267 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f358403d11eef1936e14f595e077319d.pdf 80e6854233643e424b8b1d5acb4b4aad PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Use of IT Tools in Everyday Classes Where Foreign Language is Taught Meliha HANDZIC International Burch University, Faculty of Engineering Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mhandzic@ibu.edu.ba Merdţana OBRALIC International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mobralic@ibu.edu.ba Emir CICKUSIC International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ecickusic@hotmail.com Abstract. This paper aims to present the situation of using IT tools in everyday classes where foreign language is taught. The research is empirical. The survey study was conducted among students of a new private university in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The questionnaire was applied to students from 17 to 25, male and female students learning 2 foreign languages. The results of the study can be the useful resource for future research and help better practical implementation of IT tools in the class. Keywords: IT tools, foreign language, user satisfaction: survey 1. Introduction The world is in the midst of multidimensional transformation: technological, economic, social, cultural and political. To succeed in such a world, organisations need to have better educated workforce. Thus, it is important to prepare next generations of graduates to live and work in the new ''information age''. In response to the growing demand for educated workforce, universities are replacing or complementing traditional methods of teaching and learning with IT supported approaches. The use of IT tools in tertiary education in developed countries is very high. IT tools are employed to help students‘ learning process and to increase the quality of offered education. The use of IT tools may also boost students‘ learning interests (Handzic and Chumkovski 2004, Handzic and Hoor, 2005). Lecturers can also benefit from IT. By using sophisticated IT tools, they can better and more easily express themselves and add more meaning to what they want to say (Shum et al. 2010). In developing countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), the use of IT in teaching and learning at universities is relatively low. However, through stable and evolutionary development and implementation, it may be possible to achieve greater IT adoption in this country‘s education sector (Habul and Obralic 2009). The purpose of this paper is to examine those factors that can explain and predict students‘ IT usage behaviour in learning foreign languages at a new private university. The paper is organized as follows. It starts with this section introducing the issue of IT tools usage in everyday classes where foreign language is taught. Next, the paper presents relevant literature on information technology adoption. Then, the paper proceeds with a discussion on research methodology. After that, the results are examined and discussed. Finally, the main findings and their theoretical and practical contributions are assessed and the ending conclusions are drawn. 546 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Literature Review The review of previous research on IT adoption reveals the extensive use of three adoption theories. The most widely used model is Davis‘ Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). This model assumes that an individual‘s perceptions of IT usefulness and ease of use are two key beliefs that influence the person‘s intended or actual IT use (Davis 1989). Another popular approach used to investigate factors that influence IT adoption is Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). According to TRA, social norms held by groups to which an individual belongs put additional pressure on the person to conform and thus influence his/her intention regarding the use of IT. Yet another theory relevant for studying IT adoption is Roger‘s Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT). This theory identifies a series of innovation characteristics (eg. relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability), organizational characteristics (eg. formalization, centralisation, openness, interconnectedness, slack and size) and adopter characteristics (eg. familiarity and motivation) that are related to innovation adoption (Rogers 2003). Furthemore, one can notice several similarities between constructs from Media Richness Theory (MRT) by Daft and Lengel (1986) and those from TAM, TRA and/or IDT. For example, medium capacity employed by MRT is similar to perceived relative advantage or usefulness. In addition, self-efficacy beliefs defined by Compeau and Higgins (1995) are similar to perceived ease of use. Finally, system quality construct from the DeLone and McLean IS Success Model (DeLone and McLean 1992, DeLone and McLean 2003) is comparable with the innovation characteristics and its perceived usefulness. From the review of the major adoption and related theories, it is evident that they are complementary and if integrated could provide even stronger model than if each theory is used on its own. Therefore, this research uses constructs from all the above theories to explore the factors that influence IT tools usage in teaching and learning foreign languages in the University context. 3. Research Method A survey study was conducted to explore the adoption of IT tools in a university setting and from the students‘ point of view. The survey was chosen as a preferred research method due to timeliness, low cost and convenience factors. The survey questions were set to find out how participants perceive IT tools medium richness, usefulness, self-efficacy, ease of use, social norms and their intentions to use IT to support their language study. All questionnaire items used to measure these constructs were adapted from prior studies and had proven validity and reliability. The questionnaire consisted of a mixture of closed and open-ended questions. Sixteen closed questions were used to find out the extent of agreement on various statements and to ease the analysis and synthesis of the results. The responses were captured on seven-point Likert scales with end points 1 — strongly disagree and 7 — strongly agree. Four open-ended questions were used to acquire basic demographic information (age, sex, language) and additional textual comments on any IT aspects of interest. The survey was designed to allow anonymity so that the subjects could freely express their thoughts and feelings. Subjects for this study were undergraduate students enrolled in two foreign language programs. A total of 150 students participated in the current study. Survey forms were distributed to the participants during regular classes by one of the authors. It took between 15 and 20 minutes to answer all survey questions. Then, the participants‘ responses were collected, encoded, entered into the computer file and analyzed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet program. The results of the analyses performed are presented in the following section. 4. Results Rating Scores Mean respondent scores for six variables (usefulness, ease of use, intention to use, social norm, selfefficacy and media richness) were calculated by language (Turkish, English), gender (male, female) and age (junior, 17-20, senior, 21-28). Then, t-tests were performed to examine any potential differences between different subject groups. Summary results are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Results of analyses for six variables by three subject groups 547 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Subject groups 1.Turkish Usefulness Ease of use Intention to use Social norm Self efficacy Media richness 5.73 4.95 5.73 5.73 5.66 5.56 2.English 5.21 Sig P=0.017 4.63 Sig P=0.069 4.70 Sig P=0.001 5.39 Ns P=0.136 5.16 Sig P=0.041 5.05 Sig 0.014 5.45 4.82 5.17 5.53 5.36 5.32 5.40 Ns P=0.818 4.65 Ns P=0.382 5.12 Ns P=0.897 5.44 Ns P=0.706 5.42 Ns P=0.761 5.13 Ns P=0.416 difference (t-test) 1.Female 2.Male difference (t-test) 1.Junior 5.23 4.74 4.96 5.46 5.29 5.23 2.Senior 5.69 Ns P=0.899 4.80 Ns P=0.413 5.39 Ns P=0.897 5.57 Ns P=0.612 5.49 Ns P=0.618 5.32 Ns P=0.920 difference (t-test) The results from Table 1 indicate significant differences in perceptions and behaviours between Turkish and English language students, but no differences due to their gender or age groups. English subjects had significantly worse opinions about the richness of IT as a medium of instruction and learning than Turkish subjects (5.56 vs. 5.05). Accordingly, they had significantly lower perceptions of IT usefulness (5.21 vs. 5.73) in studying foreign languages than their Turkish counterparts. Furthermore, English subjects rated their IT self-efficacy and subsequent ease of use of IT significantly poorer compared to Turkish subjects. The mean scores of English subjects were significantly smaller than those of Turkish subjects for both self-efficacy (5.16 vs. 5.66) and ease of use (4.63 vs. 4.95). Consequently, English subjects expressed significantly lesser intention to use IT to support their language study than Turkish subjects (4.70 vs. 5.73). This was evident despite similar acknowledgement by both English and Turkish subjects of the current social norm in favour of using IT in the process of studying foreign languages (5.39 vs. 5.73). Textual Comments To investigate deeper the potential reasons behind differences in scores between English and Turkish subjects, content analysis of textual comments was done in both language groups. The analysis revealed that all comments made by Turkish subjects were favourable, while those made by English subjects were mixed. On a positive side, there was general recognition of the necessity, importance and potential of IT in supporting teaching and learning of foreign languages. On the other side, there was a clear and loud request by English subjects to explain IT subject matter in a better and more understandable manner, as well as include more advanced IT topics in addition to basic ones. Such comments suggest that the lack of necessary advanced IT knowledge and skills may be the main barrier to greater intentions to use IT among English subjects. This implies that these students need to be exposed to more sophisticated learning media and gain more practice in using IT in order to form more favourable opinions of its usefulness and ease of use, and subsequently change mind about their usage intentions. 5. Discussion Main Findings Consistent with previous research on IT adoption, lower perceptions of IT usefulness and ease of use were found to lead to lesser intentions to use IT in language study. The self-reported lack of advanced IT 548 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo knowledge and skills among English subjects was found to be the main reason for poorer perceptions of IT richness and usefulness, as well as self-efficacy and ease of use, when compared to their Turkish counterparts. The findings indicate that both IT usefulness and ease of use are important to students . Implications The study has significant implications for theory and practice. The findings showed the influence of perceived IT richness and thus usefulness and perceived IT self-efficacy and thus ease of use on students‘ intentions to use IT in their study of foreign languages. Further findings revealed that the lack of advanced knowledge and skills was the major barrier to IT adoption in learning. In short, the study provided useful insights into IT adoption process in higher education. Based on the study findings, the community of foreign language students and teachers can devise strategies to promote greater application of state of art IT applications; produce better plans to service different members of language teaching and learning community; apply IT applications and training that better meet students‘ and teachers‘ needs and ensure that they get necessary IT skills. Limitations and Future Research Like all research, this study has certain limitations. Thus, sample of participating students is relatively small and may not be representative of general student population. Constructs in the study were measured subjectively and from the students‘ point of view. Lecturers may have different views. All subjects were from the same newly established private institution. Consequently, there may be differences between private and public, new and long-established institutions. So, in future research, attention should be given to collect more representative data, include different types of users, and delineate the concerns of public and private universities, IT adopters and non-adopters. 6. Conclusions This study examined students‘ perceptions and behaviours regarding various aspects of IT support in studying foreign languages at the university level. The findings showed that the adoption of IT (i.e. intention to use IT) in this context was contingent upon critical factors such as advanced IT knowledge and skills as reflected in perceptions of IT media richness, usefulness, self-efficacy and ease of use. The findings also showed that social norms played little role in students‘ decisions to adopt. These findings make important contributions to theory and practice by providing empirical evidence of critical IT adoption factors, and suggesting how they can be used to improve foreign language study in practice. Finally, these findings provide a basis for further research that would address current limitations and extend research to other adoption issues in varying tasks, contexts and participants. 549 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Ajzen, I., and M. Fishbein (1980) Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour (p. 278). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Compeau, D.R. and C.A. Higgins (1995) ―Computer self-efficacy: development of a measure and initial test‖, MIS Quarterly, (19)2, pp.189–211. Daft, R.L and R.H. Lengel (1986) ―Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural Design‖, Management Science, (32)5, pp.554–571. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319-340. DeLone WH and McLean ER (1992) Information systems success: The quest for the dependant variable. Information Systems Research 3(1), 60-95. DeLone WH and McLean ER (2003) The delone and mclean model of information systems success: A ten-year update. Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4), 9-30. Habul A. and Obralic M. (2009), Development of IT in Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, example: Eaculty of Economics, University of Sarajevo Handzic M. and Hoor H.J. (2005), ―Corporate E-learning: An Empirical Evaluation‖, Journal of Information and Knowledge Management, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 229-235 Handzic, M and A Chumkovski (2004). e-Learning portal evaluation. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Knowledge Management (ECKM 2004), pp. 425–432. Paris, 30 September–1 October. Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations. 5th Edition. The Free Press, New York. Shum PS, Land L, Dick G. and Jamieson R. (2010), 40P. Online Lecturing: Students‘ want it, but what about the lecturers? 550 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Disagree Slightly disagree Not sure Slightly agree Agree Strongly agree I believe the use of the IT tools is helpful for my learning foreign language The quality of students‘ learning will be improved by using the IT tools I believe the IT tools will boost students‘ learning interests Learning to operate the IT tools should be easy for me It is easy for me to become skilful in using the IT tools I think IT tools will be difficult to operate I intend to use the IT tools when it becomes available Our lectures would support the use of the IT tools while teaching I believe I could use the IT tools if I had the help for reference I believe I could use the IT tools if someone showed me how to use it first I believe I could use the IT tools if I had used a similar package previously If the lecturers feel very strongly about something (positively or negatively), the IT tools allows them to show their feelings. The IT tools allow the lecturer to add meaning to what they want to say by using as many cues (body language, voice, tone, etc) as possible. The IT tools allow the lecturer to be flexible with the way language (verbal, non-verbal and/or graphics) is used in order to increase understanding Nowadays use of IT in all sectors is inevitable I believe that most whole research is done with usage of IT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 No: Statement Strongly disagree Appendix A – Survey Questions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 551 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 83 Title A name given to the resource The Use of IT Tools in Everyday Classes Where Foreign Language is Taught Author Author HANDZIC, Meliha OBRALIĆ, Merdžana CICKUSIC, Emir Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper aims to present the situation of using IT tools in everyday classes where foreign language is taught. The research is empirical. The survey study was conducted among students of a new private university in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The questionnaire was applied to students from 17 to 25, male and female students learning 2 foreign languages. The results of the study can be the useful resource for future research and help better practical implementation of IT tools in the class. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e71bae251cd206cc781206be25fc46ea.pdf c6d4b90a72c947321783ec665ff28707 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Letter transformation at linguistic understanding of deaf people Prof. Husnija HasanbegoviĤ Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology University of Tuzla, BiH husnijamaj@hotmail.com Abstract: The paper analyzes the importance of writing in linguistic understanding of the text, through the transformation of the original programmed hand alphabet as the font (PC & DEAFNESS). The aim of the research was to examine the understanding of the correspondence between the deaf children, through comparative analysis at understanding of the content at transformation of PC&DEAFNESS into font Times New Roman. To realize the set goal, the combined programs were used to write two letters at the specially designed software package. Research was conducted on a sample of 70 subjects of deaf children, which is divided into two equal and uniform subsample of the 35 subjects, of which one subsample is an experimental group and the second control group. The experimental group was writing to each other with programmed alphabet, with the possibility of transformation of the letter, and the control group with standard script, with no possibility of transformation. Evaluation of results and testing hypotheses about the significance of the difference of writing two letters and understanding at deaf children, has been expressed by the analysis of changes, using canonical discrimination analysis, which showed that the two samples differ significantly, at a significance level of P = 0.00. It was found that the respondents of experimental group showed better results in writing programmed alphabetical letter, with the possibility of transformation of the font. Key Words: programmed alphabet, remote communication of the deaf, pragmatic method, printed sign language Introduction We observed two groups of people in objective reality. Ones with hearing impairment (deaf, hard of hearing) and ones with no hearing impairment (so called ordinary). Deaf child has the same chances for psychic and physic development like ordinary child, but if we consider hearing impairment influence on socialization we will find a problem to discuss. The speech is very important in human development. The most important and first function of speech is communication and so then socialization. Deaf child has to relay on visual experience and when it is about communication and socialization, deaf child experiences troubles. Deaf can develop their speech but it is conditioned with many factors. With frequent use of speech and by using appropriate rehabilitation procedures their speech can be developed. The newest technologies and researches do not solve these problems. Even CI does not make expected progress. According to World Federation of Deaf in developing countries there is less than 20% deaf children that go to school regular. The most of young deaf continue living after schools illiterate and with poor knowledge about society. The reason is nonexistence of appropriate rehabilitation and language programs. Lets review older and recent surveys. About 50% young after finishing secondary school read and write worse than 10 year old ordinary child (Traxler, 2000). About 30% deaf and hard of hearing finish secondary school functionally illiterate (Marschark, Lang, Alebertini, 2002). Now there are possible solutions. The writing should be activated in early period of life, 5 years (E. Ferreiro, 1990; D.Olson, 1994). The importance of early writing is explained at Dickinson, McCabe and Essex, 2006. The logic is simple, to be literate deaf child has to learn language of the community. It can learn letters, learn to write but if it does not know language then it does not know what are the things it writes or reads (Halliday, 1975; Wells, 1981; Kress, 1994; Mayer and Wells, 1996; Mayer, C. 1998; Luetke-Stahlman, 1998; Kyle and Harris, 2006). The important thing is methodological admittance at training (Paul, 1998). Why deaf spell in hand alphabet? It is about dynamic perception that is the consequence of psychic dimensions of deaf person (HasanbegoviĤ, H. and SinanoviĤ, O. 2008). The importance of hand alphabet is not known yet at scientific public (HasanbegoviĤ, 2004). This survey has the task to point on better results with use of hand alphabet. 616 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Method of the Study We used method of experiment and then we did quantitative analyzes. For experiment we tested the success of text retyping. We use two different fonts for comparison. The first standard Latin font in MS Word, example: Times New Roman. The second newly crated, original one hand alphabet font that is explained at paradigmatic method of teaching deaf to language (Hasanbegovic, 2007). Sampling We had sample of 70 deaf children. We divided it in two equal and homogenous sub samples. The first was experimental and the second was control group. The experimental group had an opportunity to use one hand alphabet font, and the control group had not. Varijable The most important variable in this experiment was the variable about clear typing. We took into consideration the number of mistyped and substituted letters or graph in total count of words in the the text. Data Analysis Processes We done the data analysis on very simple way. We gave children the text to retype. Then we compared the results of experimental and control group and processed data in SPSS software under discriminative analysis. Findings and Discussion Writing The writing is very complex activity and in order to learn it one has to learn to speak first. These two activities are connected and conditioned each other. People express their feelings, taught and experiences by speech and write. The most complex type of language expression is written text. In order to send clear message one has to specify all details, even those that are not said in oral speech. Ordinary children learn to speak, then in school they learn to write. Despite those, children with hearing impairment learn to speak and write at the same time, which consider troubles. It is very clear now why deaf children never achieve the writing skill level as ordinary ones. They have weak vocabulary, write slow, make grammar mistakes. The writing and oral speech are the part of same mental process. The difference is in expression form. Deaf write as they speak, so their written text is the best for language skills. The fact that is called literacy is conditioned by language knowledge level, so the logical procedure of learning is speech and then writing. The child learns language by listening and then it practice speaking and finally it learns to write. Because deaf children can not learn hear, but they can learn to pronounce, my researches showed that reverse procedure can be useful. Children learn to write first, using the transformation of letters to dynamic basis of hand alphabet that is psychological acceptable to deaf children. There is statistic important difference between those children that were tested with use of Times New Roman windows font and those that were using newly created experimental font that represents one hand alphabet. Experimental group had better results. The control group (the one that used Latin font) typed 967 words with 91 mistakes (9,41%). They had missing letters in 31 words (3,21%) and they had wrong letters in 51 words (5,27%). The experimental group typed 16 words with mistakes (2,38%). They had missing letters in 11 words (1,63%) and they had wrong letters in 5 words (0,74%). Conclusions and Recommendations This survey proves that one hand alphabet font supports typing/writing at deaf children. The deaf child interaction with computer is logical because the computer supports those dynamic dimensions that are familiar with the basis of deaf cognitive development. Because of that, today we can find a lot of mini software which purpose is to help deaf. The language education requests many skills while programming courses and educational programs and the most important thing is to know psychology of deaf. So there are less software that is supported with this type of admittance. Despite those software with one hand alphabet font solves those problems and helps deaf to write/type. The computer software for education of deaf is consisted of next products: DEAF&WRITING – one/two hand alphabet font, DEAF&KEYBOARD – adapted keyboard with one/two hand alphabet marks on it, and operative program for language learning. DEAF&WRITING is one/two hand alphabet font published in (HasanbegoviĤ, 2004). It enables more efficient way of reading, writing and learning at deaf. Also it enables distance communication, printing and its wide usage. For that purpose we also invented keyboard for deaf with one/two hand alphabet marks on it (DEAF&KEYBOARD). The operative program is constructed like dictionary with words in it that have dynamic 617 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo support, like pictures, pronounces, sing language examples for every word, and it can be used with Latin or one/two hand alphabet font. Operative program characteristics The operative program is unique teaching technology that has all interactivity needed to focus attention of student, and most important thing, it gives results. The program is standalone flash .exe that can be started from CD or hard drive. The program request installed one/two hand alphabet font for optimal use. The program has three dimensional space that represents classroom. There are panels that are hidden in the walls. All panels have hide/show option and all can be started at the time. So it is up to pupil to use desired panels for learning. The language and pronounce learning is based on original approach. The most frequent words are explained in details with implementations on all panels. They have picture symbol that associate the word with its semantic representation. 618 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Barnett, W. S. (2001). Preschool education for economically disadvantaged children: Effects on reading achievement and related outcomes. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research: Volume 1 (pp. 421–443). New York: The Guilford Press. Dickinson, D., McCabe, A., & Essex, M. (2006). A window of opportunity we must open to all: The case for preschool with high-quality support for language and literacy. In D. Dickinson & S. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research: Volume 2 (pp. 11–28). New York: The Guilford Press. 428 Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 12:4 Fall 2007 Ferreiro, E. (1990). Literacy development: Psychogenesis. In Y. Goodman (Ed.), How children construct literacy (pp. 12–25). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Halliday, M. (1975). Talking one‘s way in: A sociolinguistic perspective on language and learning. In A. Davies (Ed.), Problems of language and learning (pp. 8–33). London: Heinemann. HasanbegoviĤ, H., & SinanoviĤ, O. (2008) Estimate of certain psychic characteristics at tested deaf people. Acta Medica Saliniana;37:127-131. HasanbegoviĤ H. (2004) Manual alphabet as an aid in understanding the language of deaf, ''Defektologija'' br. 12: 89-92. Kress, G. (1994). Learning to write (2nd ed). New York: Routledge. Kyle, F., & Harris, M. (2006). Concurrent correlates and predictors of reading and spelling achievement in deaf and hearing school children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 11, 273–288. Luetke-Stahlman, B. (1998). Language issues in deaf education. Hillsboro, OR: Butte Publications. Marschark, M., Lang, H., & Albertini, J. (2002). Educating deaf students: From research to practice. New York: Oxford University Press. Mayer, C. (1998). Deaf children learning to spell. Research in the Teaching of English, 33, 158–180. Mayer, C., & Wells, G. (1996). Can the linguistic interdependence theory support a bilingual model of literacy education for deaf students? Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 1, 93–107. Olson, D. (1994). The world on paper. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Paul, P. (1998). Literacy and deafness: The development of reading, writing, and literate thought. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Traxler, C. (2000). The Stanford achievement test, 9th edition: National norming and performance standards for deaf and hard of hearing students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 337–348. Wells, G. (1981). Learning through interaction: The study of language development. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 619 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 92 Title A name given to the resource Letter transformation at linguistic understanding of deaf people Author Author Hasanbegović, Prof. Husnija Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper analyzes the importance of writing in linguistic understanding of the text, through the transformation of the original programmed hand alphabet as the font (PC & DEAFNESS). The aim of the research was to examine the understanding of the correspondence between the deaf children, through comparative analysis at understanding of the content at transformation of PC&DEAFNESS into font Times New Roman. To realize the set goal, the combined programs were used to write two letters at the specially designed software package. Research was conducted on a sample of 70 subjects of deaf children, which is divided into two equal and uniform subsample of the 35 subjects, of which one subsample is an experimental group and the second control group. The experimental group was writing to each other with programmed alphabet, with the possibility of transformation of the letter, and the control group with standard script, with no possibility of transformation. Evaluation of results and testing hypotheses about the significance of the difference of writing two letters and understanding at deaf children, has been expressed by the analysis of changes, using canonical discrimination analysis, which showed that the two samples differ significantly, at a significance level of P = 0.00. It was found that the respondents of experimental group showed better results in writing programmed alphabetical letter, with the possibility of transformation of the font. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/81a7b777d50eb4e903f8a5851590bea0.pdf aefc06428a0987eaf1fb84f89e94c2e1 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Modal and Modality Notion of Complex Predicate in German and Bosnian Languages Assistant Professor Dr. Memnuna Hasanica Department of German Language and Literature Faculty of Education in Zenica University of Zenica memnunahasanica@gmail.com Amela ģurkoviĤ, MA acurkovic@web.de Abstrat: The aim of the paper is to highlight by contrastive approach broad issues of indicative and modal categories in German as target language and in Bosnian language. A number of examples of complex predicates in both languages were presented with the method of contrastive analysis with emphasis on the modality. It was found that the Bosnian auxiliary verbs are not always able to credibly convey all the nuances of meaning of German auxiliary verbs that are used to express modal and modality notion in general. In addition, other language categories in Bosnian language contribute to express modal and modality notion such as adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, subordinate clause or some other syntactic structures. It was also important to show the comparison and the use of the verb tense and the mood in German and Bosnian. Auxiliary modal verbs used to express modality in German usually stand in present tense and past tense, while in Bosnian language such verbs stand mainly in present tense and perfect tense. When it comes to the mood, indicative and subjunctive are most frequently used in German and indicative and ―potencijal‖ verb form (for the expression of will) in Bosnian language. Key Words: modality, mode, modus, desire, intention, necessity ... Introduction The present paper presents a research of categories of modality and the modality of complex predicates in German and Bosnian language. It is a complex case study, which raises the question of a clear definition of these categories at the level of specific languages, and on the general linguistic level. In relation to this, bringing together modal categories with categories of modality proved to be a necessary starting point. In the linguistic literature so far, the verb and the linguistic issues around the verb certainly play a very important role. It is not surprising that, despite all efforts that are invested in that sense, it has been difficult to come up with definite solutions in some segments of research of the function of the verb, and of the verb linkages and relationships within the structure of these languages. Theoretical explanation of the posed question we will try to shed light on previous research to the suggested topic and will try to find an answer to the so far unresolved or partially posed questions. As the verbs make up about a quarter of German vocabulary and as the verb is the structural center of the sentence, which determines the number and type of constituents, the study the verbal categories according to their use in a given language always plays a special role in linguistic studies. Overview of research of modal and modality concepts How the concepts of probability, possibility, necessity, belief, etc. are expressed and adopted in human language, are just some of the questions that are posed in terms of their analysis and explanations. Understanding and description of the mode and modality in Bosnian language are treated pretty vague and sporadic, while in German it is not the case. For understanding of mode and modalitiy it is the most important to identify the locus of modal power and significance of categorical terms. The categories that are bordering with the modal concept include verbal mood, desire, intention, attitude, etc. We could say that the types of modality can be expressed in several ways including: - the possible contents of the statement with regard to the relationship of the speaker towards reality; - objectivity and subjectivity of modalizator; - modality in a broad sense (intentional modality); - modality of credibility and voluntary modality; - basic modal models, constitutive and facultative modal facilities; 883 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - relation of modality towards other syntactic constituents, and modal arguably, perhaps, probably, etc.) particles (possibly, The concept of mode and modality is studied not only in linguistics but also in scientific disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, logic, mathematics and semiotics. The shared experience of these disciplines provides, one the one hand, consideration of multiple aspects of modalities from different angles of observation, while, on the other side, it is also possible to find nonuniform definitions of modality in general. In philosophy one talks about ontological modality – manner and type of activity (e.g. Detsch 1994). In traditional logic modality means a degree of determining a statement i.e. the importance of observing opportunities, necessities or realities (Drosdowski 1978: 1804, Kondakow 1983: 342). Charles S. Peirce (1839-1914) transferred the concept of modality from the logic to semiotics. The modality is here marked by the truth content of the sign, whereby three truth values are to be differentiated: existence, (logical) necessity and (hypothetical) possibility (Hodge-Kress 1988: 26). Frege (1986) sees these categories as a bridge between logic and mathematics in the philosophy of language. He developes a formal language as a series of symbols (Symbolketten) as an instrument for the strict axiomatic construction of arithmetics and he does not interpret them only as a favorite formula for each sequence of random figures (Druckfiguren) but as important signs and as testimonies for objects. Studies on the relationship between formal language and appropriate subject areas leads Frege to the development of semantics as an important interpretation of the language sign. Helbig / Busch (2000) distinguish between two types of modality: the subjective and objective modality. They characterize modality mainly as a way to exercise the relationship between the subject of the sentence and the action that is expressed by inifinitive. The most important meanings of this so-called objective modality are possibility, necessity, permit, ban, intention, desire. The difference between objective and the so called subjektive modality is visible. The subjective modality expresses the way in which the speaker refers to the process between the subject and the action expressed by infinitive clause in the sentence and in particular the way in which the speaker refers to the assessment of the reality of this process (persuasion, assumption, claim of a third party, etc.) (2000: 57). According to U. Engel (1996) modality indicates the relationship between the expressed action, on the one hand, and the subject of a sentence or a speaker, on the other hand. The "Great Dictionary of German Language― (Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache) refers to the term of modality as different language form of the speaker's expression of his statement or the statement that leads to reality or realization. Aim and method of contrastive analysis The aim of the paper is to highlight by contrastive approach broad issues of indicative and modal categories in German as target language and in Bosnian language. Modal and modality categories overlap in the functions of a complex verbal predicate in both languages as much as close linguistic and linguistic-stylistic categories also overlap in the two languages. Sentence as a meaningful unit has a notion of modality - it is used to pass the information about when the action takes place (past, present, future), and the information on whether the content of the sentence is real or unreal, desired or required. Modality is expressed by tenses and mood. The starting assumption is that the systems of modal verbs develop as systems only in languages that do not have the verbal aspect (such as the German language) or in languages in which the the verbal aspect is present only superficially. German language is used here as the source language, but in cases when it is absolutely necessary the source language will be the Bosnian language. The results of contrastive analysis are presented from the point of view of German towards the Bosnian language. The results of contrastive analysis should primarily serve to those who speak Bosnian as their mother tongue, as well as those who learn German as a foreign language. When mastering and learning German as a foreign language one tries to avoid interference with the native language when using the target language at the morphosyntactic and lexical-semantic level. Since the areas of interference should serve primarily to didactic purposes, it seems that presenting the results to the native language speaker from the German to Bosnian language is particularly useful and important, especially when the learning process of teaching German as a foreign language has a clear goal that the one who learns German language should be able to actively use the foreign language which is in this case German. We will, therefore, try to find appropriate translation equivalents in Bosnian language by using contrastive method for German verb lexemes within morphosyntactic and lexical-semantic structures in Bosnian 884 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo language. We made general remarks based on concrete examples in the given corpus, i.e. by contrastive analysis with a translation and an explanation of the lexically modified applicability in a new language use. Predicate in German U njemaĦkom jeziku predikati mogu biti sastavljeni samo od jedne rijeĦi (Vollverb-punoznaĦni glagol) ali je ĦeńĤe rijeĦ o sloņenim sastavnim glagolskim dijelovima, ali i neverbalnim elementima. P r e d i c a t e / simple predicate (consists of one word) / \ a) has one element b) has two elements (as addition to verbs verbs with separate prefix) \ complex predicate (consists of several words) / \ c) homogeneous d) heterogeneous (only verb forms) (also composed of non-verbal components, e.g. nouns) Most complex predicates and simple two-element predicates are discontinuous (diskontinuierlich) (im Gegensatz zu kontinuierlich - versus continuous ones), i.e. parts of the predicate are separated from other parts of the sentence, e.g. Hans hat gestern Gemùse eingekauft (= discontinuous predicate), weil er heute fùr seine Freunde kochen will. (= continuous predicate). a) Simple predicates – consisting of one element Er liest ein Buch On čita knjigu. b) Simple predicates – consisting of two elements Der Besuch kommt heute um 3 Uhr am Bahnhof an. Posjeta dolazi danas u 3 sata na ņeljezniĦku stanicu. c) Complex predicates-homogeneous  Auxiliary verb (haben, sein, werden) + infinite verb form Ich habe das Buch gelesen. Čitao sam knjigu.  Modal verb + infinitive (können, dürfen, mögen, müssen, wollen, sollen)  Modality verbs + zu + infinitive Modifying verbs are: e.g. beginnen, versuchen, scheinen, drohen, pflegen, belieben, verstehen... Der schiefe Turm droht einzustürzen. Kosi toranj prijeti da će se srušiti. d) Complex predicates – heterogeneous - formal refleksive verb The formal reflexive verb refers to verbs with a reflexive pronoun that is semantically empty, i.e. it has no meaning. Reflexive pronoun belongs to the verb. E.g. Er schämt sich On se stidi. - Finite form + noun Der Bauer fährt Traktor. 885 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Seljak vozi traktor. - Finite form + adjective Die Kundin schlug den Bankräuber bewusstlos. Muńterija je udarila pljaĦkańa banke tako da je ostao bez svijesti. (In Bosnian language the equivalent is not an adjective but a subordinate clause). - Finite verb form + preposition + noun (= Funktionsverbgefüge, FVG) Er hat Angst vor einer Schlange. On se boji zmije. - Phrasal idiomatic expressions Sie gab ihm einen Korb Dala mu je korpu (Phrasal expression dati nekome korpu means to refuse someone's invitation). Modal verbs in German and in Bosnian languages do not have their own lexical meaning. Semantic category of modal verbs includes concepts of necessity and possibility, and of obligations and permission in the full sense of their value, as well as the meaning of their dynamic ability. Modal verbs can according to the structure of the statement be extrinsic modifiers of the proposition (i.e. operators) or intrinsic parts of the proposition. Central prototypical exponents of the basic, epistemic meaning in German and Bosnian languages are modal verbs morati and moći, whereas the verbs trebati, smjeti, htjeti and umjeti can be called epistemic peripheral modal verbs. Modal verbs express only a circumstance in connection with the activity in question. They express an attitude toward the activity. In German these verbs are: können, müssen, mögen, dürfen, wollen, sollen. The structure da + infinitive is used mainly in the function of the complementizer with these verbs. E.g. Ich muss lernen = Moram da učim / Moram učiti. The present can be replaced by infinitive only if agents are identical. The examples that follow represent an illustration of a strong epistemic judgment, i.e. the speaker expresses the highest possible degree of positive commitment to the truth of the proposition which can be expressed by modal verbs: - Es muss drin der Unterschied sein. (M.H.) Mora da je u tome razlika. (M.H.) - Ich muss eilig gehandelt haben. (M.H.) Mora da sam prenaglio. (M.H.) - Das muss gefährlich sein. (M.H.) To mora da je opasno. (M.H.) For this use of the verb müssen-morati is in terms of syntax characteristic the impersonality (the person is recognized in the verb form of the predicate with the da clause) as well as the preposition in relation to the subject (extrinsic). The postposition and the use of finite forms of the verb morati would represent a feature of deontic use (intrinsic). Increase of epistemic distance (weakening of epistemic judgment) is reflected by adding another modal mood – ‗potencijal‘. - Unsere Studenten müssten mehr lernen. (M.H.) Nańi studenti bi morali vińe učiti. (M.H.) The verb können – moći and the verb müssen-morati are seen as the central epistemic modal verbs in German and Bosnian languages, because in their semantic meaning they contain logical notion of possibility (but also of permissions), and they refer to the term of dynamic possibility i.e. ability and skill to do something. The verb sollen-trebati belongs to modal verbs expressing a weaker deontic modality. It expresses mainly the need or moral obligation. The verb trebati also expresses a weaker epistemic modality. - Das soll deine Sache sein. (M.H.) 886 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - To treba da je tvoja stvar. (M.H.) - Das sollten sie noch vorige Woche erledigen. (M.H.) Trebalo je da oni to urade joń prońle sedmice. (M.H.) The verb dürfen – smjeti have primarily deontic meaning (seeking and giving) of permission. - Darf ich bei dir bis 22 Uhr bleiben? (M.H.) Smijem li ostati kod tebe do 22 h? (M.H.) Verbs wollen-htjeti i können-umjeti are peripheral modal verbs and they express the will (want to htjeti) and ability (be able to - umjeti). The German verb können may, therefore, have multiple meanings moći, znati, umjeti. - Das Kind kann gehen. (M.H.) Dijete umije da hoda. (M.H.) Thus, when we say that a child learned to walk - hodati, it is a skill expressed in the verb könnnen, the child knows how to walk zna hodati, the child has mastered the skill of walking. Phase verbs + complementizer Phase verbs are those that transmit information at the stage of performing action. These are the verbs such as početi, nastaviti, završiti (begin, continue, finish). The structure da + prezent or infinitive occurs here as well as complementizer (e.g. počeo je prevoditi he began to translate), but also a deverbal noun (e.g. završio je prevoĎenje or završio je sa prevoĎenjem – he finished the translation or he was finished with the translation). Such predicate can sometimes be reduced to the main verb (for example, počeo je da pliva – proplivao je), which is the very proof that the phase verb and its complementizer make a unified predicate in the Bosnian language. Short graphic presentation of complex predicates in German language The following diagrams present the dependence structure of the given predicates and, at the same time, show how the individual elements are shifted in order to realize the acceptable sequence. Since the dependency grammar starts from the rule that words are linked to larger groups based on hierarchical dependencies, then there is one word in all the groups, which represents the core of the group, the center of the group, while the other words in that group are syntactically dependent on it. The occurrence of one word as the core assumes or excludes the occurrence of some other word. (1) Kinder, sowas habt ihr sicher noch gar nicht gesehen. habt a(p)f--------------------| ↓ gesehen habt (2) Wann ist das Haus gebaut worden? Weißt du, wann das Haus gebaut worden ist? ist a(p)f----------------------| ↓ worden a(p)p---------↓ | ↓ ↓ gebaut worden ist (3) Das Buch musste noch gestern Abend gelesen worden sein? musste m(i)f----------------------------887 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo | ↓ sein a(p)i--------------↓ | ↓ ↓ worden a(p)p----↓ ↓ | ↓ ↓ ↓ gelesen worden sein musste (4) In schweigsamer Misstimmung war die Mahlzeit zu Ende geführt? war a(p)f----------------------| ↓ gefùhrt fv(pp)p---------↓ | ↓ ↓ zu Ende gefùhrt war (5) Drinnen, im Saal herrschte Aufbruch. herrschte fv(NP)f--------------------| ↓ Aufbruch herrschte (6) Gotthold, du wirst es schaffen können, glaube mir. Weißt du Gotthold, dass du es wirst schaffen können? --------------wirst a(i)f---------------------↓ | ↓ ↓ kônnen m(i)i-------------------↓ ↓ | ↓ wirst schaffen kônnen The complex verbal predicate is, therefore, a complex syntactic structure, which occurs by joining auxiliary verb in the personal verb form and the main verb in the infinitive form. In such structure the personal verb form carries the grammatical meaning, while the main verb is the lexical complement. The complex verb predicate can be included in a group of compound predicates, but it is commonly classified in grammars as a special type of predicate. Auxiliary verbs within the complex verb predicate belong to two lexical-semantic groups of verbs modal and modifying verbs in German and modal and phase verbs in Bosnian language. Modal verbs express different nuances of modality: mogućnost, htijenje, ţelju, nuţnost, potrebu, namjeru (possibility, will, desire, necessity, need, intention) etc. Such verbs in German are: können, mögen, müssen, dürfen, wollen and sollen and in Bosnian language: morati, ţeljeti, smjeti, trebati, umjeti, znati, namjeravati, nastojati, pokušati, usuditi se etc. Phase verbs in Bosnian language mark different phases of the process indicated by the main verb, and the most common are: početi, stati, nastaviti, produţiti, prestati, prekinuti, etc. Examples of predicates with modal, modality and phase verbs: 1a) Der Konsul musste diese Ida in Schtz nehmen. 1b) Konzul morade uzeti Idu u zańtitu. 2a) Unsere Tony soll sich ein Beispiel daran nehmen. 2b) Nańa Toni bi se mogla ugledati na tebe. 3a) Am unteren Tischschende begann es aufzuflammern. 3b) Na dnu stola poĦe gorjeti. 4a) Frau Buddenbrook kann nicht mehr diese Frau ertragen. 4b) Gospoħa Budenbrok ne moţe vińe da podnese tu ņenu. 888 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Additional main verb within the complex verb predicate can also have the present form. Such verbs are then linked with modal/phase verbs with the help of a particle < da > and are complementary with the subject of the sentence. E.g.: 5a) Wir haben furchtbar gelacht, fing er an, zu plappern. 5b) Strańno smo se smejali, poĦe on da brblja. Modal verbs occur with infinitive in German language, whereas the modality verbs occur mostly with infinitive structure with zu, although there are also verbs without zu. In Bosnian language there are verb and non-verb predicates. Non-verb predicates are called nominal, and in German they are called "predicatives" which do not belong to the class of predicates. This makes a big difference between the two contrasted languages. Predicate of modal verbs in Bosnian language Independent part of the sentence which opens up a place in the sentence by itself is called predicate. Predicate is a direct holder of predicativity and as such it makes the grammatical core of the sentence. This is why the holder of the grammatical meaning of the predicate is the verb meaning in its personal form. Personal verb form represents an essential constituent of the predicate. The predicate also has a lexical meaning. The lexical meaning of the predicate can be characterized by a verbal and non-verbal lexeme. According to their structure the verbal predicates can be simple and complex. Simple predicate consists of main verbs. Simple verb predicates consist of a main verb lexeme that is the holder of the grammatical and the lexical meaning of the predicate. Complex verb predicates are composed of two verb lexemes – an auxiliary one, which holds the grammatical meaning, and the main verb lexeme that holds the lexical meaning of the predicate. Auxiliary verbs within the complex predicate belong to two lexical-semantic groups of verbs such as: modal and phase verbs + main verb (verb that carries the meaning of the sentence). Therefore, all complex verbal predicates in Bosnian language can have the following structural form: modal / phase + main verb Modal verbs in Bosnian language are: morati, moći, htjeti, smjeti, trebati, and the modality verbs are: umjeti, ţeljeti, namjeravati, smjerati. Htio sam mu pomoći. (M.H.) Prije petka moram se vratiti u Zenicu. (M.H.) Ona mora sama prevesti ovaj tekst na njemaĦki jezik. (M.H.) Phase verbs in Bosnian language are most often the following verbs: početi, stati, nastaviti, produţiti, prestati, prekinuti.... Počeli smo primjenjivati Bolonjski proces. (M.H.) Tek poslije podne je prestala padati kińa. (M.H.) Depending on whether the lexical meaning of the predicate is marked with verbal or non-verbal lexemes, all predicates in Bosnian language can be divided into verbal and non-verbal predicates. It is customary that non-verbal predicates in Bosnian language are called nominal predicates. The complex verb predicate is determined by syntactic relations and it is not affected by the word order in a sentence. Parts of the complex predicate can be separated by other words. If we look at them from the aspect of word order, these parts are independent words, while on the syntactical level those parts represent only one word and thus make single unit. Semantic modification of modal verbs Modal verbs express different nuances of modality: mogućnost, htijenje, ţelju, nuţnost, namjeru, potrebu (possibility, will, desire, necessity, intention, need). The German modal verbs können, mögen, mussen, dürfen, wollen, sollen require an infinitive verb as a complement that carries the meaning (main verb) in the sentence, which has the obligatory position at the end of the sentence and is used without zu. It is possible to connect these verbs with infinitive I and infinitive II: 889 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (6a) Wir mùssen eine Stunde warten. (6b) Moramo Ħekati jedan sat. (Notwendigkeit – nuņnost, potreba) (necessity, need) (7a) Wir mùssen eine Stunde gewartet haben. (7b) Mora da smo Ħekali jedan sat. (Vermutung - pretpostavka) (assumption) The above example is a strong illustration of epistemic judgment, that is the speaker presents his highest possible degree of positive commitment to a true proposition that can be expressed by the modal verb. It is also possible to illustrate with the following examples: (8a) Ich muss voreilig gehandelt haben. (8b) Mora da sam prenaglio. (9a) Es muss etwas geschehen sein. (9b) Mora da se neńto dogodilo. (Behauptung - tvrdnja) (claim) (10a) Das muss etwas Neues sein. (10b) Pa to mora da je neńto novo. For this use of the modal verb morati (must) in terms of syntax is characteristic that it is impersonal (a person is recognized through the verb form of predicate with da-clause) and that it has a preposition in relation to the subject (extrinsic). The postposition and use of finite forms of the verb morati (must) would represent a feature of deontic use (intrinsic). (11a) Unsere durften siegen. (11b) Nańi bi morali pobijediti. Increase of epistemic distance (weakening of epistemic judgment) is expressed by potential verb form (for the expression of will in Bosnian language). (12a) Zu Weihnachten durften die Kinder aufbleiben. (12b) Za BoņiĤ su djeca smjela ostati budna. (Erlaubnis - dozvola) (permission) (13a) Wegen der Ansteckungsgefahr durften wir den Patienten nicht besuchen. (13b) Zbog opasnosti od zaraze mi nismo smjeli posjetiti pacijenta. (Môglichkeit - moguĤnost) (possibility) In this case, the meaning of the modal verb dürfen with the negation does not always show the zabranu (Verbot) (ban), which is the most common form, but the mogućnost (Möglichkeit) (possibility) as in this case. (14a) Man kann heute in der See schwimmen, es ist nicht sturmisch. (Môglichkeit - moguĤnost) (possibility) (14b) Danas se moņe kupati u moru, nema oluje. Nuances of the use of the modal verb können with infinitve as the complement indicate different nuances of possibilities that are determined by objective conditions in terms of reason, cause, consequence, relationship cause - performance, ability, permission, such as: (15a) Die alte Frau kann noch ohne Brille die Zeitung lesen. (Fähigkeit - sposobnost) (ability) (15b) Stara gospoħa joń moņe Ħitati novine bez naoĦala. Thus, the verb können means a possibility that the subject can realize by himself with the help of his physical or spiritual ability. (16a) Ich môchte einmal die Insel Rùgen kennen lernen. (Wunsch, Wille - ņelja, volja) (desire, will) (16b) Ņelim upoznati osrvo Rùgen. 890 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this version the verb mögen is primarily used in past subjunctive to indicate the present (whereas it would be possible to use only the German modal verb wollen to indicate the past). The verb mögen differs from the verb wollen in the way that wollen expresses a decisive enforceable will, while the verb mögen expresses only a weak desire. (17a) Die Schùler sollen die Schlùsselwôrter im Text unterstreichen. (Forderung - zahtjev) (request) (17b) UĦenici treba da podvuku kljuĦne rijeĦi u tekstu. There are, of course, different instances of the request, such as command, obligation, plan, provision, recommendation, etc. (18a) Das Ehepaar will eine touristische Busreise durch Italien unternehmen. (Absicht, Wille, Wunsch - namjera, volja, ņelja) (intention, will, desire) (18b) BraĦni par ņeli napraviti turistiĦko putovanje autobsom kroz Italiju. In some cases, the verb wollen expresses rather desire than the will or intention primarily to indicate the past. For example: (19a) Ich wollte immer einmal Island kennen lernen. (19b) Oduvijek sam ņelio bar jednom upoznati Island. (20a) Ich will hier warten, bis du kommst. (21b) Ja Ĥu ovdje Ħekati dok ne doħeń. (Zukunft - buduĤnost) (future) The modal verb wollen to indicate the future is different from the auxiliary verb werden in the way that it weakens the basic meaning of intent, will. Semantic modification of the modality of auxiliary verbs In addition to modal verbs, the other verbs can also occasionally have a modifying meaning. Such modifying verbs are also auxiliary verbs haben and sein that in such cases are used in German language with the infinitive construction with zu. Auxiliary verb sein + infinitive with zu means more often the possibility, but sometimes also the necessity. (21a) Die Arbeit ist in drei Tagen kaum zu schaffen. (Môglichkeit – moguĤnost) (possibility) (21b) Rad se jedva moņe obaviti za tri dana. (22a) Die Arbeit ist unbedingt in drei Tagen zu schaffen. (Notwendigkeit – nuņnost) (necessity) (22b) Rad se svakako mora obaviti za tri dana. Auxiliary verb haben + infinitive with zu means more often the necessity but sometimes also the possibility. One can determine which meaning is present in the sentence only from the context. The possibility is marked mainly through negation words. While the auxiliary verb sein + infinitive with zu usually has a passive meaning, the structure of the auxiliary verb haben + inifinitive with zu has an active meaning, whereby the subject usually presents a person. (23a) Ich habe mit dir zu reden. (23b) Ja moram razgovarati sa tobom. (Notwendigkeit - nuņnost) (necessity) 24a) Was hast du zu berichten? (24b) Ńta moņeń izvijestiti? (Môglichkeit - moguĤnost) (possibility) Examples in Bosnian language show the common use of a complementary predicate verb in the infinitive form, which in German corresponds to infinitive structure with zu. 891 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Semantic modification of modality verbs In addition to modal and auxiliary verbs there are also some other verbs that can occasionally have the modality meaning. Such verbs are called modality verbs (Modalitätsverben) and they must be used with the infinitive with zu. According to U. Engel (1996) there are the following modality verby in German language: anheben, anstehen, belieben, bleiben (it is also possible to use the pure infinitive), drohen, gedenken, geruhen, sich (ge)trauen, pflegen, scheinen, stehen, umhin können, sich unterstehen, sich vermessen, vermögen, versprechen, verstehen, wissen. According to Dņ. JahiĤ/S. HaliloviĤ/I. PaliĤ (2000: 364 ff) the phase verbs in Bosnian language characterize different phases of the process indicated by the main verb, and the most common are: početi, stati, nastaviti, produţiti, prestati, prekinuti ... The subject of the modality verb and the subject of the main verb present the same category. Such identity of the subject is the reason why the subject of the complex modality predicate is mentioned only once. (25a) Die Ehe schien sein Befinden nicht gùnstig beeinflusst zu haben. (25b) Izgledalo je da brak nije povoljno uticao na njegovo zdravlje. (26a) Jemand braucht nur geboren zu werden, um ein Auserlesender und Edler zu sein. (26b) Neko treba samo da se rodi pa da bude izabranik i plemiĤ. (27a) Er hatte es gekauft, er schien seinen Ehrgeiz darein gesetzt zu haben... (27b) Kupio ju je, izgledalo je da se kapricirao da je kupi.... Complement main verb as a part of a complex verbal predicate can also have the form of the present tense with da - clause. In that case it is connected with a modal- phase verb by the conjunction da and it stays in grammatical congruence with the subject. Conclusion Based on performed analysis of the two observed languages it could be concluded that the verb in the personal verb form is the holder of grammatical meaning of the predicate in both languages and that the personal verb form represents the essential constituent of the predicate. Besides the grammatical meaning the predicate is also characterized by the lexical meaning. The lexical meaning of predicates in both languages can be characterized with both verb and nonverb lexeme. In such a construction a personal verb form is the holder of the grammatical meaning and the main verb represents the lexical complement. Auxiliary verbs within complex predicates belong to the lexical - semantic groups such as modal, modality and phase verbs plus the main verb that represents the holder of the meaning in a sentence. When it comes to contrastive analysis of German auxiliary verbs with Bosnian auxiliary verbs it can be determined that Bosnian auxiliary verbs are not always able to credibly convey all the nuances of meaning and the nuances of meaning of German auxiliary verb that are used to express modal and modality notion in general. In doing so, contribute to the Bosnian language and other language resources such as adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, subordinate clause, or some other syntactic structures. In addition, other language categories in Bosnian language contribute to express modal and modality notion such as adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, subordinate clause or some other syntactic structures. It was also important to show the comparison and the use of the verb tense and the mood in German and Bosnian. Auxiliary modal verbs used to express modality in German usually stand in present tense and past tense, while in Bosnian language such verbs stand mainly in present tense and perfect tense. When it comes to the mood, indicative and subjunctive are most frequently used in German and indicative and ―potencijal‖ verb form (for the expression of will) in Bosnian language. Explanation of abbreviations in graphic presentation: 892 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo a (i) auxiliary verb a comes with infinitive i and appears in the finite form a (p) auxiliary verb a comes with participle p and appears in the finite form a (p) auxiliary verb a comes with participle p and appears in the infinite form a (p) auxiliary verb a comes with participle p and appears in the participle form fv (NP) functional verbal expression fv comes with the noun phrase NP and appears in the finite form fv (pp) functional verbal expression fv comes with prepositional phrase pp and appears as participle m (i) modal verb m comes with infinitive i and appears in the finite form m (i) modal verb m comes with infinitive i and appears in the infinite form i. f f. f f i i p p f f p p f f i References Albert Busch/Oliver Stenschke (2008): Germanistische LInguistik, 2. Auflage, Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co.KG, Tùbingen Augustin, Irina: Probleme mit deutschen Modalverben; Dissertation (http://www.opus.ub.unibayreut.de/volltexte/2007/283/pdf/Dissertation_Augustin.pdf) BariĤ,E./LonĦariĤ,M./MaliĤ,D./PaveńiĤ,S./Peti,M./ZeĦeviĤ,V./Znika,M (1979): PriruĦna gramatika hrvatskoga knjiņevnog jezika: Zagreb 893 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bertelsmann (1999): Grammatik der deutschen Sprache, Mùnchen Duden 4 (2005): Die Grammatik, Mannheim Engel, Ulrich (1996): Deutsche Grammatik, 3, korrigierte Auflage Hasanica, Memnuna (2009): Akcionalnost i tvorbeni modeli glagola u njemaĦkom i b/h/s jeziku, Univerzitet u Zenici, Pedagońki fakultet u Zenici Helbig, G./Buscha, J. (2000): Leitfaden der deutschan Grammatik, Langenscheidt KG, Berlin und Mùnchen Helbig, G./ Buscha, J. (2001): Deutsche Grammatik. Ein Handbuch fùr den Ausländerunterricht. Berlin, Mùnchen, Wien, Zùrich, New York: Langenscheidt. JahiĤ Dņ., HaliloviĤ S., PaliĤ I. (2000): Gramatika bosanskog jezika; 1. izdanje, Zenica, Dom ńtampe Karin Pittner / Judith Bermann (2004), Narrstudienbùcher, Tùbingen KarabaliĤ Vladimir / Leonard Pon (2008): Syntax der Satzglieder im Deutschen, Osijek Katja Kessel / Sandra Reimann (2005): Basiswissen Deutsche Gegenwartssprache, A. Francke Verlag Tùbingen und Basel PetroviĤ, Velimir (1995) Einfùhrung ind die Syntax des Deutschen―, Osijek StevanoviĤ, M. (1989): Savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik II, NauĦna knjiga Beograd VukoviĤ, J. (1967): Sintaksa glagola, Zavod za izdavanje udņbenika Sarajevo ZiliĤ, Erminka (2002) : Syntax der deutschen Gegenwartssprache―, Dom ńtampe Zenica Sources Katja Kessel / Sandra Reimann (2005): Basiswissen Deutsche Gegenwartssprache, A. Francke Verlag Tùbingen und Basel .Mann, Thomas (1960): „Buddenbrocks―; Verfall einer Familie; S.Fischer Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt am Main Mann, Thomas (1961): „Buddenbrocks―-knjiga druga, preveli: O.DavidoviĤ i P. OgnjanoviĤ; IzdavaĦko preduzeĤe Svjetlost Sarajevo 894 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 551 Title A name given to the resource Modal and Modality Notion of Complex Predicate in German and Bosnian Languages Author Author Hasanica, Memnuna Ćurković, Amela Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the paper is to highlight by contrastive approach broad issues of indicative and modal categories in German as target language and in Bosnian language. A number of examples of complex predicates in both languages were presented with the method of contrastive analysis with emphasis on the modality. It was found that the Bosnian auxiliary verbs are not always able to credibly convey all the nuances of meaning of German auxiliary verbs that are used to express modal and modality notion in general. In addition, other language categories in Bosnian language contribute to express modal and modality notion such as adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, subordinate clause or some other syntactic structures. It was also important to show the comparison and the use of the verb tense and the mood in German and Bosnian. Auxiliary modal verbs used to express modality in German usually stand in present tense and past tense, while in Bosnian language such verbs stand mainly in present tense and perfect tense. When it comes to the mood, indicative and subjunctive are most frequently used in German and indicative and ―potencijal‖ verb form (for the expression of will) in Bosnian language. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1671e2476b705073a536e20545deef08.pdf 9766bc6820e0165ccae917e39ed0cc90 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Providing web-based multilingual lexical learning materials with a regional culture oriented focus Janet M.D. Higgins Okinawa University, Japan jmdth@yahoo.com Abstract: This presentation introduces a CALL Multilingual Visual Dictionary (MLVD) CALL project which is being developed at Okinawa University, and is funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEXT). The project began in 2005 with a perceived need on the part of teachers and students at the university for language materials that reflect Okinawan and Japanese culture. The project involves the compilation of a visual dictionary with entries in three languages: English Chinese and Japanese. Visuals include still photos and short videos. The dictionary is organised by themes. These allow us to explore various cultural artifacts and customs within authentic settings. The organisation of the units differs according to the main themes. The learning materials are a mixture of web-based and classroom based materials. In this presentation I explain the organization of several units, show examples of the visuals and practice activities. Key words: multilingual visual dictionary, culture-focused learning activities, CALL 1. Background In 2005, languages teachers at Okinawa University began to express the need for learning materials that reflect Okinawan and Japanese culture. Students need to be able to explain features of their home environment, and the cultural values, local customs, and cultural artifacts of the communities in which they live or from which they come. Students who go abroad for short or long stay study often complain that they cannot answer questions about their home background when asked to do so by host families and students from other countries. A key requirement for being able to talk about one's cultural background is to have the appropriate lexical knowledge. Such materials would allow our students to talk about their life experiences to peoples of other cultures in English or Chinese. They would also provide foreign students with resources for learning about the regional culture in the three languages. The result was our Multilingual Visual Dictionary (MLVD) CALL project funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEXT). The project involves the compilation of a multilingual visual dictionary with written and spoken entries in English, Chinese, and Japanese. Visuals include still photos and short videos. The dictionary is organised by themes. These allow us to explore various cultural artifacts and customs within authentic settings. In the following sections, I explain the rationale for using visuals and a thematic approach to the organization of entries, describe the organization of several units, show examples of the visuals, and give examples of the learning activities. 2. Rationale for the organization of the dictionary and the use of visuals. The dictionary items are organised around themes. This form of organisation capitalises on what researchers know about the nature of memory and the network-like organisation of the mental lexicon、and is a powerful learning tool. (For more details of research in this area, see Higgins, 2007). In addition to being interesting and attention catching, visual images contribute significantly to the learning process. They provide an immediate representation of cultural artifacts with no linguistic mediation. We can immediately see from photos that the popular Okinawan goya is a long, thin, knobbly, green vegetable; in China it is white. Japanese apples are prototypically green, but European apples are both red and green (Suzuki, 1990). The value of using visuals is attested by research which demonstrates the positive value of imagery in vocabulary learning. Gairns and Redman suggest, for instance that 'our memory for visual images is extremely reliable and there is little doubt that objects and pictures can facilitate memory' (1986: 92).Moreover, research into learning styles has found that learners have preferred learning styles. By adopting a multi-sensory approach to vocabulary presentation, the project aims to cater for students with different learning styles. 660 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Dictionary entries Each entry is introduced in its written and spoken form and is accompanied by a visual. In addition, we provide an example sentence or short conversation in which the entry is used in a typical way in the context of the topic. Furthermore, we have a cultural note for many items. These notes vary between the three languages, depending on the cross cultural knowledge we assume speakers of those languages have. Learners can opt to see the visual and listen only, or see the written text as well. Figure 2 is a screen from the Departures unit, showing the entries in the three languages, and the map of the unit on the left. On the right, learners click for the written text, or the spoken text in whichever language they are working with. Figure 2 There are many issues to be resolved regarding the production of the entries. These include script, spelling, and grammar, as well as definitions. The most difficult problem is how to convey the full meaning of the entries. The first time an item is introduced it is accompanied by a visual. The visual provides the image. But the object alone in a visual is not sufficient information. If we take the example of the object ‗toofu-yoo‘ (fermented tofu), learners need to know not just what it looks like, but also how it is usually presented (small dish, with a small bamboo fork or toothpick) and when it is consumed (accompanied by awamori, Okinawan rice wine). Some items come in different forms, and the packaging is significant. Hence we are trying to make our photos as culturally rich as possible. The cultural notes are an important resource in this respect. For more detailed discussion see Higgins (2007) and Higgins et al (2007). 4. Selection and organization of the themes We have organized the overall dictionary as a visit to Okinawa. Each unit covers a thematic area, and we have chosen themes that will allow us to introduce a range of Okinawan and Japanese cultural items, as well as provide insights into the cultural history and traditions of Okinawa. The first and last units are Arriving at Naha Airport and Departing from Naha Airport. We focus on travelling procedures as well as souvenirs and airport facilities. In the topic on the Tsuboya pottery area, we examine the pottery making process, see a potter at work, and take a walk along the main street with its pottery workshops, kilns and shops. The topic on the main commercial shopping street in the capital, Naha, (International Street) allows us to briefly cover the history of the commercial centre of the city, as well as Okinawan specialties and crafts, street life, and annual events. From this outline it is clear that the organization of each thematic unit and the activities involved are different. In Departing from Naha airport, for instance, the theme lends itself to an organisation based on a chronological process. Departing passengers have to take a predetermined route through the airport from check in to boarding. During the stage between checking in and going through the departure gates, we take the learners on a souvenir hunting trail. This provides the opportunity to introduce typical Okinawan produce. We cover food items (for instance, chinsukoo biscuits, pineapple cake, black sugar, seaweed, fruits such as papaya, mango, dragon fruit and passion fruit), drinks (awamori, Okinawan beer), woven and printed cloth (bashoo-fu, joofu, bingata), clothing (kariushi wear), Ryuuyuu glassware, coral and shell products, and Tsuboya pottery, among others. The Departing from Naha Airport unit is accessed chronologically and by sub topic. The learning activities for the unit are process and product focused depending on the subtopic. 661 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In the Tsuboya Pottery District unit, the sub themes include the history of the area, the pottery making process, interviews with potters and architects, and virtual tours as a tour guide. Each of these has a different format, and the entries are used in typical contexts. Several of the sub themes depart from the basic format of providing entries and sample sentence contexts. Instead they use entries embedded within short texts (history sections) or conversations (interviews). In this unit we subdivide the entries into thematic groups or Galleries. Figure 3 is an example of a Tsuboya Gallery. By clicking the visual, learners access the basic screen for that entry. By clicking the example box, they can see and hear an example of the entry in a conversational context. Figure 3 5. Practice Activities Basic practice involves repetition and memorization of the entries. The next stage is recalling and recognizing them among groups of words, groups of visuals, or from spoken forms only. We then place the entries in their sentence contexts with short dictation exercises. One type is shown in Figure 4. Figure 4 662 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The entries are then placed in a communication context. For instance, learners are asked to use them in short conversations, act as a tour guide, listen to and create short interviews, and make short speeches. We expect teachers to be able to use the materials flexibly in the context of their own class work and to design their own practice activities (see Figure 5). Figure 5 Examples of open-ended speaking tasks Open–ended speaking tasks a) You are flying to Osaka. You arrive at the airport. Explain the procedures you need to take before you can get to the departure lounge. b) You visit the duty free section of the airport to buy souvenirs for your family. Tell us what you buy for your relatives. c) Choose three interesting places or objects on Yachimun Dori (Pottery Street) and guide a visitor to see them. 6. Summary We aim in this project to provide learners with a set of resources that will help them share their life experiences with people from different cultures. By using authentic photos and short videos, we hope we can provide them with engaging and stimulating learning materials. While visuals deal well with objects, abstract concepts are more difficult. We use video to capture actions and processes, but we acknowledge that not all concepts are easily amenable to visual representation. We have tried through the incorporation of extensive texts (cultural notes, conversations, interviews) to place the lexical items in authentic settings and show how they are used in their appropriate grammatical and social contexts. We believe that our multi-lingual multi-media approach to vocabulary acquisition is motivating and appropriate for a variety of language learners with varied goals. We foresee this project being extended not only by the authors, but by the users themselves, as they suggest themes and incorporate the lexical items that interest them and that they need. 7. References Gairns, R. & Redman, S. (1986). Working with Words. A guide to teaching and learning vocabulary. Cambridge: CUP. Higgins, J.M.D. (2007) Developing regional culture-oriented lexical resources for language learners. In, Department of Applied English, Ming Chuan University (Ed.), The Proceedings of 2007 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL and Applied Linguistics, p. 165-173. Taiwan: Crane Publishing. Higgins, J.M.D., Itoh, T. & Watanabe, Y. (2007). (in Japanese). In Search of Community-Based Language Learning: A Multi-lingual CALL System Development Project for Okinawa University. Regional Studies, 3, Institute of Regional Studies, Okinawa University, 17-28. Suzuki, T. (1990). Japanese and Foreign languages. (in Japanese) Tokyo: Iwanami. 8. Acknowledgements The dictionary project is supported by MEXT research awards 18520471 and 70235802 (2006-08, 2008-11). 663 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 99 Title A name given to the resource Providing web-based multilingual lexical learning materials with a regional culture oriented focus Author Author Higgins, Janet M.D. Abstract A summary of the resource. This presentation introduces a CALL Multilingual Visual Dictionary (MLVD) CALL project which is being developed at Okinawa University, and is funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEXT). The project began in 2005 with a perceived need on the part of teachers and students at the university for language materials that reflect Okinawan and Japanese culture. The project involves the compilation of a visual dictionary with entries in three languages: English Chinese and Japanese. Visuals include still photos and short videos. The dictionary is organised by themes. These allow us to explore various cultural artifacts and customs within authentic settings. The organisation of the units differs according to the main themes. The learning materials are a mixture of web-based and classroom based materials. In this presentation I explain the organization of several units, show examples of the visuals and practice activities. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05b64899a5617fbd01075ac0708179f8.pdf eb8941f32c6aa9c852c4e1ed92b88fca PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Interpretacija divanske poezije u nastavi bosanskog jezika i knjiţevnosti kroz poetiku islamskog simbolizma, a posredstvom primijenjene lingvistike Jasmin HodţiĤ Department of Bosnian Language and Literature University of Dņemal BijediĤ Mostar, BiH lingvostop@yahoo.com Saņetak: U radu se putem primjene znanja o etimolońkom znaĦenju rijeĦi daju odreħene smjernice za interpretaciju divanske poezije u nastavi bosanskog jezika i knjiņevnosti. Dekodiranju hermetĦke poetike islamskog simbolizma pristupa se interdisciplinarno; etimologija je polazińte koje nas upuĤuje na suńtinu odreħenih pojmova koji su kontekstualno vezani za ovu vrstu poezije, pri Ħemu se uzima u obzir i lingvostilistiĦki, semantiĦki, pragmatiĦki i sociolońki pristup u interpretaciji pojedinih simbola, pojmova i termina, a tako i ove poetike u cjelosti. KljuĦne rijeĦi: etimologija, semantika, divanska poezija, metafora, simbol Uvod Uslijed mińljenja da je poetika islamskog simbolizma u divanskoj knjiņevnosti dosta znaĦenjski neprohodna, onostrana, hermetiĦna i nerazumljiva, nasuprot tome postoje i brojna tumaĦenja simbola ove poetike, razraħena do u tanĦine i dovedena do potpune jasnoĤe. Interpretacija divanske poezije pri tom za polaznu taĦku uzima najĦeńĤe simbol, koji se kao osnova poetskog iskaza dekodira, i tako dalje interpretira. Pod poetikom islamskog simbolizma podrazumijevamo sufijsku liniju u divanskoj poeziji, onu koja je nastala na elementima islamske filozofije. ZnaĦenje tih utvrħenih simbola u divanskoj poeziji oscilira u krugu nekoliko opet za nas apstraktnih pojmova koji se odnose na predmet poetskog iskaza, a ti pojmovi su: ljubav, ljepota, tuga, čeţnja, volja, sreća, prijatelj i sl. Zato Ĥemo ovom prilikom krenuti korak dalje i uz pomoĤ etimolońke analize pomenutih nekoliko tematskih odrednica zapravo pobliņe odrediti pojmove na koje se simboli u divanskoj poeziji ( a tako i cijela ta poetika) najĦeńĤe svode, i time ovu poetiku dovesti do joń veĤe shvatljivosti. Defincija divanske knjiţevnosti Divanska knjiņevnost je „umjetnička knjiţevna produkcija (prvenstveno poetska), stvarana u duhu islamskih kulturnih naslaga― ( Nametak, 1997) . Kako se prvenstveno misli na poeziju kada je rijeĦ o divanskoj knjiņevnosti, prikladan je i termin divanska poezija, ńto Ĥemo imati u vidu kada budemo birali izvore primjera za interpetaciju. Kada je u pitanju znaĦenje rijeĦi divan, treba znati da - „Sama riječ DIVAN ušla je u jezik islamskih naroda iz perzijskog jezika, u osnovnom značenju SKUP, ZBIR― ( Nametak, 1997). Isto tako, ova rijeĦ je uńla i u nań jezik, tako da je biljeņe rjeĦnici. Na HJP 224 Ħitamo sljedeĤe leksikolońko odreħenje ove rijeĦi: dìvān m 〈G divána〉 1. pov. sredińnje drņavno raĦunovodstvo u Omejadskom i Abasidskom kalifatu (od 7. st.) 2. pov. u Osmanskom Carstvu a. skupina ljudi koji raspravljaju o nekom pitanju; skupńtina, savjet, vijeĤe b. carsko ili vezirsko vijeĤe; drņavni savjet 3. pov. a. carski dvor (ili dvor, kuĤa kakva uglednika — vezira, pańe) b. carsko prijestolje 4. reg. razgovor, rijeĦ 5. vrsta sofe; otoman, seĤija 6. zbornik ili zbirka (orijentalnih) pjesama ✧ tur. ← arap. dīwān ← perz. Vidimo da je znaĦenje rijeĦi dosta (naizgled) ńiroko postavljeno. Primijetili smo da se nekim razlozima i u prevodu Kur'ana na nań jezik Ħesto koristi ova rijeĦ. U kur'anskom tekstu Ħitamo ajete koji sadrņe ovu rijeĦ, a svi ti ajeti imaju jedan zajedniĦki koncept - grupa okupljenih u vrtovima edenskim. Takvi skupovi, ili skupovi sliĦni njima, dņennetske su oaze na zemlji – a to su mjesta u kojima se okupljaju vjernici zarad spominjanja i sjeĤanja na svoga Stvoritelja, Allaha dņ.ń. Upravo je dņennet od ovosvjetskih stvari zadrņao samo to, spominjanje Allaha dņ.ń. : 1. ―I Mi ćemo zlobu iz grudi njihovih istisnuti, oni će kao braća na divanima jedni prema drugima sjediti...― (Odaje, 47) 2. „...čekaju sigurno edenski vrtovi, kroz koje će rijeke teći, u njima će se narukvicama od zlata kititi i u zelena odijela od dibe i kadife oblačiti, na divanima će u njima naslonjeni biti. Divne li nagrade i krasna li boravišta!― (Pećina, 31) 224 RjeĦniĦka baza hrvatskog jeziĦkog portala: www.hjp.srce.hr , koja je podesna za pretraņivanje i ovaj tip prouĦavanja te prouĦavanje jezika inaĦe. 671 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. „oni i ţene njihove biće u hladovini na ukrašenim divanima naslonjeni,...― (Ja-Sin, 56) „...na divanima, jedni prema drugima,...― (Redovi, 44) „Biće naslonjeni na divanima poreĎanim, a vjenčaćemo im hurije dţennetske.― (Gora, 20) „...na divanima izvezenim,...― (DogaĎaj, 15) „...naslonjeni na divanima, oni u njemu ni mraz ni ţegu neće osjetiti,...― (Vrijeme, 13) ĥesto spominjano sjedenje na divanima uokvireno je opisom dņennetske bańĤe, sa svih popratnim zgodama, iz Ħega se otvara jedna ńira dimenzija u znaĦenju ove rijeĦi. (U arapskom izvorniku iskorińtena je rijeĦ ‫سزُر‬ ُ koju bismo u slobodnom prevodu interpretirali kao kauč,sofa, i sl.) ZnaĦenja koja Ħitamo iz rjeĦniĦke baze HJP metonimijski su izvedena iz osnovnog znaĦenja rijeĦi divan. Naravno da SKUP predstavlja i SKUP LJUDI, a to dalje moņe da bude SKUPŃTINA. Na SKUPŃTINI se raspravlja, razgovara, pa time je izvedeno znaĦenje RAZGOVORA. Razgovor je i RASPRAVA, ili DIJALOG. On se podrazumijeva pri SJEDENJU na nekom skupu. To se vidi i iz izvedenih rijeĦi od rijeĦi divan. Takve su rijeĦi divanhana, divaniti, divandţija; koje po bazi HJP imaju sljedeĤi leksikolońki opis: divanàna (divanhàna) ţ 〈G mn divanánā〉 1. arhit. veĤa prostorija u kuĤama orijentalne gradnje za boravak, razgovor i puńenje 2. lokal. natkriveni dio balkona na jednom zidu proĦelja ili oko cijele drvene kuĤe domaĤe gradnje; trijem ✧ tur. divan-hane: kuĤa, mjesto za razgovor divániti ( ) nesvrš. 〈prez. dívānīm, pril. sad. -nēĤi, gl. im. -njēnje〉 1. govoriti 2. razgovarati, priĦati ✧ vidi dìvān divàndţija m 〈N mn -e〉 reg. onaj koji je nazoĦan divanu (4) i lijepo govori; kozer, zabavljaĦ, duhovit Ħovjek ✧ vidi dìvān PrimijeĤujemo da se opis izvedenica poklapa s nańom postavkom o metonimijskom karakteru izvedenih znaĦenja u spektru znaĦenja koja se odnose na samu rijeĦ divan. 672 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Divanska poezija i društveno okruţenje - Tematski okviri divanske poezije Tematski okviri divanske poezije izgraħeni su po uzusima druńtvenog miljea u kojem je ona nastajala. Druńtveno okruņenje u kojem je divansko pjesnińtvo nastalo temelji se na islamskoj tradiciji a institucionalno i drņavniĦki uokviruje Osmanskom carevinom. Zato su Kur'an, Hadis i islamska filozofija kao temelji osmanskog druńtvenog ureħenja samim tim prevashodno i glavne koordinate tematskog odreħenja divanske poezije. Ipak, tu su i neke druge taĦke po kojima moņemo razvrstati motive u divanskoj poeziji: „... divanska knjiţevnost se formirala na osnovama stare turske narodne knjiţevnosti, pod snaţnim utjecajem islamske kulture i već formirane klasične perzijske knjiţevnosti.― ( Nametak, 1997: 9) . Mi Ĥemo se, kako je veĤ reĦeno, pozabaviti ovom prvom komponentom i time osvrnuti na poetiku islamskog simbolizma utemeljenu na islamskoj filozofiji, zato ńto je poezija koja je proistekla iz nje „ pisana jezikom alegorije i puna je simbola koji traţe pojašnjenje.― ( HaņiosmanoviĤ, Antologija...:13). Dalje je istaknuto da su to „pitanja univerzalnog značenja, to je svevremeni govor o tajnama svijeta, ţivota, čovjekovog postojanja. Kroz odgovore pjesnik pročićava svoju dušu, traţeći da dospije do Ljepote, Svjetlosti, što su sinonimi za Boga.― (HaņiosmanoviĤ, Antologija... :10), u Ħemu moņemo nazrijeti i glavne motive preokupacije divanskih pjesnika. Pońto je islamska filozofija tesavvufa utemeljena na pravcu koji se zasniva na putu ljubavi, u konkretnom sluĦaju Ljubavi, dakle, ljubavi prema Bogu, a u svojoj podlozi ima Kur'an i Hadis, tako se isto za divansku poeziju moņe kazati da je to ljubavna poezija usmjerena prema Bogu, koja za svoj objekt voljena u konaĦnici ima Gospodara, Stvoritelja Allaha dņ.ń., a naravno podrazumijeva Ħistu ljubav u najńirem smislu rijeĦi, ukljuĦujuĤi i ljubav prema poslaniku Muhammedu, s.a.w.s. i ljubav prema svim stvorenjima. Znano je da su „osnovni simboli tesavvufske poezije : ljubav, vino, i ljepota― ( HaņiosmanoviĤ, Antologija...:13) pri Ħemu se ljepota uzima samo kao odraz Apsolutne Ljepote, a vino kao simbol opijenosti, odnosno, ljubavi i mudrosti. MetaforiĦno uzeto, ljubavni parovi leptira i svijeće te slavuja i ruţe, koncpti su ljubavnih odnosa koji su posluņili kao motiv divanskim pjesnicima. Kao u svakoj vrsti ljubavi, krajnji cilj je sjedinjenje s Ljepotom. Motiv povratka Gospodaru je centrali motiv u viziji divanskih pjesnika, ńto je ujedno i kur'anska gnoma, gledajuĤi u poruke kur'anskog teksta „ A ti o dušo smirena, vrati se Gospodaru svome zadovoljna, a i On tobom zadovoljan― (Kur'an, EL-Fedņr), isto kao ńto je čišćenje duše centralni motiv u islamskoj filozofiji. IĤi Gospodaru moņe se samo Ħiste duńe. A, duńa se Ħisti spominjanjem Gospodara, koje se u divanskom pjesnińtvu simboliĦno izraņava pićem, pijenjem pića ljubavi, izgovaranjem Allahovih imena, sjeĤanjem, zikirom. Primjeri analize Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o ljubavi Kazali smo da je ljubav u divanskom pjesnińtvu usmjerena prema Apsolutnoj Ljepoti. Koncept tog ljubavnog odnosa je takav da, kao ńto to inaĦe biva, postoji i prepreka za ostvarenje te ljubavi. NajveĤa prepreka na putu do Gospodara je vlastiti ego, koji se Ħisti, nakon Ħega se duńa dovodi do sedmog stepena, spremna na susret s Gospodarom. ĥiĦĤenje duńe od egoizma ima vińestruku ulogu. Time se ona, osim ńto je spremna na Ħistu ljubav, spremno pokorava, lińava nas vlastite osobnosti, stavljajuĤi nas u sluņbu Gospodaru. Koncept takve ljubavi najbolje odraņava uvodni pjev Mevlaninih stihova u Mesneviji, Najnama. Parafrazirano, naj, otrgnut iz svoje pradomovine, bańĦe, iz Najistana, tuguje zbog rastanka, ĦeznuĤi za sastankom, izgara vatrom ljubavi. Bez sviraĦa naj je samo obiĦna ubrana trska, lińena osobnosti, koja oņivljava nakon ńto se oĦisti iznutra, i zatim propjeva boņanskom ljubavi. To je alegorija koja podsjeĤa na nań rastanak od Gospodara joń od prapočetka, Ezela, kad su duńe stvorene. Moņe li se poruka Najname nazrijeti donekle veĤ u samom izrazu za rijeĦ ljubav ? ljúbav ţ 〈G -i, I -i/-lju〉 1. snaņan osjeĤaj naklonosti, strastvene privrņenosti, duhovna i/ili spolna privlaĦnost jednog biĤa prema drugome [ljubav na prvi pogled; nesretna ljubav] 2. meton. ljubljena osoba 3. jaki osjeĤaj privrņenosti ńto ga jedni za druge osjeĤaju Ħlanovi iste obitelji ili iste zajednice [majčinska ljubav] 4. jaka sklonost prema Ħemu [ljubav prema poslu; ljubav prema domovini; radim iz ljubavi; vene od ljubavi] 5. a. rel. osjeĤaj bliskosti i pripadnosti Bogu, svaka sklonost prema dobru b. kat. teolońka vrlina Etimolońki, ljubav je izvedena od ljubiti. Mi u nańem jeziku imamo izraz priljubljen u znaĦenju spojen s nečim, a ljubiti znaĦi spojiti usne. Zato Ĥe rijeĦ ljubav etimolońki znaĦiti spajanje odnosno veza. To je uostalom i njena definicija: privrţenost, privlačnost, sklonost, bliskost; a kad se dvoje vole, kaņemo da su u vezi. 673 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dakle, ljubav kao apstraktna kategorija ipak iz samog izraza pokazuje svoje suńtinsko znaĦenje. To je čeţnja za spajanjem – ńto je istinski element svake vrste ljubavi. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o ljepoti Ljepota je kao pojam dosta usko povezana s pojmom ljubavi. Voli se ono ńto je lijepo. U divanskoj poeziji svaka ljepota je odraz Apsolutne Ljepote, kao ńto svaka Ħista ljubav vodi Ljubavi, ljubavi prema Bogu. Isto kao i ljubav, ljepota je u ņivotu apstraktni pojam s konkretnom praktiĦnom stranom u manifestaciji iste. Pitamo li se ńta je ljepota? Lingvistika daje svoj odgovor. Ljepota je izvedenica od onog ńto je lijepo: lijȇp1 prid. odr. -ī, komp. ljȅpńī 1. a. koji pruņa ugodan estetski doņivljaj, koji se sviħa oku [lijep krajolik; lijep cvijet; lijepa kuĤa]; divan, krasan, oĦaravajuĤi, opr. ruņan b. Ħiji fiziĦki izgled, posebno lice, odgovara odreħenim kriterijima ljepote [lijepa ņena] 2. a. koji izaziva osjeĤaj divljenja ili zadovoljstva [lijepa gesta] b. koji je jako dobar, koji je zanimljiv, ugodan [lijepa utakmica; lijepo putovanje] 3. sunĦan, bez oblaka (o vremenu) 4. koji je (po)velik [lijep komad mesa; lijepa svota]; znatan 5. (u raznim vezama rijeĦi) a. koji je dobar [lijepa prilika]; povoljan b. koji je poticajan, inventivan, koji obeĤava [lijepa zamisao; lijepa ideja] c. koji je oĦit, jasno prisutan kao poņeljno svojstvo, svestrano izraņen [lijepa sposobnost (za ńto)] Etimolońki, izraz lijep ima sljedeĤi opis: prasl. i stsl. lěpъ (rus. lépyj, polj. lepszy: ljepńi) ≃ v. lijepiti (izvorno znaĦenje bilo je: koji pristaje, odgovara) pa veĤ naziremo njeno suńtinsko znaĦenje. Dakle, suńtinski gledano, ljepota je sve ono ńto nas privlaĦi, odnosno, lijepi za sebe. Ljepota je kao ljepilo. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o Ħeţnji ĥeņnja za Voljenim, kako je veĤ reĦeno, u divanskom pjesnińtvu integralni je dio motiva ljubavi. Meħutim, lingvistika nam daje odgovor o prirodi ove rijeĦi, u kojem se taĦno vidi isti onaj koncept ljubavi i Ħeņnje koji je stvarna karakteristika Ħeņnje u divanskoj poeziji. Zaljubljeni Ħezne za Voljenim, da se sastane, da se spoji. Ljubavni parovi leptira i svijeće i slavuja i ruţe posluņili su za metaforiĦko obiljeņje i alegoriju ove Ħeņnje. Leptir Ħezne za svjetlom, spaja se s njim, i u svjetlu nestaje, sagori. Imamo li to znaĦenje opisano u rijeĦi čeţnja? Ħȅznuti (za kim, za Ħim) nesvrš. 〈prez. -nēm, imp. Ħȅzni, gl. im. ĦeznöĤe〉 jako priņeljkivati ńto, ginuti za Ħim, patiti za kim ili za Ħim, silno ņeljeti (koga ili ńto) ✧ prasl. i stsl. Ħeznǫti (rus. dijal. Ħéznut': nestati, polj. szcezną) Dakle, pogledamo li bolje u etimologiju čeţnje, vidimo da ona ima znaĦenje nestajanja, odnosno, iščeznuća, ńto je drugi oblik za oznaĦavanje nestanka; glagol izčeznuti i imenica iščeznuće znaĦe nestanak. Zato Ĥe izraz – čeznem za tobom osim znaĦenja ţelim te, znaĦiti i topim se, nestajem, ńto frazeolońki takoħer imamo u svakodnevnoj upotrebi. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o sreĤi 674 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ĥovjek je odraz Boņije Svjetlosti, i istraņuje puteve sreĤe, da bi se ponovo susreo s Gospodarom. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju i o sreĤi. Pokuńajmo odgonetnuti ovu za nas apstraktnu kategoriju, kakvo je i njeno funkcionalno znaĦenje: dosta apstraktno?! Znamo li ńta je sreĤa? Svako ima svoju definciju. Ipak, etimologija nudi jedan odgovor. Pogledajmo analizu. Po HJP, etimologija je sljedeĤa: sreĤa ✧ prasl. *sъrętja: dogaħaj, susret (stsl. sъreńta, rus. vstréĦa, slov. sreĦa) Dakle, sreća ima znaĦenje susreta. Kako bi se reklo: Sretni su oni koji se sreću. Gledano ńire, i Kur'an nas upuĤuje na znaĦenje ove rijeĦi. A srećni će u dţennet; dok je nebesa i Zemlje, u njemu će boraviti, - osim ako drukčije Gospodar tvoj ne odredi; biće to dar koji će neprekidno trajati. (Hud, 108) I nesrećni će u dţehennem, u njemu će teško izdisati i udisati; (Hud, 106) SreĤni su dakle oni koji sjede na divanima. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o rastanku Kontekstualno, divanska poezija u najńirem pjeva o rastanku i sastanku. Rastanak je tuga, sastanak je sreĤa. NajveĤa sreĤa jeste sastanak s Allahom. Rastanak koji se Ħesto spominje u ovom pjesnińtvu, odnosi se u prvom redu na prapoĦetak, Ezel, i na vrijeme prvog sastanka. Zato pjesnici divanske poezije Ħeznu za povratkom, za ponovnim susretom! ( Vidi Hafizov DiVAN, predgovor) sàstanak m 〈G -ānka, N mn -ānci〉 1. susret s kim, opr. rastanak 2. skup vińe osoba radi dogovora [sutra je sastanak upravnog odbora] ✧ vidi sàstati Kako je samo lijepa nańa rijeĦ sastanak, sa svoja dva znaĦenja. Oba upotpunjuju znaĦenje sreće. Sastanak s kim podrazumijeva i razgovor s njim. Najbolji je sastanak ( u znaĦenju razgovora) onaj sastanak s Allahom, a to je namaz (molitva) . U konaĦnici, postoji krajnji sastanak, u znaĦenju susreta. Takav je opisan u Mevlaninom Gazelu o smrti. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o piĤu Imamo jednu zanimljivost. U nańem jeziku sastanak znaĦi i spajanje. Etimologija nas upoznava s Ħinjenicom da spajanje ima veze s pićem, a piĤe u divanskoj poeziji ima veoma vaņnu ulogu kao termin. Dakle, ✧ s (a)- + *pojiti (rus. paját': spajati, češ. pojiti) ≃ v. piti (prvotno znaĦenje iz kovaĦke terminologije: Ħiniti da tekuĤa kovina »pije« pri spajanju) uĦiniti teĦnim-pa pomijeńati! Spajanje dakle podrazumijeva i miješanje, taĦnije reĦeno stapanje. Isto tako, spajanje i sastanak podrazumijevaju i uvezivanje, ili jednostavno reĦeno vezu. U nańem jeziku, kad smo u vezi s kime s njim smo u ljubavi. Ovakav izraz se svakodnevno koristi. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o sudbini Potpuno preda(va)nje Allahu dņ.ń. ( sadrņano u rijeĦi islam) podrazumijeva apsolutnu sluņbu, odnosno robovanje Njemu. K tome u prilog svakako ide Ħovjekovo pomirenje sa sudbinom, odnosno, Allahovom odredbom. Pitanje sudbine ( kao uostalom i pitanje ljubavi) jedno je od velikih svjetskih pitanja cijelog ljudskog roda. LingvistiĦko odreħenje sudbine je sljedeĤe: sȕdbina ţ 1. sila koja prema mnogim vjerovanjima, upravlja ņivotom ljudi i odvijanjem dogaħaja 2. sve ńto je u skladu s takvim vjerovanjem, predodreħeno da se Ħovjeku dogodi; fatum, sudba 3. neumitan slijed u ņivotu Ħovjeka ili u odvijanju dogaħaj ùdes m 1. ono ńto je odreħeno providnońĤu; sudbina 675 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. nesretan sluĦaj; sudar [prometni udes] Sudbina je dakle ono ńto je presuħeno, odreħeno, poznato. Ilustracije radi, ovog puta uzeĤemo etimolońku odrednicu iz engleskog jezika225, odnosno, etimolońku vezu meħu rijeĦima destination i destiny: destiny mid-14c., from O.Fr. destinée (12c.) "purpose, intent, fate, destiny; that which is destined," fem. pp. of destiner, from L. destinare "make firm, establish" (see destination). The sense is of "that which has been firmly established," as by fate. destination 1590s, "act of appointing," from L. destinationem (nom. destinatio) "purpose, design," from pp. stem of destinare "determine, appoint, choose, make firm or fast," from de"completely, formally" (see de-) + -stinare, related to stare "to stand," from PIE base *sta- "to stand" (see stet). Modern sense (1787) is from place of destination, where one is "destined" to go. Vidimo da je potpuno ista etimologija ( potpuno ista rijeĦ) iskorińtena za mjesto kao destinaciju i za sudbinu kao neńto ńto je odreħeno. Zato se rijeĦ destinacija kod nas prevodi kao odredište. Sudbina je ono ńto je odreħeno. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o zikiru Zikir je u divanskoj knjiņevnosti odraz pokornosti i ljubavi spram Stvoritelja a ujedno i sredstvo ĦińĤenja duńe. Kao odraz ljubavi, spominje se ime voljenog. Ono ńto voli, to se spominje. Zikir se prevodi kao sjeĤanje, spominjanje. Spominjati nekoga znaĦi izgovarati njegovo ime. spoménuti svrš. 〈prez. spòmēnēm, pril. pr. -ūvńi, prid. trp. spòmēnūt〉 1. (koga, ńto) a. govoreĤi ili pińuĤi dotaknuti se koga ili Ħega b. podsjetiti na koga ili ńto 2. (se) dozvati u pamet, prisjetiti se [»spomeni se, ĦovjeĦe, da si prah«] Etimolońki, spominjanje vodi porijeklo od rijeĦi spomen, ńto znaĦi da spominjanje i uspomena stoje u bliskoj vezi. Dakle, u vezi su rijeĦi spominjanje, sjećanje i uspomena. SjeĤajuĤi se nekog, mi ga spomenemo, prizivajuĤi svoju uspomenu na njega. U konkretnom sluĦaju, to je uspomena na Stvoritelja. spȍmēn m 1. sjeĤanje na koga ili na ńto, uspomena [spomen na velikog borca] 2. predmet koji izaziva uspomene 3. spominjanje [o tome ni spomena; biti (ne biti) vrijedan (vrijedno) spomena biti (ne biti) znaĦajan, vrijedan da se spominje] SjeĤanje je u uskoj vezi i s jednom drugom rijeĦi, koja opet stoji u tematskom saglasju s poetikom divanske poezije. Etimolońki, sjeĤanje vodi porijeklo od rijeĦi sjeta. sjȅta ţ 〈G mn sjȇtā〉 duńevno stanje blage tuge i Ħeņnje ili sjeĤanja na drago, lijepo ili izgubljeno; melankolija ✧ prasl. *sěta (stsl. sětovati: tugovati, rus. sétovat') ≃ stir. sáith: tuga Tuga je dakle, organski dio sjete i ne mora neminovno imati negativnu konotaciju; tugovati za nekim ustvari znaĦi isto ńto i Ħeznuti za nekim. Divanski pjesnici pjevaju o putevima pribliţavanja Bogu Pribliņavanje Bogu odvija se posredno veĤ samim ĦińĤenjem duńe, zikirom. A, svaka molitva je odraz pribliņavanja Bogu. Oni koji su Mu bliski, oni su Njegovi prijatelji, evlije. 225 SliĦno veĤ pomenutom HJP, postoji online rjeĦniĦka baza engleskog jezika: www.etymonline.com 676 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ńta znaĦi biti prijatelj? Da li je prijatelj konkretna ili apstraktna kategorija? prȉjatelj m 1. blizak poznanik s kojim se u druņenju njeguju pońtovanje, povjerenje i ljubav [intimni prijatelj; prijatelj iz djetinjstva] 2. etnol. otac jednoga od braĦnih drugova prema ocu drugoga 3. poklonik, zańtitnik Ħega [društvo prijatelja ţivotinja] 4. biti prijatan, ugodan [prija mi razgovor]; goditi Uħemo li u etimologiju glagola prijati, vidjeĤemo da se opet suńtina te rijeĦi odnosi na usmjerenje koje nalazimo u poetici divanske knjiņevnosti : ✧prasl. i stsl. prijati: biti sklon (rus. priját', polj. przyjaĤ) ← ie. *priHo-: drag, voljen. Dakle, Allahovi prijatelji su oni koji su Mu naklonjeni, dragi i voljeni. U prevodu Kur'ana Ħitamo: „I neka se ničega ne boje i ni za čim nek ne tuguju Alla hovi prijatelji ; oni koji budu vjerovali i koji se budu Allaha bojali, za njih su radosne vijesti i na ovom i na onom svijetu – Allahove riječi niko ne moţe izmjeniti – to je, zaista, veliki uspjeh .― (Junus, 62-64.) Divanski pjesnici znaju šta znaĦi voljeti Direktno za pojam ljubavi i ljepote veņe se i osjeĤaj iskazivanja te ljubavi sadrņan u glagolu voljeti. Koja je stvarna priroda, odnosno, koja je suńtina ovog osjeĤaja? Sigurno je svakome poznat dijalog koji se odvija izmeħu prodavaĦa i kupca, izmeħu konobara i gosta, ili sliĦnim dijalozima usluţne djelatnosti, kada Ħujemo ono zvonko i ljupko: Izvol'te, šta ţelite? Tu se direktno vidi veza izmeħu glagola voljeti i glagola ţeljeti. Pogledajmo ńta kaņe lingvistika. vòljeti (koga, ńto, se) nesvrš. 〈prez. vȍlīm, pril. sad. vȍlēĤi, prid. trp. vȍljen, gl. im. vȍljēnje〉 1. 2. 3. osjeĤati ili iskazivati naklonost, privrņenost, odanost, prijateljstvo koje se osniva na zajednici ideala, krvnog srodstva i sl. [oni se uzajamno vole; voljeti obitelj] osjeĤati prema kome ljubav, osjeĤati strastvenu privlaĦnost prema kome [voljeti momka/djevojku] biti sklon Ħemu, rado Ħiniti, sluńati, Ħitati, gledati, sluņiti se Ħim, imati sklonost prema zanimanju, poslu, igri 1. ljudsko racionalno svojstvo, sposobnost duha da ńto hoĤe, da se moņe odluĦiti na ńto 2. jako htijenje, Ħvrstina odluke, snaga duha, ustrajnost, upornost duha 3. izraņena odluka, koja se ne mora izvrńiti [posljednja volja oporuka, testament] 4. ņelja za Ħim [dobiti, imati volju za što ņeljeti ńto postiĤi] ✧ prasl. i stsl. volja (rus. vñlja, stpolj. wola), lit. valia ← ie. *wel-: htjeti (lat. velle, stvnjem. wala: izbor) Glagol voljeti izveden je od izraza volja koji podrazumijeva ţelju, izbor. Zato je nevolja neņeljena. vȍlja 〈G mn vȏljā〉 ţ Dakle, sada moņemo povezati znaĦenje glagola voljeti i znaĦenje glagola ţeljeti. U divanskoj poeziji predmet volje, predmet izbora, objekt Ħeņnje, sreĤe, i konaĦno, ljubavi, ujedno je objekt krajnjeg cilja i svih nastojanja. Ţelja, volja, ljubav, sreća i čeţnja, stapaju se u jedno. S istim ciljem, suńtinom, i znaĦenjem. ZakljuĦna razmatranja Divanska poezija – put ljubavi U ovom radu etimolońki je interpretirano nekoliko motiva na koje se svodi predmet divanskog pjesnińtva. Pokazano je da su svi ti motivi u konaĦnici povezani jednom jedinom odrednicom, a to je ljubav. 677 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Molitva je osnovni izraz ljubavi prema Bogu, kao odraz privrņenosti i naklonosti. Ta ljubav izraņava se posredno: ljubavlju prema Muhammedu s.a.w.s., jer oni koji njega vole sposobni su slijediti njegovu praksu; te ljubavlju prema Allahu dņ.ń., izraņenu zikirom i namazom, odnosno molitvom. UĦenjem salavata na Muhammeda a.s. jaĦa ljubav prema Poslaniku, a praksom molitve u formi namaza postiņemo blizinu i ljubav prema Stvoritelju. Napomenimo da nańa rijeĦ ljubav znaĦi veza, spajanje. ImajuĤi u vidu prethodni pasus koji pokazuje koje su konkretnije forme iskazivanja ljubavi, ukazujemo da arapska rijeĦ salat koja se koristi da oznaĦi molitvu u formi namaza, isto tako etimolońki oznaĦava vezu. Takoħer, blagoslov na Poslanika oznaĦava rijeĦ salavat. Ta rijeĦ je mnoņina od rijeĦi salat, i takoħer u svom osnovnom znaĦenju podrazumijeva vezu. KonaĦno, ono ńto je u Stvoritelj u Kur'anu rekao: „Allah i meleki Njegovi donose salavate na Vjerovjesnika. O vjernici, blagosiljate ga i vi i šaljite mu pozdrav!― (Saveznici, 56) - a zatim i rijeĦi Poslanika: „Ko donese na mene salavat, Allah na njega donese deset." (Muslim) - odańilju sveopĤu harmoniju ljubavi. ImajuĤi u vidu znaĦenje rijeĦi salavat, time donošenje salavata moņemo slobodnim prevodom iskazati kao uvezivanje. Posljedice: Putem salavata Allah i meleki se povezuju ( su u ljubavi) s Poslanikom – Ljudi su povezani s Poslanikom – Allah je povezan s ljudima. Svaka ova veza ( ljubav) je opet naravno dvosmjerna. Da putevi ljubavi nemaju granica pokazuje i etimolńka veza izmeħu rijeĦi „safe― i „salutation― u engleskom jeziku i arapskih rijeĦi „salat― i „salavat―. Engleski pridjev „safe― u znaĦenju: siguran, nepovrijeħen, neozlijeħen, zdrav, potpun, vodi porijeklo od latinskog SALVUS. Engleska imenica „safe―, u znaĦenju: spremanje, spašavanje, Ħuvanje, vodi porijeklo od francuskog SAUF, ili latinskog SALVUS. Engleski „salute―, u znaĦenju: pozdrav, vodi porijeklo od latinskog SALUTARE u znaĦenju: pozdraviti, a povezano sa SALUS, SALVUS. Ima znaĦenje bilo koje vrste LJUBAZNOSTI i pońtovanja. Englesko „salutation“ zato ima znaĦenje pozdrava.226 References HasanbegoviĤ, F. (1996): Čitanka za II razred gimnazije, Sarajevo Memija, E. i Hadiziosmanovic, L. (1995): Poezija bošnjaka na orijentalnim jezicima, Peeporod, Sarajevo 226 Podaci su preuzeti s online baze etimologije engleskog jezika (www.etymonline.com ): safe (n.) "chest for keeping valuables," early 15c., save, from M.Fr. en sauf "in safety," from sauf (see safe (adj.)). Spelling with f- first recorded 1680s, from influence of safe (adj.). safe (adj.) late 13c., "uninjured, unharmed," from O.Fr. sauf, from L. salvus "uninjured, healthy, safe," related to salus "good health," saluber "healthful," all from PIE *solwos from base *sol- "whole" (cf. L. solidus "solid," Skt. sarvah "uninjured, intact, whole," Avestan haurva- "uninjured, intact," O.Pers. haruva-, Gk. holos "whole"). Meaning "not exposed to danger" is attested from late 14c.; of actions, etc., "free from risk," first recorded 1580s. Safe-conduct (late 13c.) is from O.Fr. sauf-conduit (13c.). salute (v.) late 14c., earlier salue (c.1300), from L. salutare "to greet," lit. "wish health to," from salus (gen. salutis) "greeti ng, good health," related to salvus "safe" (see safe). The noun is attested from c.1400 as an utterance, gesture, or action of any kind. The military and nautical sense of "display flags, fire cannons, etc., as a mark of respect" is recorded from 1580s (the noun in this sense is from 1690s); sense of raising the hand to the cap in the presence of a superior officer is from 1832 (n.), 1844 (v.). 226 Podaci su preuzeti s online baze etimologije engleskog jezika (www.etymonline.com ): safe (n.) "chest for keeping valuables," early 15c., save, from M.Fr. en sauf "in safety," from sauf (see safe (adj.)). Spelling with f- first recorded 1680s, from influence of safe (adj.). safe (adj.) late 13c., "uninjured, unharmed," from O.Fr. sauf, from L. salvus "uninjured, healthy, safe," related to salus "good health," saluber "healthful," all from PIE *solwos from base *sol- "whole" (cf. L. solidus "solid," Skt. sarvah "uninjured, intact, whole," Avestan haurva- "uninjured, intact," O.Pers. haruva-, Gk. holos "whole"). Meaning "not exposed to danger" is attested from late 14c.; of actions, etc., "free from risk," first recorded 1580s. Safe-conduct (late 13c.) is from O.Fr. sauf-conduit (13c.). salute (v.) late 14c., earlier salue (c.1300), from L. salutare "to greet," lit. "wish health to," from salus (gen. salutis) "greeti ng, good health," related to salvus "safe" (see safe). The noun is attested from c.1400 as an utterance, gesture, or action of any kind. The military and nautical sense of "display flags, fire cannons, etc., as a mark of respect" is recorded from 1580s (the noun in this sense is from 1690s); sense of raising the hand to the cap in the presence of a superior officer is from 1832 (n.), 1844 (v.). 678 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Memija, E. i Hadiziosmanovic, L. (1997): Antologija bosnjacke poezije na orijentalnim jezicima, Alef Nametak, F. ( 1997): Divanska knjiţevnost bošnjaka, Orijentalni institut u Sarajevu, Sarajevo Nametak, F. ( 2007): Pojmovnik divanske i tesavvufske knjiţevnosti, Orijentalni institut u Sarajevu, Sarajevo RjeĦniĦke baze: www. hjp.srce.hr, i : www.etymonline.com 679 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 101 Title A name given to the resource Interpretacija divanske poezije u nastavi bosanskog jezika i knjiţevnosti kroz poetiku islamskog simbolizma, a posredstvom primijenjene lingvistike Author Author Hodžić, Jasmin Abstract A summary of the resource. U radu se putem primjene znanja o etimolońkom znaĦenju rijeĦi daju odreħene smjernice za interpretaciju divanske poezije u nastavi bosanskog jezika i knjiņevnosti. Dekodiranju hermetĦke poetike islamskog simbolizma pristupa se interdisciplinarno; etimologija je polazińte koje nas upuĤuje na suńtinu odreħenih pojmova koji su kontekstualno vezani za ovu vrstu poezije, pri Ħemu se uzima u obzir i lingvostilistiĦki, semantiĦki, pragmatiĦki i sociolońki pristup u interpretaciji pojedinih simbola, pojmova i termina, a tako i ove poetike u cjelosti. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd2c701e85c3afde42432905ff633934.pdf a4aca9148d48a9c53fb40bf4da06c1ee PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Language Change Amra HodţiĤ Jejna Department of English Language and Literature International University of Novi Pazar amrajejna@gmail.com Abstract: Every language changes constantly. English has been changing throughout its history and it is still changing today. New words are coming into use every day. The input of those words changes vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and spelling of language. Of course, old forms and old pronunciations are dropping out of use as time goes by. This work is about language change. There is a great variety of reasons for language change: influence of the mass media, influence of travel and global communications, computers and technology, social change, scientific and technological discoveries, new concepts. First language has an effect on the pronunciation of the English as a Second language as well. This work gives brief answers to questions: why language changes, what are types of language change, how language changes spread through communities, how historical circumstances influence language change, what is the relationship between language learning and change, what is the evolutionary path of a language etc. Key Words: language, linguistics, change, grammar, pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, influence, relationship. Introduction Languages change over time. It perhaps sounds a bit uncommon, but linguists find out that, for example, Japanese has not evolved a lot over centuries. On the other hand, English language changed very quickly in a relatively short period of time. Historical development of English language is long-lasting, permanent, versatile, but above all fruitful, because of its rich lexicon in comparison to other language systems. Different changes happened in phonetics, morphology, syntax and semantics and they are more radical than it actually appears. The pronunciation of English has changed a lot in past five centuries. The spelling has altered very little over the same period. So, we can conclude that English spelling is not the best marker for language change. Of course, we cannot predict the path of change, but we can describe one when it appears (Crystal, 2001). That is the way to find causes of change and to identify them. It is not easy to set a rule or pattern for an exact alteration, but when once done it becomes very important because of the application of those rules to other words, and also for building and expanding the vocabulary. According to Grzega and Schoner (2007), lexical change may be based on the prestige of another language or another variety of the same language or simply certain fashionable word-formation patterns. In their study they say that the kernel of this force is mostly found outside of language and is often the prestige of a culture, the superiority of a group or politics which cause speakers to adopt linguistic elements (words, morphemes, morphs, sounds) from the prestigious group‘s speech. Example: English, for instance, borrowed heavily from French during the Middle English period because the upper social classes were made up of French people: garment, flower, rose, face, prince, hour, question, dance, fork, royal, loyal, fine, zero are all Gallicisms. Today, English is the most prestigious language in many parts of the world. Why Languages Change Languages change for a great number of reasons. Various shifts usually happen in response to economic, social and political situation. Throughout history many examples of language change were caused 128 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo by invasions, colonization and migration. Of course, even without these extreme circumstances a language can change if enough speakers alter it. Very often, users‘ needs cause language change. Information technology, industry and some individual personal experiences require new notions and therefore, new words. For example, all the neologisms connected with cell phones or the Internet didn‘t exist in Middle English period. No two individuals use a language in exactly the same way. That is also a great source of language change. The vocabulary and phrases people use are linked to where they live, their age, education level, social status and sometimes to their membership in a particular group or community. Through conversation, we absorb new words and endings and later use them in our own speech. Types of Change There are three main domains of language change: vocabulary, syntactic structures and pronunciation. In the process of borrowing words from other languages, vocabulary changes very quickly. Some other ways are shortening, abbreviation or combining words. We also have examples of word creation by mistake. On the contrary, syntactic structure does not change that quickly. But if we compare Shakespeare‘s language to modern English — differences are more than visible. The sounds of the language transform as well. Pronunciation changes are more difficult to track down, but we can notice that words first written phonetically are now pronounced differently than their spellings suggest. Borrowed Words The simplest kind of influence that one language may have on another is the ―borrowing‖ of words. When there is cultural borrowing, there is always the likelihood that the associated words may be borrowed too (Sapir, 1921). Jamil Daher (2003) writes that ―languages use various strategies in borrowing: perhaps adopting and preserving the form used in the donor language, sometimes adapting the borrowed word to conform more closely to their own phonological and morphological systems, and sometimes creating a new word through loan translation. It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with‖. Approximately 10 percent of English words are actually of Anglo-Saxon origin. During its history, English has come into contact with many other languages and has adopted words from many of them (Daher, 2003). Though most of the additions were borrowed from Latin and Greek — either directly from those languages or through French — English has also borrowed words from other European languages, as well as from the languages of South Asia (e.g. bungalow), the Americas (e.g. tobacco, tomato, and potato), and Africa (e.g. zebra). The following is only a small selection illustrating the range of languages that have contributed to English vocabulary: American Indian (caucus, moose), Arabic (alcohol, assassin, zero), Chinese (ketchup, tea, wok), Czech (gherkin, robot, vampire), Dutch (brandy. cookie, landscape), Finnish (mink, sauna), German (kindergarten, sauerkraut. snorkel), Hebrew (cherub, jubilee), Hindi (bungalow, dinghy, shampoo), Hungarian (goulash), Italian (aria, balcony, lava, mafia, opera, piano. spaghetti), Japanese (futon, soy, sushi), Mexican (avocado, chocolate, tomato), Persian (arsenic, lilac), Portuguese (buffalo, marmalade, port), Russian (bistro, mammoth, sputnik, vodka), Sanskrit (candy, indigo, jungle), Spanish (cafeteria, cash, cockroach, sherry, siesta), Tahitian (tattoo), Tamil (catamaran, cheroot, mango), Tongan (taboo), Turkish (caftan, coffee, scarlet, yogurt), Yiddish (bagel, glitzy, kosher, schlep, schmooze, yenta) (Hogg, 2006). English still borrows, and is likely to continue borrowing from other languages of the world. However, borrowing in recent times is characterized by two main factors: the frequency of borrowing is considerably reduced; and English seems to be spreading its tentacles to reach and borrow from less and less known languages (Jackson and Ze Amvela, 2004). A study by Garland Cannon (1987) of more than a thousand recent loanwords from 84 languages shows that "about 25% are from French, 8% each from Japanese and Spanish, 7% each from Italian and Latin, 6% each from African languages, German and Greek, 4% each from Russian and Yiddish, 3% from Chinese, and progressively smaller percentages from Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Afrikaans, Malayo-Polynesian, Vietnamese, Amerindian languages, Swedish, Bengali, Danish, Indonesian, Korean, Persian, Amharic, Irish, Norwegian, and 30 other languages". 129 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Creating Words English has different ways for creating new words from existing resources, like derivation, compounding, conversion etc. There are many different ways in which speakers can coin new words by using only the existing resources of their language. Compounding - combining two existing words and forming a new one. From its earliest days, English has made frequent use of this device. Familiar examples include blackboard, girlfriend, ginger bread, daredevil, paperback, strip-tease, skinhead etc. Occasionally a new word is derived by combining two existing words with a suffix, as in blue-eyed, bookkeeper, sky-diving etc. Some of these compounds have been in the language for centuries, while the others are very recently formed. Among these words are ozone-friendly, laptop etc. (Trask, 1994). Great number of English words is formed by blending of existing words (e.g. brunch from breakfast and lunch) and by back-formations (e.g. donates from donation). Change in Pronunciation Like other aspects of language, pronunciation also changes over time. That is why we have different ‗accents‘- different ways of pronouncing a language. Every speaker of English has an accent. The range of accents in English is impressive. Over the time, the pronunciation has changed at least as much as any other aspect of language, and it has changed in different ways in different places (Trask, 1994). Consider the words farther and father. Do you pronounce these words identically or differently? If you pronounce those words identically you have what linguists call non-rhotic accent. If you pronounce differently, you have rhotic accent. These terms reflect the observation that rothic speakers actually pronounce an R-sound in the first word, though not in the second. Non-rhotic speakers do not pronounce Rsound in any of these words (Trask, 1994). Change in Spelling English spelling is complex and irregular, and it has only been fixed since the eighteen century. Much of this complexity derives from the custom of spelling words as they were pronounced centuries ago, rather than as they are pronounced now. What is the reason for that? There is no single reason. The history of English spelling is a rather complicated affair in which a number of distinct developments and influences can be identified. Of course the language change is the most important factor of the odd-looking spellings. Words like break, night, one, knife and should have spellings which accurately reflect the way they were pronounced centuries ago (Trask, 1994). Their pronunciation has changed, but not their spelling. The change in spelling these words were considered by some people, but so far their arguments have had little effect. Nevertheless, it is perfectly possible for spelling to change, and spelling of English has changed over the centuries. For example, spelling of the word hloefdige was eventually changed to lady to keep up with the newer pronunciation. In other cases spelling conventions have been altered, leading to a change in spelling even without any change in pronunciation, as when Old English cwic was replaced by quick. As an illustration of the complex history of English spelling, consider the word shield. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this word has various spellings: scild, scyld, sceld, seld, sseld, sheld, cheld, scheld, sceild, scheeld, cheeld,schield,schilde, schylde, shilde, scield, scheild, shielde, shield,and shield. Only in the eighteenth century did the last form become fixed as the only possibility many other words show a similarly complex history (Trask, 1994). Change in Grammar Differences in grammatical forms between varieties of English are perhaps less serious than differences in vocabulary and pronunciation, but nevertheless exist. For example the familiar verb go formerly had an irregular past-tense form yede or yode. In the fifteenth century, however it acquired a new past-tense form: went. Where did this odd-looking form come from? It came from the now rare verb wend, which was formerly inflected wend/went, just like send/sent and spend/spent. But the past tense went was detached from wend and attached to go, which lost its earlier past tense, giving the modern English pattern go/went. 130 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On the whole, the changes of English in the last several centuries have been less dramatic. At an earlier stage of its history, however, English underwent some changes in its grammar which were decidedly more spectacular and far-reaching. However grammar is continuing to change even today. Agents of Change Before one language changes, speakers absorb new vocabulary, sentence structures and sounds. The next thing is that they spread new altered language through the community and pass it to the next generation. According to linguistic researches, children are main agents for language change. They learn the language from their parents, teachers and relatives, process it and then produce and spread different variation of that language. Throughout the history, language constantly adapts to different circumstances. If we tried to restrict usage of certain foreign vocabulary, our attempts would be unsuccessful. For example, the French society tried to lower the introduction of English borrowings. As a result, le weekend, bouldozeur etc. are in common use and more people use le computer than the officially restricted ordinateur. Influence of the mass media, computers and technology In 1755 Johnson‘s dictionary influenced spelling in the educated society. BBC pronunciation lowered the usage of local non-standard accents and BBC television has been a language standard from the half of the twentieth century onwards. US English has a great influence through film industry. The Internet is predominantly an English / American language medium too. Newspaper language is an ever present influence too: an experienced or able person = ace purpose, object or intention = aim prohibition, refusal, restraint = ban supervisor, governor or manager = chief married = wed There is also a standardization of spelling and grammar under the influence of Microsoft products and their spelling checkers. Communications over the Internet reinforce a common language dominated by an overwhelming number of US speakers and US websites. Social change Whenever one nation‘s culture has predominance in any sphere, its language leads the way. So we have French words for cooking and ballet; German words for war; US words for marketing, rock music, culture, technology. Transformations in formality cause the language to transform too, bringing in slang, jargon, accent, dialect, where it may not have existed before. We refer to one group of words and phrases as politically correct and decide that some are no longer acceptable in society - US army terms such as take out and collateral damage as euphemisms for kill and dead; nigger is replaced by African American; queer is used instead of mad. More changes - simplification of spelling in American English - loss of whom - they instead of he / she - increase in computer vocabulary and effects of internet informal US-based vocabulary - effects from non-native speakers - loss of the apostrophe and the semi colon 131 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - acronyms, blends and contractions Conclusion Language is always changing — in vocabulary, in pronunciation, in grammar, in semantics, and partially in spelling. Change is a constant process and therefore unavoidable. Language has been changing since it first appeared on earth; it is changing now; it will surely continue to change for as long as human beings survive (Trask, 1994). English language, as any other, is always clarifying itself in order to be more efficient. Of course, that process happens without sacrificing its expressivity, because we know that every change affects various parts, and there is always something else to fix. Languages which changed more than others do not have to be better. They only have different evolving power. Language does not change everywhere in the same manner. When a language is spoken over a wide territory, changes which occur in one area do not necessarily spread to other areas. As a result, as time goes by, differences accumulate among the regional varieties of the language. Throughout history, older and more conservative speakers have objected to changes in the language whenever they have noticed them. Those attitudes are still with us today, but they rarely have much effect on the development of the language. A certain amount of inertia in resisting language change is no bad thing (Trask, 1994). After all, we do not want the language to change so fast that children cannot speak to their grandparents, or so fast that no one can read anything written a hundred years earlier. Language changes in the way that is quite normal and acceptable to all of its speakers. References Coelho, E. (2003). Adding English: A Guide to Teaching in Multilingual Classrooms Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Penguin, London Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Crystal, D. (2001). Language and the Internet, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Culpeper, J. (1996). History of English, Penguin, London Daher, J. (2003). Lexical Borrowing in Arabic and English, New York Gimson, A. C. (1997). Gimson‘s Pronunciation of English, St Martin ‗s Press, New York Hogg, R. M. and D. Denison (2006). A History of the English Language. New York : Cambridge University Press Jackson H. and Ze Amvela E. (2004), Word, meaning and vocabulary, The Cromwell Press, New York Jucker, Andreas H. (2000). History of English and English Historical Linguistics, Ernst Klett. Stuttgart 132 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lyons, J. (1968). Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics, Cambridge University Press, London Romaine, S. (2000). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Oxford University Press. New York Sapir, E. (1921). Language, New York: Harcourt Brace & Co. Simon and Schuster, (1986). Webster‘s New World Dictionary, Prentice-Hall, New York StojiĤ, S. (2000). Sociolingvistički i sociopsihološki aspekti standardizacije engleskog jezika, Beograd Trask, R.L. (1994). Language Change, Routledge, London Collins Softback English Dictionary, Harper Collins Publishers, Glasgow (1992) The Longman Grammar of Spoken English, Longman, London (1999) www.usingenglish.com http://www.putlearningfirst.com/language/04change/issuesofchange.html www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caxton_william.shtml www.dictionary.oed.com. www.answers.com www.about.com http://www.soon.org.uk/page18.htm http://www.askoxford.com/worldofwords/history/?view=uk http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0858000.htmlEncyclopedia—English language http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?dsid=2222&dekey=British+English http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/vowels.html http://www.linguist.de/reese/English/america.htmVarieties of English http://www.ling.udel.edu/idsardi/101/notes/phonetics.html http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/honey-muggles.html 133 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 23 Title A name given to the resource Language Change Author Author Hodžić Jejna, Amra Abstract A summary of the resource. Every language changes constantly. English has been changing throughout its history and it is still changing today. New words are coming into use every day. The input of those words changes vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and spelling of language. Of course, old forms and old pronunciations are dropping out of use as time goes by. This work is about language change. There is a great variety of reasons for language change: influence of the mass media, influence of travel and global communications, computers and technology, social change, scientific and technological discoveries, new concepts. First language has an effect on the pronunciation of the English as a Second language as well. This work gives brief answers to questions: why language changes, what are types of language change, how language changes spread through communities, how historical circumstances influence language change, what is the relationship between language learning and change, what is the evolutionary path of a language etc. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4399627432b79c64ed1d863fce5e12d3.pdf 81bf0eabe4b4ca5c64e76ba7bce36d35 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Genre and Gender as Byronic Subversions in Don Juan Esma Husika English Department at the Faculty of Philosophy University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina esma_haaa@hotmail.com Abstract: Don Juan by Lord Byron is puzzling and engaging for a contemporary reader because of the subversiveness of its nature manifested in transgressions of both social and literary kind. It is classified as an epic, but it subverts every convention of the genre, retaining only the framework. The most prominent subversion of the genre is at the same time the subversion of gender. It is manifested in the choice, description and action of the main hero. Within the genre which normally serves as a mirror reflecting patriarchal society values and imposing clear-cut patterns for desired behavior in warrior societies, Byron presents us with an effeminate version of a notorious Spanish lover Don Juan, who gets to be chosen a hero of this unusual epic poem. This paper aims at exploring subversive nature of the aforementioned text and pointing out to the way gender is socially constructed and therefore changeable category, thus bringing it into connection with ideas of Judith Butler who questions the patriarchal discourse of power and claims that what has been sold to us as a difference of sex was actually gender all along. Key words: Lord Byron, Don Juan, subversion, gender construction, Introduction The Romantic period was influenced by the French Revolution. Its main ideas were echoed in the lives and works of the English Romantic writers. The United Kingdom proved to be a fertile ground for their growth and development. Natural man, society as a limiting factor, institutions as means of corruption and human hypocrisy revolved in one form or the other in the literature of this period. Since literature is reflective of social and historic circumstances and therefore indivisible from them, thus these ideas had different forms in different periods of time. It is interesting to note that one and the same event, in different stages of its development though, produced literary works of a different mood altogether and with diverse representation of its central ideas. It ranged from excitement and an impetus to act to the disappointment in the regime that followed, which was as oppressive as the previous one. Putting the outcome aside, we notice that the pure idea of revolution in its essence is in fact very Romantic. Romantic writers, who, according to Shelley, are unacknowledged legislators of the world, brought about many changes, both in the society and in the artistic world. They experimented with the language and form, trying to produce art which strived to be democratic. Lord Byron, the most famous Romantic writer led quite a rebellious life transgressing many boundaries. He experimented with unbounded freedom in his personal life and was quite free to model his works in an often subversive way, thus transgressing the accustomed conventions. In terms of breaking social conventions, transgression is Byron‘s middle name, for he literally stretched the vision of personal freedom to its utmost ends. Personal life, however, was not enough. The rebellious spirit was reflected in his work, as well. The concept of Byronic hero, which survived into the modern time sprung out of his rebelliousness. He promoted changes he thought necessary, and he lived what he preached. Being harshly criticized for his loose morals and an incestuous relationship, and being exiled even, Lord Byron himself was a perfect epitome of the Byronic hero. He preferred action of almost any kind, and when there was nothing he could do, he escaped. However, there was much that Byron actually did through his writings. The society judged him and agreed with Caroline Lamb in her description of Byron as a person who is ‗‗Mad, bad and dangerous to know‘‘ (Web). Byron returned the stroke with the harsh satire turned to the hypocrisy of English society of the time. Although he lived by his own moral code, which was in most cases different from the one adopted by the society and which was considered completely deprived of any moral whatsoever, there is one matter in which he went in line with the majority. He, as well as most of his fellow-citizens, was disappointed with the political scene at home, as well as across the Channel. In this tempest of contrary emotions, a defiant but heavily disappointed spirit, found the way out in creating a work of art which respected and opposed accustomed conventions at the same time, reflecting a romantic spirit captured in a classical form, in an epic poem, celebrating no event, for the outcome of the French Revolution was everything but the reason to celebrate, but introducing a legendary and notorious womanizer as 439 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo its epic hero instead, with the difference that Don Juan as a hero, is a subverted one, neither manly nor heroic, but naive and seduced instead, very often displaying the characteristic usually associated with the feminine gender. The fact that Don Juan fits neither masculine nor feminine gender frame, but is something third, or first, for that matter, echoes Byron‘s personal life, who bridged the gap between masculine and feminine by experimenting with both. Remember his obsession with weight, or his experimenting with homosexuality. Don Juan: Subverted Epic The work which comprises transgressions of both social and literary kind is Byron‘s ‗‘Don Juan‘‘. First and the most obvious Byronic subversion in ‗‘Don Juan‘‘ is his subversion of genre. Byron classifies this work of his as an epic which leads our expectations in the direction quite opposite of the one he really takes. What he respects of epic conventions is the framework, and even that, to some degree only, for within every convention applied to this epic poem, there is a corresponding subversion, which is demonstrated as such through the comparison with corresponding epic elements in ‗‘Beowulf‘‘, a typical traditional oral epic. Playing with the expectations in terms of subverting the conventions of the epic genre is only a prelude to the real theme and a major subversion of this work, namely the subversion of gender which is incorporated into genre subversion and will therefore be analyzed as such. In terms of length, Byron respects conventions, for ‗‘Don Juan‘‘ is quite a lengthy poem of some ‗‘16 000 verses‘‘(Dizdar, 1999: 184). It includes journeys and it has episodic structure. Conventionally, journeys in epics often include elements of spiritual quest or some kind of sacrifice. Beowulf, for example, comes from Geatland to Denmark, to help the Danish king Hrothgar, who suffers loses due to a monster called Grendel. However, journeys in ‗‘Don Juan‘‘ have more elements of trips or even wanderings than of proper epic journeys. Don Juan does not even leave willingly, but he gets expelled as most of Byronic heroes end up being because they do not accept values and norms imposed by the society they live in. The story about Don Juan begins in a quite unconventional way. Byron explains that conventionally epics begin 'in medias res' and then somewhat later, the hero retells what had happened before in an episode. Not surprisingly, Byron decides to take different course and he says: ‗‘That is the usual method, but not mine / My way is to begin with the beginning‘‘ (Dizdar, 2002: 564) Interestingly, he speaks about the beginning in the 6th stanza, so can it really be considered a proper beginning? After this ‗second‘ beginning Byron continues with the convention applied convention subverted pattern and he gives us a sort of lineage, a story about Don Juan‘s parents, Don Jose and Donna Inez. Conventionally, lineage is the most important didactic part of an epic poem, because it traces all the male ancestors of a hero, placing them as role models for the young males of the tribe. At the beginning of Beowulf, we are also presented with the lineage of the Danish king Hrothgar. However, in this lineage mother is not mentioned; it neither ends with Hrothgar's father, nor it merely counts his predecessors and ancestors, but it traces his ancestry through several generations and tells about their great deeds, establishing a model of a hero for the next generations. From this example we see that the lineage, being a very detailed description presented at the beginning, served the purpose of establishing code of behavior in a heroic society. It had all the important qualities of a perfect hero stressed, because it was very important to educate the future warriors in both the battle and tribe-management skills. The survival of the tribe depended upon the strength and courage of the warriors and the wisdom of their leader. Another issue that can be read into this example is the fact that from the very beginning of human history the community and nation have been a part of patriarchal discourse which marginalized women. In that sense Byron‘s lineage is a serious transgression of conventions. He introduced Don Juan‘s father in a single stanza, whereas he described his mother in detail. However, Byron is not very fond of Donna Inez and he actually mocks her by saying that she pretends to be intelligent, learned and able, whereas in reality, she is none of that. He criticizes her 'learned' shallowness and the society which falls for her tricks. This attitude is probably rooted in Byron‘s personal life, and the frustration caused by his learned wife, Annabella Milbanke, referred to as ‗‘Princess of Parallelograms‘‘ (Web). When explaining how learned Don Juan‘s mother was, he says: ‗‘She knew Latin – that is, 'the Lord's prayer' / And Greek – the alphabet – I'm nearly sure‘‘ (Dizdar, 2002: 566). This quotation, although short, demonstrates two other subversions as elements of Byron‘s peculiar narrative style and technique. The irony contained in it shows that the tone is quite different from the one expected in an epic. An epic tone is supposed to be elevated and solemn, in order to correspond to the content. A poem dealing with the deeds of wise and courageous leaders had a sort of sacred value for the participants of the culture it originated from. The tone of ‗‘Beowulf‘‘ for example, is not just solemn, but it gets depressing at times. It ends with Beowulf‘s funeral, so its tone becomes elegiac. The subjects mourn for the best of kings, who lived and died honorably. The tone of ‗‘Don Juan‘‘, on the other hand has completely opposite characteristics. It is neither solemn nor elevating, but, corresponding to the content, it has a relaxed, casual character. In the sixth canto, the narrator clearly stated that his intention was to sing carelessly about interesting and adventurous topics. With the 440 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo irony and satire underlying ‗‘Don Juan‘‘, the tone becomes comic quite often. This comic effect is achieved mainly through witty and ironic comments of the narrator. The role of the narrator in ‗‘Don Juan‘‘ is yet another Byronic subversion to deal with. Typically, epic is narrated in the third person and the focus is never on the narrator. In ‗‘Beowulf‘‘, for example, we have a third person omniscient narrator, who jumps in whenever an explanation is needed and who makes sure that his listeners get the message he is trying to convey. In ‗‘Don Juan‘‘ the narrator is often more important than the hero himself. Witty comments, colloquial language, and first person narration make the poem Byronic in tone and comments and the narrator the central point of the poem. Such a narrator and quite an unusual hero lead us to a conclusion that one way or another there is always Byron in the image of a hero, sometimes in the foreground, sometimes not, yet always present and important. As Hadley J. Mozer (2005) suggests: ‗‘By taking the notorious seducer and philosophical libertine Don Juan-a sort of alter ego of himself-as the hero of his epic poem, Byron took another important step toward becoming the creature of his own imagining, the "hero" he so longed to be‘‘. This quotation brings us to another important subversion underlying ‗‘Don Juan‘‘, and that is its hero and the process of choosing one, which is dealt with in the first canto of the poem. In order to be able to develop a fruitful discussion concerning this subject it is necessary to depict an image of a conventional epic hero, to describe his traits and his role both in the society and in the epic poem celebrating such a society. The central figure of an epic is its hero, being an idealized representation of virtues important for heroic society rather than a real person. Since the society depicted in epics is a patriarchal and warrior society, the hero is always a male, the embodiment of manliness, to be precise. He possesses a remarkable physical strength and is extremely courageous. Yet, he is not simply a brute designed to kill. Quite the opposite, he shows dignity, loyalty and readiness to sacrifice in order to protect his tribe and to be a servant of the good in the eternal fight of the good against the evil. Furthermore, a hero is supposed to possess wisdom, the noblest of virtues, in order to be a good leader. All these characteristics are comprised in Beowulf. He is brave and extremely strong. In fact, it is said that Beowulf possessed the strength of thirty men. Being a fearless and dominant male figure, he perfectly fits into the image of an epic hero. He is ready to do extraordinary tasks to prove his courage and over time, he matures and gains wisdom, which makes him an excellent king. However, as any other human being, he must die. But his death, corresponding to his life is noble. Although being aware of the fact that he cannot go out of the battle with the dragon alive, he decides to take the risk and sacrifice himself in order to live up to the standards of a perfect hero, a role model for generations to come. Don Juan as an epic hero is completely different and unconventional in several aspects. The very opening of the poem and introduction of its hero is subversive. I want a hero: an uncommon want, When every year and month sends forth a new one, Till, after cloying the gazettes with cant, The age discovers he is not the true one; Of such as these I should not care to vaunt I 'll therefore take our ancient friend Don Juan— We all have seen him, in the pantomime, Sent to the devil somewhat ere his time. (Dizdar, 2002: 562) The situation which Byron‘s narrator is facing is quite strange. Writing an epic, with a vacant place of a hero is extraordinary. One usually writes an epic primarily because of the hero, to describe heroic deeds and praise virtues. Another unusual, even shocking occurrence is the fact that although writing an epic poem, he rejects contemporary high-ranking military officials as possible heroes. It took him three stanzas to enumerate famous military officials, both English and French, who should have suited for such a place, but, according to Byron, they did not. He mocks them openly, by saying that they are not true heroes. Nelson, ‗‘Britain‘s greatest admiral of the Napoleonic wars‘‘ (Dizdar, 2002: 209), was not a true hero. Nor were ‗‘the important persons and politicians form the French Revolutions like Barnave, or La Fayette‘‘ (Ibid.). However, this is logical to some extent, since it comes from a Romantic poet, who dreams about idealized society and advocates freedom in a time of general disappointment in the outcome of the French Revolution and the tragicomic situation with George III in England. What is not so logical at this stage is the fact that the hero he chooses is not real either, but a fictional character, a womanizer from the 17th century, ‗‘our ancient friend Don Juan‘‘ (Dizdar, 2002: 562) One possible explanation reveals itself in the identity of a hero. It is quite clear that it has autobiographical connotations, since Byron was deemed immoral and had a reputation of a womanizer as well, and like Don Juan, he was ‗‘sent to the devil‘‘ (Ibid.) by his fellow-citizens. It can also be observed simply as a Romantic choice celebrating freedom and opposing the institutions of society. According to the legend (Web), Don Juan was a notorious Spanish lover who has had over a thousand sexual conquests, before meeting the unattainable and therefore fatal, Donna Ana. If we examine the idea carefully we will see that it comprises main tenets of Romanticism. It disregards social conventions because it 441 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo promotes ‗natural‘ love and opposes marriage. Sexual instinct is a natural thing, what constraints and directs it is the institutionalized idea of love, or in other words marriage, which is designed to make love practical and useful for an orderly society, rather than passionate and wild, as Romanticists perceived it. Common perception of marriage is some kind of secured future, rather than an introductory chapter to a passionate love novel. Although Byron changed legendary Don Juan substantially, he retained the idea that natural and passionate feeling is above institutionalized love. Anne Crow (2007) explains it in the following manner: ‗‘ To Byron, it did not matter that the lovers were not married in church; it was enough that they were in love, and that genuine feeling blessed their union and made it holy.‘‘ Subverting the idea of marriage was just another brick in the wall of Byronic subversions. However, there is a deeper layer within Byron‘s text of ‗‘Don Juan‘‘, the one that recalls Shelley‘s notion of poets as unacknowledged legislators of the world. For Byron acted not only as a critic of his society, but as a sociologist, as well, sensing an important social phenomenon that emerged as such in the 20th century. Crowning his highly subverted epic with the subversion of gender, he designed his epic hero in a way that twisted accustomed notions of gender roles. In the words of Vladimir Guerrero (Web) Don Juan from the legend was ‗‘the absolute male chauvinist.‘‘ Many would agree with Guerrero, when it comes to original Don Juan. When speaking of Byron‘s Don Juan, this statement would be completely out of place, because, contrary to epic conventions, Byron‘s Don Juan comprises both masculine and feminine characteristics. Byron‘s Don Juan is quite original in that he is different from both legendary Don Juan and a conventional epic hero. Both the legendary Don Juan and an epic hero display manliness on a large scale, whereas Byron‘s Don Juan behaves in a manner that is considered to be feminine. As Vladimir Guerrero (Web) explains: ‗‘The character of Don Juan has two main components, the pursuit of pleasure and a total disregard for codes of religion and society.‘‘ Guerrero is speaking about the character from the legend, but this can also be applied to our Don Juan, as well, because the framework is the same. However, the core is different. Legendary Don Juan takes an active role in his pursuit of pleasure, not to say, process of seduction, whereas our Don Juan is always a passive victim of seduction. He somehow gets into a trap of more mature and sexually experienced ladies, like Dona Julia, for example, and being young and naïve he ends up as a victim of both social conventions and a heartbreaking romance, because, in the end, he is the one who gets expelled, for being in the wrong place at the wrong time. Indeed, the only mistake the society acknowledged as such was the fact that he was not careful enough and was therefore caught. The fact that he participated in adultery was irrelevant as long as the affair was well hidden. Why does Byron play with both epic and social conventions? One of the possible answers is to return the stroke to the hypocritical English society which expelled him and abhorred his eccentric and immoral way of life, for Byron experimented and explored his sexuality to the maximum, enjoying both male and female lovers, changing them very often, and as a crown to the whole matter, he had an incestuous relationship with his halfsister Augusta Leigh. Indeed, he lived a scandalous life of a celebrity, but unfortunately, he was ahead of his time, and therefore he had to pay the price. What bothered him was the fact that those who judged him were immoral too, maybe not to the same extent as himself, but they were all actors of a big play, where everyone knew what the other did, but considered it appropriate as long as there was a veil hiding it. Byron, on the other hand detested veils. He loved to shock his fellow citizens and was completely open in his immorality. However, he, as an individual, could not defeat the society. This notion of a doomed struggle between the individual and the society was echoed in ‗‘Don Juan‘‘. Guy Steffan concludes that: ''Taken all together, Juan's adventures become a coherent set of variations on a pessimistic idea about the relationship between the individual and society‘‘ (West, 1963: 100). Indeed, neither Byron, nor his Don Juan could have fought the society successfully, as individuals never can, but what they could do and what they subsequently did was depicting a society as it was at the time, with an emphasis on its many flaws and peculiarities. One of them was the satirical portrayal of upper class women. Legendary Don Juan conquered women as trophies, observing them as passive objects made just for his pleasure. And objects they were, in a patriarchal, male-centered 17th century Spanish society (Guerrero, Web). Two centuries later, English women also lived in a patriarchal society, which considered them commodities possessed by men and ranked them by the male established criteria. If there were no Byron and his satirical epic, maybe we would think that 19th century English women were in the same position as the 17th century Spanish women, since the framework remained the same. The world out there was still modeled by the image men projected. Women were still financially dependent and marriage was still the only way to gain financial security and a position in the society. For women, virginity before marriage was still a must. Yet many things changed, at least with the upper class women, those that Byron was acquainted with, since he was a member of the upper class, the one that was his inexhaustible source of satire. These women started modifying an image of passive and submissive wives whose main goal was to satisfy their husbands. Long before Simone de Beauvoir and feminist movement women began behaving as was at the time socially acceptable for men only in order to approach the allegedly unattainable position of independence and freedom enjoyed by men. Lord Byron sensed this change 442 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and he documented it through the subversion of gender in his Don Juan. Now it becomes clear why his hero is passive, naïve and seduced and why all the women in the epic are experienced, mature and in pursuit of pleasure. Byron‘s satire was not directed towards English women only, although they were the most prominent targets of it. The main hero changed countries and lovers quite often, due to lack of respect towards social conventions, not to say total disregard of them. However, there was a constancy, repeating in every country, and that is the reversal of the accepted and acknowledged gender roles, according to which men picked and chose, and women obeyed and provided pleasure. The women Don Juan encountered across the wide globe were neither passive nor submissive, at least when it comes to satisfying their sexual appetites. The part in which Byron masterfully painted the game of power and subverted socially constructed and acknowledged gender roles is the episode with the sultana Gulbeyaz. Don Juan ended up as a slave of this whimsical woman who got used to get everything she wanted. When describing her Byron says: ‗‘To hear and to obey‘‘ had been from birth The law all around her; to fulfill All phantasies which yielded joy or mirth, Had been her slaves‘ chief pleasure as her will (Byron, 2007) Her will was respected as if she was an absolute dictator rather than a woman. Sultana is described in terms that are even today associated with males and manliness. She is commanding, dominant, powerful and determined to get whatever she wishes for. Upon seeing Don Juan, she felt a strong wish to possess him so her eunuch came up with a marvelous plan of tricking the Sultan by smuggling Don Juan into sultana‘s chambers dressed up as a woman. When he was asked to do so, not knowing the reason Don Juan replied: ‗‘I‘m not a lady‘‘ (Byron, 2007) pointing out to the fact that clothes is an important gender marker. He eventually complied with the request, being forced into dressing as a woman to save his life and the main marker of his sex. To make the transformation complete Byron dressed his hero in silk and lace, so that in the end his hero ‗‘looked in almost all respects a maid‘‘ (Ibid.) At the beginning he just looked like a maid, but was quite clumsy and did not really know how to behave dressed in that strange way. He was irritated by the situation and was ready to use his fists to defend his manliness in case someone would mistake him for a woman, when he looked like one. Furthermore, he refused to pay respects to the Sultana in the usual manner, that is by kneeling and kissing her foot. As if the situation was not complicated enough with an epic hero dressed as a woman, standing in front of a commanding woman, whose property he was, he dared to refuse to obey her, saying that: ‗‘It grieved him, but he could not stoop/To any shoe, unless it shod the Pope‘‘ (Ibid.) And just when you think that you got the idea of what is Byron doing, he acts contrary to your expectations, by making Sultana ask such a sentimental question: ‗‘Christian, canst thou love‘‘ (Ibid.) to which Don Juan reacts in a correspondingly sentimental way, with tears, which had been, are and probably will be part of exclusively feminine mannerism. Sultana, is taken aback by this reaction, but she does not know how to react and console him since that was the first time she felt sympathy, otherwise being merciless, which is yet another quality normally associated with men. It seems that Byron shared Freud‘s view that the fate of women is predetermined by their sex (LeńiĤ et al., 2006), for he describes her reaction in the following way: But nature teaches more than power can spoil, And, when a strong although a strange sensation Moves—female hearts are such a genial soil For kinder feelings, whatsoe'er their nation, They naturally pour the 'wine and oil,' Samaritans in every situation; And thus Gulbeyaz, though she knew not why, Felt an odd glistening moisture in her eye. (Byron, 2007) Sultana‘s condition was paradoxical since she, as a favourite Sultan‘s wife had the power that was not usually bestowed upon women, but on the other hand she herself was in the position of a slave to the Sultan. Anyway, she could have had Don Juan killed for not complying with her wish to love her, but she decided not to. The reason of her reaction, was, as Byron explains, rooted in her ‗female heart‘, which was by nature prone to tears. ‗‘To them t is a relief, to us torture‘‘ (Ibid.) , says Byron, pointing out to the difference in perception of one and the same phenomenon depending on whether it is done by males or females. The fact that his hero cries because of love in front of a woman is thus justified with the explanation that tears are weakness in women and torture in men. So, it must be about the clothes. Don Juan defended his manliness in the beginning of this episode, but after being exposed to an important feminine gender marker for a bit too long, he started behaving like a woman, as if his looks were not just an appearance, as if the clothes really determined his gender. 443 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Through the game of reversed gender roles, Byron tackled an important and sensitive issue. His intention was to amuse his readers, and to expose upper class women to harsh satire. He demonstrated to what extent gender is socially constructed and therefore changeable category. Unlike sex, which is fixed, gender is something that is done and undone by the society as a whole. When saying that tears are part of feminine nature, Byron is reflecting fixed gender role mannerism. Both males and females are biologically capable of producing tears, and in childhood both use this ability extensively. But from the early childhood children are taught that girls cry and boys do not, as well all the other important gender markers, such as appropriate male or female clothes, behavior and occupation. Children in the kindergartens know that girls cry and use make-up, that boys have short hair and that mummies cook lunch, while daddies go to work. Gender roles, however, have been undergoing great changes. Yet, it is still very important to mark them as clearly as possible, because they determine our social roles. And if those are questioned or changed, the society is not as orderly as it is supposed to be. In order for the society to function properly, there must be a clear distinction of who does what, what are whose rights and what are the responsibilities. In this division someone is always restrained. Men are not ‗‘allowed‘‘ to cry or wear pink clothes, but women are those who were traditionally marginalized in the society. The sad thing is that the unfair treatment was justified by the biological difference between men and women, as if sex was responsible for created boundaries and restraints. The fact that a woman is capable of giving birth does not contain any assumptions that it is the only thing she is capable of. The assumption that women are household queens is a part of gender construction. Sex has nothing to do with it. According to Judith Butler, sex has never had anything to do with it. It was gender all along (During, 1999). In connection to gender-sex opposition, Butler also questions the notion of gender as a binary phenomenon, saying that: ‗‘there is no reason to assume that genders ought also to remain as two‘‘ (Ibid.) Judging by clothes, as one of the most important gender markers, it seems that the number has been reduced to one. The clothes is becoming prevalently androgynous and it is no longer a marker which helps you place person into one or the other gender category. Quite the opposite, it confuses you very often, by displaying something inbetween masculine and feminine. It is not only the clothes that is combining both masculine and feminine and creating something third. Just like Byron, who played with the accustomed gender roles, by shaping his hero in both masculine and feminine terms, the society today is doing gender by promoting some of the traditionally feminine features as desirable in males and vice versa. Men are advised to be calm, sensitive and talkative, whereas women are advised to be strong, independent and self-confident. Byron was able to achieve comic effect with his reversal of gender roles, because masculine and feminine was essentially different. Today, this reversal is really happening and who knows where it will take us. In terms of clothes it could result in monotony, but in terms of sending an important message of gender equality it could be a small step that is a giant leap. Conclusion ‗‘Don Juan‘‘ by Byron is the right choice for those who enjoy in amusing, funny and complicated texts which offer series of relevant discussion topics. While reading Byron one always has to think twice in order to figure out what is he really saying, because Byron himself was not always sure which path he wanted to follow. He simply let the spontaneity lead him in his ironic commentary on the social stage in the 19th century. It led him into an interesting game of respecting and opposing conventions of the epic genre at the same time. He classified his work as an epic, and then he modeled it as something quite different. ‗‘Don Juan‘‘ is in fact a mixture of genres with the subverted epic domineering. It only follows the framework of an epic. It is long narrative, written in verse with episodic structure. These are basically its all clearly epic characteristic. Everything else belongs to the epic genre only nominally. Deep down it is simply Byronic and subversive; genre is unimportant, it only serves as a basis for subversion. Only its subversive nature can account for the fact that the epic hero is a legendary character, a womanizer, who embodies everything opposite of an exemplary behavior for the next generations. His adventures are told in an ironic and comic way, so as to amuse the readers, rather than to instruct them about important social matters. However, Byron‘s intention was not just to amuse his readers. His text contains a deeper layer which is supposed to reveal, to be ‗‘a satire on the abuses of the present states of Society and not a eulogy of vice‘‘ (Crow, 2007). Byron felt free to go that far and seriously jeopardize the central characteristic of an epic hero, his manliness. He played very skillfully with the sensitive notion of gender roles, shaping his hero not as a seducer or womanizer, but as the one who repeatedly gets into traps of more mature ladies. Furthermore, he presented gender as a socially constructed category, by using clothing and mannerism as colours of his masterfully painted reversal of gender roles. He played with the gender marked notion that women are weak and submissive, whereas men are strong and dominant in order to satirize upper class women, who were not as submissive as they pretended to be. That is why his Don Juan, dressed as a woman, cries in front of the sultana, whose slave he is. This episode shows what a great role mannerism and clothes had as important gender markers, placing one into one of the two categories. It is also a link to the present situation, in which we still have quite rigid gender standards of what is considered appropriate for males and females. However, things have changed 444 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and they are constantly changing, since gender is a mutable category. Judging by clothes, it seems as if we are heading in a new direction, which tries to erase the existence of gender as binary phenomenon, but instead it promotes neutral path, trying to equalize men and women so much that one could not make a distinction between the two anymore. Gender as binary phenomenon has provided an opportunity for the domination of one and marginalization the other. Maybe this reduction will show that there is no essential difference between men and women which could justify such treatment and hopefully it will lead us into the world of equal opportunities. References Byron, G. G. (2007). Don Juan. (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21700/21700.txt.) The project Gutenberg (Ebook # 21700), Byron‘s wife: Anne Isabella Milbanke, (http://englishhistory.net/byron/wife.html) Caro: The Lady Caroline Lamb Website (http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/douglass/caro/index.html) Crow, A. (2007). Byron: cynic or Romantic? Anne Crow explores the first four cantos of Byron‘s Don Juan, one of the choices for AQA‘s Romantic poets. The English Review (http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodld=IPS&userGropupName=ussd) Dizdar, S. (1999). Poezija engleskog romantizma, Sarajevo: TKD ŃahinpańiĤ. Dizdar, S. (2002). SazvjeţĎa romantizma, Antologija poezije engleskog romantizma. Sarajevo: TKD ŃahinpańiĤ. During, S. (ed.) (1999). The Cultural Studies Reader. London: Routledge. Guerrero, V. Gender, Class, Theology, (www.duo.uio.no/roman/Art/RF2000.2/Guerrero.pdf) and The First Don Juan. LeńiĤ, KapidņiĤ-OsmanagiĤ, KatniĤ-BakarńiĤ, KulenoviĤ. (2006) Savremena tumačenja knjiţevnosti i knjiţevnokritičko naslijeĎe xx stoljeća, Sarajevo: Sarajevo Publishing. Mozer, A. J. (2005) ‗‘I WANT a hero‘‘: Advertising for an Epic Hero in Don Juan. Studies in Romanticism 2:239 The Legend of Don Juan, (http://tacit.caltech.edu/hell/djplot.html) West, P. (ed.) (1963). Byron: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 445 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 65 Title A name given to the resource Genre and Gender as Byronic Subversions in Don Juan Author Author Husika, Esma Abstract A summary of the resource. Don Juan by Lord Byron is puzzling and engaging for a contemporary reader because of the subversiveness of its nature manifested in transgressions of both social and literary kind. It is classified as an epic, but it subverts every convention of the genre, retaining only the framework. The most prominent subversion of the genre is at the same time the subversion of gender. It is manifested in the choice, description and action of the main hero. Within the genre which normally serves as a mirror reflecting patriarchal society values and imposing clear-cut patterns for desired behavior in warrior societies, Byron presents us with an effeminate version of a notorious Spanish lover Don Juan, who gets to be chosen a hero of this unusual epic poem. This paper aims at exploring subversive nature of the aforementioned text and pointing out to the way gender is socially constructed and therefore changeable category, thus bringing it into connection with ideas of Judith Butler who questions the patriarchal discourse of power and claims that what has been sold to us as a difference of sex was actually gender all along. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f49524050e3a09928d7f28bfd6aa2337.pdf a7549d6c3d89cd78a2cafe120c5afce9 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Standard accent or Intelligibility: Desiderata for International Communication in English as a Foreign Language with special reference to the situation in Pakistan Prof. Dr. Zafar Iqbal UMT, Lahore (Pakistan) drziqbl@gmail.com Abstract:The main objective of learning a foreign language these days is to acquire communicative competence in such a language in real life situations. Being the most important lingua franca, English is the most sought- after foreign language in the contemporary world. There are, of course, two main options in pursuing this goal in countries like Pakistan. The so-called elite class of the society which always tends to set its self apart from the general masses and in some ways still wants to promote the colonial legacy wants to adopt the standard accent of English in their communications which means either ‗general American‘ or British ‗RP‘. The general public perforce resorts to ‗Pingilsh‘ due to many social constraints and pursues the criteria of mutual intelligibility, as a benchmark in speaking English as a foreign language. The aim of this paper is to highlight the significance of ‗Pinglinsh‘ as a model to be followed in the country uniformly in its entire system of education. Key Words :Comfortable Intelligibility, Accent, Pinglish, The Lingua Franca Core, RP INTRODUCTION Like so many other countries where the English language was transplanted from Britain in the process of colonization of such countries, Pakistan too inherited it as a colonial legacy but chose to retain it as the most important international language in the world purely for pragmatic reasons, although initially there was a strong reaction to this approach by those who perceived the English language as an undesirable reminder of the British colonial rule in the subcontinent. Thus, over a period a long time the original model of the English language transformed into what is now generally proclaimed as ‗Pinglish‘ or Pakistani variety of English characterized by various indigenous linguistic and sociolinguistic factors which have impinged heavily on the form and function of the prototype model of English. As corollary of all this, we have now two different models of English being pursed in different educational institutions of the country. The so-called English medium institutions claim to follow the original model of English, while the Urdu-medium institutions follow the Pakistani model of English in all their linguistic pursuits. Given the social ethos of Pakistan, because of their British or American accents students qualified from English medium institutions have an edge on students taught in the Urdu-medium institutions. Ideally, the system of education in Pakistan should follow a uniform policy of adopting one and the same model of English as a foreign language to avoid any social divisiveness or discrimination. But in reality, it has not been the case. However, for national considerations we need to revise our attitudes towards the Pakistani model of English presumed by some people to be inferior, and rethink our priorities which of course demands to give equal recognition to the Pakistani model of English at all levels education and in all contexts of social situations. Our financial resources do not permit us to follow the British or American models exclusively in our educational institutions. As far as the ‗RP‘ is concerned, experts have started questioning its validity. (kannedy 2008; Macauly 1988; Crystal 1995). It has also been investigated that not more than three percent of the UK population uses ‗RP‘. ‗RP‘ is a difficult model to acquire holistically for Pakistani learners of English in the kind of social and educational contexts in which they learn the English language. Kenworthy (1987) recommends pursuing what she terms comfortable-intelligibility in all international communications instead of ‗RP‘ or ‗GA ‗. This kind of attitude is already noticeable in the pronunciations books of many writers (Celc-murcia, Briton & Godwin, 1966; Kentworthy, 1987; Tench 1987). According to Walker (2001) there are now more exchanges between non native speakers of English than between non native speakers and native speakers and this situation is not going to change in favour of the native speakers. Some writers (Kenworthy 1987; Jenner 1989) have advocated for the ‗lingua franca core‘ identifying seven areas to be taken care for improving speaker pronunciation and facilitating mutual intelligibility amongst the native and non native speakers of English at international levels. 1299 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusion In the light of the above facts and empirical studies, it is reasonable in typical Pakistani situation to follow a realistic and viable policy in its system of education with particular reference to adopting a model of English which suits its needs nationally as well as internationally. It is essential that we come out of the accent syndrome and concentrate our attention on the benchmark of international intelligibility as suggested by Kenworthy and Jenner. This is expected to help the learners shun their anxiety in communication and improve their communication at international level. References Brinton, D. (1995) Integrating Pronunciation in the Language Syllabus, Speak Out 16, IATEFL. Celce-Murcia, M, et al. (1996), Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of other Languages. New York: Cambridge University. Crystal, D. (1995), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge Univ. Press Jenner, B. (1989), Teaching Pronunciation: The Common core, Speak Out! 4, IATEFL Jenkins, J. (2000), The phonology of English as an international Language. Cambridge Univ. Press Kenworthy, J. (1987), Teaching English Pronunciation, Longman Kennedy, S. (2008), Intelligibility Comprehensibility Accentednesss of L2 Speech: The role of Listener Experience and Semantic Context The Canadian Modern Language Review 64, 3 Macauly, R. (1988), RP RIP, Applied Linguistics Volume. 9 No. 2 Tench, P. (1981), Pronunciations Skill. London: McMillan. Walker, R (2001) Pronunciation for International Intelligibility: English Teaching Professna, Issue 21 1300 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 679 Title A name given to the resource Standard accent or Intelligibility: Desiderata for International Communication in English as a Foreign Language with special reference to the situation in Pakistan Author Author Iqbal, Zafar Abstract A summary of the resource. The main objective of learning a foreign language these days is to acquire communicative competence in such a language in real life situations. Being the most important lingua franca, English is the most sought- after foreign language in the contemporary world. There are, of course, two main options in pursuing this goal in countries like Pakistan. The so-called elite class of the society which always tends to set its self apart from the general masses and in some ways still wants to promote the colonial legacy wants to adopt the standard accent of English in their communications which means either ‗general American‘ or British ‗RP‘. The general public perforce resorts to ‗Pingilsh‘ due to many social constraints and pursues the criteria of mutual intelligibility, as a benchmark in speaking English as a foreign language. The aim of this paper is to highlight the significance of ‗Pinglinsh‘ as a model to be followed in the country uniformly in its entire system of education. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6833b8b725c6a23f2ed6da1eacafa261.pdf 5dc0bd4b90883e051bbcc4c726d3fef5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo THE METONYMS AND DEAF CHILDREN Ljubica Isakovic ljubicaisakovic07@gmail.com Serbia, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Special Education and Rehabilitation Prof. Nadezda Dimic Serbia, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Special Education and Rehabilitation ndimic@open.telekom.rs Prof. Vesna Polovina Serbia, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philology polovinav@fil.bg.ac.rs Abstract: Language is an abstract system of symbols, which is concretely realized by way of speech, writing and signing. Difficulties in speech and communication in deaf children cause problems in their social, emotional and cognitive development. Deaf children show inadequate results on semantic tests due to their inadequate knowledge of the language, the level of concreteness and underdeveloped linguistic associations. These problems can be for the most part overcome with the adoption of sign language. The aim of our study was to evaluate the meanings of certain words and their association by deaf children, attending grades six to eight-24 students; as well as to establish the development of the category of metonym words. We also wanted to examine the strength of the relationship between the knowledge of sign language and the level of knowledge of this category of words, if one existed at all. The study incorporated a segment of the Semantic Test by S. Vladisavljevic. Pupils were given 20 words-notions (snail, gold, snake, deer, flower, drop, fair, fox, rock and rabbit) and it was requested of them to give all possible meanings for those words. A qualitative and quantitative analysis was completed of the obtained linguistic material. The obtained results showed a partial influence of the pupil‘s age and the level of knowledge of metonyms. Also, it was observed that better knowledge of sign language affects the results of the deaf pupils, i.e. they had better speech and understanding of word meanings. Key words: metonyms, semantic, speech, writing, signing language, deaf children Introduction Semantics is the study of meanings within a language and it is concentrated on the phenomenon how people exchange words with one another within the scope of their language. When referring to the number of words which individuals make use of in their daily lives we observe that in the population of educated people in developed societies this number is approximately twenty thousand. Whereas, it is important to differentiate between active and passive lexicon, that is, the words we use ourselves and the ones we understand, precisely or roughly, although we do not utilize them. A word as a unit of a vocabulary (lexicon) of a language with all of its grammatical forms and possible phraseological extensions is called a lexeme. Lexicon is the speakers‘ use of a certain vocabulary and the correct usage of listed words in practical situations. It also includes specific components of selection restrictions, which are the rules which define the types of words that can be combined together when forming a sentence (Dimic, 1996). Vocabulary building is the most tangible characteristic of language acquisition in the first months of life. From the moment when the first word is identified, steady lexical development in both the understanding and production of a language is effectuated. It is considered that a child of 18 months can produce about fifty words and understand about five times as many words. Around the second year the spoken vocabulary surpasses 200 words. During the third year, there occurs an impressive growth in the scope and diversity of vocabulary, and that to an extent where precise calculations (especially relating to understanding of the vocabulary) or establishing the norm of the spoken lexical frequency have shown to be impossible. After six years of age, children develop the ability to use 758 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo figurative phrases and to understand dual meanings. In this latter period the ability of a child emerges to integrate a number of characteristics of semantic knowledge into one statement which represents a definition. Semantic development continues throughout the period of schooling, or better said an entire lifetime. There will always be new words that need to be learned and new meanings that need to be sought. Formation of notions in deaf children Many authors emphasize that the process of understanding the meanings of words always involves the ―selection of a meaning amongst many possible ones‖. The child does not choose a meaning of a word by himself. Instead, he obtains the meaning in the process of spoken communication with the environment that surrounds him. A child follows the speech of those who are older than him, thus adopting concrete word meanings, which are already established and given to him as such. The child does not create his own speech; instead it adopts the ―ready-made‖ speech of the adults surrounding him. Working with children on forming notions represents an important segment in working with deaf children. Correct formation of notions enables a deaf child to denominate the notions that exist in his mind, that is, for the child to find verbal expression and in that way enable him to free his thoughts from using gestures to signify activities or objects. New notions should be presented, whilst those already adopted should be continually expanded, so that they will become permanent property of the child. A child has adopted a notion, once it has come to understand that a word is only something that is used to signify an object, event or occurrence and that by using that word the child is transmitting its thoughts and feelings (Dimic, 2003). Deaf individuals have a hard time forming abstract notions, because their process of thought only unravels within the sphere of what can be seen. Although nouns are the word type most often found in the vocabulary of hearing impaired children, these children show difficulty in adopting abstract nouns. The obvious way of thinking and dominance of the visual factor, which are characteristic of the hearing impaired, play a crucial role in the formation of notions (Dimic, Isakovic, 2007). Savic (1996) provides particular set of principles relating to the formation of notions in deaf children and emphasizes their goal is for the notion to be ―unbound from a concrete object‖ and make it a source of thought development and adoption of notions of higher rank – abstract notions – which the child will use independently in all situations. Deaf individuals, who do not acquire speech in the process of live interaction, but instead by way of special education, often adopt only one, narrow meaning of a word and do not master ―flexible polysemy‖ of words which allows for the meaning to change in relation to the context. For this reason, the task of a deaf-mute child whence adoption a language doesn‘t not only consist of simple adoption of a certain vocabulary, instead multiple word meanings are pointed out in their use, as well as their various dictionary meanings (Luria, 1982). Prior to a word being understood as a sign for an object, it must first pass through the stage of representing an object characteristic and that it is an entity of its own. When it ―matures‖ the words is no longer associated with an object or activity, but stands on its own signifying an object or activity. Words can be understood at different levels of completeness of their meaning. One of the tasks of a teacher is to expand the meanings of already learned words, in accordance with age level. Sign and Verbal Linguistic Expression The most complex and precise means of communication is spoken language, which in addition to pronunciation - articulation has a written form as well – script. The simplest and most natural form of communication is gesture. Deaf children, in their expression, aside from spoken and written language primarily use sign language. Speech by way of sign is a main source of communication amongst deaf individuals. They, in their expression, in addition to spoken and written language primarily use sign language. Sign language is the natural language of the deaf, one that is spontaneously developed by them. Sign language has a significant stimulative role in the development of cognitive functioning. (Kovacevic, Isakovic, Dimic, 2010). ―Language, as an abstract symbolic system, is concretely effectuated by speech (most often), script (less of often) and gesture (most rarely). For the form (substance) by way of which language is concretely effectuated in linguistics is referred to with the term expression. Each of the three mentioned ways of effectuation of language has its advantages and disadvantages. They mutually supplement each other and the result is an individual‘s ability to communicate with other people and his need to communicate even in the most unfavorable conditions. (Kasic, 2000). ―In the development of individuals with hearing impairment gestures have a great significance. A deaf individual is a visual type and everything he learns and experiences is by way of sight. Optical pictures which they 759 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo receive from the outside world are concrete, direct, static or dynamic. They develop gestures as speech based on their own spontaneous movement and simulation of the environment. Communication by way of movement is the result of psychological development of a deaf child, and movement itself aid that development. Gestures are used to express static or dynamic characteristics of the content which is being spoken of. When enrolled into school a deaf child bears certain gestures which are specific to the family and only the family understands them. Once in school the child quickly learns the movements in its surroundings. Deaf children whose parents are also deaf, are socially and communicatively more developed than deaf children who have hearing parents when the come to school, because they have developed the ability to communicate by way of gesture.‖ (Dimic, 2002). Today, we know that sign languages have a structure that in their complexity can be compared with the structure of a spoken or written language. In different parts of the world varying sign languages are used and they are not mutually understandable. Different signs and different rules for their formation are used (different order of signs), as well as different sentence structures (Crystal, 1996). Should deaf children be thought sign language, is a very old question that has been the subject of many debates. The main argument against sign language is that it separates deaf individuals from everyone, except from those in their immediate small community. In that way they become marked, different and diverse and they are disabled from communicating with the hearing world. On the contrary, insisting on verbal speech, which is most often limited and difficult to understand for deaf persons, increases their isolation even more. Today, it is known that a deaf child, or a hearing child that has parents who are deaf, learns sign language as their ―mother tongue‖ and produces a level of manual awareness and refinement which differs from the awareness of deaf children with hearing parents or persons who can hear and who have learned sign language. Many studies show that early bilingualism of hearing impaired children (knowledge of sign language and spoken/written language) is of invaluable importance for their development. With the adoption of sign language problems in limited receipt of messages and restricted communication, are eliminated. Deaf children have higher self-esteem, are more communicative, more independent than others, and have more adequate reactions in various everyday life situations and show a lower level of frustration connected with their relations with the hearing population. Also, recent studies (Most, 2003) show that children that communicate using sign language show more variation and flexibility in their behavior, than they do when communicating using verbal speech. It is necessary to equally develop linguistic communication by way of both sign and spoken language and to not forget that children have a need to communicate in both languages. Study Goals The aim of this study was to examine the meanings of certain words and their associations in deaf children, enrolled in grades six to eight and to establish how the development of the metonym (those are words-stimulus which induce expression of transferable meaning) word category takes place. Also, we were interested to see the relationship between knowledge of sign language and the adoption level of this category of words, that is, if any existed. Instruments The study utilized a segment of the Semantic Test (S.Vladisavljevic). The pupils are given 10 nouns-notions by way of which the knowledge of the meaning of these words is tested, as well as their active use. The given nouns (for which we requested an adequate metonym) were: (snail, gold, snake, fawn, flower, drop, fair, fox, rock and rabbit). The pupils were asked to give all possible meanings for those words. Nouns have special significance in speech and language. They are used to express the most concrete and abstract meanings in a language, which cannot be expressed by any other type of word. Each positive answer is given one point. Sample The study was implemented at schools for deaf children in Belgrade. The study encompassed pupils attending grades six to eight (8 pupils from each grade). Methodology of data processing 760 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In the review and processing of the data we used the statistic packaged for data processing SPSS 14.0. We applied the descriptive statistics procedure (mean score and SD, as well as statistical significance of the differences seen in the average values (t-test for dependent samples, for checking the significance of the differences at the level of the entire sample and non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test for checking the statistical significance of differences between the students of varying grade levels). Study Results Quantitative analysis of the acquired data In analyzing the obtained results within the scope of the entire sample we observed that the minimal number of achieved points in spoken and sign language forms of expression was one (1), whilst the maximum number of points received was 12 (twelve) for (sign language) and 13 (thirteen) in (spoken form of expression). In comparing these results (Mspeech=7.4167 and Msign l. =6.7083 we did not observe any statistically significant differences Sig. (2-tailed) .208). There was also no statistically significant difference found when comparing the results between the pupils enrolled in different grades. Qualitative analysis of the acquired data The word: SNAIL Adequate responses were: small, slow, slowness Other received responses: animal, ugly, lazy, slow, goes slowly, weak, on foot. The greatest numbers of responses were given using sign language expression. The word: GOLD The received responses were: good, she is good, valuable, obedient The most common responses were: yellow, light, shiny, little chain, ring, earrings, necklace, beautiful, gorgeous, shines nicely, husband-wife (ring), gold-love-husband, chain, wedding, watch, money, expensive, cash, gold coin Inadequate responses were: glass, iron, silver, cute The word: SNAKE The given responses included: poisonous*, evil* (*given in both genders in Serbian/she is evil, he is evil) Other responses included; fast, animal, does not love, catch-bite, scare. As a wrong response, the word WOOD was seen. The word: FAWN Adequate response was gentle. The pupils gave the following responses: small, peaceful, cuddle, deer, female deer, scare, scare you, afraid of, beautiful, animal, Africa, slow, very cute. Specific and incorrect responses included: black, black color, white. The word: FLOWER The given answers were pretty, beautiful, smells, aromatic. Responses given often, but are incorrect: smells nice, beautiful flower, tulip, snowdrop, rose, green, yellow, plant, flowers, grows, pokes, girl-gift, happy, good. The word: DROP The adequate response was small, little. The pupils gave the following inadequate responses: in the nose, eye-nose, hat, scarf, when you drink medicine, water, rain falling, drink, wash hands, one, juice, drop for nose, drop for ear, drop for eye. The word: FAIR The pupils gave the following responses: crowded, very crowded. 761 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Also characteristic are the responses: there is a big crowd at night lots, and during the day not; amusement park, super, because people love it, car fair, crash-car, many people, we play, car hit, merry-go-round, shooting range, trophy, carousel, park, drive car, swing, fire, merry, many people. For the given metonym some were observed as having no response. The word: FOX The sought response was cunning. Deaf pupils also gave the following responses: dangerous, lies, steals chicken, wild animal, loves to steal, steals eggs, thief, thief - meat, coward. All pupils gave a response to the given metonym. The word: ROCK Adequate responses given in sign language were: hard, solid, strong. Other inadequate responses given by deaf students: mountain, white, small-grey, rock, large rock, small, large, large boulder, strongest, stubborn. A certain number of children gave no response. The word: RABBIT The most common responses were: fast, going fast, very fast, scare, I scared, he is scares. The pupils also gave other responses: beautiful, not brave, runaway, cute, jumps, weak, escape, animal, hop, always runs away fast, running away, hungry. All pupils gave one or more responses to the given word. Conclusions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The obtained results show that there exist conformances in the development of certain notions and certain categories of words. Inadequate results of the deaf children on the semantic tests are due to the deficiency in their linguistic knowledge, concreteness and underdeveloped linguistic association. A large number of inadequate words were obtained that are specific for deaf children. It was observed that there exist great individual differences between deaf pupils of the same age level. The level of adoption of the tested categories of words grows with age, whilst the greatest increase in results is seen in the group of pupils attending grades 6 to 8, although this is not evident in the statistical significance calculations. With age the spoken and sign language form of expression reaches equilibrium and are equally successfully used. It can be said that better development of sign language affects the better results of deaf pupils in the spoken form of expression. Metonyms represent a difficulty, because children of this age group still have not sufficiently developed this form of linguistic thought. However, it was observed that deaf children better understand the transferable meaning of those words (notions) with which they have contact everyday at school. That pertains to concrete notions, characteristics of animals (snail, snake, fox, rabbit- which becomes part of everyday teachings from the earliest age, preschool level, through first songs, fairy tales, fables). References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dimic, N.D, Isakovic, Lj., Kovacevic, T (2008). Words of opposite meaning in written and spoken language and in sign language, International conference, Role of the special educator and rehabilitator in the institutional and uninstitutional treatment of the children with special needs, Skopje, Macedonia, 2.-3. october, DimiĤ, D.N., KovaĦeviĤ T. (2004). Vocabulary of hearing impaired children-norms of sign, speech and writing (in Serbian), Beogradska defektolońka ńkola, Beograd, 2-3, 69-77 DimiĤ, D. N. (1996). SpecifiĦnosti u pisanju sluńno ońteĤene dece, Defektolońki fakultet, Beograd DimiĤ, D. N. (2002). Klase reĦi i leksiĦki deficiti kod gluve i nagluve dece, Istraņivanja u defektologiji, Defektolońki fakultet, CIDD, Beograd DimiĤ, D. N. (2002). Metodika artikulacije, Defektolońki fakultet, Beograd 762 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. DimiĤ, D. N. (2003). Govorno – jeziĦki deficiti kod gluve i nagluve dece, Druńtvo defektologa Srbije i Crne Gore, Beograd DimiĤ, N., IsakoviĤ Lj. (2007). Distinctiveness of the use of words with opposite meanings in hearing impaired children and hearing children (in Serbian), Nove tendencije u specilalnoj edukaciji i rehabilitaciji, I nauĦni skup Univerziteta u Beogradu, Fakulteta za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju, Beograd, 509 – 528 Dimic, N., Kasic, Z., Polovina, V., Isakovic, Lj., Kovacevic, T. (2010): The Serbian Sign Language-First Step of Standardization, 28 th World Congress of the International Association of Logopedics and Phoniatrics, August 22-26. 2010, Athens, Greece, Final Programme&Abstracts, pp.139 GoluboviĤ, S., KańiĤ, Z. (2000). Segmentna i suprasegmentna organizovanost govora, DDJ, Beograd Hakuta, K (1986). Mirrors of Language: The debate on bilingualism, New York:Basic Books. Hoffmeister, R. (2000). A piece of the puzzle: ASL and reading comprehension in deaf children.U C. Chamberlain, J. P. Morford, & R. I. Mayberry (ur.) Language acquisition by eye. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.143-164. Hoiting, N.& D.I. Slobin (2002). What a deaf child needs to see: Advantages of a natural sign language over a sign system. U R. Schulmeister & H. Reinitzer (ur.) Progress in sign language research: In honor of Siegmund Prillwitz. Hamburg: Signum. 267-277 Isakovic, Lj., Dimic, N., Kovacevic, T. (2008). Function of sign language, oral and written lexicon in deaf children, NHS2008-june 19-21-Cernobbio (Como Lake) Italy, Poster Session on Medical Reports, 216. IsakoviĤ, Lj. (2007). Some specific characteristics in the use of lexis in hearing impaired children and children who can hear (in Serbian), Beogradska defektolońka ńkola, Druńtvo defektologa Srbije, Beograd, 3, 17-32 IsakoviĤ, Lj., KovaceviĤ, T. (2009). Some semantics specifics at deaf and hard of hearing students (in Serbian), Istraņivanja u specijalnoj edukaciji i rehabilitaciji, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju, priredio prof. dr Dobrivoje RadovanoviĤ, Berograd, 313-331 KańiĤ, Z. (2000). Funkcija suprasegmenata u govornom izrazu, Beogradska defektolońka ńkola, 2 - 3, 113 123. KostiĤ, Đ., VladisavljeviĤ, S., PopoviĤ, M. (1983). Testovi za ispitivanje govora i jezika, Zavod za udņbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd KovaĦeviĤ, T. (2005). Razvijanje i bogaĤenje reĦnika dece ońteĤenog sluha na osnovnońkolskom uzrastu, Beogradska defektolońka ńkola, Beograd, 3, 1-16 KovaĦeviĤ, T., IsakoviĤ, Lj. (2010). Fairytales understanding based on sign language and verbal and written production (in Serbian), Smetnje i poremeĤaji: fenomenologija, prevencija i tretman, I deo, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju, Beograd, 269 – 281 KovaĦeviĤ, T., IsakoviĤ, Lj., DimiĤ, N (2010). Deficiency in sign language and speech in deaf and hard of hearing preschool age children (in Serbian), Beogradska defektolońka ńkola, ISSN 0354-8759, 1, 23-38 KovaĦeviĤ, V. (2000). OńteĤenje sluha i leksiĦko – semantiĦki razvoj, Zaduņbina AndrejeviĤ,Beograd Kristal, D. (1996). KembriĦka enciklopedija jezika, Nolit LazareviĤ D. (1999). Od spontanih ka nauĦnim pojmovima , Zavod za udņbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd Lurija, R. A. (1982). Osnovi neurolingvistike, Nolit, Beograd Lurija, R. A. (2000). Jezik i svest, Zavod za udņbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd, 2000. Most, T. (2003). The use of repair strategies: bilingual deaf children using sign language and spoken language, American Annals of the Deaf , Washington, Fall 2003. Vol. 148, Iss 4; pg. 308-315 OstojiĤ, S. (2004). Auditivni trening i razvoj govora nagluve dece, Defektolońki fakultet, Beograd Polovina, V., DimiĤ, N. (2010). Lexic-semantic relations in serbian sign language (in Serbian), Smetnje i poremeĤaji: fenomenologija, prevencija i tretman, I deo, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju, Beograd, 241 – 258 Prinz, P. M. (2002). Cross-linguistic perspectives on sign language and literacy development. U R. Schulmeister & H. Reinitzer (ur.) Progress in sign language research: In honor of Sigmund Prillwizt. Hamburg: Signum. 221-233. Quigley, S., Kretschmer, R.E. (1982). The education of the deaf children, Baltimore, University park Press Quigley S., Paul P. (1984). Language and Deafness, College Hill Press, San Diego, California SaviĤ, Lj. (1986). Metodika uĦenja govora gluve dece, Zavod za udņbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd Stokoe, W. (1993). Sign Langue Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf, Studies in Linguistics, Occasional Papers 8, University of Buffalo Department of Antropology and Linguistics, Buffalo, 1960, Reprint, Linstok Press, Burtonsville, Md. Press Stuckless, R. & J. Birch (1966). The influence of early manual communication on the linguistic development of deaf children. American Annals of the Deaf. 106, 436-480. 763 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 35. Valli, C., Lucas, C. (2000). Linguistics of American Sign language, Gallaudet Universitz Press, Washington, D.C. 36. VasiĤ, S. (1977). Govor u razredu, Prosveta, Beograd 37. Vigotski, L. (1996). DeĦja psihologija, Sabrana dela, tom Ħetvrti, Zavod za udņbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd 38. Vigotski, L. (1996). NauĦno nasleħe, Sabrana dela, tom ńesti, Zavod za udņbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd 39. VujasinoviĤ, Z., IsakoviĤ, Lj. (2007). Bilingual approach in the development of language with hearing impaired children of preschool age (in Serbian), Nove tendencije u specilalnoj edukaciji i rehabilitaciji, I nauĦni skup Univerziteta u Beogradu, Fakulteta za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju, Beograd, 493 – 507 764 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 112 Title A name given to the resource THE METONYMS AND DEAF CHILDREN Author Author Isakovic, Ljubica Dimic, Prof. Nadezda Polovina, Prof. Vesna Polovina Abstract A summary of the resource. Language is an abstract system of symbols, which is concretely realized by way of speech, writing and signing. Difficulties in speech and communication in deaf children cause problems in their social, emotional and cognitive development. Deaf children show inadequate results on semantic tests due to their inadequate knowledge of the language, the level of concreteness and underdeveloped linguistic associations. These problems can be for the most part overcome with the adoption of sign language. The aim of our study was to evaluate the meanings of certain words and their association by deaf children, attending grades six to eight-24 students; as well as to establish the development of the category of metonym words. We also wanted to examine the strength of the relationship between the knowledge of sign language and the level of knowledge of this category of words, if one existed at all. The study incorporated a segment of the Semantic Test by S. Vladisavljevic. Pupils were given 20 words-notions (snail, gold, snake, deer, flower, drop, fair, fox, rock and rabbit) and it was requested of them to give all possible meanings for those words. A qualitative and quantitative analysis was completed of the obtained linguistic material. The obtained results showed a partial influence of the pupil‘s age and the level of knowledge of metonyms. Also, it was observed that better knowledge of sign language affects the results of the deaf pupils, i.e. they had better speech and understanding of word meanings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ad389db04b9970ae92461b668ea3b42b.pdf 0f5bf1e45f9a7023893a309da672ecf4 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A Dialectial Analysis of Grammatical Terms Defining The English Articles Yunsang Jang Kore a University of Technology and Education Abstract: This study looks into the English article system from the perspective of dialectics. The goal of the study is to enlarge the scope of understanding the English article system by demonstrating that at the very elementary comminicative level is is more appropriately characterized as a relational dialectial system rather than a simple binary one as described in most traditional pedagogical frammar boks. This study tries to reach this goal by interpreting such key metalingustic notions as anaphoric generic uniquenness etc as well as the three main descriptors of the English articles which involve article definite and indefinite For Plato dialogues or our Daily communicational acts are fundamentally dialectial. Thus the base reasoning fort his stady is that if we understand the Notion related to dialectic or dialectial acts better this will in tum help us understand our own dialogical acts in general and the English articles as a key dialogical marker in particular. Key words: English articles, dialectic, definiteness, indefiniteness 1. OVERVIEW The English articles the and a/an are most freauently used grammatical elements but are also wellknown as one of the most problematic areas in mastering this language as a foreing language (Butler. 1999). A number of research attemps have been made hoping to explain what aspects of the English article system make the learner of English as a Foreing Language (EFL) have difficulty acquiring the system (Master. 1990: Song & Park. 2001). The purpose of this study has been generated out of this line of pedagagical thought. The study aims to extend the scope of understanding the English article system bey demonstrating that at the very elementary communicative level it is more appropriately characterized as a relational dialectial system rather than a simple binary one as described in most traditional pedagogical grammar books . Specifically. This study attempts to reach this goal by re-interpreting key metalinguistic notions of the English articles which have been commonly used in the literatùre involving English grammar and linguistics. This will be done from the perspective of the semantics of dialectics. By nature. This study is more likely to pursue what Ellis (1997) calls practical knowledge as opposed to technical knowledge As part of the discussion about the Professional relationship betwwen Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research and language pedagogy. He characterizes the former as explicit while the latter as implicit. What he argues with the technical knowledge which is obtained primarily by analytical and empirical work. On the other hand. Practising professionals like doctors and teachers tend to rely more on the pratical knowledge which is intuitive and experiential. In what follows. I will first briefly discuss in what respects this instrumental Notion of dialectic or dialectical help extend the scope of our understanding the English articles. A few key descriptions such as article, definite, indefinite and the like will then be analysed. ll. ON DIALECTIC How has the nation dialectic or dialectical been defined in the literature ? As Watson (1985 p 85) points out . Its origin seems to date back to Plato‘s period. Dialectic is Plato‘s Word coming from dialegesthai to talk with and his Works tahe the form of dialogues. As such the terms dialectic and dialogue are closely interrelated concepts. Here the implication is taht our daily comminicational act is fundamentally dialectical. So if we undertand this notion better. This will in turn help us understand our own dialogical acts in general and the English articles as a key dialogical marker in particular. What follows are brief schematic descriptions of these terms. Which have been drawn selectively from the Webster‘s Third New International Dictionary (1967). The nominal forms dialectic and dialectics are defined in two respects. In one sense, they are often identified as the theory and practice of weighing and reconciling juxtaposed or contradictory arguments for the purpose of arriving at truth –especially through discussion and debate. In another sense and particularly on literature. They are often referred to as a type of systematic reasoning that seeks to resolve a conflict. While both senses indicate a reality of tension or opposition 1289 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo between two interacting forces or elements their ultimate purpose is directed toward obtaining truth and solving problems through transforming or transcending. Dialectics for plato was used as a means of logical analysis or division of things and was expressed in the from of representing both genera (or Form in his view of universe) and species (or particular) (Stevenson. 1987). In Aristotle dialectics was viewedas a method of arguing the different sides of any given problem. It was olso used as an art intermediate between rhetoric (thus, more symbolic. Ġndefinite inclusive generic metaphoric and less referential) and strict demonstration (thus more concrete or referential, specific, definite, and exclusive). In the Kantian tradition, dialectics is used to account for paradoxical realities (i.e. both appearances and illusions). And it thus deals with paralogisms (i.e. reasoning contrary to the rules of logic). Antinomies and transcendental ideas. Dialectics in this tradition becomes meaningful where these antithetical problems arise through logical fallacies, perceptural errors or the endeavor to use the principles ofthe understanding applicable only within experience for determination of such transcendental objects as the soul the World and God. In a slightly more developed form the Hegelian interpretiaon is spelled out as: a logical development progressing from less to more compernsive levels that on its subjective side is the passage of thought from a thesis through an antithesis to a synthesis that in turn becomes a thesis for further progressions ultimately culminating on the absolute idea and on its objective side is an analogus development in the process of history and the cosmos. (Webster‘s Dictionary . 1967 . p 623) It is noteworthy that historically up to Hegel‘s use of dialectics. Its majôr function was the acquistion of truth and resolution of conflicts in problems. For Marx in contrast, the dialectic is viewed more as a conceptual tool responsible for bringing about some change or transformation. He expressed this Notion as: the process of self-development or unfolding (as of an action, event, ideology, movement or institution) through the stages of thesis, antithesis and synthesis in accordance with the laws of dialectical materialism and the method that regards change in nature and history as taking place in this way. (Webster‘s Dictionary. 1967 .p. 623) For him reality is a changing process to be decoded by the human mind. The adjectival forms dialectic and dialectical are typically represented with the following characteristic semantic features. They are (a) marked by a dynamic inner tension, conflicct and interconnectedness of parts of elements: (b) they are used to denote the idea of mutuality and reciprocity: (c) thy are used to refer to the acts of praticing being devoted to or employing a dialectic and (d) as regarding something from the point of view of a dialectic. In summary the dialectic has been used as a conceptual catch-all to account for various paradoxical and co-existing aspects inheent in humah reasoing and pratices. Dialectics has been as both theory and practice as indicating a solution. Recognition or acknowledgement of conflict contradiction. Oxy-moron and the like. This use of dialectics is responsible for denoting involves the recegnition of change fifference distinction and the like over time. In fact because of ists potential utility in constructing social theory the concept of dialectics has been given increased attention by psychologists (Gusfield. 1989: Georgoudi 1984: Perin-banayagam. 1991). In reviewing many of the social psychological studies on this subject . Georgoudi (1984) concludes that dialectics has been employed not just at the level of theory construction but also at a metatheoretical level and at the level of methological application. He has also noted that dialectics. In its most general sense is viewed as a process of relating nearly all aspects of human activity. Thus it is a form of medition with a wide range of applications and nearly unlimited theoretical and practical potential. In other words. Its unstated implications are widely and systematically distrubed to almost all sectors of the human and social sciences. As briefly illustrated above the implications of the term dialectic are profound in terms of their philosophical, psychological and methodological applications. Let me point out in what sense the Notion of dialectic can be helpful for one to understand the English article system. Particularly from a pedagogical standpoint. First as seen in Plato‘s view of dialectic the English articles signify both generic or specific meaning and the articles are obviously key dialogical devices. Thus the system reflects the contradictory nature of relation between a whole and its part as well as the processual nature of our human praxis or action. Second similarly to the dialectic as a theoretical concept the semantic root of the English article connotes ―relation‖ which will be discussed further later in this paper. Third just as the notion of dialectic entails system has an antithetical structure ( i. e. definite and indefinite) The system is used for meaning differentiation and construction in dialogical context In sum it seems obvious that there exists a certain conceptual parallel between what we have seen about dialectic and the English articles. 3) KEY DESCRĠPTORS OF THE ARTICLES 1290 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Let me start with the three basic descriptors of the English articles which involve ―definite‖ ―indefinite‖ and article. These terms have been commonly attributed and related to the usage of the articles the and a/ an Although commonly used these three descriptors have not sustained a rigorous theoretical analysis by EFL/ESL researchers. Typically these researchers have simply followed the lead of many earlier theorists. Both philosophers and linguists who from a very different set of assumptions in the philosophy of science have usually resorted to using them as simple referring devices for ―the‖ and a/an. For instance Russell a leading philosopher of the logical positivist school is a typical case in point . As cited by Rosenberg an Travis ( 1971 p 167) Russell (1973) used these terms to distinguish different modes of philosophical description: A ―description‖ may be of two sorts definite and indefinite (or ambiguous) An indefinite description is a phrase of the form a so and so and a definite description is a phrase of the form ―the‖ so-and-so (in the singular) (original emphasis). A similar but more specific usage of these terms has been proposed by Bickerton(1985): In English ―definite‖ really means presumed known to the listener whether by prior knowledge (the man you met yesterday) uniqueness in the universe (the sun is setting) uniqueness in a given setting ( The battery is deadcars do not usually have more than one battery) or general knowledge that a named class exists ( The dog is the friend of man) : and ― indefinite‖ really means presumed unknown to the listener whether by absence of prior knowledge ( A man you should meet is Mr. Blank) nonexistence of a nameable referent (Bill is looking for a wife) or nonexistence of any referent (George couldn‘t see an aardvark) (p.147). Accordingly authors of English grammar books usually use these notions as received categories They assume the word ―the‖ is responsible for definiteness and the words a/an are responsible based on simple clear and straightforward categorical meanings. It has had a broad pedagogical appeal. However because of its theoretical simplicity this classification has also been problematic and misleading to many students. The fact is that the a/an or no use of these words is found in the same or a similar communicative context without a substantial difference in meaning (e.g. the tiger a tiger and tigers) This could thus lead one to confusion about what it means to be definite and indefinite A separate descriptive analysis of these terms will I believe show that a more relational meaning of these articles is warranted. 1. ARTICLE The term ―article‖ is probably the most common descriptor used in reference to the words the and a/an and is used either when referring separately to one or the other of these articles or to both as a common category of grammatical elements A clue to the meaning of this term may be found by looking into its historical origins its ancestral forms found both in Greek and Latin are arthron and articulus respectively They are said to be no more than the ordinary words for link or joint (Lyons 1977) and appear to be analogous to relation or connection. Note also that in the early Greek language no sharp distinction was drawn in terms of the forms or syntactic and semantic functions between demonstrative pronouns the definite and indefinite articles and the relative pronouns. As Herndon (1976 p10) states the term syndesmoi was at first applied to them all. And it was chosen presumably. Because they were all regarded as connectives of various kinds. The primary function of these various words is based on notions of linking, connecting, and other relating schema. These relational concepts are virtually all time-bound in that relating one thing with another requires time: namely a diachronic relation. Note also that the verb form ― articulate‖ is related to the notion ―article‖ in a morphological sense. From this we can further speculate that the use of the articles as an act of articulation or saying is itself an act of relating in a dialogical sense. 2. The Definite When turning our attention to the notion of definite we are initially led to question why this adjective is prefixed to the noun article (i.e. as the name of the which is an arbitrary array of written signs or that of aural markings) and is used together as in the definite article. A basic level of understanding this relation may, however, already be found in some of our usual dictionary meanings of this term. Some of these meanings include : (a)exact limits: (b) precision and clarity in meaning: (c) explicitness and certainty: (d) limitation and specificity From these lexical entries one can sense that the meaning of ―definite‖ is assumed to be something obvious and self-evident which implies a type of confinement or a line-drawing and conversely excludes something vague and unintelligible. 1291 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This dictionary definition informs us that things or phenomena can be ontologically absolute while at the same time remaining somewhat less defined. In fact, for us to be definite about something(or to define something clearly) has been a central part of our knowledge what is definable through reasoning becomes the source of knowledge as the definite or absolute Truth He symbolized the truth with the concept Forms in the sense that they are more real than material thing for they do not change or decay(Stevenson 1987 p29) More specifically in relation to the referential function of a word (i.e. a word used to refer to truly many different individual referents) Plato thought that corresponding to each usage of the word there is one Form which makes the particular individual referents meaningful entries in terms of its idealistic formal or symbolic resemblance to the referents. This formal and universal resemblance connotes the characterization of a class of certain entities by a process of objective definition. Moreover for Plato only this intellectual acquaintance with the Forms can really count as knowledge since only what fully exits can be fully known (Stevenson 1987 p29) In relation to a common interpretation of Plato Hergenhahn notes that : Before being placed in the body at birth the soul dwells in pure and complete knowledge. Thus all human souls know everything before entering the body. Upon entering the body the knowledge of soul begins to be contaminated by sensory information (1983 p34). This implies that if humans naively accept what they experience through the senses they are doomed to live a life of opinion and ignorance. For this reason Plato‘s concern was with reaching an idealistic state of Forms responsible for uncontaminated human mind and society through education. In this regard the most convincing illustration of his theory of Forms comes from the Euclidean geometry which Stevenson has described as follows: Consider how it deals with lines circles and squares but may always have some irregularity. Theorems concerning these ideal objects-straight lines without thickness perfect circle et-are proved with absolute certainty by logical arguments. Here we have indubitable knowledge of timeless objects which are the patterns that material objects imperfectly resemble(1978 p.29). In light of this one can think about the geometrical concept of point which in a perceptual sense is thought of as standing in its own right but which is in fact a meaningful construct only if related to other geometrical notions like line. Its understanding requires formal conceptualization Plato‘s conception of idealistic knowledge has to do with this kind of geometrical definition of knowledge that he indefinable(thus indefinite and perceptually contaminated) point in its own ontogenesis becomes definable( thus definite ) only in relation to its totality the line. It is in the process of becoming definable that things become definite for us. In fact Plato‘s conception of knowledge is typically dialectic. Thus following Plato‘s we become both knowledgeable and ignorant by having a means to define ıt is very improbable to speak of a ―definite point‖ as found in a geometrical sense. When we see a given point on a geometrical plain. It may be viewed as having its own definite and obvious confinement but it is clear that this is not the case because a point in its own right is theoretically impossible. In the mathematical word (e.g. the Mobius strip numerical entities divided by zero etc) the matter of definition is similarly not posited as an absolute and separate notion. This does not mean however that our acts of defining are always meaningless but that the definite becomes meaningful only in relation. What appears as definite does not necessarily make it so and the term definite with its dictionary significance is plausible only when the usage presupposes an indefinitely –given or taken-for-granted condition. In effect this term must be seen in essence to presume an indefinitely-given as well as a totality against which our acts of defining limiting confining specifying identifying and idealizing occur. Thus even at a very general definitional level our uses of definite and indefinite are essentially relational and dialectic. When judged from only dictionary meanings the concept of exclusiveness may be seen as semantically analogous to definiteness. However. Hawkins (1978) in an apparent reversal. Has characterized the grammatical role of the definite article as inclusiveness and that of the indefinite article as exclusiveness on the basis of his semantic and pragmatic analysis. His argument for the grammaticality of the definite and indefinite article. Based on pragmatic premises is probably quite appropriate in the context of his analytical and philosophical approach. But based on the two apparently opposing definitions we might infer that things or phenomena can be thought of as both ontologically absolute and not so at the same time in that the definite or the 1292 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo absolute connotes both exclusion(by the criteria of its lexical meanings) and inclusion (by the criteria of Hawkins‘ linguistic analysis) Here again one cannot ignore the dialectic. 3)The Indefinite With the notion ―indefinite‖ one may also question why the adjective attaches itself so naturally to the noun article (i.e. as the name of a/an) when they are used together like indefinite article. The lexical entries for this term involve (a) Having no exact limits or having no limits at all (B) not precise sharp and clear in meaning and outline vague: (c) not sure or positive inexplicit and uncertain and (d) not limiting and specifying not referring to the specific. Given that all these descriptions imply no exclusion a prototype meaning of indefiniteness may be said to be that of ― inclusiveness‖ As stated earlier this is contradistinctive to Hawkin‘s (1978) generalization about the grammatical function of the indefinite articles in terms of ― exclusiveness‖ This apparent contradictory nature of the English articles as related to their mate languages may be a partial explanation for many non-native speakers‘ difficulty and confusion in mastering them. The fundamental meanings of these attributive adjectives presupposes the postponement or reservation of the act of defining. They are also suggestive of a certain contingency which requires further action. Having no limits implies that whatever it means the meaning is to be open. This openness to contingency gives rise to the question of motive. Potential and intention to be defined or on its way to becoming definite . All in all the ―indefinite‖ as a concept can be viewed as reflecting a mental state or process which has not been fully acted out but is ready to be acted out. Because it is paradigmatically open it in some sense signifies a syntagmatic (or simply temporal) induction and foretells a sense of meaning-making or of becoming definite. 4) OTHER METALANGUAGES OF THE ARTICLES What follows is an attempt to reinterpret some descriptive terms that have commonly been used in analyzing English articles usages. There are quite a number of classificatory notions which are reflected in our common usages of the articles and which form another major class of metalanguages about the English articles Some of these most commonly used notions which are used to describe our various communicative functions of the English articles include the following: (a) deictic or demonstrative use: (b) back-pointing or anaphoric use: (c) forward-pointing or cataphoric: (d) uniquiness: (e) communal sharing: (f) generic and specific: and (g) endophora or in-text reference and exphora or out-text reference. It should be noted at the outset tahat a general and common feature of all these categories can be described as ‗the communicative act of pointing.‘ The key feature of the articles have generally been interpreted as being dualistic and mutually exclusive. This has been the case. I contend because our treatment of the grammatical aspects of the articles has usually been restricted to a within-sentence analysis. In order to have been better understanding about the articles. I feel that we need to extend to scope of analysis to the much broader context of communicative act. What follows is thus discussed from a communicative perspective which involve all forms of human actions reflecting one‘s psycho-social-cultural history. 1. Deictic The notion of ‗‘deicic‘‘ along with its etymological link with ‗‘deixis‘‘ is analogous to the philosophical notion of indexical expression (Crystal. 1986). And its literal meaning is pointing or indication. It should be renoted that a major function of the definite article has been understood as revealing an indicative or determining role. Not unlike that of deixis. Lyons (1977) states that deixis refers to the variety of grammatical and lexical features ‗‘which relate utterance‘‘ (p. 636). Here note that the essential features of deixis are also defined as relational: in other words at the level of identifying which is linked to which the relational act must have a context in order to make sense. This act necessarily involves both ‗‘agency‘‘ (i.e. who relates) and ‗‘object‘‘ (e.g. enactive, iconic, or symbolic) we are relate and thereby implies that a relational act arises from within an instrumental context. From this interpretation of the term ‗‘deixis‘‘ one is able to derive at least two meanings namely what is pointing as inner motive—the pointer or intention and what is being pointed to—outer evidence or actualization of pointing. The nature of indication itself is not a simple mechanical pointing behavior but is a relational, intentional and psychological gesture mediating between pointer and pointee. It is this dual reality of a pointing act that I content can be characterized as being dialectical and dialogical. More specifically we may say that deixis entails a double dialectic: a relation between intention and a deictic sign: and a relation between the sign and its referent in actual communication. In many cases of human communication the second relation turns out to be reflexive in that the referent itself is language. In this sense language is our existential reference. 1293 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗‘Deixis‘‘ involves not only the characteristic feature of the demonstrative pronouns but also tense and person and a number of other syntactically relevant features in the context-of-an utterance (Thavenius 1983; Wilkins 1985). According to Lyons (1977) it also refers to the philosophical notion of ostension or ostensive definition. It is worth nothing that ostensive, deictic, and demonstrative are all based upon the idea of identification or drawing attention to something in a communicative space by pointing. So too is Hardwick‘s (1977) term ‗‘indexical‘‘ which has been employed in the recent philosophical literature roughly in the sense that we are assigning deictic to discursive acts (Lyons, 1977, p.637). As such, the notion of deixis is understood as an indicative function which is conceptually similar to the acts of pointing, locating and identifying. Lyons accounts for the act of pointing as follows: The canonical situation-of-utterance is egocentric in the sense that the speaker by virtue of being the speaker casts himself in the role of ego and relates everything to his viewpoint. He is at the zero-point of the spatiotemporal co-ordinates of what is referred to as the deictic context (1977 p. 638) What is insightful here is the use of the notion ‗‘zero-point‘‘ because it is conceptually similar to the notion of indefinite. Specifically it does not seem to be a mere co-incidence that this egocentric sense of zeroness in one‘s utterance is initiated with an indefinite expression such as once upon ‗‘a‘‘ time there lived ‗‘a‘‘ farmer in ‗‘a‘‘ village. It appears to indicate a speaker‘s self-a wareness of where he or she is located in a given discourse space. In other words the speaker knows that the story should start from scratch or nothingness. Or the speaker is likely to assume that the hearer knows ‗‘nothing‘‘ about what he or she is going to talk about. Although it may sound speculative the phrase ‗‘zero-point‘‘ above seems to connote the meaning of nothing. In addition as it is found in the earliest stage of a child‘s cognitive development deixis, in terms of its attention drawing property is the most rudimentary identifying act in a child‘s communicative conduct. In summary English article usage when related to the metalinguistic notion of deixis as with many others reflects a dynamic and dialectical reality that is often missed when we treat the articles as simply either definite or indefinite. 2. Anaphoric The notion of ‗‘anaphoric use‘‘ or ‗‘back-pointing‘‘ refers to the case where an entity in a narrative text which often occurs first with the indefinite article ‗‘a/an‘‘ is identified again in that text by replacing ‗‘a/an‘‘ with ‗‘the‘‘ to indicate its reappearance in the discourse. For instance in the sentence ‗‘Bill bought a TV and a radio, but he returned the radio‘‘ ‗‘the ‗‘ in ‗the radio‘ is explained as revealing the anaphoric function. What counts here is that the signification of ‗‘the‘‘ is predicated on the precondition of ‗‘a‘‘. ın this context the use of ‗‘a‘‘ as an indefinite expression is viewed as a necessary condition for the latter use of ‗‘the‘‘. In other words ‗‘the‘‘ becomes meaningful by virtue of ‗‘a‘‘. Moreover their linguistic value becomes meaningful only when they are understood in temporal context because the notion of presupposition is a timebound one. This anaphoric usage reflects the temporal coordination or history-sharing function which is so important between interlocutors in their broader mutual meaning-making and understanding processes. Accordingly here again it is apparent that ‗‘a‘‘ and ‗‘the‘‘ are not really separate linguistic mechanisms or entities but are rather constitutive semantic poles forming an interactive whole between interlocutors. Moreover since this function can be expected to be acquired much later in conceptual and/or linguistic development than the simple deictic or indicative act. 3. Cataphoric The ‗‘cataphoric‘‘ use or ‗‘forward-pointing use‘‘ of the articles is seen in the case where linguistic identity is established by the post-modification that follows the noun. For example it involves the use of ‗‘the‘‘ in the sentence ‗Bill returned the radio he bought yesterday‘ as well as in the sentence ‗‘The‘‘ wines of France (or which France produces) are the best in the world. Insofar as the fundamental meaning of the sentence retains its central intent or sense the first sentence can be interpreted as ‗Bill bought a radio, and he returned it or the radio.‘ As seen in each interpretation we can infer or presume that at least part of the meaning of ‗‘the‘‘ in the examples connotes the indefinite meaning which the indefinite article ‗‘a‘‘ yields. The same reasoning which was developed in the discussion of the anaphoric function above seems to be at work here with the cataphoric function of the articles. What matters here is the matter of explicit observability or of implicit sharedness between interlocutors. While not directly observable what appears to be functioning is a certain dialectical interaction between the definite and the indefinite. The ‗‘the‘‘ in ‗Bill returned the radio he bought yesterday‘ may be thought of as only a grammatical choice but its significance derives from the recognition of the existential presupposition of ‗‘a‘‘ as connected in ‗Bill bought a radio yesterday.‘ Moreover, 1294 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in a similar context, if Bill bought more than one radio, it would also be possible to say that ‗Bill returned ‗a‘ radio he bought yesterday.‘ Thus here again the definite and the indefinite meanings can not simply be prefixed grammatical notions but are determined in actual communicative contexts, and choice for their usage seems to be determined mostly on dialogical grounds. In effect this dialectical schema of the articles is structured through various and processual dialogical experiences rather than the result of a simple instructional knowing of the meaning of the words and grammar rules. 4. Uniqueness The notion of ‗‘uniqueness‘‘ refers to the definite usage where an object or a group of objects is interpreted as revealing, characteristically, oneness and wholeness at the same time: for instance, the stars, the earth, the world, the sea, the North Pole, the equator, the Reformation, the human race, etc. In other words, its significance arises where referents are understood to be unique in a given context: the sun, the moon, the kitchen, the car, etc. This notion indicates the existence of only one thing either as an individual entity or as a kind. The definite expression seen in this category may be indicated as presuming a native speaker‘s ontological mental index regarding a specific referent. For instance, in the case of the earth, we may say that the passage indicates the native English speaker‘s recognition that something as a referent exists which is named ‗‘earth‘‘ (i.e. the awareness of existential reality) and that the speaker learned to call it ‗‘the‘‘ earth as a conventional label to indicate a common awareness of the referent. In this schema, the use of ‗‘the‘‘ requires both a self and others: namely, without you as an other, the use of ‗‘the‘‘ turns out to be meaningless. We learn in this way that the meaning of uniqueness and the related use of an article is conditioned (or becomes significant) by a speaker in the face of a hearer. A native speaker‘s competence in this aspect of language, as with other aspects appears as an internalization and increasing awareness in the context of communicative socialization processes. Here again, considering traditional language learning settings, where one-way instruction has been preferred over actual communication it is understandable why it is so difficult for learners to develop this kind of social sense, and have so much difficulty with the articles. This social sense can be properly acquired only through actual dialogical (i.e. social) experiences, rather than in simple monological, instructional acts. 5. Situational/Communal Sharing Compared to the uniqueness expression the notion of ‗‘situational or communal sharing‘‘ refers to article usage which is more adaptable to situational variations. The use of an article in this sense does not necessarily signify the uniqueness of the referent. The usual examples in this category are: the radio, the television and the telephone in a given social setting. In a similar way to what was discussed previously, I content that the expression, ‗‘the radio‘‘ becomes intelligible only when interlocutors either explicitly admit that there actually is a radio both as a thing and as a word (i.e. a classical reference problem). Hence, when ones says ‗the radio‘ he or she presupposes the ontology of its referent as well as the existence of a meaningful symbol. It should be noted, however that while this type of referential function is necessary in most communicative discourse acts. It is not sufficient. The referent which the noun phrase indicates is usually in a social context, and as such it is obvious that its referential reality varies from context to context. For instance, in the case of the phrase ‗ten minutes before ‗‘the‘‘ hour.‘ we all know that the noted temporal referent is relative to the assumed time referent of the hour. Whether we are talking about a physical referent or an imaginary referent it is clear that the definite expression is contingent upon the existential cognitive index, which is characteristically adaptable to input, but which retains certain indefinite properties. 6. Generic and Specific The ‗‘generic‘‘ and ‗‘specific‘‘ usages of the English articles refer to Noun Phrases (NPs) preceded by ‗‘the ‗‘, ‗‘a/an‘‘ or ‗‘the zero‘‘ article so that each reveals either the genericity or the specificity of the nominal entity in a context. A generic expression refers to what is general or typical for a whole class of objects. In the sentence, ‗The tiger is a beautiful animal‘ it means that ‗‘the‘‘ indicates the class of tigers, and not simply one individual member of the class. This sentence is thus understood as expression essentially the same meaning as the following sentences: ‗Tigers are beautiful animals‘ on the one hand and ‗A tiger is a beautiful animal‘ on the other. Traditional English pedagogical grammar books usually describe such sentence as having a common property of genericity simply taking their formal or morphological differences for granted without any plausible explanation. Accordingly, they are understood the mean virtually the same thing. Moreover almost all informants 1295 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of native English speakers cannot find any meaning difference among the three sentence above nor can they explain ‗why so?‘ To recapitulate the generic expression represents the concept or idea which is generally attributable to certain entities pervading all members of a given class. As shown in the previous examples while the dialectical phenomenon is self-evident in this function of the English articles, questions have rarely been raised about what this kind of semantic contradiction means in language pedagogy. Thus, what seems to be necessary to be equipped with some meaningful ideas concerning how to explain it to the student. In effect what I content here particularly in terms of seeing the article system as a dialectical relational system is that genericity as semantic representation of ‗‘the‘‘ NP, ‗‘a/an‘‘ NP and NPs is embodied along the line of semantic continuum between the definite and the indefinite. This in turn implies that ‗‘the‘‘ tends to appear along the definite end of this continuum and that ‗‘a/an‘‘ along that of the indefinite. Moreover NPs can then be viewed as a certain entity appearing somewhere in the middle. One may argue that seeing articles in this way is only speculative at most. But I would rather argue that this interpretive schema is meaningful in that it possibly offers a coherent way of explaining the varying nature of the English article usage both for the student and the teacher. The bottom line here is that until we have a better one, we should dig something out hoping that it‘s better than nothing. A specific expression in contrast represents the entities rather directly as seen in such sentences as ‗Look at the tiger‘ or ‗ask a boy in this group‘ and does so especially in the context where both interlocutors have specific knowledge about the referent. Hence, generally speaking, when representing a referent with its related NP, the generic expression reveals an indirect ‗symbolic reference‘ (i.e. the referent does not have to be real, and moreover the referents that the interlocutors may have in mind are not necessarily identical): a specific expression reveals a direct symbolic reference in that both the speaker and the hearer are required to experience a common shared meaning in conjunction with a given referent. Here again, under this re-interpreted theoretical schema. I content that the locus of linguistic control that determines either the genericity or specificity of meaning is not in the language terms (i.e. ‗‘the‘‘, ‗‘a/an‘‘, or ‗‘zero article‘‘) but in the degree of referent sharing between interlocutors. 7. Endophora and Exophora Two more theoretical terms which appear to capture the relational properties of the English articles but which are also often seen in the study of pronouns are known as ‗‘endophor‘‘ and ‗‘exophora‘‘. According to Thavenus (1938) A speaker will use pronouns to refer in two ways: he can refer to something that is mentioned in the conversation and the reference is then textual or ‗endophoric‘; or he can refer to something that has not been mentioned, but that can be retrieved from what can be perceived in the situational setting or from the speaker‘s and listener‘s shared knowledge and experience. (p. 140) He calls the latter case an example of situational or exophoric reference. Halliday and Hasan similarly introduce the term endophoric ‗‘as a general name for reference within the text‘‘ (1976, p 33) but for them endophoric covers both anaphoric and cataphoric reference (or forward-pointing) article uses, these two functional categories of English pronouns also manifest the relational nature of language use and modes of human thinking. V. CONCLUSION In order to isolate the dialectical aspects of the English article system study has attempted to reinterpret key metalinguistic terms concerning the system. I have tried to show that even at the grammatical level when viewed within the context of various metalanguages the articles are best seen as a relational and dialectical system. This dialectical system I content, can be seen as ‗‘a higher system‘‘ (just as in the structuralists‘ world view) which controls the interactive processes (i.e both syntagmatic and paradigmatic forces or both mutually inclusive and exclusive). This higher system which may be represented as a symbolic sign of ‗(IN)DEFINITENESS‘ suggest that it be viewed in the holistic, communicative, relational context rather than solely within a somewhat limited grammatical intra-sentential and word-centered one. The rationale for my suggestion is not unlike our understanding that phonemic reality becomes more meaningful at the level of morphology and morphological reality at the level of syntax and so on. These ideas are illustrative of an understanding of our human language and communicative system as a multi-levelled and somewhat hierarchical meaning system in which the higher and more inclusive levels of meaning supersede, elaborate and constrain the lower and preceding ones. This mutually exclusive but at the same time codeterministic characteristic is a very essential feature of human language system. This idea was recognized some years ago by the structural linguist Roman Jacobson (1968) who identified the human sound system in this matter.ᶾ) Roman Jakobson`s (1968) theory of phonology development is based on his distinctive feature analysis 1296 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (or phonemic distinction in general) of the sound systems of many different languages. A central theme of the theory is that the pattern of phonological development is systematic in a relational sense. Moreover this higher system is also indicative of our broader and more pervasive mental processes. One can find it not only in our language use but also in all of our psycho-social acts of meaning making. Although this argument requires much lengthy discussion. I wish to note briefly how our use of ‗‘the‘‘ which usually presupposes the existence of ‗‘a/an‘‘ can be seen as revealing a form of higher order metacognitive functioning. Specifically the use of one in relation to the other reflects our mode of metacognition (i.e. thinking about thinking) which presupposes a continuation of discourse and continuous meaning specification. This kind of metacognition is what makes text cohesion and coherence (i.e. meaning making and communication) possible in a given dialogical contest. Bruner‘s (1986) understanding of the semantics of human expressions while not explicitly stated in relation to the use of the English articles is conceptually congruent with the current argument: The relation of words or expressions to other words or expressions constitutes along with reference the sphere of meaning. Because reference rarely achieves the abstract punctil-iousness, a ‗‘singular‘‘, ‗‘definite referring expression‘‘ is always subject to ‗‘polysemy‘‘ and because there is no limit on the ways in which expressions can relate to one another, meaning is always undetermined ambiguous. To make sense in language as David Olson argued persuasively some years ago, always requires an ‗‘act of disambiguation.‘‘ (p. 64) In effect, this act of disambiguation is a most fundamental metacognitive function that is inherent in our cognitive activities and involves the various processes of differentiation, identification, definition, determination, etc. The articles often called determiners or grammatical markers, by grammarians and linguists can thus also and more importantly be viewed as a dialectical and semantically coherent system of symbols which not only reflects our cognitive and communicative contexts but may serve the more active function of constructing meaning in these contexts. 1297 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Bickerton, D. (1985). Roots of language, Ann Arbor. MI: Karoma Publishers, Inc. Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds possible worlds. Harvard University Press. Gusfield, J. (Ed.). (1989). On symbols and society. The University of Chicago Press. Butler, Y. G. (1999). The role of metacognition in the development of the article system among nonnative speakers. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University. Crystal. D. (1986). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. New York, NY: Basil Blackwell Inc. Ellis. R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford University Press. Georgoudi. M. (1984). Modern dialectics in social psychology. In Gergen. K. &Gergen. M. (Eds.) Historical social psychology. CEA. Halliday. M. A. K. &Hasan, R. (1976). Cohegion in English, London: Longman. Hawkins, J. A. (1978). Definiteness and indefinitieness: A study in reference and grammatically prediction. Atlantic Highlands, HNJ: Humanities Press. Hergenhahn. B. R. (1988). An introduction to theories of learning. Englewood Clifts. NJ: Prentice Hall Herndon, J. (1976). A survey of modern grammers. Orlando, FA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Inc. Jakobson, R., & Halle. M. (1968). Child language, aphasiz and phonological universals. The Hague: Mouton. Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Master. P. (1990). Teaching the English articles as a binary system. TESOL, Quarterly, 24(3), 461-478. Hardwick. C. S. (Ed.). (1977). Semitics and significs: The corre-spondence of Charles S. Peince and Victorial Lady Welby. Bloomington: Indiana University. Perinbanayagam, R. S. (1991). Discursive act. New York. NY: Walter de Gruyter, Inc. Rosenberg, J., & Travis, C. (1971). Reading in the philosophy of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Inc. Son,. M. & Park, S. (2001). The usage of the definite article by Korean EFL collage learners. Foreign Language Education. 8(2), 23-44 Stevenson, L. (1987). Seven theories of human nature: Christianity, Freud, Lorenz, Marx, Sartre, Skinner, Flato. Oxford University Press. Thavenius, C. (1983). Referential pronouns in English conversation. Lund: Lund University Press. Watson, W. (1985). The ambitectoics of meaning : Foundation of the new pluralism. State University of New York Press. Webster‘s third new international dictionary. (1967). Springfield, MA: G. &C. Merriam Company Publishers. Wilkins, D. (1985). Grammatical, situational and notional syllabuses. In C. J. Brumfit & K. Johnson. (Eds.). The communicative approach to language teaching. Oxford University Press. 1298 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 678 Title A name given to the resource A Dialectial Analysis of Grammatical Terms Defining The English Articles Author Author Jang, Yunsang Abstract A summary of the resource. This study looks into the English article system from the perspective of dialectics. The goal of the study is to enlarge the scope of understanding the English article system by demonstrating that at the very elementary comminicative level is is more appropriately characterized as a relational dialectial system rather than a simple binary one as described in most traditional pedagogical frammar boks. This study tries to reach this goal by interpreting such key metalingustic notions as anaphoric generic uniquenness etc as well as the three main descriptors of the English articles which involve article definite and indefinite For Plato dialogues or our Daily communicational acts are fundamentally dialectial. Thus the base reasoning fort his stady is that if we understand the Notion related to dialectic or dialectial acts better this will in tum help us understand our own dialogical acts in general and the English articles as a key dialogical marker in particular. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics