270 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/caca84b6e7854acb439e49d29d57310a.pdf 6d1ed6106109d4a3f018f19d69343680 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Space of Periphery in Romanian Interwar Novel Daniel Luca Lucian Blaga University Sibiu (Hermanstadt), Romania danycafr1970@gmail.com Abstract: The novelists dealing with the issue of periphery aim to present as accurate as possible, the real world as a harsh, tough, hermetic one, shaped by very particular rules. The novel of suburbia is, above all, one of peripheral areas. They emerge as outcomes of the city‘s growth and are usually populated by a dirty, mixed crowd. We may say that dirtiness, misery, garbage represent the specificity, even the constant of this marginal world. The characters of the Romanian novel of periphery live, paradoxically, two-folded: namely, in a torturing, miserable, destructive present, that we may undoubtedly call as awful; but also in a pink, happy future hardly loomed among the alcohol steams or the smoke of sordid workshops, a desired future, ―invested‖ in a love story which, eventually, ends in crimes, extra-conjugal adventures, violence. In short, they project all in a ―golden future‖. What I am trying to do in this research is to show the representative areas of the periphery – like the pub, the brothel, the church, the street – as they are reflected in Romanian interwar novels on such topics, novels that follow the social reality of the time, with an almost naturalistic fidelity. Key words: periphery, suburbia, centre, novel, interwar literature. Introduction According to Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2001, 1144) periphery is: ―1. If something is on the periphery of an area, place, or thing, it is on the edge of it (…). 2. The periphery of a subject or area of interest is the part of it that is not considered to be as important or basic as the main part (…)‖. Still, the significances of the term ―periphery‖ go far beyond the sphere of these definitions and have to be correlated to the one of ―centre‖, since they form together a dialectical couple (Hess, 2001, 93). The centre and the periphery represent research topics that one may find more and more often in various fields like biology linguistics, philosophy, sociology, politics or economics. As far as literature is concerned, Virgil Nemoianu proposes the notions of ―main‖ and ―secondary‖ which may be equivalated to those of ―centre‖ and ―periphery‖. According to him, literature appears as peripherical with respect to other activities (that constitute the centre) – ―literature is itself a secondary issue in contrast to the central human preoccupations and to the central gearings of the history‖ (1997, 6) – while, on the other side, literature is a mirror ―reflecting in its substance, the connections between principal and secondary – between the structure and the texture, as some old critics would have put it – or, at least, interprets for the reader, the dialectical drama of the relationship between them. It means hegemony and subjugation, revolt and harmony, anarchy and order‖ (1997, 7). And, there are, indeed, hegemonies in the very core of literature. One may find, this way, first shelf books and second shelf ones. The differentiation is grounded on an aesthetical criterion, which is, however, in a continuous change. Another point of view comes from Constantin Cublesan who notices the turn from rural to urban areas in the Romanian novel written shortly after the First World War. ―There will be a special place within the description and analysis of the tentacular city occupied by a set of novels oriented to surveying the human universe at the bottom of the society, of those from the rudimentary peripheries‖ (2009, 181). A doctoral thesis has been already defended on this topic, at the West University in Timisoara (2009), by Alina Georgeta Toman, entitled The Centre – Periphery Relation in the Romanian Literature. The Case of G.M. Zamfirescu. It is mainly concerned with the way in which the work of G. M. Zamfirescu – he, himself, a marginal - had been perceived in the media of his time. Georgiana Sârbu has published a comparative book The Histories of Periphery. The Slum in Romanian Novel. From G.M. Zamfirescu to Radu Aldulescu. She discusses 301 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo there three different novels from different times: The Field with Love (1933) by G. M. Zamfirescu, The Hollow (1957) by Eugen Barbu and The Lover of the Wheat Boiling Woman38 (1996) by Radu Aldulescu. Usually, the slum area is ―thrown‖ away by the city: garbage hallows the place where the garbage is stored or where the dead animals are thrown away. The pub, the brothel, the church, the street are emblematical toposes of the periphery, being rich of colour and significances that we will uncover in this paper. Although we will analyse them separately, they form a unitary entity which plays an important role in designing a complete picture of marginality. It follows that the city‘s periphery has constituted a permanent preoccupation of Romanian writers, especially in the interwar period, when the topic was checked with a realistic approach, since it has its own, particular life at the edge between rural and urban. Despite of all these, it remained a second or third shelf literature and has seldom interested the critics. It was merely the vigour and the novelty of this space, as we have discovered it in the time‘s novels, the reason which determined us to conduct the present research. We will study here the novels: Love God – 1921 (1991) and The Decomposed Man – 1925, by Felix Aderca; The Diplomat, Leather Dresser (1928) and The Actress The House with Girls (1930), by Carol Ardeleanu; Don Juan Hunched (1933), The Childhood of a Worthless (1936), The Trust (1937), by Ion Calugaru; Codin – 1925 (1970) and Nerantzula – 1927 (1974), by Panait Istrati; The Field with Love – 1933 (1986), by G. M. Zamfirescu and The Nights of Miss Mili (1935), by Isac Peltz. Method of Study In the first paragraph, entitled Space of Periphery we will make a general presentation of the marginal spaces, using synthesis as it emerges from the notions of ―open space‖ and ―closed space‖ (Kovacs, 1987, p. 245). After this, we will analyse part by part, the main elements of such spaces, like the pub, the brothel, the church and the street. With respect to the pub, we will point to its parable aspect (Piskonov, 1979, 299) in order to compare and synthesise facts and ideas from the novels of Carol Ardeleanu and Felix Aderca. The same methods will be used while speaking about the brothel in order to depict the way this institution has been reflected in the novels of Carol Ardeleanu, Felix Aderca, Panait Istrati, G. M Zamfirescu, Ion Calugaru. The next chapter will reflect the church issue as one can extract from the novels of Carol Ardeleanu, Ion Calugaru and Panait Istrati, while the paper ends displaying the significances of the street as they come out from the novels of Isac Peltz, Panait Istrati, Carol Ardeleanu and Ion Calugaru. The slum, as it is drafted in these novels, is a relatively new space, a transitional one, but which generates other areas like: the pubs, the brothel, the church, the street. The Space of Periphery In the present day theory of literature, the notions of open space and closed space have been defined. Thus, while the open space suggests freedom, unchaining, returning to the imaginary paradise of nature, the closed space would represent on one hand claustration, death, extinction, and on the other, protection, safety. There are plenty of cases in this respect, starting from the sacred space of the traditional house to the comfortable, intimate and protective of the modern person‘s car. While speaking about the closed space from a slum, there is no way to think about protection, safety or the same. On the contrary, getting together several members of a family in a single, sordid room is an endless opportunity for conflicts. It follows that we may say – once with the critics – that in Romanian slum ―we often find closed, inhospitable, hostile spaces, generating the feeling of sequestration or the act itself, if not the non-being‖ (Kovacs, 1987, 245). Moreover, we might tend to think that nothing is sure as related to the Romanian slum, since the spaces that usually are destined to providing safety, calm and happiness turn, all of a sudden into threatening, adversary, aggressive ones. To conclude, we should say that the entire topic of the space of Romanian slum is meant to draft an area of desperation, of refusal of life The pub This is the place where the men (in the majority of cases, but sometimes, women, as well) find their salvation – be it even a temporary one – from the home hell or from the Calvary of the animalic work in the 38 It refferes to a woman who usually boils wheat with honey and nuts for the funerals; 302 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo factory, enterprise, station, port. It is obvious that such a person becomes the slave of alcohol and finally, dependent on it. The pub means socialization. Is a place of getting information (Ardeleanu, 1930), here is where it comes out Consuls idea to kill Andrei (Ardeleanu, 1928), here friendships are tied and untied, and here destinies get united (the match-making of Nuta in novel The Lady in Neptun Street, by Felix Aderca). The pub is a parable inside the same type of prose, meaning a protective space of these disinherited people. It functions as a shelter of the unhappy guys in the slum but also as an element of local flavor, since there can‘t be imagined a periphery without a pub. Therefore, one may say, without the risk of exaggeration, that the true house of the unhappy inhabitants of the slum is the pub. They are genuine alienated men. This place of perish, the pub, becomes some sort of club, where the individual feels himself as a whole and may talk to his equals. ―This is what they are looking for, while crossing the threshold of the pub, which is, however, places in the middle of the road: the atmosphere‖ (Sarbu, 2009, 97). The pub is, in the novel of Romanian periphery, a place where the plenitude of life is more than anywhere else, manifested. Much more, according to some exegetes, it is the rationality of the novel. There is an emergent world, a humanity asking its right to existence and history, beyond the sometimes morbid aspect, over which the wing of death is often floating: ―the self reliance of novel grew up, especially after he XVIIIth and XIXth century, when it has dealt with the moral force of individuals and their relation to the surrounding world.‖ (Toma, 2003, 17) There is here, in this protector space of the pub where the clients spend a time of ―getting out of the world‖, of the world‘s time, namely of the one during which they are sentenced to work. We might call it a ―sacred time. This time is a profound spatial and concrete one.‖ (Bahtin, 1982, 436) The pub has also a narrative function that should not be ignored, besides its social, psychological, existential one, representing a bank of salvation, a realm of illusions, of hopes and dreams. It follows that people entering the sordid pubs of the slums hope to forget, to enter a different world, a different life. But life itself does not change. It can‘t become another one. The brothel The brothel should not be taken in a literary, textual sense. We do not always speak about a proper said institution. Thus, the hotel can replace (and it does very well) the brothel, according to all the proper rules, especially to those of paying the tax. ―Girls were raising their shirts to make him feel ashamed. Hey, merchant, have a look, since you got no money to pay…‖ (Calugaru, 1937, 160). Beyond the status of feminity, beyond the mix of guilt, shame, pleasure and horror that the sexual act supposes – at least at the beginning – being or not paid, eventually, the ―inhabitants‖ of the pleasure houses cross easily over their not honourable status, telling themselves (as well as all the people in the slum) that they have been pushed to it, by need. ―At the beginning, it was something that no women can say: a mix of pleasure and impulse; later on, frenzy of senses, and after, a vice or a habit, while now, at the end of the day, of all the instinctual joys, the need‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 27). Brothels are differentiated according to their quality, into select and common ones. This typology appears both in The House of Girls by Carol Ardeleanu (where Margarita‘s house belongs to the first group) and in Nerantula by Panait Istrati: ―we also knew two or three such houses in the ditch, where officers from the ships and married, well educated men used to go‖ (1974, 135). The connection to mud is not hazardous. There is primary instinct at work, the satisfaction of needs: ―The house here has its own smell: that of mud turned upside down. People used to enter though a dark courtyard full of dirty water, since the used water was thrown out from the chain of rooms, directly in the yard, thought the windows‖ (Aderca, 1925, 217). 303 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo But still, the brothel hosts its own feelings. It balances between uniting (in The God of Love, by Felix Aderca, Aurel meets Ema again and marries her) and decomposition (in Decomposed Man, by Felix Aderca, where the tired less search of the brothels in all the cities in the country ends in human dissolution, in sinking into the mud). While in Ion Calugaru‘s book, the brothel means the gain of sexual maturity, in Felix Aderca‘s work there is a different significance: looking for childhood (Ema), for heard purity. All these remain a simple illusion and leads to the search of other love affairs. This meaning is very similar to the one in Nerantula, by Panait Istrati, where the brothel reappears as a place of meeting again, even if painful. The paradox consists of preserving the soul‘s innocence despite of body‘s dishonour. Nerantula‘s room unveiled ―in its order and disorder, so much naïve innocence, so much childhood‖ (Istrati, 1974, 141). For Carol Ardeleanu (1930), the brothel is a means of enrichment, an affair; while for G. M. Zamfirescu (1986) it gains the connotation of revenge (Gore punishes Sultana through a sodomization act merely inside the house for she dared to disclose his truth). This space influences decisively the life in the slum as well as the shape of persons‘ characters. Therefore, the merit of these novels is that of describing realistically, with no prejudices, an authentic space. The Church Most of those populating the Romanian slums feel themselves left by the entire world, especially by their parents – and for many of them, this is the truth. Therefore, in the deep of their souls, they consider the church as a real mother, although expressively, they are against it. It may be ―unrealistic‖ that the girls from various brothels of the slum are faithful in the full sense of this word. Despite of their ―profession‖, they make their cross while passing along the church and say, voiceless, a pray. ―She passed in front of a church, stopped for a while, made a cross and whispered, only for God to listen: ―God, help me!‖…‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 15) Despite of her status of matron, a female in Carol Ardeleanu‘s work finds no impediment to move, for the winter time, from the brothel into the church. ―Following the advice of Margareta and Negrila, Jana has written to Alexandra that the possession enforcement had been postponed and she moves with Natasa into the church.‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 178). The church represents a bank, a light in a sea of despair, in this world of hopelessness and misery. For these disinherited people, the church is not a place (nor the time) of regret, of penance. It is the only hope that perhaps, somewhere, even if not in this world, there is some room for their happiness, as well. ―All the girls were still hoping for something and all were going to the church to pray‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 189). An important feature of this world is what we would call today as inter-ethnicity. Usually, the inhabitants of the slums are Romanians who had been expelled or self-exiled from the village world. But there are also, in these Romanian slums, many Turks, Bulgarians, Greeks, Russians, even Armenians, but, especially, Jews. It is obvious that synagogues will appear in these communities, bearing the religious function they had been ―invested‖ with. ―At the synagogue, lights should be burnt on the Atonement‘s Day, for all the Deaths.‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 233). There are not rare the cases in which one of the partners in a couple (although it is hard to define them like that), converts himself to the other one‘s religion. Intention may be noble and the turn, a major one, but the overcoming of a miserable and crisis situation is seldom a success. ―The Jew woman received <the secret of the baptistery> from which she was waiting for a change in her Christian lover‘s attitude, but he was very little interested in all these stories ―with priests‖. However, a change had happened, but in a reversed way: my mother turned from a clean and working woman, into a dirty, uncaring and bad smelling bigot‖ (Istrati, 1974, 161). The Street On our territories, the cities ―appear‖ from the old markets, ―emerged‖ at their turn from the old ―capitals‖ or most often from the most developed rural communities, perhaps with commercial potential. Systematization had never been a preoccupation of the Romanians – at least with respect to cities‘ building – except, of course, for those in the Habsburgic or Austro-Hungarian Empire. While the cities still come out of something, the slums with their streets come into being from the dust of the fields full of thistles. ―Many houses 304 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo have been built, now having many inhabitants, on what had been desert streets, like five years ago.‖ (Peltz, 1935, 282). There is not only the religious perspective, but also an ethnical one to organise the streets. Mainly, those belonging to one ethnicity or nation, those coming from the same country (which they have left, mostly for economic reasons), all these settle in the same ―place‖, in the same desert space of a collectivity-to-be. ―I have passed, this way, through he slums, through the streets which are most characteristic for the city: the Russian one, the Jewish one, the Greek one, the Gipsy one. And I have found new morals and habits, all over‖ (Istrati, 1970, 31) In most of the cases, these streets are nothing but former, present or future ―garbage fields‖: here is where not only the rests of a slum are thrown away (animals‘ corps, all kind of garbage) but also those of the city. The smell, the bad one is the distinctive sign of ―reaching the place‖, much before the depressive picture. ―The Sun (…) was stirring here poisoned stinks, especially from some heaps of spoiled sour cabbage, entire butts thrown directly in the street, since the spring was already here.‖ (Istrati, 1970, 43). The general aspect of the slum is, thus, one of desegregation, of lack of systematization, of organization, of order: ―The pavement was broken by cobble stones, deepening hole after hole and creating the moon‘s landscape as seen through bad telescopes, when the ordinary people look at the miracle in exchange of some little money― (Ardeleanu, 1928, 9). There is a current admonition – used even nowadays - for those kids behaving unruly, namely sine you haven‘t grew up in the street. But the slum‘s kids literally are growing up on the street. Since they are very little, these kids discover the flavour of freedom, in the street, they find a space were they can breath, running away from the scandals in the miserable, crammed rooms where people quarrel, beat, struggle for gaining the daily food. ―Here there are the worse kids. The children of gypsy shoeing smiths, of German wheelwrights, the younglings of Jewish carriage makers or those of baggage men from the mill, they run after dogs, catch the geese in the court yards with the angling line, play oina in the middle of the street, throw stones in calm passers by or in the sick ones, or follow the crazy people in the market‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 40). The street of the slum is also the place where the stories of this unhappy place, come out. For instance, there had been a rumour that on a certain street, in a certain place, gold and silver had been thrown away. This is the golden dream of mankind. ―From the hidden small streets, from the military barracks, from the gypsy side, from the slums with fountains, people were coming to check whether was true that gold and silver had been thrown away.‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 232) The street is not only a component of the slum, it is its epidermis. Here is where everything is seen from, here is where the pulse of life is caught beyond the shrunk walls ready to fall down. ―The street is a transparent skin through which one may see how the inner organs work: but also a part of eternity that may be shared‖ (Calugaru, 1933, 6). Conclusions: We may conclude by saying that the problematic of space in the Romanian novel of the slum is, in the same time, complex and productive from a narrative point of view. It is complex, because, in contrast to the rural space, the slum is a relatively new area in our country and, in the same time, a transitional one. Currently, the slums of the big cities had been swallowed by the city. But, we believe, that the other way around is also true, namely, that the centre got enlarged and included the periphery. Many changes have occurred here, too. There have been not only mental ones, but also spatial changes. Secondly, we have to say that this literary tip which is the slum is generous from the point of view of generating new spaces, genuine scenes of a rather tragic show: the pub, the brothel, the street, the church. It is interesting to be hold that all these spaces have, in a normal context, some positive functions and significances, since the urban collectivities have precisely this role, to enlarge the safety of its inhabitants, to offer them a richer, easier, better life. This kind of literature throws away the idyllic picture of the periphery with coquette small houses, with ordered streets, with storks in the window. It is a terrible, tough, misery world, being in full and permanent degrading process. 305 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Aderca, F. (1991). Love God. TimiĢoara: Argo. Aderca F. (1925). The Decomposed Man. BucureĢti: Ancora. Ardeleanu Carol (1930). The House with Girls. BucureĢti: Cugetarea. Ardeleanu Carol (1928). The Diplomat, Leather Dresser and the Actress. BucureĢti: Cartea Românească. Bahtin M. (1982). Problems of Literature and Aesthetics. BucureĢti: Univers. Călugăru Ion (1933). Don Juan Hunched. BucureĢti: Naţionala-Ciornei. Călugăru Ion (1936). The Childhood of a Worthless. BucureĢti: Naţionala-Ciornei S.A. Călugăru Ion (1937). The Trust. BucureĢti : Naţionala – Ciornei S.A.R. (2001). Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Glasgow: Harper Collins. Cubleșan Constantin (2009). Literary Conferences. Târgu-Lăpuș: Galaxia Gutenberg. Durand Gilbert (1977). Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului. BucureĢti: Univers. Hess Remi (2001). Centre et périphérie. Paris: Anthropos. Istrati Panait (1970). Selected Works, Tome V: Codin, Mihail. BucureĢti: Minerva. Istrati Panait (1974). Selected Works, Tome VI: Neranţula, Familia Perlmutter, Ciulinii Bărăganului. BucureĢti: Minerva. Kovacs Albert (1987). The Poetics of Dostoievski. BucureĢti: Univers. Manolescu Nicolae (1991). Noe‘s Arch, Tome II. BucureĢti: Eminescu. Nemoianu Virgil (1997). A theory of the secondary. BucureĢti: Univers. Peltz I. (1935). The Nights of Miss Mili. BucureĢti: „Universala‖Alcalay and Co. Piskonov Vladimir coord. (1979). Poetics, Aesthetics and Sociology. BucureĢti: Univers. Sârbu Georgiana (2009). The Histories of Periphery. The Slum in Romanian Novel. From G.M. Zamfirescu to Radu Aldulescu. BucureĢti: Cartea Românească. Toma Pavel (2003). Thinking on the Novel. BucureĢti: Humanitas. Zamfirescu George Mihail (1986). The Field with Love. IaĢi: Junimea. N.B.: Research conducted under Project 7706 POSDRU growing role of PhDs and PhD competitiveness in a united Europe financed by European Social Fund Operational Programme Human Resources Development from 2007 – 2013. 306 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 46 Title A name given to the resource Space of Periphery in Romanian Interwar Novel Author Author Luca, Daniel Abstract A summary of the resource. The novelists dealing with the issue of periphery aim to present as accurate as possible, the real world as a harsh, tough, hermetic one, shaped by very particular rules. The novel of suburbia is, above all, one of peripheral areas. They emerge as outcomes of the city‘s growth and are usually populated by a dirty, mixed crowd. We may say that dirtiness, misery, garbage represent the specificity, even the constant of this marginal world. The characters of the Romanian novel of periphery live, paradoxically, two-folded: namely, in a torturing, miserable, destructive present, that we may undoubtedly call as awful; but also in a pink, happy future hardly loomed among the alcohol steams or the smoke of sordid workshops, a desired future, ―invested‖ in a love story which, eventually, ends in crimes, extra-conjugal adventures, violence. In short, they project all in a ―golden future‖. What I am trying to do in this research is to show the representative areas of the periphery – like the pub, the brothel, the church, the street – as they are reflected in Romanian interwar novels on such topics, novels that follow the social reality of the time, with an almost naturalistic fidelity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e2f982f5faa0ff39bc2ec4834708b84d.pdf c964cc39c5b16a867f85a64480e95215 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Building Awareness of Discourse Structure Through Teaching Reading Strategies in English for Legal Purposes Class Ivana Lukica Department for Foreign Languages Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb ivana.lukica@pravo.hr Abstract: Research has been carried out for several decades on what makes some students more successful in foreign language reading than others. It was established that good readers possess greater awareness of discourse structure, meaning they are able to recognize the signalling mechanisms which give clues to the ways the text is organized (Grabe, 2009). Discourse structure awareness is seen as a type of metalinguistic awareness which also includes knowledge of reading strategies and their appropriate use in order to resolve reading problems and properly interpret text information. Our research was based on the following hypothesis: explicit teaching of reading strategies in English for Legal Purposes class will enhance students' awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. The data was collected through the SORS (Survey of Reading Strategies) questionnaire (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002), a reading comprehension test developed for this research and a semistructured interview to check how students perceive the reading process and discourse structure before and after strategies instruction. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistical procedures and the results fully confirmed our hypothesis: the subjects (N=20) achieved better results on the reading comprehension test and reported easier identification and interpretation of discourse markers. Key words: reading strategies, English for Legal Purposes Introduction In times of increasing globalization, free flow of goods and work force and especially Croatia‘s accession to the EU, Croatian lawyers find themselves in great need of foreign languages, English in particular. Reading comprehension and interpreting legal texts are among most needed skills for practising lawyers in Croatia (Lukica & Kaldonek, in print) second only to speaking skills. As the role of the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is to cater to students‘ specific, work-related needs in the context of the particular environment (Jordan, 1997) it follows that English for Legal Purpose (ELP) in Croatia should focus on facilitating better and easier understanding of various legal texts. We believe this can be done through teaching reading strategies. Many definitions of reading strategies have been brought forth since the beginning of research on reading strategies thirty years ago as well as several taxonomies (Anderson, 1991; Cohen, 1990; Paris et al., 1991). For the purpose of this study, we cite Singhal‘s definition as it points clearly to the purpose of reading strategies ―Reading strategies are processes used by the learner to enhance reading comprehension and overcome comprehension failures.‖ (2001, p. 2). As for taxonomies, we will follow Mokhtari and Sheorey‘s (2002) classification of reading strategies into global, problem solving and support strategies as it has been developed for second/foreign language students. Regardless of the lack of a single definition or categorisation of reading strategies, research shows the usefulness and benefits of explicit teaching of reading strategies in foreign language classrooms. Kern‘s research (1989) was based on Directed Reading and Thinking Activities approach and yielded positive results on reading comprehension scores of French L2 university students. Similar results were achieved in Carrel, Pharis, and Liberto‘s (1989) study of English L2 university students adopting Experience-Text-Relationship method and semantic mapping method. Song‘s study (1998) involving English L2 university students used the Reciprocal Teaching method which also led to increase in reading comprehension. In a recent study involving ESP university students, Moghadam (2008) showed positive results of explicit teaching of reading strategies using Janzen and Stoller‘s approach (1998). Research has also shown that improvements in reading comprehension can result from discourse awareness and discourse-structure instruction (Grabe, 2009). Discourse-structure awareness is seen as ―a type of metalinguistic awareness at the text level‖ (Nagy in Grabe, 2009, p. 243) which includes knowledge of reading strategies and their appropriate use in order to resolve reading problems and properly interpret text information. With regard to discourse-structure awareness instruction Grabe (2009) names three lines of instruction: teaching direct signalling of discourse structures, teaching the use of graphic organizers and teaching reading strategies, all of which improve discourse awareness and reading comprehension. 643 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The aim of this study was to confirm the following hypothesis: explicit teaching of reading strategies in ELP class will enhance students‘ awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. Method of the study This study was designed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative method was used to analyse the answers to the questionnaire and the comprehension test, and the qualitative method was represented in the use of a semi-structured interview. As each method has its advantages and disadvantages, using more than one method ensures greater credibility and dependability of results (Mackey & Gass, 2005). Participants 20 practising lawyers participated in the study. They were attending the same ELP course at the Centre for Languages and Law at the Faculty of Law in Zagreb, Croatia. The placement test which they were required to complete prior to beginning the ELP course showed they posses a lower-intermediate level of general English knowledge. All participants had been studying English for a minimum of 8 years. Four participants were male and the rest female, aged 22 to 45, but neither gender nor age were considered a variable in this study Instruments Two instruments were used in this study: a reading comprehension test designed for the purpose of the study and Survey of Reading Strategies questionnaire (SORS, Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002). The reading comprehension test consisted of texts taken from an ELP course book suitable for lower-intermediate level followed by 30 questions each carrying one point. Five types of questions were used (yes/no questions, true or false questions, alternative questions, wh-questions and multiple choice questions) to cover six types of comprehension according to the taxonomy of Day and Park (2005). The SORS questionnaire is used to measure the perceived use of three categories of reading strategies: global strategies (e.g. using typographical features of a text to identify key information), problem solving strategies (e.g. adjusting reading speed according to the text one reads) and support strategies (e.g. going back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas). It consists of 30 items each using a 5-point Likert scale (1-I never do this; 5-I always do this). This questionnaire was chosen because it was developed especially for adolescent and adult students of foreign languages (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002). It was translated from the English original to the participant‘s mother tongue Croatian and two separate back-translations were done to ensure the accuracy of the Croatian translation. Both instruments were administered before and after the reading strategies instruction to determine the possible effect such instruction has on test results and the level of perceived strategy use. The instruments were administered during a regular ELP lesson which lasts 90 minutes. 60 minutes were allowed for the test and 15 minutes for the SORS. The semi-structured interview A semi-structured interview was chosen because it allows a greater degree of freedom in both administration and interpretation. The researcher is not limited by a strict set of predetermined questions, but can adapt their questions to the participants‘ answers. A semi-structured interview also gives an in-depth view of students‘ attitudes and ideas about reading in a foreign language and their interpretation of the problems they face while reading legal texts in English. Interviews were conducted individually at the time best suited to the participants and lasted between thirty and forty minutes depending on how elaborate students‘ answers were. Interviews were conducted both prior and after reading strategies instruction. Reading strategies instruction For the purpose of this study we adopted the Styles- and Strategies-Based Instruction (SSBI) method of teaching which is defined as ―a form of learner-focused language teaching that explicitly combines styles and strategy training activities with everyday classroom language instruction (Cohen, 2009). Teachers are instructed to follow five components of this method in preparing lessons: strategy preparation, strategy awareness-raising, strategy instruction, strategy practice and personalization of strategies (Cohen & Weaver, 2006). SSBI allows the teacher to either start with the course material, a set of strategies to be taught or insert strategies spontaneously into the lessons. The role of the teacher is that of a guide who helps students become more aware of the language learning process, to introduce various strategies, show students how to use them and encourage students to use them in a manner which is best suited for their learning needs which we believe leads to higher motivation as one of the key components for effective language learning (Dôrnyei, 2001, 2005). The strategies that were chosen for instruction in this study were the 30 strategies listed in Mokhtari and Sheorey. In addition, we decided to teach direct signalling of discourse structure as well as graphic organizers as they have been proven to increase both awareness of discourse structure and reading comprehension (Carrell, 1985; Carrell, Pharis, & Liberto, 1989; Jiang & Grabe, 2007). The instruction was part of a regular one-year course in legal English which consisted of 35 ninety minutes sessions, one session per week. 644 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Data Analysis Process Reading comprehension tests were corrected and points calculated for each student. The results of the pre-instruction tests and post-instruction tests have been compared and individual gains determined. The SORS was analysed according to the developer‘s instructions: the total mean was calculated for each student as well as means for three categories of strategies. The means were interpreted according to the scale offered by Oxford and Burry-Stock: high use (mean 3.5 or higher), moderate use (mean between 2.5 and 3.4) and low use (mean of 2.4 or lower) (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002). Two sets of results (pre-instruction and post-instruction) were compared to determine the increase in perceived use of reading strategies. The interviews were tape-recorded and later transcribed. The data obtained in the interviews were distributed into the following categories of ELP reading comprehension problems: legal terminology (technical terms, archaic term), text structure (long sentences, complex structure) and poor general English knowledge (grammar and vocabulary) in order to get a better idea of how students‘ perceive reading in a foreign language as well as reading legal texts in English. Findings and discussion Pre-instruction results The average number of reading comprehension test points was 20 out of 30 (66%). However, there were students who gave correct answers to only 16 questions and those who correctly answered as many as 25 questions. We believe this large gap is due to some students using more reading strategies and being more aware of discourse structure. This belief was corroborated by results of the interview. Namely, students who scored lower or the reading comprehension test spoke of series of problems they encountered while reading the text in all three predetermined categories (legal terminology, text structure, poor general English knowledge). Long, complex sentences were the biggest problem followed by unknown words. When asked how they attempted to solve these problems, these students said they tried to ―deduce the meaning of unknown words from the context, but there were simply too many unknown words‖ which led to frustration and giving up. They also attempted to divide the long sentences into smaller units, but that had not helped as they ―could not recognize the difference between subject and object of the sentence‖ or ―follow the train of thought of the author‖. They also mentioned they are much better at reading text which are not law-related and complained about the complexity of legal English. Students who scored better on the reading comprehension test had similar complaints about the overall complexity of legal texts, but they were not as easily discouraged from finding the correct answer as they felt more confident in their knowledge of English. They were willing to ―read problematic sections as many times as necessary‖ and they ―looked for the message, not what each word means‖. These points to higher strategies and discourse awareness as well as to difference in understanding the process of reading and utilizing not just decoding but constructing meaning as well. In terms of the SORS, the mean for the whole group was 3.7 showing very high use of reading strategies in all three categories which was not in line with poor test results. Namely, we expected the test results to be explained by low use of strategies. However, explanation was provided by the students‘ answers to the interview questions. One of the students said: ―Honestly, when I read texts for work, I don‘t remember half of these strategies. There are just few which I always use, like using a dictionary. And reading slower. I try to guess also even though you shouldn‘t in law.‖ Several students admitted they wanted to appear better then they actually were and several wanted to impress their teacher (who was also conducting the study). This points to two problems in methodology, the first being unreliability of questionnaires as students write what they think they do and not what they actually do while reading, and the second the teacher conducting the research. On the other hand, the actual situation of reading strategy use was detected in the interviews and students were more comfortable talking to their teacher than an unknown person. Post-instruction results The results of the post-instruction reading comprehension test showed improvement of the group as well as individual students, thus improving our hypothesis. The average number of correct answers was 24 out of 30 (80%) and the individual results raged from 19 to 27 points. The gap was still obvious but it is important to notice that each student scored higher on this test than on the pre-instruction test, three points in average. Equally important, all of the students reported higher self-confidence in reading legal texts. The majority of students attributed this to the method of instruction and only two students said they were more confident because they had been attending the course regularly and did not indicate the connection to the teaching method. When asked why they thought reading-strategies instruction helped them increase their understanding of legal texts, the students either mentioned ―knowing more strategies‖ or the explicit nature of the method of instruction. For example, a few students said they now have ―more tools to help them read in English‖, while others called them ―new techniques for solving problems‖. They also spoke very positively about SSBI because it gives them ―opportunity to practise and experiment with different strategies trying to figure out which helps best in which situation.‖ Because they are explicitly told what discourse structure and discourse markers are, they ―know what to look for when reading‖. One student gave a particularly long, heartfelt explanation which 645 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo we are citing in full as it shows the extent of benefits SSBI instruction has on a student‘s understanding of the reading process and on reading motivation: ―You (the teacher) didn‘t assume we know all this stuff about languages like what is cohesion and coherence, because we don‘t. It doesn‘t come natural to lawyers. We are not language experts. At first I thought it was a bit…what the word is when you think somebody is stupid…I thought that you thought we were all stupid because you were explaining everything step by step. I didn‘t really believe talking about my problems would help. Or this new method. I just wanted somebody to help me read better because I have to do that every day and I feel bad about it every day. But I thought there is some kind of magic that the teacher will do and I will read better, you know. Or that some people are just better in English and they can think in English and understand it. I was a little lazy. I didn‘t want to work so much. Reading should be easier. It‘s not easy still, but it‘s better. And I think I will be even better if I remember the strategies.‖ The results of the SORS with regard to overall use of strategies show a decrease of strategy use (M=3.0). However, we should keep in mind the fact that the results of the pre-instruction SORS were influenced by the students‘ wish to represent themselves in better light. In the post-instruction interview, students‘ said they were precise in their SORS answers. The post-instruction result shows moderate use of reading strategies, but students reported using more global strategies than before which is in line with the intended shift in the approach to reading. When asked to identify the most useful strategies mentioned in the SORS, students‘ answers varied, but they all stressed the usefulness of teaching direct signalling and graphic organizers as being particularly helpful with legal English. One student said: ―I know now that I have to pay attention to how words are connected in a sentence and how sentences are connected in a text. Not just look at them in isolation.‖ and another few that ―graphic organizers are very useful because they help in organizing information and representing it more clearly because they are visual‖. Conclusion and recommendations The results of the study confirmed our hypothesis that explicit teaching or reading strategies in English for Legal Purposes class will enhance students‘ awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. Each student achieved a better result on the post-instruction test in comparison with the preinstruction test and eighteen out of twenty students attributed this increase in reading comprehension to the method of instruction. All students reported higher awareness of discourse structure in the post-instruction interview as a result of explicit teaching of reading strategies. A significant increase in reading motivation was also observed in the post-instruction interview as a result of explicit teaching of reading strategies instruction. A problem was detected in administering the pre-instruction questionnaire as some students did not provide entirely truthful answers. Imprecise answers could have been provided unintentionally as well as students were reporting on what they believe they do while reading and were not observed during reading. As such problems could be anticipated, a semi-structured interview was chosen to provide a deeper understanding of students‘ awareness of reading, reading strategies and discourse structure. A suggestion for further research is to instruct the participants in verbal protocols in order to check reading strategies use during the reading process. The researcher also being a teacher was a problem in that it influenced the students‘ answers to the preinstruction questionnaire. However, it also proved an advantage because students reported it was easier for them to talk to the teacher about their reading problems than to somebody they do not know. Motivation for reading proved to be a very important factor in our study. Although English for Legal Purposes students are primarily motivated to attend classes because they need ELP at work, they also showed various degrees of reading anxiety or reading confidence which has to be kept in mind for further research. These can be conducted to ascertain if reading motivation increases using other teaching methods in ELP classes and is it affected by other factors such as the teacher or the learning environment. As SSBI proved very successful in an ELP class consisting of practising lawyers, another line of research could be investigating its usefulness for ELP classes for university students of law in Croatia, which consist of a significantly larger number of students, as well as its usefulness in other areas of ESP. 646 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Anderson, N. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in a second language reading and testing. The Modern Language Journal, 75 (4), 460-472. Retrieved on February 10, 2009 from www.jstor.org/stable/329425 Carrell, P. L. (1985). Facilitating ESL reading by teaching text structure. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 727-752. Retrieved on March 15, 2009 from www.jsotr.org/stable/3586683 Carrell, P. L., Pharis, B. G., & Liberto, J. C. (1989). Metacognitive strategy training for ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 23 (4), 647-678. Retrieved on September 25, 2009 from www.jstor.org/stable/3587536 Cohen, A. (1990). Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers, and researchers. New York: Newbury House. Cohen, A. (2009). Styles- and strategies-based instruction. Retrieved January 8, 2010 from www.carla.umn.edu Cohen, A., & Weaver, S. J. (2006). Styles- and strategies-sased instruction: A teacher‘s guide. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition. Day, R. R, & Park, J. (2005). Developing reading comprehension questions. Reading in a foreign language, 17 (1), 60-73. Retrieved on January 4, 2010 from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Dôrnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. New York: Longman. Dôrnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Janzen, J., & Stoller, F. L. (1998). Integrating strategic reading in L2 instruction. Reading in a foreign language, 12 (1), 251-269. Retrieved on December 12, 2009 from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Jiang, X, & Grabe, W. (2007). Graphic organizers in reading instruction: Research finding and issues. Reading in a foreign language, 19 (1), 34-55. Retrieved on December 12, 2009 from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kern, R. G. (1989). Second language reading strategy instruction: Its effects on comprehension and word inference Ability. The Modern Language Journal, 73 (2), 135-149. Retrieved on July 20, 2009 from www.jstor.org/stable/326569 Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lukica, I. & Kałdonek, A. The value of language and content needs analysis in English for Legal Purposes class: Example from Croatia. A paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Sarajevo, 2011. Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Moghadam, M. K. (2008). The effect of strategies-based instruction on student‘s reading comprehension of ESP Texts. English for Specific Purposes World, 17 (7). Retrieved on April 16, 2009 from www.esp-world.info Mokhtari, K. & Sheorey, R. (2002). Measuring ESL students‘ awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Developmental Education, 25 (3), 2-10. Retrieved on June 12, 2009 from http://webpages.maine207.org Paris, S. G., Wasik, B. A., & Turner, J. C. (1991). The development of strategic reading. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2; 609-640). New York:Longman. Singhal, M. (2001). Reading proficiency, reading strategies, metacognitive awareness and L2 readers. The Reading Matrix, 1 (1), 1-23. Retrieved on September 16, 2009 from www.readingmatrix.com/archives.html Song, M. (1998). Teaching reading strategies in an ongoing EFL university reading classroom. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 8, 41-54. Retrieved on February 2, 2009 from www.cuhk.edu.hk 647 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 96 Title A name given to the resource Building Awareness of Discourse Structure Through Teaching Reading Strategies in English for Legal Purposes Class Author Author Lukica, Ivana Abstract A summary of the resource. Research has been carried out for several decades on what makes some students more successful in foreign language reading than others. It was established that good readers possess greater awareness of discourse structure, meaning they are able to recognize the signalling mechanisms which give clues to the ways the text is organized (Grabe, 2009). Discourse structure awareness is seen as a type of metalinguistic awareness which also includes knowledge of reading strategies and their appropriate use in order to resolve reading problems and properly interpret text information. Our research was based on the following hypothesis: explicit teaching of reading strategies in English for Legal Purposes class will enhance students' awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. The data was collected through the SORS (Survey of Reading Strategies) questionnaire (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002), a reading comprehension test developed for this research and a semistructured interview to check how students perceive the reading process and discourse structure before and after strategies instruction. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistical procedures and the results fully confirmed our hypothesis: the subjects (N=20) achieved better results on the reading comprehension test and reported easier identification and interpretation of discourse markers. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f2a19477fb4f856fcf73305506c467b.pdf c970e1804b564b8c7f2c1f12ff8aa8ee PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Value of Language and Content Needs Analysis in English for Legal Purposes Courses: Example from Croatia Ivana Lukica (Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb) PhD Programme in Foreign Language Learning, University of Zagreb ivana.lukica@pravo.hr, Agnieszka Kałdonek (Eureka centar, school of foreign languages, Zagreb) agnieszka.kaldonek@gmail.com Abstract: English for legal purposes (ELP) is gaining more importance worldwide, which means using this type of language in different cultural and linguistic contexts, and in different legal systems. Therefore there is a need to develop ELP courses which are sensitive to the particular environment in which they will be implemented (Jordan, 1997) and the first step is to conduct a thorough needs analysis of language knowledge and skills as well as areas of law the students find most important. This study evaluated the needs of three groups of ELP students: first-year law students taking ELP as a mandatory course, graduate law students taking ELP as an elective course and practising lawyers attending ELP courses at a specialised language school. A total of 161 students participated. The study adopted a quantitative approach and aimed at determining differences between the groups in the fields of language skills and areas of law, as well as at establishing students‘ satisfaction with the current ELP course and their motivation and usage of ELP. The outcomes of the study confirmed our initial hypothesis: there is a strong correlation between gaining work experience and the level of importance attached to areas of law studied in ELP courses. Key words: needs analysis, ELP, motivation Introduction There have been growing demands for accountability in foreign language learning and teaching which leads to increasing importance of careful studies of learner needs as a prerequisite for effective course design (Long, 2005). Effective course design is especially highly required in language courses for specific purposes as they involve participants who use a foreign language in particular circumstances and environments (Jordan, 1997). English for legal purposes (ELP), as part of English for specific purposes (ESP), was first primarily focused on lexis and then it started involving specific language skills (Master, 2000). Since the needs of participants of such courses are primarily linguistic and the participants are motivated by material from their own field, the course offers a mixture of both content and linguistic instructions (Master, 2000). Although grounds for conducting needs analysis research have been laid down (Berwick, 1989; Brindley, 1989; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Long, 2005) and a number of concrete examples can be found (Kaur & Baksh, 2010; Kavaliauskiene & Uņpaliene, 2003) the main problem with doing this kind of research is that the same template cannot be used in every study. The reuse of the method from previous studies is relevant only if our sample group is the same or similar to the one used in the previous research (Long, 2005). Needs analysis research involves various methods. Data can be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, language audits, observations, and through methodological triangulation (Long, 2005). It is not only the instrument that ensures relevant outcomes of needs analysis research, but also the approach of the researcher. It is important to possess knowledge of the field being investigated and of the participants (Long, 2005). Although learners can be a good source of information, sometimes they might find it difficult to express their present or future needs. On the other hand, the knowledge of the field and the participants might also negatively influence the instrument if the researcher designs it focusing only on his or her knowledge as an expert in the field. The credibility can be ensured by using triangulation in the study (Mackey & Gass, 2005), e.g. an interview and a questionnaire. However if data are to be obtained from a large group of participants the questionnaire is the most appropriate instrument (Mackey & Gass, 2005). It also needs to be mentioned that a questionnaire is a common instrument used in needs analysis research (Dôrnyei, 2008, p. 148, Long, 2005). 648 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo According to Master (2000) needs analysis constitutes the most important aspect of ESP courses. He further argues that it plays a crucial role by emphasising student-centred approach. When choosing such an approach, the teacher should teach the content of the course from the perspective of the students, which in Croatian ELP context means making the Croatian system of law and related legal terminology the foundation of the course. The teacher should also have a good understanding of what motivates students to take an ELP course. According to Dôrnyei, components of foreign language learning motivation can be found at the level of language, the level of learner and the level of learning situation (1994). Therefore, motivation can be integrative or instrumental with regard to why a particular language is learned and course-specific, teacher-specific and group-specific motivational components should be researched with regard to the learning situation level. At the learner level, components such as perceived language competence, language use anxiety and self-confidence should be considered. The study Participants There were 161 participants in total: 85 first-year students of law (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Law) taking ELP as a mandatory course, 22 graduate students of law from the same Faculty taking ELP as an elective course, and 54 lawyers with various amount of work experience. The difference in the number of participants in the three groups is proportional to the aggregate number of students taking ELP courses at the Faculty of Law, and to the number of practicing lawyers taking ELP courses in private language schools. Instruments The data were collected through four questionnaires in the participants‘ mother tongue (Croatian). Two of them were designed to check the participants‘ needs regarding areas of law and language skills to be taught in ELP courses; another one was aimed at checking participants' satisfaction with their current ELP course; and the last one checked participants‘ motivation for studying ELP. There were 26 questions in the needs analysis questionnaire on areas of law, covering fields of law as classified in the Croatian legal system with the addition of some items which are in line with the content of textbooks on ELP available in the market. One more question has been added, which aimed at checking preference of teaching approach in ELP, namely whether ELP should be taught through the English legal system, the Croatian legal system, or through both. In the questionnaire on language skills there were 18 questions, which covered reading and listening comprehension, writing and speaking skills and grammar. In addition, a number of other skills were included because they are necessary in the legal profession and are included in ELP textbooks: translation, interpretation of legal texts, public speaking, giving presentations, interviewing a client, drafting contracts and business letters, defining or explaining terminology, and usage of Latin terms. These questionnaires contained three types of answers for each question: 1) it is unimportant, 2) it is important, 3) it is very important. The distinction between answer 2 and 3 had been made to check if any tendency exists to give increasing or decreasing importance to the items regarding experience in studying and practising law. Additionally, participants were asked to explain their answers. The satisfaction questionnaire was a Likert-type questionnaire, which contained 15 items checking satisfaction with the content and organisation of the course, the teaching materials, the teacher and his/her teaching methods, and participants‘ readiness for using English and ELP at their work. The scale ranged from 1 (I completely disagree) to 4 (I completely agree). The questionnaire on motivation for studying ELP contained 12 questions (multiple choice questions, yes or no questions and open-ended questions) and in most cases the participants had to explain their answers. The questions covered the various factors of motivation: the learner as an individual, his/her attitudes towards language learning, his/her willingness and ability to communicate in foreign languages, the willingness and ability to use ELP, the classroom environment, the teacher and the materials used in teaching ELP. The questionnaires were distributed either during the class or by email. 649 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Method The approach adopted in this study was both quantitative and qualitative. The former one was used to calculate frequencies, percentages and means in respective questionnaires. The latter one was used to analyse the participants‘ explanations to their answers. Objectives The main objective of the study was to ascertain learning needs of three groups of participants of ELP courses (first-year university students, graduate students, and practising lawyers) with respect to both content and language, as well as to detect differences between the groups. The study was also aimed at checking preferences in teaching approaches, students‘ satisfaction with the course, and their motivation for studying ELP. Hypotheses First-year students will have difficulties in expressing their needs either by underlying unimportance of some areas of law or by not providing clear explanations to their answers. This is due to lack of knowledge of a given subject or lack of awareness about the practicality of a given subject. On the other hand, they will be stressing the importance of subjects they have studied in the first year. Graduate students will express their needs more clearly because of their greater knowledge of various areas of law; however their needs will not be strongly correlated with practicality as they do not possess work experience. Practising lawyers will express their needs clearly and they will be strongly correlated with their work experience. There will be no significant differences between the groups regarding general language skills as they are not strongly correlated with gaining knowledge and experience, however, lawyers will stress the need for skills strongly related to their profession. All three groups will express satisfaction with their current course, but first-year students will be the least satisfied and stress the classroom environment and the materials used in the course as the reason. Practising lawyers will be the most satisfied group as their courses are tailored to their specific needs. All three groups will show instrumental motivation with regard to the language level. At the learner level, lawyers will have the highest perceived competence in English and ELP, the highest self-confidence in using them and the lowest anxiety of use as opposed to first-year students. Course specific motivational components will be most important at the learning situation level for all participants. Findings and discussion Fields of law Six groups of fields of law have been analysed. The first group encompassed commercial law, contract law, and company law. Practising lawyers see these areas of law as either important (17%) or very important (83%), and although the majority of first-year and graduate students find them either important (51%) or very important (30%), there is still 19% of students who find them unimportant and 10% of first year-students who said they do not know what these areas of law cover. The second group consisted of areas of law related to business activities (employment, IP, financial, real property, and competition law; negotiable instrument and insolvency). In general, all groups regard these areas of law as important (44%). The importance is growing with gaining knowledge and experience concerning IP law, but with regard to negotiable instruments, financial law and insolvency, the increase in importance is noticeable only with practising lawyers which can be attributed to their work experience. However, it should also be mentioned that a significant number of lawyers, did not provide any answer to IP law and financial law (18% and 11% respectively), and that first-year students did not comment why IP law was important. Competition law should be also examined more carefully, as there was some inequality between the groups. More than 20% of lawyers and first-year students provided no answer to these questions as opposed to only 13.5% of graduate students. The areas of law which was equally and significantly regarded by all participants as unimportant was employment law (38%). In the group consisting of EU law, international law, human rights law, maritime law and environmental law, EU law was regarded as very important by 80% and important by 17% of all participants. High importance is also given to maritime law – 49% of participants find it important and 20% find it very important. In both cases importance is correlated with work experience. Regarding international and human rights law, the students see these fields of law as more important than practising lawyers (61% and 32% respectively). Environmental law was seen as important by first-year 650 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo students and lawyers (60%) while 60% of graduate students find it unimportant. It is also worth mentioning that a significant number of lawyers did not provide any answer for international, human rights, and maritime law (14%). Regarding civil and criminal law, they were similarly important for all groups (83% and 69% respectively), whereas law of tort was regarded as most important by first-year students (73% in comparison with the rest of participants – 48.5%). In terms of theory of law and the organisation of the system, all students think it is important to study the legal profession and the system of courts, and unimportant to study constitutional law. And while 50% of first-year students find studying sources of law important and additional 18% very important, the majority of graduate students and lawyers find it unimportant (76%). When explaining their answers in terms of importance or unimportance, all groups mentioned the general importance of various fields, their practical application, their international relevance and how connected some fields are to others. The unimportance was also explained by the particular characteristics of a given field. Additionally, first-year students tended to generalise when commenting the answers or did not provide any comment whatsoever, whereas practising lawyers usually made a reference to their job. The study has proved our hypotheses. The first-year students tended to express their needs unclearly, mostly by providing a generalised explanation or not providing any comments whatsoever. It was due to lack of knowledge on a given subject and to lack of awareness about the practicality of a given subject. On the other hand, they stressed the importance of subjects they have already learned, the subjects of general importance, and the subjects they regard as crucial for their future international career (e.g. EU law, international law, theoretical subjects, civil law, criminal law, the law of tort, legal profession), as 21% of them want to work in diplomacy. Graduate students expressed their needs more clearly because of their greater knowledge on a given subject. In comparison with practising lawyers, who expressed their needs clearly and correlated them with their work experience, they tended to generalise in their comments; however to some extend they also showed a reference with their future job. Both practising lawyers and graduate students recognise the importance of business law and related areas of law, as 63% of the lawyers work for a law firm and 45% of the students want to work for a one. Some further interesting observations can be done. Practising lawyers tended to be more careful in deciding whether something is important or unimportant. If they lacked knowledge of a given field or they had not practised in it, they left the question unanswered (e.g. IP, financial law, international, human rights, maritime law, criminal law, constitutional law, legal profession). Finally, competition law was strongly related to gaining knowledge, where first-year students and lawyers do not possess knowledge about the subject, as the former have not studied it yet, and the latter did not study it since it was not available as an optional subject at the time they went to school. Language skills In this part of the study we wanted to establish which language skills and what language knowledge the participants find most important in their profession. The items in the questionnaire were grouped into the following six categories: grammar, legal terminology, reading, writing, listening and speaking skills. The biggest gap between first-year students and practising lawyers exists in the skills 92 % of lawyers stress as the most needed, namely business correspondence and drafting contracts, while around 50 % of firstyear students say these skills are important but they give rather general answers such as ―…because we need to communicate with foreigners―. Rather naively, a number of them believe it is not a job of a lawyer to write to the client or draft contracts: ―I will have an assistant/secretary do it for me―. A significant increase in attributing higher importance to these skills is noticeable with graduate students and their explanations are quite precise: ―We will need this at work―, proving much greater awareness of legal profession. Low importance given to writing skills with first-year students is also evident in the fact that around 30% feel there is no need for them to learn how to write essays or summaries in English, a percentage that is cut in half by the time they start to work. The item which all three groups find most important is conversation practice. But, while both graduate students and practising lawyers find listening comprehension exercises very important (40%) linking it strongly with conversation practice and interviewing a client (e.g. ―One cannot have a meaningful conversation if one does not understand what the other person is saying― and ―It is important for a lawyer to be a good listener―), only 20% of first-year students agree and an equal percentage believe this skill is unnecessary. Another point of agreement is a strong reliance on grammar. More than 50% of participants find studying grammar rules very important and less than 5% find grammar practice unimportant naming them ―basic language knowledge― or ―foundations for good oral and written communication―. In terms of legal terminology, which constitutes the biggest part of legal English courses, 53% of first-year students believe it is very important to be able to explain legal terms in your own words in English rather than memorize their definitions (35%). The percentage is reversed with graduate students possibly due to the requirement to pass most of their law exams by 651 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo memorizing laws by heart. Practising lawyers, however, agree with the first-year students and the percentage is here even more significant for both skills (83% and 58%). They find definitions of legal terms useful because they provide the correct meaning of the term and ―It is extremely important to be precise in law―. On the other hand, to be able to explain a term in your own words means ―…that I have fully understood its meaning―. All three groups also show the need for translating English terms into their mother tongue Croatian (between 30 and 40% find it very important). More than 50% of graduate students and practising lawyers feel the need for translating legal text from English into Croatian because ―If I am able to translate it into Croatian it shows I understand the text―. Legal terminology and translation is connected to reading comprehension and interpreting of legal texts. The need for the skill of interpreting legal texts grows with work experience (from 20% of first-year students finding it unimportant to only 13 % of graduate students and none of practising lawyers), as does the need for reading comprehension exercises (13% of first-year students, none of graduate students and none of practising lawyers). We should mention, however, that 20 % of practising lawyers gave no answer to this question possibly because reading comprehension is essential part of interpreting legal texts and this is precisely what they do at their work. The presented data have confirmed our hypothesis that practising lawyers stress the importance of language knowledge and skills which are necessary in their everyday work (drafting contracts, business correspondence, interviewing a client). Due to the lack of awareness of the legal profession and its necessities, first-year students do not stress this importance. The hypothesis that the awareness increases not just with work experience but also knowledge of the areas of law is supported by graduate students giving higher importance to these skills. This shows that ELP courses for graduate students can be the same as for practicing lawyers when it comes to language skills, but first-year courses certainly cannot be. Courses for first-year students should focus on developing the general language skills that they already possess to various extents: speaking and reading (which they find very important) and listening and writing (which they do not, but which serve as foundation for more specific skills they will need in their career). Speaking is a particularly problematic issue with regard to first-year students as they currently attend their ELP course in groups of 150 students which makes conversation practice entirely impossible. Fifth-year ELP course is much smaller (30 students) so there is at least a chance for interaction in the classroom, but only practicing lawyers fully benefit from their awareness of the importance of speaking skills as they attend ELP courses in groups of 6. In order to be able to implement such a course, the groups need to be smaller, students grouped according to the level of language knowledge they possess, the materials interesting, interactive and relating to the field of law (importance of legal terminology) and the teacher able to raise their awareness of the importance of all basic skills. In such groups, the much needed grammar could be introduced to the extent which is needed at various levels. In addition, we believe the results of the research on language knowledge and skills speak strongly in favour of using the mother tongue in the ELP classroom, especially in courses for practising lawyers. Having much greater knowledge of the Croatian legal system and related terminology makes it impossible for practising lawyers not to compare it to the English legal terminology which they are studying. If the teacher is able to provide the Croatian terms or at least compare the two systems the students will feel safer in their understanding and more motivated. Teaching approach Most of participants claim that ELP should be taught through both systems of law (Croatian and English); however the distribution between the groups was not equal (63% of practising lawyers, 55% of firstyear students and 91% of graduate students). There were also a significant number of lawyers and first-year students who claimed that ELP should be approached through the Croatian system (33.5%). The English system was mostly favoured by first-year students (10%), and the least favoured by lawyers (0%). Additionally, firstyear students mentioned the importance of the EU system and would like to study ELP through materials related to EU law (5%). Our hypotheses have been partially reflected in the preference of the teaching approach. The fact that a significant number of first-year students chose teaching through the Croatian system may be interpreted as their reliance on the scope of knowledge they possess and their conviction that their future job will be more practised in a national dimension. On the other hand, the lawyers‘ preference for the Croatian system is correlated with their work experience and practising law in the Croatian system. Graduate students lack the experience but possess knowledge and therefore are more open to the comparative approach in ELP. In other words, the preference for the comparative approach in ELP positively correlates with gaining knowledge but not necessarily with gaining experience. Additionally, the fact that the most frequent answer was teaching through both systems 652 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (70%) and a significant number of participants opted for the Croatian system (24%) proves the importance of the Croatian system in teaching ELP. Satisfaction In general all participants are content with the ELP course they are attending or attended (M = 3.62): practising lawyers were most pleased and first-year students the least. In particular, all three groups are pleased with the teacher and the teaching methods. With regard to the size of the group, practising lawyers show greatest satisfaction (M=4.0) which is comparable to graduate students (M=3.8). The mean for first-year students is significantly lower (M=3.0) showing moderate satisfaction and indicating that there is a number of students who are not pleased with the size of the group. Furthermore, all participants are ready to use English and ELP at their work, however, lawyers are most confident about their language skills (M = 3.84), and first-year students the least, especially about ELP (M = 3.34). In other words, the willingness to use English and ELP is positively correlated with gaining knowledge and experience. Judging further from the outcomes, first-year students object to the lack of conversation practice in the ELP classroom, to the number of lessons per week, and to the outdated teaching materials. The outcomes of this part of research are in line with our hypothesis. The ELP courses are organised at a satisfactory level, however the dissatisfaction of first-year students with the lack of interaction in the classroom is a call for change. In other words, the willingness to use English and ELP is positively correlated with gaining knowledge and experience, whereas low willingness to use ELP is positively correlated with usage of the outdated textbook and the lack of conversation practice. Motivation With regard to the language level, all participants stressed usefulness for present/future job as the most important reason for studying ELP (80%) followed by the importance for lawyers to learn ELP as opposed to general English (10%) and the importance for lawyers as a profession to know foreign languages (9%) confirming our hypothesis. The remaining one percent opted for integrative motivation in describing studying ELP as a personal challenge. All three groups of participants stated that they find course-specific motivational components the most relevant at the learning situation level (95%), namely interest, relevance and satisfaction thus proving our hypothesis. This shows that ELP practitioners should pay special attention to the attractiveness of the course, the materials, the teaching method and the type of tasks they give their students. Lawyers feel most confident to use ELP as their perceived competence is higher than that of graduates and first-year students. They also show the least anxiety proving our hypothesis that gaining knowledge and experience is strongly correlated with motivational components at the learner level. Conclusion Our study has proven that knowledge and experience are strong factors that affect awareness of learning needs. There has been a positive correlation between gaining knowledge and a rise in awareness about the needs, which has been depicted by graduate students and practising lawyers providing more precise explanations to their answers. This tendency may be observed in both the areas of law and language skills. A strong reference with work experience has been observed in increase of needs that encompass studying specific areas of ELP – business related areas of law, such as company law and commercial law, as well as special language skills, such as drafting contract and business correspondence. With regard to the areas of law and language skills of general importance (e.g. civil law; reading and listening skills), their importance in the context of work have been also recognised by graduate students and lawyers. Having the above in mind, it may be stated that the difference between the groups is more significant when there is a significant range in knowledge and experience (first-year students and lawyers). When this range is narrowed there is no significant difference between groups (graduate students and lawyers). This statement should be taken into consideration when designing an ELP course and grouping candidates for this type of courses. Since first-year university students possess limited scope of knowledge on areas of law in their native language, they do not have a strong need for learning about them in English. Additionally, as they stress the importance of studying about the Croatian legal system in English, the content of such a course should be related 653 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo to knowledge they already possess about it. With regard to language skills, first-year students differ from graduate students and practising lawyers in that they attribute more importance to general language skills in a general context. Therefore an ELP course for them should be based on developing these skills. Development of general language skills in the case of first-year students is crucial as they are grounds for job-related language skills important for a lawyer. Since practising lawyers and graduate students see more job-related context in language skills and have greater knowledge on law, an ELP course designed for them should be strongly workrelated and may include more demanding content. 654 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Berwick, R. (1989). Needs assessment in language programming: From theory to practice. In R.K. Johnson (Ed.), The second language curriculum, 48–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brindley, G. (1989). The role of needs analysis in adult ESL programme design. In R.K. Johnson (Ed.), The second language curriculum, 63–77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dôrnyei, Z. (2008). Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing. New York: Routledge. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jordan, R.R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kaur, S. & Baksh, A. (2010). Language needs analysis of art and design students: considerations for ESP course design. ESP World, 2 (28). Retrieved on January 30, 2011 from http://www.espworld.info/Articles_28/ESP%20World%20_Alla%20&%20 Sarjit_%20March%202010.pdf Kavaliauskiene, G. & Uņpaliene, D. (2003). Ongoing needs analysis as a factor to successful language learning. Journal of Language and Learning, 1 (1). Retreived on January 30, 2011 from http://www.jllonline.co.uk/journal/jllearn/1_1/kavauzpa_learn1_1 .html Kikuchi, K. (2005). Student and teacher perceptions of learning needs: A cross analysis. Shiken, 9 (2), 8-20. Retrieved on 20 December 2008 from http://www.jalt.org/test/kik_1.htm. Kumazawa, T. (2006). Construct validation of a general English language needs analysis instrument. JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter, 10 (2), 2-11. Long, M. H. (2005). Second Language Needs Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mackey, A. & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second Language Research: Methodology and Design. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Master, P. (2005). Responses to ESP. US State Department, 2000. 655 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 97 Title A name given to the resource The Value of Language and Content Needs Analysis in English for Legal Purposes Courses: Example from Croatia Author Author Lukica, Ivana Kałdonek, Agnieszka Abstract A summary of the resource. English for legal purposes (ELP) is gaining more importance worldwide, which means using this type of language in different cultural and linguistic contexts, and in different legal systems. Therefore there is a need to develop ELP courses which are sensitive to the particular environment in which they will be implemented (Jordan, 1997) and the first step is to conduct a thorough needs analysis of language knowledge and skills as well as areas of law the students find most important. This study evaluated the needs of three groups of ELP students: first-year law students taking ELP as a mandatory course, graduate law students taking ELP as an elective course and practising lawyers attending ELP courses at a specialised language school. A total of 161 students participated. The study adopted a quantitative approach and aimed at determining differences between the groups in the fields of language skills and areas of law, as well as at establishing students‘ satisfaction with the current ELP course and their motivation and usage of ELP. The outcomes of the study confirmed our initial hypothesis: there is a strong correlation between gaining work experience and the level of importance attached to areas of law studied in ELP courses. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3f50fb25a5d2ad53f4a3d704e44c315d.pdf 4e3dd774de2b9631b85907e3da6caf8b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Coopertive Learning in ELT: A Literature Review‖ Deniz MADEN Department of English Language Education Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey denizmaden@sdu.edu.tr Abstract: Cooperative learning has received increased attention in recent years due to the movement through learner centred learning. This paper provides an overview of the use of cooperative learning (CL) and effects of it in second language instruction. After three brief definitions of CL, key areas are discussed in the paper. The first part of the article provides the theory of language and learning in CL while the second part introduces the objectives, syllabus, types of learning and teaching activities and the roles of teacher, learners and instructional materials in CL. The article concludes cooperative learning makes maximum use of cooperative activitites involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. Moreover, it establishes a democratic form of teaching. It enhances both the individual and the community. Each student can share his/her ideas and learn to listen and respect each other. Furthermore, Cooperative learning influences collabarative spirit among students by minimizing competition leading to conflicts in today‘s world. Keywords: Cooperative learning, English language teaching, group work, learner centred learning 1. Introduction ―Two heads learn better than one‖ Roger T. & David W. Johnson The cooperative learning method focuses on the integrated use of cooperative learning. It can be used in any lesson cooperatively, in any subject area, grade level or educational setting. Back to its history, it has its primary roots in social interdependence theory. Theoretically, it originates from the work of a few. One of whom is Kurt Koffka, one of the founders of the Gestalt School of Psychology. The other is, Kurt Lewin who is the founder of modern day social psychology. The third is, Morton Deutsch, one of Lewin's students, who formulated social interdependence theory in which cooperative, competitive and individualistic efforts are defined. (Johnson& Johnson, 2002). There are some explicit definitions of cooperative learning: 1. The instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other‘s learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1993). 2. Principles and techniques for helping students work together more effectively (Jacobs, Power& Loh, 2002). 3. Group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others. (Olsen& Kagan, 1992). The point is that, cooperative learning requires more than just asking students to work together in groups. Instead, cooperation is discussing material with other learners, helping other learners, or sharing materials with other learners. (Putting students into groups to learn is not the same thing as structuring cooperation among them). ―Cooperative Learning‖ has not been specially developed for foreign language teaching, but can be used with advantage in all subjects. The reason why the method is relevant for language teachers is that, it is a good way of conducting interactive and communicative language teaching. In language teaching its goals are:  ―To provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of interactive pair and group activities.  To provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal.  To enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and communicative functions through the use of interactive tasks.  To provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication strategies 360 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  To enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive affective classroom climate. CLL is thus, an approach that crosses both mainstream education and second and foreign language teaching.‖ (Richards &Rogers, 2008). Using the Richards and Rogers‘ model for conceptualizing approaches and methods described in ―Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching‖, 2008, Cambridge University Press, ―Cooperative Language Learning‖ is analyzed at the level of approach and design. 2. Approach 2.1 Theory of Language Cooperative language learning is founded on some basic premises about the cooperative nature of the language and language learning.  Premise 1: Communication is considered to be the primary purpose of the language. (Weeks, 1979).  Premise 2: Human beings spend a large part of their lives engaging in conversation and for most of them conversation is among their most significant and engrossing activities.(Richards and Schmidt, 1983).  Premise 3: Conversation operates according to certain agreed-upon set of cooperative rules or ―maxims‖ (Grice, 1975).  Premise 4: One learns how these cooperative maxims are realized in one‘s native language through casual, everyday conversational interaction. (Richards &Rodgers, 2008).  Premise 5: One learns how the maxims are realized in a second language through participation in cooperatively structured interactional activities. (Richards &Rodgers, 2008). Practices that attempt to conduct second language learning according to these premises are called ―Cooperative Language Learning‖. 2.2. Theory of Learning Cooperative language learning underlines three main concepts in language learning; developing communicative competence in language by conversing in socially or pedagogically structured situations, improving learners‘ critical thinking skills, and setting classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. 3. Design 3.1. Objectives: CLL is an approach designed to promote cooperation rather than competition, to develop critical thinking skills, and to develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction activities, these can be regarded as the overall objectives of cooperative language learning. 3.2. The Syllabus: CLL does not assume any particular form of language syllabus. What defines CLL is the systematic and carefully planned use of group-based procedures in teaching as an alternative to teacher centred teaching. 3.3. Types of learning and teaching activities: Johnson describes three types of cooperative learning groups.( Johnson& Johnson 2002). 3.3.1 Formal Cooperative Learning Groups These groups may last from one class period to several weeks. Any course requirement or assignment may be reformulated to be cooperative by the teacher. To set up formal cooperative learning groups, a teacher should decide on the objectives for the lesson, size of groups, the method of assigning students to groups, the roles students will be assigned, the materials needed to conduct the lesson and the way the room will be arranged. Also, the teacher clearly defines the assignment, teaches the required concepts and strategies, specifies the positive interdependence and individual accountability, gives the criteria for success and explains the targeted social skills students are to engage in and, monitor students‘learning and gives them effective feedbacks. 361 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.3.2 Informal Cooperative Learning Groups Informal cooperative learning groups are temporary, ad hoc groups that continue for only one discussion or one class period. They may be used at any time, but are especially useful during a lecture or direct teaching. Breaking up lectures with short cooperative processing times will give less lecture time, but it promotes interactive learning in classes. Students actively involve in processing what they are learning. It also provides time for the teacher to move around and monitor the students‘ progresses. 3.3.3 Cooperative Base Groups Cooperative base groups are long-term, heterogeneous groups with stable membership. The underlying responsibility of members is to provide each other with the support, encouragement and assistance they need to succeeed academically. Base groups last for at least a semester or year and preferably for several years. The success of the CL is dependent on the five basic elements according to Olsen and Kagan(1992): Positive Interdependence Positive interdependence is the heart of cooperative learning. It is the perception that you are linked with others so that you cannot suceed unless they do. (vice versa) In order to strengthen positive interdependence, the following methods could be applied (Johnson &Johnson, 2002). (a) give rewards (if all members of your group score 85 percent correct or better on the test, each will receive extra bonus points) (b) divided resources (giving each group member a part of the total information required to complete an assignment) (c) complementary roles such as, reader, checker, encourager, elaborator may also be used. In addition, positive interdependence may be created through a joint identity (identity interdependence), asking group members to imagine they are in a specific set of circumstances, such as being shipwrecked on a desert island. A series of research studies was carried out to clarify the impact of positive interdependence on achievement and other outcomes, and it is inferred that positive interdepence is required to produce higher achievement.(Johnson &Johnson, 2002). Individual Accountability Individual accountability is the one of the most motivating factor in cooperative learning, because everyone likes to feel that they know something that others can use. Practical ways to structure individual accountability are : (Johnson &Johnson, 2002) (a) giving an individual test to each student (b) having each student explain what they have learned to a classmate (c) observing each group and collecting data on participation (d) randomly selecting one student's product to represent the entire group Social Skills Putting socially unskilled students in a group and asking them to cooperate will not be successful. Students should be taught the interpersonal and small group skills that is neccessary for cooperation, and also they should be motivated to use these skills in learning environment. Group Processing Effective cooperation is provided if the followings are taken into consideration: (a) determine what member actions were helpful and unhelpful to achieving goals and maintaining effective working relationships and (b) make decisions about what actions to continue or change. When difficulties in working with each other arise, students engage in group processing to identify, define and solve the problems they are having working together. ( Johnson & Johnson, 2002). 362 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Structuring and Structures It refers to ways of organizing student interactions and different ways student are to interact. In order to use cooperative learning effectively, teachers must recognize the nature of positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills and group processing and develop skills in structuring them. Numerous descriptions exist of activity types that can be used with CLL. Coelho (1992 b: 132) describes three major types of cooperative learning tasks and their learning focus, each of which has many variations. (Richards &Rodgers, 2008). Cooperative Learning Tasks                 ―Team practice from common input-skills development and mastery of facts: All students work on the same material. The task is to make sure that everyone in the group knows the answer to a question and can explain how the answer was obtained. This technique is good for review and for practice tests; The group takes the practice test together, but each student will eventually do an assignment or take a test individually. This technique is effective in situations where the composition of the groups is unstable. Students can form new groups every day.‖ Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined imput- evaluation and synthesis of facts and opinions: Each group member receives a different piece of the information. Students regroup in topic groups (expert groups) composed of people with the same piece to master the material and prepare to teach it. Students synthesize the information through discussion. Each student produces an assignment of part of a group project. This method of organization may require team-building activities for both home groups and topic groups, long term group involvement, and rehearsal of presentation methods. This method is very useful in the multilevel class, allowing for both homogeneous and heterogeneous grouping in terms of English proficiency.‖ Coopertive projects: topics/resources selected by students- discovery learning: Topics may be different for each group. Students identify subtopics for each member. Steering commitee may coordinate the work of the class as a whole. Students research the information using resources such as library reference, interviews, visual media, and internet. Students synthesize their information for a group presentation, each group member plays a role in presentation. Each group presents to the whole class.‖ 3.5. Learner Roles  The primary role of the learner is as a member of a group who must work collaboratively on tasks with other group members.  Learners are also directors of their own learning. (They are taught to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning). (Richards & Rodgers, 2008). 3.6. Teacher Roles The teacher not only teach the language, they teach cooperation as well. (Freeman, 2003). She/he has to create a highly structured and well-organized learning environment in the classroom, setting goals, planning and structuring tasks, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to groups and roles, selecting materials and time. The teacher serves as a faciliator. 3.7. The role of instructional materials Materials play an important part in creating opportunities for students to work cooperatively. The same materials can be used as are used in other types of lessons. Besides, materials may be specially designed for CLL learning (information-gap activities etc.). 363 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. Conclusion Cooperative learning, according to the research ( Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000; Slavin, 1995) promotes many benefits beyond enhanced L2 acquisition. These benefits include increased self-esteem, greater liking for school, enhanced inter-ethnic ties, and improved critical thinking. (Jacobs, 2004). Moreover, cooperative learning influences collabarative spirit among students by minimizing competition leading to conflicts in today‘s world. Moreover, it establishes a democratic form of teaching. It enhances both the individual and the community. Each student can share his/her ideas and learn to listen and respect each other. However, using CL may be a challenging task for teachers and learners. It requires some struggle to succeed. Often, students may not be familiar with or skilled at working together. And for teachers, cooperative learning activities require more preparation. But apart from all these, the rewards and benefits of cooperative learning for teachers and students go a long way. References Adams, D., Hamn M. (1996). Critical Thinking and Collaboration Across the Curriculum, Charles C. Thomas Publisher. Dôrnyei, Z. (2008). Motivational Strategies in Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acqusition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jacobs, G. (2004). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Principles, and Techniques. www.georgejacobs.net Jacobs, G. M. Power, M. A., Loh, W. I. (2002). The teacher's sourcebook for cooperative learning: Practical techniques, basic principles, and frequently asked questions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. http://www.corwinpress.com/index1.asp?id=detail.asp?id=27713 Johnson, D. Johnson, R. (2002). ―Learning Together and Alone: Overview and Meta-analysis‖ Asia Pasific Journal Of Education. 22: 1, 95–105. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Littlewood, W. (2008). Communicative Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCafferty, S.G., Jacobs G. , A. C., Iddings (2006). Cooperative Learning and Second Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Olsen, R. E. S., Kagan. (1992). "About Cooperative Learning". Cooperative Language Learning. A Teacher´s Resource Book. Ed. C. Kessler. Englewood Cliffs. http://gretajournal.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/file/15rev1.pdf Richards, J. C., Rodgers, T. S. (2008). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Slavin, E. R.(1995). Cooperative Learning, A Simon & Schuster Company. Stenlev, J. (2008).―Cooperative Learning in Foreign Language Teaching‖ Sprogforum number 25: 33–42. TaĢdemir M. TaĢdemir A. Yıldırım K.(2009). ― Influence Of Portfolio Evaulation in Cooperative Learning on Student Success‖ Journal of Theory and Practice in Education. 5.1 53–56. 364 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 53 Title A name given to the resource ―Coopertive Learning in ELT: A Literature Review Author Author MADEN, Deniz Abstract A summary of the resource. Cooperative learning has received increased attention in recent years due to the movement through learner centred learning. This paper provides an overview of the use of cooperative learning (CL) and effects of it in second language instruction. After three brief definitions of CL, key areas are discussed in the paper. The first part of the article provides the theory of language and learning in CL while the second part introduces the objectives, syllabus, types of learning and teaching activities and the roles of teacher, learners and instructional materials in CL. The article concludes cooperative learning makes maximum use of cooperative activitites involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. Moreover, it establishes a democratic form of teaching. It enhances both the individual and the community. Each student can share his/her ideas and learn to listen and respect each other. Furthermore, Cooperative learning influences collabarative spirit among students by minimizing competition leading to conflicts in today‘s world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/59d3d6eef2ce4d518369e1a7d5cebbee.pdf 9fe49ae9645fa464acf5288867cd5305 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Critical Study of the Dichotomous Representation of the Natives as the Other in Hedayat‘s Blind Owl Khalil Mahmoodi National University of Malaysia (UKM) School of Language Studies and Linguistics Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Khalil.Mahmmodi@gmail.com Dr. Shanthini Pilliai Dr. Raihanah M. M. Esmail Zeini Abstract: Despite the voluminous amount of research on the Blind Owl, little is still carried out on the representation of the natives in this work. This paper explores the text to reveal how the author, by giving credit to himself as an ‗I‘, artist and a painter, tries to establish a division between himself and the rest of the society, the world of Rajalehah, the Rabbles. Through the employment of the new genre of writing, the novel, Hedayat not only revolts against all the forms of traditional writings but also all the traditional customs and at large makes use of it as a means of scattering his ideological concepts through the mouth of the narrator. This discussion seeks to unveil the mask of orientalised system of representation of the natives, as the peripheral, and finally the ‗Other‘. Keywords: representation, rajalehah, Lakateh, unhomeliness, ‗Other‘. Blind Owl and its Themes This novelette has many themes. It encompasses uncertainty pertaining to the metaphysic, self-denigration, desire and disavowal, identity dilemma, binary opposition, in-between status, stereotypical representation of the natives and finally nationalism. I will concentrate on them vis-à-vis the content of the text. Blind Owl is a non-linear story, it has no closure, and it is dark as well as bleak, filled with chaos. It begins from a very old times and proceeds to the present, but it lacks a logical temporal arrangement (Etehad 2009: 82). The story begins with a statement depicting the narrator‘s ontological and even one might find suitable to say epistemological view. The narration is non-linear as it jumps from the present to the past and vice versa. Past and present are sometimes fused together that if we are not careful, the details can be confusing. It is encased between two different eras, the past and the present. The story starts by asserting that ―there are certain sores that, like a canker, gnaws at the soul in solitude and diminish it (Hedayat 1984: 1). And he continues that he might pass away but still not know himself. From the very beginning he establishes a division between himself and the rest of his own society, using the pronoun ‗I‘ he gives himself a privilege status in comparison to the ‗other‘. He says ―I have realized that a frightful chasm lies between the others and me‖ (Headyat 1984: 2). Another significant feature of the story is that it is bleak and filled with chaos. Iran is shown as a country that is ugly and backward. It is filled with people who are either superstitious, deteriorated by Islamic tradition for which the ‗I‘ gives no care at all and a bunch of useless, shameless, diabolical rude, beggerish mule-drivers who lack insight and wisdom (Hedayat 1984: 45) Plot summary The narrator, a pen-case decorator, falls in love with a girl who is at once angelic and devilish. Later, the girl appears by his doorstep, enters his house, and lies on his bed, where he gives her some sips of poisonous win and kills her. He dismembers her body and buries her. In the second part of the story ,after smoking a lot of opium, the narrator wakes up in a world which is very close to his real world and he recounts his mental and physical decline following his marriage to a woman who refuses to have sex with him but has countless lovers. He kills her. Binary Opposition 730 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The story is built on the basis of binary opposition. Good in the opposite of bad, Islamic society in the opposite of European society, Platonic or better to say pure unpolluted Sassanid love against contemporary, Islamicised love, Ethereal girl in the opposite of Lakateh, The narrator against the Rajaleha , old Rey representing Iranian historical glorious era in the opposite of post-Islamicised or the contemporary time, to mention just a few. According to Ashcroft (2004: 23) ―binarism comes from ‗binary‘, meaning a combination of two things, a pair, ‗two‘, duality (OED)... The binary opposition is the most extreme form of difference possible... Such oppositions, each of which represents a binary system, are very common in the cultural construction of reality.‖ binarism comes from ‗binary‘, meaning a combination of two things, a pair, ‗two‘, duality (OED), this is a widely used term with distinctive meanings in several fields and one that has had particular sets of meanings in post-colonial theory. The binary opposition is the most extreme form of difference possible – sun/moon; man/woman; birth/death; black/white. Such oppositions, each of which represents a binary system, are very common in the cultural construction of reality Ashcroft (2004: 23). Binary oppositions are structurally connected with one another, and in colonial discourse there may be a degree of diversity of the one underlying binary – colonizer/colonized – that becomes reemphasised and reexpressed in any particular text in many different ways (Ashchroft and et al 2004: 23). The binary opposition is the most extreme form of difference possible through which the system of the cultural construction of reality works. Through binary oppositions as the basic dichotomies which advocated in the West, what Western thought is generally concerned is to see the world in terms of the Westerners against non-European Origins, the aliens. This binary system establishes a relation of dominance and justifies ―the hierarchical cultural and radical assumptions of European thought‖ (Royle 2000: 190). The binary system plays a very significant role in ―the constructing ideological meanings in general and extremely useful in imperial ideology‖ (Ashcroft and et al 2004: 23-25). Narrator and Rajalehah Dichotomy Blind Owl is the author‘s manifesto in which he unquestionably attacks his private and social environment. Hedayat in this treatise of hopelessness clarifies his political and social position from the very beginning. In the Blind Owl, the narrator finds himself in a horrible way decomposing, identifies that he is alive, a living being who has a dreadful life. Such an individual who has a half European characteristic and half native features, in other words composed two contradictory derives (Mirabedini 2002: 791) is looking for a truth which he has been acquainted with in Europe, so when he comes to native homeland he feels that ―everything related to the life-style and the joys of others nauseated him‖ (Hedayat 1984: 37). This sense of anger will cause to establish a lid wall between himself and others. He realises that ―a frightful chasm lies between others and him‖ (Hedayat 1984: 2). He finds himself lonely and everyday this isolation becomes stronger. When he reaches where it is supposed to be the secure space of his self-realization, he faces a bunch of what he calls superstitious gossipy and whores and he transcribes all these observations onto the paper and he realises that that there is no more any place for the poetry and his feelings and thoughts are not transmittable. At this time he depicts himself as the self who is enchained in such a trashcan full of worms and dirt that he has no choice but to escape, but there is no loophole. The Rajalha, the rabbles have occupied everywhere, they build chains with their polluted hands and place them before the feet of such a rare person (Ethad 2009: 186). This is the mode that the modern education and upbringing induced in many of our generation, especially in those who had been fascinated by the Western literature, thoughts and customs, and ―Sadegh Hedayat was one of them‖ (Safa 2003: 187, qtd in Ethad). The Representation of the Natives as the Other The narrator reveals society as distastefully sluggish and inactive filled with people who do not resemble him in thoughts and manners. Thus in order to define and give meaning to himself as an ‗I‘, he creates a discourse mostly oriented from his ideological and Westerly educational standpoint. As an avant-garde artist who was supposed to push the boundaries of what is accepted as the status quo, traditional literature, religion and traditions of people, Hedayat draws a line from the onset between himself and those who are different from him in thoughts and behaviours. This Oriental discourse puts face and a mould to the Oriental character [the natives, rajaleha, the rabbles, the Lakateh, the whore, and all the others]. Ideas about it influence the idea of the West and the other. In many ways this notion of the superior West and the inferior East is solidified because the difference between them is intensified by the Orientalist discourse (Said 1978: 42). Discourse is governed by the ruling power; the ruling power determines what is to be narrated and how to narrate an event. In the case of the Blind Owl, the narrator of the story appropriates this authority to represent the natives the way he likes. Said (1978: 20) argues that an Orientalist writer must first of 731 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo all locate himself or herself vis-à-vis the Orient. This will later on affect his/her interpretation of the Orient. the tools that she/he uses: voice, structure, images, themes and motifs will direct the writer‘s approach towards his/her readers, give him/her authority to represent and speak on the Orient‘s behalf and as well as providing means to govern the Orient. All this does not occur in the vacuum because according to Said (1978: 20) all writers assume some Oriental precedent and previous knowledge of the Orient that he/she refers to and relies on. One of the famous themes in the Hedayat‘s works is the description and the judgments that he extends to the people whom he names rajaleha, the rabbles. By the word rajaleha, he does not mean hooligans, thugs and hoodlum in its ordinary sense, but all the people who in most cases do not believe in the values that they pretend to have been attached. In order to gain success in the life they will not avoid any activities including begging, embezzlement, lying, vulgarity, deception, fashion follower or to be an opportunist. In the Dark House (1995), the isolated person tells the narrator ―Only a bunch of thieves, shameless fools and sick people are allowed to live in this environment. Those unfit for thieving or baseness and those not given to flattery are pronounced 'unfit for living!‖ (Hedayat 1995: 40). In the story of Deadend (1942), the protagonist has fallen behind of his cheeky and thief colleagues because of his honesty and sincerity. When he returns his hometown from Tehran, everything looks to him narrow, limited, ordinary and low and ―his work pals had pushed their grip further into the abdomen of life...some of them more or less had reached their limited aspirations: their belly had been grown bigger and their sexual passions had been transmitted from their waist down to their jaws, or in the distresses of life, they had focused on the swindling, plundering of their peasantry, cotton, opium and wheat products or their children‘s dippers and their old gout‖ (Hedayat 1942: 42-43). In another story named Gojaste Abālish (1940) which is according to Homa Katouzian (1993: 54) belongs to Hedayat‘s Psycho-fiction stories- we read that ―you mean these people?...what controls them is firstly the belly and secondly their sexual passion, with a bundle of anger and bundle of must and must not which are blindly infiltrated into their ears‖ (Hedayat 1932: 249). And in the Three Bloods (1932), we witness some traces of the rajaleha, the rabbles, in the male cat. When in the spring season, Nazi-Siyavash‘s female cat- emitted sorrowful moan of love: ―Male cats from all around the neighbourhood heard Nazi's moans and came to meet her. After much struggle and many cat fights, eventually, Nazi chose the strongest and the most boisterous of the suitors to be her mate. Of prime importance in love making is the animals' special scent. That is why males that are tame and clean do not move their females. While alley cats, cats on the prowl, thieving cats, emaciated cats, stray cats, and famished cats; in general those cats whose hides have retained their primordial scent, attract the females most‖ (Hedayat 2000: 5). But in the Blind Owl, the description and making judgments on the rajaleha is more detailed, much bitter, much clearer and much harsher than any other Hedayat‘s works. The point that Hedayat does not mean the hooligans, thugs and hoodlum in the street by the word rjaleha is more observable in the novelette. Among these rajaleha, who are from every profession and social groups; a trip-peddler, a jurist, a liver-peddler, the chief magistrate, a judge, a trader and a philosopher are some who have relationship with the Lakateh, the whore, the narrator‘s wife. In one stage, the narrator tries to learn their manners and ethics with the hope to attract the whore, but he says ―How could I learn the ways of the rabble anyway? But now I know that she loved them because they were shameless, smelly fools‖ (Hedayat 1984: 29). He says that not only is he not afraid of the death but also longs for it, but ―I was afraid, however, that the particles of my body might blend with those of the rabbles, an idea which I could not bear‖ (Hedayat 1984: 45). He earnestly wished to die but he was frightened that such a thing happens to him: ―Sometimes I wished that I had long hands and long sensitive fingers so that I could gather the particles of my body carefully and prevent them from getting mixed with those of the rabbles‖(Hedayat 1984: 45). The narrator describes these people this way when he talks about what he did to disappear and lose himself and escapes from all these miseries and affliction that enmeshed him: I passed through many streets and distraughtly walked by the rabble who, with greedy faces, were in pursuit of money and last. In fact, I did not need to see them to know them; one was enough to represent the rest. They were all like one big mouth leading to a wad of guts, terminating in a sexual organ (Hedayat 1984: 33). One of the things that like a canker gnaw at the soul of the narrator in solitude and diminish it is this incurable disease. It is because of this disease that he has to be abject, worthless, deprived and isolated and those, the rajaleha, because of their shamelessness and haughtiness and their ability to wear different masks to enjoy all the blessings: I had a feeling that this world was not made for me but for a group of pseudo- intellectuals: a group of shameless, diabolical, rude, beggarish mule-drivers who lack insight and wisdom. It was made for those who were created to suit it, those who, like the hungry dog in front of the butcher shop wagging its tail for a bit of offal, are used to flatter the mighty of the earth and of the sky (Hedayat 1984: 45). 732 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo And almost the same feelings and ideas will be uttered somewhere else in the story: But for some reason everything related to the life-style and the joys of others nauseated me. What relationship could exist between the lives of the fools and healthy rabble who were well, who slept well, who performed the sexual act well, who had never felt the wings of death on their face every moment--what relationship could exist between them and one like me who has arrived at the end of his rope and who knows that he will pass away gradually and tragically (Hedayat 1984: 37). According to Natel Khanlari (2002: 235) Hedayat belonged to a passive and immobilized social class which were condemned to surrender before the movement of the lower social classes or to change its manners and method. This social class had come to the end of its evolvement procedure because of superfluous comfort and was deteriorating. For this reason all the characteristics of a demolishing generation was materialised in Hedayat. He obviously witnessed the cancellation of the titles of Qajar period and the old families were condemned to discolouring and deforming in the newly raised social classes and since Hedayat was not able to face this compulsory evolvement, he was involved in a type of timidity and shyness and passivity. He was suspicious to anyone from the low social classes who was working hard to heighten his/her social position and was taking them as the usurpers of the social positions. He hated all those who worked hard to achieve a better life and he used a particular idiom to refer to them. He used to call the Rajaleh, the rabbles. This feeling toward his countrymen pushes him toward the verge of losing mental equilibrium. His mental imbalance depicts him as an unusual figure among his native people and excludes him, making him to seem an outsider, merely because he suggests foreign ideas resulted from his half European moods (Fardid 2003: 627). Sadegh Hedayat apparently because of his fascination toward the western historical traditions had raised his arm against the oriental traditions but he never succeeded to free himself from the grip of oriental family. Thus there was always a binary opposition lived in him (Fardid 2003: 627-628). In this sense, he is very much like the Orientalist, who judges the East from the West's viewpoint wherein there is a lack of traditional reform in the Orient. Therefore, the East seems to be, in reference to the aforementioned worthy/unworthy duality, unworthy, according to the narrator. He acts as though he were a member of the colonial class and, yet, his suffering, which results, in part, from his never-ending contemplation of two polar opposites -- the existence or non-existence of metaphysics or the ethereal girl representing the pre-Islamic and glorious time of Sassanid era and the present, post-Islamised conditions embodied in the configuration of his wife, or even tradition represented in the people he names rajaleh, religion and modernity-- parallels the suffering of the post-colonial subject who has been exposed to another set of binary opposites: Eastern thought, and its antithesis; Western thought. The narrator cannot find source of comfort in either culture. Conclusion Said (1978: 7) argues European culture is hegemonic and regarded as superior to non-European people and cultures, because Orientalism has imparted the idea of a superior European identity to the world. The ―east‖ or ―Orient‖ being the entity of the Islamic countries which are viewed as ―inferior‖ by, and to, the Western counterparts, has expressed, in many ways as the beginning and spreading of post-colonial sentiments relating to this very Western domination. Mashallah Ajoudani (2003: 115-126)) claims that intelligentsia influenced by the Western European view of the world as perhaps the only correct one rather than one possibility among many. This Intelligentsia including Hedayat found themselves developing a sense of dislocating their feeling of place from Iran to Western countries. This confused sense of identity contributes to an emotional and at large conceptual distance between the mimic man and the others and this led him to reject the cultural traditions of his people and with them, any comfort of traditional religious teachings. References Ajoudani, M. (2006). Hedayat, Blind owl and Nationalism. London: Fasl-e Ketab Publications. Ashcroft B., G. G., & H. Tiffin (2004). Post-colonial Studies: The Key Concepts. London: Routledge. Etehad, H. (2009). Pejouheshgaran-e Moa'ser Iran (The Iranian Contemporary Researchers) Tehran: Farhang-e Moa'ser. Fardid, A. (2002). Andeshehhay-eh sadegh Hedayat. In Yad-e sadegh Hedayat (In the Memeory of Sadegh Hedayat) In A. Dehbashi (Ed.), Beyad-e Sdadegh Hedayat (on the memory of Sadegh Hedayat). Tehran: Sales publisher. Hedaya, S. (1995). The Dark House USA. 733 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hedayat, S. (1932). Se qatre khūn (Three Drops of Blood) Tehran. Hedayat, S. (1942). The daedlock In The Stray Dog. http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Stories/3Drops.html Hedayat, S. (2000). Three Drops of Blood. Available at: http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Stories/3Drops.html Katouzian, M. A. H. (1993). Sadegh Hedayat va Marg-e Nevsandeh (Sadegh Hedayat and the Death of the Author). Tehran: Marklaz Publisher. Khanlari, P. N. (2003). Khaterat-e Adebi Dar Barehy-e Sadegh Hedayat ( Literary Memory about Sadegh Hedayat). In A. Dehbashi (Ed.), Be Yad-e Sadegh Hedayat (On the memory of Sadegh Hedayat). Tehran: Sales publisher. Mirabedini, H. (2009). Sad Sal Dastan Nevisi Iran (A hundered year of Iranian Prose writing). Tehran: Cheshmeh Publisher. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books. 734 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 108 Title A name given to the resource The Critical Study of the Dichotomous Representation of the Natives as the Other in Hedayat‘s Blind Owl Author Author Mahmoodi, Khalil Shanthini, Pilliai Raihana, M. M. Zeini, Esmail Abstract A summary of the resource. Despite the voluminous amount of research on the Blind Owl, little is still carried out on the representation of the natives in this work. This paper explores the text to reveal how the author, by giving credit to himself as an ‗I‘, artist and a painter, tries to establish a division between himself and the rest of the society, the world of Rajalehah, the Rabbles. Through the employment of the new genre of writing, the novel, Hedayat not only revolts against all the forms of traditional writings but also all the traditional customs and at large makes use of it as a means of scattering his ideological concepts through the mouth of the narrator. This discussion seeks to unveil the mask of orientalised system of representation of the natives, as the peripheral, and finally the ‗Other‘. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6369b1e5744a3e31ba193847a566543f.pdf eb8fdccae65dcacb245b26b92db4e74e PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Effect of L and L2 Word Glossary on Learning of Technical Vocabulary in Reading Comprehension Texts Saeedeh Mansouri Department of English, Chaloos Branch Azad University, Iran S3724m@yahoo.com Abstract: Recent studies suggest that word marginal glossaries are very useful in reading text when readers have no knowledge about some words and help them comprehend the text without wasting time for looking up the word meaning in dictionaries or making mistakes because of incorrect guessing the word meaning according context. The study aimed to compare the effect of L1 & L2 word glossary on learning and retention of technical vocabularies of Civil Engineering students. The research question is: 'Is there any relation between retention and learning of technical vocabulary and using of glossaries?' If so, what is the difference between using of L1 and L2 word glossary and which of these two sorts has more effect on retention and learning of technical vocabulary? and the considered hypothesis is 'The effect of L1 and L2 word glossary is similar on retention and learning of technical vocabulary‘. The study was done by two tests (test 1 & test 2) with five passages of reading comprehension. In test 1, the definition of words in word glossary of technical vocabularies is in English language (L2) and in test 2, the definition of the vocabularies is in Persian language (L1). These two tests were administered one after another with 15 minutes break between them and 45 minutes was considered to answer the questions for each test. The same students participated in two tests. They were 40 Civil Engineering students of Engineering Technical University (Azad University), Chaloos branch. All of them were male and they were selected after administering a placement test among 60 Civil Engineering students of the university. The placement test was administered one week before the main tests. Comparison the scores of two tests and analyzing them showed that the students answer test 2 (with Persian word glossary) better than test 1 (with English word glossary). Although there were students that answer test 1 better than test 2 and some of them act the same in two tests, most of them answer test 2 (with Persian word glossary) better than test 1 (with English word glossary) and totally result disapprove the hypothesis of the study and it can be said L1 word glossary is more effective than L2 word glossary on learning and retention of vocabularies and also technical word glossary. Key Words: vocabulary, vocabulary learning, incidental vocabulary learning, gloss and glossary. Introduction In learning a foreign language, vocabulary plays an important role. It is an element that links the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing all together. Words are perceived as the building blocks upon which the knowledge of the second language can be built (Celce-Murcia ,1991). In order to communicate well in a foreign language, students should acquire an adequate number of words and should know how to use them accurately. Vocabulary learning can take place in two general ways: intentional and incidental. Intentional learning is designed, planned learning and incidental learning is the accidental learning of information without the intention of remembering that information. Incidental vocabulary learning takes place without awareness that involves just implicit learning processes (Krashen, 1993). An incidental way of assisting students in their reading and vocabulary learning is using glosses. Glosses help students to enhance general comprehension, improve vocabulary retention, and save student‘s time and effort in reading L2 texts. Glosses have various functions in helping to decode the text by providing additional knowledge in specific content, skills, strategies, and definitions of additional knowledge in specific content, skills, strategies, and definitions of difficult words. In the case of second language (L2) learning, gloss generally means information on important words via definitions or synonyms. Traditionally, 1052 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo glosses provide a short definition or note in order to facilitate reading comprehension processes for L2 learners (Lomika, 1998). This study explores incidental vocabulary learning through using glossary in reading comprehension texts and compares the effect of L1 and L2 word glossary on retention of technical vocabularies. Students can see the glossary and learn the meaning of unknown words while reading a text, but the research question is which glossary presentation (in L1 or in L2) has more effect on retention of technical vocabulary. The study aims to observe these effects. Methodology Subjects The Subjects of the study were 40 Civil Engineering students of Engineering Technical University (Azad University), Chaloos branch that were selected by a placement test one week before administering main tests. The number of participants in the placement test was 60 and 40 students were selected among them. All of them were male with the same ability in English language. Instruments The used instruments in this study are 3 tests: English Placement Test English Placement test was used to select subjects with the same level of ability in English language teaching. The participants in this test were 60 students and finally 40 students were selected among them by comparison of their scores in this test. There were 100 items in this test. It was multiple choice test. This test was administered one week before the main tests (test 1 & test 2). Test 1 There were 5 passages in this test with English word glossary for Civil Engineering Technical vocabularies. There were 30 multiple choices items in this test. The test included reading comprehension and vocabulary questions after each reading passage, there were the related questions. The considered time to answer the questions was 45 minutes. Test 2 Test 2 was administered 15 minutes after test 1 and the same students participated in this test. Test 2 was just like test 1, but the only difference was in their glossary. In test 2, definitions in glossary were in Persian (L1). Test 2 also lasted 45 minutes. Procedure In order to test the research hypothesis, the study utilized the experimental paradigm by administering two tests. The design of this study is referred as the pretest-posttest-control group design. There was one group as both control and experimental group. In test 1, they are considered as control group and in test 2, they are considered as experimental group. It was hypothesized that the effect of L1 and L2 word glossary is similar on learning and retention of vocabulary. At first, test 1 was administered. There were 5 reading passages with English word glossary for technical vocabularies. The vocabularies are typed italic in the reading passage. There were questions (including reading comprehension and vocabulary questions) after each reading passage. In vocabulary items, one vocabulary in glossary was omitted. Test 2 was just like test 1. The only difference was in their word glossary. There was English word glossary in test 1 and Persian word glossary in test 2. There were 30 questions in each test. Each test lasted 45 minutes and 40 students (the same group) were participated in two tests. This group was selected after administering the English placement test. The placement test was administered among 60 Civil Engineering students of Engineering Technical University (Azad University), Chaloos branch and 40 students were selected after comparison of their scores. There were 100 questions in placement test and 1 hour was considered to answer it. One week after administering the English placement test and selecting students, the main tests were administered. 1053 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Results The analyzing the subjects' two test scores and comparison of them showed that students' scores in test 2 (The reading passages with L1 word glossary) was better than test 1 (The reading comprehension passages with L2 word glossary); therefore, the hypothesis of the study was rejected. The researcher concluded that L1 word glossary is more effective in learning and retention of technical vocabularies rather than L2 word glossary. Because the scores were determined out of 30, the researcher calculated them out of 20. The frequency of the tests scores have been presented in the following Tables: Table 3.1: Students' scores & their frequency in Test 1 & Test 2 Test 1 Score 29= 19.33 28= 18.66 27= 18 26= 17.33 25= 16.66 24= 16 23= 15.33 22= 14.66 20= 13.33 18= 12 17= 11.33 16= 10.66 15= 10 14= 9.33 13= 8.66 11= 7.33 Frequency 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 7 4 4 2 1 1 Test 2 Score 30= 20 29= 19.33 28= 18.66 27= 18 26= 17.33 25= 16.66 24= 16 23= 15.33 22= 14.66 21= 14 20= 13.33 18= 12 17= 11.33 15= 10 14= 9.33 13= 8.66 Frequency 3 7 3 3 6 1 1 4 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 Table 3.2. Differences between the scores of test 1 & test 2 Test 1 Score 1- 19.33 2- 18.66 3- 18 4- 18 5- 17.33 6- 16.66 7- 16 8- 16 9- 15.33 10- 18.66 11- 14.66 12- 14.66 13- 13.33 14- 13.33 15- 13.33 16- 11.33 17- 11.33 18- 11.33 19- 11.33 Test 2 Score 20 20 20 19.33 19.33 19.33 18.66 18 19.33 19.33 17.33 18 15.33 14.66 17.33 18.66 18.66 18.66 15.33 D (differences between two scores) .67 1.34 2 1.33 2 2.67 2.66 2 4 .67 2.67 3.34 2 1.33 4 7.33 6 7.33 4 1054 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 20- 10 21- 10 22- 10 23- 10 24- 10.66 25- 10.66 26- 11.33 27- 11.33 28- 11.33 29- 10.66 30- 10.66 31- 12 32- 15.33 33- 16.66 34- 16 35- 18.66 36- 17.33 37- 9.33 38- 8.66 39- 9.33 40- 7.33 15.33 14 16 15.33 14.66 11.33 12 13.33 19.33 16.66 11.33 14 17.33 14.66 18 17.33 19.33 17.33 9.33 10 8.66 5 4 6 5.33 4 .67 .67 2 8 6 .67 2 2 2 2 1.33 2 8 .67 .67 1.33 Table 3.3: The mean score and standard division of test 1 & test 2 Categories Number of Subjects Mean SD Test 1 40 13.66 Test 2 40 14.662.22 Match-t-test Formula Match-t-test was used in this study because the same group participated in two tests. When formulating research hypothesis, the study researcher determined the level of significance (a) .05 and since degree of freedom (d.f.) is 39, t-critical is 1.697. Now the observed t value should be checked against the critical t value by regarding the degree of freedom. The results have been shown in Table 4.3. Table 3.4: The Results obtained by Match-t-test d.f. Categories Mean SDFinal SD t- observed t- critical Test 1 13.662.22 .35 2.85 1.697 39 Test 2 14.66 As shown in the Table 4.3., the observed t value is greater than the critical t value. So, the difference between the means is said to be statistically significant and then treatment in test 2 is effective and then the hypothesis is rejected. 1055 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Discussion Lexical competence recently has been identified to be the most significant predictor to general language ability. (Carter and Nunan, 2001); however, it is also identified by most learners to be one of the biggest challenges of language learning (Coady and Huckin, 1997). Incidental learning has a sufficient role in leaning of new words. This kind of learning takes place by listening, reading. The study aimed to observe incidental vocabulary learning about technical vocabulary learning of Civil Engineering texts. Technical vocabularies of a certain field have important role in future success of that field. Students have many problems when they do not know technical vocabularies of their field of study. The current study aimed to observe the effect of incidental vocabulary learning through reading on learning and retention of technical vocabularies. In this study, reading texts were equipped with glossaries in L1 and L2. The glossaries are summarized definitions of vocabularies. Glossaries are effective to cope with authentic texts and they have been considered the means to facilitate reading comprehension by providing information both at the word, sentence and also topic level (Widdoson, 1984). The current study aimed to explorer which type of glossary (L1 and L2) is more effective on learning and retention of technical vocabularies of Civil Engineering and the hypothesis was considered that 'the effect of L1 and L2 word glossary is the same on learning and retention of technical vocabularies'. The result of the study refused the considered hypothesis and showed that L1 word glossary (in this study, Persian language) is more effective rather than L2 word glossary on learning and retention of technical vocabularies. In test 2 that L1 word glossaries was used for technical vocabularies, the scores of test was better than test 1 that L2 word glossary was used. It had been approved that word glossary is effective on incidental learning of vocabularies. Hulstijn, J. H. & Hollander, M. & Greidanus, T. (1996) by a study approved the effect of word glossaries on learning and retention of vocabularies. When students read a text and they do not know the meaning of some words, glossaries are the best mean to help them to know the meaning of the words rather than looking up them in dictionary or guessing them through context that may result in confusion or misguessing. Conclusion Descriptive static indicates that L1 word glossary has more effective role in learning and retention of technical vocabularies rather than L2 word glossary. In recent study first language was Persian and second language was English and technical vocabularies were Civil Engineering technical vocabularies. Subjects were 40 Civil Engineering students of Azad Noshahr-Chalous University that were selected by a placement test that was administered among 60 Civil Engineering students of this university. One week after the placement test, two tests administered. In test 1, the effect of L2 word glossary was observed. Test 2 was administered 15 minutes after test 1 and observed the effect of L1 word glossary. Both test1 and test 2 involved 5 reading comprehension passages with glossaries for technical vocabularies and the questions related to each reading passages followed it. They were reading comprehension and vocabulary questions and they were multiple choices. There were 30 questions in each test. Many of subjects gained high sores in test 2 with L1 word glossary and the hypothesis of the study that believed the effect of L1 and L2 word glossary is the same on learning and retention of technical vocabularies was refused. 1056 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Carter, R. & Nunan, D. (2001).The Cambridge languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. guide to teaching English to speakers of other Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. USA: NUBARY HOUSE. Coady, J. & Huckin, T. (eds) (1997). Second language vocabulary acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hulstijn, J. H. & Hollander, M. & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal, Vol 80, No.3, 327-339. http://links.jstor.org/ Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading insights from research. Englewood Co:Libraries Unlimited. Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading insights from research. Englewood Co:Libraries Unlimited. Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading insights from research. Englewood Co:Libraries Unlimited. Lomika, Lara L. (1998). To gloss or not to gloss: An investigation of reading comprehension online. Received at 2006/07/10. http://llt.msu.edu/vol1num2/article2/default.html Widdowson, H. G. (1984). Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1057 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 578 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of L and L2 Word Glossary on Learning of Technical Vocabulary in Reading Comprehension Texts Author Author Mansouri, Saeedeh Abstract A summary of the resource. Recent studies suggest that word marginal glossaries are very useful in reading text when readers have no knowledge about some words and help them comprehend the text without wasting time for looking up the word meaning in dictionaries or making mistakes because of incorrect guessing the word meaning according context. The study aimed to compare the effect of L1 & L2 word glossary on learning and retention of technical vocabularies of Civil Engineering students. The research question is: 'Is there any relation between retention and learning of technical vocabulary and using of glossaries?' If so, what is the difference between using of L1 and L2 word glossary and which of these two sorts has more effect on retention and learning of technical vocabulary? and the considered hypothesis is 'The effect of L1 and L2 word glossary is similar on retention and learning of technical vocabulary‘. The study was done by two tests (test 1 & test 2) with five passages of reading comprehension. In test 1, the definition of words in word glossary of technical vocabularies is in English language (L2) and in test 2, the definition of the vocabularies is in Persian language (L1). These two tests were administered one after another with 15 minutes break between them and 45 minutes was considered to answer the questions for each test. The same students participated in two tests. They were 40 Civil Engineering students of Engineering Technical University (Azad University), Chaloos branch. All of them were male and they were selected after administering a placement test among 60 Civil Engineering students of the university. The placement test was administered one week before the main tests. Comparison the scores of two tests and analyzing them showed that the students answer test 2 (with Persian word glossary) better than test 1 (with English word glossary). Although there were students that answer test 1 better than test 2 and some of them act the same in two tests, most of them answer test 2 (with Persian word glossary) better than test 1 (with English word glossary) and totally result disapprove the hypothesis of the study and it can be said L1 word glossary is more effective than L2 word glossary on learning and retention of vocabularies and also technical word glossary. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/acdefdfdcd7c11cbd984430bd9ed52e0.pdf 1bfb40abc1267b6b949f36aad013b4a5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗GROWN-UP‘ SYNTAX IN CHILDREN‘S STORYBOOKS Tatjana MarjanoviĤ Department of English University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina tatjanam@inecco.net Abstract: The study hopes to challenge the view that syntax in children‘s storybooks is custom-made to match the general abilities of young listeners and readers. Reading with an adult mind and eyes prompts the question whether at least some children‘s storybooks make it difficult to draw a line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The small-scale research was a text-based analysis of three children‘s stories aimed at pre-teen children aged seven through twelve. With a manually handled corpus kept within manageable limits it was possible to determine the presence or absence of syntactic structures associated with advanced language use, i.e. those believed to require considerable experience, knowledge and skill in language production and reception. The main finding to report is that syntax in children‘s stories is little different from what may be informally described as ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The paper also invites the reader to acknowledge the difficult task of balancing a downgraded version of syntax against an urge to tell an engaging story that wants to be read. Key words: syntax, clause, paratactic, hypotactic, embedded, non-finite Introduction To say that storytelling lies at the very root of human communication is to say nothing new and startling. To say that storytelling is a practice deeply ingrained in our linguistic and social behaviour may seem all too familiar to deserve yet another echo. Indeed, Bell (1999, p. 147) reminds us that ‗much of humanity‘s most important experience has been embodied in stories.‘ It is also a practice we are introduced to very early on in our lives. Very young children who may not even be able to speak properly eagerly await their bedtime story and savour the familiar voice of their reader taking them to a safe haven of imagination. But beyond the nostalgic reminiscences of a happy childhood loom many unanswered questions puzzling the adult minds of researchers who resort not to imagination but to empirical tests involving texts and subjects. Experts have strived in their many efforts to find out what a children‘s story does and does not do. The following are some of the frequently asked questions. To what extent is it an aid in enhancing children‘s reading skills? Does and should it contain language within absolute reach of the target age group? Is and should there be a shift of focus from attaining full comprehension to merely creating imagery as a powerful tool for teaching desired or acceptable forms of social behaviour? Owing to an excess of conflicting evidence, research is still very much ongoing in this field, as the lines below suggest. In her study of nonfinite clauses in children‘s literature, Puurtinen (1998) reports that these tightly packed and therefore inevitably less explicit units of meaning affect readability (i.e. ease with which texts are read and understood) more than sentence length does (Role of Children‘s Literature section, para. 2). However, recent trends in children‘s literature reveal greater freedom in the choice of complex syntactic structures, which may be a result of a relatively relaxed attitude towards children's literature in general (Conclusion, para. 1). Some justification for such trends is found in the work of Eisenberg et al. (2008), who report quite encouraging results of a study testing school-aged children‘s production of noun phrases with pre- and postmodification in fictional narratives. Accordingly, descriptive noun phrases were produced by all children at the age of 8, and noun phrases with post-modification by all children at the age of 11 (Abstract). More tentative forecasts are reported in Paris, Carpenter, Paris and Hamilton (2005), who claim that syntactically difficult stories or those containing unfamiliar vocabulary may lead to more gap-filling than texts which are less complex and more accessible to younger readers (p. 136). Verhallen (2009) agrees that the sophisticated language of children‘s books is often riddled with complex sentences and may thus be out of reach for young children with little previous exposure to storybooks (para. 1). To fully understand a narrative may not be of primary importance indeed: a simple act of reading or being read to may help a child grow and develop more creatively. With loyalties lying in that camp, the issue of a child‘s linguistic abilities matching the linguistic complexity of children‘s literature possibly gives less cause for concern. 1175 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The following study hopes to challenge the view, should it still persist amongst linguists, teachers, and story readers and tellers in general, that syntax in children‘s storybooks is custom-made to match the general abilities of young listeners and readers. Reading with an adult mind and eyes prompts the question whether at least some children‘s storybooks make it difficult to draw a line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. Sentence and phrase length put aside, what remains is a number of highly sophisticated syntactic structures and strategies expressing some of the most subtle layers of meaning. This paper is certainly not meant to criticize the syntactic make-up of children‘s storybooks (nor would it be fair in light of so many opposing views prevailing with language acquisition experts in this line of study); instead, it invites all parties concerned to acknowledge the difficult - if not impossible - task of balancing a downgraded version of syntax against an urge to tell an engaging story that wants to be read. The aim of the research is not to support one view against the other, but merely to report the finding that syntax in children‘s literature is little different from what may informally be described as ‗grown-up‘ syntax. Corpus The corpus underlying the study consists of three children‘s storybooks 339 online340 amounting to 3,987 words distributed over 388 lines. The stories are aimed at pre-teen children aged seven through twelve. A total of only three stories points to a small-scale research in which a manually handled corpus had to be kept within manageable limits. Method An analysis was performed of syntactic structures associated with advanced language use, especially hypotactic and embedded clauses, each realized by both finite and non-finite varieties. Their occurrences were then compared against those syntactic structures that are intuitively considered less demanding, mainly paratactic clauses. A selective list was also created reporting additional syntactic features and strategies - some of them with clearly marked discourse functions - believed to require considerable experience, knowledge and skill in language production and reception, i.e. cleft sentences, discontinuous modification, extraposition, fronting, inversion, thematic dislocation, along with ellipsis and substitution at clause level. Each of the categories selected was then defined and exemplified with verbatim corpus material. Finally, tabular representations of syntactic structures and features containing percentages and numbers of occurrences were provided in order to visualise the findings rather than present the study as essentially quantitative. The aim was to point to a syntactic wealth and diversity in children‘s stories rather than claim categorical supremacy in numbers. Findings and discussion Following a count of 313 sentences and 690 clauses, the latter were grouped and analysed as belonging to paratactic, hypotactic or embedded varieties. Parataxis is a relationship of independence and equality between clauses, with each clause in the complex preserving its self-sustainability. Two or more clauses can be conjoined in this way both with and without the presence of a coordinating conjunction (when there is no coordinator, a comma is used instead). Hypotaxis, on the other hand, signifies a relationship in which one clause assumes the position of subordination to the other clause or clauses (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 281). We have, however, regarded as hypotactic only those clauses that have adverbial meanings (Carter and McCarthy, 2006, p. 560), along with the odd sentential relative341. Such an approach enabled a separate treatment of embedded clauses, those that act as immediate constituents (i.e. subject, object or complement) of a superordinate clause, or even as constituents of phrases (e.g. relative clauses acting as post-modifiers in noun phrases). 339 The storybooks selected for analysis are McFeeglebee‘s Pond, an illustrated story, The Wumpalump, an illustrated religious parable, and The Littlest Knight, an illustrated fairy tale. The names of the authors are acknowledged in the References below. 340 The reminder that the storybooks appear online is not meant to imply a lower standard of production; on the contrary, www.magickeys.com, the site from which the storybooks were downloaded, is a multiple award-winner, with some of its content distributed to schools all over native Australia. 341 E.g. As big as three houses with breath like a gale, it looked rather hungry, which made Georgie pale. This sentence from McFeeglebee‘s Pond contains a sentential relative, which made Georgie pale, which, as the name suggests, harks back to the entire proposition of the preceding sentence rather than the more usual noun antecedent. 1176 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On a final note, sentence is here understood as an orthographical unit ending in a full stop or, less frequently, in a question or exclamation mark. The following are examples of all three types of clauses: (1a) "I'm gonna lie down with my knees in the air and the pole through my toes and doze like a lazy catfish in summer.["] (1b) The water, seething and boiling, turned bright red then dark as that grisly catfish became a shark. (1c) But little Georgie P. Johnson just wiggled his nose and pretended not to hear, as if he had molasses stuck in his ear. (from McFeeglebee's Pond) In (1a) the coordinator conjoining the two clauses is the semantically universal ‗and‘, while other coordinators found in the texts include but, so, or, nor, for, and then. (1b) features the subordinator ‗as‘, which has been chosen from a long list of subordinators in the texts, e.g. before, when, while, until, where, because, as if, just as, though, so that, now that, etc. Example (1c) is interesting because it brings together all three types of clauses: ‗stuck in his ear‘ is embedded, ‗as if he had molasses stuck in his ear‘ hypotactic, and ‗but little Georgie P. Johnson just wiggled his nose and pretended not to hear‘ comprises two paratactic clauses. The distribution of clauses based on the classification outlined is presented in Table 1 below. Clause Percentage Paratactic 67.5 Hypotactic 14.1 Embedded 18.4 Table 1: The distribution of dependent and independent clauses in the texts It is not surprising that parataxis should represent the dominant syntactic relationship in the stories, but the two dependent categories surely manifest a great deal of complexity and thus make up for what they may lack in numbers. Embedding takes place in all permissible constituent positions – that of subject, object and complement. At phrase level, clauses post-modify nouns, complement adjectives and prepositions, and qualify adverbs342. Even more strikingly, the corpus abounds in sentences with multiple or recursive embedding, i.e. embedded clauses containing other embedded or hypotactic clauses, for example: (2a) The King declared whosoever killed the dragon would be granted half his kingdom. (2b) When he reached the dragon's lair he saw that the cliffs of the ravine were so far across that building a bridge would take a year. (from The Littlest Knight) In (2a) the embedded clause ‗whosoever killed the dragon would be granted half his kingdom‘ acting as direct object introduces yet another embedded clause - ‗whosoever killed the dragon‘ - in subject position. Similarly, in (2b) the nominal clause ‗that the cliffs of the ravine were so far across that building a bridge would take a year‘ accommodates the adverb phrase ‗so far across that building a bridge would take a year‘, with the clause ‗that building a bridge would take a year‘ acting as qualifier, which in turn holds the non-finite clause ‗building a bridge‘ in subject position. As a matter of fact, hypotactic and embedded clauses are realised by a great number of nonfinite structures (e.g. infinitival and participial, along with verbless clauses), as displayed in Table 2 below. Clause Percentage Finite 62.5 Non-finite 37.5 Table 2: Finite versus non-finite hypotactic and embedded clauses Let us briefly consider the following examples: (3a) So now whenever a little lump believes on the Word and knows to give of himself is life... so shall he too feel all love, all joy, all peace. 342 The terminology used is from Greenbaum and Quirk (1990) and Downing and Locke (2003). 1177 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (from The Wumpalump) (3b) Grabbing the pole and holding on tight he used every muscle to fight what was without doubt the biggest of trout. (from McFeeglebee's Pond) (3a) introduces the infinitival clause ‗to give of himself‘, which functions as the subject of the higher-ranking nominal clause ‗to give of himself is life‘, in turn filling the object slot of the main clause. (3b) accommodates the coordinated V-ing adverbial clauses ‗grabbing the pole and holding on tight‘, as well as the infinitival adverbial clause ‗to fight what was without doubt the biggest of trout‘, which additionally holds the wh-nominal clause ‗what was without doubt the biggest of trout‘ in the object slot. Adding further to an already complex syntactic make-up are non-finite clauses containing explicit subjects, for example: (4) It was in misery with its eyes swollen shut and its forked tongue lying on the ground. (from The Littlest Knight) The coordinated non-finite clauses, the first known as the V-en, and the second as the V-ing type, are introduced by the reinforcing preposition ‗with‘ and accompanied by the subjects ‗its eyes‘ and ‗its forked tongue‘ respectively. For an overview of syntactic categories analysed see Table 3 below. Syntactic feature Occurrences Clefting 3 Discontinuity 6 Ellipsis 5 Extraposition 4 Fronting 8 Inversion 11 Preposed theme 3 Postposed theme 1 Substitution 2 Table 3: The number of occurrences reported for advanced syntactic structures and features Greenbaum and Quirk (1990, p. 407) define fronting as ‗the achievement of marked theme by moving into initial position an item which is otherwise unusual there.‘ In a functional grammar framework (cf. Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004, p. 73) subject is theme by default, the most usual point of departure that signals what the clause is going to be about, while adverbials, which are frequently found in clause-initial positions in English, represent the least marked thematic choice. Because objects and complements are exceptionally rare in clause-opening positions, they are regarded as highly marked thematic elements in English (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 42). When fronted, these elements serve specific discourse functions. Baker (2002, p. 134) suggests that their thematic effect is to achieve contrast and highlight the speaker‘s attitude to the message. As shown in the examples below, instances of fronting identified in the corpus assume some of the most marked forms: (5a) … and no one there was to save them from the nothingness. (5b) … for no one there is to share with. (from The Wumpalump) (5c) Of fishing he was very fond, why should he fear McFeeglebee's pond? (from McFeeglebee's Pond) Compare the following unmarked versions with no fronting, leading to a more standard word order: (5d) … and there was no one to save them from the nothingness. (5e) … for there is no one to share with. (5f) He was very fond of fishing, why should he fear McFeeglebee's pond? 1178 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Examples (5a), (5b) and (5c) exhibit another interesting feature - that of discontinuity or postponement. Namely, post-modifiers in noun phrases and complements in adjective phrases can be separated from their respective heads to enable heavy structures to be placed towards the end of the utterance (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 263). This communicative strategy in turn reflects the existence of two complementary principles: end-focus and end-weight. The former suggests that new or most informative content is customarily placed towards the end of the clause, whereas the latter claims the end-position preference for weighty structures, usually long and/or complex ones (Leech and Svartvik, 1993, p. 175). Both in their syntactic and communicative aspects, fronting and discontinuity emerge as two fairly sophisticated expressive tools. Of course, writers may resort to advanced syntax to achieve a rhyming effect, as observed in (5c) above and (6a) below, which contains a discontinuous noun phrase, but without the extra fronting: (6a) And some little lumps arose who were wiser than their fellows. (from The Wumpalump) End-weight principle is clearly at work in (6a), and is justified by the awkwardness of having the whole noun phrase placed before the predicate: (6b) ?And some little lumps who were wiser than their fellows arose. It has not escaped our attention that discontinuity and fronting are almost exclusively associated with The Wumpalump storybook, which may be attributed either to the writer‘s syntactic preferences or even to her conscious attempt to emulate the style of religious writing. When the subject of a clause occurs in post-verbal position, the resulting word order is typically described as inversion. (7a) below qualifies for a textbook example: (7a) Out behind the big red barn at the edge of the walnut grove is a most magnificent pond shaded by an old oak tree. (from McFeeglebee's Pond) The inversion found in (7a) is meant to give greater prominence to the subject (Huddleston, 2000, p. 456), which is achieved by placing a scene-setting adverbial at the beginning of the clause. It is generally acknowledged that clause-opening adverbials denoting place reinforced with verbs of position and motion provide two important conditions in order for a successful subject-predicate switch to take place. As (7b) and (7c) below indicate, there are also adjunctive and conjunctive elements such as ‗not only‘ and ‗nor‘, which typically (or even obligatorily) trigger subject-operator inversion (Huddleston, 2000, p. 456; Thomson and Martinet, 1992, p. 63): (7b) But when he got back to the dragon he discovered that not only had the cup been chipped but it had a crack he had not seen. (7c) One man can't carry 1,000 swords, nor can you cross a bridge which isn't there, and if you fill an empty cup it won't be empty any more. (from The Littlest Knight) On the whole, inversion seems to be a useful tool in creating relevant discourse features such as scene-setting, focus and emphasis, adding the much-needed dramatic touch to storytelling. Since both types of inversion (i.e. subject-predicate and subject-operator switch) are performed in accordance with clearly defined criteria, the structure suggests a substantial degree of productive skill and receptive knowledge on the part of the speaker/writer and listener/reader, respectively. Another discourse-oriented syntactic strategy used for roughly the same communicative purposes and involving a rearrangement of clausal elements is known as extraposition. The notional subject, which is typically a long clause, is postponed or extraposed, and its initial position filled by an anticipatory it (Downing and Locke, 2003, p. 35-6). The following sentence offers a textbook example of extraposition, which practically has no alternative in this case: (8) The Princess was the King and Queen's only child and it should come as no surprise that the little blacksmith loved her very much for she was both kind and beautiful.343 343 The notional subject extraposed is ‗that the little blacksmith loved her very much‘, while the ‗it‘ preceding the operator ‗should‘ is the obligatory slot-filling grammatical subject. 1179 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (from The Littlest Knight) Consider the awkwardness of ‗that the little blacksmith loved her very much should come as no surprise‘. Indeed, some clausal subjects are obligatorily extraposed, e.g. when followed by verbs of seeming and happening or the passive of say and hope. Generally, the complementary principles of end-weight and end-focus are the main driving force behind this syntactic transformation too, which once again requires a knowledgeable handler to follow it through. Assigning focus lies at the heart of another syntactic strategy commonly referred to as clefting. Although clefting was extremely rare in the storybooks analysed, both varieties, wh- and it-structure, were nevertheless documented: (9a) What was left were sacks and sacks and sacks of money piled everywhere. (9b) It was shortly after that he found the dragon or rather it found him. (from The Littlest Knight) What may easily escape the attention of an unsuspecting reader is a range of informational and stylistic effects achieved by the two structures. The wh-cleft in (9a), also known as pseudo-cleft, first broadly identifies an element as thematic, i.e. ‗what was left‘, and then returns to it in post-verbal position by revealing that it is ‗sacks and sacks and sacks of money piled everywhere‘. The structure conveys both an idea of implicit contrast as well as a sense of exclusiveness (Baker, 2002, p. 135-6): the finding that what was left were sacks of money is most likely to counter the reader‘s expectations; moreover, the reader is supposed to infer that the sacks of money were the only thing left and that there was nothing else there. The cleft in (9b) above places an element following ‗it‘ and the verb ‗be‘, i.e. ‗shortly after‘, in focus, with an idea of implicit contrast wielding the sentence in the desired direction (e.g. it was shortly after rather than years later that he found the dragon). Clefting in general subsumes several layers of meaning that are not exactly self-explanatory, and may take an expert to develop a full and proper understanding of their fine-grained linguistic properties. Unlike most of the afore-mentioned strategies, pre- and postposed themes are not to be associated with contrast or focus assignment. Instead, what takes place here is essentially thematic dislocation 344 in which pronominal forms serve as repetitions of more substantial nominal or, less frequently, clausal thematic elements, or in which an attenuated pronominal theme is subsequently disambiguated by a fully fledged theme. Non-pronominal themes can occur either in initial or final position in a clause (hence the term dislocation), as illustrated below: (10a) You must think I'm here to fiddle,1,000 men--that's not the riddle.345 (from The Littlest Knight) (10b) For this is the grace of God... that we should know him who in love created us and his son who in love died for us.346 (from The Wumpalump) Their appearance in the corpus is significant as dislocated themes are not commonly found in written English. McCarthy (2005, p. 51) cautions that these structures, which regularly emerge in natural spoken data, are nevertheless often ‗underplayed in language teaching, probably owing to the continued dominance of standards taken from the written code.‘ Pre- and postposed themes reflect the ‗online‘ nature of spontaneous speech styles, and the fact that they are documented in the corpus gives the storybooks a certain advantage over other forms of writing that ignore or find fault with these and similar aspects of grammar. They also add variety to an already diverse list of syntactic categories in the children‘s storybooks. Although probably a universal feature of language, ellipsis and substitution may be structurally realised in considerably different ways in different languages, presenting great difficulties even to the most proficient of learners (McCarthy, 2005, p. 43-4). (11a) below illustrates the omission of the linking verb ‗be‘ in the clause ‗and he but a lowly blacksmith‘, whereas (11b) is an example of clause-level substitution or replacement facilitated by the complex pro-form ‗not to‘: 344 Themes are normally realised by a single notional element occupying the first position in a clause. With preposed themes, however, nominal and pronominal thematic elements with single reference immediately follow each other, e.g. The Browns, they will know what to do. When the result is a postposed theme, the opening pronoun develops into a fullfledged coreferential structure at the end of the clause, e.g. They will know what to do, the Browns. 345 ‗1,000 men‘ is a preposed nominal theme, and ‗that‘ its pronominal reinforcement. 346 The pronominal theme ‗this‘ refers to the postposed clausal theme ‗that we should know him who in love created us and his son who in love died for us‘. 1180 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (11a) But, alas, the little blacksmith could admire the Princess only from afar because she was, after all, a princess and he but a lowly blacksmith--not even that tall. (from The Littlest Knight) (11b) Did you look to the nothingness as I warned you not to?" (from The Wumpalump) It is with ellipsis and substitution347 that we bring to a close our discussion of advanced structural devices found in the children‘s storybooks, posing the question whether there should be any justification for regarding the syntactic make-up of children‘s stories as essentially different from many other forms of writing that do not specifically target younger audiences. Conclusion This small-scale study was designed to challenge the popular belief that syntax in children‘s narratives must have a childlike quality to it. Quite a long list of syntactic structures and features dealt with in the previous section clearly contradicts this belief. The study casts real doubts over an attempt to make a clear dividing line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. Any expectations of that kind prove unrealistic against the backdrop of highly sophisticated linguistic and expressive tools in the narratives. (Most of the structures given in Table 3, e.g. clefting and fronting, I teach my 3rd and 4th year students, foreign learners of English who are getting ready to take up teaching positions. My experience tells me that many of them would struggle to derive the right forms and understand their corresponding communicative roles.) The question arises whether it is at all possible to tell an inspiring story using only the most rudimentary of syntactic devices. Even if the answer is affirmative, the very next dilemma to resolve is whether prioritising comprehension offers compelling enough an argument not to present language at its best. On the whole, it seems that syntactic simplicity in children‘s narratives is becoming increasingly rare, but it remains to be seen what results these (un)conscious narrative practises will bring forth and whether they will stand the test of time. 347 Only those cases of ellipsis and substitution operating at verb phrase and clause level were taken into account, and precisely so because they are associated with a high degree of complexity, which explains why some simpler forms of ellipsis (e.g. that of subject in coordinated clauses) were completely disregarded. 1181 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Baker, M. (2002). In Other Words: A coursebook on translation. London: Routledge. Bell, A. (1999). The Language of News Media. Oxford: Blackwell. Carter, R. and McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP. Downing, A. and Locke, P. (2003). A University Course in English Grammar. London: Routledge. Eisenberg, S. L., Ukrainetz, T. A., Hsu, J. R., Kaderavek, J. N., Justice, L. M., and Gillam, R. B. (2008). Noun phrase elaboration in children's spoken stories. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 145-157. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2008/014) Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. (1990). A Student‘s Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman. Halliday, M. A. K. and Matthiessen, C. (2004). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder Arnold. Huddleston, R. (2000). Introduction to the Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1993). A Communicative Grammar of English. Harlow: Longman. McCarthy, M. (2005). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: CUP. Moore, C. (n.d.). McFeeglebee‘s Pond (Children‘s storybooks online). Retrieved September 17, 2010, from http://www.magickeys.com/books/mcfee/mpp1.html Moore, C. (n.d.). The Littlest Knight (Children‘s storybooks online). Retrieved September 17, 2010, from http://www.magickeys.com/books/lk/index.html Paris, S. G., Carpenter, R. D., Paris, A. H., and Hamilton, E. E. (2005). Spurious and genuine correlates of children‘s reading comprehension. In Scott G. Paris and Steven A. Stahl (Eds.), Children‘s Reading Comprehension and Assessment (pp. 131-160). New Jersey: LEA. Pearson, C. (n.d.). The Wumpalump (Children‘s storybooks online). Retrieved September 17, 2010, from http://www.magickeys.com/books/wumplump/page1.html Puurtinen, T. (1998). Syntax, Readability and Ideology in Children's Literature. Meta: journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal, 43(4), 524-533. Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/1998/v43/n4/003879ar.pdf Thomson, A. J. and Martinet, A. V. (1992). A Practical English Grammar (4th ed.). Oxford: OUP. Verhallen, M. J. A. J. (2009). Video storybooks as a bridge to literacy (Doctoral dissertation summary, Leiden University). Retrieved from http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/verhallen-summary.pdf 1182 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 557 Title A name given to the resource GROWN-UP‘ SYNTAX IN CHILDREN‘S STORYBOOKS Author Author Marjanovic, Tatjana Abstract A summary of the resource. The study hopes to challenge the view that syntax in children‘s storybooks is custom-made to match the general abilities of young listeners and readers. Reading with an adult mind and eyes prompts the question whether at least some children‘s storybooks make it difficult to draw a line between ‗young‘ and ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The small-scale research was a text-based analysis of three children‘s stories aimed at pre-teen children aged seven through twelve. With a manually handled corpus kept within manageable limits it was possible to determine the presence or absence of syntactic structures associated with advanced language use, i.e. those believed to require considerable experience, knowledge and skill in language production and reception. The main finding to report is that syntax in children‘s stories is little different from what may be informally described as ‗grown-up‘ syntax. The paper also invites the reader to acknowledge the difficult task of balancing a downgraded version of syntax against an urge to tell an engaging story that wants to be read. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a6a72dc735691e289290eed308fa1c61.pdf 019c5bb9e41802684388882992f3d312 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mass Culture and Literature in Japan in the Interwar Period Ljiljana MarkoviĤ Filolońki fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu ljiljana.markovic@fil.bg.ac.rs Marina JoviĤ DjaloviĤ Univerziteta u Beogradu, Serbia mvjovic@rcub.bg.ac.rs Abstract: The paper deals with the conditions influencing the emergence of mass culture in Japan in the interwar period. It describes the spread of mass media, statescript reform, appearance of the enbon and specifics of big publishing companies. Special attention is devoted to the characteristics of popular literature and the emergence of historical and detective novels as new genres. Key Words: Japan, mass media, elite and mass culture, popular literature Introduction The development of social and economic relations during the 20th century brought about changes in the creation and use of cultural values, resulting in the emergence of two types of culture: mass and elitist. Such a division is based on the views of Spanish philosopher Jose Ortega y Gasset that society is always a dynamic unity composed of two factors: minorities and masses.[4] The basic difference between elitist and mass culture lies in their commercial components. Elitist culture is an artistic product, which is created not only for commercial purposes, while mass culture is a commodity, which is produced for the market in an industrial process and earns profit through its sale to mass consumers. Cultural scientists and art historians differ in their views concerning the time when the elements of mass culture began to emerge. According to American sociologist D. White, the first elements of mass culture can be found in gladiatorial fights in ancient Rome because they attracted large audiences. T. Adorno holds that the prototype of modern mass culture emerged in England with the rise of capitalism (at the turn of the 17th to the 18th century). In his opinion, the novels from that period, like those of Defoe and Richardson, had a distinct commercial component. According to the modern view, mass culture first emerged in America at the turn of the 19th to the 20th century, with the spread of capitalism and its penetration into all spheres of life: economics, politics, administration, control, communications and human relations. The development of global market relations could not bypass the sphere of intellectual activity. The commercialisation of all social relations, associated with the fast development of the means of mass communication, brought about the emergence of mass culture. The notion of ―mass culture‖ does not give a true picture of the changes that occurred. The basic meaning of ―mass culture‖ is culture for the masses, culture intended for people or, in other words, popular culture. However, in essence, ―mass culture‖ is consumer culture, or the market opened to consumers of culture. The emergence of mass culture was accompanied by the creation of a new social class, which was termed ―middle class‖ and represented the consumer masses. In Western countries, the middle class became the basis of industrial society. On the artistic plane, mass culture performed special social functions, the most important being the illusory one – the introduction of man into the world of illusions and unfulfilled dreams. All this was coupled with the overt or hidden propaganda of the dominant ideology aiming at separating the masses from social reality, inducing conformism and adjusting people to the existing living conditions. Therefore, literature belonging to mass culture is characterised by light genres: detective and Western fiction, melodramas, musicals and comics. They form a simplified view of life, which reduces everything bad to psychological and moral factors, while at the same time making wide use of the launched axioms that ―a good deed is always awarded‖ and that ―love and faith (in God, in oneself) always win‖. However, despite being seemingly insubstantial, mass culture has a serious basis in the method of its functioning and not in its quality.[7] 753 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Specifics of The Emergence of Mass Culture in Japan Mass culture emerged in Japan after the Great Kanto Earthquake. In considering mass culture in Japan in the interwar period, Fujitake Akira points out that it owes its emergence to the creation of four crucial preconditions from the end of the Meiji period to the mid-Taisho period: - The emergence of the people as a force in the political and social sphere; The rise of capitalism during the First World War and postwar economic crises; The strengthening of Japan‘s international position over a condensed period of time; and The introduction and flourishing of foreign culture within the middle class.[3] During the 1920s, two events had a decisive impact on the formation of mass culture. The first was the Great Kanto Earthquake in September 1923, while the second one was the adoption of the Universal Male Suffrage Law (Futsu senkyo kisei domeikai), which gave rise to the pro-democracy movement in the Taisho period, and the Peace Preservation Law (Chian iji ho), which was adopted in 1925 as a counterweight to the mentioned democratic law. On 1 September 1923, the Great Kanto Earthquake destroyed Tokyo and Yokohama. Apart from its disastrous material consequences and human casualties, it had a great psychological impact on the Japanese people. In 1934, during his visit to France, Yokomitsu Riichi stated that it had the same impact on the Japanese way of life and culture as the First World War on the fate of Europe. He held that, after the earthquake that had destroyed the old culture, it was necessary to develop some other artistic values. He also believed that, after rejecting its past, a new Japan would emerge from the ruins and flames of Tokyo. By a new culture he primarily meant the literature and art of modernity, which abruptly began to spread in Japan, like in Europe, after the First World War.[5] The earthquake caused the enormous destruction of residential and commercial buildings. Over 80 per cent of all buildings in Tokyo and Yokohama were destroyed and over 100,000 people were killed. Tremendous material damage (over 5.5 billion yens) brought into question the overall Meiji modernisation project, revealing its uncertainty. Thus, Seiji Lippit quotes Uno Koji: ―This metropolis, built for more than 50 years during the Meiji and Taisho periods… vanished in smoke in a moment during the September earthquake.‖[9] Most printing houses and editorial offices were also destroyed, so that many avant-garde, proletarian, women‘s, civil and other journals ceased to come out (Shinko Bungaku, Aka to Kuro, Tane mako hito). In 1925, the government adopted the new Public Order Preservation Law in order to provide additional legal grounds for sanctions against radical activities, which affected the further work of Marxist-oriented societies, including anarchist-minded groups of poets.[8] The great destruction of old Edo enhanced the feeling of distance from the past because it did not exist any more. Thus, Western technology was adopted in its entirety and implemented in the rebuilding of the city within a few years (formally – until 1930). This new ―Westernisation‖ helped build the city, but that was not old Tokyo any more. It was a fully urbanised, modern new city, which completely adopted the Western principles. Apart from the reconstruction of productive industries, publishing activity was also modernised, thus creating a scope for the spread of mass culture and popular literature. Owing to the import of fast rotating machines, the circulation of commercial periodicals and non-periodicals sharply increased. Thus, for example, from 1920 to 1924, the circulation of the newspapers Osaka Shinbun and Tokyo Shinbun rose from 600,000 to 1,000,000 and from 350,000 to 710,000 respectively. This was also contributed by the script reform carried out by the Ministry of Education.[2] In addition, the publishing companies Asahi and Mainchi seated in Osaka and Tokyo, which published the high-circulation dailies Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun, introduced special systems for fast information transmission (telegraph and air mail), thus considerably improving information gathering and transmission. Thanks to the actualisation of information, the press was transformed from ―opinion journalism‖, as it was since 1910, into ―mass journalism‖, which was explained by the President of the Mainichi publishing company, Mojoyama Hikoichi by saying that ―newspapers are a commodity‖.[3] The content of newspapers also changed. It became diverse and, apart from information and advertisements, included novels in instalments and comics, which were later to develop into a very popular genre in Japan. This considerably increased the number of middle-class subscribers, so that the circulation of some newspapers reached one million. Journals began again to be published under their old or new names. The best-known journal of general character was ―King‖ (Kingu), whose first issue, published in 1925, was sold in 750,000 copies. Such a high circulation was largely due to a well-organised advertising campaign which, inspired by American ones, was conducted by all publishing companies. This practice was also adopted in book publishing. In 1926, low-priced (oneyen) paperback series began to come out (the enbon programme). The first series consisting of 50 volumes was published by the Kaizosha publishing company under the title ―Complete Collection of Modern Japanese Literature‖ (Gendai nihon bungaku zenshu). It was followed by ―Complete Collection of World Literature‖ (Sekai bungaku 754 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo zenshu), launched by the Shinchosha publishing company in 1927. The series also consisted of 50 volumes. A quote from the advertising message shows the way in which the reader is approached: ―`We enable you to read books at the lowest possible prices!‖ With this slogan our company carried out a great revolution in the world of publications, liberating art from the privileged class and giving it to the masses.‖[2] An aggressive advertising campaign and the low prices of newspapers, journals and books contributed to the democratisation of culture, increase in the reading public and, thus, an increase in the cultural level in general. Apart from King, other weekly journals also began to come out. In 1922, Asahi and Mainichi began to publish Shukan Asahi and Sande Mainichi respectively. The following year, Asahi began to publish the illustrated weekly journal Asahi Gurafu. Iwanami Shoten and Kondasha Ltd. also began to publish such publications. The publishing company Iwanami Shoten was established in 1913 by Iwanami Shigeo, who evolved from an antiquarian book seller into a successful publisher of novels, scientific journals and paperback series. His success encouraged many leading scholars to contribute to his publications. With the series entitled ―Iwanami Library of Classics‖ (Iwanami Bunko), launched in 1927, the company definitely shifted to serious, elitist intellectual culture. Such an activity became known as ―Iwanami Culture‖. A series of articles on Japan‘s capitalism (Nihon shihon shugi hattatsu shi koza), published by the company since 1932, became the Marxist forum before the Second World War. In 1938, the company also began to publish a series of articles on current issues, like the Iwanami Shinsho series.[1] The Kodansha publishing company is one of the most important companies of its kind in Japan. Its predecessor was the Greater Japan Oratorical Society (Dai Nippon Yuben Kai), which was founded by Noma Seiji (1878-1938) in November 1909. In February 1910, he started to publish the periodical ―Oratory‖ (Yuben) under the motto ―The judiciary will suffer if oratory gets worse‖. One year later, Noma founded another publishing company, Kodansha, with the aim of publishing less serious journals. The first was Kodan kurabu, which was followed by several other journals published during the period 1914-1923. In 1925, he began to publish his best known journal ―King‖ (Kingu). That same year, Noma merged his two publishing companies into one company, Dai Nippon Yuben Kai Kodansha, which published nine Kodansha journals. In the interwar period, they covered 70% of the Japanese journals market.[6] The publications of Iwanami Shoten and Kodansha Ltd. had a great impact on the Japanese patterns of thinking and behaviour in the interwar period. The journals published by Iwanami Shoten were intended for the elitist (intellectual) pubic, while the publications of Kodansha appealed to the middle class and provided a special impetus to the formation of mass culture in Japan. Due to the difference between these influences, they are called ―Iwanami Culture and ―Kodansha Culture‖.[3] Radio was another means of disseminating mass information. Radio Tokyo began broadcasting in 1925. The basic characteristic of radio broadcasting was monopolism, since three state companies, established in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya in 1925, later merged into one state company – Japan Radio Corporation (Nippon housou kyoukai, NHK), thus consolidating the work of all existing radio stations. It retained its monopolistic position until 1951 when, under the American influence, private commercial radio stations were opened. Therefore, radio broadcasting was initially used to promote the state‘s interests and later the military regime. The period 1920-1930 was characterised by modern literature and a significant rise of the proletarian movement and its literature. The development of material civilisation during the 1930s brought fast progress in mass communication technology which, in the aftermath of the depression, encouraged the atmosphere of eroticgrotesque-nonsense (ero guro nansensu). Labour force urbanisation linked to the development of Japanese capitalism and increased national coverage by the mass media diminished the conflict between the rural provinces and urban Tokyo, which was the main recipient of mass culture. Opposition to these trends emerged in the form of a fascist movement,257 which advocated the imposition of military rule. The coming into power of the military regime in 1937 marked the end of mass culture in the interwar period. During the 1920s, mass literature of foreign origin, especially American and European one, included detective and romance novels, fantastic fiction and historical adventure novels, which did not exist in Japanese mass literature (taishu bungaku) on such a scale. Popular literature emerged as an entertaining genre in the Taisho period. It was published in high-circulation newspapers and journals, especially after the establishment of large and influential publishing companies and the emergence of new mass-scale non-fiction. Some authors who were previously associated with ―pure literature‖, like Kikuchi Kan and Kume Masao, also began to write for a broader public. At the same time, authors of historical novels adopted new topics in popular literature. The development of mass culture was accompanied by the rise of popular literature, including historical novels, detective stories and the beginnings of science fiction. The best known historical-fiction authors were Shirai Kyoji and Naoki Sanjugo, while the best known writers of detective stories were Edogawa Rampo, as well as Shrai 257 It is necessary to explain the notion of fascism in Japan. In essence, there is a distinction between the notions of fascist regime and fascist movement. A fascist regime implies a totalitarian political structure based on ideological monism, in which absolute power is concentrated in the hands of its leaders. On the other hand, a fascist movement is an opposition nationalist movement which is usually terrorist in character and aspires towards a dictatorship in one form or another. In Japan, it was the question of a fascist movement, while Germany and Italy first had a fascist movement and then a fascist regime. 755 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and Naoki. In 1925, they founded Club 21 and, in January next year, began to publish the journal ―Popular Literature‖ (Taishu bungei). In May 1927, the Shirai publishing company began to publish mystery and detective stories as the enbon series (Gendei taishu bungaku zenshu). Under the strong influence of American culture, Japanese mass culture assumed a number of characteristics common to mass culture in other countries. However, like many times in its history, Japanese culture absorbed only those foreign elements which were suited to the Japanese mentality, thus preserving its specifics. This especially refers to Japanese mass literature, while the culture of entertainment and leisure was adopted without any special critical framework, particularly by young people, since it was something that did exist in Japan before. This especially became evident after the Second World War. The best known genres of this literature in the interwar period included historical and detective novels. The main characters in historical novels were the samurai who, at the beginning, were depicted as ideal figures, protectors of their lord and his family. Later on, under the influence of American Wild West literature, they were increasingly portrayed as robbers and bandits, who used to kill men and insult women. The best known novel of this kind was Nakazato Kaizan‘s novel ―Daibosatsu Pass‖ (Daibosatsu Toge). Detective novels were very popular because they offered widely varied entertainment. Apart from mystery, they also included fantasy, grotesque and horror. Only after the Second World War, the detective genre became confined to the European framework. Detective fiction was published not only in daily newspapers, but also in the specialised journal ―New Youth‖ (Shin seinen), which was published by Hakubunkan during the period 1920-1950. It was an entertaining journal specialising in detective stories. The best known author of this genre was Edogawa Rampo (1894-1965).258 He published his first story ―The Two-Sen Copper Coin‖ (Nisan doka) in the journal Shin seinen, in 1923. It was followed by ―The Psychological Test‖ (Shinri shiken, 1925) and ―Watcher in the Attic‖ (Yaneura no samposha, 1925), thanks to which he assumed the leading position in this genre. His best known story from this period is ―Beast in the Shadow‖ (Inju, 1928). He later tried to switch to crime fiction with the mixture of the erotic and the grotesque, but his stories ―The Spider Man‖ (Kumootoko, 1929-30) and ―The Golden Mask‖ (Ogon kamen, 1030-31) were not so successful. Thus, he returned to detective fiction and, in 1936, published the novel ―The Mystery Man of Twenty Faces‖ (Kaijin nijumenso, 1936), which is considered one of his best works. After the war, he published the anthology ―Forty Years of Detective Stories‖ (Tantei shosetsu yonjunen, 1961) in which he presented the development of the detective fiction genre.[10] Literary critic Chiba Kameo dealt with the specifics of popular literature in his essay ―The Essence of Popular Literature― (Taishu bungaku no honshitsu), published in the journal Chuo koron in July 1296.[11] In considering the essence of popular literature, Chiba gave three fundamental characteristics to this literature: romantic, instructive and entertaining. The first characteristic is contained in historical, detective and entertaining fiction, which directs the reader‘s sentiment toward rightfulness or an ideal world that can never be attained. As for the second characteristic, Chiba points out that popular literature appeals to human emotions and not to reason. The third characteristic implies that one must devote great attention to the way in which entertainment is offered to the reader – this must be done without sensationalism and vulgarity. In Chiba‘s opinion, this requires a special skill. Mass culture in Japan in the interwar period created a basis for the development of mass culture after the Second World War, when Japanese popular literature adopted all genres of American light literature and culture, including detective novels, westerns, melodramas and musicals. However, a specific, purely Japanese genre – manga or comic books with light, serious and educational topics – also began to be developed. Conclusion The emergence of mass culture and popular literature was a major characteristic of this period. It was important for modern literature and avant-garde poetry not only because it increased readership and the number of sold copies, but also because of the possibility to highlight their role in society, literature and politics. In contrast to ―popular literature―, this literature declared itself to be ―pure literature― (jun bungaku). Mass culture is not only the characteristic of Japanese society; it is part of world culture. Its roots lie in the aspiration to turn man‘s spiritual activity into a commodity and impose it on consumer society under the mass media influence. References 258 His real name was Hirai Taro. He also used the pseudonym Edogawa Rampo, which is a Japanese rendering of Edgar Allan Poe‘s name. 756 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Arase Yutaka (1983), ―Iwanami Shoten―, Kodansha, Vol. 3. Gardner W. (2006), ―Advertising Tower: Japanese Modernism and Modernity in the 1920‘s―, Harvard University Press. Fujitake Akira (1967), ―The Formation and Development of Mass Culture―, Developing Economies, 5, 4. Jose Ortega y Gasset (1972), ―Las deshumanizaciñn del Arte e Ideas sobre la novela― (1925), Princeton University Press. JoviĤ DjaloviĤ Marina (2008), Doctoral Dissertation. Kakegawa Tomiko (1983), ―Kodansha Ltd―, Kodansha, Vol. 4. Kurt Lang, Gladys Engel Lang (2009), ―Mass Society, Mass Culture, and Mass Communication: The Meanings of Mass―, International Journal of Communication, 3. Lippit, Noriko Mizuta (1980), ―Reality and Fiction in Modern Japanese Literature―, MacMillan Press, New York. Lippit, Seiji M.(2002), ―Topographies of Japanese Modernism―, Columbia University Press. Satoru Saito (2000), ―Japanese Popular Literature―, Columbia University. Yasuko Claremont (2008), ―Shinseinen in the interwar period (1920-30)―, 17th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Melbourne, 1-3 July 757 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 111 Title A name given to the resource Mass Culture and Literature in Japan in the Interwar Period Author Author Marković, Ljiljana Jović Djalović, Marina Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper deals with the conditions influencing the emergence of mass culture in Japan in the interwar period. It describes the spread of mass media, statescript reform, appearance of the enbon and specifics of big publishing companies. Special attention is devoted to the characteristics of popular literature and the emergence of historical and detective novels as new genres. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/42e851e04c043bd2d97e7f24d7580818.pdf 1e286016eb0df8aa513298e901d70559 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On the Acquisition of English Articles with Bosnian L2 Learners of English Adi Maslo Department of English Language and Literature University of Dņemal BijediĤ Mostar, BiH adi.maslo@unmo.ba Abstract: Regarding the discrepancy between the English and the Bosnian language concerning an article system, this paper attempts at clarifying the difficulties for Bosnian L2 learners of English. Based on a similar study and an experimental study with Bosnian learners, this paper illustrates and copes with the very apparent and widely present issue of English articles among Bosnian learners. The principles of Definiteness and Specificity are introduced to contrast the two languages, aiding to a deeper understanding of this conceptual difference between English and Bosnian. The paper first states the current position of the English (definite and indefinite) article in the light of the Bosnian language, and specifies their respective Bosnian equivalents, eventually giving a suggestion to a deeper understanding. Key Words: articles, the, a, English, Bosnian, language, article, system Introduction According to different authors, the English article system is one of the most difficult elements for L2 learners of English. The problem can be found by both English language learners whose L1 language has an article system, and the ones whose L1 language lack such structural element. However, the manifestation of this issue is different. Students of the English language whose L1 language does have an article system, tend to reflect the article system regulations onto the English article system, whereas ESLs whose L1 language lacks an article system cannot find underpinnings in their mother tongue. Among languages such as Japanese, Russian, Finish and Chinese, the Bosnian language is one that lacks a formal element which would stay for the English article. However, the Bosnian language has different means of referring. Be it as it may, for the purposes of a better cross-cultural understanding, such a discrepancy must be kept in mind, being aware that English articles are the most widely spread in any written text or speech in English. Having stated that there is no formal item which would be an equivalent for the English article, the question arises – how to teach Bosnian students to adopt this phenomenon? What does it depend on, if there isn‘t a formal substitute for the English article? What the Bosnian literature offers is merely a division of places where the or a(n) or a zero article appear which is not a solution to the issue, since this issue is more deeply rooted and linked to a conceptual understanding of language. The English articles as perceived in Bosnian The English articles are not to be omitted in Standard English language. They represent a common picture of both spoken and written English. As it is formally known, the English language article system consists of the definite the, the indefinite a(n) and the so-called zero article. The definite article is a demonstrative determiner in its origin, whereas the indefinite article is a number by its origin – both must be kept in mind. The definite article is most often translated with Bosnian demonstratives whereas the indefinite article is most commonly translated (if at all) with numerals (TanoviĤ, 2002: 127). Both cases reflect their respective origin, but this is the case in few contexts where the article is to be understood literally i.e. when the English language refers to it like that. Examples for this are: (1) (2) There is a man waiting for you. (ĥeka te jedan Ħovjek.) This is the woman I told you about. (Ovo je ta ņena o kojoj sam ti govorio.) The meaning of the numeral jedan in (1) is close to that of the English indefinite article (a, an). Unlike English, however, which must use a or an whenever the meaning expressed by the indefinite article is desired, the use of jedan in Bosnian is optional. When a speaker chooses to use it, s/he sometimes has in mind the additional idea a certain (Alexander, 2006: 44). As another substitute for the English indefinite article, however 15 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo not functioning as such, there is the indefinite pronominal adjective neki meaning some/certain. However, these differ in their function, and don‘t stand as the counterpart of English articles but for purposes of the inner structure of Bosnian. The perception of English articles by Bosnian L2 learners is ‗blinded‘ by the lack of their own language i.e. language learners simply skip these ‗little words‘ in front of the noun(s). One reason for this could be the fact that these ‗little words‘ have no semantic meaning in Bosnian and they cannot occur as the head of a (Bosnian) phrase. Were it only for the ‗size of the word‘ prepositions wouldn‘t be recognized either, and were it only for the semantic meaning, prepositions, again, at time have no formal equivalent in the Bosnian language, but that doesn‘t make them disappear in a Bosnian learner‘s usage. However, the conceptual basis of referring in the respective languages tends to be the issue number one. Referring in English and in Bosnian The English article system is simple in its form, not, however, in its use. Articles are used as follows: the definite article is used for referents which are either an apparent element of the context in which the speech act is taking place or they are previously used (Jeffries, 2006). The criterion for the usage of either the definite or indefinite article can briefly be described as such: the definite nominal phrase (NP) has a referent which the speaker holds as an undoubtedly clear element (familiar) to the hearer, whereas the indefinite NP has a referent for which the speaker doesn‘t assume to be clear (familiar) to the hearer (Chesterman, 1991). According to the above quotes, we can see that the distinction is made on the principle of common knowledge of the speaker/hearer. The speaker and the hearer need to know what the other is referring to i.e. the speaker needs to linguistically isolate an entity from the non-linguistic reality to make the hearer understand which referent is being referred to. This can be explained with an example given by TrenkiĤ1 (2009). She makes us imagine a situation where both the speaker and the hearer are standing in a kitchen, both having this image (Figure 1) in front of them. The speaker wants the hearer to hand him the black mug. An English speaker would express his/her wish with: (3) Pass me the black mug, please. The NP is marked for definiteness by the usage of the definite article the. The definite article signals that the referent is uniquely identifiable, that it exists and is unique in one of the pragmatically delimited domains mutually manifest to speaker and hearer on-line – in this case the visually present objects in the immediate situation (Hawkins, 1991). Figure 1 Speakers of the Bosnian language wouldn‘t have the choice to use a definite article, but they could express their request with: (4) Dodaj mi crnu šolju, molim te. 1 TrenkiĤ's research was conducted with Serbian L2 learners of English, but the two languages (Bosnian and Serbian) don't differ in this matter 16 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo [Pass me black mug, please.] The NP isn‘t marked for definiteness; however, reference is successfully remained. The referent exists (there is a black mug in front of them) and is unique (there is only one black mug) in one of the pragmatically delimited domains (TrenkiĤ, 2009). The context is definite even though not marked as such. The speaker would have every reason to expect his reference to be unambiguous and successful; the outcome of reference resolution in (4) should be identical to that in (3). This example illustrates how definiteness is perceived differently; the context, and therefore the non-usage of articles, for Bosnian speakers would be even more justified for the entity referred to is visible i.e. the context is obvious. The Bosnian sentence, and language in general, are case marked, and the accusative case of the above Bosnian sentence does perform a deictic function. If an English speaker wanted to receive one of the white mugs, s/he would say: (5) Pass me a white mug, please. whereas the Bosnian speaker would express the request with: (6) Dodaj mi bijelu šolju, molim te. [Pass me white mug, please.] The NP in (5) is marked as indefinite by means of the indefinite a. The indefinite article signalizes that the criterion for uniqueness isn‘t fulfilled, for there is more than one referent which could be referred to with white mug. The Bosnian sentence (6) isn‘t marked as indefinite but the context is the same: the speaker is aware that there are more referents which could be referred to with ‗bijela ńolja‘. In both cases, the need for a specific white mug would need more explanation (TrenkiĤ, 2009). However, in (6) the numeral jedan (Dodaj mi jednu bijelu ńolju, molim te.) would be even more appropriate to, in a slightly different way, refer to the entity not being unique. Formally, sentences (4) and (6) don‘t differ, but referring is conducted successfully. On this example we can see that each language has its own means of remaining reference within its structure. In English, it is an article; the Bosnian language doesn‘t offer an equal element, but still doesn‘t lack reference and the successful communication isn‘t threatened. Specific and generic reference When we speak about articles, a major point is the distinction between specific and generic reference (Quirk, Greenbaum, 1973). If we say, (7) A lion and two tigers are sleeping in the cage. The reference is specific, for we have an image of a specific kind from the group tiger. If we, on the other hand, say (8) Tigers are dangerous animals. The reference is generic, for we think of the species tiger, without having one particular animal on mind (Quirk, Greenbaum, 1973). We use generic reference when the linguistic expression needs to indicate a group of things, people or phenomena, whereas the specific reference is used when we want to talk about individual entities (Bilbija, 2001). For the realization of the generic reference we have three forms; one with the definite article, one with the indefinite article, and one without an article (zero articles) in plural form. (9) The tiger is a dangerous animal. (Quirk, 1985) (10) A computer can only do what you program it to do. (Collins Cobuild English Grammar) (11) Girls can be tough. (Biber, 1999) Examples (9), (10), and (11) can represent an individual‘s statement about the non-linguistic reality. Generic reference, being a sub-group of the anaphoric reference, enables us to talk about something that isn‘t present in the same spatial environment as the speaker. This, however, may not be evident to an ordinary L2 Bosnian speaker of English, but his/her mother tongue will ‗force him/her‘ to omit the English article. We could 17 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo easily state here that when talking about things in general i.e. using the generic reference the most secure way is to use the plural noun without an article. Specific reference is somewhat more complex. In its specificity, the referent can be definite and indefinite, which might sound perplexing to a non-native of English. In, (12) A cat was the victim of a cruel attack when she was shot in the neck by a pellet. (Biber, 1999) The nouns cat and pellet are specific (belong to specific reference) in the sense that there is a/some (a specific) cat/pellet, but they are indefinite in terms of us not knowing which cat/pellet in particular, therefore the use of the indefinite article. The same kind of sub-reference is employed with nouns in plural which denote one specific/particular entity but we don‘t know (or it is of no importance) details about it: (13) The House passes laws with a certain honesty of intention behind them. (Bilbija, 2002) Definiteness and Specificity Ionin, Ko and Wexler (2004) tested the acquisition of English articles among two groups of learners, Korean and Russian. Both languages, Korean and Russian, don‘t have a formal equivalent for the English article. They found out that Korean and Russian L2 learners of English fluctuate between English articles according to their Article Choice Parameter – Definiteness and Specificity. Speakers of these two languages tend to use the definite article both in definite and indefinite specific context whereas the indefinite article is used in both indefinite and definite non-specific contexts. Cross-linguistically, articles encode semantic distinctions of Definiteness and Specificity (Ionin, Ko, Wexler 2004). The notion of Definiteness refers to the state of knowledge shared between the speaker and the hearer (or writer and reader). The notion of Specificity refers to knowledge only the speaker (writer) has (Kim, Lakshmann, 2009). Ionin, Ko and Wexler defined Definiteness and Specificity as follows: If a Determiner Phrase (DP) of the form [D NP] is : a. [+definite], then the speaker and hearer presuppose the existence of a unique individual in the set denoted by the NP. b. [+specific], then the speaker intends to refer to a unique individual in the set denoted by the NP and considers this individual to possess some noteworthy property. (Ionin, Ko, Wexler 2004) It is important to note that in the Standard English language, article choice depends on the notion of Definiteness, not Specificity (Kim, Lakshmanan, 2009) i.e. the shared knowledge is the context for the definite article the, whereas a nondefinite context, where there is no shared knowledge, the indefinite article is introduced (a, an, or the indefinite quantifier some). For example, if we A says to B: (14) A: I saw a girl the context is indefinite for the shared knowledge is not given, therefore the indefinite article. However, if in a subsequent sentence, speaker A was to mention the same referent (girl), it should be expressed as: (15) The girl was blond. The concept of the English language understands the second mention (even only a second later) of an entity as falling under the notion of shared knowledge – therefore, the definite article is to be introduced. But not only it is shared knowledge but, hearer B would be able to understand that speaker A still speaks about the same referent (girl). This is a point the Bosnian language doesn‘t reflect. That the notion of Definiteness is perceived differently by speakers whose L1 language doesn‘t have an article system is reflected in the study of TrenkiĤ (2002). Her research on a group of Serbian speakers of an intermediate level showed that article omission was more present in the second and each subsequent mention of a referent which on the first mention had an article. The research of Avery and RadińiĤ (2007) showed the same – on a retelling task, Serbian learners of English tended to omit articles. 18 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  ―… but in the middle of the wallet there is a lottery ticket… he took the lottery ticket… He took the money and the lottery ticket… he checked the lottery ticket… to give back lottery ticket… the original owner of lottery ticket… he took money and lottery ticket…‖ This example given by Avery and RadińiĤ (2007) shows the perception of the notion of Definiteness by Serbian speakers. The Serbian speaker (and so the Bosnian) perceives that each subsequent mention the referent is (more and more) ‗settled‘ and that it need not more be marked with a definite article. The perception of the two speakers (Bosnian/Serbian and English) is rather swapped – whereas the English language in each mention of a referent needs an article, the Bosnian language, even without an article equivalent, perceives a referent ‗settled‘ and doesn‘t need to define it further. A referent becomes more established with every mention, and the more established a referent is in a discourse model, the more likely the article is to be omitted (Ņegarac 2004). Besides the dropping articles in subsequent mention Huebner (1983), Jarvis (2002) and TrenkiĤ (2002) observe that articles are more likely to be dropped in a topic than in a non-topic position, just as Robertson (2000) stated that when speakers are referring to objects present in the immediate environment than in other definite contexts. TrenkiĤ (2007) states that the article dropping patterns can be observed even in highly advanced L2 speakers. Previous research on L2 article use suggests that articles tend to be omitted more often when reference is to a more salient than to a less salient referent. This asymmetry has been observed in several guises (TrenkiĤ, 2009). These empirical findings will be tested on Bosnian L2 learners of English in order to find out if they apply to Bosnian learners, too. Research with Bosnian L2 learners of the English language Method Three groups of English language learners will be tested: Intermediate, Upper-Intermediate, and Advanced. The theoretical frame is adopted from Huebner (Table 1) where the use of English articles is determined by the semantic function of the NP in discourse. In the model, English NPs are classified on the basis of referentiality i.e. whether a noun is [+specific], and whether it is assumed as known to the hearer [+definite]. In this model sentences are given in five contexts to determine article use. Environment for the appearance of articles Type 1 – [-specific], [+definite] Environment Articles Examples Generic nouns a, the, 0 0 Fruit flourishes in the valley. The Grenomian is an excitable person. A paper clip comes in handy. ____________________________________________________________________________ Type 2 – [+specific], [+definite] Environment Articles Examples Referential definites the Pass me the pen. previous mention The idea of coming to the US was… specified by entailment I found a book. The book was… specified by definition The first person to walk on the moon… unique in all contexts unique in a given context ____________________________________________________________________________ Type 3 – [+specific], [-definite] Environment Articles Examples Referential indefinites a, 0 Chris approached me carrying a dog. First-mention nouns I keep sending 0 messages to him. ____________________________________________________________________________ Type 4 – [-specific], [-definite] Environment Articles Examples Nonreferential nouns a, 0 Alice is an accountant. Attributive indefinites I guess I should buy a new car. Nonspecific indefinites 0 Foreigners would come up with a better solution. ____________________________________________________________________________ 19 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Type 5 – [-specific], [-definite] Environment Articles Examples Idioms a, the, 0 All of a sudden, he woke up. Other conventional uses In the 1950s, there weren‘t many cars. His family is now living 0 hand to mouth. Table 1 Students will receive 40 sentences (adapted) divided in four groups (tasks). The first ten sentences are translated into the Bosnian language and they need to be translated back into English. This will show how students perceive articles in direct contrast of the two languages. Students aren‘t told they are being tested on articles. In the second group of sentences, students are told to insert a word into sentences where they are needed – students aren‘t told the focus is on articles. However, most of the sentences do need articles, but there are distracting items with banal mistakes also. In the third group of sentences students are told to insert an article into each sentence. Here the point is to contrast the conditions when students are focused on articles, and where they are not. In the last group of sentences, students are told that there are five incorrect sentences and five correct ones. Students need to correct the false ones by adding words (mostly articles, but students aren‘t told so). In the 40 sentences, there are 50 places where articles are needed: Type 1 – 10 entries, Type 2 – 15 entries, Type 3 – 10 entries, Type 4 – 10 entries, Type 5 – 5 entries. Sentences skipped by the students were not considered. Data analysis Table 1 - Mistakes in article usage per article context type It can be observed that the incorrect use of articles with Intermediate and Upper-Intermediate groups is just slightly less in favor of the Upper-Intermediate group. It is only in Article Context Type 5 i.e. idiomatic and conventional usage with articles, that the Upper-Intermediate have the better proficiency. Surprisingly enough, this is the context where the Advanced group is almost at the same level with the Upper-Intermediate i.e. fairly no distinction. However, let us treat the groups in detail. It can be observed that the Intermediate learners have the lowest proficiency in articles, obviously enough. On the translation task there were quite interesting remarks. Out of ten learners none of them recognized the need of an article when a sequence of Type 3 and Type 2 (a referent is firstly mentioned, and in the next sentence referred again) is needed. The ones that did do it correctly relied rather on possessives or pronouns than articles. In general, the sequence of Type 3 and Type 2 are not at a high level. Surprisingly enough, this is a point that is being treated in the Bosnian literature when articles are concerned. However, article proficiency is better in the third task where the learners were told to insert an article. But even here only one out of ten Intermediate learners recognized the Type 3 – Type 2 sequence. It can be observed that compound NPs are considered as one and therefore added (if at all) only an article in front of the first noun, as in the sentence the learners were given: 20 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (16) Jane bought a ring and a necklace for her mother‘s birthday. Her mother loved the ring but hated the necklace. At this level L2 learners of English don‘t seem to distinguish, or at a very low percentage, the difference between nouns mentioned for the first time and the ones specified by entailment. Another remarkable finding was that Intermediate L2 learners of English have difficulties in distinguishing specific and generic reference. This yields in a result that the latter is being thought of as nonspecific indefinites, whereas they are quite the opposite. The following three sentences were included: (17) (18) (19) Is it true that the owl cannot see well in daylight? The telephone is a very useful invention. We don‘t know who invented the wheel. None of the Intermediate learners could recognize the generic reference here. But a more remarkable error rate was with context Type 2 with specific definites and even unique nouns, some of them yielding in grammatically incorrect sentences like: (20) (21) *French are against war in Iraq. *In 1960s, there were lots of protests against Vietnam War. Upper-Intermediate learners of English don‘t differ too much in regard to Intermediates. Context Type 2 remains an issue. Even at this level learners tend not to make definite, by means of the definite article, NPs in generic reference. Again, context Type 2 where the referents were both specific and definite yielded in ample of mistakes even among Upper-Intermediate ESL learners. This illustrates the different perception of definiteness between the two languages. It is especially with the sequence of Type 3 and 2 where a referent is being firstly mentioned and then referred to again. Here we have the same finding as TrenkiĤ and Ņegarac where we see that ESL learners tend to omit articles in subsequent mentions. An overuse in zero articles can only be stated as such having in mind that Bosnian L2 learners of English don‘t see it as a zero article, but simply reflect their own language in English and omit the article. Advanced learners are weakest in context Type 2, just as the two other groups of learners. Surprisingly enough, advanced learners seem to have a lower proficiency in idiomatic and other conventional uses, in comparison. Again, we have least mistakes in sentence Type 3 and 4 where the indefinite article prevails and this seems to be reoccurring with all three groups. However, advanced learners do show a higher proficiency in general. Discussion Regardless of the level of learners, articles remain an issue for Bosnian L2 learners of English. As we have previously stated, it is a matter of referring in the two languages that makes the difference, and, in the end, yields in mistakes in article usage. On one hand, each group of learners had the majority of mistakes in context Type 2, where referents are specific and definite – why is this so? The answer to this question lies in the fact that the English language depends on the notion of definiteness, not specificity, as opposed to the Bosnian language. On the other hand, each group had least mistakes in context Types 3 and 4. This may, then, lie in the fact that definiteness is excluded and specificity more emphasized. Be it as it may, Bosnian L2 learners of English should be more effectively taught articles, for they seem disregarded in the teaching process. It has been observed that all levels of learners misunderstand referents in definite contexts and even unique ones. L2 learners of English should be taught that shared knowledge is a key notion (and this is disregarded). They have to be taught that each of these has to be regarded as unique in its context, and taking the mug example from above we can state that it is unique in its context even though there are numerous other black mugs in the world. If we take a sentence from the test given to students as an example: (22) Fred bought a car on Monday. On Wednesday, he crashed the car. We can see that we have shared knowledge but that the car is unique in its context, too. Or let‘s take another sentence: 21 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (23) Sally Ride was the first American woman in space. We again see that the entity referred to is unique. This may be the more obvious case for using the definite article because the entity is marked for uniqueness in a wider context, and it seems to be the case that the smaller the context the higher the fluctuation rate. Here we have another sentence which carries this same attribute: (24) The French are against the war in Iraq. There is only one people called ‗The French‘ and there is only one war that can be referred to as ‗the war in Iraq‘, however, this sentence yielded in a majority of mistakes. So, these entities are linguistically isolated from all other entities and they shouldn‘t be mistaken when articles are concerned. Another key problem seems to be generic reference or Type 1 context. Bosnian L2 learners of English don‘t seem to distinguish the ‗generalization‘ of this reference, so the sentence (25) The Telephone is a very useful invention. was, in a majority of cases, written without the definite article. Entities under this reference are by their attribute of generalization unique. It is not that some telephone or a specific telephone is a very useful invention, but telephones in general. So, this makes the given context definite and therefore it needs the definite article. It may be the most convenient way to tell students to talk about things in general to use plural forms without articles. However, more advanced learners should be taught all forms of realization within generic reference. Articles should generally be given more emphasis in the teaching process. They should be taught in the context of referring and shared knowledge. It is, basically, most convenient to teach students to always consider article use in front of NPs. As we have suggested, students should be advised to consider referents in isolated, unique, contexts and then decide on an article. As the study has shown, generic reference remains a greater problem than specific reference, and we recommend the pieces of advice mentioned above. In (19) (and in other cases) generic reference is quite obvious, but students should only be taught the conceptual basis of this reference, and the issues of referring in general. Conclusively, the advice for teacher is that semantics should be used as a means to explain the act of referring and eventually be able to teach articles more effectively. Conclusion As we have seen from both the theoretical findings of other authors and the one conducted with Bosnian learners, English articles still remain to be an issue. Bosnian L2 learners of English, not having the linguistic background in their own language, when articles are concerned, don‘t feel the necessity for the usage of articles. As we have recommended here, it is the lack of semantic interpretation (or the unwillingness to use it) of articles (on the teachers‘ side). The act of referring should be put into the center of interpretation where the different kinds of references should be introduced. As it was noticed, proficiency in generic reference and NPs as referential definites should also be improved. The conceptual underpinnings and the need for articles should be introduced very carefully. The notions of Specificity and Definiteness, and a cross-linguistic view of these two, as we have suggested, ought to be introduced as a cross-cultural perspective and means of teaching articles more effectively. 22 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Alexander, R. (2006), Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, a Grammar – With Sociolinguistic Commentary, The University of Wisconsin Press, London Avery, P., RadińiĤ, M. (2007), Residual Optionality at the Interface: The L2-Acquisition of Articles, presented at the EUROSLA 2007., Newcastle upon Tyne Berry, R. (1996), English Guides 3: Articles, HarperCollins Publisher, London Biber, S. (1990), Pronominalni anaforički proces u savremenom engleskom, Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Sarajevo Bilbija, S. (2001), Introducing Semantics, Komunikolońki fakultet Banja Luka, Banja Luka Chesterman, A. (1991), On Definiteness – A Study with Special Reference to Finnish and English, Cambridge University Press, New York Ekiert, M. (2010), Acquisition of the English Article System by Speakers of Polish in ESL and EFL Settings, Teachers College, Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, Vol. 4, No. 1 Huebner, T. (1983). A longitudinal analysis of the acquisition of English. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Karoma Press Ionin, T., Ko, H. i Wexler (2004), Article Semantics in L2-Acquisition: The Role of Specificit. Language Acquisition 12: 3-69 Kim, L., Lakshmanan, U. (2007), The Processing Role of the Article Choice Parameter, Second Language Acquisition of Articles, (87-113), John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S. (1973.), A University Grammar of English, Longman Group UK LIMITED, London TanoviĤ, M. (2002.), Gramatika engleskog jezika, Fakultet humanistiĦkih nauka Univerziteta 'Dņemal BijediĤ' u Mostaru, Mostar 23 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 7 Title A name given to the resource On the Acquisition of English Articles with Bosnian L2 Learners of English Author Author Maslo, Adi Abstract A summary of the resource. Regarding the discrepancy between the English and the Bosnian language concerning an article system, this paper attempts at clarifying the difficulties for Bosnian L2 learners of English. Based on a similar study and an experimental study with Bosnian learners, this paper illustrates and copes with the very apparent and widely present issue of English articles among Bosnian learners. The principles of Definiteness and Specificity are introduced to contrast the two languages, aiding to a deeper understanding of this conceptual difference between English and Bosnian. The paper first states the current position of the English (definite and indefinite) article in the light of the Bosnian language, and specifies their respective Bosnian equivalents, eventually giving a suggestion to a deeper understanding Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c9467e8d7559f946411a35f1642115b7.pdf 83c5fce773bab1778ec76b22bdd8ee32 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Building a community of shared practice by localizing externally-derived professional development in educational reform‘ John McKeown Senior Lecturer, English Education, Mevlana University, Konya, Turkey jmckeown@mevlana.edu.tr Michael Diboll, Assistant Professor, Bahrain Teachers College, Manama, Bahrain mdiboll@hotmail.com Abstract:This research focuses on sociolinguistic aspects of education reform in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries (GCC) region and the strategies by which the achievement of ‗linguistic convergence‘ and corresponding ‗cultural convergence‘ or ‗optimal convergence‘ can enhance in-service teachers‘ Continuing Professional Development (CPD) participant learning. This professional reflection, situated within the evolving context of reform underway in Bahrain, is based on research conducted at the Bahrain Teachers College (an autonomous professional college founded in 2008 within the University of Bahrain) during 2008-2010. The data, gathered from in-service CPD modules with mid-career Bahraini teachers, includes a wide range of practice-based sources including surveys, interviews, focus groups, and observation. Managing the shift from externally-prepared in-service CDP, toward contextualizing the materials, curriculum, and program delivery to the cultural, social, and educational environment of Bahrain is challenging. Developing ―ownership‖ of new approaches to learning, can make effectively localize the training at the classroom level. The data points to ways that balance the learning needs of local in-service teachers with the internationalizing imperatives of multinational education consultancy: KEY WORDS: Linguistic convergence, teaching environment, continuing professional development, optimal convergence Introduction The study focuses on the evolving Continuing Professional Development (CPD) provision at Bahrain Teachers College (BTC) and the factors that impact on the quality of participants' CPD experience including the relevance of CPD provision (and the impact of this on participants' attitudes to learning and developing practice), and, directing the BTC CPD programme in a way that builds on previously derived materials, while enhancing the participant experience and maximising professional development potential for positive change. The CPD curriculum was introduced by facilitators from the National Institute of Education, Singapore, BTC‘s lead consultant on education reform. Currently, CPD modules are offered at Cadre levels 4-8. To obtain promotion from one salary level to the next highest, Bahraini state-sector teachers must complete 360 hours of CPD (twelve x thirty-hour CPD modules) within a four-year period. In order to carry out this research effectively, a needs assessment focussing on motivation, and satisfaction of BTC PD participants was required. In regards to the specific needs of in-service Bahraini participants, interested stakeholders had undertaken limited background research on participants‘ needs. Background During 2008-2009, and the first semester of 2009-10, NIE was responsible for the delivery of CPD modules, using Singaporean facilitators working at University of Bahrain (UoB). The second semester 2009-10 was the first semester of BTC‘s lead for CPD provision. The focus of delivery had been on the transfer of the 41 modules developed by NIE. In order to render CPD relevant to the needs of mid-career teacher, Bahraini CPD participants, this study focuses primarily on the language of instruction, although it is hoped that it will also have a wider relevance 691 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo encompassing participant motivation, participant satisfaction, cultural relevancy of CPD materials and delivery, and, participants‘ expectations. This focus goes beyond ‗technical rationality‘ where participants are viewed as passive learners (Schôn, 1983, 1987). BTC‘s CPD provision began with the delivery of 17 NIE-derived thirty-hour CPD modules during March and April 2010. These covered topics in Foundation, Maths, and Science with a maximum enrolment of 460 participants. In May and June 2010 a further batch of ten CPD modules were delivered, covering the same subject areas, with an enrolment of 300 participants. Ethics Participants, both facilitators and course participants, were informed that coursework and data derived from surveys would be used anonymously for the purpose of this research, and were given an opt-out option if requested (no participants did). BTC Heads‘ Council granted permission to adapt CPD provision to gather data for this specific research purpose. The Heads‘ Council also authorised the use of BTC materials otherwise deemed confidential. Review of Theory Theory is derived from three areas: Reflective Practice (RP); Sociolinguistics and Communication Theory, with a focus on the Arab World; and, Studies in Cross-cultural Communication The primary point of reference for reflective practice is Donald Schôn (1983, 1987), supplemented by more contemporary sources, including Bigg‘s and Tang‘s, Teaching for Quality Learning at University (2007). Howard Giles‘ Communication Accommodation Theory (―CAT‖; 1978, 1991) provides a starting point, supplemented by Saravanan‘s work on sociolinguistic aspects of pedagogy and education reform in Singapore (1985). More recent Arab World language use data is borrowed from Bassiouney (2009). Theoretical insights into Cross-cultural Communication are informed by the work of Berger (1979), Gundykunst (2005), Hampden-Turner (2004), and Hofstede (2001). Timeframe Data collection began with observations of NIE CPD delivery at BTC. February through December 2009, with the following activities used to assess NIE provision effectiveness, and to gain insights into how this provision might be improved and fine-tuned to make it better-suited to a Bahrain context: observations of NIE-delivered CPD sessions; post-delivery tutors‘ focus groups; SWOT analyses; and, interviews with CPD participants. The paper focuses on research activities on-going throughout CPD sessions beginning with one cohort of 17 sections of CPD (21 March - 6 May 2010), and with a second cohort of 10 sections (23 May - 5 July 2010) and included:  A mid-course initial survey gathering qualitative feedback from CPD participants in two sections, one facilitated by an Arabic speaking tutor, the other by a non-Arabic speaker  An end of course on-line survey gathering data from CPD participants in two sections  An on-line end-or-course tutor survey gathering quantitative and qualitative data from all 12 BTC faculty members (Arabic speakers and non-Arabic speakers) delivering PD modules  End of course grades from all sections The activities were conducted during class sessions. Certain issues emerged as significant to the effective delivery of CPD; the language of learning was the most significant issue raised consistently by both participants and facilitators. Facilitators also noted motivational and related attitudinal issues, while participants further mentioned issues of cultural appropriateness, the applicability of the materials used in a Bahrain context, and the perceived ―foreignness‖ of the materials they had to work with. Language issues The language issues were significant as NIE-courses were delivered in English, and all course materials were written in English. No NIE tutors spoke Arabic, and nearly all of them were Education specialists, with little or no background in specialised English Language Teaching (ELT) or Cross-cultural Communication. Communication was further complicated by the fact that many participants had difficulty in understanding the accents and English usages of many of the Singaporean facilitators. Singapore has its own dialect of English, 692 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Singlish‖, characterised by Chinese-influenced intonation patterns, different stress patterns, the simplification of consonant clusters, different word-order, and additional morphemes derived from Chinese dialects and from Malay (Saravanan: 1985, 67). While like most Singaporean professionals, the facilitators used ―Singapore British English‖ (SBrE) as their professional dialect, the pronunciation, syntax, and vocabulary of SBrE is often powerfully influenced by Singlish, particularly when used by academics, to the extent that SBrE and Singlish can be seen as two ends of a continuum of Singaporean English dialect use, rather than as two discrete dialects (Saravanan: 1985, 68-8). Thus, the language of delivery was doubly ―foreign‖ to Bahraini participants: foreign because it was in English, and, foreign again, because it is in a form of English unfamiliar to Bahrainis. SBrE is well established as a language of instruction at all levels of the Singaporean education system and across subject areas. It is an official national language in a multilingual, multiethnic island nation, and functions as an important unifier for Singaporean society. Singapore has four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil, in recognition of the linguistic diversity of Singapore (Saravanam: 1985, 65). None of this is true for Bahrain. Although English is widely used in Bahrain, particularly in the commercial sector, it has no official or legal status. While English is taught from Grade 6 in Bahraini schools, it is taught as a foreign language and is not the language of instruction for any core curriculum subjects. Even at BTC, the college‘s regulations state: ―The official language of BTC shall be Arabic; the BTC Governing Council upon recommendation of the BTC Council shall admit other languages in teaching, research and professional activity as are necessary in the light of standards of international excellence of the programmes‖ (Article 4,H) Bahrain, like most Arab states uses Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) (a language learned at school but which is seldom a natural means of spoken communication) as the sole official language (Bassiouney: 2009, 211). In this highly diverse linguistic context, Standard English serves as a common language of professional discourse, and as a national unifier (Saravanan, 69). English does not officially play this role in Bahrain, and there is not the same level of awareness at a public policy level of the dynamics of pluralingualism as is found today in Singapore. Singaporean facilitators received little briefing on Bahrain, Bahraini culture, and language use or level of the participants. As a result, it was perhaps too straightforward for NIE‘s otherwise highly skilled facilitators to make assumptions about the status and role of English in Bahrain based on Singapore experience. Circumstances could be interpreted that a ―culture clash‖ had unwittingly been set up, precisely the sort of situation that ought to be avoided when implementing an education change project (McKeown, 2005), already seen by many as being politically controversial. It ought to be noted that there is a significant generational difference in the English-language abilities of the middle-aged, mid-career Bahraini teachers on PD courses compared to those of the much younger ―globalised‖ Bahrainis on BTC‘s B.Ed. and PGDE programmes. While younger students generally have a very positive attitude toward English, this is not necessarily the case with older teachers, who sometimes see the spread of English in Bahrain as a form of ―linguistic imperialism.‖ Linguistic convergence Linguistic convergence is a key factor in effective and positive cross-cultural communication. Sociolinguist Howard Giles points out that ―convergent communicative acts reduce interpersonal differences‖, creating an atmosphere conducive to co-operation across cultures and language groups, while ―divergent‖ acts in which ―speakers accentuate speech and non-verbal differences‖, can be used as a defensive mechanism to reinforce an ―us and them‖ dichotomy that inhibits effective communication (1991, 7-9). Effective communication is a key element in change management because change, however necessary, often contains an element of fear. Michael West, Professor of Organisational Psychology at Aston Business School, states that ―It‘s not change we fear, but the place in between. . . there‘s nothing to hold on to . . .‖. In a similar vein, Vikky Wright, President of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development says ―It‘s not about changing organisations, it‘s about changing people, being ready for the change on time‖ (CIPD, ―Managing Change‖, at 5‘.10‖ onwards). It can be seen that divergent communication reinforcing a natural uneasiness about change in a politically charged context might constitute a significant threat to the effectiveness of NIE‘s delivery of CPD programmes at BTC. Whereas the problematic use of English outlined above undoubtedly created straightforward inter-linguistic communication problems, there were motivational and attitudinal issues reported by NIE facilitators, and the cultural inappropriateness and foreignness mentioned by participants might have been exacerbated by, or even created by, a retreat into divergent communication on the part of both facilitators and tutors. 693 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Profile of Participants This survey, conducted with 38 participants in May at BTC, had two sections, demographic data, and participant‘s course satisfaction. A sample of 38 participants enrolled in two sections of the Level 5 course EPD5001, Collaborative and Cooperative Learning surveyed in May 2010, yielded the following results:  Language use: 57.9% self-identified as speakers of Arabic only; 35.9% self-identified as bilingual ArabicEnglish; 2.6% self-identified as bilingual Arabic-Other language  Genders were balanced more or less evenly, 52% to 48% in favour of females  The vast majority or participants were in their 30‘s: 60.5% were in their early thirties, 26.3% were in their later thirties; just over 13% were older, in age bands falling between 40 and 60+  Years experience as teachers: the overwhelming majority, 76.3% had between 6 and 10 years‘ experience, this is in keeping with their status as Level 5 teachers; 18.4% had between 11 and 15 years experience, while 5.2% had between 20 and 30 years teaching experience  39.5% were primary teachers, 26.3 taught at intermediate level, 34.2% were primary teachers, and 2.6% identified as ―other‖  The largest single group of subject specialists were Arabic teachers, at 20.6%; 14.7% were English specialists, 11.8% taught Islamic Studies, 11.8% taught History, 11.8% taught Maths, and a further 11.8 taught Physical education; smaller percentages taught in Business, Science, or as General Class Teachers at primary level. The fact that 60.5% of the sample self-identified either as Arabic-only speakers, or as speakers of Arabic and another language other than English, with less than 40% self-identifying as bilingual Arabic-English is highly significant for a course which was delivered entirely in English by NIE, and for which the NIE-derived course materials are entirely in English. Data regarding participants‘ self-identification in terms of language ability corresponds well to their subject specialisations: the largest single specialisation presenting in this sample was Arabic, at 20.6%. Further, the combined percentage for specialisations that are taught either entirely in Arabic, or with very little English, was 46.2%. The fact that 60.8% of participants taught in classes in which English was hardly ever used, while 60.5% of participants self-identified as non-English speakers brings into question a rationale for English-only provision. Response to the data In order to address the bilingual language issue as indicated in the data, a variety of approaches were devised in programme delivery by both Arabic and non-Arabic facilitators of CPD modules:  delivering teacher talk in a mix of about 70% Arabic, 30% English, code-switching (―the alternating use of two or more recognisably different language variants within the same text‖, Dickins et al 2002: 233) for technical terms  using about MSA on the whiteboard, often scribed by participants  encouraging participants to work collaboratively to produce their own Arabicisations (or ‗Bahrainisations‘), of English-derived concepts. Rather than merely translating, the aim here was to support students in understanding the concept, and to express it in Arabic, using metaphors and examples derived from real Bahraini usage and experience, a form of ―cultural transplantation‖ (Dickins et al 2002: 32)  allowing group discussions to take place in Bahraini dialect (―natural‖ language use for brainstorming), with presentations and demonstrations of teaching given either in standard languages, English or MSA  allowing coursework, lesson plans, posters, to be produced in Arabic  using translated bilingual handouts and other materials 694 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  reducing the number of heavily English-language laden power-point presentations by simplifying the language used, or replacing some of the slides with all-Arabic or bilingual versions  using targeted bilingual support for explanation of key concepts and concept-checking . Results of the Mid-Course survey This survey gathered qualitative data on participant satisfaction with the course EPD 5001, Collaborative and Cooperative Learning (CL). The 38 participants arranged themselves into gender-specific groups, the smaller group being female, the larger two group being male. Participants were instructed to brainstorm about the course with an emphasis on how it could be improved. Below are main points presented by each group summarised in note form: Female group  Overall experience was that the class was ―refreshing‖  Participants felt empowered by learning new techniques  Primary general classroom teachers found the course less useful, due to the lack or primary school focus  Most participants though that more Arabic is ―a must‖ on this course  Most participants found the English language handouts and PPPs difficult and confusing  After work sessions, and the location (at BTC in the far south of the island) were highly inconvenient  PD sections should be organised on a subject-specific and/or a level-specific basic (e.g., sections for primary teachers, section for English teachers, etc.) Male Group 1:  The course needed a better and more diverse range of resources  Participants needed the opportunity to practice CL strategies in their schools and report back during PD classes  Arabic should be the language of instruction, with supplementary resources in English  PD courses should be run during the summer after the school exams period  Participants should have hands-on assistance in applying CL strategies in schools Male Group 2:  Core CL concepts and practices should be developed through their application in schools  All PD classes should be bilingual Arabic-English  The course curriculum should be clearer and written in Arabic  There should be an active internet connection in class  There should be a more diverse range of learning materials  PD tutors should visit Bahraini schools Participants‘ End-of-course survey This survey, conducted with 38 participants in May at BTC, had two sections, demographic data, and participant‘s course satisfaction. 695 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The results showed substantial numbers of participants (11- 44%) ‗always‘ using the ten Cooperative Learning (CL) strategies highlighted in the course, with large majorities using these approaches either ‗often‘ or ‗sometimes‘. Only small minorities (1.5% to 3%) reported that they used these approaches only ‗rarely‘, or ‗never‘. These results are impressive considering that prior to taking this course most of the participants had little or no experience in CL. A majority of 65% of participants rated tutor-participant interaction as ‗excellent‘, with 24% rating it as ‗very good‘. Participant-participant interaction was rated at 46% ‗excellent‘, with 40% rated ‗very good‘. Language use in class sessions was rated at 42% ‗excellent‘, and 26% ‗very good‘. Only 5% of respondents thought that language use on the courses was either ‗below average‘, or ‗poor‘. Tutors‘ End-of-course survey The 12 tutors facilitating PD sessions from March to May completed an end-of-course survey. Assessing the relevance of the course materials to the Bahraini cultural context opinion was divided, 25% of tutors thought it was ‗excellent‘, 33%, ‗very good‘, 25%, ‗good‘, and 16% ‗satisfactory‘. While no tutors thought it was ‗unsatisfactory‘, tutors did add comments on the cultural suitability of the materials, for instance: ―I would suggest that the NIE PD materials be consistent with the cultural and contextual factors associated with the participants' life and educational experiences, their working conditions and learning environment.‖ ―Generally, the NIE materials were satisfactory, although too focused on the Singapore setting.‖ ―Overall, the materials, although relevant to the subject area, were not at a level the participants could grasp quickly. There was also little breadth to the topics covered.‖ ―These materials need revision, and more Bahrain relevant materials developed.‖ ―I needed to make a few modifications because of cultural context. But overall it is very well prepared. Also, I needed to add more demonstrations based on availability of materials. We did not have teaching materials.‖ ―I'd try to get more materials translated into Arabic and use those more.‖ ―I would have an Arabic-speaking tutor visit the class earlier than I did to provide translation. I would also give the participants class time to prepare their assignments so I could check to make sure they understood the assignment rather than relying on the Englishspeakers‘ assurances that everyone‘s 'got it'.‖ Concerning the language of tuition, 91% of tutors thought that the courses should be bilingual, and 9% thought they should be taught in Arabic only. Not a single tutor supported English-only provision. When offered bilingual teaching options, 80% favoured bilingual versions of the NIE materials, and 20% Arabic only versions. 90% favoured BTC developing its own bilingual teaching materials, and 40% favoured bilingual co-teaching. 67% of tutors thought that enhanced bilingual provision was the single most important thing that could be done to improve participants‘ learning experience. On motivation, 33% of tutors thought their participants were ‗somewhat motivated‘, although 25% considered them to be ‗very motivated‘. Tutors own attitudes toward PD were divided: 47% said they were ‗enthusiastic‘ about teaching it again, while 33% said they would either ‗rather not‘, or ‗certainly not‘ want to teach PD again. End of course grades Assessment of NIE CPD is designed with a pass/fail grade. The individual assessment component is 30% of the total, and the group project at 40%. Most assessment is either for group work assessed on a group basis, or for collaboration. At present, the BTC is obliged to follow the UoB system for academic grading, which has grade bands from F to A, with plus or minus grades, e.g., C-, C, and C+, separated by three marks. This schema is obviously designed with summative, exam-type assessments in mind, where getting one or two questions right or wrong can meaningfully distinguish between a C and a C+. This schema does not fit well with PD courses, where only a minority part of the mark is given for purely individual effort. When marked according to the NIE rubric, successful completion of the tasks assigned on these PD courses will in all likelihood lead to an academic grade in the A or B range. However, the final grades for sections were interestingly divergent. Several facilitators who diligently aimed for linguistic convergence had 100% pass rate with many grades in the A and B range. The final results posted by Dr. X and Dr. Y make an interesting point of contrast. 696 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dr. X is a non-native speaker of English and an experienced practitioner. However, Dr. X did not know Arabic and used English exclusively. Dr. Y, also a non-native speaker of English, knows no Arabic, and is an experienced educator and an active researcher. In the course, English was used exclusively. Neither facilitator opted for bilingual support. Dr. X‘s section had 27 participants. With 11 no-shows, and four drop-outs, there were 7 passes: 4 A-grades, 1 B; and two Cs. There were 5 fails resulting from non-completion of course work. Dr. Y‘s had 32 enrolled participants with 14 no-shows. The remaining participants achieved 5 A-grades, 6 Bs, and 1 C. 7 fails were due to non-completion of coursework. Although popular and competent tutors in graduate and undergraduate courses, both Dr. X and Dr. Y were the subject of subject of formal CPD participant complaints regarding attitude and communication skills. Analysis In the mid-course survey, all groups identified the lack of Arabic as a weakness, and individual participants reported this to be a serious weakness. All groups stressed the need for bilingual learning materials, and/or bilingual instruction. Some groups reported that in addition to the language issue, PD materials should be developed to make them more relevant in a Bahraini context. Based on findings, those tutors who made significant efforts to factor bilingualism into the existing NIEderived provision seemed to have positively enhanced the participant‘s learning experience. Giles and Smith (1979) cite a number of factors that influence the effectiveness of cross-cultural communication: ―similarity attraction‖, that ―the more similar are attitudes and beliefs are to certain others the more likely it is we will be attracted to them‖ (47); the ―social exchange‖ process, ―the rewards attending a convergent act, that is an increase in attraction or approval‖ (48); ―causal attribution‖, where ―we interpret other people‘s behaviour, and evaluate persons in themselves, in terms of the motivations and intentions that we attribute as the cause of their behaviour (50); ―intergroup distinctiveness‖, wherein members of different groups, when they are in contact, ―compare themselves on dimensions that are important to them‖ (52). Building positive inter-cultural relations and effective communication depends on aligning these factors to achieve ―optimal convergence‖ leading to positive inter-evaluation (53-4). Thus, focusing on the importance of language in tutor-participant relations is of value to other BTC PD faculty, especially non-Arabic speaking faculty, as it enables outsiders to achieve optimal convergence in a cultural setting which values ―a close long-term commitment to the member 'group'‖ where ―loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides most other societal rules‖ (Hofstede, Cultural Dimensions: Arab World). Eckert (2005) calls this a ―community of practice‖: An aggregate of people who come together on a regular basis to engage in some enterprise: a family, a linguistics class, a garage, band, roommates, a sports team, even a small village. In the course of their engagement, the community of practice develops ways of doing things – practices. And these practices involve the construction of a shared orientation to the world around them – a tacit definition of themselves in relation to each other, and in relation to other communities of practice‖ (quoted in Bassiouney: 2009, 94). Clearly, BTC CPD classes are, in this sense, communities or practice, bilingual, cross-cultural communities, in each of which a unique ‗social meaning‘ is constructed in the interactions between participants and tutor, and, perhaps more significantly, between the participants themselves. Therefore, there is a need for CPD tutors to ‗firm up‘ theır modelling micro-levels of community of practice by careful consideration of the roles of language and culture in achieving optimal convergence. This is particularly the case where socio-cultural dynamics can constitute a serious obstacle to effective communication, and the achievement of learning outcomes. The mid-course survey results suggest that to achieve optimal convergence, it is not necessary for non-Arab tutors to be fluent in Arabic in order to be successful in facilitating learning, even with groups where over half the participants self-identify as ―Arabic only‖ speakers. Rather, it is sufficient that participants are allowed to use Arabic for discussion and presentation; that bilingual resources are employed; and, that the tutor uses some Arabic and signals interest and respect for participants‘ cultural perspectives. This minimises ―perceived threat‖ and ―uncertainty‖, which are serious obstacles to effective inter-cultural communication (Berger 1979, 133-4), and helps achieve ―optimal convergence.‖ By respecting the importance of language and culture in the sessions, several tutors were able to achieve greater levels of optimal convergence. This led in turn to positive learning outcomes for the participants, as evidenced by the participants‘ end-of-course survey in which participants, previously unfamiliar with CL techniques reported high levels of usage across ten different strategies. The tutor‘s end-of-course survey indicated an awareness of the importance of language and cultural issues. The overwhelming majority of tutors (91%) were strongly in favour of enhanced bilingual provision, both in terms 697 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of human and material resources. Most commented on the difficulties encountered in working with the existing English-only materials and many reflected on the need to make the materials more relevant to the Bahraini cultural context. Subsequent experience with tutors with little or no Arabic showed that linguistic convergence can still take place, and still be nearly as effective as the convergence that takes place between an Arabic-speaking facilitator and Arabic-speaking participants. Often a ―gesture‖ towards convergence is all that is needed to facilitate attitudinal and behavioural convergence. Tutors received comparable positive evaluations for respectfulness and attitude, demonstrating the way that in cross-cultural communication language skills and cultural sensitivity are equally valuable. However, ―linguistic convergence‖ either on the level of language or dialect can have a very positive influence on morale, attitudes, and motivation, creating an ownership of learning for the participants, and, genuine inclusion for the tutor. Thus, Arabicisations of core concepts and practices that can come out of ―convergence learning‖ between Arabic-speaking tutors and participants are a significant contribution to existing knowledge. The supporting data confirms that improving tutor-participant communication is an essential aspect for the learning environment, positively influencing participants‘ perception of culturally ―Other‖ tutors, and, improving participantparticipant communication. However, it also shows the need for improvement in inter-personal cross-cultural communication to be supplemented by the development of bilingual and culturally sensitive and relevant course materials. During these PD sessions tutors had limited opportunities to develop such materials because adaptations of NIE-derived materials had to undergo a process of approval that was not feasible in the given time-frame. The data demonstrates conclusively that participants’ needs, attitudes, and expectations are rooted in a cultural context and in evolving communities of practice, and this realization feeds directly into on-going discussions around how teaching and learning on CPD can be made more effective. Conclusion In his Language Policy and Language Planning: From nationalism to globalisation Wright (2004) states: Language policy is primarily a social construct - policy as a culture construct rests primarily on other conceptual elements – belief systems, attitudes, myths – the whole complex that were are referring to as linguistic culture, which is the sum totality of ideas, values, beliefs, attitudes, prejudices, religious stricture, and all the other cultural ‗baggage‘ that speakers bring to their dealings with language from their background. (276). At a macro- and a micro-level, the public policy economic and educational reform project of which BTC is a part involves every aspect of what Wright calls ‗linguistic culture‘. It is not unsurprising, therefore, that this study confirms the centrality of Giles‘ linguistic ‗optimal convergence‘ to effective cross-cultural communication in BTC‘s CPD classrooms. In short, if CPD externally-derived provision is to be effective, the ‗language question‘ cannot be avoided. This study opens a path to research the importance of linguistic and cultural factors at work in CPD, and the bridges it can establish between cultures in an increasingly globalized educational context. References Bassiouney, R. (2009) Arabic Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh, UK: EUP. Berger, C. ―Beyond Initial Interaction: Uncertainty, Understanding, and the Development of Interpersonal Relationships‖ in Giles, H and St. Clair, R. Language and Social Psychology. Biggs, J. and Tang, C. (2007) Teaching for Quality Learning at University. (3rd edition)Maidenhead, UK: OUP. 698 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Boise State University. (2007) Performance Management: http://hrs.boisestate.edu/td/pdf/SMARTgoals.pdf Accessed 15th July 2010. Setting SMART Objectives. Bosch, K. (2006) Planning Classroom Management: A Five-Step Process to Creating a Positive Learning Environment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cohen, L. Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007) Research Methods in Education (6th Edition). Oxford: Routledge. Dickins, James. Hervey, S. and Higgins, I. (2002) Thinking Arabic Translation: a Course in Translation Methods, Arabic to English. London, Routledge. Giles, H. (ed.) Contexts of Accommodation: Developments in Sociolinguistics. Cambridge, UK: CUP, 1991. Giles, H. and Smith, P. ―Accommodation Theory: Optimal Levels of Convergence‖ in Giles, H. and St. Clair, R. Language and Social Psychology. Giles, H. and St. Clair, R. (1979) Language and Social Psychology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Gopinathan S. & Vanithamani Saravanan . (1983) ―Varieties of English and Education Linguistics‖: Singapore Journal of Education. 7: 64-71 Gudykunst, W.B. (2005) Theorizing about Intercultural Communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hampden-Turner, C. Trompenaars, F. (2004) Managing People Across Cultures. Chichester: Capstone. Heil, G. Bennis, W. Stephens, D. (2000) Douglas McGregor, Revisited: managing the human Side of the enterprise. New York: Wiley. Hofstede, Geert. (2001) Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage. Hofstede, Geert. Cultural Dimensions: Arab World. http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_arab_world.shtml Accessed 12th July 2010 Lambert, W. ―Language as a Factor in Intergroup Relations‖, in Giles, H and St. Clair, R. Language and Social Psychology. Maamouri, Mohamad. (1998) Language Education and Human Development: Arabic Diglossia and its Importance to the Quality of Education in the Arab Region. Philadelphia, PA: The World Bank/International Literacy Institute. McKeown, J. (2005). Toward a professional learning community: societal and cultural factors affecting the development of informed professional practice at Turkish Foreign National Schools. Education doctoral dissertation: Warnborough College, Canterbury, UK. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Mcniff, J. Lomax, P. and Whitehead, J. (2003) You and Your Action Research. (2nd edition) Oxford: Routledge. Saphier, Jon. and Gower, R. (1997) The Skillful Teacher: Building Your Teaching Skills. (5th edition) Carlise, MA: Research for Better Teaching. Schôn, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schôn, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London: Maurice Temple Smith. Wight, S. (2004) Language Policy and Language Planning: From nationalism to globalisation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 699 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 104 Title A name given to the resource Building a community of shared practice by localizing externally-derived professional development in educational reform‘ Author Author McKeown, John Diboll,, Michael Abstract A summary of the resource. This research focuses on sociolinguistic aspects of education reform in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries (GCC) region and the strategies by which the achievement of ‗linguistic convergence‘ and corresponding ‗cultural convergence‘ or ‗optimal convergence‘ can enhance in-service teachers‘ Continuing Professional Development (CPD) participant learning. This professional reflection, situated within the evolving context of reform underway in Bahrain, is based on research conducted at the Bahrain Teachers College (an autonomous professional college founded in 2008 within the University of Bahrain) during 2008-2010. The data, gathered from in-service CPD modules with mid-career Bahraini teachers, includes a wide range of practice-based sources including surveys, interviews, focus groups, and observation. Managing the shift from externally-prepared in-service CDP, toward contextualizing the materials, curriculum, and program delivery to the cultural, social, and educational environment of Bahrain is challenging. Developing ―ownership‖ of new approaches to learning, can make effectively localize the training at the classroom level. The data points to ways that balance the learning needs of local in-service teachers with the internationalizing imperatives of multinational education consultancy: Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics