269 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4d2b06c9e7a20227df2b793f3499053b.pdf fee7b9f7b84d4cbabd083621ba0d563b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo PRE-SUFI NOVELS: DORIS LESSING‘S NATURAL INCLINATION FOR SUFI THOUGHT Shahram Kiaei, PhD Faculty Member, Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Qom Branch, Qom, Iran shahramkiaei@yahoo.com ABSTRACT:This paper discusses the impact of certain sufistic ideas on one of Doris Lessing‘s celebrated novels: The Memoirs of a Survivor. This novel is the example that shall be analyzed as Lessing's markedly Sufistic novel in order to show the characteristics of Lessing's works which scholars recognize as undeniably influenced by Sufism. The discussion in this novel is important in order to examine the differences on the craftsmanship of the novel even before Lessing incorporated officially to Sufism in her succeeding novels right after she has known about Sufism. This paper also argues Lessing‘s expected inclination to Sufism, or her visions before she finally realized how Sufism has influenced her art and her holistic evolution. Key Words: Sufism, Holistic, Mysticism, Sufistic INTRODUCTION LESSING‘S VISION Lessing offered us her views on Communism, feminism, mysticism, human relationships, politics, and life in general, and she took us to outer space when the earth proved too small for her visions. Drabble (1972: 52) describes her as a writer who ―changes tense, tone, place, … skips decades, moves from the past to the future, documents, speculates, describes, with relentless urgency‖. She appears to remain enigmatic and diverse, perhaps because she prefers ambiguity to the traditional labels with which we like to classify our writers. Yet her work is of a piece, when evaluated from a Sufi point of view, and not so radically different over the years. This orientation of Sufism is easily compatible with the already clear preoccupations and patterns in Doris Lessing‘s previous fiction: her interest in breaking through the conventional ways of thinking and being, the urge to understand and extend the parameters of consciousness, the mystical intimations expressed in her characters, the desire to overcome the dialectical antithesis of perceived experience in favor of a synthesizing vision of wholeness. In fact, even works written before Lessing began to explore Sufi ideas reveal her natural inclination for Sufi thought and demonstrate ways in which she was already working through processes of self-study and development. Lessing expresses this inclination in a letter to Roberta Rubenstein: ―When I read The Sufis I found that it answered many questions that I had learned-I feel too belatedlyto ask of life. Though that book was only the beginning of a different approach‖ (Rubenstein The Novelistic Vision 1979: 121). The very core of Lessing's insights has been the same-that is, the need for perpetual evolution on all levels: individual, national, worldwide, and universal, and this concern in evolution has been as much biological as it is spiritual. Fahim (1994: 136) has remarked on the progress of Lessing's style in the body of her work. For instance she writes, While The Grass is Singing and The Golden Notebook dramatize the need for personal equilibrium and The Memoirs of a Survivor enlarges on the theme of personal and collective equilibrium, Canopus in Argos: Archives comprehends and complements the earlier works. Fahim (ibid 137) explains the search for equilibrium in the space-fiction series as the dynamic force and the drive of the action in the individual novels. Sprague and Tiger (1986: 13) recognize a change from The Children of Violence series and African novels to Briefing for a Descent into Hell, The Summer before the Dark, and The Memoirs of a Survivor. In the latter three works, they see hints of the upcoming galactic voyages of the Canopus series, which they call ―a kind of secular triptych‖. Draine (1983: 167) recognizes Lessing's tendency to commit to the role of prophet who will move the reader to a desirable state of consciousness. She also recognizes allegory and teaching stories in Lessing's fiction and addresses Lessing's tendency to preach ―whenever she feels the burden of evil to be just too heavy to be borne in silence‖. Later, Lessing preaches also because she wants to educate us about the Sufis. 1112 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sufi thought has confirmed Lessing's insights and validated what she had suspected all along: the possibility of individual and world amelioration. Variations of this belief in evolution are echoed in all of Lessing's works under one guise or another, as the following two passages from novels written twenty years apart demonstrate: Doeg, the protagonist in The Making of The Representative for Planet 8 (1982: 49), a product of Lessing's so-called space-fiction era in the early 1980s, says, ―Do not sleep in all day in your dark rooms, but rouse yourselves, work, do anything-no, bear the burden of your consciousness, your knowledge, do not lose it in sleep‖ . These words recall Saul Green's words to Anna Wulf in The Golden Notebook (1962: 618): ―We will use all our energies, all our talents, into pushing that boulder another inch up the mountain. . . and that is why we are not useless after all‖. Both of these passages signal a positive outlook. As Fahim (1994: 76) notes, Lessing alters the myth of Sisyphus in her retelling of it. The rock described by Saul Green does not roll back all the way but ends a few inches higher than where it started, every time. In other words, there is progress and evolution in Lessing's vision of the world, which does not align with Camus's heroism of the absurd. THE MEMOIRS OF A SURVIVOR The Memoirs of a survivor is a dystopian novel by Doris Lessing in which a woman is struggling to survive in a violent post-apocalyptic world. Traumatized by both the war she's lived through and the regular atrocities that each day brings, she retreats from reality into a bizarre Victorian dream world within herself. However, when she takes in a teenage girl called Emily, she is drawn back into the harsh reality of her crumbling city and its feral street gangs. Desperate for some kind of salvation, she becomes convinced that her fantasy world of the past holds may hold the key to a better future. Doris Lessing described The Memoirs of a Survivor as ‗an attempt at autobiography‘, but the book – set in a frightening near-future world amidst the collapse of civilization – has the magical quality of a fable or allegory. From her window, the narrator watches a city where everyone has to fight for survival, and where men, women and even children are brutalized by necessity. She also watches over Emily, a girl entrusted to her while a child by a stranger who vanishes. Emily herself is guarded too by Hugo – an animal half-dog and half-cat – a creature who dominates this tale. ANALYSIS OF THE MEMOIRS OF A SURVIVOR Reading The Memoirs of a Survivor in light of Sufism allows on the one hand a useful additional way of reading some of the events in Lessing's other book called; The Golden Notebook and on the other hand provides a necessary way of reading some of the events in The Memoirs of a Survivor. Sufism accounts for the difference in Lessing's vision between these two novels. In various interviews, Lessing has maintained that her seeming change of vision from utopian politics to spirituality or mysticism is not really so radical and that both areas deal with a psychological understanding of people, groups, and social developments. Furthermore, Lessing claims in a 1982 letter to Mona Knapp that ―I became interested in the Sufi way of thought because I was already thinking like that, before I had heard of Sufis or Sufism‖. This is in fact the case when one evaluates The Memoirs of a Survivor which reflects the many aspects of the protagonist‘s life from the Sufi point of view. In The Novelistic Vision of Doris Lessing: Breaking Through the Forms of Consciousness Rubenstein (1979: 122) raises the point that the quest for the self implicit in Lessing‘s pre-Sufi novels is not altered but deepened in the context of Sufi thought. It is noteworthy to say that even though The Golden Notebook was written without Lessing's prior knowledge of Sufism; it anticipates her turn to Sufism, while later novels, such as The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974), build upon that turn. Following her immersion in Sufi study in the early 1960s, Lessing became more didactic in her novels in which analogies to Sufi experience were more overtly suggested and more clearly applicable. The narrator in The Memoirs of a Survivor-a novel written twelve years later was taken much further in the protagonist's self discovery comparing Lessing‘s other novels including The Golden Notebook, which suggests that perhaps Lessing later knew and did not only intuit that there was a further place to which one could go. Lessing was able to carry the narrator of The Memoirs of a Survivor into new worlds which she created and which she later explored at greater length in her space fiction. The space behind the wall in The Memoirs of a Survivor, for instance, is clearly a metaphor for the narrator's inner life, which, like the infinite rooms behind the wall, daily unfolds into a rich tapestry of experience and self-discovery. It is also noteworthy that Lessing introduces the carpet imagery in The Memoirs of a Survivor, the weaving of carpets being one of many basic teaching tools in Sufism: the narrator sees a roomful of people gathered around a faded carpet, colors and patterns of which emerge brightly in patches as individuals find their particular piece in the carpet and place it on the faded material that is, as they fulfill their destiny. This carpet episode is further analyzed by Fahim 1113 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (1994: 108) as well as the four-walled garden and the iron egg as mandala symbols that activate the process of contemplation by inducing certain mental states which encourage the achievement of equilibrium between the levels of perception. Like a Sufi tale, The Memoirs of a Survivor is written to be read on different levels. As one peels the layers, one moves deeper along a spectrum from the political and rhetorical readings at one end, to the psychological and spiritual at the other. It is further suggested by Fahim (1994: 87) that in reading of The Memoirs of a Survivor, rational, psychological, and spiritual modes of consciousness are fully integrated to bring the different strata of the novel together. Given Lessing's Sufi knowledge, it is justifiable to suggest a mystical reading of The Memoirs of a Survivor without dismissing other readings. This has been the intent of Sufi teaching tales, as well: to offer many lessons to many audiences at many levels. In turn, my thesis, aims to provoke further discussion on all sides, not to foreclose it. Sufism makes a noticeable difference in Lessing's vision as Lessing moves from her previously written novels to The Memoirs of a Survivor. There seems to be a continuation from these to The Memoirs of a Survivor. The Narrator of The Memoirs of a Survivor breaks through the walls of reality almost in the opening pages of the novel. Lessing, here, as a writer influenced by Sufism, sees that it is only in the fullest development and balancing of all available faculties that human beings can free themselves from mere predetermined repetition and so evade catastrophe. This evolution of consciousness is a precious ability which foresees the future course of human evolution. Emily and her guardian are aware of chaos, too, as it unfolds daily around them; but for them, Lessing can draw on the Sufi Path to self development and transformation. In The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 81), political and economic calamities prompt people to band together in tribes and move out of the cities, while those who remain behind resort to stealing, killing, growing their own food, and building air filters to survive. During this time Emily is left with the narrator who records the events and mood of the times: ―Inside it was all chaos: the feeling one is taken over by, at the times in one's life when everything is in change, movement, destruction-or reconstruction‖. In light of Sufism, this guardian, who remains unnamed in the novel, could represent the mature Emily. Emily and the narrator of the novel are the same, otherwise how could the narrator, who is certainly not omniscient, view scenes of Emily‘s past. I argue that when the narrator and Emily are read as one and the same character, they create a whole, a state of integration and wholeness to which Sufis aspire. The guardian shares Emily's identity, especially during the times when she pays frequent mysterious visits to a space through and beyond the faded designs of the old wallpaper, where she is confronted with rooms in shambles. In the Sufi context, this imaginary space serves as a metaphor for Emily's inner life and childhood, and the guardian is the adult part of Emily who has committed herself to working on reconciling her inner and outer worlds, or her essence and personality, as well as her past and present. My interpretation here is that Emily's childhood scenes are necessary steps for learning about her past. She is aware that the past influences the present, as in the connection between baby Emily's frigid white nursery and teenager Emily's present sense of deprivation and isolation. These episodes show that Lessing believes in ultimate salvation which comes to the individuals who can achieve wholeness within themselves, again a state which is in accordance with Sufi thoughts. At the heart of Sufi thought is the necessity for individual and cosmic evolution and the idea that men and women do not know themselves, nor their potentials. This corresponds comfortably to Lessing's natural inclinations, so that Idries Shah's representation of Sufism reinforces Lessing's own belief in an evolution of a more whole society. As a result, Lessing readily incorporates Sufi perceptions of human beings in her very involved and lengthy novels. Sufis see human beings as incomplete and expect them to transcend their merely human state of incompletion through ―work‖ in the Sufi Way. This is not only the situation humanity and its potential in most of Lessing's novels, but is also intentionally emphasized in the lives of her characters. In The Memoirs of a Survivor, Lessing‘s vision encompasses the discomfort her protagonist feels when faced with social and ideological corruption and fragmentation, her own and that of the rest of the world. When The Memoirs of a Survivor is considered against the backdrop of Sufism; it will lend itself to an additional reading: spiritual destitution. This despair is echoed in The Memoirs of a Survivor, which reminds DuPlessis (1979: 4) of an abstract Four-Gated City because in this novel Lessing repeats similar arguments regarding the end of the world and spiritual transformation. As a mystic, Lessing means us to take the reality of her narrator‘s time-travel literally. Lessing here is inventing a new world behind the walls which can be interpreted as if Lessing is giving hope to her readers in creating this world. She actually wants to transform our view of reality but interprets that transformation only as an intellectual exercise in stretching one‘s perceptions. The interpretation of the two realms, the inner and the outer, on either side of the wall can illustrate how the two worlds nourish each other in the narrator‘s life. Lessing actually is pointing out Sufi theories of literature to explain the 1114 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo two irreconcilable universes in the world of The Memoirs of a Survivor, the realistic and the fantastic. In the light of Sufism, teenager Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 34) feels ―a hunger, a need; a pure thing, which makes her face lose its hard brightness; her eyes their defensiveness. She is a passion of longing‖. Here, the Sufi context offers not only an additional reading but provides the crucial key to understanding The Memoirs of a Survivor. Lessing does not define what Emily longs for, but the novel as a whole invites an allegorical reading. Through ―working‖ on herself and fighting her battles, Emily has the chance to transform herself and thereby satisfy her longing. Walker (1989: 95) calls The Memoirs of a Survivor ―an allegory of psychological integration‖ but also more literally a story of two ―human beings painstakingly forming a social bond‖. Walker (ibid 114) argues that The Memoirs of a Survivor is allegorical in the way Spencer‘s Faerie Queene is allegorical; a single image in the novel often signals both social and psychological meaning. As its dust jacket describes it, The Memoirs of a Survivor is ―an attempt at autobiography,‖ which claims Lessing confirms in Under My Skin (1994). Here Lessing offers revelations on The Memoirs of a Survivor‘s autobiographical dimension. Greene (1995: 149) adds, ―That Lessing's mother and grandmother were both named Emily suggests why autobiography is a relevant term‖. Lessing had only recently encountered Sufism when she wrote The Memoirs of a Survivor and the narrator's trips behind the wall can be read easily as Lessing's own allegorical quests for her ―self.‖ (Greene 1995: 149) When evaluated in light of Sufism, the world behind the wall in The Memoirs of a Survivor emerges as the only real world, while the reality of daily life on the pavement pales in contrast. The classical Persian Sufi poet Omar Khayyam (d.1132) describes the human being as a lantern of imaginings inside a lamp: one's petty and mundane experiences are the lantern of imaginings trapped within the brightness of the only real world (Shah The Way of the Sufi 1968: 60). If read in light of the Sufi tradition, The Memoirs of a Survivor becomes a satisfying novel, one that offers more than a mere futuristic ghost story as Melvin Madoocks (1975: 79) calls the novel. To a great extent, Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor lives during a time of ―death and destruction‖ which seems stronger than life. She lives under the pressures of the dead and dying Western civilization, fighting in her own ways to escape death. In direct correlation with Sufi thinking that we are incomplete and need years of hard work to complete ourselves, the guardian, during her earlier visits behind the wall, finds discord and turmoil, as any would-be seeker does at the outset of his or her ―work.‖ ―To make the rooms inhabitable, what work needed to be done!‖ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 14) she tells us. The guardian adds, I stood there marking fallen plaster, the corner of a ceiling stained with damp, dirty, or damaged walls. . . The exiled inhabitant: for surely she could not live, never could have lived, in that chill empty shell full of dirty and stale air? (ibid) From a Sufi perspective, the rightful inhabitant exiled from this place would be Emily's perfected self who may not return until Emily is properly prepared to receive her. However, for the time being, the incomplete Emily hides behind a cold, impervious, hard, and enamelled presence (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 16). Throughout the course of the novel her guardian tries to get past or around Emily's defenses, and the closest she gets to the Emily who is in hiding is when she walks through the old wallpaper into Emily's inner world. However, the two worlds on either side of the wall still remain disconnected, ―one life excluding the other‖ (ibid 25). The guardian recognizes this impasse that is so sharply pronounced in Emily and comments on the prison in which we all live and the difficulty we have in allowing anyone to come close to us (ibid 31). This idea later led to the title Lessing chose for her book of essays, Prisons We Choose to Live Inside (1987). As the novel progresses, more and more of the influence of the world behind the wall remains with the guardian when she returns to the external world. These memories help the guardian to protect Emily during the present disharmony. In fact, the trips behind the wall become such an obsession and an obligation that she experiences a sense of fear and of lowered vitality whenever she is about to cross over again, for what she finds there is chaos and turmoil as if savages and soldiers had been there (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 40). She finds chairs and sofas slashed with their stuffing spewing out, curtains ripped off, and feathers and blood everywhere. She works hard to clean and reorder, scrubs; the walls with buckets of hot water, and airs out the rooms with the sun and wind. However, she tells us, ―Whenever I re-entered the rooms after a spell away in my real life, all had to be done again. It was like what one reads of a poltergeist's tricks‖ (ibid 64). In the light of Sufism, the apparent result of being out of touch with one's inner self is a spiritual sterility, which Emily describes as a drying up of the well. This dried up state leaves behind a mere machine that is efficiently in control, but lifeless. Emily suffers from an experience of longing for meaning. Only in her case, this longing is more deliberately fashioned by Lessing, given the Sufi 1115 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo context that can now accommodate such thirst and that can enrich Lessing's vision. Emily has felt deprived of fertile surroundings since she was a baby, and she still knows very little about the world behind the wall. Before she can grow out of her stifled existence, it is necessary for her to know this world thoroughly. In The Memoirs of a Survivor, Lessing has set up less than ideal surroundings to provide her protagonist with the friction against which she must work. Emily retains her glass wall almost to the end of her stay with her guardian and only rarely allows parts of herself to show through. The Sufi hopes to reach the essence within and to help it grow into maturity. One's inner world needs to keep up with, or catch up with, one's external development in everyday life. Of course, a mind that could possibly begin to think creatively about its own improvement is one which is uncluttered. In order to reach one's essence, one is expected to undo the ―useless superstition, habits, convention, irrelevant assumptions, and expectations‖ which one has been fed, so that the mind can see what is really there (Courtland 2002: 86). ―To follow Sufism is to die gradually to oneself and to become oneSelf, to be born anew and to become aware of what one has always been from eternity (azal) without one's having realized it until the necessary transformation has come about‖ (Nasr 1973: 17). On this subject the thirteenth-century Persian Sufi poet, Sa‘d ud Din Mahmud Shabistari, writes in The Secret Garden: Go sweep out the chamber of your heart. Make it ready to be the dwelling place of the Beloved. When you depart out. He will enter it. In you, void of yourself, will He display His beauties. (Friedlander 1975: 23) The process of voiding oneself is an essential step toward acquiring real self-knowledge. But of course, this nothingness brings with it hopelessness and despair. This train of thought is evident in The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 66) when the guardian frantically scrubs and cleans out the area behind the wall, trying to make it inhabitable for ―the other‖ Emily. She also does her best in the apartment in her ―real‖ life in order to accommodate Emily's growing life; or, in the Sufi context, the grown up Emily's personality accommodates the essence of Emily that is still in embryo. It is important to note also that Emily's room in her guardian's apartment is no larger than a closet space and that she shares even this space with her closest friend, the cat/dog-like beast, Hugo. This narrow space is symbolic of the underdeveloped state of Emily's essence. She remains stifled literally as well as figuratively until that time when her inner and outer worlds join in harmony. Meanwhile, the process of purification continues behind the wall. The guardian describes how she scrubs and paints the walls until the sheets of dust have been replaced by clean and clear whiteness like ―new snow or fine china‖ (ibid). In the Sufi context, the choice of concentrating on the hurdles in life, or deliberately engaging in conscious labor and intentional suffering, is essential for real transformation to take place. Just as the guardian literally works in the grimy areas of that other world, self-work in the Sufi Way is carried out in the problem areas of Emily's psyche. It is also essential to recognize the difference that emerges in Emily‘s experience between ordinary and intentional suffering. In Sufism ordinary suffering is an indulgence in one's negative emotions, whereas intentional suffering always produces a new person. Ordinary suffering is self-pity grown out of self-importance, vanity, sloth, fear, jealousy, or greed; and the Sufi aspires to convert such suffering into a conscious act. Intentional suffering is impressively and deliberately demonstrated in The Memoirs of a Survivor. Each of the guardian's journeys behind the wall into young Emily's disturbing world is an example of intentional suffering. At the end of these journeys, the guardian's and Emily's lives are changed. Every journey contributes to balancing the aspects of Emily's character within a unified person and to bringing her closer to completion and (psychological and spiritual) rebirth. Often the guardian witnesses Emily trying futilely to bring order into her life behind the wall. A poignant image depicts Emily trying to amass fallen leaves into heaps. But as she sweeps and makes piles, the leaves fly about in the wind. Emily/the guardian works faster and faster, trying to empty a whole house full of leaves to no successful end, while ―The world was being submerged in dead leaves, smothered in them‖ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 137). Emily continues her frantic and desperate fight against nature - in this case, her own nature. And while going through this process of self purification, she appears discouraged and maddened with the seeming futility of her task: ―Her stare, fixed, wide, horrified. . . She saw only the fragments of the walls that could not shelter her, nor keep out the sibilant drift‖ (ibid 137), and she vanishes among the rustling leaves and decaying world. Moreover, in the Sufi tradition, only conscious efforts without expectation of rewards lead one to true liberation. The guardian in The Memoirs of a Survivor learns that unless one makes an effort, 1116 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo one gains nothing real. This message is inherent in this novel and is shown overtly by Lessing throughout the course of the novel. The Sufi idea that a conscious reactivation of memory can play an important part in the individual‘s quest for self-development has also had a noticeable influence on this novel. The Narrator stipulates that during her ‗‗visits‘‘ behind the wall she is brought into contact with ‗‗personal‘‘ scenes involving family situations. Although such incidents primarily concern Emily‘s childhood experiences, the emotions which are aroused are stated to be universal, and they prompt the Narrator into commenting that she is ‗‗conscious of memories assaulting me, claiming, insinuating‘‘ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 38). Moreover, in The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 148), as Emily develops further, her guardian begins to remember more and more of the world behind the wall. This symbolically implies that Emily is becoming more and more successful in her selfremembering and that her essence is becoming increasingly empowered to assert itself over her personality. At first, this self-remembering manifests itself in the form of the guardian's ability to hear a child crying faintly in the distance, miserable, lost, and weighed down with incomprehension. Yet, whenever the guardian asks anyone else about hearing this sound she discovers that it is only she who hears it. Emily cannot hear the cries. Sometimes the sobbing is almost inaudible and the guardian has to strain her ears to hear it. At other times, she ―twists and turns inwardly not to hear that miserable sound‖ (ibid). This attempt not to hear the crying is the natural human response to one's own pain. The fact that Emily's guardian can hear the crying even when she is on the ordinary side of the wall signals the break Emily has made through her personality to her essence or the breakthrough the adult Emily has made to the young Emily. Rumi-the Persian Sufi poet says; Sema-our prayer-is an awakening. But he who awakens in a dungeon of course does not wish to wake up. However, he who has fallen asleep in the rose gardens … If he wakes up, his joy increases, and perhaps he is spared from fearful dreams (Divane-e Shams-e Tabrizi: 1984 my translation from Persian). In Emily's case, her inner world that used to be in shambles, worn out, pained, dark, mossy, smelly, tortured, and stifled, begins to be lifted out of Rumi's dungeons into the rose gardens. At least Emily is now awake enough to hear herself cry, her glimpses of truth stretching into periods of consciousness. Emily takes pains to get to know herself and to arrive at that new person in herself who is capable of growing. Lessing‘s previous protagonists like Anna of The Golden Notebook does not go any further in her self-searching, perhaps because these novels were written during the time Lessing had been newly exposed to Sufism and this could be the reason why Anna lacks the further development which Emily experiences in The Memoirs of a Survivor, written twelve years later. This can be viewed as a kind of cumulative evolution in Lessing‘s fiction. The Martha Quest-the character of Children of Violence-who emerges after The Golden Notebook carries not only the seeds of completeness but also evolution. This is rightly so, considering Lessing‘s deepened and enhanced perception of the human psyche since her introduction to Sufi thought. Anna of The Golden Notebook only experiences a temporary madness and depression from which she is restored to a healthier and more whole person, while Emily undergoes a permanent transformation. Emily's experiences can be read as a self-work manual which illustrates how one can transform one's self. As Emily awakens, there is new life behind the wall, a few rotting planks lying about on earth that was putting out shoots of green … clean earth and insects that were vigorously at their work of re-creation … The smell of growth came up strong from the stuffy old room (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 101). The work Emily's guardian has to do is not completed yet; but after this breakthrough, her task becomes easier and more rewarding. She now has new creation and not the moss and the shambles with which to contend. Greene (1995: 59) recognizes the same theme in Landlocked, in which ―creation of the new requires the destruction of the old.‖ She also sees that this new creation ―is based on intuitive rather than logical faculties, the first step toward which is a radical disorientation‖ (ibid). This is similar to the disorientation that Emily experiences in The Memoirs of a Survivor until she gains some strength and balance. Lessing points out that the guardian's journeys and activities behind the wall were never really her choice, but her duty. The narrator/guardian remarks, Very strong was the feeling that I did as I was bid and as I must. I was being taken, was being led, was being shown, was held always in the hollow of a great hand which 1117 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo enclosed my life (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 101). This is reminiscent of the greater evolutionary cause of the Sufis. If an individual's personal growth can help to raise the level of the whole of humanity even a very slight degree, this is considered a success. Emily's guardian feels ―too much beetle or earthworm to understand‖ (ibid) the greater purpose behind her own actions, but she still feels compelled to walk into that ―other‖ world in order to explore and unearth the ―real‖ Emily. In this role, she is, according to Greene (1995: 26), a female Christ figure or cosmic mother, as are other saviors in Lessing's oeuvre, such as Al-Ith in Shikasta or Martha Quest of The Children of Violence. Greene (ibid) sees these protagonists as Christian, rather than Sufi seekers and saviors. In Sufism, the color black denotes wisdom and leadership. Romance and glory are not qualities sought after by Sufis. Rather, rebirth or real transformation is possible only after hard work and a strong presence of being that results from self-remembering. After the disaster in the unnamed city in The Memoirs of a Survivor, the guardian is able to share her vision with Emily, Emily's lover Gerald, and her pet Hugo, feeling confident that the world behind the wall is now strong enough to withstand intrusion from outside. And together, they witness the following vision as it unfolds: ―a bright green lawn under thunderous and glaring clouds, and on the lawn a giant black egg of pockmarked iron but polished and glossy (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 216). Lessing could have chosen a real egg, or a crystal egg far the occasion of Emily's rebirth; however, an iron egg by nature is difficult to break open, and this in itself provides the symbolic meaning of the difficulty of one's task in the Sufi Way. In a Sufi light, the dissolving of the walls marks Emily‘s death and rebirth; it is only when the walls of the old rooms are demolished that Emily can move on to become her new, enlightened self. As Emily and her entourage stand looking at the iron egg, it breaks open ―by the force of their being there‖ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 216), revealing the apparition for whom the guardian had been waiting throughout the navel. Following this Being is Emily, but the new, transmuted Emily and her beast Hugo, followed by Gerald and the savage children of the ordinary world. When all of Emily‘s family crosses into that new order, ―the last walls dissolve‖ (ibid 217). As a point of comparison, a classical Sufi account of renewal and rebirth, as it was experienced by Rumi-the Persian Sufi Poetseven hundred years ago, is related by Ira Shems Friedlander below: Like the Prophet before him, the angels descended to earth, cut open his breast, and removed the thin shell that remained over his heart. They removed the last bit of ego that remained within him and filled his heart with Love. Then they made his breast as it was before. As this was happening, Mawlana Rumi was in his garden lost in deep meditation, in a state of disassociation from his body, experiencing the highest initiation he would know until his 'wedding day' … He was now ready to reenter the world. (Friedlander 1975: 55) The ―wedding day‖ refers to death, which is celebrated as a union with God, the Beloved, and marks one's rebirth. Aspiring Sufis must remember at all times that their purpose is to rise on the vertical ladder of enlightenment and share the fate of the legendary phoenix, the beautiful, graceful white bird that is reborn out of its own ashes after burning itself on a fire kindled with a-hundred trees. With its final breath the phoenix sings a most beautiful song from the depths of its soul, sounding a plaintive cry as it dies to its old self (ibid 153). In Gerald's efforts to build a new family structure, Gayle Greene (1995: 150) recognizes the necessity for destruction that can make new creation possible: Human beings produced by the prison of the family are incapable of making a free society, and the ruined garden of Gerald's commune represents the impossibility of making anything new from existing social conditions: you can't get there from here. It is required of all humans and beasts to beast the phoenix, the emblem of immortality, between each of its deaths and rebirths. Similarly, students of Sufism are asked to work hard to preserve themselves, something that can be possible only through a lifetime of harmonious development, which involves the induced growth of the essence to an equal proportion with the personality. In support of self-preservation and transformation, which in turn contribute to the preservation and evolution of the human race, Lessing has remarked in an interview, ―Maybe out of destruction will be born some new creature. I don't mean physically. What interests me more than anything is how our minds are changing, how our ways of perceiving reality are changing‖ (Raskin 1982: 66). Lessing, like the Sufis, expects that humanity will continue to participate in cosmic evolution. Beyond this, Sufis make no provisions; nor do they argue about whether every individual has the potential to share the lot of the phoenix. Gurdjieff (1975), for instance, speaks of the acorns that do not all become oak trees. Most serve as fertilizer while very few take root and develop into an oak. Sufi context allows Emily to have an added new horizon comparing Lessing‘s previous protagonists. As for Lessing's vision, Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor is clearly delivered into a 1118 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo new sphere in which the limitations upon her can be lifted. Emily's search for herself is presented to us as a spiritual quest, similar in many ways to the Sufi Way. In The Memoirs of a Survivor, Lessing is able to develop this idea further, because she is able to reinforce her perceptions with Sufi truths. As a student of Sufism, Lessing not only paints this world in new colors and strokes, but she would like us to believe in the mimetic dimension of the other world, as well. For example, the breakthrough to the other world at the end of The Memoirs of a Survivor is not only metaphorical. The guardian and Emily are finally able to join forces in earnest, share the same vision, purpose, and future because of the guardian's preceding Sufi ―work‖ behind the wall to make their union possible. No matter what the external circumstances, they are now one whole individual, who is able to withstand the challenges of daily life even at a time of war and destruction. Such a character is not only important in her thematic and synthetic dimensions but is equally important in her mimetic dimension. She is not a freak in the novel to be read only for the ideas she represents, but a plausible human being who is seeking something more than ordinary life. Any supernatural phenomena in Lessing's later novels really belong to the same world that we experience daily. However, as Lessing points out, only the socalled mad ones in her novels know and believe this to be true. CONCLUSION Two things become very clear from my analysis of The Memoirs of a Survivor, written after Lessing's exposure to Sufism: one, that Lessing was naturally inclined to promote ―work‖ on oneself; and two, that the Sufi tradition has offered her a very welcome pathway to explore beyond the limitations of psychology, psychiatry, politics, Communism, Jungianism, or any other ―ism‖ to which she had appealed prior to her study of Sufism. More specifically, The Memoirs of a Survivor is totally built upon Lessing‘s turn to Sufism. Throughout the novel Lessing explicates the protagonist‘s selfdiscovery, draws her on the Sufi Path how to transform and develop her self. She actually wants to transform our perception of reality by giving us an intellectual exercise to stretch our insight. In the light of Sufism Lessing‘s vision is enriched and she could accommodate the thirst and longing for a meaning in life which Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor is suffering from. Furthermore, Lessing, through this novel, reminds us that ordinary suffering does not make a transformed person but what makes a new person is nothing but intentional suffering. These characteristics are impressively illustrated in The Memoirs of a Survivor when the guardian journeys behind the wall into young Emily‘s disturbing world. The significance of colors and the idea of rebirth and transformation are also remarkably demonstrated by Lessing in this novel of which black color denotes wisdom and leadership. Finally, Lessing invites us to understand that those who withstand the challenges of ordinary life, no matter internal or external, are thematically, synthetically and mimetically important to her. 1119 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Courtland, Lewis. (2002). ‗‘A visit to Idries Shah.‘‘ Lewin: Longman. Drabble, Margaret. (1979). ‗‘Doris Lessing: cassandra in a world under siege.‘‘ Ramparts Feb: 50-54. Draine, Betsy. (1979). ‗‘Changing frames: Doris Lessing‘s memoirs of a survivor.‘‘ studies in the Novel 11 (1): 51-62. Draine, Betsy. (1983). Substance under pressure: artistic coherence and evolving form in the novels of Doris Lessing, Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. DuPlessis, Rachel Blau. (1979). ‗‘The feminist apologues of Lessing, Piercy, and Russ.‘‘ Frontiers 4 (1): 1-8. DuPlessis, Rachel Blau. (1985). Writing beyond the ending: narrative strategies of twentieth-century women writers. Bloomington: Indiana UP. Fahim, Shadia S. (1994). Doris Lessing and sufi equilibrium: the evolving form of the novel. New York: St.Martin‘s. Friedlander, Ira Shems. (1975). The whirling dervishes. NewYork: Macmillan. Greene, Gayle. (1991). Changing the story: feminist fiction and the tradition. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. Greene, Gayle. (1995). Doris Lessing: The poetics of change. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. Gurdjieff, George Ivanovich. (1973). All and everything; beelzebub‘s tales to his grandson. 3 vols. New York: Dutton. Gurdjieff, George Ivanovich. (1975). Views from the real world. New York: Dutton. Lessing, Doris. (1972). ‗‘if you knew sufi…‘‘ Guardian. 8 Jan.12. Lessing, Doris. ( 1972). ‗‘Report on the threatened city.‘‘ The temptation of Jack Orkney: collected stories Vol., 2. London: Cape. Lessing, Doris. (1974). ‗‘Sufi philosophy and poetry.‘‘ books and bookmen. New York: Knopf.. Lessing, Doris. (1983). The sentimental agents in the volyen empire. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1994). Under my skin. New York: Harper. Lessing, Doris. (ed). (1989). The Doris Lessing reader. London: Cape. Lessing, Doris. (1950). The grass is singing. New York: Popular Library. Lessing, Doris. (1952). Martha Quest. New York: Simon. Lessing, Doris. (1954). A proper marriage. New York: Simon. Lessing, Doris. (1962). The golden notebook. New York: Bantam. Lessing, Doris. (1963). ‗‘To room nineteen.‘‘ A man and two women. ed. Doris Lessing. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1965). Landlocked. London: MacGibbon. Lessing, Doris. (1968). ‗‘Sufic samples.‘‘ Listener 79 (June). 744. 1120 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lessing, Doris. (1969). ‗‘Some kind of a cake.‘‘ Observer New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1969). The four-gated city. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1970). A ripple from the strom. New York: Simon. Lessing, Doris. (1970). Letter to the editor. ‗‘The mysterious east.‘‘ New York Review of Books 22: 5152. Lessing, Doris. (1971). ‗‘An ancient way to new freedom.‘‘ New York: Vintage. Lessing, Doris. 1971. Briefing for a descent into hell. New York: Vintage. Lessing, Doris. (1972). ‗ ‘In the world, not of It.‘‘ Encounter 39: 61-64. Lessing, Doris. (1972). ‗‘What looks like an egg and is an egg?‘‘ New York times book review 7 (6): 41-43. Lessing, Doris. (1973). Preface to collected African stories, Vol.1, London: Michael Joseph. Preface to The collected African stories, Vol. 2, London: Michael Joseph. Lessing, Doris. (1974). ‗‘ Unmasking burton.‘‘ Guardian 20 July. 23. Lessing, Doris. (1974). ‗‘The living stream.‘‘ Guardian 24 Aug. 23. Lessing, Doris. (1974). ‗‘The way of mecca.‘‘ books and bookmen: New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1974). The memoirs of a survivor. New York: bantam. Lessing, Doris. (1975). ― The east‘s new dawn.‘‘ books and bookmen. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1975). ‗‘Building a new cultural understanding with the people of the east.‘‘ times. London: Longmas. Lessing, Doris. (1976). ‗‘The ones who know.‘‘ Times Literary Supplement 30: 514- 15. Lessing, Doris. (1979). Re: colonised planet 5, shikasta. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1980). The marriages between zones three, four, and five. New York: Vintage. Lessing, Doris. (1981). Introduction. learning how to learn: psychology and spirituality in the sufi way (French Edition). By Idries Shah. New York:Harper. Lessing, Doris. (1982). ‗‘The making of the representative for planet 8. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1982). Introduction' kalila and dimna: selected fables of bidpai, Ramsay Wood, London: Granada Publishing. Lessing, Doris. (1982): ‗‘Learning how to learn.‘‘ Asia magazine July/Aug. pp 12-15. Lessing, Doris. (1983). The diaries of a good neighbor. New York: Alfred A Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1983). The diaries of Jane Somers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1984). ‗‘Preface. seekers after truth [chercheur de la verite, French ed.] By Idries Shah. Reprinted in The Doris Lessing reader. (Ed.) Doris Lessing. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1985). The good terrorist. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1987). ‗‘Omar Khayyam.‘‘ New Statesman 74 (Dec): 847. 1121 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lessing, Doris. (1987). Prisons we choose to live inside. New York: Harper. Lessing, Doris. (1987). The wind blows away our words. New York: Vintage. Lessing, Doris. (1988). The fifth child. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1964). ‗‘An elephant in the dark.‘‘ Spectator 213: 373. Lessing, Doris. (1972). ‘‘The temptation of Jack Orkney.‘‘ The temptation of Jack Orkney: collected stories. Vol. 2. London: Cape. Lessing, Doris. (1973). Preface to the golden notebook (June 1971), The golden notebook, London: Granada Publishing, Panther Books. Lessing, Doris. (1973). The summer before the dark. New York: Vintage. Lessing, Doris. (1975). ‗‘A revolution.‘‘ New York Times 22 Aug. 31. Lessing, Doris. (1992). African laughter: four visits to Zimbabwe. New York: Harper. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. 1973. Sufi essays. Albany: State U of New York P. Raskin, Jonah. (1974). ' Doris Lessing at stony brook: an interview', in a small personal voice, Paul Schlueter (ed), New York: Alfred A. knopf. Rumi, Mowlana Jalaluddin. (1898). Selected poems from the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson. London: Cambridge UP. Sprague, Claire & Virginia Tiger. (eds). (1986). Critical essays on Doris Lessing. Boston: Hall. Sprague, Claire. (1982). ―Naming in marriages: another view. ―Doris Lessing Newsletter 7 (1): 13. Sprague, Claire. (1983). Double talk in the golden notebook. ―Papers On Language And Literature 17 (Spring): 181-97. Sprague, Claire. (1987). Rereading Doris Lessing: narrative patterns of doubling and repetition. Chapel Hill; U of North Carolina P. Walker, Jeanne Murray. (1989). ―Memory and culture within the individual: the breakdown of social exchange in memoirs of a survivor. New York: Kaplan 1122 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 590 Title A name given to the resource PRE-SUFI NOVELS: DORIS LESSING‘S NATURAL INCLINATION FOR SUFI THOUGHT Author Author Kiaei, Shahram Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper discusses the impact of certain sufistic ideas on one of Doris Lessing‘s celebrated novels: The Memoirs of a Survivor. This novel is the example that shall be analyzed as Lessing's markedly Sufistic novel in order to show the characteristics of Lessing's works which scholars recognize as undeniably influenced by Sufism. The discussion in this novel is important in order to examine the differences on the craftsmanship of the novel even before Lessing incorporated officially to Sufism in her succeeding novels right after she has known about Sufism. This paper also argues Lessing‘s expected inclination to Sufism, or her visions before she finally realized how Sufism has influenced her art and her holistic evolution. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1cbeec4b8ea17e0898b005672f73c48a.pdf a627aa751b43174a3651419132a27cc9 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A Postmodern Study of Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook in the Light of Jean-Francois Lyotard ‘s Ideas Shahram Kiaei Faculty Member, Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Qom Branch, Qom, Iran shahramkiaei@yahoo.com Ensiyehsadat Azizi Department of English Islamic Azad University, Arak Branch , Arak , Iran enc1382@yahoo.com Fatemeh Azizmohammadi Faculty Member, Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Arak Branch , Arak , Iran Mina_meena_meena@yahoo.com Abstract: It has become a virtual commonplace of contemporary criticism that postmodern thought challenges the Enlightenment view of human reason, especially its assumption of a stable, autonomous subject capable of directing the forces of history. For this reason some theorists see postmodernism as pivoting on a reformulation of anti-Enlightenment thought that surfaced during the nineteenth-century and which remained active throughout the modernist period. From this perspective, literary modernism's ambivalent stance toward the integrity of the subject is in part the legacy of Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud-precisely those nineteenth-century thinkers who situate much of the postmodern project. Regarding all the previous criticisms, this study clearly assumes that postmodernism employs quite different critical methodologies from those of modernism. Nevertheless, as Jean-Francois Lyotard suggests, evidence of this postmodern emphasis is latent in modernism itself, most particularly in those highly experimental or transgressive works that challenge traditional notions of referential language, rational order, or the autonomous subject. This study, particularly, examines Doris Lessing‘s major work for which she was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007, The Golden Notebook (1962), in which postmodern elements especially Lyotard‘s exists. Ultimately, the paper hails this most influential novel as a postmodern masterpiece. Key Words: Enlightenment, Postmodernism, Fragmentation, Chaos In the first two-thirds of The Golden Notebook, the theme of the crack up or breakdown is elaborated in the novels representation of national and global politics. Soviet-inspired Communism, European colonialism and emperialism , Britain society, and national liberation struggles in the Third World are disintegrating, collapsing, crumbling, and fragmenting, under the pressures both internal and external. The last third of the novel relocates the crack-up in the person,[..],of Anna herself. -Louise Yelin, From the Margins of Empire: Christina Stead, Doris Lessing, Nadline Gordimer Introduction The Enlightenment was a Europe-wide phenomenon, in philosophy, literature, language, art, religion, and political theory, which lasted from around 1680 until the end of the 18 thcentury. Conventionally, the Enlightenment has been called the ―age of reason‖. For the Enlightenment thinker, truth was available and human reason was the tool by which this knowledge had been achieved and by further application of human reason, one day the whole truth would be available to the human mind. Traditional theory desires for a unitary and totalizing truth. During this time philosophers believed in the world‘s own story. It is what Jean-Francois 1389 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lyotard , one of the leading proponents of postmodernism, denies when he urges a rejection of Enlightenment ―metanarratives‖ in favor of arguing that ―there is no such thing as the world‘s own story, and the only accounts that we can give of the world are local human aiccounts. There are only varied and conflicting human stories about the world‖. The credibility of grand narratives has collapsed for Lyotard . Based on the theory by Lyotard (1984): In contemporary society and culture-postindustrial society, postmodern culture-the question of the legitimation of knowledge is formulated in different terms. The grand narrative has lost its credibility, regardless of what mode of unification it uses, regardless of whether it is a speculative narrative or a narrative of emancipation (p.37). Postmodern philosophers say that the idea of the world‘s own story, the unified picture of reality is an illusion. Most postmodernism‘s core characteristics are: ―a skepticism or rejection of grand narratives to explain reality; no objective reality, but many subjective interpretations; no ―one correct‖ concept of ultimate reality; no ―one correct‖ interpretation of a text (Bressler, 2007). Moreover, postmodernist thought rejects universals, the whole truth, unitary and totalization. This is the fragmentation of truth. Postmodernist art, architecture and literature emphasize the lack of any unifying form or method in art. Postmodernist art revels in the fragmentation of artistic standards (Luntley, 1995). Hence, the postmodern literature world is the representation of chaos and fragmentation. In postmodern novels, chaos, fragmentation, and breakdown are in both their contents and structures. Lyotard , too sees society as fragmented. The postmodern novelists would appreciate the readers to explore fragmented society and human beings. Postmodern novelists reject any conventional story-telling and emphasize that there are no pre-established ways for writing. The process of story-telling is different for postmodern novelists. They are interested in discovering new ways for writing. A liberating way of story-telling is clear for postmodern novelists. Lyotard (1984) expresses that: A postmodern artist or writer is in the position of a philosopher: the text he writes, the work he produces are not in principle governed by pre-established rules ,and they cannot be judged according to a determining judgment ,by applying familiar categories to the text or to the work. Those rules and categories are what the work of art itself is looking for. The artist and the writer then are working without rules in order to formulate the rules of what will have been done (p.81). One of the outstanding examples of postmodern novels which most contain the above-mentioned is Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook .In this novel, Lessing avoids being committed to conventional storytelling ,and tends to regard unconventional and new ways for story-telling. This essay discusses Anna‘s skepticism about the Communist Party, as illustrated primarily in the Red Notebook. Doris Lessing, the Noble Prize winner in literature 2007, the greatest English novelist of the postwar period, born in Persia (now Iran) to British parents in 1919. She has written a lot of plays, short stories and novels. The Grass is singing, which appeared in 1950, is her first novel. As she has told her interviewers, it is not her first attempt at the novel; she has destroyed the manuscripts of two earlier works. During the 50s and 60s, The Grass is singing was followed by the five volumes of her Children of Violence series: Martha Quest (1952); A Proper Marriage (1954); A Ripple from the Storm (1958); Landlocked (1956), and The Four-Gated City (1969). Also, she has written several other novels and a series of short stories. To Room Nineteen (1978) and Through the Tunnel (1990) are her best-known short stories. One of her plays is Play with a Tiger: a play in three acts. The main focus of the present essay, as mentioned before, is on Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook, which will be closely analyzed in the following paragraphs. Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook The Golden Notebook (1962) opens with a ―Free Women‖ section: Free Women is a conventional short novel that is divided into five sections and separated by stages of the four Notebooks; Black ,Red, Yellow and Blue ,and The Golden Notebook appears near the book‘s end. In these notebooks Anna keeps writing of events in her life. The Black Notebook is a record of various aspects of Anna‘s bestselling first novel, Frontiers of war; The Red one is about her experiences and dissatisfying with the British Communist Party; The Yellow one is about her romantic novel called The Shadow of the Third; in this notebook she writes about Ella which is the mirror of her life; and the Blue one is Anna‘s diary of her life. The Golden Notebook and the Interrogation of the Communist Party The Golden Notebook is one of the best-loved and most influential of Lessing‘s novels that invites her readers to discover postmodern fragmented society. When Anna Wulf , the writer and the protagonist, in the beginning of the novel says ―everything is cracking up‖, it implies that the hope of referring to unity has almost disappeared and chaos has an opportunity to emerge. Also, Lessing mentions in the preface of The Golden Notebook; ―its theme is breakdown and fragmentation‖. Chaos and fragmentation are in agreement with the novel. Anna expresses that writing four notebooks instead of one notebook is just because of chaos 1. She senses incoherent in both her life and personality. Given different colors for notebooks shows her fragmented personality in the society. Anna‘s life in the fragmented society requires her to express that: 1390 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The novel has become a function of the fragmented society, the fragmented consciousness. Human beings are so divided, are becoming more and more divided, and more subdivided in themselves, reflecting the world, that they reach out desperately, not knowing they do it, for information about other groups inside their own country, let alone about groups in other countries (GN, p.79). What happens to readers as they read the novel is different from each other. The postmodern writer insists on expression without content, which means that the writer puts up a scenario which the reader is free to interpret in whatever way he/she likes to: there is no correct interpretation (Barkholt & Jepsen, 2010). The postmodern celebration of interrogation grand narrative appears in the Red Notebook. When Anna writes about communism in this notebook, it is to inform her opposition to communism and interrogate it. As Jackson (2009) says: Anna writes of having become disillusioned with the communism into her Red Notebook. Lessing‘s novel is overtly about the splitting or disunification . The compartmentalization of experience into different notebooks is one of the most straightforward manifestations of this theme. All manner of historical forces, especially the Cold War, are the causes for this splitting. Lessing, like Anna, writes about Communism (she was a member of the Communist Party in both South Africa and Britain). Paul Schlueter (2003) notes that: In common with many other British and American intellectuals in the1930s and early 1940s, Doris Lessing became a Communist as a result of sincere optimistic desires to see the world improved and to have the injustices of a supposedly inhuman competitive system of values eliminated .To a great extent, her decision to become a Communist appears now as naive many other youthful enthusiasms or commitments. She has said, for instance, when I became a communist, emotionally if not organizationally, in 1942, my picture of socialism as developed in the Soviet Union was, to say the least, inaccurate. [...] (p.36). Through writing about the Communist Party Anna feels depressed. The rejection of being a communist is related to Lessing, too. Doris Lessing herself, in an interview with Hermione Lee mentions that ―she has just stopped being a communist and being on the extreme Left‖. 2It becomes clear that Lessing was not really satisfied with joining the Communist Party. She has said that she decided to leave the party a good time before I finally left it. I didn‘t leave it when I decided to, because there was a general exodus, much publicized, from the British Party then, and the journalists were waiting for yet another renegade to publish his, her complaints against the C.P. [Communist Party]. To quote another old communist: ―I find it nauseating when people who have been in the Party ten, twenty years, stagger out shouting and screaming as if they‘ve been raped against their will.‖ I left it because the gap between my own attitudes and those of the party widened all the time. There was no particular event or moment. The 20th Congress [in February, 1956, at which Khrushchev denounced Stalin] shocked me, not because of the ―revelations‖ but because I thought the ―revelations‖ were long overdue, pitifully and feebly Put forth, and no one really tried to explain or understand what had happened (schlueter, 2003, p.37). In the Red Notebook, Anna explains she hates joining anything, which seems to her incompatible. In lieu of being satisfied with joining the Communist Party, always she is thinking about leaving the Party. According to Marx3, ―the aim of a Communist society is to procure genuine freedom, genuine individuality and humanity, genuine democracy‖ (Habib, 2008, p.534). But, affirmative political beliefs of becoming a communist in Central Africa play virtually no part here for Anna. She attacks Communism at the beginning of talking with Molly about joining the Party: Last week, Molly came up at midnight to say that the Party members had been circulated with a form, asking for their history as members, and there was a section asking them to detail their 'doubts and confusions.' Molly said she had begun to write this, expecting to write a few sentences, had found herself writing' a whole thesis-dozens of bloody pages.' She seemed upset with herself. 'What is it I want-a confessional? Anyway, since I've written it, I'm going to send it in. 'I told her she was mad. I said: 'Supposing the British Communist Party ever gets into power, that document will be in the files, and if they want evidence to hang you, they've got it-thousands of times over.' She gave me her small, almost sours mile-the smile she uses when I say things like this. Molly is not an innocent communist. She said: 'You're very cynical.' I said: 'You know it's the truth. Or could be .' She said: 'If you think in that way, why are you talking of joining the Party?' I said: 'Why do you stay in it, when you think in that way too?' [...].'It's all very odd, Anna, isn't it?' And in the morning she said: 'I took your advice, I tore it up. (GN, pp.163-164). 1391 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this part, Anna criticizes the very possibility of real freedom and democracy in the Communist Party. She expresses that the Communist Party is too dishonest upon the individual. Although the Communist Party invites their members in the society to express their ideas and doubts freely, but it is not the truth. In fact, they are dishonest toward people. In spite of thinking about leaving the Party, Anna is still in it. So, it is her ambivalent aspect about the Communist Party. Anna says: ―I write very little in this notebook. Why? I see everything I write is critical of the Party. Yet I am still in it. Molly too‖(GN,p.168). But through reading the Red Notebook, we understand regardless of her ambivalence, most of the time she calls the Communist Party into question. ―I see that I wrote yesterday, I would leave the Party. I wonder when, and on what issue‖ (GN, p.170). Immediately, she describes her meeting with John . 4 Had dinner with John. We meet rarely-always on the verge of political disagreement. At the end of the dinner, he said: 'The reason why we don't leave the Party is that we can't bear to say good-bye to our ideals for a better world. 'Trite enough. And interesting because it implies he believes, and that I must, only the Communist Party can better the world. Yet we neither of us believe any such thing(GN,p.170). It indicates that the Communist Party cannot make the world better. Also, we do well keep in mind that fragmentation and split spread in the Communist Party. Anna confesses that the reason to join the Communist Party is a need for wholeness, but fragmentation and split emerge in the Communist Party. I came home thinking that somewhere at the back of my mind when I joined the Party was need for wholeness, for an end to the split, divided, unsatisfactory way we all live. Yet joining the Party intensified the split-not the business of belonging to an organisation whose every tenet, on paper, anyway, contradicts the ideas of the society we live in; but something much deeper than that. Or at any rate , more difficult to understand (GN, p.171). Her ambivalence appears not only in the Red Notebook, but also in her speaking with Mrs.Marks5 that is written in the Blue Notebook by Anna. -'Why are you a communist?' -'At least they believe in something.' -'Why do you say they, when you are a member of the Communist Party?' -'If I could say we, really meaning it, I wouldn't be here, would I?' -'So you don't care, really, about your comrades?' (GN, p.237). The ambivalence does not happen just for Anna, it is for each member of the Mashopi group.―The representation of Anna‘s life in the Communist Party exemplifies rupture, division, and doubleness. Like Anna, each member experiences an ambivalence that undermines her or his politics‖ (Yelin , 1998, p.79). Schlueter (2003) notes that: Although Anna indicates at various times her reasons for leaving the party—its jargon, its dishonesty, its pettiness, and so on—she does specify in one passage in more detail her exact reasons for both becoming a Communist and for leaving the party. Jack, another party member, comments that society today is complex and technical that no one person can effectively understand it all. Anna answers him: ―Alienation .Being split. It‘s the moral side, so to speak, of the communist message. And suddenly you shrug your shoulders and say because the mechanical basis of our lives is getting complicated, we must be content to not even try to understand things as a whole?‖[...] He says: ―Not being split, it‘s not a question of imaginatively understanding everything that goes on. Or trying to. It means doing one‘s work as well as possible, and being a good person.‖ I say: ―That‘s treachery.‖ ―To what?‖ ―To humanism .‖ He thinks and says: ―The idea of humanism will change like everything else.‖ I say: ―Then it will become something else. But humanism stands for the whole person, the whole individual, striving to become as conscious and responsible as possible about everything in the universe. But now you sit there, quite calmly, and as a humanist you say that due to the complexity of scientific achievement the human being must never expect to be whole, he must always be fragmented.‖ [pp. 307–8] Her sense of this fragmentation is such as to demand of her a more coherent, a more unifying life than has been possible through dedication to communism. [...] (pp.39 - 40). The failure of totalizing grand narratives of communism also emerges in the newspaper cuttings and letters from all kinds of people that Anna describes them in the Red Notebook. [At this point the red notebook was stuffed full of newspaper cuttings to do with the Twentieth Congress of the Russian Communist Party, letters from all kinds of people about politics, agendas for 1392 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo political meetings, etc. This mass of paper had been fastened together by rubber bands and clipped to the page. Then Anna's handwriting began again:] 11th August, 1956 Not for the first time in my life I realize I have spent weeks and months in frenzied political activity and have achieved absolutely nothing. More, that I might have foreseen it would achieve nothing. The Twentieth Congress has doubled and trebled the numbers of people, both in and out of the Party, who want a 'new‘ communist party. Last night I was at a meeting which went on till nearly morning. Towards the end a man who had not spoken before, a socialist from Austria, made a short humorous speech, something like this: 'My dear Comrades. I have been listening to you, amazed at the wells of faith in human beings! What you are saying amounts to this: that you know the leadership of the British C. P. Consists of men and women totally corrupted by years of work in the Stalinist atmosphere. You know they will do anything to maintain their position. You know, because you have given a hundred examples of it here this evening that they suppress resolutions, rig ballots, pack meetings, lie and twist. There is no way of getting them out of office by democratic means partly because they are unscrupulous, and partly because half of the Party members are too innocent to believe their leaders are capable of such trickery. [...] (GN, p.435). In the fourth Red Notebook we face Olga6‘s opinions about the Communist Party. She clasped his hand, and said: 'I will make you a promise. I promise you that when our Party Historians have re-written the history of our Communist Party in accordance with the revisions made necessary by the distortions imposed during the era of Comrade Stalin, I promise you that I will read it' (GN,p.515). It indicates that the history of the Communist Party cannot become universalized. Even the Party historians should re-write its history and revise it. It reminds us that history can never be completed. Conclusion Postmodern novelists, like Lessing are interested in interpretations and pave the way for the plurality of possible interpretations. The freedom of the postmodern writers is like the freedom of the readers. The Golden Notebook, then, is a novel informing fragments which encourages the readers to grow discouraged with grand narratives; the Communist Party. The most important matter that Anna, the main character, expresses over and over again in her notebooks, specifically in the Red Notebook is the fragmentation and chaos. Also, the acceleration of fragmentation is all over her life. The Critical moment in her dream is the fragmentation. It shows that Anna cannot escape from fragmentation and chaos, even in her dream: I had a dream for my last appointment. [...].I opened the box and forced them to look. But instead of a beautiful thing, which I thought would be there, there was a mass of fragments, but bits and pieces from everywhere, all over the world—I recognized a lump of red earth, that I knew came from Africa, and then a bit of metal that came off a gun from Indo-China, and then everything was horrible, bits of flesh from people killed in the Korean War and a communist party badge off someone who died in a Soviet prison. This, looking at the mass of ugly fragments, was so painful that I couldn‘t look, and I shut the box (GN, pp.252- 253). She frequently mediates on the difficulty of the Communist Party and regards it inadequate. The red Notebook is a record of a period of history; the Communist Party, but maybe the end of the Communist Party. Most of the characters in the novel, especially Anna realize that they may be at the end of history. They interrogate grand narratives-universal and totalizing stories that give direction to the historical process and legitimize statements of truth. Judith KeganGardiner's valuable essay on Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook perfectly describes little of internal communist maneuvering in the novel. In an attempt to leave the Communist Party, she often calls it into question. Gardiner (2007) says that most of the communists in the novel are deceived. Communism in The Golden Notebook thus becomes a set of false beliefs. The readers are motivated to discover whether Anna is interested in communism or not. 1393 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Endnotes: 1-When Tommy asks her the reason of writing four notebooks, Anna says: ―I‘ve told you, Chaos‖(GN,p.272) . 2-Lee, H.(2009). A Conversation With Doris Lessing. (p.23). Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http://www.informaworld.Com/smpp/title~content=t716100725 3- The tradition of Marxist thought has provided the most powerful critique of capitalist Institutions and ethics ever conducted. Its founder, Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883),was a German Political, economic, and philosophical theorist and revolutionist (Habib , 2008,p.527). 4-John: He is a Comrade. 5-Mrs.Marxs:'Mother Sugar', is Anna‘s psychiatrist. 6- Olga: She is a Comrade. References Barkholt, G.V.&Jepsen, J.D.(2010).Postmodernism. A Short History of Literature in Englisha Handbook (p.79). (1st ed). Systime Publishing Ltd. Bressler, Ch.(2007). Modernity and Postmodernism: Structuralism and Deconstruction. Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice (p.101). (4th ed). Pearson Prentice Hall . Bloom ,H.(2003). The Golden Notebook . Schlueter, P. Bloom‘s Modern Critical Views: Doris Lessing (pp.27-60). Chelsea House Publisher .Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http :library.nu/ Habib , M.A.R. (2008). Marxism. A History of Literary Criticism and Theory (pp. 527- 534) . (1st ed). Blackwell Publishing. Jackson, T.E.(2009).― Why a story at all‖ The Writing of The Golden Notebook. The Technology of the Novel Writing and Narrative in British Fiction. (pp.148-149).The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore. Lee, H.(2009).A Conversation With Doris Lessing. (p.23). Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http://www.informaworld.Com/smpp/title~content=t716100725 Lessing, D. (1972). The Golden Notebook. Great Britain. Luntley, M.(1995).Introduction . Reason, Truth, and Self (the Postmodern Reconditioned), (pp.10-15).(1st ed). Routledge. Lyotard , J.F. (1984). The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Volume 10. Manchester University Press. Shaffer ,B.W. (2007) . Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook. Gardiner, J.K. A Companion to the British and Irish Novel 1945-2000. (p.380). (1st ed). Blackwell Publishing. Yeline, L.(1998). Integrated with British Life and its Roots, Communism: In and out of the Party . From the Margins of Empire: Christina Stead, Doris Lessing, Nadine Gordimer. (pp.79-87). (1st ed) . Cornell University . 1394 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 692 Title A name given to the resource A Postmodern Study of Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook in the Light of Jean-Francois Lyotard ‘s Ideas Author Author Kiaei, Shahram Azizi, Ensiyehsadat Azizmohammadi, Fatemeh Abstract A summary of the resource. It has become a virtual commonplace of contemporary criticism that postmodern thought challenges the Enlightenment view of human reason, especially its assumption of a stable, autonomous subject capable of directing the forces of history. For this reason some theorists see postmodernism as pivoting on a reformulation of anti-Enlightenment thought that surfaced during the nineteenth-century and which remained active throughout the modernist period. From this perspective, literary modernism's ambivalent stance toward the integrity of the subject is in part the legacy of Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud-- precisely those nineteenth-century thinkers who situate much of the postmodern project. Regarding all the previous criticisms, this study clearly assumes that postmodernism employs quite different critical methodologies from those of modernism. Nevertheless, as Jean-Francois Lyotard suggests, evidence of this postmodern emphasis is latent in modernism itself, most particularly in those highly experimental or transgressive works that challenge traditional notions of referential language, rational order, or the autonomous subject. This study, particularly, examines Doris Lessing‘s major work for which she was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007, The Golden Notebook (1962), in which postmodern elements especially Lyotard‘s exists. Ultimately, the paper hails this most influential novel as a postmodern masterpiece. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27fd63b041b9d0f89c468c97cb71f645.pdf c11191e23813a0468ee1010f9a2304fd PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Creation of an Online ESP Course in Web 2.0 Environment Darko KovaĦeviĤ Education and Teacher Training Agency, University of East Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina dax1978@gmail.com Abstract: The Internet of today offers almost unlimited options and tools for the creation of various online teaching materials that can be used for all the needs of an ESP course, both as main and as extracurricular (additional) materials. After a brief introduction bringing some important facts about Web 2.0 and its use related to e-learning, the central part of this paper will be dedicated to the creation of an online course in English for Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) used as an extracurricular resource for the students of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in East Sarajevo. The course will be described through the tools and services necessary for its creation as well as through its organizational concepts and practical usage. Such a description will be briefly preceded by the presentation of some general facts about the English language, lessons, tuition and curriculum at the Faculty. In the conclusion of the paper, some general conclusions and expected practical results will be mentioned. Key Words: ESP, online course, Web 2.0, tuition, e-learning Introduction: Specifities of ESP Tuition at Faculties English for Special Purposes (ESP) is taught at many faculties today in form of courses that expand the courses in general English by dealing with the specific features of vocabulary, grammar and terminology of certain field of science, technology, art etc. In such a way it enables the student – future expert in certain field – to use the language actively for all kinds of professional purposes. To be able to follow the tuition without problems, an ESP student has to be able to deal with the most important concepts of the English language, but also to have some general and professional knowledge to help him deal with the materials in foreign language. Standard, classroom ESP tuition is mostly based on various books. In present time, there are really innumerous books and other resources for all the aspects and levels of ESP starting from those issued by famous education centers and publishing houses such to those prepared by different known or anonymous teachers, which can be found on various web pages on the Internet. All these resources are very useful, they are, actually, the basis of English language teaching all over the world, but they still have some limitations, mostly in terms of interactivity and being absolutely up-to-date. Namely, although the books and other written materials are still the main source of information and knowledge in contemporary education, in terms of language learning they are still limited to a one-way communication, in which, on one side, the writer or creator presents the theoretical part of some unit and then gives the assignments related to it, while the reader- a student, standing on the other side, tries to adopt the given theoretical knowledge and to improve it by doing and solving the assignments. The role of the teacher in the classroom is to improve this communication and to make it vivid, but it usually takes just a limited amount of time which is simply not enough. At the same time, something which is written down on a piece of paper is not easy to be changed or updated, and these changes are updates are something which is necessary in this time of enormous number of information which is transferred throughout the world every day, especially when dealing with such a lively matter as English language is. One of the possible things that can be done to improve the interactivity in ESP learning is the creation of online courses dealing with specific matters. 329 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo University Students, English Language and the Internet The overall situation in higher education during the last two decades imposes the active Internet usage on all faculty levels (students, administration, teachers and non-academic stuff) as one of the main features for a constant progress, development and standing in line with the competitive institutions. On the other side, from the perspective of an ordinary young man – student, a general decrease of Internet costs and, at the same time, increase in connection speeds, together with various possible ways of connecting (ADSL, Wireless, Cable) make the usage of the Internet available to almost everyone. In such an environment, a great number of students use the Internet actively, both for academic and studying purposes and for fun, entertainment and communication. Taking into account that, besides all the efforts in localization, the official language of the Internet is English language, it becomes obvious that at least a part of time which the students spend on the Internet can be effectively used for their language improvement. Web 2.0 technologies and user-generated content can be of great help in that. Web 2.0 and User-Generated Internet Content In recent years, the Internet has constantly been developing in many different ways, and that development goes far beyond its original role of a worldwide service for information exchange. Together with the appearance of fast broadband connections, the Internet has turned into a complete interactive, multidisciplinary and multimedia system – a kind of virtual reality with an almost indefinite number of possibilities and opportunities offered to each user. Throughout such evolution, the relation between the Internet and its users changed from the one-way distribution of information (―Packaged Goods Media‖) to a two-way interactive process (―Conversational Media‖), what came with the appearance of Web 2.0 technology. Web 2.0 is a term describing the trend in the use of World Wide Web technology and web design which aims to enhance creativity, information sharing, and, most notably, collaboration among users. Although such a term suggests a new version of the World Wide Web, it does not refer to an update to any technical specifications, but to changes in the ways software developers and end-users use the Web. Among various consequences irrelevant to this work, the concepts of Web 2.0 led to the development and evolution of User-generated content (UGC) on the Internet. The term UGC entered mainstream usage during 2005, after a radical arising in web publishing and new media production circles. It reflects the expansion of media production through new technologies that are accessible and affordable to the general public. These include video streaming, blogging, podcasting, wikis, social networking sites, discussion boards (forums), news sites, trip planners, experience and photo sharing sites, online word processors, online desktop environments etc. In addition to these technologies, UGC may also involve a combination of open source, free software and flexible licensing or related agreements to further diminish the barriers to collaboration, skill-building and discovery. The three basic characteristics of UGC are: 1. Publication requirement: While UGC could be made by a user and never published online or elsewhere, the focus here is on the work that is published in some context, be it on a publicly accessible website or on a page on a social networking site only accessible to a select group of people (e.g. fellow university students). This is a useful way to exclude email, two-way instant messages and the like. 2. Creative effort: This implies that a certain amount of creative effort was put into creating the work or adapting existing works to construct a new one; i.e. users must add their own value to the work. The creative effort behind UGC often also has a collaborative element to it, as is the case with websites which users can edit collaboratively. For example, merely copying a portion of a television show and posting it to an online video website (an activity frequently seen on the UGC sites) would not be considered UGC. If a user uploads his/her photographs, however, expresses his/her thoughts in a blog, or creates a new music video, this could be considered UGC. Yet the minimum amount of creative effort is hard to define and depends on the context. 3. Creation outside of professional routines and practices: User generated content is generally created outside of professional routines and practices. It often does not have an institutional or a commercial market context. In extreme cases, UGC may be produced by non-professionals without the expectation of profit or remuneration. Motivating factors include: interactive connecting with people or target groups, achieving a certain level of fame, notoriety, or prestige, and the desire to express oneself. 330 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo It is often possible for an UGC to be partially or totally monitored by website administrators to avoid offensive content or language, copyright infringement issues, or simply to determine if the posted content is relevant to the general theme of a site. Use of Web 2.0 and UGC in English Language Teaching and Acquisition Because of its availability and also because of global popularization of some services that came with the appearance of Web 2.0 technologies, some UGCs, such as blogs, wikis, podcasts and social networking sites have become very popular, especially among the senior secondary school pupils and the university students. Being extremely easy to use, and giving many opportunities to young people (personal presentations, presentation of personal attitudes and gained knowledge, publication and availability of various audio and video material, meeting friends and new people in various ways, file and information interchange, etc.), User-generated internet contents have been taking a large amount of time which students spend on the Internet. Observing the Internet as a global network where a page is just a few clicks away from every other, and taking into consideration the popularization of an organized Internet usage in education, through e-learning, distance learning and various CMS tools, the teachers‘ active participation in particular UGCs and the guided directing of students to the same UGCs (in this case, of course, using exclusively English language as the means of communication), together with the proper control of their activities there would surely lead to the creation of an interactive, all time up-to-date language learning system, in all components possible for a particular UGC. One of the ways for making such a system is to create an online course which would integrate and organize various UGC within a single website. At the faculties that have the possibility and resources to involve distance learning or e-learning as a regular part of their curricula, such courses can be used as an integral part of tuition, while at others they can be used as an extracurricular, additional tool for knowledge improvement and widening, exercising and practicing. This paper with discuss the necessary steps, knowledge and tools for the creation of one such course, a course in English for ICT, which is taught at the second semester of the first year of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in East Sarajevo. Steps Before and During the Course Creation There are many things that must be kept in mind during the creation of an online course. At first, there is the defining of the purpose, scope and organization of the course. Then, there is a degree of computer literacy in teachers and students, an in accordance with that, the selection of adequate tools for online course creating. Together with that selection, it is necessary to discuss the important issues of payment and licensing both for the tools and the contents created in them, and also the matter of data storage and hosting space. Only after taking into account everything that has been mentioned, the practical creation of course can start. In the practical case of the named course, the purpose has already been mentioned – an online contribution to the lessons at one-semester English for ICT classroom course. The course itself is based on the selection of texts from Cambridge ―Professional English in Use – ICT‖ book and lasts for 15 weeks (30 lessons) and covering 27 units from the book. Because of the copyright, the materials from the book units (lessons, exercises) must not be directly used in the online course, but, thanks to the fact that the units cover some general issues of ICT (living with computers, types of computer system, hardware components, software types, networking, the Internet, security, mobile phones etc.), new materials of the same type, with the same topics, features and vocabulary can be easily created or found on various free resources on the Internet. In such a way, the online course would also consist of 27 units, where every unit from the book would be covered with one or more relevant texts, and a lot of interactive materials connected to it, that enable memorizing, practicing, and renewing of knowledge. Besides such a following of the ―main‖, classroom course, the course would also enable relative independence of units to enable the users to work at their own speed if necessary, and that is to be done by creating a common glossary of terms for the entire website, accessible from every page. In terms of computer literacy, computer science and computers are so present in everyday life of today that almost every person is capable of performing at least basic tasks on a computer, so that it neither teachers nor students should have a problem in dealing with the course, especially if abundant documentation and tutorials that come with most of the programs are taken into account. Still, if there is a need, some additional advice may be asked from the IT department of the faculty, and the students may also ask to be introduced to the course by their teachers. The next question that naturally appears deals with which tools and applications should be used. 331 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo There are numerous tools and management systems on the Internet of today that enable the realization of language courses, with different features, ways of payment and licensing, data storage and hosting space, degree of complexity, and the amount of interactivity that they offer. All of them can be classified in three groups: CMS or LMS (Classroom/Learning Management System), applications for creating interactive contents in Flash or standard HTML format to be published on the web, and the Internet services for website creation and hosting. CMS/LMS is a tool for creating complete online virtual classroom environment in form of an interactive website. Its installation and setup often require some computer knowledge, while the usage is intuitive, logical and easy. On the other side, various applications for creating interactive contents in Adobe Flash of HTML format (tests, lessons, exercises, quizzes etc,) work on the WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) principle, and are mostly easy for use, requiring only essential computer knowledge and no knowledge in programming and design. Finally, the Internet of today offers various options for both online design and hosting of web pages, which also work on WYSIWYG principle and are intuitive and logical for average user. They can be used both for creation of teaching materials and in combination with interactive web-ready contents created in other programs. After the observation and testing of many programs from all three categories, together with taking into account the objective needs of an ESP course, some general conclusions are made. Although there are various free LMS/CMS solutions on the web, their installation, setup and use, together with hosting and registration issues, would be too complicated for a relatively simple one-semester course to follow ―regular‖ tuition, and because of that they have not been taken into account. The decision is made to make the course by combining some of two other types of resources – online services for website creation and hosting and Flash interactive contents authoring tools. Among many offered options, two have been selected: Weebly, as a full online service for website creation and hosting, and iSpring Presenter, as an excellent Flash contents authoring tool, and. Some facts about the named will be given in the text that follows. Tools for the Course Creation Weebly Weebly is an online service that, after an easy and quick registration, enables the creation and hosting of a web page with the address in the form username.weebly.com. It enables the teacher-administrator to create pages and menus within the site and also to insert various external elements (HTML code, text, images, video, animations, Flash applications, forums, surveys etc.) and publish them on the web, thus offering both multimedia and interactivity. Everything can be done very easily and intuitively, often by simple text typing and dragging and dropping of page elements. In the case of an English in ICT course, it can offer a course base in form of a website which is, at the same time, an information exchange system (containing lessons, presentations, discussions results) and the tool for embedding, grouping and organisation of interactive Flash materials created in some other programs (quizzes, tests, exercises). In that way, it solves most of the technical problems in terms of course administration and hosting. The service also allows the creation of Assignment Forms with the options for uploading the assignments, and students‘ blogs. What makes it is an excellent tool for getting various types of feedback from students. iSpring Presenter iSpring Presenter is a PowerPoint add-in which, basically, enables the conversion of PowerPoint presentations into Adobe Flash (.swf) or self-executive (.exe) format (thus enabling them to be published for different media and reproduced on every computer, regardless its software), and also, what is more important, it gives various additional features in terms of interactivity, besides those that already exist in PowerPoint (adding quizzes and Flash animations). Such presentations can also be embedded into websites, with their interactivity fully preserved. After the installation, the program is fully integrated in PowerPoint and is placed in the ribbon of PowerPoint as a separate tab. By clicking on it, the user can see all the general options it offers, grouped in the sections: Publish, Presentation, Narration, Insert and About. Some of the options (e.g. those in the sections Presentation and Narration) as more or less the same as those contained in PowerPoint, although they offer some more advanced options and adjustments. Within the 332 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo section Narration, such options are Record/Import Audio/Video, and Sync, which enables the synchronization of narrations with animation effects. On the other side, Presentation offers the overview of presentation (exploration and editing of its structure) within Presentation Explorer, the management of the presentation links and references within Links and the customization of presenters within Presenters. However, the sections Insert and Publish come with the options that widely expand the features of PowerPoint. The section Insert enables the insertion of Flash objects, YouTube videos and quizzes into the slides of a presentation. Each of the categories can be broadly used both in classes and in learning at home. The insertion of Flash objects enables the user to insert the already prepared Flash (.swf) files in the presentation, with their functionality completely preserved. On the other side, for inserting YouTube videos, it is necessary to have the link of the video, which is then pasted or typed in the Insert You Tube Video window. However, the most important and the most appropriate feature for creating interactive materials to be embedded within an ESP course is the possibility of making and inserting Quizzes. When the option Quiz in the section Insert is selected, the QuizMaker window opens, allowing the user to make various types of questions within a quiz. Those types of questions are: True/False, Multiple Choice, Multiple Response, Type In, Matching, Sequence, Numeric, Fill in the Blank , Multiple Choice Text and Word Bank. All of these question types can be freely combined within a quiz. Each of the quizzes created can be given a unique title, helping it to be distinguished from the others. The QuizMaker also deals with other relevant options and settings for test making, such as feedback (via e-mail), visual appearance, awarded points, number of attempts, passing score, etc. It also offers the preview of a quiz being created in every moment. The insertion of images, audio and video is also enabled. In such a way, the quizzes can be created both as parts of presentations, coming together with other presentation elements containing the text, images, charts, tables, or as standalone test units to be published on a website or sent to students by e-mail. They enable the user to type in the answers, or select and arrange them with mouse actions, and to get the points and scores for the achieved results upon finishing. The review of correct answers is also enabled. The created quizzes have to be published through some of the publishing options offered in the section Publish of iSpring Presenter. The simplest option is Quick Publish, which is used for publishing the presentation in Flash format using the default settings offered by the program. The other option, Publish, offers four different options for publishing presentations to Flash: Web, CD, iSpring Online and LMS. As their titles suggest, each of the options prepares the presentation for publishing to different media, with some options shared and some other which are specific for the intended media. Basically, and depending on the purpose, the presentations can be exported as Flash, .exe, HTML or compressed (.zip) files. Many other publishing options can also be adjusted in detail, such as the player design, playback and navigation, compression, Flash animation properties and protection. Conclusion: Practical Course Creation As it has already been mentioned, a website created and hosted at Weebly will be a basis of the English in ICT accompanying online course. Its home page should contain the relevant information and RSS feed for the news and updated information, while the menu bar should lead to Lessons and Exercises, organized in accordance with the titles of the units from the mentioned coursebook, and further linked to each other, and also to Glossary. It should also lead to students‘ Discussion Board (forum), necessary for getting the feedback, and to a page dedicated to embedded audio and video materials relevant to the course. While the lessons should appear as ordinary web pages operating in hyper textual environment, to have adequate Exercises, that would provide both interactivity and feedback, it is necessary to embed various quizzes created in iSpring Presenter to webpages. Depending on the purpose and the needs of particular lessons, the quizzes can be of different types and contain various indirect test units. Together with exercises for each lessons, some general tests should be prepared on the basis of grouping particular Lessons in accordance with their contents. All the mentioned enables a successful creation of an online ESP course that will stand as a supportive and additional teaching material to a classroom course, and, at the same time, give the students options to learn, exercise and improve their knowledge outside the classroom and regular tuition time. 333 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Esteras S. R. & Fabre E. M. (2007). Professional English in Use ICT. Cambridge: University Press. Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English. Harlow: Longman. Harmer, J. (2008).The Practice of English Language Teaching, Harlow: Longman. http://www.ispringsolutions.com/kb/docs/presenter/5.0/ (April 7, 2011) http://www.weebly.com (April 7, 2011) KovaĦeviĤ, D. (2010). iSpring Presenter as a Tool for the Improvement of Multimedia Presentations in English Language Teaching, 15. Kongres JISA DICG, Herceg Novi McNamara, T. (2000). Language Testing, Oxford: University Press. ŃestiĤ. L. (2002), Gramatika tehniĦkog engleskog sa rjeĦnikom, Zenica: Minex. 334 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 49 Title A name given to the resource Creation of an Online ESP Course in Web 2.0 Environment Author Author Kovačević, Darko Abstract A summary of the resource. The Internet of today offers almost unlimited options and tools for the creation of various online teaching materials that can be used for all the needs of an ESP course, both as main and as extracurricular (additional) materials. After a brief introduction bringing some important facts about Web 2.0 and its use related to e-learning, the central part of this paper will be dedicated to the creation of an online course in English for Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) used as an extracurricular resource for the students of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in East Sarajevo. The course will be described through the tools and services necessary for its creation as well as through its organizational concepts and practical usage. Such a description will be briefly preceded by the presentation of some general facts about the English language, lessons, tuition and curriculum at the Faculty. In the conclusion of the paper, some general conclusions and expected practical results will be mentioned. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4fca2c17a0ef98630250c3989a50fe06.pdf a9b794907008026b8915c374783c406b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Presence of Andragogical Principles in English Language Teaching Practice Ervin KovaĦeviĤ English Language and Literature Program International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ekovacevic@ius.edu.ba Abstract: The contemporary market demand implies that the institutions training English teachers need to equip them with the knowledge of teaching approaches and techniques to be used in compulsory and non – compulsory educational settings with the learner profiles ranging from preschool students to retirees. Malcolm S. Knowles in his The Adult Learner (2005; 1973), while contrasting the pedagogical and andragogical educational models, concludes: the pedagogical model excludes the andragogical assumptions; the andragogical model includes the pedagogical assumptions; and, an ideological andragogue should be able to use or apply the model whose assumptions are more realistic in a given situation. One of the implications is that the effective foreign language teachers are supposed to master both the models if they are to teach adult learners. The second one is that the teaching styles will oscillate on the continuum between highly teacher-centered and highly learnercentered one due to the teachers‘ abilities and willingness to draw from both the andragogical and pedagogical educational models. The assumptions have been tested through a survey revealing that the teaching styles of the majority of the English teachers of the language schools tend towards the teacher-centered pole, thus the pedagogical model. Key Words: Teaching Styles, Andragogy, Pedagogy. Introduction Since all adult learners are at different points on the different continua, due to all the physiological, psychosocial and other distinguishing variables among them, a group of adult learners is never completely homogenous (Knowles, 1990; Long, 1990; Merriam and Caffarella, 1999; Quinnan, 1997; Rogers, 1996; Wlodkowski, 1999). Hypothetically, the degree in heterogeneity of a group of adult learners might be decreased by placing the learners of the similar needs, goals, or characteristics together, but it can never be zero as there are no totally same adult learner profiles to be put together in the same group. Thus, a separate approach to every individual learner and every group of adult learners in both compulsory and non-compulsory educational settings might be needed if any teaching process is to be marked as maximally effective. This approach is based on the andragogical educational model which accounts for the necessity of including the uniqueness of every learner profile into the teaching – learning exchange context and answering it through both the andragogical and pedagogical educational perspectives which are to be implemented according to the learner profiles taught (Knowles, 1990). While the andragogical perspective constantly tends to the inclusion of the learner‘s individual features into every aspect of the teaching-learning exchange process (planning, delivery and assessment), the pedagogical model does not necessarily do so. If a group of adults is to be taught, andragogically speaking, maximizing teaching effect requires a deliberate and constant attempt to seek for a perfect overlapping match of at least three factors: learners‘ features, which make each adult learner so unique, teacher‘s intended outcomes, prescribed to teachers by their teaching domain and their personal educational philosophy, and teaching-learning exchange context, where a teacher is expected to fulfill his/her professional roles (Heimlich and Norland, 2002; Rogers, 1996). In order to maximize the overlapping match, the fields of adult education and foreign language teaching recognize and prescribe a number of teachers‘ roles, yet it is the context of an educational event and the teachers‘ beliefs about education based on their life philosophy and background by which the teachers interpret various educational contexts and engage in different roles through which they display a teaching style and create a certain atmosphere where the teaching-learning exchange occurs (Brown, 2001; Conti, 2004; Pratt, 2002; Rogers, 1996; Zinn, 2004). Eventually, a maximally effective teaching style relies on fully correct interpretation of any teaching – learning exchange context, which is followed by a proper set of consequent responses that include both teaching decisions and behaviors, and a constantly ongoing interrelatedness between the two in order to keep learners‘ features, teacher‘s intended outcomes and teaching-learning exchange context perfectly overlapping. To ensure that the overlapping is maximized, therefore, the maximally effective teaching style has to constantly oscillate between 433 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the poles of extremely teacher-centered and extremely learner-centered one, as it is trying to answer the varying needs of the learner profiles and the uniqueness of the context where the teaching-learning exchange is occurring. If the starting point in designing a teaching – learning exchange experience, delivering and pacing the instruction, assessing the outcomes, and making any proceeding educational decisions are learners‘ temporary physiological and psychosocial characteristics, including their already possessed and currently gained knowledge or experience, their goals and expectations, and their learning pace or momentum, then the teaching style in charge is the highly learner – centered one, and it is driven by personal educational philosophy of the highly andragogical nature. Eventually, if the learner is capable and willing to be in charge of the teaching – learning exchange experience, an andragogue will agree and respond accordingly. If the learner is entering a new field, the andragogue will shape the educational process as much as he/she has to while trying to include the learners‘ personal traits as much as possible. An opposite teaching style, one that disregards the uniqueness of adult learner profile and operates under the ‗one size for all‘ approach, is defined as highly – teacher centered one and is run by highly pedagogical philosophy. The pedagogue will exclude the andragogical perspective and use his/her own educational reasoning in making any educational decisions. Any oscillations fall in between. The aim of this study is to place the teaching styles English language teachers display while teaching adults in non-compulsory language schools onto the continuum between highly pedagogical and highly andragogical poles, thus attempt to point out the qualities a contemporary English teacher might have to be extra equipped with in order to answer the current demands of the language learning market. Method of the Study After the literature review, which heavily focused on the literature produced in the fields of Philosophy of Education, Adult Education, and English Language Teaching, the survey specifically designed to place teaching styles on the continuum between teacher-centered and learner-centered poles (Conti, 2004) was carried out with seventy (70) English teachers teaching adults in the non – compulsory language schools. The results were compared and contrasted to the andragogical principles derived from the literature under the scope providing both quantitative and qualitative features grounded in the overall interpretation and conclusions (KovaĦeviĤ, 2007). Sampling Seventy (70) English Teachers of different language schools (Istanbul) were asked to respond to fiftytwo questions; eight of the questions related to their personal profiles, and forty-four questions were taken from a survey designed by Conti (2004). Thirty four (34) of the respondents were of male and thirty six (36) of female gender; fifty nine (59) of the respondents had a teaching degree and eleven (11) of them did not; thirty four (34) of the respondents were between twenty and twenty nine years old, twenty five (25) of them were between thirty and thirty nine years old, eight (8) of the respondents were in the forties, and three (3) of them in the fifties; five (5) of the respondents had been teaching adults for less than a year, thirty eight (38) of them had been teaching adults for between one and five years, fourteen (14) of them had been teaching adults for between six and 10 years, and thirteen (13) of the respondents had been teaching adults for more than ten years; fifty eight (58) of them were of Turkish and twelve (12) of them were of other nationalities (British, American, Australian, Indian) (KovaĦeviĤ, 2007). Data Analysis Processes The data was primarily analyzed according to the formulas suggested by the survey designer (Conti, 2004), which interpreted the results within the categories defining any teaching style; Learner-Centered Activities, Personalizing Instruction, Relating to Experience, Assessing Student Needs,Climate Building, Participation in the Learning Process, and Flexibility for Personal Development. However, there have been eight (8) other questions included to help in diagnosing the teaching profiles whose teaching styles have been placed on the continua between teacher-centered and learner-centered poles across all the categories. All the results were compared and contrasted to the principles derived from the referred literature revealing both matching and mismatching points. Yet, the analysis presented in this article has tried to broaden the previously arrived conclusions (KovaĦeviĤ, 2007) by adding two new dimensions: the arrived results have been projected onto the continuum between pedagogical and andragogical teaching style poles; and, there has been an attempt to outline the implications for the contemporary English teacher training programs. 434 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Findings and Discussion The majority of the English Teachers questioned expressed tendency or favourism towards encouragment of dialogue and interaction among the students. Calling upon literature used in this research, this fact might be evaluated as one of the matching points between literature on adult education and the practice. Learning a foregin language requires setting the different contexts for using the learned language as a mean in communication. By encouraging the learners to communicate among themselves a real – life context is provided. In addition to this, the majority of respondents expressed that they arrange the classroom in the way to facilitate the communication among the learners, and that they tolerate errors by which they encourage risk – taking and secure learners‘ self – esteem. Either if the learners are just stimulated to communicate with each other, despite of the language used, there are numerous positive consequences; the cohesiveness of the group is strengthened, thus the atmosphere is less threatening and more supportive, for example, or, the experiences and different perspectives are shared, therefore, the context for experiential or unintended learning is provided (Burden, 1995). Even through the tolerance of those short chats or dialogues that are not excatly related to the topic learned at a certain moment during the class, the teachers foster friendly atmosphere where learning is enjoyed and fun. The majority expressed that they also encourage competition; the competition might be considered perhaps motivating as it is usually driven by inner needs to win, however, if it results into some hurt feelings and thus being threatened and feeling insecure in the learning environment, the idea of encouraging it might be reconsidered. In other words, if it is percieved as fun, each of the learner should be having fun, and not only those with characteristics which help ‗winning‘. However, not all the teachers think that learning should be fun. The majority of the respondents prefers well – disciplined classroom. Of course, it might be claimed that both disciplined and fun class could be possible. Some brainstorming would lead to an assumption that goal – oriented learners could actually have fun (or perhaps feel excitment) while being surrounded by an environment where the process of learning – teaching exchange is well emphasized and all the unrelated acts or factors are evaluted as threatening thus desired to be kept out of the process. This assumption views goal – oriented learners as blind to everything else but their goals. If the majority of the questioned teachers favors well – disciplined classes, perhaps it might be logical to expect the same majority to favor quiet desk – work and disciplinary actions. A scene of the first one is an excellent example of a silent working class where ‗everything is under control and in progress‘. The last sentence does have a negative connotation about the quiet desk – work, however, many of the contemporary English language teaching adult course books often ask learner to read an article or fill in the gaps with a suitable word (Cunningham, Moor and Carr, 2005; Dubicka and O‘Keefe, 2004; Redston, 2005; Richards, Hull and Proctor, 2005;) and this requires quiet desk – work, or does it not? Perhaps the silence could be broken by some music playing while the students are doing their work or by an occasional comment or chat that could make others laugh, because laughing and music might provide a happy teaching climate, which is needed if the continuity of a group is aimed or desired. In the same light, the concept of a disciplinary action could be examined. The necessity of disciplinary actions might perhaps be clarified in a compulsory adult educational context, however, it is difficult to clarify it in a non – compulsory setting as, firstly, the learners are there mostly on their free will, and secondly, they are adults, thus are responsible for their actions and are not types of students that could and should be disciplined. Even, if the majority of the respondents expressed that they apply disciplinary actions when they are needed, the researcher assumes that what they meant could be some of the maneuvers that classroom management requires when there is a certain problem or conflict to be solved. The biggest gaps between the literature on adult education and the practice of the majority of the questioned language teachers teaching adults English at language schools are found in the facts that they prefer determining the objectives for the learners at the beginning of a program and prefer sticking to them, use the same materials with different students, assign the same tasks to all the learners, practice lecturing, and that they apply formal testing and rely on it. ‗One size for all‘ approach is based on the idea that two or more adult learners might be taught the same way at the same time, and this is what founds the base of the teacher – centered approach in the teaching practice, or vice versa; the teacher centered approach is an approach expressed in ‗one size for all‘. While defining the concept of ‗adult‘ Long (1990) illustrates the perspective: 435 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo For example, a research report may state the mean income level of a particular population segment as being $15,333. In reality it is possible that no individual actually has such an income. The mean fails to communicate either the modal, or most frequent income, or the income range in the population. For example, given a sample of six individuals whose incomes are as follows: $25,000, $24,000, $21,000, $10,000, $6,000, $6,000. The total income of the six individuals is $92,00. The range is from $6,000 to $25,000. The mean is $15,333 and the modal income is $6,000. This reveals how the $15,333 mean income is rather low when compared with the three highest incomes and is equally high compared with the three lowest incomes. Although even the adult learners might be highly dependent on their educators at certain stages while progressing in a certain domain, this fact does not imply that all of them should be treated or approached the same way; rather , all of their individual profiles should be examined and matched with certain teaching strategies, styles, techniques, tasks and materials. Yet, the majority of the respondents is, it seems so, ignorant of the profile differences by offering them all ‗the same‘. Their ignorance is so big that they even expressed that they prefer not to spend a certain amount of effort in order to find what each learner wants and needs to know, and that they prefer not to allow older students more time to complete assignments when they need it. The majority of the English language teachers questioned is not following the andragogical principal of desired stimulated independency as they prefer not to support a collaborative mode and practice behaviors that provide the learners with the opportunities to initiate actions and encourage them to be responsible for their own learning, not to let the adult learners participate in deciding what topics are to be covered during the lessons, not to let the adult learners take part in developing criteria for evaluating their performance. In this way, adult educators are ignorant towards the learners‘ self – concepts, their experiences, in other words the learners‘ already going on personal lives which actually get the learners into an educational setting, and motivate them to learn. Can the learners be expected to remain a part of the educational setting where their experience is not integrated into the learning progress and where they might be learning something that they believe would not help them perform their life – tasks? On the other hand, the majority of the teachers questioned states that they apply different teaching methods with learners of different learning styles, take into account their students previous experiences and encourage relating of the new ones to the already existing, and have students identify their own problems to be solved. Compared to the so far presented indications of the survey this might sound contradictory. An answer to the contradiction might be found in the assumptions that the teachers questioned respect the learners‘ personalities and provide them opportunities to express them (but not always as the majority stated that they prefer to avoid giving students opportunity to express value judgments), and that they know or think that all the learners are different. However, they might be limiting all the differences in the learners‘ profiles by distinguishing only their learning styles. To sum up, the majority of the questioned teachers has been found as teacher – centered oriented. Would inviting them to adopt a learner – centered approach be too enthusiastic? According to Daley (2003), changing an approach requires changes in the way the teachers think. This research does not ask the majority to switch to the opposite approach, yet asks them to always: create a climate of respect, encourage active participation, build on experience, employ collaborative inquiry, provide the contexts for immediately applying the taught/learned, and empower the learners. These are, according to Lawer (2003), the six principles ―grounded in the literature and practice of adult education‖. So, the teachers are not invited to change the way they think, but to change the way they teach. Conclusions and Recommendations If they are to be summarized, then the following conclusions are to be underlined. To start with, the teaching styles of the majority of the English teachers of the language schools tend towards teacher – centered pole. Therefore, it might be assumed that the teachers are practicing the teaching styles which are mainly grounded into the pedagogical educational philosophy. Consequently, the first implication for the contemporary English teacher training programs is to make sure that the novice teachers are equipped with the andragogical principles apart from the pedagogical ones. The majority of the teachers have a teacher – centered approach when it comes to providing aids for learner – centered activities, personalizing of instruction, assessing students‘ needs, providing them participation in the learning process, and stimulating their personal growth. Restated, the majority of the respondents tend to 436 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo rely on the educational perspective which might be more appropriate with the non-adult or young learners, thus pedagogical one. Eventually, the second implication for the English teacher training programs is to make sure that their program outcomes account for the ability of the novice teachers to oscillate between the andragogical and pedagogical educational models according to the target group being taught. When it comes to relating the taught to the already existing experience of learners, the results showed that half of the teachers are learner – centered oriented. This conclusion is found to be parallel to the desired andragogical reasoning, thus the implication is that this aspect of teacher training practice is to be reinforced. One of the teachers‘ profiles does not necessarily always tend to one of the teaching poles in all the aspects of learning – teaching exchange to the same extent; the teacher‘s tendency to one of the poles vary according to the actions or the aspects in question. So, the teachers oscillate between the highly andragogical and highly pedagogical based styles. Yet, the implication would be to aim at sculpting the novice teachers who would be able to oscillate deliberately and to the extents that the teaching – learning exchange contexts require. The teachers mostly apply what the English Language Methodology prescribes; however, the majority of them do not provide the circumstances for the collaborative mode prescribed by the principles of andragogy. One may argue that adult learners attending the language schools might just want to be taught, thus they might not ask for collaboration during the course. Yet, neglecting their needs, experience, or inner drives for being self – directing, creates a conflict within them. Therefore, the English teacher training programs are to make sure that the novice teachers are familiar with the drawbacks of the misapplied educational models. Besides, the research revealed that the high percentage of teachers questioned applies teaching styles tending towards teacher – centered pole, a certain percentage of the teachers is either strongly or extremely teacher – centered oriented, a certain percentage tends towards learner – centered pole, and no teachers are strongly or extremely learner – centered oriented. Rephrased, this means that either the teaching style grounded into the andragogical perspective is impossible to be applied with the learner profiles of the teachers under the scope, or that the teachers do not know how to implement one. More pessimistic conclusion would be that the pedagogical educational model is prevailing as the result of the number of English teacher training programs which are fostering pedagogical educational philosophy and disregarding the andragogical one. Then, the last implication for the English teacher training programs would be to make sure that their novice teachers are exposed to both the models to the equal extents and trained to implement the both according to the educational context they are teaching in; it has to be ensured that they do not teach through the educational philosophy that they favor but through one that is more effective. The results presented here could be compared to the results got from the teachers teaching adults either different contents in similar settings, or the same content in different settings. Another topic that could be considered would be the educational philosophies of the English teachers teaching adults either at language schools, in order to get more explanatory facts for the results and conclusions reached here, or across some other educational settings so that the educational philosophies of the English teachers teaching adults could be better understood. The further step could be investigating the English teachers‘ life philosophies, thus diagnosing the personal values that could be determinants in the professional preferences between andragogical and pedagogical educational reasoning. 437 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Brown, D. H. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, San Francisco: Longman. Burden, P. R. (1995). Classroom Management and Discipline, New York: Longman. Conti, G. J. (2004). Identifying Your Teaching Style, Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction. Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company.75-91. Cunningham, S. and Moor, P. and Carr, J. C. (2005). Cutting Edge, Harlow Essex: Longman. Daley, B. J. (2003). A Case for Learner - Centered Teaching and Learning, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). New Perspectives on Designing and Implementing Professional Development of Teachers of Adults, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 98, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 23-30. Dubicka, I. and O‘Keefe, M. (2004). English for International Tourism, Harlow Essex: Longman. Galbraith, M. W. (2004). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction, Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company. Heimlich, J. E. and Norland, E. (2002). Teaching Style: Where Are We Now?, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). Contemporary Viewpoints on Teaching Adults Effectively, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 93, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 17-25. KovaĦeviĤ, E. (2007). Elements of Teaching – Learning Modes As Reflected in Teaching Adults English: A Turkish Case. Istanbul: Istanbul University. Knowles, M. (1990). The Adult Learner A Neglected Species, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company. Lawler, P. A. (2003). Teachers as Adult Learners: A New Perspective, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). New Perspectives on Designing and Implementing Professional Development of Teachers of Adults, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 98, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 15-22. Long, H. (1990). Understanding Adult Learners, Galbraith, M. W (Ed.) Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction, Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company, 28-35. Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in Adulthood, San Francisco: Jossey – Bass. Pratt, D. D. (2002). Good Teaching: One Size Fits All?, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). Contemporary Viewpoints on Teaching Adults Effectively, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 93, San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 5-15. Quinnan, T. W. (1997). Adult Students ―At – Risk‖, Westport: Bergin and Garvey. Redston, C. and Cunnigham, G. (2005). Face 2 Face, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. and Hull, J. and Proctor, S. (2005). Interchange, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rogers, A. (1996). Teaching Adults, Buckingham: Open University Press. Wlodkowski, R. J. (1999). Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn, San Francisco: Jossey – Bass. Zinn, L. M. (2004). Exploring Your Philosophical Orientation, Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction, Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company, 39-74. 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 64 Title A name given to the resource Presence of Andragogical Principles in English Language Teaching Practice Author Author Kovačević, Ervin Abstract A summary of the resource. The contemporary market demand implies that the institutions training English teachers need to equip them with the knowledge of teaching approaches and techniques to be used in compulsory and non – compulsory educational settings with the learner profiles ranging from preschool students to retirees. Malcolm S. Knowles in his The Adult Learner (2005; 1973), while contrasting the pedagogical and andragogical educational models, concludes: the pedagogical model excludes the andragogical assumptions; the andragogical model includes the pedagogical assumptions; and, an ideological andragogue should be able to use or apply the model whose assumptions are more realistic in a given situation. One of the implications is that the effective foreign language teachers are supposed to master both the models if they are to teach adult learners. The second one is that the teaching styles will oscillate on the continuum between highly teacher-centered and highly learnercentered one due to the teachers‘ abilities and willingness to draw from both the andragogical and pedagogical educational models. The assumptions have been tested through a survey revealing that the teaching styles of the majority of the English teachers of the language schools tend towards the teacher-centered pole, thus the pedagogical model. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0e5d5e9f85b2d9183241e76d2da0e7fc.pdf 1337ca4987e19ba9c68e18a53f740a97 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo To Use or Not to Use: First Language in Tertiary Instruction of English as a Foreign Language Andreja KovaĦiĤ Department of Foreign Languages and General Educational Disciplines Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Croatia andreja.kovacic@foi.hr Valentina KiriniĤ Department of Information Systems Development Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Croatia valentina.kirinic@foi.hr Abstract: The issue of whether first language (L1) use in teaching foreign languages (FL) is justified can be considered from various perspectives. The diachronic perspective considers the role of L1 in FL instruction along with the development of teaching methods and linguistic theories. The taxonomic perspective concerns the arguments for and against L1 use taking into account its cognitive, social and affective aspects. The role of L1 can also be viewed from the empirical perspective considering the effects of its use and examining attitudes, beliefs etc. of participants in the dynamic process of FL teaching and learning. The survey presented in this paper aims to investigate and compare the perception of using Croatian in tertiary English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction concerning L1 use. Two groups of respondents involved in the study were undergraduate nonlinguistic majors at a Croatian university and ESP instructors in various higher education institutions in several Croatian universities. The questions that the research in this paper addresses is 1) whether the tertiary students‘ perception of using Croatian as L1 in teaching EFL corresponds to that maintained by tertiary language instructors and 2) whether students and instructors, respectively, support the usage of L1 in the tertiary EFL classroom. First language use is explored in terms of necessity, frequency, usefulness and its appropriateness for selected examples of usage. The presented findings comprise those obtained by quantitative as well as qualitative data analysis. Key Words: First language, EFL, ESP, tertiary instruction, research, survey Introduction The question ―Should the first language (L1) be used in foreign language (FL) instruction?‖ has posed a challenge for ESL/EFL materials writers, scholars and, in particular, instructors, who need to address it in their day-to-day teaching practice. In spite of its relevance for the stakeholders, it seems that there is no comprehensive agreement on L1 use. The authors whose formalization of L1 use over the last two and half decades has shaped the opinion of EFL/ESL professionals include Atkinson (1987), Auerbach (1993), Cook (2001b), Turnbull (2001) and Butzkamm (2003). First language use in the FL classroom can be observed from three perspectives. The diachronic perspective considers the evolution of L1 in FL instruction along with the development of teaching methods and linguistic theories, often within the ESL context. Moving along the continuum between the two extremes – proscribed and firmly prescribed L1 use – was primarily reflected in the amount of precious class time during which the learner needs to be exposed to FL. The methods that advocate the orthodox use of FL are based on the assumption that a greater amount of FL is one of the preconditions for its easier acquisition, still allowing for L1 to be used when it aids comprehension (Krashen, 1989; Lightbown and Spada, 2006). Furthermore, L1 use can also be considered as one of the parameters that define the differences between methods in terms of differing functions assigned to L1 in each of them. Monolingual approach, which is based on the language compartmentalisation theory, is thus countered by methods that deliberately involve L1 (Cook, 2001b). The turning point in reassertion of L1 in FL teaching is the theory of multicompetence (Cook, 2001a). Butzkamm (2000) places ―the ability to capitalise on the vast amount of both linguistic skills and world knowledge (…) already accumulated via the mother tongue‖ among habits of good language learners. The taxonomic perspective concerns the arguments for and against L1 use, taking into account its cognitive, social and affective aspects. In that respect, the springboard for explicit consideration of L1 was the 150 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo paper by Atkinson (1987), who identified the gap in methodological literature on L1 use as one of the reasons for its indiscriminate use. Inventories of practical uses of L1 and its pedagogical implications have since ranged from resource books (e.g. Atkinson, 1993; Deller and Rinvolucri, 2002) to articles comprising general principles for L1 use (e.g., Gill, 2005, Cook, 2001b), or those providing a cognitive rationale for L1/FL comparison (Dońen, 2001, Ibarra Hidalgo, 2009). The role of L1 can also be viewed from the empirical perspective, drawing on research into various aspects of participants‘ use of L1 in the dynamic context of the FL classroom. Scott and De la Fuente (2008) proposed the key questions to be addressed when L1 is concerned and also pointed out that most research into L1 use is conducted from the interactionist perspective. Accordingly, Alegrìa de la Colina and Garcìa Mayo (2009) examined the benefits of L1 use for lower proficiency students in collaborative tasks. Research into attitudes of students (Kavaliauskienė, 2009) or students and teachers toward L1 use in tertiary FL/SL instruction (e.g. Schweers, 1999; Tang, 2002; Shimizu, 2006) revealed the respondents‘ tendency toward rational use of L1. Contrary to the findings of Prodromou (2002), who revealed that the students‘ preference to use L1 in FL class diminishes with their proficiency level, the research conducted among students in Iran (Nazary, 2008) showed that respondents were reluctant to use L1 in class regardless of their proficiency. Finally, of particular interest for practitioners are studies on teachers and students‘ attitudes toward different uses of L1 (Macaro, 1997). In their research among US university teachers, Polio and Duff (1994) established varying preferences for specific L1 uses. The questions that the research in this paper addresses are 1) whether the tertiary ESP students‘ perception of using Croatian as L1 in teaching EFL corresponds to that maintained by tertiary language teachers and 2) whether students and teachers, respectively, support L1 use in the tertiary EFL classroom. Method of the Study The survey presented in this paper aims to investigate and compare the perception of using L1 (Croatian) in tertiary ESP instruction concerning L1 use in terms of necessity, frequency, usefulness and its appropriateness for selected examples of usage. The research was conducted by means of two analogous questionnaires, one for the students and the other for the teachers. The instrument, which is an adapted version of the questionnaires used by Schweers (1999), Tang (2002) and Shimizu (2006), was administered in Croatian. Generally speaking, all the three groups of L1 uses specified by Cook (2001b), i.e., ‗teacher conveying meaning‘, ‗teacher organizing the class‘ and ‗students using L1 within the classroom‘ were represented in our survey. The student questionnaire consisted of 11 questions: 3 demographic questions; 2 questions concerning the linguistic competence level; 6 questions concerning perception of L1 use. The teacher questionnaire consisted of 8 questions: 1 on the respondents‘ general data; 6 questions concerning perception of L1 use and 1 open-ended question. In both questionnaires, among the 6 questions concerning perception of L1 use there were 2 dichotomous questions and 4 multiple-choice questions. Combining various question types makes it possible to collect data based on which hypotheses can subsequently be formulated and a scale of a higher internal consistency developed (Mackey and Gass, 2005). Sampling Two groups of respondents included in the study were: 1) undergraduate non-linguistic majors at the Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb and 2) ESP instructors in Croatian higher education institutions. The first group of respondents (N=171) were students in the undergraduate intermediate English Language I course in the 2008/2009 academic year. 121 (70.88%) of respondents were male and 48 (28.1%) female, while in 2 cases the data on gender was missing. Undergraduate respondents‘ age ranged between 19 and 28, 19 being the average (M=19.982, sd 0.939). This obligatory course is delivered in the first term, but can also be enrolled by second- and third-year students. The majority of respondents had been learning English for 9 years (M= 9.123, sd 3.453). The other formal indicator of students‘ EFL knowledge was the self-assessed active and passive EFL competence, on the scale from 5 (excellent) to 1 (unsatisfactory). The average passive competence obtained was 4 (M=4.147, sd 0.875). On the other hand, although the average active competence obtained was 3 (M=3.412, sd 1.064), due to the coefficient of variation V=31.18% respondents did not form a sufficiently homogeneous set. Therefore the mode (D=4.00) makes for a more representative value for the passive competence variable. In this paper, students‘ competence level is not discussed in relation to other variables. 151 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The second group of respondents (N=20) were female instructors teaching non-linguistic majors in 15 Croatian higher education institutions. While 16 respondents were teachers of ESP, EAP and communication skills in 3 different Croatian universities, 4 respondents taught vocational ESP courses in 3 higher education institutions. Data Analysis Processes The student survey was administered in class in January 2009. The teacher survey was conducted by electronic mail in January-February 2009, in accordance with guidelines in Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007). The e-mail response rate was 41.6%. The data obtained by research was processed by means of SPSS software, using the descriptive statistics methods, with the exception of the last (open-ended) question in the teacher survey. While applying analogous instruments to different groups of respondents enabled data triangulation, the qualitative question in the teacher survey allowed for methodological triangulation (Medved-KrajnoviĤ, 2010; Brown and Rodgers, 2002) with quantitative data in the rest of the teacher survey. Using the data collected by the open-ended question, we extracted several categories. They were further subdivided into subcategories, to which applicable parts of teachers‘ written replies were added. Findings and Discussion By examining the problem using the questionnaires we obtained values for the following variables: perception of the need to use L1, perception of L1 frequency, preferred frequency of L1 use, perception of L1 usefulness, and appropriateness of L1 for 12 concrete cases of use. All the variables were examined on both groups, except for preferred frequency, which was only included in the student questionnaire. Perception of the Need to Use L1 Most students (117, or 68.4%) provided a positive answer to the question ―Should Croatian be used in the English classroom?‖. Most of the teachers (16, or 80%) also provided a positive answer, which generally indicates that both students and teachers consider that the use of L1 in their English classes is justified. Such answers are in correspondence with our expectations based on the results of similar research (e.g. Schweers, 1999). Moreover, since our research was conducted on a monolingual group of students taught by the speaker of their native language, it was unlikely that L1 would be totally excluded from instruction for naturalness sake (Cook, 2001b). The results obtained by Shimizu (2006) among Japanese students, in which 66% of nonlinguistic majors supported L1 use in EFL classroom, with an additional 18% who opted for the answer ‗It depends‘ are closest to those obtained in our research. Surprisingly, the percentage of undergraduate Chinese students supporting L1 use (70%) in Tang (2002) is also comparable to that in our research, although the Chinese study was conducted among English majors. In research by Schweers (1999) among L1Spanish learners of ESL the percentage of students in favour of L1 was much higher (88.7%). Tang explains that by higher motivation among Chinese learners who, while aware of the merits of L1, still expect to use FL in class as much as possible. Perception of L1 Frequency and Preferred Frequency of L1 Use Among the 6 answers to the question ―How often do you think Croatian should be used in the English classroom?‖ (see Appendix, Table 1), most students (96, or 56,1%) chose the answer ‗sometimes‘. This answer was also the most frequent one among teachers (9, or 45%), although in their case the percentage is slightly lower. Interestingly, when asked ―How often do you use Croatian in the English classroom?‖, most teachers (13, or 65%), chose the same answer. However, from the slightly higher percentage of teachers who opted for this answer compared to the percentage obtained for the question at the beginning of this paragraph (45,00%) we may conclude that teachers find they use L1 more than they should. In her recent research, Edstrom (2006) confirmed that differences in the perception of teacher‘s L1 use and the actual L1 use are a worthwhile avenue of exploration. Furthermore, it is notable that although no universal agreement on the optimum amount of L1 in a 152 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FL classroom exists, teachers‘ perception of their use of L1 tends to lean to the ‗L1 used more than actually necessary‘ stance. The reason why teachers may feel uneasy using L1 is that they feel they are breaking ‗the mother tongue taboo‘ (Deller and Rinvolucri, 2002, in Gill, 2005). Among the answers to the question ―Is it preferable that your teacher uses Croatian in class?‖, (‗not at all‘, ‗a little‘, ‗moderately‘, ‗very‘) most students (87, or 50.9%) chose the answer ‗moderately‘. This result, which is in correspondence with the students‘ answer regarding the frequency of use, leads us to conclude that most students find occasional use of L1 FL classroom acceptable – the attitude also supported by most teachers – and that teachers should use it moderately. Perception of L1 Usefulness Two questions in both summaries addressed the usefulness of L1. Most students (125, or 73.1%) found that using L1 in FL class is helpful for learning English, which is also the option selected by most teachers (16, or 80%). In the question ―Do you think it is necessary to use Croatian in your English class? If so, why?‖, respondents had to choose one of 4 positive effects of L1 use – ‗aid to comprehension‘, ‗more effective classes‘, ‗feeling less lost in class‘, ‗saving time‘ – or the answer ‗I don‘t find it necessary‘. Most respondents in both groups found that the greatest benefit of using L1 is easier comprehension. However, this percentage was much higher among teachers (16, or 80%) compared to students (61, or 35.7%, with 15 missing answers). Namely, among students‘ answers all the other benefits of L1 use were also represented. For example, 32 (18.7%) of students reported that owing to L1 they felt less lost in class. Although L1 is often considered in terms of crosslinguistic influences and cognitive benefits, this particular result in our research points out the importance of affect in language learning and acquisition, recognized by Krashen (1981) in his Affective Filter hypothesis. In our survey, L1 was perceived by students as a valuable tool in lowering that filter. L1 Appropriateness for Selected Cases of Use In the survey respondents were given a list of 12 cases of L1 use and were asked to choose several options for which they thought using L1 is appropriate. The answers for each group are shown in Table 2 (see Appendix). While most students (150, or 87.7%) stated that using L1 was appropriate for explaining difficult grammar points, a lot of them (123, or 71.9%) also opted for L1 use in explaining difficult concepts. These two answers were also the most frequent ones among teachers, but in reverse order. Interestingly, exactly half of the teachers found the use of L1 for explaining grammar and defining new vocabulary, respectively, equally appropriate. These results may arise from the awareness that L1 can be used to facilitate the intake process that is not automatically guaranteed by the FL input (Swain, 1993, in Turnbull, 2001). Alegrìa de la Colina and Garcìa Mayo (2009) defined such use of L1 as a cognitive tool mediating higher-order thinking processes. It should be noted that the respondents in our survey were ESP students and the ability to understand and use technical terminology in a FL is among the learning outcomes of their course. Ibarra Hidalgo (2009) pointed out the paradox that, owing to techniques in which L1 was used to teach lexical items, learners gradually became less dependent on L1. Moreover, it is not surprising that both students and teachers found L1 acceptable in explaining grammar. Scott and De la Fuente (2008) established the positive role of L1 in explicit, form-focused collaborative tasks in which students were encouraged to use L1 to analyze grammar features and verbalize rules. Another example of L1 use ranked highly by the teachers (7, or 35%) were written translation exercises. Atkinson (1993, in Mattioli, 2004) recognized the value of translation in ‗raising one‘s consciousness of the nonparallel nature of languages‘. It is notable that almost half of the students (77, or 45%) prefer having the instructions concerning activities done outside class to be delivered in L1. When we consider that, under the Bologna process, students are involved in the continuous assessment scheme and are exposed to a lot of administrative information concerning the course, projects, tests etc., it is natural they find clear and straightforward communication to be vital for academic success. Finally, the L1 uses that refer to communicative practice in class and spoken comprehension checks were assigned fairly low rankings by both groups. This can be explained by other aids that students have at disposal when using FL in oral communication, like compensation strategies. Interestingly, such an explanation would be countered by some authors (Atkinson, 1987) who actually emphasized the usefulness of L1 in developing circumlocution strategies during FL use. The frequency and percentage of respondents‘ answers by the total number of selected options among the 12 cases of L1 use (see Appendix, Table 3) reveal that most students (40, or 23.4%) chose 4 options, while most teachers opted for either 2 or 5 L1 uses (5, that is 25% of respondents, respectively). Since, on the whole, 153 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo most respondents selected between 2-5 options, we can conclude that both students and teachers are aware of the diversity of functions of L1 in the ESP classroom and the need for a varied use of L1. Teachers' Impressions regarding the General Policy toward L1 Use Teachers were also asked to summarize their impression on their institution‘s policy regarding L1 use in FL instruction. From the collected answers we first extracted the categories that potentially impact teachers‘ decision whether to use L1. We divided the obtained categories into 3 ‗external‘ (Consensus regarding L1 use, Awareness of the changing impact of teaching methods, Students) and 3 ‗internal‘ elements (Efficiency, Contrastive approach, Affective factors). In our research the term ‗external‘ refers to elements concerning the circumstances in which instruction takes place, not defined by teachers (e.g. educational policy). ‗Internal‘ refers to individual factors that may be susceptible to change in accordance with the teacher‘s agency (e.g. techniques used). After further analysis, most of the categories were divided into subcategories (e.g. Efficiency was subdivided into Saving class time, Exposure to L2, Lexical /structural /pragmatic accuracy and Course and classroom/task management). In some cases, contrary statements from teachers‘ answers were integrated within the same subcategory. For example, consider the statements assigned to the subcategory Mixed proficiency levels that we grouped under the Students category: (1) ―There is a significant number of students with poor foreknowledge of English, while within the Bologna Reform the only languages are English and German taught only as languages for specific purposes.‖ (2) ―In my opinion, considering our students‘ level of knowledge, Croatian is not necessary.‖ The examples above indicate one of the key organizational challenges of the current ESP teaching practice in Croatia. Namely, while in theory, tertiary ESP courses are automatically identified with high proficiency levels (with minimum L1 use), as in (2), in reality it is not uncommon that teachers have to deal with mixed levels of competence and motivation in one-size-fits-all ESP courses, as reported in (1). Contrary views are also found in teachers‘ remarks concerning instruction efficiency. One of the identified subcategories here is Lexical /structural /pragmatic accuracy. Consider the statements related to acquisition of professional language skills: (3) ―Skills of drafting contracts, writing instructions etc., vital for the engineers‘ future profession, are best acquired with the aid of Croatian.‖ (4) ―Students are aware of the importance of English for their profession and readily accept communication in English, even outside the classroom.‖ Both replies above reveal that teachers are aware that ESP courses need to fulfil the immediate needs of students‘ future profession. However, while in (3) L1 is seen as a catalyst for acquisition of professional competences, in (4) maximum exposure to FL is suggested as crucial in that respect. Interestingly, most diverse answers were found in the category Consensus regarding L1 use at the institutional level, including: Consensus in favour of L1 use, Consensus against L1 use, Consensus in favour of a balanced approach and Lack of consensus. This last subcategory, which results in teachers making decisions on L1 use at the individual level, is illustrated as follows: (5) ―It would seem that foreign language teachers still doubt whether to use L1, and to what extent. While some tend to avoid it, others overuse it.‖ The analysis of the teachers‘ answers, only some of which are presented in this section, reveals that the open-ended question enabled the teachers to state their attitudes and preferences in accordance with but also beyond the set of possible uses listed in one of the multiple-choice questions. From a holistic perspective, we can argue that our qualitative findings support those obtained through quantitative analysis. Indeed, the findings presented in this section should be taken as ‗words‘ that collated with ‗figures‘ provide a more in-depth view, as suggested by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004). 154 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusions and Recommendations The research presented in this paper reveals that Croatian students and teachers involved in tertiary ESP courses generally support the use of L1 in FL instruction. Both students and teachers find that L1 use should be moderate. Although there are some differences between the two groups concerning selected examples of L1 usage, the most frequently selected examples are the ones also most frequently dealt with in recent research on pedagogical uses of L1. Using L1 in a way that would add value to FL instruction while maximizing the use of FL in the classroom may seem a tall order. Not only do teachers need to adapt to the requirements and expectations of specific groups or teaching contexts, but they also need to balance between the institutional policies toward L1 (provided it exists) and their own beliefs and practices. Edstrom (2006) found that reflection can be a valuable tool for teachers and researchers in developing a more informed awareness of merits of L1 use. Any attempt to quantify the amount of L1 to be used in the classroom needs to be made in conjunction with the functions that L1 will be used for. Along with the variables presented in this paper, in future research students‘ language competence level or motivation could be considered. Furthermore, it needs to be mentioned that the quantitative data obtained in this research refer to a specific population among EFL learners/teachers and cannot be generalized. Finally, regarding the processing of the teachers‘ open-ended answers, we are aware that coding qualitative data is a demanding and iterative process, as suggested by Dôrnyei (2007). The classification proposed in this paper is therefore inconclusive. In spite of the limitations of this study, we hope that it will help contribute to the research of L1 use in ESP in our country27 or similar contexts. We also believe that the differing attitudes concerning various key facets of pedagogical L1 use identified in our research provide substantial evidence for its inclusion on researchers‘ as well as EFL teachers‘ agenda. 27 As a contribution to discussing this issue in public fora, a recent plenary delivered by Ms Mirna RadińiĤ, M.A., at the Conference of the Association of Croatian Teachers of English (HUPE) in Opatija, Croatia, in April 2011, deserves to be mentioned. 155 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Alegrìa de la Colina, A., & Garcìa Mayo, M. (2009). Oral interaction in task-based EFL learning: The use of the L1 as a cognitive tool. IRAL— International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 47(3-4), 325– 345. Atkinson, D. (1987, October). The mother tongue in the classroom: a neglected resource?. ELT Journal, 41(4), 241-247. Atkinson, D. (1993). Teaching Monolingual Classes. Harlow: Pearson English Language Teaching. Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexamining English only in ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32. Brown, J. D., & Rodgers, Th. S. (2002). Doing Second Language Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Butzkamm, W. (2000). Monolingual Principle. In: Michael Byram (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London and New York: Routledge, 415-417. Butzkamm, W. (2003). The role of the mother tongue in FL classrooms: Death of a dogma. Language Learning Journal, 28, 29-39. Retrieved from http://www.ittmfl.org.uk/modules/teaching/1a/paper1a4.pdf Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Metode istraţivanja u obrazovanju, Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap. Cook, V. (2001a). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Arnold Cook, V. (2001b). Using the first language in the classroom, Draft of Canadian Modern Language Review 2001. Retrieved from http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Papers/L1inClass.htm Deller, S., & M. Rinvolucri (2002). Using the Mother Tongue: Making the most of the learner‘s language. Addlestone, Surrey: Delta. Dońen, M. (2001). Uloga materinskog jezika u poduci i uĦenju engleskoga kao stranoga jezika, Strani jezici, 30(1-2), 59-64. Dôrnyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Edstrom, A. (2006). L1 Use in the L2 Classroom: One Teacher's Self-Evaluation. Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(2), 275-292. Gill, S. (2005, September).The L1 In The L2 Classroom. Humanising Language Teaching Magazine, 5. Retrieved from http://www.hltmag.co.uk/sep05/mart03.htm Ibarra Hidalgo, S.V. (2009). Keep your friends close, IATEFL Voices, 211, 4-5. Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33, 14-26. Kavaliauskienė, G. (2009). Role of Mother Tongue in Learning English for Specific Purposes. ESP World. 8(1), Retrieved from http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_22/issue_22.htm Krashen, S. D. (1981). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. English Language Teaching series. London: Prentice-Hall International. Krashen, S. (1989). Language Acquisition and Language Education – Extensions and Applications. London: Prentice Hall International. Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. (2006). How Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Macaro, E. (1997). Target Language, Collaborative Learning and Autonomy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second Language Research: Methodology and Design. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mattioli, G. (2004). On Native Language Intrusions and Making Do with Words: Linguistically Homogeneous Classrooms and Native Language Use. English Teaching Forum, 42(4). Retrieved from http://exchanges.state.gov/englishteaching/forum/archives/2004/04-42-4.html Medved-KrajnoviĤ, M. (2010). Od jednojezičnosti do višejezičnosti. Zagreb: Leykam international. 156 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nazary, M. (2008). The Role Of L1 In L2 Acquisition: Attitudes of Iranian University Students. Novitas-ROYAL, 2(2), 138-153. Retrieved from http://www.novitasroyal.org/nazary.html Polio, C.P. & Duff, P.A. (1994). Teachers' Language Use in University Foreign Language Classrooms: a Qualitative Analysis of English and Target Language Alternation. Modern Language Journal, 78(iii), 311-326. Prodromou, L. (2002). From mother tongue to other tongue. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/from-mother-tongue-other-tongue Retrieved from Schweers, C. W. Jr. (1999). Using L1 in the L2 Classroom, English Teaching Forum, 37(2), 6-13. Retrieved from http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol37/no2/p6.html Scott, V. M. & De La Fuente, M. J. (2008). What‘s the Problem? L2 Learners' Use of the L1 During Consciousness-Raising, Form-Focused Tasks. The Modern Language Journal, 92(1), 100-113. Shimizu, M. (2006). Monolingual or Bilingual Policy in the Classroom. Pedagogical implications of L1 use in the Japanese EFL classroom. Maebashi Kyoai Gakuen College Ronsyu, 6, 75-89. Retrieved from www.kyoai.ac.jp/college/ronshuu/no-06/shimizu.pdf Swain, M. (1993). The output hypothesis: Just reading and writing aren't enough. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50, 158-164. Tang, J. (2002). Using L1 in the English Classroom. English Teaching Forum, 40(1). Retrieved from http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol40/no1/p36.htm#top Turnbull, M. (2001). There's a Role for the L1 in Second and Foreign Language Teaching, but ... . Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4), 531-40. Appendix Table 1. Perception of Frequency of L1 (Croatian) Use in the English Classroom Students (N=171) Teachers (N=20) Teachers (N=20) How often do you think Croatian should be used in the English classroom? How often do you think Croatian should be used in the English classroom? How often do you use Croatian in the English classroom? Answer frequency % frequency % frequency % No reply 2 1.2 0 0 0 0 Never 0 0 0 0 0 0 Very rarely 27 15.8 4 20 3 15 Sometimes 96 56.1 9 45 13 65 Frequently 18 10.5 0 0 0 0 Fairly frequently 9 5.3 0 0 0 0 Only when necessary 19 11.1 7 35 4 20 Table 2. Respondents' Frequency and Percentage for the 12 Cases of L1 (Croatian) Use 157 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Students (N = 171) Answer Teachers (N = 20) frequency % ranking frequency % ranking To explain difficult grammar points 150 87.7 1 10 50 2 To define new vocabulary items 94 55 3 10 50 2 To explain difficult concepts 123 71.9 2 15 75 1 To practice the use of new expressions and phrases 36 21.1 10 1 5 9 To help students feel more comfortable and confident 43 25.1 8 6 30 4 To give instructions concerning activities done in class 54 31.6 6 5 25 5 To give students advice on effective studying 31 18.1 11 3 15 7 To give feedback 52 30.4 7 2 10 8 To check for comprehension (in speaking) 20 11.7 12 4 20 6 To joke around with students 37 21.6 9 3 15 7 In written tests (translation tasks) 62 36.3 5 7 35 3 To give instructions concerning activities done outside class 77 45.0 4 3 15 7 158 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 3. Respondents' Frequency and Percentage by the Total Number of Selected Options Among the 12 Cases of L1 (Croatian) Use Students (N = 171) Number of selected options Teachers (N = 20) frequency % frequency % None 2 1.2 0 0 1 option 3 1.8 2 10 2 options 23 13.5 5 25 3 options 29 17 3 15 4 options 40 23.4 4 20 5 options 26 15.2 5 25 6 options 17 9.9 0 0 7 options 16 9.4 1 5 8 options 6 3.5 0 0 9 options 5 2.9 0 0 10 options 1 0.6 0 0 11 options 0 0 0 0 all the 12 options 3 1.8 0 0 171 100 20 100 Total: 159 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 26 Title A name given to the resource To Use or Not to Use: First Language in Tertiary Instruction of English as a Foreign Language Author Author Kovačić, Andreja Abstract A summary of the resource. The issue of whether first language (L1) use in teaching foreign languages (FL) is justified can be considered from various perspectives. The diachronic perspective considers the role of L1 in FL instruction along with the development of teaching methods and linguistic theories. The taxonomic perspective concerns the arguments for and against L1 use taking into account its cognitive, social and affective aspects. The role of L1 can also be viewed from the empirical perspective considering the effects of its use and examining attitudes, beliefs etc. of participants in the dynamic process of FL teaching and learning. The survey presented in this paper aims to investigate and compare the perception of using Croatian in tertiary English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction concerning L1 use. Two groups of respondents involved in the study were undergraduate nonlinguistic majors at a Croatian university and ESP instructors in various higher education institutions in several Croatian universities. The questions that the research in this paper addresses is 1) whether the tertiary students‘ perception of using Croatian as L1 in teaching EFL corresponds to that maintained by tertiary language instructors and 2) whether students and instructors, respectively, support the usage of L1 in the tertiary EFL classroom. First language use is explored in terms of necessity, frequency, usefulness and its appropriateness for selected examples of usage. The presented findings comprise those obtained by quantitative as well as qualitative data analysis. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e2fa9647467559f9eae58501237980c.pdf d368e3a2b626d2deff2075a777d85f5d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Bologna Process in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Strengthening, Re-Branding, or Undermining Higher Education? Zoë Brennan-Krohn English Language and Literature og Banja Luka BIH University of Banja Luka, Bosnia-Herzegovina zbrennankrohn@gmail.com Abstract:Several years after Bosnia-Herzegovina formally agreed to partake in the Bologna Process of higher education reform, confusion, frustration, and misconceptions still abound among the country‘s students and educators about what Bologna actually means. This paper will analyze and discuss the process of integrating the Bologna process into college and university English language programs in BiH.The paper will use a number of sources in order to facilitate an in-depth exploration of the complexities surrounding Bologna implementation. Official guidelines, texts, and declarations published by the Council of Europe about the Bologna process will be a major source of research for this paper. The paper will also incorporate interviews with students, assistants, and professors from English departments of local universities to understand the perceived reality of these changes in college-level English programs. Drawing these sources together will be the case study of a year-long Council of Europe project devoted to curricular reform in BiH, one which included participation of both education experts and local English professors. By examining these sources together, this paper will contrast and analyze the fundamental tenets of the Bologna reforms, as well as the onthe-ground perceptions of the same process among English language teachers and learners. The paper will seek to pinpoint some sources of confusion between these positions, and to discuss the broader implications of these disconnects . What is Bologna? The reforms that became the Bologna Process were initiated in 1998 by some of the countries with the longest and most illustrious histories of higher education in Europe: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy. In celebration of the Sorbonne‘s 750th anniversary, education ministers from these countries called for a post-nationalist view of education, a kind of education version of the then-forthcoming common currency.354 By the time the Bologna Declaration was signed by 29 founding member-countries the next year, the concept of the border-free education area in Europe had evolved considerably. No longer a declaration of support among the old-boys club of ancient Western European universities, the 1999 Bologna Declaration made specific mention of the importance of educational cooperation in ―the development and strengthening of stable, peaceful and democratic societies‖ and made special note of the importance of this issue in South East Europe. 355 The 1999 Bologna signatory countries included the usual suspects for cooperation in Europe at the time – all of the initial Euro countries were founding members of Bologna.356 The Western European countries which notably opted out of a common currency – the UK, Denmark, Switzerland, Sweden – did choose to join Bologna. In addition, however, the founding Bologna declaration included nine countries that had emerged from behind the Iron Curtain only a decade before. 357 All of these post-socialist countries were, at the time, far from being eligible to join the European Union or the Euro zone. This approach of a remarkably inclusive zone of cooperation in education is worth noting. Despite its widespread perception today, Bologna — unlike the EU, the Euro Zone, or NATO — was never a highly exclusive club for only the richest or most developed countries. The Bologna declaration of June 1999 specified several goals for the future of European higher education, which have been expanded upon but fundamentally consistent in the years since. The declaration called for a ―Europe of Knowledge,‖ a revitalization of the continent’s intellectual and educational dominance from earlier centuries.358 It also mentioned the importance of maintaining Europe’s international appeal and competitiveness into the new century, and of building the foundation of stability and democracy that strong and cooperative education can bring. 354 ―The Official Bologna Process Website, 2010-2012, History.‖ www.ehea.info ―The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999.‖ www.ehea.info, 1. 356 European Navigator: A History of a United Europe on the Internet. www.ena.lu Accessed 15 April 2011. 357 ―The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999.‖ 358 Ibid. 355 1315 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In pursuit of these aims, the declaration committed to adopting a system of comparable and clear degrees across the region, establishing a credit system to improve student mobility, improving quality assurance mechanisms in universities, and increasing inter-institutional cooperation.359 One of the most remarkable elements of these goals is how fundamentally unobjectionable they are. For a document that has spawned such resentment, not to mention protests, it seems notably benign. Who would disagree, on principle, with allowing for students to travel or improving the quality of education? Only the most recalcitrant and entrenched members of universities would take issue with these concepts on principle, and such people are not the typical or critical disavowers of Bologna. Biennially after the Bologna Declaration in 1999, ministers of education from member countries met for follow-up meetings, and the main points of these meetings were published in a series of ―communiqués‖. These communiqués added certain new elements to the goals of the Bologna Process, including formalizing the goal of a European Higher Education Area by 2010, emphasizing the importance of lifelong learning, and affirming the important role of students as active participants in reforming and strengthening higher education. 360 The concept of a ―Europe of Knowledge‖ and a subsequent focus on strengthening research and doctoral programs were added to the agenda in 2003.361 Even looking at all of the goals laid out in the Bologna Declaration and five subsequent communiqués, there are relatively few points that seem clearly contentious, certainly not to that extent that protests and anger have suggested. The 2009 Leuven Communiqué responded to the global financial crisis by emphasizing employability and noting universities’ responsibility to respond to labor market demands, and these elements could certainly be objectionable if one took the purest and most philosophical view of what education should be for and about. The backlash against the Bologna process began long before 2009, however, and so these elements of the Leuven Communiqué cannot be seen as the catalyst or the fundamental problem with the process. At most, this document may have strengthened opposition, although in reality most students, professors, and administrators, were probably not aware of the document at all. How did Bologna come about in Bosnia-Herzegovina? Bosnia-Herzegovina joined the Bologna process in 2003, along with Serbia and Montenegro and Macedonia. With the addition of these countries, the entire former Yugoslavia became part of the Bologna Process. 362 Although theoretically a voluntary commitment, international community pressure is widely believed to be the impetus for Bosnia’s 2003 entry into the Bologna Process. Although higher education in Bosnia-Herzegovina suffered significantly during the 1992-1995 war, most universities continued to function during the war, albeit under highly strained circumstances. Most notably, the University of Sarajevo continued to hold courses throughout the nearly four-year siege, in spite of extreme danger and hardship for students and faculty. Additionally, the University of East Sarajevo (originally called the Serb University of Sarajevo), and separate Croat and Bosniak Universities of Mostar were actually founded during the war, in an effort to establish ethnically identified institutions to replace the formerly multiethnic universities in these cities. During and after the war, primary and secondary schools in BiH were formally segregated by ethnicity, resulting in some instances of ―two schools under one roof,‖ where one building and schoolyard were physically divided and transformed into separate schools, and students were sorted on the basis of ethnicity. Curricula, especially language and history, became ethnically based. These measures were very successful at solidifying and re-entrenching ethnic tensions throughout the country. At the level of higher education, universities in BiH are not formally segregated – there is no official ethnic identity of any university. The divisions from earlier years of school, however, as well as broader societal segregation, create de facto ethnic segregation at universities as well. While the University of Sarajevo maintains something of a multi-ethnic identity (although predominantly Bosniak), the country’s seven other public universities have an overwhelming predominance of one ethnicity. Pervasive ethnic tensions and divisions are a major element of life in Bosnia-Herzegovina, education being no exception. The Bologna Process aims indirectly to facilitate a more integrated education system through student and faculty mobility and cooperation among universities. As a Europe-wide initiative, however, Bologna has no specific provisions for tackling the major and often traumatic repercussions and tensions that have grown out of war. 359 Ibid. ―Towards the European Higher Education Area.‖ Prague, 19 May 2001. www.ehea.info 361 ―Realising the European Higher Education Area.‖ Berlin, 19 September 2003. www.ehea.info 362 This is no longer true since Kosovo‘s declaration of independence in 2008. Because of tensions regarding the recognition of an independent Kosovo, it is no longer a participant in the Bologna reforms. Montenegro, which became independent from Serbia in 2006, however, successfully joined Bologna as an independent state in 2007. 360 1316 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Into this ethnically identified conflict, Bologna’s indirect attempts to integrate education in the country have not done nearly enough to actively heal the gaps left by the war and meaningfully recreate a single functioning system of education. The goals of Bologna in BiH in many ways parallel the broader goals of European Union integration for Bosnia-Herzegovina. Both seek to move beyond internal struggles by making them obsolete through Europeanizing the education system and the country as a whole. While an idealistic goal, post-conflict reconstruction rarely seems to be cured by simply skimming over the traumas and troubles remaining in the wake of the war. What are students’ perceptions of Bologna? Eighty-one students of in the English Language and Literature departments in Banja Luka and Tuzla were surveyed for this project. Respondents were second, third, and fourth year undergraduate students who were asked to reflect on their understanding and opinion of Bologna in their departments, in BosniaHerzegovina, and in Europe. One of the most striking elements of the survey results was the students’ understanding of what the intended purpose of Bologna actually is. Only one of eighty-one students mentioned student or faculty mobility as part of the goal of Bologna, and only seven (9%) referred to standardizing and harmonizing education, either within BiH or across Europe. It is remarkable that less than 10% of respondents mentioned either of the two main facets and goals of Bologna, although it has been present in their education and influencing their lives for upwards of four years. What did students think that Bologna was designed to do? There was a wide variety of theories presented by students. The two most common responses were the purposes of forcing students to study constantly, and making their studies easier, suggested by 40% and 35% of respondents, respectively. The former response was almost certainly informed by the establishment of grades based on a point system comprised of midterm test results, class participation, and homework, rather than the old system of final grades based entirely on written and oral final exams. Making programs easier to pass was a sentiment echoed by several teaching assistants and professors, as well. The continuous study element of the reforms is not entirely unrelated to Bologna’s goals, but nor is it the primary aim of the project. Increasing the transparency of grading policies is part of Bologna’s mission, and creating standardized formulas based on a variety of criteria is a common way of working towards that goal. The specific outcome of making students study continuously, rather than cramming before exams is, while probably a positive change, not in any specific way connected to Bologna. Asked about their overall opinions of Bologna in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the overwhelming majority of responses were either partly or entirely negative. Indeed, only a very small percentage of students described their opinion about Bologna in BiH in only positive terms, while many more described them as entirely negative. A very common student observation was that the reforms in Bosnia-Herzegovina were either not ―real‖ or not ―complete‖ Bologna. 62% of students referred in some way to their belief that Bosnian Bologna was incomplete, misapplied, or lacking unified implementation. This is particularly unusual because there was no question directly related to this point in the survey. It is clear that this is an opinion that many students hold strongly and went out of their way to express in their surveys. 363 The main causes suggested for this ―fake‖ Bologna were lack of resources, organization, and professor support. One student wrote, ―Bologna in BiH is impossible! They started some reforms which cannot be done in our country and they made it even harder for us students.‖ Another commented that, ―In BiH this system [is] a good idea but it’s not really applicable. Our education system is too disorganized and messy.‖ A third student mused, ―I would personally like…to know what the real Bologna Process is like.‖ These spontaneous and adamant observations reflect the perception that professors, deans, rectors and politicians often cherry-pick elements of reforms to implement in their institutions, and that the changes they do implement are often primarily cosmetic. Yet the students’ comments also suggest an erroneous belief that ―Bologna‖ is a unified, cookie-cutter mandate that is either implemented or not. Commonly echoed among teaching staff and politicians, this view of the process is primarily counterproductive. It prevents education stakeholders from becoming actively involved in education reforms because they believe that the process is one of enacting a demand rather than adapting reforms based on individual goals, institutions, and realities. For many in BiH, the role of being the passive site or recipient of projects, reforms, and systems has become a kind of default and assumed position. In the nearly two decades since the war, Bosnia-Herzegovina has frequently been the subject of mandates and intensive international interventions. Regardless of their opinions about these projects, the scenario of imposed reforms has become commonplace. In the case of Bologna, this assumption often precludes any meaningful engagement that might actually be possible. What are faculty perceptions of Bologna? Perceptions of the Bologna Process among teaching staff vary widely. As with students, faculty tended to focus on the elements of the changes that influenced them the most. Of twelve professors and teaching 363 Most instances of this sentiment were in response to the survey question ―What is your opinion about Bologna in BiH?‖ 1317 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo assistants interviewed, only two identified harmonization or mobility among the goals of Bologna as they understood them. Students’ comments that Bologna is different in different universities were clearly echoed through comments from Banja Luka and Tuzla. Many professors and students in Tuzla noted the change with Bologna that students can only attempt an exam three times before being required to re-take the course. In Banja Luka, this change is not yet regularly enforced or agreed upon, and so, not surprisingly, was infrequently mentioned as an element of Bologna. Another common observation from faculty at both universities was a change in the grading scale so that it became easier to pass classes but more difficult to get the highest grades of nine or ten. In some ways, this perception reflects one of Bologna’s general goals to make a college degree more accessible continent-wide, such that simply passing classes is no longer the sometimes-monumental feat that it once was. Like students, many members of the teaching staff cited continuous studying as a key point in Bologna, and many also noted that there was not enough money in BiH to have ―real‖ Bologna. Surprisingly, several faculty members said that their teaching methods and content had changed little or not at all since Bologna, and that only assessment and administrative elements were changed. This helps to explain the sense of Bologna as a set of cosmetic reforms. Either out of confusion or choice, most professors do not see Bologna as an opportunity or a requirement to meaningfully assess and potentially modify their courses. Where students often blamed professors for failing to give enough information about the process, professors often lay this blame with their superiors – deans and rectors. In sum, faculty opinions, like those of students, represented a wide range of opinions about Bologna. While the majority of opinions were primarily negative, either in the theory or the execution of Bologna in BiH, some people felt that the changes had improved education. One teaching assistant, expressing this more optimistic perspective of the changes, noted, ―I think – I don’t think, I see – that students take it more seriously when they have fewer exams and they know they’ll be checked, so they study continuously.‖ Students and teaching staff in Tuzla were, on the whole, more positive about the changes brought by Bologna, while people in Banja Luka were more likely to describe the process in very negative terms. Within the scope of this small survey, it is not possible to tell whether this difference represents variations between these two individual universities in their approach to the reforms, or whether it is indicative of broader, entity-based patterns through which universities in Republika Srpska would be predisposed to more negative attitudes toward international involvement than institutions in the Federation. Analyzing Perceptions and Realities; Theory and Practice of Bologna in BiH One of the most common observations among students and teaching staff was that Bosnia-Herzegovina does not have the money to adequately resource ―real‖ Bologna. While there is no question that financial constraints pose serious limitations to education reforms, there does not seem to be significant awareness of the elements of Bologna which could be implemented without large amounts of money. There is no question that large classes, shortages of classrooms, poor libraries and limited internet access combine to hobble some educational reforms. Some reforms, though, can proceed irrespective of funding, such as encouraging externallyfunded student and professor exchanges throughout Europe; extending the role and scope of student advising; and structuring courses with a greater focus on student needs and learning outcomes. While surely these changes would be progress more smoothly with large quantities of money, they are not dependent on it. What seems like the possibility for true reform in spite of financial constraints is reduced to a theoretical possibility when the perceptions of the potential implementers of these reforms are taken into account. As there are so few professors or students who view the process in these – perhaps idealistic – terms, then the perceived limitations become a reinforced and entrenched reality. The long history of international community involvement in Bosnia-Herzegovina also plays a major role in perceptions of, and openness to, the Bologna Reforms. Especially in Republika Srpska, where international interventions are generally seen in a particularly negative light, impositions or any project that resembles the perceived history of unjust impositions are treated with serious suspicion. The degree to which this dynamic was or was not present in reality as Bosnia joined Bologna is largely irrelevant because this is so universally believed to be the case. As we have seen throughout this paper, there is widespread confusion and misunderstanding about the ultimate purpose of Bologna. This disconnect is pervasive at the level of students and teaching staff, and likely continues even up to the level of deans, rectors, and politicians. Without a clear conception of the ultimate purpose of Bologna, and with no clear efforts to mend this problem of public relations, it is hard to envision the kind of meaningful collaboration that Bologna requires among stakeholders at all levels. Analyzing student and faculty interviews and surveys, it becomes clear that most people understand Bologna based on its functional implications for them. Bologna is whatever has happened to these people: a watering down of the curriculum from the perspective of professors who feel that the scope and content of their courses have been curtailed; a demand to study constantly from the perspective of students who must now 1318 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo prepare for a myriad of partial examinations and projects; a sadistic bureaucratic nightmare from the point of view of teaching staff who are now required to accompany their work with many times the paperwork than was once demanded. Although all of these realities are connected in some ways to the big-picture goals of the Bologna reforms, it is troubling that nearly all of the students and teaching staff contacted for this paper understood Bologna entirely based on how it had already affected them, and not based on how it could impact their future or how they themselves could be active members of it. A combination of disinterest, assumptions specific to the Bosnian context and history, and poor information dissemination has created a country of educators and students who see Bologna as something happening to them. In this context, those who should be the active reformers and participants in meaningful reform become entirely passivized. This passivity ensures that reforms will continue to be decided not by those with the most direct and practical understanding of what needs to changed, but by tangential stakeholders with much less information and experience, thus ensuring that Bologna will continue to have a disconnect between theory and practice. Can Bologna in Bosnia-Herzegovina Survive? It is clear from this research that there are serious problems and challenges facing Bologna’s implementation and sustainability in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Looking to the future, many questions and doubts linger. One approach to these problems is simply pushing through them. The joint European Union/Council of Europe project ―Strengthening Higher Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina‖ is an example of this approach. In the third part of this multi-year project, teaching staff from universities across BiH were brought together to learn about the Bologna approach to education and tasked with developing a pilot curriculum based on learning outcomes, flexibility and mobility, and student-centered approaches. Over the course of more than a year, these working groups met monthly and ostensibly succeeded in creating Bologna-friendly pilot courses, curricula, and degree programs. Yet in spite of this seeming success, most of the participants in this program from the English language and literature departments do not hesitate to express their belief that the whole project was mainly an exercise in futility. Although the EU/CoE organizers have said that the project participants should now be viewed as on-theground experts in the field of adapting programs into this European framework, informal conversations suggest that this has not been the case, and that participants themselves would not be eager to take on this role. Without rejecting the possibility that in some subtle ways this project may have been important and may still be a vehicle for success indirectly, it is widely believed by participants that the project was largely useless. Assessing the successes and challenges of the Bologna Process across Europe, a report noted that smaller countries have generally seen greater success in implementing reforms than larger countries like Germany and France, which have diverse and autonomous regions and universities. Although BosniaHerzegovina is certainly small in terms of population and land area, it has many of the divisions and intense local autonomy more commonly found in large, decentralized countries. The geographic proximity between Sarajevo and Pale, for example, does not mitigate the deep tensions that remain for many people in both cities, and this is true for their universities as well. The almost crippling autonomy granted to each entity in the Dayton Peace Accords is proving a major hindrance to harmonizing education country-wide, and within this dynamic Bosnia has perhaps more in common with large, decentralized European countries than with places that are more similar in population and physical size. In many ways the problems of Bologna in BiH reflect larger problems of the country as a whole. On paper, Bologna could be construed as a successful project in BiH: if one chooses not to look too deep or find out too much, the superficial and partial changes that Bologna has created could be perceived as evidence of a broadly successful process. Likewise, the Dayton Peace Accords have superficially ―solved‖ the problems of the war while leaving crucial issues festering. Bologna seems to be working in Bosnia, if that is the answer one hopes to find; in the same way that Dayton seems to have been a success. In both cases, serious problems are left unaddressed or solved in a primarily cosmetic way. In the case of both Bologna and Dayton, the unsolved issues that remain are by their nature the stickiest, most vague, and most contentious. Meaningfully addressing these problems will require an in-depth, countryspecific plan that brings key players on board and persuades them of the possibility of substantive reform. In the case of Bologna, this will mean that stakeholders will need to genuinely believe that changes are possible, that their opinions will be taken into account, and that reforms will not represent a threat to their work. Is this possible in the case of either Bologna or post-Dayton Bosnia as a whole? Optimism seems hard to come by, especially as an outsider in a place where enthusiastic and often ill-informed outsiders have bungled so many projects. The universal European nature of Bologna means that formally opting out of the process could further isolate students, professors, and higher education institutions in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Yet stumbling through the process with haphazard and erratic cosmetic reforms without seriously making changes or discussing potential challenges seems to be undermining every element of pride and confidence that exists among educators and students. It is not without precedent in history that ―fake it until you make it‖ can be a successful philosophy 1319 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo even on an international geopolitical scale. Yet in Bosnia there are politicians and others working very hard against this, and that is a troubling reality. 1320 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 682 Title A name given to the resource The Bologna Process in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Strengthening, Re-Branding, or Undermining Higher Education? Author Author Krohn, Zoë Brennan Abstract A summary of the resource. Several years after Bosnia-Herzegovina formally agreed to partake in the Bologna Process of higher education reform, confusion, frustration, and misconceptions still abound among the country‘s students and educators about what Bologna actually means. This paper will analyze and discuss the process of integrating the Bologna process into college and university English language programs in BiH.The paper will use a number of sources in order to facilitate an in-depth exploration of the complexities surrounding Bologna implementation. Official guidelines, texts, and declarations published by the Council of Europe about the Bologna process will be a major source of research for this paper. The paper will also incorporate interviews with students, assistants, and professors from English departments of local universities to understand the perceived reality of these changes in college-level English programs. Drawing these sources together will be the case study of a year-long Council of Europe project devoted to curricular reform in BiH, one which included participation of both education experts and local English professors. By examining these sources together, this paper will contrast and analyze the fundamental tenets of the Bologna reforms, as well as the onthe- ground perceptions of the same process among English language teachers and learners. The paper will seek to pinpoint some sources of confusion between these positions, and to discuss the broader implications of these disconnects. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1b449e14b848ff2a3f14bf650380f03d.pdf 1157e5213b936467a3adfce0d90c62e3 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strategies, New Directions and Resources for Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Blair Kuntz Near and Middle Eastern Studies Librarian Robarts Library, University of Toronto, Canada blair.kuntz@utoronto.ca Abstract: The spoken and written language known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the idiom that links almost three hundred million Arabic speakers from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West, and it is this form of Arabic that is used in broadcast media and newspapers, and also for speeches and addresses on formal occasions. For obvious reasons, it is Modern Standard Arabic which is for the most part taught to students of Arabic as a foreign language in universities and private institutes. However, for someone to claim that they really ―know‖ Arabic, it is also necessary to master one or more of the many colloquial Arabic languages spoken throughout the Arab world. In contrast to MSA, Arabic colloquial languages are relegated to an inferior position in the classroom where they are most often added as an afterthought to the MSA course (although some separate colloquial language courses are taught in university continuing education courses and private institutes). At least part of the difficulty in teaching colloquial Arabic is because these languages are, for the most part, not written or standardized and thus are only mastered through listening or speaking. Arabic colloquial languages were strengthened by Georgetown University‘s important series of colloquial language text-books and grammars first published in the nineteen sixties; however, today, with the advent of the Internet and other electronic resources, this series can be supplemented or superseded using Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube and podcasting as well as popular songs and cinema. In addition, many Arabic literary authors have also written text in colloquial dialects. This paper highlights strategies and assesses resources for teaching colloquial Arabic as a foreign language. Keywords: Arabic as a foreign language, colloquial Arabic Introduction As an international language, Arabic is certainly one of the most important and influential. With a total population of almost three hundred million native speakers (Prochazka, 2006) who speak Arabic as a first language, Arabic can claim to be the fourth most widely spoken language in the world. The Arabic script, which is written from right to left, is the second most widely used written script in the world and has been adopted and modified by other languages such as Urdu, Farsi, and Pashto. Arabic has also given many loan words to other languages such as Turkish, Urdu, Farsi, Spanish and Portuguese. Arabic has always had its share of foreign language students. Perhaps the most important of these until the present day are those who learn classical Arabic in order to study the Quran, Islam‘s holy book. Other foreign-language students embark on an academic study of the language in order to study the history, literature, or politics of the Middle East, while others study the language in order to live, work, or travel in the region. Students of Arabic as a foreign language at some point, however, must learn two languages because Arabic is a ―diglossic‖ language in which literate speakers use one form of Arabic as the written language but another for use in daily life. Thus, a student studying classical Arabic in order to read the Quran will discover that Saudi Arabians do not communicate using this language. Similarly, a student who has studied the modern variant of classical Arabic known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), also known as literary or standard Arabic, will find that upon landing in an Arab country his or her attempts to speak MSA will be met with quizzical looks—or worse, laughter. Most major universities teaching Arabic as a foreign language concentrate on teaching MSA as it is this form of Arabic which unites Arabs over a wide geographic area ranging from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West. Enormous resources have been poured into learning how to read, speak, write and listen to the standard form of Arabic used in radio and television broadcasts, newspapers, political speeches, and today in Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs and Twitter. Much less attention has been paid to teaching the many colloquial Arabic dialects which, if offered at all in universities, were only taught as an addendum to the main standard Arabic course. Although some universities have now instituted colloquial Arabic language courses into the curriculum (mostly teaching Egyptian colloquial), the teaching of colloquial Arabic language courses is still 249 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sometimes left to non-credit university continuing education programs or to private institutes both inside and outside the Arabic-speaking world. The preference for teaching MSA is understandable. As the form of Arabic which unites Arabs, learning MSA is absolutely essential for students wishing to study the history, politics, and literature of the Middle East. Teaching colloquial languages, on the other hand, involves choosing one or more colloquial languages which, unlike MSA, have not been standardized and, for the most part, are not written and therefore must be learned through listening and speaking. Nonetheless, the teacher of colloquial Arabic languages need not despair for many text-books on various colloquial languages have been published and continue to be published. Furthermore, the rise of the World Wide Web has been a boon for teachers of colloquial Arabic for, in addition to online courses in colloquial Arabic, the web offers an enormous number of resources for learning and teaching colloquial Arabic including music, television, and film videos. Meanwhile technologies such as Skype and MSN Messenger offer unprecedented possibilities for teaching listening and speaking in colloquial Arabic. Furthermore, the enterprising teacher of colloquial Arabic will find that many Arabic writers have employed colloquial Arabic in their written dialogues. Still other written sources of colloquial Arabic include cartoons, proverbs, and social networking sites. Methods and Aims of the Study This paper is a critical survey of the resources available for studying colloquial Arabic languages as a foreign-language. It first details the difficulties in learning ―diglossic‖ languages such as Arabic and then surveys various text-books (including online), grammars, and dictionaries available for studying a number of colloquial Arabic and evaluates their strengths and weaknesses. After commenting on the curricula of colloquial Arabic courses offered in North American universities and at private institutes throughout the world, it then surveys the resources available for studying colloquial Arabic as a foreign language on the Internet, especially Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube videos, social networking sites, and interactive messaging services such as Skype and MSN Messenger. It then examines colloquial Arabic resources found in Arabic proverbs and in the works of Arabic-language writers and cartoonists. Throughout the paper, the author suggests effective strategies for teaching colloquial Arabic. It is hoped that the discussion of the strategies and resources available for teaching and studying colloquial Arabic will lead to innovative methods for teaching this important component of the Arabic language which has often been neglected. Findings and Discussion Arabic as a ―Diglossic‖ Language In a now classic paper written in 1959 on the subject of ―diglossia‖ in languages, Professor Charles A Ferguson of Harvard University defined this linguistic phenomena as a state in which two varieties of language exist side by side in a language community. As Ferguson defines diglossia, it is: a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language which may include a standard or regional standards, there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body or written literature…which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation (Ferguson, 1959: 336). In his paper, Ferguson identified four languages existing in a state of ―diglossia‖: Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole (he also briefly discusses Chinese). In the Arabic language, the two varieties of Arabic which exist side by side are the standard written Arabic language known as classical Arabic or ―al-fusha‖ (‫ )الفصحى‬which is the language of the Quran, preIslamic poetry, and medieval writings. Classical Arabic has morphed into what is termed as Modern Standard Arabic (or MSA) which includes more contemporary vocabulary, usages, and styles of expression. MSA today is used in the mass media in written form in newspapers and magazines, is spoken on television news broadcasts and documentaries and is used for speeches and formal occasions. Furthermore, classical Arabic has a long history of grammatical rules and vocabulary laid down by classical grammarians. However, existing side by side the standard language is colloquial Arabic which consists of any number of dialects constituting the everyday spoken language. In contrast to standard Arabic, colloquial languages are 250 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo mostly unwritten and have not been subject to study by grammarians. Besides being spoken in daily life, the colloquial variety of Arabic is used in informal media such as television drama, soap operas and talk shows, and is also used in cinema. Although these languages are mostly spoken, some Arabic-language writers have written colloquial poems, drama, and dialogue in Arabic script although it is important to note that colloquial script has never been standardized. The difficulties of teaching MSA to native speakers of colloquial Arabic has been the subject of much research including those concerning the level of functional illiteracy in the Arab world which some attribute to the divergence between spoken Arabic and literary Arabic (Ayari, 1996: 243). Another study, researching illiterate adult Egyptian women learning modern literary Arabic also concludes that the mismatch between colloquial Arabic and standard Arabic is indeed an obstacle to literacy in standard Arabic with many adult learners wishing to write in the colloquial form (Khahchan, 2009: 656). Indeed, in order to minimize the gap between colloquial and standard Arabic, in 1954 the Egyptian Ministry of Education strove to develop teaching materials in colloquial Arabic for use in the first three years of primary schooling. No doubt this was a response to the fact that at the time between a quarter and a half of the total time in elementary school was spent on obtaining a bare mastery of standard Arabic (Bateson, 1967: 112). Indeed, it should be pointed out that the correct pronunciation of Arabic letters (which sometimes changes in the colloquial) is not always mastered even by educated Arabs (Greis, 2000: 6). The gap today is further exacerbated by the prominence given to French and English in many Arabicspeaking countries. A recent BBC report, for example, documents students in Lebanon who can no longer even speak colloquial Arabic well, much less be proficient in standard Arabic because their parents send them to English- or French-language schools. The BBC reports that the problem is evident in many parts of the Arab world where foreign schools are common including the United Arab Emirates, Jordan, Egypt, and North African states (Shawish, 2010). Nonetheless, despite the variance between MSA and colloquial, Arabic has not developed along the lines envisaged by Ferguson in which he saw the development of several standardized languages each based on a colloquial variety with a heavy admixture of MSA vocabulary. Instead, with the rise of Arab satellite TV and other modern technological advances such as the Internet, MSA still appears to be on a firm footing. Difficulties for Students of Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Students of Arabic as a foreign language, meanwhile, are likely to approach the divergence between colloquial and MSA from a difficult angle as most foreign students are likely to become acquainted with standard Arabic first and only then will learn a colloquial dialect. According to a rather dated 1972 study, this chain of events might be rather unfortunate because it was the author‘s experience that students who learned colloquial Arabic first had an easier time mastering the acquisition of standard Arabic (Qafisheh, 1972: 6). Qafisheh discovered a far higher dropout rate for students studying standard Arabic with no knowledge of colloquial compared to students who had an acquaintance with a colloquial dialect. Moreover, he found those acquainted with colloquial to be more highly motivated and better in listening and speaking ability. Other researchers, however, think that learning standard Arabic first makes it easier to learn colloquial dialects (Rowland, 198?). Students recently graduated from the study of MSA, itself a difficult language, might indeed be awed to discover they must learn yet another one, although the colloquial languages are derived from classical Arabic and share a good deal of vocabulary with it. It is also true that an educated Arab will incorporate standard Arabic to some degree in his or her speech. Nonetheless, students travelling to different parts of the Arab world must be prepared to be familiar with different vocabulary items (many of them loan words depending on what part of the Arab world they are travelling in—for example, Levantine Arabic contains many Turkish loan words while Iraqi Arabic contains many Persian loan words), different grammatical structures, and widely different pronunciations and intonations (Rowland, 198?). In some cases, vocabulary items used in one dialect area are completely different from another region. Fortunately, however, colloquial Arabic is much less complicated than MSA (for instance, there is no dual and the system of nominal inflection for cases and verbal inflection for modes is completely abandoned in colloquial Arabic (Bateson, 1967: 97-98)) so in some ways it is like learning a simplified version of MSA. 251 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nonetheless, it is safe to say that some of the Arabic colloquial dialects differ so completely that it would be better to classify them as separate languages rather than a dialect. While speakers of Egyptian, Levantine, and Gulf Arabic might find their dialects mutually intelligible, the same cannot be said of the Maghrebi Arabic of North Africa and the Mesopotamian Arabic of Iraq. Most North American universities have now realized the importance of studying one form of colloquial Arabic. Some offer credit courses (mostly in colloquial Egyptian which is the most widely-used and influential) while others offer certificate courses in continuing studies departments. The prestigious Middlebury College in Vermont, for example, offers five daily contact hours of Modern Standard Arabic and optional sessions in Moroccan, Syrian, or Egyptian colloquial, while Georgetown University, a training ground for diplomats, offers summer sessions in Levantine Arabic. Meanwhile, Arabic-language institutes in the Arab world offer colloquial language programs of the language in which the institutes are situated. For instance, the American University of Cairo offers summer courses in Egyptian colloquial while Arabic Language Institute in Fes, Morocco offers courses in Moroccan colloquial. Certainly, it would appear that colloquial Arabic is no longer overlooked. Text-Books, Grammars, and Dictionaries in Colloquial Arabic Early on, many researchers attempted to gain a grasp of the many colloquial Arabic languages that could not be learned by simply learning standard Arabic. Beginning in 1900, many European researchers, whose countries were engaged in a colonial occupation of the region, began to publish grammars dealing with colloquial Arabic in the region. For example, the book Rudiments of the Arabic-vulgar of Morocco: with numerous exercises and examples of its theory and practice by Joseph Lerchundi (translated and adapted to English from the second Spanish edition) was published in Tangier, Morocco in 1900. Looking at this book, which is at once a grammar and vocabulary list is interesting in that it uses both Roman and Arabic script to spell out pronunciations of the colloquial (later European works tend to use only Roman script to render the colloquial). Other books in various colloquial languages from this time through to the 1950s include works on Egyptian, Lebanese, Syrian, Omani, Libyan, Sudanese and Saudi Arabian Arabic. Taken together, these works form a valuable historical record of attempts to record, render and impart Arabic colloquial languages. Moreover, many of the books published before 1923 are no longer subject to copyright law and are now available as full-text open access retrieval in academic library catalogues. Because it represented a systematic attempt to study regional Arabic colloquial languages, a great advance in English-language text-books dealing with Arabic colloquial languages occurred in 1960 when the Arabic Research program was established as a contract between Georgetown University and the United States Office of Education. The series proceeded under the auspices of Richard Harrell, who died tragically in a car accident while conducting research for an Egyptian reference grammar. Unfortunately, considering that Egyptian colloquial is the most widely-taught colloquial Arabic, this work has still not been completed. Still, Dr. Harrell, who was chair of Georgetown‘s Arabic department, and his assistants managed to produce a series of grammars, dictionaries, and basic text-books that really have not been matched in stature even until the present day. In the end, the series included those dealing with Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian and Iraqi colloquial. Dr. Harrell‘s death saw the loss of several other projects in the projected series including a Syrian-English dictionary and a basic course in Syrian Arabic. An Egyptian-English dictionary began by Dr. Harrell and his team of assistants was completed and published by the American University of Cairo in 1986 (Nydell, 2003: xvii). Dr. Harrell‘s text-books consisted of a text, grammatical notes, exercises and vocabulary (Harrell, 2003). Importantly, the text-books included a series of audiotapes (now replicated as CDs) which repeated in oral form the written texts in the book. As the texts were meant for beginning students, they did not use Arabic script but instead used a Roman transliteration scheme. The Department of Arabic Language, Literature and Linguistics at Georgetown University has attempted to continue production of colloquial Arabic materials and has branched out to producing audiovisual materials such as Margaret Nydell‘s Syrian Language Course. Georgetown University‘s colloquial Arabic text-books and reference grammars were left with some obvious gaps, most notably that of Gulf Arabic. This gap has been filled by the Colloquial Series (which produces text-books and grammars for a number of languages throughout the world) with Clive Holes‘ Colloquial Arabic of the Gulf and Saudi Arabia published in 1984. It essentially replicates Harrell‘s pattern of text, grammatical notes, exercises and vocabulary and it also has an accompanying audio compact disc. A wealth of materials published on various forms of colloquial Arabic has been published since the Georgetown series including the colloquial of many other forms of Arabic. In addition, online Arabic colloquial courses available through the Internet offer even more opportunities for the enterprising teacher or student. 252 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Web 2.0 and Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Listening and Speaking Skills While the plethora of text-books available for studying colloquial Arabic is indeed a major resource, the text-book has its limitations. Although many students have a positive attitude to text-books, these books have certain limitations such as becoming dated. Furthermore, they can lock both the student and teacher into using the text-book content as the only material to be taken into the classroom (Harmer, 1998: 117). Most importantly, they can limit student autonomy in which students do not control their own learning and choices for study. The recent technological revolution of the Internet and Web 2.0 innovations has important implications for the study of Arabic as a colloquial language. Since colloquial Arabic is, for the most part, not written but rather learned through listening and speaking, the number of colloquial Arabic listening opportunities available on applications such as YouTube, the video-sharing website on which users can upload, share and view videos, and podcasting offer many opportunities for ―non-reciprocal‖ listening. Meanwhile, applications such as Skype and MSN Messenger offer many opportunities for both ―reciprocal‖ and ―non-reciprocal‖ listening. Listening provided by text-books can be problematic because, as one researcher notes, ―listening activities…as much as possible [should be] controlled by the students rather than the teacher, since this increase in student autonomy is…one of the keys to successful learning (White 2008: 215).‖ In contrast, these new technologies make it easier for students to decide how and when they learn, how they manage their learning and even what and where they learn (Cotterall 1008: 111). One of the most useful materials for teaching colloquial Arabic is the many music videos sung in colloquial Arabic that exist on YouTube. In general, songs are useful in introducing the rhythm of a language, which in turn benefits memorization. Learning a language through songs is said to aid in vocabulary and grammar acquisition and develops all four productive language skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Medina 2002). Many Arabic singers, including the famous Lebanese singer Fayrouz, sing in colloquial Arabic, and their songs are readily available on YouTube. Other singers whose ―story songs‖ (rather than simple popular love songs) could be used to further classroom activities include Egyptian singer Mohammed Mounir and the various Algerian ―rai‖ (opinion) singers who often switch to French when speaking of subjects that might be controversial in Arabic (Betahila, 2002: 192). Various activities that could be generated listening to colloquial songs include completing a true or false quiz or a gap fill exercise of missing words. Other important video sources of colloquial Arabic listening materials readily found on the Internet and YouTube are television news clips; television soap operas; sitcoms and serious drama; Arabic cinema; television and radio advertisements; prank shows; candid camera; and animated cartoons. Class room activities using these sources can easily be used in focused listening activities and can provide a springboard for interaction in pair and group work for more ―interactive‖ listening activities (McKay, 2008:4). For instance, a television news item about a political demonstration might have beginning students asked to make out the chants while more advanced students could listen to the protestors‘ demands. This, in turn, could lead to students pretending they were protestors who must present their demands in colloquial Arabic. Another Web 2.0 tool that provides a useful tool for learning ―reciprocal‖ or interactive listening and speaking are video chat tools such as Skype, MSN Messenger, Yahoo Messenger and also the lesser-known Paltalk, CUWorld, and ICQ. All of these applications, which allow users to make free audio and visual calls over the Internet, can be used for language learners engaging with authentic communication with native speakers (Eroz-Tuga, 2009: 787). For example, Skype and other video chat applications allow foreign language learners to learn correct pronunciation and cadence (especially important for colloquial Arabic languages where variations are wide) and become acquainted with colloquial slang and idioms. Skype, through its language exchange program, allows foreign language learners to connect with other Skype users all around the world. If someone wants to learn Arabic, they can go into Skype and search the forums for someone who is a native (or at least fluent) Arabic speaker. Meanwhile, teachers can create a group for their class and can invite colloquial native speakers to join the group and create a community of language learners. Because of the mismatch between standard and colloquial Arabic, it is likely easier to find language exchange students willing to speak their colloquial language as many of them might find speaking standard Arabic artificial. Once again, it is also easy to see how these video chat technologies allow students to take charge of their own learning by making chat friends and contacting them during their free time. 253 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Reading and Writing Skills Because writing in colloquial Arabic languages has never been standardized, it is difficult to teach and learn colloquial Arabic through reading and writing. Nonetheless, many Arabic writers have transcribed colloquial Arabic into Arabic script, while Western writers have transcribed it into Roman script. Today, for example, there exists a wide body of literature in Egyptian colloquial that includes drama, poetry, stories, songs, and newspaper or magazine cartoons. Moreover, the separation between standard and colloquial Arabic in written Arabic in newspapers and literary writing is not always so clear as modern literary Arabic is interspersed with colloquial and foreign terms. For instance, in his book Midaq Alley (ً‫ )خاى الخلٍل‬Nobel prize-winning author Naguib Mahfouz vacillates between the literary and colloquial in his dialogues. Other Egyptian dramatists have written plays in the colloquial, for example, Rashad Rashdi‘s The Butterfly (‫( )الفزاضة‬Greis, 2000: 13-14). Other noted writers who have written in the colloquial include Sudanese novelist Tayeb Salih, whose dialogues in Wedding of Zein are written in Sudanese colloquial, and Iraqi poet Saadi Yousuf who has written poetry in the Iraqi dialect. Yet another rich source of writing in various colloquial Arabic languages is the many books of proverbs not written in standard Arabic. Proverbs can reveal a good deal about a colloquial language; for example, Egyptian proverbs combine ancient Egyptian, Coptic, Islamic and foreign elements (Greis, 2000: 31)— all rich fodder for the foreign language classroom. Modern Web 2.0 technologies also offer opportunities for practicing reading and writing skills. While most blogs and Twitter feeds, for example, are written in standard Arabic, native speakers commenting on online news stories or posting updates and status reports on social networking sites such as Facebook tend to write in colloquial Arabic. In addition, most native speakers chatting using the keyboard on chat applications such as MSN Messenger as well as other technologies such as instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging, will do so in colloquial Arabic, either in modified Arabic script or in a modified Roman script which has come to be known as the ―Arabic Chat Alphabet.‖ In Arabic chat (developed at a time when it was only possible to communicate using Roman script), the letter ‫ ع‬is represented as a 3, the ‫ د‬by a d and its emphatic counterpart ‫ض‬as a D. Yet another technology known as ―IM Arabic‖ allows users to communicate using chat technologies by transliterating Latin script. Thus, in the classroom it is possible for students to write group posts for the teacher to review and comment upon either using Arabic script or perhaps ―Chat Arabic‖. Conclusions and Recommendations Most students studying Arabic as a foreign-language study standardized Arabic, either in the form of classical or Modern Standard Arabic. However, in order to know Arabic, they soon find that their knowledge of the standard language is not sufficient for understanding the language spoken in daily life. Instead, they discover that native speakers themselves learn standard Arabic almost as if it were another dialect. While hardly as well advanced as the resources devoted to standard Arabic, there is a wide network of resources devoted to colloquial Arabic ranging from early grammars and dictionaries published by European colonial era scholars to the impressive text-books, dictionaries and reference grammars produced by Georgetown University. Other published resources for colloquial Arabic include Arabic literature and proverbs from which both colloquial Arabic language teachers and students can strategize and design lessons. The more recent advances in the Internet and Web 2.0 technologies have also greatly expanded the resources available for students and teachers, not the least of which is the vast number of videos using various forms of colloquial Arabic as well as technologies such as video chat which allow students to listen, speak, and even read and write in colloquial Arabic languages. Moreover, these technologies allow teachers to be more creative in designing their lessons and students to control their own learning, a key ingredient for successful language learning. As this paper is for the most part a critical survey, it opens the door for further research such as whether studying colloquial Arabic makes it easier to study standard Arabic or whether the opposite is true. (Or, does it matter?) The paper might also serve as a springboard for studies in other ―diglossic‖ languages such as Swiss German, Haitian Creole, Modern Greek and Chinese. It could also spur further research on teaching and studying other languages with much colloquial variation, for example, Brazilian Portuguese and the Portuguese of Portugal. Certainly, the relatively recent advances in foreign language learning involving the Internet and Web 2.0 technologies have engendered and will continue to engender research regarding their efficacy. For example, we might ask: how do they affect or improve foreign language acquisition? How do they enhance foreign language student autonomy? 254 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo What this paper has attempted to make clear, however, is that there is no longer any reason for foreign language study of colloquial Arabic to stand in the shadow of Modern Standard Arabic. Instead, one can indeed enhance and complement the other. References Ayari, Salah (1996). Diglossia and Illiteracy in the Arab World, Language, Culture and Curriculum, 9 (3), pp. 243-253. Bateson, Mary Catherine (1967). Arabic Language Handbook. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. Betahila, Abdelali and Eirlys E. Davies (2002). Language Mixing in Rai Music: Localisation or Globalisation,‖ Language & Communication, 22 (2), pp. 187-207. Cotterall, Sara (2008). Autonomy and good language learners, in Griffiths, Carol (2008). Lessons from Good Language Learners. Cambridge University Press. Eroz-Tuga, Betil and Randall Sadler (2009). Comparing Six Video Chat Tools: A Critical Evaluation by Language Teachers. Computers & Education, 53 (3), pp. 787-798. Ferguson, Charles A. (1959) Diglossia. Word, 14, pp. 47-56. Greis, Naguib (2000). Aspects of Modern Arabic: Its Structure, Humor, Proverbs, Metaphors, Euphemisms and Common Expressions. Washington, D.C.: Educational Resources Center. Harmer, Jeremy (1998). How to Teach English. Essex, England: Addison Wesley Longman. Holes, Clive (1984). Colloquial Arabic of the Gulf and Saudi Arabia. London: Routledge. Khachan, Victor A. (2009). Diglossic Needs of Illiterate Adult Women in Egypt: A Needs Assessment, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 28 (5), pp. 649-660. Lerchundi, Joseph (1900). Rudiments of the Arabic-vulgar of Morocco : with numerous exercises and examples of its theory and practice. Tangier: Spanish Catholic Mission Press. McKay, Sharon and Kirsten Schaetzel (2008). Facilitating Adult Learner Interactions to Build Listening and Speaking Skills. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. Medina, Suzanne L. (2002). Using Music to Enhance Second Language Acquisition: from Theory to Practice,‖ [online], http://www.forefrontpublishers.com/eslmusic/articles/06htm Nydell, Margaret (2003). Forward to the Georgetown Classics Edition, in Harrell, Richard S. (2003). A Basic Course in Moroccan Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Prochazka, S. (2006). Arabic, Encyclopedia of Language and Lingusitics (2nd ed.) Qafisheh, Hamdi A. (1972). From Gulf Arabic into Modern Standard Arabic: a Pilot Study. ERIC Report ED109881. Rowland, Howard D. (198?) ―Colloquial Arabic: What is it and How Does One Learn It? Part One and Two, Newsletter XVII and Newsletter XVIII (US Defense Language Institute), [online] http://how-to-learn –anylanguage.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=15493&PN=39 Shawish, Hesham (2010). ―Campaign to Save the Arabic Language in Lebanon‖, BBC News Middle East, 24 June 2010. White, Goodith (2008). Listening and Good Language Learners,‖ in Griffiths, Carol (2008). Lessons from Good Language Learners. Cambridge University Press. 255 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 38 Title A name given to the resource Strategies, New Directions and Resources for Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Author Author Kuntz, Blair Abstract A summary of the resource. The spoken and written language known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the idiom that links almost three hundred million Arabic speakers from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West, and it is this form of Arabic that is used in broadcast media and newspapers, and also for speeches and addresses on formal occasions. For obvious reasons, it is Modern Standard Arabic which is for the most part taught to students of Arabic as a foreign language in universities and private institutes. However, for someone to claim that they really ―know‖ Arabic, it is also necessary to master one or more of the many colloquial Arabic languages spoken throughout the Arab world. In contrast to MSA, Arabic colloquial languages are relegated to an inferior position in the classroom where they are most often added as an afterthought to the MSA course (although some separate colloquial language courses are taught in university continuing education courses and private institutes). At least part of the difficulty in teaching colloquial Arabic is because these languages are, for the most part, not written or standardized and thus are only mastered through listening or speaking. Arabic colloquial languages were strengthened by Georgetown University‘s important series of colloquial language text-books and grammars first published in the nineteen sixties; however, today, with the advent of the Internet and other electronic resources, this series can be supplemented or superseded using Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube and podcasting as well as popular songs and cinema. In addition, many Arabic literary authors have also written text in colloquial dialects. This paper highlights strategies and assesses resources for teaching colloquial Arabic as a foreign language. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b56f983858f9640978ae79569c5ed232.pdf 81717c9542ebef4db36b1f2a5ba0cef2 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE CRITICAL READING APPLICATIONS IN ELT/EFL CLASSES Hülya KÜÇÜKOĞLU School of Foreign Languages Hacettepe University, Turkey hulyaku@hacettepe.edu.tr Abstract: As the society we are living has become more complex and specialized in the last decades, reading has become one of the most important skills in ELT/ EFL teaching. The importance of connecting and commenting on the ideas are the key elements of social and academic success. In the past decade, there has been a sustained interest in promoting reading as a significant and viable means of language development for second and foreign language (L2 and FL) learners (Day and Bamford, 1998; Krashen, 1995). Critical reading is a skill which we use in our social and academic lives. As critical readers we need to understand, question and evaluate the texts which are actively participate in our lives. By looking at the texts which are already there, from a different point of view will develop our critical thinking as well as critical reading. Being one of the most frequent skills that we use in every part of our lives, critical reading can be developed through learning and practice. In this study the benefits of Critical (CR) practices in traditional EFL/ELT classes is discussed and some classroom applications to improve critical reading in ELT is presented Keywords: critical reading, critical thinking, ELT/EFL Introduction Starting with the numerous education reforms done in the last decades, new views of teaching and learning started to be discussed and used in EFL/ELT classrooms. These reforms explicitly ask teachers to change their teaching strategies by shifting the emphasis from the traditional textbook-based, rote learning, to exploration, inquiry-based learning situated in real-world phenomena (National Research Council, 1996). As the society we are living has become more complex and specialized in the last decades, the importance of connecting and commenting on the ideas became the key elements of social and academic success. In this era questioning has become the most frequently used techniques in every part of our lives. The need for the students to question and make connections between their studies and the world in which they live, is now a necessity in order to have social and academic success. Students who use critical thinking and reading strategies can demonstrate knowledge and understanding to the issues and can make connections between the concepts. At this point critical thinking becomes the key element of this connection. As teachers, we do not teach students what to think, but we can help them how to think by organizing their thinking to facilitate complex issues. Thinking skills can be improved by understanding the processes involved in thinking. Using different kinds of questions is one way to increase higher-level thinking in the classrooms. At this point some sub skills can be used to teach higher level thinking in the classroom such as: making inferences, drawing conclusions, comparing and contrasting, analyzing, predicting and evaluating. In order to read critically, the students need to learn how to think critically as the first step of the process. Although there are some quite diverse definitions of critical thinking, nearly all emphasize the ability and tendency to gather, evaluate, and use information effectively (Beyer, 1985). Chance (1986:6) defines critical thinking as the ability to analyze facts, generate and organize ideas, defend opinions, make comparisons, draw inferences, evaluate arguments and solve problems. Critical thinking skills aim at teaching the learner how to think rather than what to think (Taylor, 2001). In critical thinking, collecting, elaborating and using data are crucial. The components of critical thinking which are reasoning, problem solving, and decision-making along with creative thinking are thought to be the skills of vital importance for success at school and in life (Collier, et al., 2002:7). What is Critical Reading? Reading comprehension was given a range of definitions. Tierney and Pearson, (1994) claims reading as an active cognitive process in which the reader‘s background knowledge plays a key role in the creation of 620 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo meaning. Manzo and Manzo (1993, p.5) define reading as ―the act of simultaneously reading the lines, reading between the lines, and reading beyond the lines.‖ According to Davies (1995) there are two types of reading activities: passive and active. In passive reading exercises, students are required to respond comprehension questions, multiple choice questions, truefalse questions and gap filling questions. This kind of reading is commonly used in the classrooms where rote learning is practiced. Rote learning occurs when a person memorizes and gives back the information without thinking. This kind of reading is easier to apply in the classrooms as the teachers can easily check whether their students understand the ideas in the given text at a certain level. One other reason for the practical use in the classroom is that it is easy to correct. Active reading, on the other hand enhances the readers ability to expose their own opinions about the text they read rather than parrot the writer‘s opinion. Developing critical reading skills can be time-consuming and difficult for EFL students, but if we look at the issue from a wider perspective, this kind of reading would be accomplished with continual practice and the result of these practices would worth the effort. There is also a distinction between a critical and a non-critical reader. In order to better understand the distinction between the critical and non-critical reader, the first thing is to analyze their way of looking at the reading process. Kurland (2000) states that to non critical readers, texts provide facts. Non-critical readers get information from a text simply by memorizing it. Critical readers on the other hand do not only identify what a text says; they also identify what the text does and what the text means.  What a text says – restatement  What a text does – description  What a text means – interpretation (http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm) Reading is not only about getting the meaning from the text as it is given. As Grabe (1988) defines critical reading is ―a dialogue between the reader and the text‖. That is, it is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. During the process of reading, the reader interacts with the text and tries to get the meaning from the text where different kinds of information and knowledge are presented. L2 reading comprehension is known as highly complex, dynamic, multicomponential and multidimensional because it involves multiple interactions among reader factors (e.g., first language literacy (L1) literacy, L1 background, language proficiency, background knowledge, knowledge of genre and pragmatics, metalinguistic knowledge, motivation, metacognition, and strategy use) and contextual factors (e.g., text topic and content, text type and genre, text readability, verbal and non-verbal communication (Phakiti, 2006). Reading effectively requires approaching texts with a critical eye: evaluating what you read for not just what it says, but how and why it says. (http://writing.umn.edu/docs/sws/quicktips/criticalread.pdf.) The aim of critical reading is;  to recognize an author‘s purpose  to understand tone and persuasive elements  to recognize bias That is:  recognizing purpose involves inferring a basis for choices of content and language  recognizing tone and persuasive elements involves classifying the nature of language choices  recognizing bias involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content and language (http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm) ―Critical reading‖ is basically a reading process which involves critical thinking. In the last decades, in addition with the comprehension in reading, analytic reading was started to be discussed. Critical reading requires reading and critical thinking. In order to make a good critical reading, one should know how to do critical thinking. According to Marshall and Rowland (1998), critical thinking occurs when students question their own beliefs or what they are told. Correspondingly, Kurland (2000) states that Critical thinking is a technique for evaluating information and ideas, for deciding what to accept and believe. Critical thinking involves a variety of skills such as the individual identifying the source of information, analysing its credibility, reflecting on whether that information is consistent with their prior knowledge, and drawing conclusions based on their critical thinking (Linn, 2000). 621 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Adapted from Knott‘s (2005) five steps to read looking for ways of thinking is stated below: Central claims: The first one of the five steps is to distinguish the central claims or purpose of the text. At this point it would be beneficial for a critical reader to identify if the text states a fact or an opinion. If the text is an opinion, the critical reader aims to discover the purpose of the writer. Context: Context is another key element to identify the text. ―In which context the text is written and who is the potential reader according to the writer‖ are some questions to be answered. Kinds of reasoning: Differentiating the kinds of reasoning in the text would also give the critical reader to understand the organization of the text which would also give an idea to understand the text more clearly. Evidence: Another point to be covered is to find out the supporting details that the text covers that is the evidence that the text holds Evaluation: Evaluation is the outcome of a critical reading. Instead of accepting the ideas given in the text, a critical reader makes jugdements and tries to bring up counter argument. Knott (2005) also gives some tips to be used in classroom settings in order to promote critical reading. 1. Critical reading occurs after some preliminary processes of reading. Begin by skimming research materials, especially introductions and conclusions, in order to strategically choose where to focus your critical efforts. 2. When highlighting a text or taking notes from it, teach yourself to highlight argument: those places in a text where an author explains her analytical moves, the concepts she uses, how she uses them, how she arrives at conclusions. Don't let yourself foreground and isolate facts and examples, no matter how interesting they may be. First, look for the large patterns that give purpose, order, and meaning to those examples. The opening sentences of paragraphs can be important to this task. 3. When you begin to think about how you might use a portion of a text in the argument you are forging in your own paper, try to remain aware of how this portion fits into the whole argument from which it is taken. Paying attention to context is a fundamental critical move. 4. When you quote directly from a source, use the quotation critically. This means that you should not substitute the quotation for your own articulation of a point. Rather, introduce the quotation by laying out the judgments you are making about it, and the reasons why you are using it. Often a quotation is followed by some further analysis. In order to promote critical reading in ELT classses the reader use questions such as; What have I gained from the information given in the text? How are the facts, examples used and interpreted? What is the aim of the writer in writing the text? Who did the writer specify as the target reader? What is the organization method of the text? How does the text reach its conclusions? What is the specified time of the text? What are the bias of the writer? What is the setting of the text? How does this text work? How is the text argued? Therefore in reading, the teachers, should expect the learners to perceive and recognize 1. claims 2. the claims with reasons (arguments) 3. evidence 4. opposing arguments 622 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 5. refutations (to correspond them) 6. fallacies (flawed reasoning) (Stapleton, 2001) In order to foster critical thinking and reading in the classroom, the students can be asked open ended questions such as,  I wonder if…?  What could we do…?  Can you find a way to …?  What would happen if…?  Why do you think (that) happened…?  What did you notice about…?  Tell me about…? Critical Reading Strategies Improve Your Reading Strategies and Identify the Purpose of Your Reading Improve your reading by studying the reading strategies. In order to read the text effectively, you need to identify your reading and improve it according to your needs. Identifying the purpose of why you read the text will help you get the best out of your reading. Knowing the purpose will help you organize your ideas about the reading text. In order to organize your ideas properly, it would be beneficial to answer some questions such as:  ―Why do I read this book?‖  ―What kind of information I am looking for?‖  ―Are there enough supports for my argument?‖ Give Yourself Enough Time to Read Reading critically is not a fast process; the reader reads the text in order to get the whole idea presented in the text. It is for that reason that the reader should take his time to read the text carefully. Most of the time, rereading the text would let the reader better distinguish the ideas presented in the text. In the first reading, the reader reads the text to get the main idea. In the rereading part, it would be a better idea for the reader to work on the seperate parts of the text. In more complex texts, in order not to get confused with the different ideas presented in the text, the reader should organize the parts and the ideas in the text. Take Notes While Reading the Text While reading the text, the reader should take notes on the text in order to make the unknown words and terms checked out later. Also it would be a good idea to write down any questions that come to the reader‘s mind in order to have a clear understanding of the text. The unknown words and the questions can be discussed with the instructor to make sure that there is nothing left unclear about the text. By doing such studies, in one way the text is ―personalized‖. In addition to these, a summary can be written in order to record the main points to be fully covered. Try to Understand the Background of the Writer and How this Background Influence the Writing Reading a text critically requires asking questions about the writer‘s authority and the purpose of his/her writing the text. It should be kept in mind that every text that the reader reads, is there to try to change the reader‘s view in some way. In order to do this every text filters the realities for its purpose of existence. As a critical reader, you need to understand the reason why the text was written. It would be beneficial for your understanding to answer some questions such as;  ―What kind of information does the text give?‖  ―What is the purpose of the text?‖  ―What does the text say?‖  ―How does the writer support his/her ideas? ― Adapted from from the University of Minnesota‘s Student Writing Guide, 2004. 9–11 623 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sample Critical Reading Applications to Be Used In ELT/EFL Classes Wide range of materials such as newspaper articles, all sorts of literary texts such as short stories, poems, novels, song lyrics which are appropriate for the student‘s age and interests can be used in classroom settings. in order to promote critical reading in ELT classrooms. SUGGESTION 1 The teacher brings a newspaper article to the classrom which is suitable for the level and the interest of the students. The use of newspaper articles in English classrooms as a critical reading resource is beneficial as ―Authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for real-life purposes by real people.‖ (Nuttall 1996:172). It would be more suitable to find articles which have controversial ideas in it so that the students can find counter arguments to make the discussion more fruiteful.. Pre- reading; The teacher asks the students; - about the kind of food they consume. - nutrition policies held by the countries. - the reasons for the increasing number of obesity all aroud the World. While reading; The students are asked to read the text about ―healty food‖. ―Dietitians are fond of reciting the mantra 'all foods can fit into a healthy diet' and telling people that there are no "good' or "bad" foods. But considering that 64 percent of adults (plus an alarming 15 percent of children) are categorized by the government as overweight, some experts say this message is baloney (which happens to be a really bad food!). "The idea that there are no bad foods is a marketing trick thought up by the food industry to defend their products," says Bonnie Liebman, M.S., director of nutrition at the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), a nonprofit health-advocacy group based in Washington, D.C. "The whole notion is full of holes and makes no sense." Evil is the only appropriate word to describe foods that promise pleasure but deliver misery in the form of heart disease and obesity. Although a Whoopie Pie isn't going to sprout fangs and go for your jugular, it's wise to watch your back when traveling the dark alley of empty calories. A sweet, creamy taste and jazzy packaging can be hiding a food that will only do you wrong. That's the thing about evil: Sometimes it looks so good. What makes a food really, really scary? In the edibles department, a food gets the seal of disapproval if it does more harm than good -- that is, if it supplies calories but little else, and also contains heart-diseasepromoting substances like saturated and trans fats. Trans fats are the nasty man-made fats used to give foods a longer shelf life. Manufacturers hydrogenate oil to make it solid and literally twist the molecule into a form that wreaks havoc in the body.‖ (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0846/is_12_22/ai_104943689/?tag=col1;subcol) Post reading; After reading the article, the students will be asked to answer the following questions about the article in order to identify;  Whether the article is written to inform, influence or merely entertain readers?  How central claims in the article are developed or argued?   What the main idea of the paragraph is? Whether the writer adequately supports his/ her opinion? If not, what type of fallacious thinking is employed in it? What are some of the counter arguments that can be used to refute the writer‘s argument?  624 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  Which part of the article does the reader agree with the writer? Why? SUGGESTION 2 Pre-reading activity; As a first step of this activity the students will be asked to answer some questions in order to bring up a discussion in the classroom. (a) What are your most favorite fairy tales? Why? (b) How do you feel about the theme of ―injustice‖ especially in the most favorite fairy tales? (c) How do you generally feel about the endings of the fairy tales? (d) In real life we don‘t always have happy endings, why do you think the fairy tales always have a happy ending? While reading activity; In order to let everybody in the class remember the story, the students are asked to read the story. After reading the story, the students are asked to comment on the pitiful actions of the step mother. The teacher than asks the students to write down questions to be asked to the step mother, asking about all the cruel things she had done to Snow White. Such as: ―Why were you so cruel to Snow White?‖ ―What would you do if she was your own (biological) daughter?‖ ―Why didn‘t you try to find other ways to solve your problem with Snow White instead of trying to kill her?‖ ―Why do you give so much importance beauty?‖ ―What do you think about the moral values that people have in the society?‖ ―…….?‖ After writing the questions,, the students try to answer the above questions by giving answers as if they were the ―cruel‖ step mother. The students try to find excuses for the step mother in order to change the negative feelings towards her. Post reading activity; As the last part of the activity, the students are asked to write down the story with a different point of view. This time, the story is told from the step mother‘s mouth by using her point of view. In order to do this the students try to find reasonable supports for the step mother‘s actions. The students are asked to be creative in their writing in order to come up with different ideas. SUGGESTION 3 Pre-reading activity; The students are shown a picture and asked to comment on the picture by answering the open ended questions asked by the teacher. At this point the students are expected to make predictions about the text they are going to read. 625 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - What do you see on the picture? Does the picture give you an idea about the text you are going to read, how? Who do you think the man in the picture is? What do you think the man on the picture has in his hand? Do you think the horse is an ordinary one? What kind of story do you think you are going to read, what are your reasons for your prediction? By the help of this activity, the students are expected to come up with different ideas about a text. After every idea is presented, the teacher asks the students to create their own stories about the picture by using the predictions discussed in the classroom. While reading activity; At this point, the teacher hands out the original story for the student to read. The students try to find the points in the original story which overlap with their own story. ―Once upon a sunny morning a man who sat in a breakfast nook looked up from his scrambled eggs to see a white unicorn with a golden horn quietly cropping the roses in the garden. The man went up to the bedroom where his wife was still asleep and woke her. "There's a unicorn in the garden," he said. "Eating roses." She opened one unfriendly eye and looked at him. "The unicorn is a mythical beast," she said, and turned her back on him. The man walked slowly downstairs and out into the garden. The unicorn was still there; now he was browsing among the tulips. "Here, unicorn," said the man, and he pulled up a lily and gave it to him. The unicorn ate it gravely. With a high heart, because there was a unicorn in his garden, the man went upstairs and roused his wife again. "The unicorn," he said, ―ate a lily." His wife sat up in bed and looked at him coldly. "You are a booby," she said, "and I am going to have you put in the booby-hatch." The man, who had never liked the words "booby" and "booby-hatch," and who liked them even less on a shining morning when there was a unicorn in the garden, thought for a moment. "We'll see about that," he said. He walked over to the door. "He has a golden horn in the middle of his forehead," he told her. Then he went back to the garden to watch the unicorn; but the unicorn had gone away. The man sat down among the roses and went to sleep. As soon as the husband had gone out of the house, the wife got up and dressed as fast as she could. She was very excited and there was a gloat in her eye. She telephoned the police and she telephoned a psychiatrist; she told them to hurry to her house and bring a strait-jacket. When the police and the psychiatrist arrived they sat down in chairs and looked at her, with great interest. "My husband," she said, "saw a unicorn this morning." The police looked at the psychiatrist and the psychiatrist looked at the police. "He told me it ate a lilly," she said. The psychiatrist looked at the police and the police looked at the psychiatrist. "He told me it had a golden horn in the middle of its forehead," she said. At a solemn signal from the psychiatrist, the police leaped from their chairs and seized the wife. They had a hard time subduing her, for she put up a terrific struggle, but they finally subdued her. Just as they got her into the straitjacket, the husband came back into the house. "Did you tell your wife you saw a unicorn?" asked the police. "Of course not," said the husband. "The unicorn is a mythical beast." "That's all I wanted to know," said the psychiatrist. "Take her away. I'm sorry, sir, but your wife is as crazy as a jaybird." 626 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo So they took her away, cursing and screaming, and shut her up in an institution. The husband lived happily ever after. ―Moral: Don't count your boobies until they are hatched.‖ by James Thurber (http://english.glendale.cc.ca.us/unicorn1.html) Post activity; After reading the story by James Thurber, a classroom discussion is held. The teacher asks some questions to encourage the students.     Can you think of a saying or ―moral‖ that fits this story? Is the ―moral of the story‖ suitable for the ending? Do you think the man planned this situation? If you were the wife, what would you do to get rid of this situation? The teacher asks the students to write a different ending to the story starting from; ―When the police and the psychiatrist arrived, they sat down in chairs and looked at her, with great interest. …. The teacher asks the students to be as creative as possible in their writing. SUGGESTION 4 Pre-reading activity; As the first step of the activity, the students are asked about their opinions on ―animal testing. Every student is reinforced to construct a discussion about this topic. The students form groups; first group is for the idea of animal testing and the second group is against this idea. Both of the groups, write their arguments to support their ideas. While reading activity; The students will be given two different articles from two different newspapers with different views on the same topic. At this point, the teacher hands out the original articles which are appropriate for the level of the students and ask the students to read the articles slowly and silently and take notes to better understand the arguments in the articles. In addition to this, the students will be asked to write down the arguments of each writer. Then the students will be asked to underline the supporting sentences presented by both of the writers. Post activity; Having noticed the different point of views of the two writes, the students are asked to write their original ideas on the same topic. This new version will reflect their own ideas, with their own supporting ideas/sentences. Article 1 ―On face value, it is easy to see why advocates of animal testing support it, there are clearly some benefits that come from it: vaccines, drugs, and a host of discoveries that have helped, and continue to help, millions of people worldwide. According to various reports, more than 160 human drugs and vaccines have directly resulted from animal testing, together with 111 veterinary ones. That's right; these discoveries have helped other animals as well. When you consider the advancement in treatments such as heart disease, arthritis, cancer, and so on, it is hard to fathom, why anyone would take a stance against animal testing…‖ (http://www.helium.com/items/343721-the-case-against-animal-testing) Article 2 ―Animals are not good models for human cancer for 2 fundamental reasons: Animals and humans do not get the same diseases. As a result, animal research focuses on artificially inducing symptoms of human cancer and attempting to treat those symptoms. Experimental drugs and treatments that have been found effective on animal models will not necessarily work in people. Despite screening over half a million compounds as anti-cancer 627 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo agents on laboratory animals between 1970-1985, only 80 compounds moved into clinical trials on humans. Of these, a mere 24 had any anti-cancer activity and only 12 appeared to have a 'substantial clinical role.With billions of dollars, countless animals, and well over 30 years spent on the war on cancer, concrete results should have been seen if animal research was actually working. On the contrary, the incidence of cancer continues to rise...‖ (http://caatinfo.org/AgainstAnimalTesting.htm) References Beyer, B. K. (1985). ―Critical Thinking: What Is It?‖ Social Education 49/4: 270-276. Bloom, B. S. (1956). (Eds.). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Vol. 1: The cognitive domain. New York: McKay Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Chance, P. (1986). Thinking in the classroom: A survey of programs. New York: Teachers College,Columbia University. Collier, K, Guenther, T., Veerman, C. (2002). Developing Critical Thinking Skills Through a Variety of Instructional Strategies. An Action Research Project submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the School of Education as a Requirement of the Degree of Masters of Arts in Teaching and Leadership. Saint-Xavier University. Chicago, Illinois. Davies, F. (1995). Introducing reading. London: Penguin English Applied Linguistics. Day, R. R. and Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grabe, W. (1988) "Reassessing the Term 'Interactive'", in Carrell, P.L., Devine, J. and Eskey, D.E. (eds) (1988) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: CUP. Knott, D. (2005) Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/critrdg.html Kurland, Daniel J. (2000). ―Critical Reading vs. Critical Thinking.‖ Retrieved April 5, 2011 from http://www.critical-reading.com/ Krashen, S. 1995. Immersion: Why not try free voluntary reading? Mosaic 3(1):1,3-4. Linn, M. C. (2000). Designing the knowledge integration environment. International Journal of Science Education, 22(8), 781–796. Manzo, A.V.and Manzo, U.C. (1993). Literacy Disorders: Holistic Diagnosis and Brace Jovanovich College Publishers; Fort Worth. Remediation. Harcourt Marshall, L. & Rowland, F. (1998). A guide to learning independently (3rd ed). Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman. National Research Council (NRC) (1996). National Science Education Standards-NSES. Washington, DC: National Academy. Nuttall, C. (1996) Teaching Reading Skills in a foreign language (New Edition) Oxford, Heinemann O'Hara, Takeshi; et al (1978, March 27-31). Establishing a Causal Model for Bloom's Taxonomy through Path Analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (62nd, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1978). ERIC Document Retrieval Service, ED166202. Pardede, P. (2007). Developıng Crıtıcal Readıng In The Efl Classroom, Presented in the FKIP-UKI English Department Bimonthly Collegiate Forum. Retrieved April 5, 2011 from 628 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo http://parlindunganpardede.wordpress.com/articles/language-teaching/developing-critical-reading-in-the-eflclassroom Phakiti, A. (2006). Theoretical and Pedagogical Issues in ESL/EFL Teaching of Strategic Reading, University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 1, 19-50. Stapleton, P. (2001). Assessing Critical Thinking in the Writing of Japanese University Students. Written Communication Vol.18 No. 4 October 506-548 Sage Publications. Taylor, Chris. (2001) ‗It‘s the real thing‘ Using Ads To Promote Critical Thinking In the EFL Classrooms. News In Brief. The Quarterly Newsletter of INGED. Pp.10- 12 Tierney, R. J., and P. D. Pearson. 1994. ―Learning to learn from text: A Framework for Improving Classroom Practice.‖ In Rudell, Ruddell, and Singer, eds. 1994. 496–513. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0846/is_12_22/ai_104943689/?tag=col1;subcol Retrieved April 2, 2011 http://www.cdl.org/resource-library/articles/HOT.php?type=recent&id=Yes Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://www.helium.com/items/343721-the-case-against-animal-testing Retrieved March 13, 2011 http://writing.umn.edu/docs/sws/quicktips/criticalread.pdf Retrieved April 2, 2011 http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Higher_Order_Thinking Retrieved March 15, 2011 http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://writing.umn.edu/docs/sws/swgpdf.pdf Retrieved March 13, 2011 http://english.glendale.cc.ca.us/unicorn1.html Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://www.officeport.com/edu/blooms.htm Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://caatinfo.org/AgainstAnimalTesting.htm Retrieved March 13, 2011 629 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 93 Title A name given to the resource SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE CRITICAL READING APPLICATIONS IN ELT/EFL CLASSES Author Author KÜÇÜKOĞLU, Hülya Abstract A summary of the resource. As the society we are living has become more complex and specialized in the last decades, reading has become one of the most important skills in ELT/ EFL teaching. The importance of connecting and commenting on the ideas are the key elements of social and academic success. In the past decade, there has been a sustained interest in promoting reading as a significant and viable means of language development for second and foreign language (L2 and FL) learners (Day and Bamford, 1998; Krashen, 1995). Critical reading is a skill which we use in our social and academic lives. As critical readers we need to understand, question and evaluate the texts which are actively participate in our lives. By looking at the texts which are already there, from a different point of view will develop our critical thinking as well as critical reading. Being one of the most frequent skills that we use in every part of our lives, critical reading can be developed through learning and practice. In this study the benefits of Critical (CR) practices in traditional EFL/ELT classes is discussed and some classroom applications to improve critical reading in ELT is presented Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/36c42b1863f7e1c05222440c1bbd6cb7.pdf 6f0da5a45528607642d387e555b8cd3a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Russian Emigration on The Balkans: The ―Limnos Episode‖ (On Memoirs and Verses of Representatives of White Army) Natalya Lapaeva Perm State Pedagogical University Perm, Russia natalya_lapaeva@mail.ru Abstract: The article traces the role island Limnos (Greece) in the fates of representatives of ―white movement‖ which has arisen after revolution in Russia in 1917 and during civil war. Parts of Russian Army were on Limnos since February 1920 till November 1921. It represents the results of analysis of memoirs and verses by some representatives of Russian Army, among which Ivan Kalinin, Erast Giatzintov, Ivan Sagatsky, Nikolay Turoverov. The author of the paper revealed features of the description of landscapes of Limnos in memoirs and verses those who passed through Limnos. It is shown what difficulties were endured by Russian Army on Limnos (cold, hunger, isolation from the world). It is proved that the Russian Army under the direction of Wrangel has shown moral courage, unity, patriotism. Authors of memoirs and verses concern problems of mutual relations of Russians and Greeks, the inhabitants of Limnos, what has found reflection in various forms of spiritual and cultural dialogue. Key words: Russia – Greece, Russian emigration of the first wave, memoirs, poetry, features of a landscape, the image of difficulties and courage, spiritual and cultural dialogue Introduction It is commonly known that Limnos (Λήμνος) is an island in the Aegean Sea, belonging to Greece. Why in this case can that far away Greek island be called «Russian»? Why today for the Russian mind is Limnos a short, but exciting, special chapter in the history of the civil war in Russia, that had began after the year 1917? The answers to this question can be found in the present article. Well, as early as in the beginning of 1920 during the battles with Red Army the armed forces of the South Russia under the command of Anton Denikin suffered a defeat after defeat. General Denikin took a decision to transfer abroad the injured and ill military men, as well as members of their families and of those who kept fighting. The first ships with the ill and injured, including to Limnos, left Novorossiisk in the middle of January, 1920. Later, since November 1920 till October 1921 on Limnos so-called «Limnos sitting» of Cossack army of General Petr Wrangel was taking place: more than 24 thousands of Kuban, Don, Terek, Astrakhan Cossacks found themselves there after Crimean evacuation. Thus, Limnos became the focus of the tragedy of civil war and at the same time – the symbol of courage, stout-heartedness, patriotism. We would try to prove this, basing on the memoirs and verses by the representatives of Russian army (White Army), passed through Limnos – Ivan Kalinin, Ivan Sagatsky, Erast Giazintov, Nikolay Turoverov. Besides, we would refer to the content of the book of command staff of Don‘s Corps «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 1920-1921». Limnos in the ancient Greek mythology and in the history of Christianity. Ivan Kalinin about Hephaestus and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker Limnos was known as an island of Hephaestus, a god of Fire. According to legend, Hephaestus was born ugly and lame, and the baby was thrown by his mother Hera from the Olympus to the Earth on the Limnos island. Limnos people saved Hephaestus, and to express his gratitude he taught them the basic metallurgy and blacksmith's work. Limnos was also visited by Odysseus. When Argonauts headed by Jason during their quest for the Golden Fleece, arrived to the island, it was ruled by women. Ipsipila, the head of Limnos Amazons, wanted to make armed attack on them, but was persuaded to admit them in peace. In honour of arrival of the heroes Ipsipila established competition on Quinquertium – pentathlon. The island Limnos appeared to be connected also with the history of Christianity, namely – with the destiny of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. There is a legend, that during the First Ecumenical Council in Nicea in 325, when Arius‘s heretical teachings were criticized, saint bishop Nicholas, 980 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo willing to protect the purity of Orthodoxy, hit Arius on his cheek. Council‘s Fathers considered this conduct redundant, withdrew advantages of his pontifical rank – omophorion – and locked him up in the prison tower on Limnos. However, soon they were convinced in rightness of saint bishop Nicholas and freed him. It is interesting that those facts became the object of portrayal and renderings of one of the «Limnos sitting»‘s participants Ivan Kalinin. In his most exciting memoirs he wrote about the island in the context of the history of culture and Christianity the following: «the Limnos island extruded from the abyss of the Aegean Sea not far from the Dardanelles estuary. <…> Greece mythology had given this clot of lava to the possession of Hephaestus, the god of blacksmith's work. If we believe to Gomer and Hesiod, permanent local winds create here giant bellows, which are blown on the highest mountain of the island, Thermos, by а lame god-blacksmith. There had also been preserved the godly legends from the very early times of Christianity. There had been suffering Nicholas the Wonderworker, ―rule of faith and an example of meekness‖, who had been sent here in exile in 325 for scandal behavior and scuffle with a heretic Arius during the Council in Nicea» (Kalinin 2003: 335). Limnos «pages» in Russian and world history Limnos with some lines of its history is connected with the history of Russia. In 1770 the Russian fleet of the First Archipelago Expedition under the guidance of count Alexey Orlov, what had got a victory in the Battle of Cesme earlier at the same year, laid siege and took the Castro castle (Myrina) and had been using Myrina a for some time as resting base. On the 19th of June (the 1st of July) in 1807 between the coasts of Limnos and the peninsula Aion-Oros (Athos) the battle of Russian and Turkey fleets took place, which went down in history as the Athos battle. The Russian fleet was commanded by Vice-admiral Dmitry Seniavin. Nowadays in Myrina, the capital of Limnos, on one of the embankments there situated a monument to the Russian naval mariners, who liberated Limnos from the Turks – it is a monument to count Orlov and vice-admiral Seniavin. During the First World War on the island the garrison of Atlanta forces was situated. The garrison disposition on the island in 1915 was supervised by Winston Churchill. Limnos is sadly connected with Dardanelles Campaign, or Gallipoli battle, which had begun in the morning of the 19th of February in 1915. The allied forces suffered a defeat, the Turks got a victory. Dozens of thousands of the British, the Scotch, the Australian, the New Zealanders, the Sikhs, the French, the Arabs were lost during the fight in the Gallipoli peninsula. Nowadays on entering the Moudros town there situated a military cemetery, where the participants of that battle were buried. After the First World War on Limnos the English and French armies stayed to control the island. In 1920 Ivan Kalinin wrote about the international state of the island, that it was «most absurd. It constituted a part of the possessions of Hellene‘s state and at the same time was rented by the Englishmen. However the French, again appeared on the island due to our presence, found themselves the owners» (1; 337). Precisely this was the situation on Limnos when in winter, and later in autumn of 1920 refugees from Russia and the Cossack troops of Wrangel‘s Army starting arriving there. The year of 1920: arriving of the Russians to Limnos Thus, the first ships with the injured and the ill started leaving for Limnos from Novorossiysk as early as from the middle of January 1920. After that the ships from Odessa and Sevastopol joined them. During the First World War on the island appeared mostly the injured, the ill, the cripples, women, children and the civilian. The second wave of emigration to Limnos was formed in November 1920, when the units of Wrangel‘s Army left the Crimea. The decision was taken to send to Limnos first the Kuban Cossack corps, and later – the Don Cossack corps, that was previously located in Turkey, in Chataldge. Precisely at that time the island was destined to become «asylum» for a part of the Russian army. The approaching to the island is shown in the memoirs of the military people in the following way: according to the description of Ivan Kalinin, the ships were coming to «a spider-like island, not more then 25 versts long» [about 25 km] (Kalinin 2003: 336.); Ivan Sagatsky‗s imagination gave birth to other associations, and he assured that «its outlines looked like a irregular shaped human heart» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 402). Thus, the Russians found themselves on Limnos. Hardly could a great many of the Cossacks know about the existence of the Limnos island on the earth, and surely nobody had ever supposed that on the island he would happen to suffer sorrowful fate of exile. An unknown poet-emigrant, whose lines Leonid Reshetnikov quotes in his book «Russian Limnos» (Reshetnikov 2009: 12), wrote afterwards: 981 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On those islands we began our roams, As if by distant voice we were called, And there happened parting with Russia … The Russian had to settle in tent camps, that they had to pitch themselves under severe wind. The Kuban Cossacks pitched tent camp in a desolate and waterless district Kaloeraki. Erast Giazintov remembered: «We were disembarked in the evening, given folded tents, and we hurryingly set them up on stoned and spent a first night» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). The whole territory, taken by the Cossacks, was surrounded by French army, mostly by the Senegalese and the Moroccans. The Don Cossacks Corp, arrived in December 1920, located in another camp – along the hill-sides at Mudros, on the other from Kaloeraki side of Big gulf of Mudros. There they also strengthened their tents. «It was hard work; <…> the camp was situated along the mountain slope, and we had to level the ground and ditch in rocky soil …» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 299), – this is the way to describe the situation by people on Limnos at that time. Limnos as «Death island» The Greek island Limnos, known in mythology as Hephaestus‘s island, and certainly beautiful and picturesque in ones own way, among the Russian emigration was called differently – the Death island. For many Russian refugees and 24 thousands of Kuban, Don, Terek, Astrakhan Cossacks that picturesque corner of the would became a real hell. The island greeted the Russians inhospitably. They saw it rocky, unoccupied and blown with the winds. The book of command staff of Don‘s Corps «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 19201921» reads: «The look of island was uncheerful. Small mountains, scarcely having any vegetation, of indefinite, isabelline colour, boarded a huge bay, absurdly hulked up one on another and in the distance died away with sea-fog. That is all. No forest, no high or projecting mountain, nothing to catch an eye» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 320). Memoirists note that most torturous were days when severe wind were blowing. According to Ivan Kalinin‘s statement, «the main enemies of refugees were winds …» (Kalinin 2003; 339). Erast Giazintov noted: «Terriable wind on the rocky Limnos‘s coasts was the bane of our life» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). The winter was especially difficult. In common memoirs of the Don Corps we found the following lines: «… Limnos winter was approaching. It rained more frequently, sometimes was snowing, and northeast wind became stronger and more fretful, severer. Sometimes it gained such strength that tore off tents and pulled apart old half-rotted clothes» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 301). «Terriable wind on the rocky Limnos‘s coasts was the bane of our life», – echoes Erast Giazintov (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). Against the background of difficult climate conditions the Cossacks lodging looked pitiable. Tents, «Limnos houses», are a special theme in the memoirs of military men. The description of the tents in which the refugees were to lodge gives us the opportunity to fell the tragedy of the situation: «The incomers were partially lodged in tents, that were given by the French in limited quantity, <…>, besides, many tents were ragged, halve-rotted, providing no protection from wind or rain <…>. Due to the absence of construction materials and glasses, those bunk houses were dark, cold in winter, in summer <…> – stuffy because of heating of metal parts» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 299). The memoirists noted that in winter «due to continuous rains the underground waters close to the surface splayed out, the moisture in tents gradually turns into permanent mud. <…> In heavy rains large steams of water, coming from mountains, overwhelmed the camp, despite the numerous ditches» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 301-302). In autumn, in winter and early in spring the Russians emigrants were tortured with cold. They had to take care of getting the firing. «The situation with firing was bad. On the island there were no forests. Both aboriginals and new-comers went to the mountains for «koluka» – scrubby thorny shrub. The Greeks loaded their donkeys with those unpleasant burdens, the Russian – their backs», – Ivan Kalinin wrote (Kalinin 2003: 340). On Limnos the Russian were dreadfully starving. It was more torturous against unsettled living and hard climate. Erast Giazintov remembered «extremely short rations», distributed by the French: «For a tent (eight officers or soldiers) we were given one can of sweetened condensed milk (so that one person got about one spoon), extremely insignificant quantity of tinned meat, kidney beans, lens or something like this and little bread » (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). Ivan 982 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sagatsky wrote in his dairy: «People wasted away and weakened from bad food» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 405).. Let us note that the Russian on Limnos faced not only material difficulties, but also with nonmaterial ordeals: informational «blockade», ideological «attacks» from the allies‘ side. We refer to the lines from the book of command staff of Don‘s Corps «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 19201921»: «The life was difficult, but the complete detachment from the world seemed more painful; there came no news from outside, not a single Russian newspaper was delivered to Limnos at that time. On a wild island, with desert rocky mountains, from all sides surrounded by water, the Cossacks felt like in prison» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 293). Allies‘ active campaign on deconcentration of Russian army, but actually on its demolition contributed to the depressive mood of the army. The French, not willing to support Russian Army any more, tried to demoralize it and «disperse». According to Ivan Sagatsky‘s words, «there was posted an order by General Brousseau, the French governor of the island, that stated that France did not recognized the Russian Wrangel‘s Army and on that reason the French command took a decision to feed the Russians only till the 1st of April, because it was not able to support such a large army. The French government stops giving credits and assistance to General Wrangel in his actions against the Soviet system. The Russian officers were offered either 1) to return to the Soviet Russia, or 2) go at work to Brazil, or 3) provide for their living by themselves» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 395). The general mood of the Russians on Limnos was certainly depressed and gloomy. «Everyone was hungry, bitter and uncommunicative», – states Ivan Sagatsky (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 401). Spiritual opposition of the Russian on Limnos Nevertheless, despite all the impossible difficulties that the Russian faced on Limnos, they kept resisting to the circumstances. The island turned out to be hell where their resistance to it was effected. «Limnos sitting», which is better to call «Limnos standing», is an example of strength of mind, courage, will. And – an attempt to save its identity. Leonid Reshetnikov wrote: «Huge tent camps were living – they prayed, worked, studied» (Reshetnikov 2009: 32). The Russian‘s faith played a great part in their opposition to the circumstances on Limnos. It spiritually guided the refugees‘ will. Every day was opened and finished with the regiment prayer: «…―uprisal‖ was sounded <…> units lined up at color line. The camp stood still. Communal prayer was singing», «At eight o‘clock <…> regiments lined up for inspection <…>. ―Daybreak‖ was clearly beated throughout the calmed down camps and further on, over the mountains and the bay, the prayer out of thousands of bosoms was running harmoniously and nobly» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 337-338, 339). Church was of great importance in the life of Limnos. In every regiment the churches were organized by Cossacks‘ and officers‘ initiative. Those were tent and bunk house churches. Out of incidental materials they built altars, for icon-stand private and family icons were given. This is the way one of Limnos tent churches looked like: «In a large tent a church was created. The icon-stand, lampads and all the churchware were made of incidental materials, out of sheets, blankets, can boxes» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 295). The Russians also visited Greek orthodox churches in Mudros town, namely, – the Cathedral of the Annunciation and the Church of Holy Archangels. The Russians were glad to hear prayers in Old Church Slavonic during the service in the Cathedral of the Annunciation. The old church of the Holy Archangels in fact was presented to the Russains by the Greeks. According to the remembrances of the ―Russian Limnosers‖, «the Greeks gave an old church in Mudros town at the disposal of Russian clergy, where the service was hold according to Russian tradition, by Russian clergy and with Russian chorus. <…> The abandoned church was put in order, washed, cleaned from longstanding dust; the ancient, magnificent carving icon-stand was renewed, icons were placed in dehiscent hollows, thanks to this the church looked cosy» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 336). Religious holidays, celebrated by the Russians on Limnos, were times when their patriot feelings dawned in especially acute way, the belonging to Russia felt more deeply. The holidays gave spiritual impulses, that saved from despair and melancholy. The memoirs of the Russian army representatives witness that Easter became the holiday celebrated on Limnos with special warmth. The description of Easter is filled with flickering feelings: «Easter was celebrated nicely. Morning Easter prayer went on the ascent, lightly and joyfully. For the first day after a fast lots of Easter cakes and 983 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo coloured eggs were ready» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 336-337). Ivan Sagatsky pathetically remembered: «On Easter Imperial Cossacks had morning prayer in their camp church. Everyone was in exhilaration. After that there were kisses of peace» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 397-398). Striving for creative work and education What else supported the spirit of the people in exile? It turned to be creative work and striving for education. One of the forms of collective creation became singing songs in chorus. Singing was favourite occupation both of young and old Cossacks. Often they were singing Russian folk songs. In spring and in summer, when evening came, they began their favourite Cossack songs together. Those songs were «either quick and joyful <…>, or lingering, sad and dreary, like life on Limnos life». What did the Cossacks sing about? As eyewitnesses remembered, Cossacks were singing «… about Cossack glory, feats of arms, <…>, about the dear Don <…>. The Cossacks sang about everything. And about Bolsheviks, who expelled them from their native land, and about killed and tortured by them friends. Songs conveyed either a complaint of bitter fate, or gloomy menace to a fare away hateful enemy, and the whole Cossack soul, perturbate and pressed, but not destroyed, flowed out in those songs» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 339). It is amazing that in such incredibly difficult conditions on Limnos Russian refugees realized their creative potential and satisfied esthetic needs with the help of …. theatre. On Limnos two (!) extemporary theatre emerged – drama theatre and cabaret theatre. It is written about the former: «The stage was created in one of the bunk houses alongside the quay, the curtains were made of blankets <…>. The repertory was selected extremely thoroughly, with great scrupulousness. Chekov‘s things, even Ostrovsky and drama extracts from Pushkin (―The Coventous Knight‖ and others) and other classical plays were staged » (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 343). There exists the following evidence about cabaret-theatre: «Among Don people there appeared to be lots of perfect singers and story-tellers, dancers, there were even consummate musicians. <…>. The main part in the concert program took choral singing.<…> In cabaret tricks and novelties from the capital stages were shown» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 343-344). The theatre was rather popular both among the Cossacks and the Greeks, as well as among the island principals, the English and the French. On Limnos there were even «universities». Many who found themselves on Limnos had serious gaps in education. It is typically that since the first days after the arrival of the staff of Don‘s Corps on Limnos the enormous culture awareness education had begun in the units. The book «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 1920-1921» reads: «Meeting the Cossacks‘ needs<…>, the command, represented by informational department, organized a set of periodical lectures of sporadic character and on different areas of knowledge and science. <…> The readers were found among the friends. In army units there were many persons with higher education, who shared their knowledge with others in a clear and understandable manner. There were also lectures on political topics. <…> Generally speaking, all the lectures, even on astronomy and cosmography (they also happened to be) were willingly visited by the Cossacks. <…> On those courses, apart from special military subjects, such disciplines of general education, such as the history of Russia and Don, Russian literature, economic geography, jurisprudence and others were also taught» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 342-343). Pleasures of Limnos life Severe staying on Limnos was prettified with little joys, which certainly were parts of Russian outcasts‘ everyday life. The Cossacks «revived» in spring and summer. Tired of winter cold, winds and hunger, they cheered about the sun, light, warm sea. Ivan Kalinin remembered: «With the beginning of spring on Limnos the Cossacks got warm and washed themselves at last» (Kalinin 2003: 340). The authors of the book «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 1920-1921» added to that: «In the beginning of warm season the swimming in the sea brought much liveliness in monotonous camp life. As early as in the middle of April the water in the Aegean Sea became so warm, that some most challenging Cossacks started to swim. <…> It was becoming hotter and hotter. The south sun was burning mercilessly, the stones heated up <…> All the territories which provided swimming facilities 984 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo were spangled with bathing and lying on sand Cossacks… » (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 340-341). From time to time the promenades around the island were organized. The Cossacks went to adjacent villages and to the island north-west top end, to the place where at one time a town of Hephaestiada was situated. The Cossacks were interested in the relics of the ancient civilization. They were interested to see «the wreckages of columns, bas-relieves, pottery fragments and statuettes» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 342). Sometimes, when the French gave out passes, the outings to villages were possible. The Cossacks liked those outings, for – as memoirists stated – «the Greeks-inhabitants <…> met the Cossacks hospitably, treated them, in village taverns it was possible to get cheep local wine» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 342). Of course, the Russians also managed to notice the beauty of the island. The meeting with it gave pleasure to one‘s soul. The peculiar charm of Limnos found its reflection in Nikolay Turoverov‘s poetry. In lyrical opus «Archipelago» (Turoverov 1999: 37-38) the poet imprinted winter Limnos expressively «in lines and colours»: A February day, both still and pearly Whity in water surface was reflected. … shortly went a last sunray through the clouds. The sea gave watery salty breathe, And colours flowered suddenly and richly Aslope the tawny steeps. Russian cemeteries on Limnos: the signs of Civil war tragedy Still Limnos was not a ―resourt place‖ for those who turned to be there in 1920-1921. Deprivations, sufferings and often death as its natural final became just about everyday occurrence in Russian outcasts‘ lives. Refugee and Cossacks died. On Limnos Russian cemeteries appeared, that are one of the first in the history of Russian first wave emigration. There exists two Russian cemeteries on Limnos: one of them is situated near the town of Mudros, another – on Kaloeraki cape. The Don‘s Cossack regiment was located near the town of Mudros. Close to it allies‘ Military cemetery was situated. Thankfully the Russian graves were also reconstructed on Military cemetery. In general on Military cemetery 29 Russians were buried (28 officers and a colonel‘s wife Maria Karyakina, the mother of six). The Kuban Cossack regiment was situated not far from Pynda cape. There a large Russian cemetery appeared – «Rusiko necrotophiio». The road to it is rocky and bumpy. But at present there are signposts both in Russian and Greek, which gives the direction and let us find ourselves. Before 2004 there was practically nothing, except for several gravestones on the grass. The works on cemetery reconstruction have begun, and at present the names of all people buried there are restored and some of the graves are specified. The feelings that one has on the cemetery are special. They are born out of reading the namelist of those who rest on this mournful burying place, (more than 300 people), out of contemplation of gravestones, under which Russian people lie, out of thought about their bitter fate. One stand near children‘s grave for long. There are 82(!) of them on the cemetery. Tanya Muhortova was three, Lisa Shirinkina was hardly one. The Russian and the Greeks on Limnos: from the 1920th to the present day The Russian-Greek relationships have their own history. Having arrived to Limnos in far away 1920, the Russians found themselves in a country, culturally and religiously related to them. The Greeks treated the Russians humanly, with understanding. One of the special cords connecting the two peoples was Orthodoxy. The Greeks showed much interest in church services held by the Russians on Limnos. The memoirists recollects the Greeks‘ reaction on church services held by the Russians and their celebration oа religious holidays: «… the Greeks in numbers attended the Russian <…> church, admiring the new for them, never heard tone of Russian service, order and discipline, and harmonious singing of the Russian chorus» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 336). 985 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We consider extremely remarkable the fact that in Mudros Church of Holy Archangels the service is still – at present (!) – held before the icons that were presented to the church by the Cossacks in 1920 and left there after their departure from Limnos. On great feast days those icons are transferred to the town‘s cathedral of the Annunciation. Nowadays the memory of «Limnos standing» of the Russian on the island in 1920-21 still lingers. The author of these lines happened to meet those Greeks on Limnos, whose parents witnessed the staying of Russian Army. Those unforgettable meetings took place in May, 2010. Fotis Karamalis (born 1921), Evagelos Ahillyas (born 1918), Ioannis Patinorakis (born 1925) admitted that they remembered how their parents had told them about the Russians, appeared on the island in 1920, with obvious sympathy to them. The main features of the Russian‘s characteristics, given by the present day Greeks are respect to them and sympathy to their difficulties. Thus, below you can find some of the characteristics, which give us an opportunity to imagine a «collective portrait» of «Russia Limnosers» on the background of historical time: «They were expelled from Russia». «All the Russians were educated, cultivated people, of high ranks». «The Russians were starving; they worked in field for a piece of bread. The Greeks sympathized with them and gave work». «The Greeks treated the Russian well – as people who were thrown here by Destiny». «The Russian, appeared on the island, were decent and intelligent». «The Russian prayed, they sang beautifully». «The Russian and the Greeks were connected with Orthodoxy». Conclusions Surely there is a great distance between Russia and Limnos. However, today this distance cannot prevent us from thinking about the fates of the Russian, who stayed on the island in 1920-1921 and became involuntary Civil war victims. We necessarily should peer into those past days and try to understand the reasons why the Russian – being in exile and overcoming difficulties and unbearable tortures, suffering deeply – still kept on loving Russia and feel deep and close spiritual liaison with it. References Kalinin, I. M. (2003). Under Wrangel‗s banner. Moscow: Russian State University for the Humanities. Reshetnikov, L. P. (2009). Russian Limnos: historical essay. Moscow: Novospassky monastery. Russian Army in a strange land. Gallipoli epic (2003). Moscow: Centrpoligraph. Turoverov, N. (1999). The twentieth year – farewell to Russia! Moscow: Children‘s planet. 986 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 564 Title A name given to the resource Russian Emigration on The Balkans: The ―Limnos Episode‖ (On Memoirs and Verses of Representatives of White Army) Author Author Lapaeva, Natalya Abstract A summary of the resource. The article traces the role island Limnos (Greece) in the fates of representatives of ―white movement‖ which has arisen after revolution in Russia in 1917 and during civil war. Parts of Russian Army were on Limnos since February 1920 till November 1921. It represents the results of analysis of memoirs and verses by some representatives of Russian Army, among which Ivan Kalinin, Erast Giatzintov, Ivan Sagatsky, Nikolay Turoverov. The author of the paper revealed features of the description of landscapes of Limnos in memoirs and verses those who passed through Limnos. It is shown what difficulties were endured by Russian Army on Limnos (cold, hunger, isolation from the world). It is proved that the Russian Army under the direction of Wrangel has shown moral courage, unity, patriotism. Authors of memoirs and verses concern problems of mutual relations of Russians and Greeks, the inhabitants of Limnos, what has found reflection in various forms of spiritual and cultural dialogue. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c13fa6fce4818f7030643885c1a4d130.pdf ee4d3b649867a78d1ce6335deab09fe8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teacher knowledge What Every Teacher Should Know about It Adna Lojo Faculty of Philosophy, the Golden Badge of the University Of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina adna.lojo@gmail.com Abstract: It is certain that all teachers must possess knowledge. The question, however, is: „What kinds of knowledge every teacher aspiring to be successful in his or her job should have?― The purpose of this paper is to provide, if not definitive, than at least an elucidating answer to this question. The paper deals with three kinds of knowledge all teachers should possess: content or subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Content knowledge refers to the teacher‘s knowledge of the subject matter he/she teaches, and increases the teacher‘s own confidence, which directly influences the level of confidence the students‘ have for the teacher. Pedagogical knowledge, on the other hand, is not directly associated with the subject matter, but can still have an immense impact on the final results of the learning process. It is concerned with improving the relationship between the students and the teacher by helping the teacher recognize a variety of different situations which can appear in the classroom and equipping the teacher with appropriate techniques which enable him/her to respond appropriately to each of those situations. The third kind of knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, unites the previous two, and helps the teacher find the methodologically most appropriate ways to present the given content. As elaborated in the paper, taken together, these three kinds of knowledge improve rapport between the students and the teacher and maximize student achievement, which is the ultimate goal of any learning process. Teacher knowledge The word ―knowledge‖ is in its own nature closely associated with learning and teaching. It goes without saying that a teacher must possess knowledge. However, it is often unclear what this knowledge truly encompasses. Is teacher knowledge a matter of being able to recite piles of books from cover to cover? Is a successful teacher one who knows how to create a positive learning climate in which his students will feel motivated to explore the subject he teaches? Or is an effective teacher in fact a combination of these two elements, and many more? Even in the modern era, many of those not very familiar with the science of teaching and learning would claim that the only kind of knowledge a teacher should possess is subject matter or content knowledge, which can be defined as ―a teacher‘s quantity, quality, and organization of information, conceptualizations, and underlying constructs in their major area of study‖ (Zeidler, 1999). For those who claim so, the aforementioned avid reader would have just enough skills to transmit his knowledge onto everybody he attempts to teach. Practice, however, has proven that this is not the case. A person can indeed be the best expert in any field, and yet lack pedagogical training needed to successfully manage the classroom. When this is the case, discipline issues may arise, the students can become confused and uninterested, and the teacher, despite his tremendous subject matter knowledge, can feel helpless. In such cases, with the teacher unable to hold the attention of the students and inspire them to acquire new knowledge, learning – which is normally the ultimate goal of any teaching process - becomes of secondary importance. This fact emphasizes the need to introduce the second kind of knowledge a teacher needs to possess – pedagogical knowledge, knowledge which enables the teacher to create a motivating, student-centered environment conducive to learning. To acquire such knowledge, the teacher needs not only to have high qualifications in his subject area, but also undergo special pedagogical training, through which he would be made aware of the different affective, cognitive and developmental factors which influence the learning process. Through such training, the teacher would also acquire practical strategies for dealing with different situations which may arise in the classroom and providing the most appropriate responses for them. 24 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo However, when kept separately, these two qualities are still not sufficient to produce the desired results, as they remain unconnected and fragmented. The problem lies in the fact that neither of these two kinds of knowledge helps the teacher find the best, most appropriate strategies for teaching particular areas of the subject matter. When a teacher possesses no knowledge of such strategies, his teaching will suffer despite his knowledge of the content matter and the skills he acquired through pedagogical training. What is needed then is a combination of these two elements, an area which will unite the teacher‘s knowledge of the subject he teaches and his ability to make the classroom a place where that knowledge can be shared. This ‗common area‘ is called pedagogical content knowledge. These three main kinds of knowledge intertwine (amongst each other and with various other kinds of teacher knowledge) to create a solid base upon which the teacher can build his relationship with students and a more successful learning environment. Content knowledge It seems very logical that no teaching can take place if the teacher is not very familiar with the subject he/she is meant to teach others. This teacher trait is also recognized as extremely important by students, so, for example, Turkish preparatory school students describing an effective English language teacher listed teacher‘s knowledge of English as the most important characteristic (Arikan et al., 2008). Numerous other studies which examined the efficiency of teachers also yielded similar results, so Bruce D. Barnes (2010) reports that many of the studies he reviewed have found that students believe effective teachers: ― have sound content knowledge of their discipline (Chen, 2005; Faranda & Clarke, 2004; Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2005; Kutnick & Jules, 1993; Xiao, 2006) • are able to answer complex questions (Faranda & Clarke, 2004) • are proficient in English (ELT) (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2005; Park & Lee, 2006; Rammal, 2006) • have a sound knowledge of grammar (ELT) (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2005; Park & Lee, 2006)― Still, it seems this teacher characteristic is perhaps not yet fully understood and appreciated by teachers and education students, which results in teachers who have insufficient knowledge of their subject area and are thus unable to help students learn. A good grasp of the subject he/she teaches can make a tremendous influence on how the teacher manages the classroom and facilitates the process of learning. According to a research paper entitled ‗Why Teacher Content Knowledge Matters‘, content knowledge on the part of the teacher facilitates learning by influencing the way teacher present the content to their students (with more knowledgeable teachers making more connections with real life and drawing more on students previous knowledge). This characteristic, as reported by Barnes (2010), was deemed very important by students in studies conducted by Faranda and Clarke (2004) and Kelley et al. (1991). Content knowledge also influences the way teachers use teaching materials, so teachers who have a deeper knowledge of the subject tend to be more able to link lessons into a coherent sequence and identify the key points of each individual unit (MSPKMD, 2008). A study of outstanding university teachers, conducted by Hativa et al. (2001) has shown that these strategies were very highly or highly used by all the observed teachers (all university professors, experts in the area of their subject). By using their knowledge in such diverse ways, teachers with deeper content knowledge pose more difficult challenges before their students, thus further developing their cognitive skills and making them more involved in the learning process (Stronge, 2007; Neubrand, 2008). Still, all this does not necessarily mean that in all cases teacher subject matter knowledge will have a direct impact on student achievement. The debate on this issue is heated, and different studies have yielded different results. Perhaps the most accurate view is the one of Monk (1994) who argues that ‗teacher subjectmatter knowledge was related to student achievement only up to a certain point‘ (Marzano, 2003, p.64). What this means is that there is a threshold above which teacher content knowledge becomes less relevant. For example, whereas teacher‘s knowledge of basic characteristics of English sounds and the way they interact with each other is important when teaching English phonetic alphabet to high school students, in-depth knowledge of dialectal variations is not. On the contrary, such knowledge, if the teacher attempts to transfer it onto students (for whom it has no relevance or practical usage) can even negatively interfere with students‘ learning and motivation. Of course, the threshold varies based on the level or grade of the students being taught (Marzano, 2003), so more content knowledge is needed when teaching advanced students than when dealing with young children. Pedagogical knowledge The exact opposite, however, may hold true for pedagogical knowledge. Since young learners possess many characteristics unique to their own age group, it may be far more challenging to balance the various elements of classroom management (discipline, rapport, motivation, staying on-task etc.) when teaching them than when dealing with teenagers or adults. Age, however, is not the only factor which influences how the 25 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo teacher should behave towards students. Many other characteristics, ranging from learning style to culturespecific attitudes and beliefs, must be taken into account when deciding how to treat individual students and the class as a whole. These characteristics pertain not only to students, but also to the learning environment and the society in which the learning process is taking place. Being able to identify, take into account and successfully deal with these differences is what constitutes the pedagogical knowledge of teaching. In fact, all teacher behavior in the classroom related to personal interaction with the students can be connected to pedagogical knowledge. A teacher who possesses this kind of knowledge knows which types of behavior are appropriate in which kinds of situations. Such teachers understand the variety of contexts which can appear within the classroom and are able to adjust their behavior accordingly. This notion shows that pedagogical knowledge is in fact very much connected with the personal characteristics of the teacher, and that, through knowledge, teachers can reflect on their traits and behaviors and, when necessary, alter them to suit the needs of their students. Such reflections and alterations directly influence student-teacher relationship and the classroom atmosphere, thus directly impacting students‘ learning. Perhaps the best way to show the importance of pedagogical knowledge is through a practical example. Let us consider the example of student misbehavior - one of the most debated issues and one of the biggest teacher problems in the classroom. Many new teachers are worried about handling misbehavior properly. The worry arises from the fact that, when handled wrongly, student misbehavior can lead not only to deterioration in the learning achievements of that particular student, but also undermine the whole class‘ trust in the teacher and, through a chain reaction, make the entire class unresponsive and unwilling to learn. These severe consequences show the importance of pedagogical knowledge. A teacher who has no pedagogical training, and possesses only content knowledge, might resort to such ineffective practices as yelling, threatening or humiliating the misbehaving student, which would only worsen the situation and ultimately lead to the teacher‘s loss of control over the class. On the other hand, a teacher with appropriate pedagogical knowledge will know that the right way to handle discipline issues is to prevent them from ever happening by setting rules early on and consistently enforcing them. Even if a discipline problem arises, a pedagogically-knowledgeable teacher would know that the right thing to do in such a situation is to remain calm, react immediately and react to the behavior and not the student (Harmer, 2007). When following these and similar instructions which are a key part of pedagogical knowledge of any teacher, the teacher helps foster a positive learning environment, practices good classroom management and improves his rapport with the students. Pedagogical content knowledge However, as has been previously noted, pedagogical and content knowledge alone do not constitute a framework strong enough for effective teaching. An effective teacher must also possess a third kind of knowledge, the one which unites and combines the previous two concepts and provides a kind of a common ground on which the different aspects of the professional called ‗teacher‘ meet to produce the best possible results. This third kind of knowledge is called pedagogical content knowledge or PCK. In order to fully understand the concept of ‗pedagogical content knowledge‘, it is necessary to introduce its definitions, as formulated by Lee S. Shulman, the educational psychologist who first introduced this term. In his landmark paper ‗Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching‘, he describes PCK as follows: ‗Within the category of pedagogical content knowledge I include, for the most regularly taught topics in one's subject area, the most useful forms of representation of these ideas, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations - in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others...Pedagogical content knowledge also includes an understanding of what makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult: the conceptions and preconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning of those most frequently taught topics and lessons.‘(Shulman, 1986, p. 7) After defining the term, it is time to explore the practical implications of pedagogical content knowledge for foreign language teachers. If we consider an EFL teacher attempting to teach his Bosnian students the usage of the Present Perfect tense in English, we will better understand why pedagogical content knowledge is so important. For the purposes of achieving this goal, we will compare the ways in which two very different teachers – one possessing PCK and the other lacking it – would attempt to teach this challenging grammar point. A teacher lacking PCK might attempt explain the usage to the students by using complex metalanguage, introducing too difficult oral explanations and presenting them with a myriad of abstract grammar-book rules. All of this could have inimical effects on students‘ learning, making them even more confused, which may lead to disinterestedness and lack of motivation, ultimately jeopardizing learning. The teacher possessing PCK, on the other hand, would first of all realize that that particular subject can be very difficult for Bosnian students because 26 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo there is no tense equivalent to Present Perfect in their own language. He would consider the students previous knowledge of the tense system in their own language and in English and attempt to tailor his teaching to suit this previous knowledge and build upon it, the teacher would also use his pedagogical knowledge to assess how the age of his students influences the way the grammar point should be presented, and avoid too much metalanguage if younger learners are in question. Finally, the teacher would attempt to find a wide variety of different techniques which would best serve to present the content and reinforce the student‘s knowledge of it. From this comparison, it is easy to see how a teacher possessing PCK differs from the one possessing only content knowledge. In short, an expert with no PCK will not be able to adequately explain certain concepts since he/she has not learned to ‗stoop‘ to the level of knowledge of the students and view things from their perspective. The teacher with PCK would, on the other hand, be able to identify himself with the learners, thus recognizing possible difficulties and misconceptions which may arise in the learning process. In this way he would not only facilitate learning, but also make the students confident in their knowledge, rather than intimidated as they would feel in the presence of a teacher without PCK. This confidence would then result in better student-teacher interaction and easier problem-solving. 27 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Stronge, JH (2007), Qualities of Effective Teachers, ASCD, Alexandria <http://books.google.com/books?id=0qi4i1las8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=qualities+of+effective+teachers&hl=en&ei=s8oXTIXuGtPgsAbE77HOC Q&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false> Harmer, J (2007), The Practice of English Language Teaching, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow. Neubrand, M (2008), 'Knowledge of Teachers – Knowledge of Students: Conceptualizations and outcomes of a Mathematics Teacher Education Study in Germany', viewed 3 May 2010 < http://www.unige.ch/math/EnsMath/Rome2008/WG2/Papers/NEUBR.pdf> Arikan, A, Taser, D, Sarac-Suzer, H S (2008), The Effective English Language Teacher from the Perspectives of Turkish Preparatory School Students, ERIC database, viewed 23 February 2010 http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/45/01/4d.pdf Shulman, L (1986), ‗Those who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching‘, Educational Researcher, vol. 15, No. 2., pp 4-14, viewed < http://www.science.utah.edu/mssstfiles/thosewho.pdf> Why Teachers‘ Mathematics Content Knowledge Matters: A Summary of Studies, MSPKMD, viewed 15 June 2010 < http://www.mspkmd.net/pdfs/blast16/3b2.pdf> Marzano, R J (2003), What Works in Schools: Translating Research into Action., ASCD, Alexandria, viewed 15 June 2010 <http://books.google.com/books?id=MVyhsp10SIgC&pg=PA64&dq=teacher+knowledge+of+subject&cd=5#v= onepage&q=teacher%20knowledge%20of%20subject&f=false> Hativa, N., Barak, R. & Simhi, E. (2001) Exemplary University Teachers: Knowledge and Beliefs Regarding Effective Teaching Dimensions and Strategies. Journal of Higher Education<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb172/is_6_72/ai_n28871046/pg_17/?tag=content;col1> Zedier, D L (1999) Dancing with Maggots and Saints: Past and future Visions For Subject Matter Knowledge, Pedagogical Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Science Teacher Education Reform <http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED434834.pdf> Barnes, B D (2010) The Attributes of Effective Lecturers of English as a Foreign Language as Perceived by Students in a Korean University. <http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ908194.pdf> 28 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 8 Title A name given to the resource What Every Teacher Should Know about It Author Author Lojo, Adna Abstract A summary of the resource. t is certain that all teachers must possess knowledge. The question, however, is: „What kinds of knowledge every teacher aspiring to be successful in his or her job should have?― The purpose of this paper is to provide, if not definitive, than at least an elucidating answer to this question. The paper deals with three kinds of knowledge all teachers should possess: content or subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Content knowledge refers to the teacher‘s knowledge of the subject matter he/she teaches, and increases the teacher‘s own confidence, which directly influences the level of confidence the students‘ have for the teacher. Pedagogical knowledge, on the other hand, is not directly associated with the subject matter, but can still have an immense impact on the final results of the learning process. It is concerned with improving the relationship between the students and the teacher by helping the teacher recognize a variety of different situations which can appear in the classroom and equipping the teacher with appropriate techniques which enable him/her to respond appropriately to each of those situations. The third kind of knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, unites the previous two, and helps the teacher find the methodologically most appropriate ways to present the given content. As elaborated in the paper, taken together, these three kinds of knowledge improve rapport between the students and the teacher and maximize student achievement, which is the ultimate goal of any learning process. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics