javnosti da bolje razumiju i podrže pravosuđe. Nezavisno pravosuđe predstavlja pravo svakog građanina u Bosni i Hercegovini. Sudija ima slobodu da pošteno i nepristrasno odlučuje na osnovu zakona i dokaza, bez ikakvog pritiska ili uticaja. Dužnost sudija je da podržavaju i brane sudijsku nezavisnost, ne kao privilegiju sudijske funkcije, nego kao Ustavom zagarantovano pravo svakome da o njegovom sporu raspravljaju i odlučuju nepristrasne sudije. 39 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 263 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić Zaključenje sudske nagodbe je u dispoziciji stranaka, te pristrasnost suca prilikom zaključivanja sudske nagodbe može izazvati različite posljedice ukoliko je postupak vodio i odluke donosio namjerno ili ne ili samo postoji sumnja u njegovu nepristrasnost. Sud bi bio pristrasan prema jednoj od stranaka ukoliko nije upozorio stranke da raspolažu pravima sa kojima ne mogu raspolagati, odnosno da nije donio rješenje kojim ne dopušta nagodbu stranaka. Druga posljedice pristrasnosti sudije na zaključenje sudske nagodbe bi mogla nastati ako ne donese rješenje kojim zbog takvih raspolaganja ne dopušta nagodbu stranaka. Treća posljedica je da bi se sudska nagodba mogla pobijati i ako bi bila zaključena u zabludi ili pod uticajem prisile ili prevare, dakle zbog mana volje pa bi se i u ovom slučaju to moglo dogoditi ako primjerice sudija zbog pristrasnosti dovede stranku u zabludu ili ih prevari u pogledu sadržaja i pravnih učinaka sudske nagodbe. Ako bi sudija ove radnje preduzimao svjesno zbog pristrasnosti to bi za njega moglo imati i posljedice izvan konkretnog parničnog postupka (disciplinska mjera, kaznena odgovornost, razrješenje i sl.). Ako bi se radilo samo o sumnji da bi sudija prilikom zaključenja sudske nagodbe mogao biti nepristrasan, tada se svaka od stranaka može koristiti institutom izuzeća sudija. Nepristrasnost sudija, temeljni je preduvjet za objektivno suđenje i pravilno donošenje odluke. Jamstvo kojim se osigurava da u konkretnom sporu ne sudi sudija čija se objektivnost dovodi u pitanje jest institut izuzeća sudije. ZPP-e FBiH nije konkretnije odredio okolnost koja dovodi u sumnju nepristrasnost određenog sudije koja predstavlja u konačnici razlog za izuzeće. U teoriji se smatra da bi to mogli biti: prijateljstvo ili neprijateljstvo sudije sa strankom, srodstvo u daljnjem stepenu od onog koji je predviđen zakonom kao razlog za isključenje po sili zakona, odnos starateljstva, vanbračna zajednica, i sl. U praksi sudova, izuzeće se često traži zbog okolnosti koji su u vezi sa načinom na koji sudija vodi postupak: nije uvažio ili je uvažio prijedlog stranke za preduzimanje parničnih radnji (saslušanje stranke), dugotrajno vođenje postupka, sumnja u stručnost suca, itd. Ovakvi prijedlozi za izuzeće nisu nikako utemeljeni i zakoniti jer da bi se dokazala sudijina pristrasnost potreban je dokaz o postojanju razloga za izuzeće koji in concreto ugrožava sudijsku nepristrasnost. Posljedice sudske pristrasnosti regulisane su sa nekoliko odredaba ZPP-a, posebno u odredbama o pravnim lijekovima protiv presude. Kako se protiv zaključene sudske nagodbe mogu ulagati specifični pravni lijekovi poput tužbe i kako sudija o zaključenoj sudskoj nagodbi ne donosi nikakvu odluku, teško da se mogu 264 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova primijeniti odredbe ZPP-a i u slučaju nepristrasnosti sudije kod zaključenja sudske nagodbe. Izuzetak su neke od odredaba ZPP-a. Tako odredba člana 209. ZPP-a definiše da povreda odredaba parničnog postupka postoji ako sud u toku postupka nije primijenio ili je nepravilno primijenio koju odredbu zakona, pa i donošenje odluke od strane sudije koji je morao biti izuzet, pod uvjetom da je takva povreda uticala na zakonitost i pravilnost pobijanje odluke. Prema odredbi člana 255. ZPP-a, postupak koji je odlukom suda pravomoćno završen može se na prijedlog stranke ponoviti ako je među ostalim pri donošenju odluke sudjelovao sudija koji je po zakonu morao biti izuzet. 5.3. Posljedice pregovora prilikom sklapanja sudske nagodbe Sudska nagodba bi trebala predstavljati najčešći način okončanja sudskih postupaka jer su sve strane u sporu zadovoljne. Stranke s jedne strane, obostrano su zadovoljne jer su isključile rizik eventualno nepovoljne sudske odluke i daljnje troškove. Sudije, s druge strane su zadovoljne jer su riješile predmet veoma brzo, na način da su pružile pravnu zaštitu objema strankama, neće izrađivati pismeni otpravak presude i iscrpljivat se obrazloženjem. Sudija će okončati postupak i spriječiti daljnje vođenje spora koji znaju u pojedinim predmetima da traju godinama, jer sudije znaju zadužiti preko 1000 spisa i samim tim rok po ZPP-u između pripremnog ročišta i glavne rasprave od 30 dana objektivno se i ne može poštovati zbog velikog priliva predmeta na sudovima.40 Sudija, kao nepristrasna osoba dužna je da strankama pomogne da postignu rješenje svojih sukoba koje se temelji na obostranim interesima. Ova vrsta rješavanja sukoba ima dvije glavne prednosti: usmjeravanje znatne pažnje prema ponovnom uspostavljanju prekinute komunikacije između stranaka, a time i prema emocijama u pozadini i poremećenim odnosima i to u onoj mjeri u kojoj te emocije i poremećeni odnosi ometaju postizanje rješenja, te vođenje pregovora na temelju interesa, a ne na temelju prava.41 Međutim, nisu sve sudije sklone istraživanju interesa u pozadini, već se drže veoma krutih pravnih stavova u potrazi za odgovarajućim rješenjem. 40 41 Član 94. ZPP-a. Ibid. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 265 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić Rad sudije je ograničen obilježjima pravnog postupka: onemogućen je u pružanju pravne pomoći neukim strankama, na strankama je teret dokazivanja i iznošenja činjenica, donosi odluku ako stranke to ne uspiju, ograničen je na sukob i argumente, ima ograničeno vrijeme za ročište za nagodbu, pravni je stručnjak. U slučaju da stranke ne uspiju zaključiti sudsku nagodbu, sudija će donijeti meritornu odluku. Posljedica takvog pristupa je suzdržavanje stranaka u izražavanju onoga što stvarno misle jer se na taj način ne izlažu riziku vezanosti tim svojim izjavama ili prijedlozima u slučaju da pregovori ne uspiju. Stranke su pod pritiskom da će sudija, tokom postupka pregovora ukoliko ga dodatno obavijeste o sadržaju spora, stvoriti sebi sliku o pravnoj održivosti tako iznesenih stajališta i da će dobivene obavijesti staviti u taj okvir, u slučaju da stranke ne postignu nagodbu. 6. Sporovi pogodni/nepogodni za mirenje Privredni sporovi su sporovi u kojima se postiže najveći procenat uspjeha u mirenju. Kao razlozi, mogu se navesti što predstavnici pravnih osoba nisu interesno i emocionalno uključeni u spor, te pokazuju veću spremnost ka postizanju rješenja. Drugi po redu pogodni za mirenje su porodični sporovi. Kao razlozi, mogu se navesti osjetljivost te vrste sporova za stranke i zbog uključenosti djece u te sporove. Često pogodni za mirenje su i radni sporovi jer iziskuju brzo i zadovoljavajuće rješenje koje je od značaja za cjelokupnu sredinu u kojoj je takav spor nastao. Prema ZPP-u, može se zaključiti poravnanje o svim zahtjevima sa kojima stranke mogu raspolagati, što znači da sud ne bi smio uvažiti raspolaganja stranaka koja su u suprotnosti sa prinudnim propisima.42 Na primjer, sudsku nagodbu nije moguće sklapati u postupcima razvoda braka ili u drugim statusnim predmetima.43 Način rješenja spora često ne zavisi od vrste samog spora, već od stava i mišljenja stranaka, njihovih punomoćnika i spremnosti da riješe spor na taj način, te drugih okolnosti koje idu i prilog sklapanja nagodbe. Sporovi pogodni za mirno rješenje, prema nekim autorima su: - stari predmeti, posebno oni stariji od pet, deset i više godina, jer su stranke umorne od sporenja i žele brzo okončati spor, - predmeti u kojima stranke i uz dugotrajno sporenje žele obnoviti svoj narušeni poslovni ili drugi odnos i žele ga zadržati u budućnosti, - predmeti u kojima stranke u povodu predmeta svog spora žele isključiti javnost, - predmeti u kojima stranke napokon žele 42 Član 89. i 3. ZPP-a. „U postupku u bračnim sporovima i sporovima iz odnosa roditelja i djece stranke se ne mogu odreći zahtjeva, priznati zahtjev protivne stranke, niti se nagoditi“, član 278. Porodičnog Zakona FBiH – PZFBiH, Službene novine FBiH, broj 35/05. i 41/05. 43 266 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova preuzeti kontrolu nad svojim sporom, - predmeti u kojima stranke žele okončati svoj spor na vlastiti način i postići rješenje koje će biti u zajedničkom inetresu, - predmeti u kojima postoji razmjerno niska količina spornih pitanja, - predmeti u kojima narav spora zahtijeva žurno okončanje spora, - predmeti u kojima se stranke ne mogu pouzdati u snagu svog pravnog položaja u sporu i žele isključiti svaki mogući rizik za njih nepovoljne sudske odluke i - predmeti u kojima postoje drugi razlozi koji idu u prilog sklapanju nagodbe, a koje će prepoznati suci i sudski savjetnici.44 7. Mogućnosti i ograničenja primjene nagodbe u sporovima u kojima su parnične stranke općine Sudske nagodbe su rijetkost u sporovima u kojima su parnične stranke jedinice lokalne samouprave, npr. općine. Razlozi su, prema izjavama njihovih zastupnika, komplikovane procedure pred općinskim organima, kako bi se dobila saglasnost za zaključenje sudske nagodbe. I kada postoji spremnost i inicijativa suprotne strane za zaključenje sudske nagodbe, često ona izostaje, kako zbog pasivnosti sudije tako i zbog neukosti te stranke. Nije mali broj slučajeva da se pred otvaranje pripremnog ročišta ili na samom ročištu, stranka predloži zastupniku općine zaključenje sudske nagodbe, koja izostane jer isti takav zastupnik izjavi da nema ingerenciju za zaključenje nagodbe. U takvim slučajevima, veoma je bitna uloga i ocjena sudije. Sudija može upoznati stranku sa procedurom zaključenja sudske nagodbe sa općinom, npr. da je Općinsko vijeće predstavničko tijelo koje odlučuje o imovini i imovinskim interesima i kao takav je jedini mjerodavan da odlučuje o nagodbama pred sudom, stranka koja želi zaključenje sudske nagodbe potrebno je da se pismenim podneskom obrati Pravobranilaštvu ili da to učini usmeno na zapisnik kod suda, a na osnovu procjene određenog sudskog predmeta pripremit će se prijedlog sudske nagodbe.45 Ukoliko stranka pristane na pokušaj zaključenja sudske nagodbe, sud će odgoditi ročište za period ne duži od 1 mjesec dana i naložiti strankama da do narednog ročišta preduzmu sve radnje kako bi se nagodba zaključila na narednom ročištu.46 44 Nakon nagodbe nema žalbe, moguće je samo poništenje, http://liderpress.hr/arhiva/29476/, 22. septembar 2013. 45 http://www.novosarajevo.ba/stream/article.php?pid=1655, 22. septembar 2013. 46 Ibid. i u vezi sa članovima 112. i 115. ZPP-a. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 267 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić Često se dešava da Općinsko vijeće odbije dati saglasnost za zaključenje nagodbe jer im nije jasno zašto se vrše nagodbe, u kojem slučaju je obaveza Pravobranioca kao izvjestioca konkretnog prijedloga nagodbe da upozna Općinsko vijeće sa svrhom zaključenja sudske nagodbe, a to je: miran i brz način rješenja spora. Kao osnovni motiv suda može se navesti brzo okončanje spora u odnosu na pojedine predmete koji znaju da traju i godinama, jer zaduženje spisa po sudiji može prelaziti i preko 1000 spisa, a rokovi po ZPP-u, objektivno se ne mogu poštovati zbog velikog priliva predmeta na sudovima. Motivi stranaka su veći: poželjan rezultat koje one određuju i koji će biti različiti od sudske odluke, stranke žele postići brzo rješenje spora ili želja da se zadrže dobri poslovni odnosi u budućnosti. Kako bi približile povoljnost rješenja spora zaključenjem nagodbe, neke općine su razmatrale i usvajale izvještaje o zaključenim i izvršenim sudskim i vansudskim nagodbama koje su podnosila pravobranilaštva.47 Istim izvještajem pravobranilaštva su iznosila mišljenja da bi sudskih nagodbi trebalo biti što više jer će se postupci koji se nekad vode i godinama, vremenski skratiti kao i da bi se mirnim putem na obostrano zadovoljstvo završavali sudski predmeti i time poboljšala ekspeditivnost i ekonomičnost postupka, sve po obligatornim uslovom koji glasi sa saglasnosću Općinskog vijeća kao predstavnika jedinice lokalne samouprave. 8. Prednosti zaključenja sudske nagodbe Regulisanjem sudske nagodbe zakonodavac je pokušao motivirajuće da djeluje na stranke da svoje međusobne sporove riješe mirnim putem i sporazumno, sa obavezom suda da upozna stranke sa mogućnosti zaključenja sudske nagodbe. Veći broj rješavanja sporova nagodbom smanjio bi opterećenost sudova, uticao na kraće trajanje sudskih postupaka, a ponekad spriječio da do suđenja dođe. Kao neke od prednosti u zaključenju sudske nagodbe, mogu se navesti: smanjenje nagomilanih predmeta, višegodišnja iscrpljivanja stranaka, rasterećenje bosansko hercegovačkog pravosuđa od manje ili više kozmetičkih promjena kao što je medijacija, izbjegava se sudsko okončanje postupka i primjena redovnih i vanrednih pravnih lijekova što bi za posljedicu imalo odugovlačenje spora i veće troškove parničnog postupka, zadržavaju se ili poboljšavaju poslovni ili drugi odnosi. 47 Takav izvještaj je podnijelo Općinsko pravobranilaštvo Općine Novo Sarajevo, koji je razmatralo Općinsko vijeće Novo Sarajevo, a na temelju Programa rada, pod tačkom 16., Ibid. 268 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova Prema nekim mišljenjima, tri su glavne prednosti sudske nagodbe:  predstavlja elastičniji instrument za uređenje pravnih odnosa među strankama nego presuda, zbog mogućnosti da se relativno kruti propisi o rokovima zamjene takvima koji će bolje odgovarati posebnim odnosima konkretnog slučaja,  svojim sadržajem nije vezana samo za onaj pravni zahtjev radi čije je zaštite pokrenuta parnica tako da se mogu obuhvatiti svi pravni odnosi stranaka te ukloniti sporne situacije (presudom se to ne može postići ako određeni zahtjev nije postao i predmet parnice),  kao akt stranačke dispozicije predstavlja suglasno utvrđivanje prava i obaveza koje proističu iz uzajamnih pravnih odnosa.48 Većim rješavanjem sporova nagodbom sudovi bi bili manje opterećeni na način da bi bili u mogućnosti da u razumnim i zakonskim rokovima rješavaju predmete. Sudovi bi pravni promet učinili protočnijim, poboljšali preduzetničku i opću ekonomsku klimu te unaprijedili pravnu sigurnost. 9. Mirenje kao alternativni način rješenja spora Iako je zakonom regulisana mogućnost zaključenja sudske nagodbe, a praksa i teorija su pokazale prednosti u primjeni takve mogućnosti, ipak mali broj sporova se rješava sudskom nagodbom. Neki od razloga su ranije spomenuti, a kao najznačajniji je određen ZPP-om,49 stranački sukobi se rješavaju tako što se pred parničnim sudijom iznose činjenice i izvode dokaze na koje su primjenjuju pravni propisi, bez uzimanja u obzir komunikacije i emocija koja prate sukobe. Stranke nisu slobodne u izražavanju svojih misli jer se izlažu riziku vezanosti tim svojim izjavama i prijedlozima u slučajevima da pregovori ne uspiju. Sud je primoran da donese odluku. Usljed velikog broja zaduženih predmeta sudija ima ograničeno vrijeme za ročište i za nagodbu, punomoćnici-advokati stranaka, izjavama da usljed drugih preuzetih obaveza kao punomoćnici u drugim predmetima utiču na sudiju da odustane od daljnih radnji s ciljem zaključenja nagodbe, itd. 48 Rješavanje sporova nagodbom, http://www.besplatniseminarskiradovi.com/PRAVO/Rješavanje SporovaNagodbom.htm, 13. avgust 2013. 49 Član 7. i 123. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 269 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić Mirenje kao alternativni način rješavanja sporova pronašlo je veoma široku i uspješnu primjenu u praksi rješavanja sporova u modernim zapadnim državama. Stupanjem na snagu Zakona o mirenju, mirenje se primjenjuje u praksi rješavanja sporova i u Republici Hrvatskoj.50 U parničnoj proceduri Brčko Distrikta BiH, postupak posredovanja uređen je Zakonom o parničnom postupku Brčko Distrikta BiH,51 i Pravilnikom o postupku posredovanja.52 Cilj posredovanja je da se stranke sporazumiju o spornim pitanjima zbog kojih je pokrenuta parnica, što će biti od uticaja ne samo na konkretan spor već i za buduće međusobne odnose subjekata u sporu koji će se poboljšati, nasuprot presuđivanju kojim se ti odnosi često pogoršavaju. Prednosti primjene mirenja koje će se u daljnjem tekstu izložiti ukazat će da su institut mirenja i formalne pretpostavke za primjenu, neophodne u praksi rješavanja sporova u BiH. Mirenje je specifičan oblik posredovanja u kojem stranke rješavaju vlastite sporove pod vođstvom i uz pomoć neovisne treće osobeizmiritelja.53 Postupak mirenja uređen je Zakonom o mirenju. Prema njemu, mirenje je svaki postupak, bez obzira provodi li se u sudu, instituciji za mirenje ili izvan njih u kojem stranke nastoje sporazumno riješiti spor uz pomoć jednog ili više izmiritelja koji strankama pomažu postići nagodbu, bez ovlasti da im nametnu obavezujuće rješenje, članak 3. Obzirom na neuspjeh u provođenju medijacije u BiH, dakle mirenje izvan suda, ovdje će se ograničiti i razmatrati samo prednosti mirenja pred sudijom izmiriteljem.54 Redovan parnični sudija, kada ocijeni da je spor pogodan za mirenje, stranke će upoznati sa mogućnosti rješenja spora mirnim putem pred sudom. Ukoliko stranke predlože ili prihvate rješavanje spora mirnim putem parnični sudija će odrediti ročište, ali pred sudijom izmiriteljem. Sastanak za pregovaranje sa strankama, potpomognut izmiriteljem na kojem nije nazočan sudija u konkretnom 50 S.Šimac, 100-110. Zakon o parničnom postupku Brčko distrikta BiH-ZPP Brčko Distrikta BiH, Službeni glasnik Brčko distrikta BiH, broj 8/09. 52 Na osnovu člana 220. ZPP-a Brčko Distrikta BiH i Zakona o pravosudnoj komisiji Brčko distrikta BiH, Pravosudna komisija je na sjednici održanoj dana 10.07.2002. g. donijela Pravilnik o postupku posredovanja, http://www.mpr.gov.ba/web_dokumenti/Vodi%20kroz%20medijaciju%20u%20BIH.pdf, 22. septembar 2013. 53 S.Šimac, 100-110. 54 Izmiritelj je osoba koja na temelju sporazuma stranaka provodi postupak mirenja, član. 3. ZM RH. 51 270 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova predmetu nego izmiritelj, ne bi terminološki trebalo poistovjetiti sa ročištem na kojem se preduzimaju parnične radnje.55 Tokom postupka mirenja pokušat će se istražiti zajednički interes stranaka, ponovo uspostaviti komunikaciju između stranaka kako bi one bile u stanju pregovarati. Za razliku od građanskog parničnog postupka koji je redovna metoda zaštite ugroženih ili povrijeđenih građanskih prava, mirenje je vanredan i povoljniji put zaštite. Svrha parničnog postupka je da se dobije pravo na temelju interesa, tako da se samo formalno radi o pravnom sadržaju, a poremećaji u komunikaciji i emocije koje prate sukobe nisu u djelokrugu moći parničnog sudije. Sklapanje nagodbe pred parničnim sudijom, ranije je izloženo, teže je postići jer postupak nije sredstvo pogodno za obnovu odnosa ili za izražavanje emocija na odgovarajući način. Parnični sudija tokom postupka nagađanja nailazi na suzdržanost stranaka prilikom iznošenja njiihovih skrivenih interesa jer u slučaju da stranke ne postignu nagodbu on bi bio dodatno obaviješten o sadržaju spora, i na kraju on je taj koji donosi konačnu odluku. Mirenje je oblik rješavanja sporova na temelju interesa, kada izmiritelj usmjerava znatnu pozornost prema ponovnom uspostavljanju prekinute komunikacije između stranaka, vodeći računa o emocijama i poremećenim odnosima u pozadini. Izmiritelj je neutralan i u slučaju kada stranke ne postignu sporazum, on nema ovlaštenje da donese odluku o sporu, u kojem slučaju su stranke slobodne u izražavanju onogo što misle i pri tome se ne izlažu vezanosti tim svojim izjavama ili prijedlozima u slučaju da pregovori ne uspiju. Može se smatrati kako su razlike između sudske nagodbe i mirenja sledeće: sudija koji nastoji postići nagodbu usmjerava stranke u pravcu sadržaja nagodbe, ima ovlast i donosi odluku ako to stranke ne uspiju, usredotočen je na sukob i argumente, ima ograničeno vrijeme za ročište za nagodbu i pravni je stručnjak, nasuprot kojeg izmiritelj vodi postupak prema određenoj metodi nema ovlasti i ne odlučuje, usredotočen je na sukob i interese i ima puno vremena, a stručnjak je za posredovanje u sukobima.56 Stranke u postupku mirenja imaju apsolutnu autonomiju volje kod određivanja procedure mirenja i provodi se na način o kojem su se one sporazumjele. Izmiritelj je aktivan tokom cijelog postupka mirenja jer tokom cijelog 55 Borislav, Blažević, „Mirenje prema Zakonu o parničnom postupku FBiH“, http://www.mirenje.hr/index.php/miroteka/clanci/strucni-i-znanstveni-clanci-/235-mirenje-prema-zakonu-oparničnom-postupku-mrsc-borislav-blazeviv.html, 22. septembar 2013. 56 S.Šimac, 100-110. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 271 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić postupka može iznositi svoje prijedloge nagodbe koja bi strankama mogla poslužiti za okončanje spora. Prema Zakonu o mirenju RH, postupak mirenja ako se vodi pred sudom vodi sudac izmiritelj određen s liste sudaca izmiritelja koju utvrđuje predsjednik suda godišnjim rasporedom poslova, a postupak mirenja može se okončati: -sklapanjem nagodbe, odlukom izmiritelja da se postupak obustavlja jer daljnje nastojanje za postizanje mirnog rješenja spora nije svrhovito uz uvjet da je prije donošenja takve odluke strankama bila data mogućnost da se o tome izjasne, pisanom izjavom o odustanku od mirenja koju je jedna stranka uputila drugoj ili izmiritelju osim ako i nakon toga u postupku sudjeluju dvije ili više stranaka koje mirenje žele nastaviti, -ako se nagodba ne postigne u roku od 60 dana od prihvaćanja prijedloga za pokretanje mirenja, sporazumom stranaka ovaj se rok može produžiti za još 60 dana.57 10. Zaključak Pravni sistemi današnjice odlikuju se raznolikim stranačkim sporovima koji proizvode brojne predmete pred sudovima. Preopterećeni predmetima, sudovi su neučinkoviti i spori u pružanju pravne zaštite. S druge strane, bez obzira na svrhu vođenja nekog parničnog postupka, očekivanja stranaka usmjerena su u pravcu brzog donošenja sudske odluke koja treba da otkloni svaku neizvjesnost u spornom pravnom odnosu. Nedovoljna primjena zakonskih mogućnosti mirnog načina rješenja spora, bilo usljed prevelikih troškova u odnosu na standard života bosansko hercegovačkih građana ili usljed nedovoljnog angažmana sudija i drugih učesnica u parničnom procesu, dovela je do potrebe pronalaska novih načina rješavanja sporova. Važeći ZPP-e sadrži odredbe o upućivanju suda i stranaka na mogućnost zaključenja sudske nagodbe, a predstavlja brži i jeftiniji način rješenja spora u odnosu na presudu. Međutim, zbog ograničenja u primjeni iste, ranije izloženi nedostaci sudske nagodbe uticali su na nedovoljno korištenje kao načina rješenja spora što se odrazilo na brojnost u sudskim predmetima koji su postali veliko opterećenje za pravosuđe te cjelokupan rast i razvoj privrede. Mirenje kao vrsta alternativnog načina rješenja spora odlično je rješenje jer u odnosu na druge oblike rješavanja sporova, kao oblik posredovanja u kojem stranke rješavaju vlastite sporove uz pomoć neovisne treće strane-izmiritelja ogleda se u kontroli inicijatora sporova-stranaka nad samim postupkom i njegovim rezultatom. 57 Član 9. ZM RH. 272 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova Odlična iskustva Nizozemske, Slovenije ili Hrvatske iz njihovih pilot projekata mirenja upućuju na potrebu uvođenja takvog instituta u BiH. U svim tim zemljama izmijenjen je Zakon o parničnom postupku na način da je dopunjen odredbom koja omogućava sudijama da upućuju stranke na mirenje u sudovima i u centrima za mirenje izvan suda. Dalje, uredile su sam postupak mirenja u građanskim, trgovačkim, radnim i drugim imovinskopravnim sporovima o pravima kojima stranke mogu slobodno raspolagati, npr. usvajanjem Zakona o mirenju ili Pravilnika o posredovanju. U BiH, potrebno je stvoriti pravni okvir kako za mirenje tako i za provedbu postupka mirenja. Najprije treba pristupiti izmjenama ZPP-a na način da će se regulisati mogućnost suda da tokom cijelog parničnog postupka strankama predloži da spor riješe u postupku mirenja pred sudom, zatim da će se postupak mirenja provoditi pred sudijom izmiriteljem koji će se odrediti s liste sudija izmiritelja koju utvrđuje predsjednik suda godišnjim rasporedom poslova, te da je nagodba sklopljena pred sudijom izmiriteljem sudska nagodba. Dalje, za potpuniji pravni okvir za provedbu postupka mirenja, potrebno je donijeti Zakon o mirenju. Prema njemu mirenje bi bio svaki postupak, bez obzira provodi li se u sudu, instituciji za mirenje ili izvan njih, u kojem stranke nastoje sporazumno riješiti spor uz pomoć jednog ili više izmiritelja koji strankama pomažu postići nagodbu, bez mogućnosti nametanja obavezujućeg rješenja. Kao primjer mogao bi poslužiti Hrvatski Zakon o mirenju ili Pravilnik o posredovanju Brčko Distrikta BiH-a. Radi uspješnijeg provođenja mirenja potrebno je edukovati što veći broj sudija o postupku mirenja, metodama kojima se izmiritelji u tim postupcima služe kako bi tokom već započetih postupaka pred sudovima mogli prepoznati sporove i stranke pogodne za mirenje i na taj način svojim autoritetom preuzeti ulogu poticatelja što širem prihvaćanju mirenja. Obuka je potrebna i radi mijenjanja stavova sudija te pomaganje da uvide prednosti i koristi mirenja, te poboljšaju svoj pristup i shvatanje da je najpovoljniji i najbolji način rješenja spora zadovoljenje interesa obje parnične stranke kroz uspostavljanje ili poboljšanje ličnih ili poslovnih odnosa. Pored edukacije sudija, neophodna je edukacija i šire javnosti, stranaka, punomoćnika advokata s ciljem podizanja svijesti o alternativnim metodama rješavanja sporova koji će koristiti, najviše, široj društvenoj zajednici. Pristupanjem rješavanju sporova putem instituta mirenja uticat će se na stvaranje tolerantnijeg okruženja, očuvanje dobrih odnosa između stranaka u sporu, smanjenje ekonomskog i društvenog troška, te rješavanje drugih interesnih sporova koji se mogu rješavati u sudskom postupku. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 273 �Mr. sci. Asmira Bešić 11. Literatura a) Knjige, komentari i članci               Centar za promociju civilnog društva, Pravni savjetnik, mjesečni stručni časopis, Sarajevo, 4/2004. Hrvatska pravna revija, Aktualnosti upravne prakse i upravnog sudovanja, Inženjerski biro dd, Zagreb, 09/2010. Hrvatska pravna revija, Aktualnosti upravne prakse i upravnog sudovanja, Inženjerski biro dd, Zagreb, 06/2008. Hrvatska pravna revija, Aktualnosti upravne prakse i upravnog sudovanja, Inženjerski biro dd, Zagreb, 10/2007. Hrvatski dani arbitraže i mirenja/10, Pravo u gospodarstvu, Zagreb, 4/2011. Poznić Borivoje, Građansko procesno pravo, Beograd, 1989., Ralčić –Tanasković, Zakon o parničnom postupku sa komentarom, sudskom praksom, obrascima i registrom pojmova, Beograd, 1980. Srđan Šimac, Mirenje i suci, Kako suci mogu doprinijeti široj primjeni mirenja u svakodnevnoj praksi rješavanja sporova?, Hrvatska pravna revija, Inženjerski biro dd, Zagreb, 6/2004. Srđan Šimac, Mirenje-alternativni način rješavanja sporova, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta Sveučilišta Rijeka (1991), 1/2006. Sveučilište u Mostaru, Pravni fakultet, Zbornik radova XXI, Mostar, 2010. Triva-Belajec-Dika, Građansko parnično procesno pravo, Zagreb, 1986., XIII. Hrvatski arbitražni dani, Zbornik, Pravo u gospodarstvu, Zagreb, 2/2006. XIV. Hrvatski dani arbitraže i mirenja, Pravo u gospodarstvu, Zagreb, 2/2007. Zlatko Kulenović i dr., Komentar Zakona o parničnom postupku u Federaciji BiH i Republici Srpskoj, Savjet/Vijeće Evrope i Evropska komisija, Sarajevo, 2005. b) Zakoni i pravilnici     274 Porodični zakon FBiH („Službene novine FBiH“,broj 35/05. i 41/05.). Pravilnik o postupku posredovanja Brčko distrikta BiH Zakon o mirenju RH Zakon o obligacionim odnosima ("Službeni list SFRJ", br. 29/78, 39/85, 45/89, 57/89 i "Službeni list R BiH", br. 2/92,13/93, 13/94.), Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Sudska nagodba - novi pristup u rješavanju sporova     Zakon o parničnom postupku FBiH, Službene novine FBiH, br. 53/03, 73/05. i 19/06., (u daljem tekstu: ZPP FBiH), Zakona o parničnom postupku RH, Narodne novine, br. 53/91, 91/92, 58/93, 112/99, 88/01, 117/03,88/05, 02/07, 84/08, 123/08, 57/11,148/11 i 25/13., Zakona o postupku medijacije („Službeni glasnik BiH, br. 37/04), Zakono o parničnom postupku Brčko Distrikta BiH, (Službeni glasnik Brčko distrikta BiH, broj 8/09), c) Internet izvori        www.hjpc.ba/pr/msword/RealizacijaPlanovaI2012ver2.doc, 26. oktobar 2013., http://liderpress.hr/arhiva/29476/, 22. septembar 2013., http://www.novosarajevo.ba/stream/article.php?pid=1655, 22. septembar 2013., http://www.besplatniseminarskiradovi.com/PRAVO/Rješavanje SporovaNagodbom.htm, 13. avgust 2013., http://www.mirenje.hr/index.php/miroteka/clanci/strucni-i-znanstveni-clanci/235-mirenje-prema-zakonu-o-parničnom-postupku-mrsc-borislavblazeviv.html, 22. septembar 2013., http://www.iusinfo.hr/dailycontent/Topical.aspx?id=12250, 22. septembar 2013. http://www.mpr.gov.ba/web_dokumenti/Vodi%20kroz%20medijaciju%20u%2 0BIH.pdf, 22. septembar 2013. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 275 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2857 Title A name given to the resource The Court Settlement – a New Approach to Resolving Disputes Author Author Bešić, Asmira Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The court settlement is one way of resolving civil disputes. Regulated by the provisions of the applicable Code of Civil Procedure Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but is not sufficiently applicable . The court settlement is dispositive procedural action by which parties regulate their relations to be dispositive, immediately before the court. The aim is to reduce the number of cases, preservation or improvement of business relations, the mutual satisfaction of the parties without the expectation of judicial decisions. The disadvantages are reflected in the impartiality of judges objections, the parties can not freely express their thoughts, because they run a risk of attachments that his statements and proposals in case the negotiations fail. However, the judge as a professional person can clearly and legally parties to explain and explain the legal nature of their dispute, their position in the dispute, and to set out the facts and evidence, in some cases, directly in front of customers to read and learn about the party with the applicable provisions of relevant laws. Mediation as an alternative method of dispute resolution found is very broad and successful application in practice of resolving disputes in modern western societies. The paper discusses a court settlement and mediation, as required in the practice of dispute resolution in BiH. The aim is to point out the necessity of accepting and regulating institution of conciliation with the existing regulation of court settlement should represent a new approach to judges in resolving disputes. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-5706 K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/59d3d6eef2ce4d518369e1a7d5cebbee.pdf 9fe49ae9645fa464acf5288867cd5305 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Critical Study of the Dichotomous Representation of the Natives as the Other in Hedayat‘s Blind Owl Khalil Mahmoodi National University of Malaysia (UKM) School of Language Studies and Linguistics Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Khalil.Mahmmodi@gmail.com Dr. Shanthini Pilliai Dr. Raihanah M. M. Esmail Zeini Abstract: Despite the voluminous amount of research on the Blind Owl, little is still carried out on the representation of the natives in this work. This paper explores the text to reveal how the author, by giving credit to himself as an ‗I‘, artist and a painter, tries to establish a division between himself and the rest of the society, the world of Rajalehah, the Rabbles. Through the employment of the new genre of writing, the novel, Hedayat not only revolts against all the forms of traditional writings but also all the traditional customs and at large makes use of it as a means of scattering his ideological concepts through the mouth of the narrator. This discussion seeks to unveil the mask of orientalised system of representation of the natives, as the peripheral, and finally the ‗Other‘. Keywords: representation, rajalehah, Lakateh, unhomeliness, ‗Other‘. Blind Owl and its Themes This novelette has many themes. It encompasses uncertainty pertaining to the metaphysic, self-denigration, desire and disavowal, identity dilemma, binary opposition, in-between status, stereotypical representation of the natives and finally nationalism. I will concentrate on them vis-à-vis the content of the text. Blind Owl is a non-linear story, it has no closure, and it is dark as well as bleak, filled with chaos. It begins from a very old times and proceeds to the present, but it lacks a logical temporal arrangement (Etehad 2009: 82). The story begins with a statement depicting the narrator‘s ontological and even one might find suitable to say epistemological view. The narration is non-linear as it jumps from the present to the past and vice versa. Past and present are sometimes fused together that if we are not careful, the details can be confusing. It is encased between two different eras, the past and the present. The story starts by asserting that ―there are certain sores that, like a canker, gnaws at the soul in solitude and diminish it (Hedayat 1984: 1). And he continues that he might pass away but still not know himself. From the very beginning he establishes a division between himself and the rest of his own society, using the pronoun ‗I‘ he gives himself a privilege status in comparison to the ‗other‘. He says ―I have realized that a frightful chasm lies between the others and me‖ (Headyat 1984: 2). Another significant feature of the story is that it is bleak and filled with chaos. Iran is shown as a country that is ugly and backward. It is filled with people who are either superstitious, deteriorated by Islamic tradition for which the ‗I‘ gives no care at all and a bunch of useless, shameless, diabolical rude, beggerish mule-drivers who lack insight and wisdom (Hedayat 1984: 45) Plot summary The narrator, a pen-case decorator, falls in love with a girl who is at once angelic and devilish. Later, the girl appears by his doorstep, enters his house, and lies on his bed, where he gives her some sips of poisonous win and kills her. He dismembers her body and buries her. In the second part of the story ,after smoking a lot of opium, the narrator wakes up in a world which is very close to his real world and he recounts his mental and physical decline following his marriage to a woman who refuses to have sex with him but has countless lovers. He kills her. Binary Opposition 730 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The story is built on the basis of binary opposition. Good in the opposite of bad, Islamic society in the opposite of European society, Platonic or better to say pure unpolluted Sassanid love against contemporary, Islamicised love, Ethereal girl in the opposite of Lakateh, The narrator against the Rajaleha , old Rey representing Iranian historical glorious era in the opposite of post-Islamicised or the contemporary time, to mention just a few. According to Ashcroft (2004: 23) ―binarism comes from ‗binary‘, meaning a combination of two things, a pair, ‗two‘, duality (OED)... The binary opposition is the most extreme form of difference possible... Such oppositions, each of which represents a binary system, are very common in the cultural construction of reality.‖ binarism comes from ‗binary‘, meaning a combination of two things, a pair, ‗two‘, duality (OED), this is a widely used term with distinctive meanings in several fields and one that has had particular sets of meanings in post-colonial theory. The binary opposition is the most extreme form of difference possible – sun/moon; man/woman; birth/death; black/white. Such oppositions, each of which represents a binary system, are very common in the cultural construction of reality Ashcroft (2004: 23). Binary oppositions are structurally connected with one another, and in colonial discourse there may be a degree of diversity of the one underlying binary – colonizer/colonized – that becomes reemphasised and reexpressed in any particular text in many different ways (Ashchroft and et al 2004: 23). The binary opposition is the most extreme form of difference possible through which the system of the cultural construction of reality works. Through binary oppositions as the basic dichotomies which advocated in the West, what Western thought is generally concerned is to see the world in terms of the Westerners against non-European Origins, the aliens. This binary system establishes a relation of dominance and justifies ―the hierarchical cultural and radical assumptions of European thought‖ (Royle 2000: 190). The binary system plays a very significant role in ―the constructing ideological meanings in general and extremely useful in imperial ideology‖ (Ashcroft and et al 2004: 23-25). Narrator and Rajalehah Dichotomy Blind Owl is the author‘s manifesto in which he unquestionably attacks his private and social environment. Hedayat in this treatise of hopelessness clarifies his political and social position from the very beginning. In the Blind Owl, the narrator finds himself in a horrible way decomposing, identifies that he is alive, a living being who has a dreadful life. Such an individual who has a half European characteristic and half native features, in other words composed two contradictory derives (Mirabedini 2002: 791) is looking for a truth which he has been acquainted with in Europe, so when he comes to native homeland he feels that ―everything related to the life-style and the joys of others nauseated him‖ (Hedayat 1984: 37). This sense of anger will cause to establish a lid wall between himself and others. He realises that ―a frightful chasm lies between others and him‖ (Hedayat 1984: 2). He finds himself lonely and everyday this isolation becomes stronger. When he reaches where it is supposed to be the secure space of his self-realization, he faces a bunch of what he calls superstitious gossipy and whores and he transcribes all these observations onto the paper and he realises that that there is no more any place for the poetry and his feelings and thoughts are not transmittable. At this time he depicts himself as the self who is enchained in such a trashcan full of worms and dirt that he has no choice but to escape, but there is no loophole. The Rajalha, the rabbles have occupied everywhere, they build chains with their polluted hands and place them before the feet of such a rare person (Ethad 2009: 186). This is the mode that the modern education and upbringing induced in many of our generation, especially in those who had been fascinated by the Western literature, thoughts and customs, and ―Sadegh Hedayat was one of them‖ (Safa 2003: 187, qtd in Ethad). The Representation of the Natives as the Other The narrator reveals society as distastefully sluggish and inactive filled with people who do not resemble him in thoughts and manners. Thus in order to define and give meaning to himself as an ‗I‘, he creates a discourse mostly oriented from his ideological and Westerly educational standpoint. As an avant-garde artist who was supposed to push the boundaries of what is accepted as the status quo, traditional literature, religion and traditions of people, Hedayat draws a line from the onset between himself and those who are different from him in thoughts and behaviours. This Oriental discourse puts face and a mould to the Oriental character [the natives, rajaleha, the rabbles, the Lakateh, the whore, and all the others]. Ideas about it influence the idea of the West and the other. In many ways this notion of the superior West and the inferior East is solidified because the difference between them is intensified by the Orientalist discourse (Said 1978: 42). Discourse is governed by the ruling power; the ruling power determines what is to be narrated and how to narrate an event. In the case of the Blind Owl, the narrator of the story appropriates this authority to represent the natives the way he likes. Said (1978: 20) argues that an Orientalist writer must first of 731 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo all locate himself or herself vis-à-vis the Orient. This will later on affect his/her interpretation of the Orient. the tools that she/he uses: voice, structure, images, themes and motifs will direct the writer‘s approach towards his/her readers, give him/her authority to represent and speak on the Orient‘s behalf and as well as providing means to govern the Orient. All this does not occur in the vacuum because according to Said (1978: 20) all writers assume some Oriental precedent and previous knowledge of the Orient that he/she refers to and relies on. One of the famous themes in the Hedayat‘s works is the description and the judgments that he extends to the people whom he names rajaleha, the rabbles. By the word rajaleha, he does not mean hooligans, thugs and hoodlum in its ordinary sense, but all the people who in most cases do not believe in the values that they pretend to have been attached. In order to gain success in the life they will not avoid any activities including begging, embezzlement, lying, vulgarity, deception, fashion follower or to be an opportunist. In the Dark House (1995), the isolated person tells the narrator ―Only a bunch of thieves, shameless fools and sick people are allowed to live in this environment. Those unfit for thieving or baseness and those not given to flattery are pronounced 'unfit for living!‖ (Hedayat 1995: 40). In the story of Deadend (1942), the protagonist has fallen behind of his cheeky and thief colleagues because of his honesty and sincerity. When he returns his hometown from Tehran, everything looks to him narrow, limited, ordinary and low and ―his work pals had pushed their grip further into the abdomen of life...some of them more or less had reached their limited aspirations: their belly had been grown bigger and their sexual passions had been transmitted from their waist down to their jaws, or in the distresses of life, they had focused on the swindling, plundering of their peasantry, cotton, opium and wheat products or their children‘s dippers and their old gout‖ (Hedayat 1942: 42-43). In another story named Gojaste Abālish (1940) which is according to Homa Katouzian (1993: 54) belongs to Hedayat‘s Psycho-fiction stories- we read that ―you mean these people?...what controls them is firstly the belly and secondly their sexual passion, with a bundle of anger and bundle of must and must not which are blindly infiltrated into their ears‖ (Hedayat 1932: 249). And in the Three Bloods (1932), we witness some traces of the rajaleha, the rabbles, in the male cat. When in the spring season, Nazi-Siyavash‘s female cat- emitted sorrowful moan of love: ―Male cats from all around the neighbourhood heard Nazi's moans and came to meet her. After much struggle and many cat fights, eventually, Nazi chose the strongest and the most boisterous of the suitors to be her mate. Of prime importance in love making is the animals' special scent. That is why males that are tame and clean do not move their females. While alley cats, cats on the prowl, thieving cats, emaciated cats, stray cats, and famished cats; in general those cats whose hides have retained their primordial scent, attract the females most‖ (Hedayat 2000: 5). But in the Blind Owl, the description and making judgments on the rajaleha is more detailed, much bitter, much clearer and much harsher than any other Hedayat‘s works. The point that Hedayat does not mean the hooligans, thugs and hoodlum in the street by the word rjaleha is more observable in the novelette. Among these rajaleha, who are from every profession and social groups; a trip-peddler, a jurist, a liver-peddler, the chief magistrate, a judge, a trader and a philosopher are some who have relationship with the Lakateh, the whore, the narrator‘s wife. In one stage, the narrator tries to learn their manners and ethics with the hope to attract the whore, but he says ―How could I learn the ways of the rabble anyway? But now I know that she loved them because they were shameless, smelly fools‖ (Hedayat 1984: 29). He says that not only is he not afraid of the death but also longs for it, but ―I was afraid, however, that the particles of my body might blend with those of the rabbles, an idea which I could not bear‖ (Hedayat 1984: 45). He earnestly wished to die but he was frightened that such a thing happens to him: ―Sometimes I wished that I had long hands and long sensitive fingers so that I could gather the particles of my body carefully and prevent them from getting mixed with those of the rabbles‖(Hedayat 1984: 45). The narrator describes these people this way when he talks about what he did to disappear and lose himself and escapes from all these miseries and affliction that enmeshed him: I passed through many streets and distraughtly walked by the rabble who, with greedy faces, were in pursuit of money and last. In fact, I did not need to see them to know them; one was enough to represent the rest. They were all like one big mouth leading to a wad of guts, terminating in a sexual organ (Hedayat 1984: 33). One of the things that like a canker gnaw at the soul of the narrator in solitude and diminish it is this incurable disease. It is because of this disease that he has to be abject, worthless, deprived and isolated and those, the rajaleha, because of their shamelessness and haughtiness and their ability to wear different masks to enjoy all the blessings: I had a feeling that this world was not made for me but for a group of pseudo- intellectuals: a group of shameless, diabolical, rude, beggarish mule-drivers who lack insight and wisdom. It was made for those who were created to suit it, those who, like the hungry dog in front of the butcher shop wagging its tail for a bit of offal, are used to flatter the mighty of the earth and of the sky (Hedayat 1984: 45). 732 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo And almost the same feelings and ideas will be uttered somewhere else in the story: But for some reason everything related to the life-style and the joys of others nauseated me. What relationship could exist between the lives of the fools and healthy rabble who were well, who slept well, who performed the sexual act well, who had never felt the wings of death on their face every moment--what relationship could exist between them and one like me who has arrived at the end of his rope and who knows that he will pass away gradually and tragically (Hedayat 1984: 37). According to Natel Khanlari (2002: 235) Hedayat belonged to a passive and immobilized social class which were condemned to surrender before the movement of the lower social classes or to change its manners and method. This social class had come to the end of its evolvement procedure because of superfluous comfort and was deteriorating. For this reason all the characteristics of a demolishing generation was materialised in Hedayat. He obviously witnessed the cancellation of the titles of Qajar period and the old families were condemned to discolouring and deforming in the newly raised social classes and since Hedayat was not able to face this compulsory evolvement, he was involved in a type of timidity and shyness and passivity. He was suspicious to anyone from the low social classes who was working hard to heighten his/her social position and was taking them as the usurpers of the social positions. He hated all those who worked hard to achieve a better life and he used a particular idiom to refer to them. He used to call the Rajaleh, the rabbles. This feeling toward his countrymen pushes him toward the verge of losing mental equilibrium. His mental imbalance depicts him as an unusual figure among his native people and excludes him, making him to seem an outsider, merely because he suggests foreign ideas resulted from his half European moods (Fardid 2003: 627). Sadegh Hedayat apparently because of his fascination toward the western historical traditions had raised his arm against the oriental traditions but he never succeeded to free himself from the grip of oriental family. Thus there was always a binary opposition lived in him (Fardid 2003: 627-628). In this sense, he is very much like the Orientalist, who judges the East from the West's viewpoint wherein there is a lack of traditional reform in the Orient. Therefore, the East seems to be, in reference to the aforementioned worthy/unworthy duality, unworthy, according to the narrator. He acts as though he were a member of the colonial class and, yet, his suffering, which results, in part, from his never-ending contemplation of two polar opposites -- the existence or non-existence of metaphysics or the ethereal girl representing the pre-Islamic and glorious time of Sassanid era and the present, post-Islamised conditions embodied in the configuration of his wife, or even tradition represented in the people he names rajaleh, religion and modernity-- parallels the suffering of the post-colonial subject who has been exposed to another set of binary opposites: Eastern thought, and its antithesis; Western thought. The narrator cannot find source of comfort in either culture. Conclusion Said (1978: 7) argues European culture is hegemonic and regarded as superior to non-European people and cultures, because Orientalism has imparted the idea of a superior European identity to the world. The ―east‖ or ―Orient‖ being the entity of the Islamic countries which are viewed as ―inferior‖ by, and to, the Western counterparts, has expressed, in many ways as the beginning and spreading of post-colonial sentiments relating to this very Western domination. Mashallah Ajoudani (2003: 115-126)) claims that intelligentsia influenced by the Western European view of the world as perhaps the only correct one rather than one possibility among many. This Intelligentsia including Hedayat found themselves developing a sense of dislocating their feeling of place from Iran to Western countries. This confused sense of identity contributes to an emotional and at large conceptual distance between the mimic man and the others and this led him to reject the cultural traditions of his people and with them, any comfort of traditional religious teachings. References Ajoudani, M. (2006). Hedayat, Blind owl and Nationalism. London: Fasl-e Ketab Publications. Ashcroft B., G. G., & H. Tiffin (2004). Post-colonial Studies: The Key Concepts. London: Routledge. Etehad, H. (2009). Pejouheshgaran-e Moa'ser Iran (The Iranian Contemporary Researchers) Tehran: Farhang-e Moa'ser. Fardid, A. (2002). Andeshehhay-eh sadegh Hedayat. In Yad-e sadegh Hedayat (In the Memeory of Sadegh Hedayat) In A. Dehbashi (Ed.), Beyad-e Sdadegh Hedayat (on the memory of Sadegh Hedayat). Tehran: Sales publisher. Hedaya, S. (1995). The Dark House USA. 733 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hedayat, S. (1932). Se qatre khūn (Three Drops of Blood) Tehran. Hedayat, S. (1942). The daedlock In The Stray Dog. http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Stories/3Drops.html Hedayat, S. (2000). Three Drops of Blood. Available at: http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Stories/3Drops.html Katouzian, M. A. H. (1993). Sadegh Hedayat va Marg-e Nevsandeh (Sadegh Hedayat and the Death of the Author). Tehran: Marklaz Publisher. Khanlari, P. N. (2003). Khaterat-e Adebi Dar Barehy-e Sadegh Hedayat ( Literary Memory about Sadegh Hedayat). In A. Dehbashi (Ed.), Be Yad-e Sadegh Hedayat (On the memory of Sadegh Hedayat). Tehran: Sales publisher. Mirabedini, H. (2009). Sad Sal Dastan Nevisi Iran (A hundered year of Iranian Prose writing). Tehran: Cheshmeh Publisher. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books. 734 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 108 Title A name given to the resource The Critical Study of the Dichotomous Representation of the Natives as the Other in Hedayat‘s Blind Owl Author Author Mahmoodi, Khalil Shanthini, Pilliai Raihana, M. M. Zeini, Esmail Abstract A summary of the resource. Despite the voluminous amount of research on the Blind Owl, little is still carried out on the representation of the natives in this work. This paper explores the text to reveal how the author, by giving credit to himself as an ‗I‘, artist and a painter, tries to establish a division between himself and the rest of the society, the world of Rajalehah, the Rabbles. Through the employment of the new genre of writing, the novel, Hedayat not only revolts against all the forms of traditional writings but also all the traditional customs and at large makes use of it as a means of scattering his ideological concepts through the mouth of the narrator. This discussion seeks to unveil the mask of orientalised system of representation of the natives, as the peripheral, and finally the ‗Other‘. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics