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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Parallels and Contrasts between Shaw‘s ―Pygmalion‖
Ibsen‘s ―A Doll’s House‖
Ma. Rregjina Gokaj
Depatment of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Education
Lecturer of British Language and Literature
University ―Aleksandër Moisiu‖ Durrës, Albania
gokajrregji@yahoo.it
Abstract: Literary works are wide opened for discussions and points of
view. Since its beginnings literature offered to its reader new ideas and
thoughts; it affected society in many manners: way of living,
communication, thinking and re-thinking. Modern Period brought about
many radical changes in economy, politics, sociology, technology and
sciences etc. which were reflected in literature as well. Writers expanded
their way of thinking and writing by giving social characters whose private
behavior was greatly affected by an atmosphere of moral perplexity in
their works. Modern Literature considered the man as constituting simply a
part of the natural world. This birth of Modernism was reflected even in
drama which is the focus of this paper. Two important dramatists who
paved the path to Modern Drama will be synthesized and contrasted
focusing in two of their most famous plays. The Norwegian playwright
Henrik Ibsen and his declared following British one, George Bernard Shaw
will be considered through their famous respective plays ―A Doll‘s House‖
and ―Pygmalion‖. Their dramas came to the public in a very appropriate
climate where other playwrights around Europe witnessed a remarkable
resurgence and brought a relatively new spirit and a new life to the almost
moribund theatre of the nineteenth century. Shaw‘s Pygmalion and Ibsen‘s
A Doll's House illustrate the kind of drama in which both writers excelled.
Both plays, also called ‗problem plays‘, deal with the common theme of
transformation of individuals focused in the two protagonists, Nora and
Eliza. Both come alive from their inanimate existence to life, Eliza from
the oppressions of her class and Nora from her life under patriarchy. These
and other issues will be browsed within this paper.
Keywords: gender oppressions, ―problem plays‖, transformation of the
individual, woman‘s role.
Introduction
―Pygmalion‖ is one of the most famous plays of Bernard Shaw, the disciple of Henrik Ibsen,
whose famous play ―A Doll‘s House‖ is also taken into consideration.
Both playwrights have much in common as their plays are considered problem plays, and their
characters and situations can be discussed from different points of view. Ibsen‘s masterpiece A Dolls‘
House published in 1879 in Italy is a realist play which reflects real life problems of unexceptional
people. Although Pygmalion treats the problem of the reformation of the English speech, seems it does
not have much in common with A Doll‘s House which treats the female role within a cage-house. But
another point of view which permeates both plays is the transformation of the individual. This
individual is the female character who lives under the power of the patriarchy or under the oppressions
of social divisions. The two main characters of these plays, Nora of A Doll‘s House and Eliza of
Pygmalion, have their peculiarities and similarities. The way the plays evolve are quite different from
one another, the ways these women are transformed are also different, the target of the transformation
is quite personal and self-centered from their men (one appears to be Nora‘s husband; the other is
Eliza‘s professor), the inspiring goal of Nora and Eliza‘s transformation is their self-respect and their
self-esteem; but anyway the attitudes and the behaviors of these two women are of much interest
because they are not given the deserved place in family (Nora) or in society (Eliza).
Nora is the kingpin of Ibsen‘s A Doll‘s House treated like a doll by her husband who lures her
with flatters. All she does during her marriage is taking care of the family and her children. She is a
very devoted wife, mother and household. Is that enough? Is she satisfied? She seems to be quite happy
at the beginning and responds with great affection to her husband‘s teasing. Her husband, Torvald, sees
her detached from the society and treats her as a precious thing in his life, but he does not estimate her.
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He calls her ―a silly girl‖ regarding her as a plaything. He thinks that Nora‘s capacities and duties lay
only in the devotion to her husband and her children; while she discovers, as the play evolves, that she
can go beyond mere wifehood bonds because she possesses capacities, intelligence, ambition and
courage to go ahead in her self-realization. Nora‘s courage is seen in the loan she takes out secretly in
order to preserve Torvald‘s health. She has lied to her husband by telling him to be her father‘s money
and thus committing a forgery upon her father‘s signature in the contract. Her determination to pay off
the debt by working and saving money in secret shows her ambition and her sacrifice for Torvald‘s
health.
Eliza is the main female character in Shaw‘s Pygmalion written in 1912 and produced in 1913.
The story is about this lower-class flower girl who is trained by a priggish professor, Henry Higgins
how to become a duchess and to speak pure English according to the rules of the phonetics scientist. As
the play is browsed to us, Eliza stays for 6 months at Higgins‘ house to learn the good manners of a
duchess. Meanwhile, Pickering, Higgins‘ friend, unknowingly has influenced on her self-respect and
dignity so that Eliza can not just parrot the speech of a duchess. As Eliza is shown to other people, such
as Higgins‘ mother or her friends, even at the ball, her speech and manners are those of a real duchess,
but that is not enough. Higgins at last comes to understand that it is to be considered not only the way
she pronounces, but what she pronounces. Thus, we do not have anymore a poor little flower girl who
knows nothing else but selling flowers in the streets of London for two pence, but with a confident,
well concerned grown up woman who aspires new ambitions for her life now on. In the final act of the
play she makes a very remarkable observation that "the difference between a lady and a flower girl is
not how she behaves, but how she's treated" (SparkNotes Editors, n.d.)328 which transmits the very
essence of her inner state through her transformation.
The utilization of Nora and Eliza
As the title itself suggests, A Doll‘s House, Nora is presented as a mere doll for her husband
within the walls of her house. She is treated like a useful object, because everything Torvald needs is a
wife, children and a family to be gazed at. His social position requires such an appearance no matter
how it is inside. He is a man with some reputation in the town so he needs to present a well-devoted
wife to her husband and children. Torvald holds that Nora needs not to think about anything, she can
not take any responsibilities over the family. All she has to do is take care of the children and be a
satisfactory toy for her husband. Being regarded as a doll makes her feel empty and unimportant inside,
with no feelings or thoughts. In poor words Torvald thinks he is married to an object-wife
underestimating Nora as a human being.
It‘s more or less the same with Eliza with the big difference that Higgins is not her husband,
but happens to be a phonetics scientist that she met by accident under the portico of St Paul's church in
Covent Garden. When this prudish professor finds out that Eliza‘s way of speaking might be of special
interest in his field, he decides to have her as a useful object for academic research. The superiority that
upper class in the Victorian England takes ground upon lower ones proves the deepness of social strata
divisions. The important thing is that this does not show the superiority in values or virtues between
people, but superiority due only to social belongings. Higgins treats Eliza as plasticine in his hands, and
it seems he is a little boy shaping it in different forms until he finds the perfect shape for his toy. In this
sense, the finding of Pygmalion as a title is appropriate and meaningful, although Higgins‘ ―Galatea‖ is
quite different and unpredicted from the source one. Galatea, being a statue, came to life from the love
of her creater; while Eliza, being a flower girl from the slums of the city, was introduced to nobility
from the ambition of Higgins to prove his scientific theories. Thus their relationship is based on
reciprocal interests, but one taking advantage upon the other. One peculiarity of the plays of Shaw,
turning everything topsy-turvy, is seen here among Higgins and Eliza, where she is being exploited
which leads to her rebellion and to an open end.
The idea of possession and materialization
Both Nora and Eliza come to light in the play from their former continuous oppressions by
male characters, a husband and a high class professor. Torvald did not think of Nora being a woman,
but she was regarded only as a wife and a mother. Nobody noticed Eliza until that rainy evening under
the portico of Saint Paul‘s church in Convent Garden.
328
SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Pygmalion. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pygmalion/
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Nora as a doll is owned by a model husband, father and citizen.329(Shaw, 1864) All the play is
situated in only one room which shows the limited space Nora is disposed to, the cage she has been
keyed in, the entrapment she finds herself; all those stressing the realistic aspect of the play. According
to Torvald, social duties are divided into man affairs and woman devotions. He thinks he possesses a
wife, not that he is married to her. Coming to know this Nora takes ambitious decisions for her life; she
wants to find and develop her personality so she leaves home and refuses to meet her children again
until she thinks she has the right dignity for doing it. Her rebellion seems to be a pure moral act. Her
wrath brings to us the civil protest against the patriarchy and the prejudices of the society with sharp
masculine thoughts. The wife in the family has no space to think freely, to cooperate in actions, to take
decisions for her or for the family. Nora‘s rebellion was a surprise for the time it happened, because
woman emancipation does not concern only wife-husband relationship, or mother-child links, but
primarily determines the dimensions of her personality. (Papagjoni, 2004)330 Torvald is astonished to
hear Nora talking about other concerns which seems impossible to him. This makes him think that
Nora is insane, mad, ungrateful, childish, blind and incompetent. Her self-esteem is too low because of
her husband who has treated her like a doll for eight years of marriage, and now suddenly like an
unimportant thing at his house. All he is concerned to, is to save his reputation in the society, like many
a moralist to keep up the appearances with the cost of having a double standard. All this is
unacceptable for Nora, so she is going on her way trying to become a human being:
Nora: What do you consider my holiest duties?
Helmer: Do I need to tell you that? Your duties to your husband and to your children.
Nora: I have other duties equally sacred.
Helmer: Impossible! What duties do you mean?
Nora: My duties toward myself.
Helmer: Before all else you are a wife and a mother.
Nora: That I no longer believe. I believe that before all else I am a human being, just as much
as you are - or at least that I should try to become one. (A Doll‘s House, Act 3). (Goldman,
1914)331
What about Eliza? She is treated no better than Nora but she reacts differently. Eliza is more
independent than Nora and has got self-esteem since the very beginning of the play. She believes in
herself and her capacities ever since she accepts to being taught in becoming a duchess. Shaw‘s theory
of the life‘s force which drives man to procreation is what all species aim at for their continuation.
Thus the dominant agent of this impulse is the woman endowed with a subtle energy, will-power and
sensitivity which goes beyond the intellect. (Ansaldo, Giuli, Zanichelli; 2006)332 Both Eliza and
Higgins are gifted with intelligence and strong will-power, but only Eliza shows great sensitivity. Due
to this sensitivity, a sharp conflict between them occurs and shows the traditional role of women‘s
dependence on men. Considering this, Eliza goes through another form of gender discrimination, not
within a family by one‘s husband but by social divisions into noble class and poor. Social roles in the
Victorian era were viewed as natural and largely fixed: there was perceived to be something inherently,
fundamentally unique about a noble versus an unskilled laborer and vice versa. (Napierkowski,
1998)333 As it will be considered later, Liza's ability to fool society about her "real" identity raises
questions about appearances. She goes beyond the conventional notions of the society by disregarding
them because she feels she can not fit to them. First she was an unimportant flower girl who tried to
make a living, but no one traced her existence. Suddenly she became of interest to someone, not as a
human being but as a species who utters words in a deplorable way. This man belongs to the noble
class and thinks has the right to use Eliza for his research once she has agreed to be taught to speak like
a lady in a flower shop.
2
Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang, Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) pp.84-87
Papagjoni, J., Dialog me Teatrin Boteror, ―Shkenca‖, Tirane, 2004 ( my translation)
331
Goldman, E., The Social Significance of the Modern Drama, Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1914; The Gorham
Press, Boston, U.S.A. (Document maintained at: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/Writings/Drama/doll.html by
the SunSITE Manager)
332
Ansaldo, M., Giuli, G., Zanichelli, M. G. Golden Pages-A Short History and Anthology of Literature in
English, Petrini Editore, Torino, 2006 pp. 220-227
330
333
"Pygmalion: Themes." Drama for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale,
1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 10 April 2011. http://www.enotes.com/pygmalion/themes
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The social class divisions are present throughout the play: in the descriptions of poor lodgings
of Eliza (end of Act I), Higgins‘ luxurious house (beginning of Act II), Mrs. Higgins‘ comfortable
drawing room (beginning of Act III), contrasts in their outer appearance, differences in way of
behaving and speaking. All these differences influence Higgins character and behavior, making him act
like a selfish, spoiled child, careless about other people‘s feelings,(Kadija, 2001)334 and feeling
disdainful over them. He does not care about Eliza‘s feelings or thoughts; he pretends superiority over
her insulting her many times by saying ‗squashed cabbage leaf‘, ‗draggle-tailed‘ or ‗guttersnipe‘ etc.
During her stay at Higgins‘ house she complains of having become a slave, she has been treated like an
object all the time, like Higgins‘ property. She has worked so hard in learning Higgins‘ lessons
meaning that she has the right stamina for doing thing right. So well she learns to behave like a lady
that no one can recognize her even at the ambassador‘s party. At this point, acting like a duchess but
not being a real one, treated like an object but being a woman, she is disappointed to feel herself a
useless person. Higgins attitude towards her does not change even after his successful experiment.
When he asks her to fetch his slippers for him, in a moment of rebellion she throws them away to his
face showing that she belongs to nobody and decides to go away to make a life on her own. Higgins
unwillingness to let her go means the recognition of her as a functional housemaid, thus she is once
more materialized by him not only for his scientific purposes.
The symbol of money
Money is a symbol used in both plays to denote different attitudes towards it. Both Nora and
Eliza have strange relationships with money throughout the plays. Nora does not run the family
economically because she is not capable of it according to her husband, Torvald. On the other hand,
Eliza is quite independent earning and spending her own money as a flower girl.
When Nora‘s husband becomes ill they have to find a considerable amount of money to pay
for their trip to Italy for his recover. Considering the importance of the case, Nora takes the risk to get a
loan and making a forgery by signing the contract in the name of her father. This is only the beginning
of a huge sacrifice for her, because she has to pay it in secret without Torvald‘s knowledge. How can
she pay it? She does secret jobs and puts money apart to pay the loan on time. Here is another sacrifice
of hers showing Nora‘s great attempt to put things right by herself. Torvald could never admit her
wife‘s forgery even for such a sublime reason like his recovery from illness. This is a sign of love,
compassion and respect from her, but this can be a very harmful stigma for Torvald‘s reputation. He
does not want to lose the status, so he does not estimate her act but blames Nora for her wrongdoing.
The shallowness of the society they live in is nothing more but to keep up the appearances in other
people‘s eyes. That is why he pretends to be generous by permitting Nora stay home. As a sign of his
forgiveness he happily exclaims: "There is something indescribably sweet and soothing to a man in
having forgiven his wife - honestly forgiven her, from the bottom of his heart" (A Doll‘s House Act 3).
Nora does not care about his generosity any more but decides to leave him then and there by going out
into the real world to find out its reality for herself and to gain some position not fundamentally false,
refusing to see her children again until she is fit to be in charge of them. (Shaw, 1964)335 Considering
her decision, Nora is not concerned about the money and the belongings of her husband, so she leaves
everything, any joy and luxury she had at her house in order to find her lost dignity.
On the other side, money is something worth fighting for according to Eliza. Most of the
characters in the play are concerned a great deal about money. The difference between social classes is
mainly based on money and property. These people seem to depend on money in order to fulfill their
needs. This causes Eliza to want to change her appearance and speech336 (Laweag, 2007) in order to
have a better life than before. She is very pragmatic and
334
Kadija, R., Modernism and Postmodernism in English Literature, AlbDesign, Tirane, 2001, pp.68-82
Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang, Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) p. 87
336
www. http://secretibenglish.blogspot.com, 17 April, 2007, Symbolism in ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion
335
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level-headed so she admits to collaborate for the experiment since she has nothing to lose, but
gains over poverty and social class discrimination. First, it is to be noticed the courage of Eliza asking
for speech lessons at Higgins laboratory offering him a considerable sum regarding her incomes. This
means that she is really a sassy flower girl from the slums, but she inspires to leave the place one day
or at least tries to do so at all costs without losing her moral integrity. When she at last becomes a
duchess according to the speech and clothes appearance, she claims to have some money to start the
flower business.
These are some of the features of these two women described by the notable playwrights,
defendants of their rights. Both protagonists, Nora of Ibsen and Eliza of Shaw are pure examples of the
new area of changes that was arriving for women all around the world.
These are some of the features of these two women described by the notable playwrights,
defendants of their rights. Both protagonists, Nora of Ibsen and Eliza of Shaw are pure examples of the
new area of changes that was arriving for women all around the world.
References
Ansaldo, M., Giuli, G., Zanichelli, M. G. Golden Pages-A Short History and Anthology of Literature in
English, Petrini Editore, Torino, 2006
Goldman, E., The Social Significance of the Modern Drama, Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1914; The
Gorham Press, Boston, U.S.A. (Document maintained at:
http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/Writings/Drama/doll.html by the SunSITE Manager)
Kadija, R., Modernism and Postmodernism in English Literature, AlbDesign, Tirane, 2001
Papagjoni, J., Dialog me Teatrin Boteror, ―Shkenca‖, Tirane, 2004
Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition)
www. http://secretibenglish.blogspot.com, 17 April, 2007, Symbolism in ―A Doll‘s House‖ and
―Pygmalion‖
SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Pygmalion. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pygmalion/
"Pygmalion: Themes." Drama for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale,
1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 10 April 2011. http://www.enotes.com/pygmalion/themes
1051
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Parallels and Contrasts between Shaw‘s ―Pygmalion‖ Ibsen‘s ―A Doll’s House‖
Author
Author
Gokaj, Rregjina
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Literary works are wide opened for discussions and points of view. Since its beginnings literature offered to its reader new ideas and thoughts; it affected society in many manners: way of living, communication, thinking and re-thinking. Modern Period brought about many radical changes in economy, politics, sociology, technology and sciences etc. which were reflected in literature as well. Writers expanded their way of thinking and writing by giving social characters whose private behavior was greatly affected by an atmosphere of moral perplexity in their works. Modern Literature considered the man as constituting simply a part of the natural world. This birth of Modernism was reflected even in drama which is the focus of this paper. Two important dramatists who paved the path to Modern Drama will be synthesized and contrasted focusing in two of their most famous plays. The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen and his declared following British one, George Bernard Shaw will be considered through their famous respective plays ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion‖. Their dramas came to the public in a very appropriate climate where other playwrights around Europe witnessed a remarkable resurgence and brought a relatively new spirit and a new life to the almost moribund theatre of the nineteenth century. Shaw‘s Pygmalion and Ibsen‘s A Doll's House illustrate the kind of drama in which both writers excelled. Both plays, also called ‗problem plays‘, deal with the common theme of transformation of individuals focused in the two protagonists, Nora and Eliza. Both come alive from their inanimate existence to life, Eliza from the oppressions of her class and Nora from her life under patriarchy. These and other issues will be browsed within this paper.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
The Role of Drama in Language Teaching
Gulnar Guliyeva
Language Teaching Coordinating Unit
Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan
gquliyeva@qu.edu.az
gulquliyeva@yahoo.com
Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the role of drama activities in
education, especially in language teaching within the Drama Club of English
Language and Literature Department of Qafqaz University. It is a case study of the
use of drama in a language class, describing the course structure and classroom
procedures. The study was carried out in the second semester of the 2008-2009
academic years during the rehearsals of performance ―Pride and Prejudice‖. It
includes personal experiences of group of students from different departments and
different age groups and language teachers which have successfully performed and
achieved their aims and evaluated the results, presenting setbacks and possible
solutions for teaching language to foreign learners. Finally, it encourages the use of
drama for transformative and emancipatory learning.
Key Words: Drama, language, learning, teaching
Introduction
Drama is a creative form of learning. Involving students in cooperative, process-oriented and at the
same time peace-related drama activities, is therefore one of the most challenging tasks for the language
teachers. As drama methods have not often been included in teacher training so far, it is of great importance that
in-service training institutions offer workshops or even a real training course on the use of drama techniques in
language teaching. In contrast with European countries in Azerbaijan drama as a teaching method is unknown.
There were different attempts to develop this methodology, but unfortunately were left unfinished. Having
personally experienced the effects of drama activities in language teaching, we came to the conclusion that it not
only motivates students and helps to speed up the learning process, but also improves their relationships with
each other and the atmosphere of the class. Integrating drama as a teaching method in language teaching, means
bringing real life as well as fantasy situations and characters into the classroom. It requires enthusiasm and a
willingness ―to take risks‖ on the part of the students and the teacher. A risk that was gladly taken by almost 26
students from all the faculties of our university was to their own benefit. This paper presents the results of an
investigation during the rehearsals into the value of using drama in a university classroom. Drawing on Di Pietro
(1987) and Via (1976) on the advantages of using drama in language learning, from Mezirow (1990) and Schôn
(1991) on the importance of reflection for promoting meaningful learning, and from Donato and McCormick
(1994) and Lukinsky (1990) on the effectiveness of portfolios as a tool to promote reflection, the paper presents
the use of drama in not only language teaching, but also in different areas of teaching-learning process.
Drama in education
Theatre is an important part of many people‘s lives, bringing the gifts of entertainment and story
sharing to people around the world. Theatre has different forms in different cultures for example, Turkish
shadow puppets, Chinese opera, Greek tragedy and comedy, traditional African storytelling and drumming, and
fully staged shows and performances. No matter the style of theatre, performances have the potential to create
magical and unforgettable moments for their audiences. The term ‗drama in education‘ refers to using theatre for
a purpose beyond entertaining an audience. This purpose is generally to change the knowledge, attitudes,
behaviors or perhaps all them of audience members. There has always been a bridge between education and
entertainment. From the earliest time, theatre has been used to spread news, share history, or educate people
about events outside of their communities. Recently, the use of drama and theatre arts for educational purpose
has undergone a remarkable resurgence. In particular, in social education provided a focus for countless dramatic
presentations. Television drama, radio plays, mass media campaigns, comic books, and other imaginative
offerings have been used around the world to convey information and influence behavior. Audience members
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often relate to characters on stage or in the radio or television drama are motivated to participate in interactive
opportunities.
There is a growing body of evidence on the utility of theatre in education in western countries. In fact in
Europe many books have been written on drama and its role in education process such as ―Stage by Stage: A
Handbook for Using Drama in the Second Language Classroom‖ by Burke and O‘Sullivan, ―Words Into Worlds:
Learning a Second Language Through Process Drama‖ by O‘Nail and Kao, ―Thinking it Through: Developing
Thinking and Language Skills Through Drama Activities‖ by Thompson and Evans and it was largely used not
only in formal education, but also in informal education. As John O. Stevens in his ―Awareness‖ points out
―…anything you can do to increase communication in your class will reduce your need to impose order by
authority, and reduce the students‘ need to rebel against that authority‖. It is seen as a powerful tool in language
teaching. The theatre can strengthen the emotional and psychological appeal of messages and provide a
believable and interesting way to explore key points of language. Drama allows audience and participants to
receive information in an entertaining and exciting way.
At its best, drama captures students‘ attention; even not active students bored by lessons are animated
by live drama. It engages students focusing their attention and actively involving them in an experience. Active
involvement means teacher achieved 50 % of lesson‘s objectives. If used effectively, drama allows influencing
students‘ not only intellectual or cognitive skills, but also emotions and self-confidence in ways that traditional
instruction cannot. The more the senses are involved the more effectively and actively you learn, and the
improvements you make will be lasting. Whereas we teachers have long been familiar with games and small
drama activities in our classrooms to encourage students‘ participation and active learning process, the drama as
a teaching method was not largely studied and was ignored in traditional teaching process of foreign languages.
The more ―open‖ and the less ―controlled‖ communication is, the more fluent, natural and spontaneous
and the more authentic it will be. This of course means that the traditional boring (teacher) questions and (pupil)
answers are no longer the core of a lesson. Process drama is concerned with the development of a wider context
for exploration – a dramatic world created by the teacher and students working together within the experience. It
can also fruitfully be applied in areas like cultural studies, literature or the usual range of topics from generation
gap to bullying and gender issues.
Method of study
The one-year course we have started was to process drama methods in the teaching of English as a
Foreign Language. As we mentioned above it required enthusiasm and a willingness ―to take risks‖ on the part
of the students and the teacher. A risk that was gladly taken by almost 26 students from all the faculties of our
university was to their own and their students‘ benefit. They were from different faculties and from different age
groups. We altogether successfully staged our play and reached our purposes. Our main aims and objectives
were:
• To promote the use of drama as a teaching method in foreign language teaching
• To integrate drama into the foreign language lesson
• To attract less sociable and asocial students to work together
• To improve communicative skills through drama
• To integrate drama into the teaching of cultural studies, literature, etc.
• To promote the use of drama in communication skills, personality training, social learning, reflective
skills, observation skills, aesthetic understanding, creativity, tolerance and acceptance, self confidence.
Therefore the main ideas and some results of the training course are now presented in this lecture.
We want to speak to you of our experiences with people who are students of another language. We
should tell you that English is our second language and to teach the language to students of second language is
very difficult. In our profession it is important to teach language with native speaker, because students of a
second language in England, America and any other English speaking countries have the opportunity to hear
English spoken every day. The daily necessity of speaking English gives them practical reasons for wanting to
speak it well. They must find the ways to communicate in English in the workplace, to do their shopping, and to
socialize with English speakers, so it is not necessary to motivate them to speak it. While we had native speakers
in our university it was much better, but after all as being the teacher of second language we decided to search
for ways. When leaving the classroom the question how much we have achieved our aims are always in our
minds. We thought that we must find any other methodology to be successful and this method was drama. First
of all we began with small group, about 17 students and began to work on ―King Lear‖ by W. Shakespeare. We
used simple version of the play not to bore students. Act by act we saw the improvement of the students, both in
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their language skills and self confidence to speak in front of the people. Some of them which couldn‘t even
answer the questions in front of the class now could freely speak to audience.
The students who are studying English as a foreign language are of course different. Because some
students do not need to speak English in their daily lives, their motivation to learn it is more theoretical. Some of
them know that knowledge of English, because it is becoming a global language, may help them in their chosen
professions when they finish university. This kind of students have good listening comprehension and are very
good with grammar, but their motivation in studying English is mostly to make good marks on their exams. If we
ask them to speak, only a few in each class is eager to do so. It is sure that after some time from exam, what they
have learned vanish from their minds. There are some reasons of this kind of behavior. One of the reasons is
lacking self confidence, shy and having no practical experiences. They are shy about their accents, and afraid of
making mistakes in public.
So we, teachers of English as a foreign language, face with two problems. The first problem is how to
get students to actually speak English and not just memorize grammar rules to make good marks on exams. The
second is to help them speak more clearly by slightly reducing their accents if clarity seems to be a problem. So
drama method is where both of these can be solved together.
This method of teaching students to speak a foreign language was of course Drama. Using drama in the
classroom is valuable. It develops students reading comprehension, vocabulary building, and most important, in
using language to negotiate in real situations.
The method is simple enough. The teacher should choose a piece of dramatic literature in English or
any other language. We chose ―Pride and Prejudice‖. The novel itself is long and for many students in the
classroom it is boring to read. So we made the script of the novel in a little bit simplified and shortened form. It
is better that the play has many characters as ―Pride and Prejudice‖; almost every student could participate, so as
to give as many students as possible the chance to take part. Make photocopy of the script for each student. Next,
the teacher should make a list of important vocabulary in the play, and give the students the assignment of
looking up these words in the dictionary. A vocabulary test may be appropriate afterwards. Next students are
assigned to read the script and to come to class with a list of the characters and a written description of each
character. Students should also be asked to suggest a student who should play the part of each character, and to
specify which character they themselves would like to play.
They must follow following instructions: 1. Read and comprehend the text. 2. Use a dictionary to learn
the words that they do not understand. Before memorizing the text they should comprehend their character and
understand each word of its speech. They can even express it in their own language for the first time for better
comprehension. When they read their parts in class, or better still when they learn to speak their parts from
memory, the teacher can listen and make notes to help them correct their pronunciation later, remembering that
clarity is what is important at this stage. Finally, when the students act their parts and invest the dialogue with
feeling, they will remember the words and phrases far better than they would if only preparing for an exam, and
will be able to use these phrases as tools in real life situations.
The word ―Drama‖ is Greek word which means ‗to do‘ or ‗to act‘, that is to say to take action. The duty
of actors in a theatrical production is to take the actions that the characters take in the story. Acting is a form of
communication, and communication is the transmission of information from sender to receiver, who for our
purposes now is actor and audience.
When we study a dramatic text so that we may learn how to perform the text, we must ask questions
and make decisions. The playwright does not give us all this information, so in reading the dramatic text an actor
must invent or create some of it, while staying faithful to what is written in the text of course. The actor must ask
himself several questions: who am I? What are my relations with other characters? Why they hate me? Why they
love me? and etc.
An actor must, first and foremost, communicate to an audience by transmitting information about what
a character is doing in the story. If the actor understands why the character is doing what he does, this will enable
him to empathize with the character and to feel what the character feels in the story, and this information will
also be communicated to make the performance more believable, but this information about feelings and
motivation.
When students are assigned to play the parts of the characters in a play, they should be asked to decide
why their characters are saying each line of dialogue, i.e. what they want at that moment, and what their
characters are doing by saying those words. They should describe their actions in terms of verbs. Not only will
the students vocabulary of verbs increase, but also each entire phrase will come to life as the student speaks it as
an action, and will more effectively enter the student‘s memory for later use in other situations and will be visual
experience for other students.
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Finally we want to note that being Student Based Learning, Drama is successful method in teaching
language, literature and culture. It is much more effective learning tool than simply listening to a lecture. It
seems to us that students playing the roles of other characters in other cultures will not only learn language more
effectively, but will also learn why we want to communicate with each other.
References
Akimov. H. : Театральное наследие. Баку, 1987
Almond, Mark: Teaching English with Drama. How to use drama and plays when teaching – for the professional
English language teacher. London: Modern English Publishing 2005.
Andersen, Marianne Miami: Theatersport und Improtheater. Planegg: Buschfunk Verlag 1996.
Anderson, Jason: Teamwork. Interactive tasks to get students talking. Addlestone: Delta 2004.
Atkins, Greg: improv! A handbook for the actor. Portsmouth: Heinemann 1994.
Bacová, Daniela & Phillips, Tim (eds): As If… Drama-based lesson plans for English language teaching.
Bratislava: The British Council 1999.
Berlin C., Hornbeck K.: Theatre-Based Techniques for Youth Peer Education Training Manual. Y-PEER, 2010
Benathan, Joss: Developing Drama Skills 11 – 14. Oxford: Heinemann Educational 2000.
Bernardi, Philip: Improvisation Starters. A collection of 900 improvisation situations for the theater. Cincinnati,
Ohio: Betterway Books 1992.
Berry, Kathleen S.: Acting against the Grain. The Dramatic Arts and Cultural Studies. New York and London:
RoutledgeFalmer 2000.
Blank, Carla & Roberts, Jody: Live on Stage. Performing Arts for Middle School. Teacher resource book. Palo
Alto, Ca.: Dale Seymour 1997.
Boal, Augusto: Games for Actors and Non-Actors. London and New York: Routledge 1992.
Boal, Augusto: The Rainbow of Desire. The Boal method of theatre and therapy. London and New York:
Routledge 1994.
Bolton, Gavin M.: Acting in Classroom Drama. A critical analysis. Portland, Maine: Calendar Islands Publishers
1999.
Burke, A. and O‘Sullivan, J.: Stage by Stage: A Handbook for Using Drama in the Second Language Classroom
Kao, Shin-Mei & O‘Neill, Cecily: Words into Worlds. Learning a second language through process drama.
Stamford, CT: Ablesh Publishing 1998.
McCaslin, Nellie: Creative Drama in the Classroom. Studio City, Ca.: Players Press 1990.
O‘Neill, Cecily: Drama Worlds. A framework for process drama. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann 1995.
O'Neill, C. and Kao, Sh.: ―Words Into Worlds: Learning a Second Language Through Process Drama ―
Thompson, G. and Evans, H. : ―Thinking it Through: Developing Thinking and Language Skills Through Drama
Activities‖
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The Role of Drama in Language Teaching
Author
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Guliyeva, Gulnar
Abstract
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The aim of this study is to investigate the role of drama activities in education, especially in language teaching within the Drama Club of English Language and Literature Department of Qafqaz University. It is a case study of the use of drama in a language class, describing the course structure and classroom procedures. The study was carried out in the second semester of the 2008-2009 academic years during the rehearsals of performance ―Pride and Prejudice‖. It includes personal experiences of group of students from different departments and different age groups and language teachers which have successfully performed and achieved their aims and evaluated the results, presenting setbacks and possible solutions for teaching language to foreign learners. Finally, it encourages the use of drama for transformative and emancipatory learning.
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2011-05
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P Philology. Linguistics
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Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Redefining Teaching Approach for Learning
Communicative English.
Dr. Somali Gupta
Professor of English
Govt. V.Y.T.PG Autonomous College
Durg. Chhattisgarh,India
somaligupta@gmail.com
Introduction
Speaking is more than merely talking. It involves thinking, imagination, sensitiveness in
listening and understanding. The communication process is completed only when the speaker gets a
response by word, look, gesture, or even silence. This enables the speaker to judge the attitude of the
listener and the degree of success or failure of the communication. The entire body is used in speaking.
It uses the audible code – the sounds used by the speaker, and the visible code – the movements or
gestures of the face, arms and other parts of the body that are used for emphasis. The primary function
of the speech is to influence others.
Generally, language learning proceeds, from hearing and speaking to reading and writing. But
in the case of second/ foreign language acquisition, this order is often violated. In India, especially with
regard to English, learners begin with writing and reading and come to speech only towards the end of
their learning. Very little curriculum time is given to teaching oral skills. It is therefore not unusual to
find a large number of English users, who are fairly proficient in reading and writing , but cannot speak
well. The confusion in the order of learning also seems responsible to a certain extent for errors in the
performance of second language users.
This paper is based on the project that I had done in order to understand and develop an
approach that would help the L2 learners acquire English language competence. (Students from the
tribal or backward areas of Chhattisgarh(India) are usually intimidated by the thought of learning
English which according to them is the language of the elite.) This project was based on qualitative
analysis and was sponsored by the UGC.
Theories used for Classroom Approach and Curriculum Designing
1) Humanistic Teaching Approach for EFL.
This approach is based on Daniel Goleman‘s (1995) research on Emotional Intelligence (EQ);
why it can matter more than IQ. Recently it has been noted that students who don‘t fair well in their
examinations, also fair badly socially. There are also cases of very intelligent students who become
social ‗outcasts‘. This is what Goleman terms as emotional illiteracy.
The cost of this type of illiteracy is very high – could be paid with lives (pp 265-274). Besides
teaching language, the Affective Teaching Approach also includes (in Goleman‘s term) ‗Schooling the
Emotions‘. Goleman states ―the healthiest way to teach children is by motivating them from inside
rather than by threat or promise or reward. We should use kids‘ positive states to draw them into
learning in the domains where they can develop competencies‖ (pp 106-107).
The chapter ‗Managing with heart‘ proves that emotional intelligence is cost-effective for any
type of business including language education. There are many benefits for teacher as managers if they
have the basic skills of emotional competence.
Redefining Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approaches were first introduced in the late sixties and early seventies. This
requires an orientation towards ‗holistic‘ education, which aims to promote growth in intrapersonal
awareness and interpersonal sharing as well as intellectual development (Legutke & Thomas, 1991:36).
This can be interpreted as teaching with affection, developing a leaner‘s inner personality and selfconfidence, interpersonal skills, as well as his intellectual skills, all at once.
One of the most cited early works on humanism is Moskowitz (1978) book, Caring and Sharing in the
Foreign language Classroom. Her two major emphases are related to this paper: Firstly, ―humanistic
education takes into consideration that learning is affected by how students feel about themselves‖ (p.
12). It ―is concerned with educating the whole person - intellectual and the emotional dimensions‖ (p.
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11). Secondly each individual is unique and to be ‗self-actualising‘ is to function to one‘s fullest
capacity.
Quoting Stevick‘s (1975) work, Legutke & Thomas (1991) note the four forms of alienation
that are possibly responsible for failure in modern language teaching; 1)the alienation of learners from
the material, 2)from themselves 3)from the class and 4)from the teacher. This alienation is also the
educational starting point of postponements of humanistic approach and the hidden agenda of many
resource books offering communicative tasks (p.36). the topic of hidden agenda will be further
explored in the section of this paper on Exploring Affective Teaching Approach.
With heavy schedules in set curricula for schools, most teachers are reluctant to undertake
heavier burdens by including emotional literacy as another subject to be taught. This is not necessary
so. According to Goleman, the idea is to blend lessons on feelings and relationship with other subjects.
―Emotional lessons can emerge naturally into these subjects and infiltrate into the very fabric of school
life. In fact these lessons should essentially be ―an invisible emotional and social competence course‖
(p. 312). This approach equates incidental learning in grammar. This incidental learning is achieved
with appropriate selection of teaching materials (for example reading passages for teaching emotional
and social skills) and (re)training of teachers to discipline students who misbehave (explaining their
mistake instead of reprimanding).
Affective Environment for Effective Teaching (Role of Teachers)
The success of any EFL program depends on many factors. These include the sound
curricular, the different methodology or approaches, the management and the environment. However, a
review of recent literature indicates insufficient discussion on environment as one of the crucial factors
for effective learning of ESL to take place. Nunan (1995) agrees that ―the context and environment of
learning as well as the management of language classrooms, are relatively under-presented in the
literature on language teaching methodology‖ (p.7). For the purpose of this paper environment is
defined as the conducive, holistic atmosphere incorporating all the variables under the three categories
of physical, mental and spiritual environment involved during the language learning process.
After receiving a few studies, Cray and Currie (1996), include one characteristic that teachers
should have which is rather similar to the environment factor discussed in this paper.
Besides having knowledge in pedagogical content, instructional practice, critical thinking
skills and problem solving abilities, a language teacher should also possess the ability to handle nonpedagogical factors including social and personal complexities. Studies have shown that in the 1990‘s
the role of teachers of English as a second or foreign language has developed from merely as teachers‘
into autonomous experts with the knowledge, experience and intuitions to make informed decisions
about what should happen in their classrooms.
Since then it has been realized that ‗language classrooms are complex settings, composed of
both pedagogical elements, and that teachers must be prepared to deal with their uniqueness‘ (pg. 113).
To do that, teachers need to be well equipped with knowledge of the factors involved in order to be
able to create the conducive, affective environment for effective language learning.
One such environment is within a learner-centered curriculum. Nunan (1988) believes that a
curriculum that specifies planning equals teaching rquals learning is naive. Research suggests that the
equation is much more complex than this (pg.1) due to the obvious mismatch between the traditional
curriculum and the demands of the classroom, Nunan embarks on researching a learner-centered
curriculum. In this curriculum, while one major aim or sets of aims will relate to the development of
learining skills. Such aims may include the following:
To provide learners with efficient learning strategies.
To assist learners identify their own preferred ways of learning
To develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum
To encourage learners to set their own objectives
To encourage learners to adopt realistic goals and time frames
To develop learners‘ skills in self-evaluation.
Teachers who try to achieve some if not all of the above aims are on their way to setting the conducive
environment for their students to learn the language. Some teachers assume that in a learner-centered
classroom, teachers may loose their authority. This assumption is unfounded as pointed out by
Widdowson (1987):
The increase in learner-centered activity and collaborative work in the classroom does not mean that
the teacher becomes less authoritative. He or she to continue the enabling conditions for learning, has
still to monitor and guide process (p. 87)
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It is clear that a learner-centered curriculum paves the way for Affective Teaching. This is not
easy, as there is an official curriculum with a set of learning objectives that teachers need to adhere to.
But Nunan (1988) points out that this can be solved by looking at techniques and procedures for
negotiation and procedures. He quotes Brindly (1984) saying it does not mean ―teachers should give
leaners everything that they want- evidence from teachers suggests that some sort of compromise is
usually possible, but only after there has been discussion concerning what both parties believe and
want (p 6).
Exploring Affective Teaching Approach
Confluent Education, a pedagogic vehicle for humanistic thinking, is not a new education
movement (Brown (1971), Rivers (1983). However, Legutke & Thomas‘ (1991) model for this type of
education will be the starting point in this section. This model illustrates the overlapping of the
cognitive and the affective domains of the learners. Therefore, teachers should maximize on both the
learners‘ IQ and EQ.
With their intelligence, the learners should be provided with awareness of not only language
education but also other types of education so as to activate their ability to respond and inculcate
responsibility (in their learning), thus moduling a well-rounded person, intellectually and emotionally.
Based on patterns in Confluent Education and Goleman‘s theory of ‗ Schooling the Emotions‘, a model
for affective teaching approach incorporating the hidden curriculum was created.
Teachers can get the learners to be spontaneous in their learning and to be intrinsically
motivated by making the learners understand what they are learning and what they are learning it for.
As the focus has now shifted to the learners, understanding the factors affecting language learning is
crucial. These factors under the two catagories are presented in Figure 2. The line separates the
intrinsic from the extrinsic factors.
A lot of research has been done on how these factors affect language learning. Wenden (1987)
cites a few studies to show the importance of affective factors, the influence of social factors (EQ), and
the importance of cognitive abilities (IQ) in the language learning process. Carrel, prince & Astika
(1996) also cite recent studies that show the success of second language education caused by affective,
motivational, personality and demographic factors. Lightbrown & Spada (1999) believe that learners
have certain characteristics, which lead to more or less successful language learning.
By understanding the characteristics of a ‗good language learner‘, teachers are able to help the
learners deal with their weaknesses. Research on factors affecting language learning can be done using
specific measurements, tests, surveys, questionnaire or observations.
The present study explores the Affective Teaching approach using questionnaires and
observations, plus as analysis of the students‘ profile, and the study also takes into consideration almost
all the factors affecting language learning included in figure 2.
Task Based Curricular Design
Language instructors and curriculum designers have two broad catagories of syllabuses
available to choose from. The first, the synthetic syllabus, segments the target language into discrete
linguistic items, such as points of grammar, lexical items, or functions. Users of this type of syllabus
assume that learners will be capable of re-synthesizing these discrete pieces of language into coherent
whole which can then be effectively utilized in communicative situations (White, 1988). The second
type, the analytical syllabus, is a non-interventionist, experimental approach which aims to immerse
learners in real-life communication. It provides learners with samples of the target language which are
organised in terms of the purposes for which people use language. In this case, the assumption is that
the learners‘ analytic abilities will be equal to the task of coming to accurate conclusions about
grammatical and lexical usage, since relatively little may be explicitly explained about the formal
aspects of the language. Analytical syllabuses generally represent the educational value system
espoused by progressivism, which stresses the growth and self-realization of the individual (White,
1988). This is a problem-posing type of education which emphasizes dialog between learners and
teachers and between the learners themselves. The purpose of the dialogue is to stimulate new ideas,
opinions, and perceptions rather than simply exchange them or regurgitate what others have said.
White (1988) lists the most salient characteristics of analytic syllabus as follows: (a) they are primarily
concerned with how materials are learned (processes oriented); (b) some degree of negotiation between
learners and teachers occurs; (c) the content is fundamentally defined as what the subject means to the
learner and what the leaner brings to the subject in terms of knowledge and interest; (d) assessment is
partially decided based on the learners‘ own criteria of success, and; (e) the instructional situation is far
more co-operative than in more traditional, teacher-fronted classrooms.
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This last point has been referred to as maximizing learning opportunities (Kumaravadivelu,
1994) and is an essential aspect of what has been termed a learner-centered curriculum. Classroom
discourse should be a cooperative venture in which discourse is created through the joint efforts of both
the learners and instructor.
One type of analytic syllabus is the task-based syllabus (Crookes & Long, 1992). In addition
to the above characteristics of analytic syllabuses, task-based syllabuses are largely derived from what
is known about second language acquisition (SLA). For instance, SLA research supports a focus on
form which uses pedagogic tasks to draw learners‘ attention to particular aspects of the language code
which is naturally embedded in the tasks (Long & Robinson, 1988). The inclusion of some type of
instruction on the formal aspects of the target language can be found in most recent formulations of
task-based language instruction (e.g, Skehan, 1988; Willis, 1996). Tasks also provide input to learners
and opportunities for meaningful language acquisition (Swain, 1995). Opportunities for production
may force students to pay close attention to form and to the relationship between form and meaning. It
is assumed that this combination of contextualized, meaningful input and output will engage learners‘
general cognitive processing capacities through which they will process and reshape the input. In other
words, tasks will likely create a rich linguistic environment capable of activating the learners‘ intuitive
heuristics (Kumaravadivelu, 1994), which are natural cognitive processes used both consciously and
unconsciously for developing the somewhat separate rules systems that underlie language
comprehension and production. In addition, form-function relationships, which are a critical aspect of
SLA (MacWhinney, 1997), should be more readily perceived by the learners because of the highly
contextualised and communicative nature of the tasks provided by a task-based syllabus.
The Project: Student-Generated Action Research
In this section I would like to briefly describe an extended task-based project which was
implemented The project, which I have called student-generated action research, required the entire
twelve week semester to complete. However, as a part of the same course the learners were also
engaged in other activities that were a part of direct approach to teaching speaking. In this approach,
learners are explicitly instructed in some of the specific microskills, strategies and processes which are
involved in conversation. These include phrases and strategies for turn-taking, interrupting, expressing
agreement or disagreement, summarizing what another person has said and checking whether you have
been understood. The knowledge of these ‗formulaic frameworks‘ (Widdowson, 1989, pg. 135) form
an essential part of communicative competence of native speakers of a language and act as usual
linguistic knowledge which the learners can make use of as they use of as they move through the
project.
In brief, the project requires the learners to work in groups of two to four persons and to choose a topic
which they are interested in finding out more about. The general objectives of the project are to:
Provide learners the opportunity to use English for authentic purposes for an extended period
of time.
Provide intrinsically motivating activities which take advantage of the learners‘ desire to
improve their listening and speaking proficiency.
Allow learners to take responsibility for their own English education by giving them the
primary responsibility for topic structure and present data which they collect.
Reinforce learners‘ ability to form grammatically and pragmatically collect questions;
Enhance the learner‘s presentation skills.
Demonstrate to students that the use of English can further enhance their own education and
development, and;
Provide opportunities for learners to work closely together with a partner or in a small group
for an extended period.
The following is a more detailed look at how the project unfolds throughout the course of a semester.
Fundamental Problems with Tasks
Skehan (1988) lists five major problems which exist where task-based language teaching is
concerned. First, although early empirical indications strongly support the use of task as an effective
way to conceptualize language teaching, the amount of research is still insufficient. More worrisome is
the fact that o task based program has been implemented and subjected to rigorous evaluation. Until
this has been accomplished and any positive results replicated, the use of task-based courses will be
open to doubts and criticisms. Moreover, assessing task-difficulty and sequencing tasks is problematic.
Our understanding of many potential factors influencing task difficulty is quite limited; thus, teachers
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must generally fall back on their intuitions about how well their particular learners can deal with
specific tasks. Third, little is known about task ‗finiteness‘. For instance, if examined carefully, a task
such as the creation of a questionnaire is composed of a large number of ‗microtasks‘ which must be
successfully accomplished in order to complete the larger task. There is probably no clearer
explanation of this than in the work of Anderson and his colleagues in the area of production rules
(e.g., Anderson, 1993; Anderson & Lebiere, 1988). They have shown how one relatively ―simple‖ task,
such as an addition problem, can only be complete if a large number of more basic production rules are
known and accurately applied. When the task is the communicative use of language, the situation is far
more complex. Skehan (1988) claims that task-based language teaching may be too structured and preplanned and so slow down the rate of acquisition. However, this did not appear to be a problem with
the learners in this program. Only further research on task-based teaching will provide answers to this
question.
Frame work:
In the first stage of the survey 60 students were chosen who had to fill up a personal data
questionnaire dealing with there Background, Education, Hobbies, Friends, Influences in life, Dreams
and Vision.A work shop was the held in which the students shared the same data amongst the group
This workshop also helped me to understand how these students tend to avoid learning the language
while wanting to learn the language too because of the belief that it is an elitist language.
In the second stage a Motivation Workshop was organized for the students in which they were
also required to understand their own personal needs. A lecture on Neuro- linguistic programming to
understand blocks, was also delivered.
Often another group of students were involved in the workshop to draw a comparative
analysis and a result. While the first primary group of students came from the backward classes or the
rural areas the second group of students belonged to the urban area or from a reasonably affluent
background, whose parents were also educated.
In another workshop, the students were allowed to interact with the students of other colleges
which led to a strong database of the variety of problems that the students had that came in the way of
their communication skills (communication not only in English but also in Hindi.) This was followed
by another workshop on ‗Attitudes‘.
The next stage of the project involved the development of the four basic skills (Reading,
Writing, Listening and Speaking) in the students that are imperative in language learning.
Simultaneously grammar and phonetics were also taught. The students were also made aware
of the various theories in language learning. In the activities that involved the development of Speaking
Skills the Passive vocabulary of the students was also revived. Other activities like group discussions,
role- playing, dramatics, debates were used as alternative methods to teach the skills. Error analysis
involved a major part of the process as it helped to develop a clearer understanding of the mistakes that
were being committed by the students and also by the teachers in playing their roles. Fluency and
accuracy remained the focus of the tasks. A workshop on Body Language (Non verbal communication)
was also organized. Role of the teacher in the classroom was also studied. Reasons for negative
participation in the given classrooms were also studied.
Motivation
Motivation is the power which makes a learner struggle to achieve his goal. Human capabilities
depend on the extent of motivation. The effect of motivation and its variables upon performance, are
manifold. The manner and extent of these affects change in accordance with the task and situation.
That is, difference in motivation may account for difference in performance of a learner.
―Motivation‖ is derived from the Latin word ‗movere‘ which means ‗to move‘ and it has been seen
as a process which activates and directs behaviour (Young 1961). For Bigge (1971), motivation is
when a person develops a state of tension resulting from an unsatisfied need. Most psychologists and
applied linguists (Corder, 1973; Gardner 1979 and Gardner & Lambert, 1972) agree that motivation
plays a very important role in language learning. Gardner (1979: 198) would expect motivation ―to
play a direct role in the formal training situation because it would serve to keep the student in the
programme, influence his perception of the training situation, and serve as the basis for many
reinforcements which might be obtained in the classroom.‖
Thus the survey of literature on motivation leads us to conclude that definitions are mainly based
on three main components in a learning situation. These are : ‗goals‘ of the learner towards learning,
‗needs‘ of the learner and ‗drive‘ of the learners towards a language.
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Motivation is individual. That is, every learner has his/her own motives and means to learn in
accordance with their ability and goals. There are four types of motivation which can be relevant to
language learning. They are ‗integrate vs. instructional‘ motivation and ‗extrinsic vs. instinct‘
motivation.
Gardner and Lambert can be considered the pioneers of language learning motivation studies. In
their earliest studies (1959) two distinctive types of motivation, namely integrative and instrumental
were classified.
Integrative Motivation:
Integrative motivation is a willingness to become a member of another ethno-linguistic group. In
other words, it refers to learning the language the target community in order to be integrated into the
culture of that community.
Instrumental Motivation:
Instrumental motivation is the result of external need. They define instrumental motivation as a
desire to gain social recognition or economic advantages through the knowledge of a second or foreign
language. Learners who are instrumentally motivated hope to derive benefits from knowing the other
language such as getting a better job or position.
However, one can argue that the relative importance of an integrative- instrumental dichotomy will
largely depend on the context in which a language is learned. An instrumental motivation can be
effective, in particular, in situations where the target language is used as an international means of
communication.
Research in the tribal areas of Chhattisgarh indicated that the learners from these regions learn
English for its utilitarian value. It needs to be pointed out that positive orientation does not take the
form of integrative motivation. In these regions English language is only contacted indirectly through
the textbooks. Therefore, the situation is unlikely to initiate any desire for group integration.
In order to adapt the learning process to appeal to the learners, we usually tend to rely on two main
types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation consists f three
components such viz. stimuli, response and reward. The source of this type of motivation comes from
outside the learner, who mostly performs a certain task in order to get a reward,(e.g. pass the test), or to
avoid punishment (e.g. failure). Unlike extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation is related to the
learner‘s initiative to do a task (e.g. understanding something) for its own sake.
However, the social context in which the language is learned determines the attitude of the
learners‘ social status in a second or foreign language. In relation to the first language, economic,
political and social factors are likely to influence motivation to learn a second or foreign language.
When the socio-linguistic status of a group, is lower than that of a target language group, instrumental
motivation is likely to be a pre- requisite for economic advancement. We can therefore say that
individual learner factors are influenced by the social context and these have to be borne in mind while
interpreting learners‘ behaviour.
Since motivation is individual, the teacher, for example, needs to try to understand what kind of
motivation his/her learners are intrinsically motivated by. The teacher is expected to find ways or
techniques which address the intrinsic motivation. Further, each learner has his/her own way of
handling tasks or learning process. Therefore, the teacher has to understand the student‘s ability, and
his way of dealing with learning tasks.
To conclude, the teacher can sometimes be the only source of motivation, essentially in those
situations where the learner‘s experience largely depends on their teacher. In other cases, ambition also
acts as a prime motivation.
Methodology
Group Work
Group work has been found especially conductive in the development of oral skills.
Research has given us the 2/3 formula which shows that in a 40 minute class with a strength of
40 students per class a learner gets less than a minute to participate in the speaking activity. Group
work provides a framework whereby a learner can have the maximum participation. In a teacheroriented class, the amount of language practice each learner gets, is much less than in a class where the
learners work in groups.
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Group work gives an opportunity to learners to speak in small groups, at times with their friends and
this reduces the hesitation and embarrassment which a shy learner may feel. Besides helping learners to
get rid of their inhibitions, it also builds up a sense of closeness, owing to the physical proximity and
the tight structure of the groups. Learners feel more motivated, have a sense of belonging, which spurs
them on a particular direction. It helps in establishing a sense of personal rapport. Communication is
better when the physical distance between individuals is reduced. Visuals and other materials used in
the classrooms are then easy to share within the group.
Students are also able to interact as a group with other groups. This helps in building healthy
rivalry. The time limit or inter-group competition spurs each group to move ahead.
It provides an opportunity for peer teaching. Students are more likely to learn from each other
than from the teacher. Mistakes get corrected in a healthy cooperative atmosphere. Important features
of interaction skills such as turn-taking, adjusting to one‘s speech to what the other person knows and
wants to hear also gets practiced.
Group work allows the teacher to move out of the constraints of the role and act as a manager,
facilitator and guide.
As teachers of second language, our main concern is not to impart knowledge and information to
the children about the language, but to develop their ability to use their language for a variety of
communicative purposes. In order to achieve this end we must
Appreciate the specific needs of our learners.
Plan suitable oral activities in English based on the needs of the students
Monitor and modify these activities to ensure that these activities are effective.
Understand the various roles that a teacher can play (manager/facilitator/ guide) to enhance
the student‘s oral skills.
Group Discussion:
Group discussion was practiced with the dual purpose. 1) To enable the students to freely
participate and exchange views.2) Practice it as an alternative methodology for classroom teaching.
Group discussion was held both before and after reading texts. It was also held after the topic was
declared a day before.
It was found that the students were more participative if the discussion was held after the
reading of the texts or if the topic was declared a day before. It gave the less confident learners support
in terms of content. The teacher‘s role became that of an observer, manager and a facilitator. Correction
of grammar and other remedial measures were taken later and the discussion was allowed a free flow.
Sometimes the dominating students were facilitated to allow the slow learners to participate. The
discussions were rounded off by summarizing the group‘s ideas through reporting or other methods
like drawing posters etc. Feedback was given to each student on his/her participation by the teacher. An
oral activity which is well planned, organized, executed efficiently, timed correctly with a feedback and
a follow up session, gives the learners a sense of achievement. The other activities which met with a lot
of enthusiasm from the students were Class Debate and Role Playing.
Learning to Speak
In the case of learning to speak one‘s mother tongue the child‘s experiences provide the basis from
which meaning and therefore language develops. At the same time what other people around the child
say to the child also plays an important part in stimulating the child‘s actions and setting value on them.
The child‘s language is extended by the parent‘s responses to her statements and questions. Adults tend
to use words so freely and easily that they teach them to the child at almost every opportunity. They
encourage the child to say the word aloud, correcting her when she says the word incorrectly or applies
it to the wrong object, and rewarding her when she uses the word or symbol correctly. During recent
years a body of evidence has grown which seems to indicate that the way in which the child learns to
use language is dependent upon early experiences in the home. Differences in the way children use
language, thus stem from the experiences in the social environment in their homes. Although the ability
to imitate sounds plays a tremendous part in the child‘s ability to acquire vocabulary and structure and
for her utterances, learning to use language is clearly much more complex than being able to imitate
sounds. Imitation is not enough to explain how a child gains meaning and gains the adult‘s way of
using language. Most adult‘s seem to help the child intuitively as they talk, sometimes simplifying
what they say to accommodate the child‘s immaturity, and sometimes speaking as they would do to an
adult or older child. Often they take what the child has said and repeat a corrected version, which
sometimes the child will repeat immediately. In this way it seems the child gains the experience she
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needs for distinguishing the more ambiguous aspects of structure in talk.
The young child goes through two phases in learning to speak. The first stage is the Passive Stage
in which the child comes to understand much of what is said to her but makes little use of the language
herself; the second stage is an Active Stage in which the child begins to use words and word groups.
Mother tongue acquisition
Linguists have observed how children acquire their mother tongue so that the insight gained could
be used in teaching of the second language.
They found three important facts which gave a new trend to language teaching.
First: Children start comprehending the language much before they start speaking it.
Second: Children start begin by repeating individual words and then short sentences, but this was a
mere mechanical reproduction.
Third: Children form a grammar of their own which explains how they graduate from mere repetition
to construction of yet unheard sentences of their own.
The fact emerged that there was to be a gestation period between learning and passive(listening,
understanding and reading) and active skills(speaking and writing). But students, most of the time are
expected to learn all the skills simultaneously. This becomes difficult for the slow learners.
Use of mother tongue in the classroom
There has been an ongoing debate about whether the learners or the teachers should be allowed to
mix or switch codes for teaching and learning English (L-2). Those who are of the opinion that other
tongue has no place in an English classroom are advocates of the Direct Method. According to this
theory, a constant exposure to the target language enables the learners to pick it up in due course, just
as a child picks up the mother tongue. The use of mother tongue by the teacher minimizes this
exposure, depriving the learner of a total submersion in the target language. It is also argued that if the
learner is denied the option to speak in the mother tongue, the compulsion to communicate will act as a
motivation to use English. It is also claimed that this compulsion and constant exposure will act as a
spur to help the learners think in English which is the ultimate test in language proficiency.
Failure of the Direct Method
The students who were chosen for this workshop were from the backward classes and rural
areas and hence their medium of instruction was Hindi. English was not their language of
communication. The direct method is based on the presumption of a maximum exposure to the target
language, it must be understood that these students get only 2 hours of exposure at the college since
there is no English in the home environment.
Keeping in mind the fact that most of these students have minimal exposure to the language
outside the classroom and some of whose motivation to learn it does not go beyond passing the
examinations, what seems to be the requirement of the day is a time saving method which puts the
students at ease and also instills some confidence in them. This confidence will, in turn act as a
motivation for further learning. It was found that judicious use of the mother tongue both by the
students and the teachers, proved to be fruitful. Since dependence on mother tongue seemed to be
inevitable a methodology to use it to an advantage was developed.
It was observed that teachers who are firm believers of keeping the mother tongue out of the
classroom seem to generate a sense of awe amongst the students who are very weak in English. They
were seen as unapproachable and the prospect of learning English from them appeared daunting.
Today the knowledge of English has acquired a status symbol in India and those who cannot speak it
suffer from a sense of inferiority. Under such circumstances when the teacher does not hesitate to mix
codes or to switch them when required, the students get a sense of security and start feeling
comfortable. The mother tongue becomes the common ground and the English and the English teacher
stops being intimidating. This goes a long way in bridging the gap between the teacher and the taught.
Purpose , Design and Activities of a Bilingual Classroom
As discussed earlier the students of Chhattisgarh have a definite mindset in learning English.
Their primary aim to learn the language was as follows:
Talking with others.
Giving information to others.
Telling others how you feel.
Persuading others.
Dealing through words in special situations.
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Telling things that interest others such as stories, shared experiences.
Making formal or impromptu speeches.
Getting ideas across, out loud.
Classroom Design:
The classroom was designed to provide opportunities for oral expression to the second
language (L-2) learners so as to enable them to:
Increase their vocabulary and ability to use the language.
Be articulate when speaking, i.e. speaking coherently and in complete sentences.
Become fluent in expressing their feelings and opinions.
Improve listening skills.
Listen to different points of view and value the opinion of others.
Develop confidence in the use of the language.
Learn the social skills needed for group interaction.
Enhance their ability to communicate with a variety of audiences.
Reinforce grammatical structures, intonation, and pronunciation, through actual usage.
Domains
It is customary to divide human activity into several domains. All these domains when put
together, account for most of the things that an average human being does or is expected to do. The
students were keen to learn English as a second language to be able to use it all the following domains.
Family
Neighbourhood
School
Trade and Commerce
Government and administration.
Work-place
Atmosphere of the Classroom
The possibilities for using spoken language in the classroom is immense. There are
opportunities for spontaneous, unplanned discussions, verbal sharing recitation. Often informal talk
between students is very constructive if it can be given a focus. What is important is that a student
should feel completely relaxed. Hence the classroom atmosphere should be completely nonthreatening. Individual differences in students were respected. It was seen that they should not be
compared to each other. As a practice shy students were not forced to speak in front of the whole class
but were gradually made to practice ‗speaking‘ in small groups and then move on to large groups.
Activities in the Classroom
The following activities were designed and practiced in the classroom.
Games emphasizing the use of different parts of speech.
Spotting the odd words from a group of words.
Using synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, suffixes and prefixes.
Learning to figure out the meanings of words from context.
Making friends with new words.
Becoming aware of idiomatic expressions.
Using literature to clear diction and introduce new words and phrases.
Sentence building games.(Each student adds on a word till the sentence is complete)
Build stories.
Picture Reading.
Create images with words.
Problem solving and working on puzzles so that they discuss with each other.
Teaching each other.
Finding information about each other based on a format.
Giving and following directions.
Improvisations and role-plays based on some clues and stimulus.
Question and answer sessions based on a text.
Show and Tell.
Identifying Passive Vocabulary.
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Improving Articulation and areas that need focus were then put to greater practice.
Approaches Used in Classroom Teaching
Humanistic Approach & Task based approach
1. Humanistic Approach:
History and Theory
The Humanistic approach tends to see language learning as a process which engages the
whole person and not just the intellect. It takes into account the emotional and spiritual needs of an
individual too.
The philosophy behind such an approach can be briefly described as follows:
The ideal world should consist of ‗ autonomous, creative and emotionally secure
people‘(Brumfit 1982) and education should and can assist in the creation of such a world. Stevick
classifies the important characteristics of humanism.
Feelings:
Include both personal, emotional and esthetic appreciation. This aspect of humanism tends to
reject whatever makes people feel bad, or whatever destroys or forbids esthetic enjoyment.
Social Relations:
This side of humanism encourages friendship and cooperation, and opposes whatever tends to
reduce them.
Intellect :
Includes knowledge, reason, and understanding. This aspect fights against whatever
interferes with the free exercises of mind, and is suspicious of anything that cannot be tested
intellectually.
Self Actualisation:
This is quest for full realization of one‘s own deepest true qualities. This aspect believes that
since conformity leads to enslavement, the pursuit of uniqueness brings about liberation.
In the humanistic approach the following principles are considered important:
a) the development of human values
b) growth of self-awareness and in the understanding of others
c) sensitivity to human feelings and emotions
d) active student involvement in learning and in the way learning takes place.
The two methods that reflect the philosophy of the humanistic approach in the fullest measure
are:
The Silent Way.
Community Language Learning.
The Silent Way:
This methodology was evolved by Caleb Gattegno in 1960 which was based on the tenet,
‗teaching must be subordinate to learning.‘ In the Silent Way, the teacher is almost silent: the learners
do all the talking.
The Pedagogic Principles
The teacher builds on what the learners already know. S/he follows the ‗known to unknown‘
principle.
Language is learnt through the basic building blocks of sounds, as sound is a common
characteristics of all languages.
The teacher‘s silence encourages peer interaction and group co-operation.
Language learning is done best in a non-threatening atmosphere. The teacher is a silent
‗engineer‘ in the class, and so the learners do not feel threatened.
Learner errors are dealt through self-monitoring and peer-correction. No disapproval is
indicated by the teacher.
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Community Language Learning:
Community language learning was developed by Charles Curran. He developed a counselinglearning approach, that is, the teacher was more a ‗counsellor‘ than a figure of authority and a judge of
right and wrong. Curran discovered that adults often feel threatened in new learning situations: one.
because they are coming into contact with something unfamiliar; and two, because they are afraid of
appearing foolish. To counter this, the teacher must become a counselor; a person who not only knows
the target language , but one who also understands the struggle learners face while learning something
new. By understanding, he can help them to overcome their fears and work more positively towards
learning a new language. CLL takes place in groups ( large or small). These groups form the
community.
This method lays emphasis on the learner‘s personal feelings while learning a foreign
language.
The Pedagogic Principles:
The most important principle the CLL is based on is the principle of security.
A learner learns when s/he feels secure. To achieve this:
The teacher-counselor, who is the knower remains outside the circle of learners.
The teacher- counselor does not approve or disapprove of a learner‘s performance.
The teacher –counselor uses the mother tongue learners to explain or translate, as they feel more
secure when they understand everything.
A community feeling is fostered so that trust is built up and the threat of a new learning situation is
reduced.
The other important principles are:
The learning initiative must be with the learners for effective learning.
Language is for communication. So, much of the materials for learning is authentic: what the
learners say and record. The focus gradually shifts froth aspects of grammar and phonetics to
actual sharing of ideas, beliefs, opinions, wants and desires.
Task Based Approach
1. The Structural –Oral –Situational Approach
This approach was used as an alternative to the direct method of teaching English in the
classroom.
1.i) History
In 1939, the University of Michigan established the first English Language institute in the USA.
The primary aim of the Institute was to train teachers of English to teach English as a foreign language
or as a second language. Charles Fries who was the director of the institute, was trained in structural
linguistics and he applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching. According to
Fries , grammar or the structure was the starting point of teaching language. The structure of the
language was identified with its basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The language was
taught by intensive oral drilling of the basic sentence patterns. Systematic attention was paid to
pronunciation. Teaching techniques concentrated on repetition of a pattern a number of times so that
the learner became perfect in the use of pattern. Systematic courses and materials were developed
based on important patterns to teach English as a second language.
While the structural approach developed by linguists at and other universities was gaining ground, the
applied linguists and methodologists of Britain were developing the oral approach to teaching English
as a second language. The two traditions developed independently. Two prominent linguists in this
movement were Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby. They developed a more scientific foundation for the
oral approach than was seen in the direct method, and by 1950s the oral approach was accepted British
approach to English language teaching. Situational Approach (Hornby) suggests that any language
item, whether it be a structure or a word, should not be presented in isolation. It has to be introduced
and practiced in a context, situationally.
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Theory & Background
The S-O-S approach is the presentation and practice of carefully selected and graded grammatical
structures of English in effective meaningful situations, initially through speech and later through
reading and writing. Language is viewed as structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning,
the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types.
Structures of teaching items are selected and graded by language teaching experts and
methodologists. For the purpose of grading structures the following criteria are taken into account:
Whether the items are frequently used by the users of the language.
Whether the items are useful for the purposes of learning the language.
Whether the items can be easily taught and learnt.
Which items can be grouped together for the purpose of teaching.
Similarly, the vocabulary items are also selected and graded.
The S-O-S approach is based on the following principles:
Language is primarily speech.
A language is a set of habits.
By using situations the use of the mother tongue can be avoided.
The characteristics of the S-O-S approach can be summarized as follows:
Speech is the basis of language teaching- new language items and vocabulary items are presented
orally before they are presented in the written form.
The language items which are commonly used by native speakers in their day to day language are
selected for teaching.
The items are also graded according to their usefulness, frequency and teachability.
The language items thus selected are presented and practiced in meaningful situations.
Vocabulary items are selected with reference to the General Service List.
Reading and Writing are based on items which have already been introduced and practiced orally.
Methodology & Practice:
Drills:
Call- word Technique- Substitution:
In this drill the teacher writes a pattern on the blackboard. Learners are asked to read it a few times
and once they have mastered the pattern, the teacher calls words to be substituted in the right places in
the sentence.
For example:
The book is on the table.
Teacher: Floor
Learner: The book is on the floor.
Teacher: Bench.
Learner: The book is on the bench.
Incremental Drills:
In this drill learners are asked to add a word/words to a sentences given by the teacher. The teacher
supplies the word/words to be added. It is as given:
Teacher: I saw him.
Learner: I saw him.
Teacher: Yesterday.
Learner: I saw him yesterday.
Teacher: at ten
Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten.
Teacher: in the morning
Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten in the morning.
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Backward Chaining Technique:
This technique is useful when someone is not able to repeat long a sentence. In this drill words
or phrases from the end of a sentence are taken and repeated. The movement is from the end to the
beginning.
For example:
Teacher: in the morning
Learner: in the morning.
Teacher: at ten in the morning
Learner: at ten in the morning.
Teacher: yesterday
Learner: yesterday at ten in the morning.
Teacher: saw him
Learner: saw him yesterday at ten in the morning.
Teacher: I
Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten in the morning.
Completion
In this the students were given a part of a sentence and asked to complete the sentence by
adding a meaningful part or clause.
1. He worked so hard ………………………..(first class).
2. If you drive fast ………………………(accident).
3. Unless you know the skill…………………. (well).
4. If he had known my address………………(not miss).
Transformation
In this technique the learners were required to change a statement into a question, an
affirmative statement into a negative statement, active into passive sentence.
1. This is a table. (statement)
Is this a table? (question)
2. We shall play a game. (affirmative)
We shall not play a game. (negative)
3. I drew this picture. (active)
This picture was drawn by me. (passive)
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Combining sentences or parts of a sentence
In this technique, two sentences are given and learners are asked to combine them.
Teaching Listening
There are two major reasons for teaching listening. The first is called Listening for Perception
.In this the learner is given practice in identifying the different sounds, sound combinations, stress and
intonation patterns of the English language.
The second is called Listening for Comprehension. In this the learner is given practice in
developing listening for understanding by using listening materials and conducting listening activities
which take into account the real life needs of the learner.
Listening for perception:
Listening for perception is practiced more at the primary level where learners are being
introduces to the language. The focus of the listening activity is aural perception. Comprehension is of
secondary importance. The listening exercises do not use visuals so that the learners concentrate on the
sound of words or intonation patterns.
The learner has to rely on his/her ear to repeat these sounds. The methodology involves
repetition of short, discrete items. The teacher demonstrates the sounds which she wishes to teach while
learners are encouraged to imitate and identify them using drill and choral repetition.
Listening for comprehension:
In this, the listening material is based on a particular context and the learner is given practice
in specific areas of listening which are related to his/her needs. The learner is most often expected to
make short, quick responses as a part of the listening exercises. Learners usually find these activities
challenging, as effective listening activities have an element of game playing or problem solving built
into them.
Listening Tasks
The listening tasks are effective if the learners have a well designed, interesting and carefully
graded activity to complete. Some of the tasks are to express agreement or disagreement, take notes,
make a picture or a diagram according to the instructions or answer questions.
Listening tasks can be of two types
a. Extensive listening
b. Intensive listening.
Extensive Listening:
During Extensive listening the learner listens to an interesting story , radio programme or
anecdote. The listening material may be lengthy. The learner listens for pleasure and is not expected to
complete a worksheet or task. Extensive listening may take place anywhere.
Intensive Listening:
During intensive Listening the learner listens very carefully. E.g. while listening to directions.
Such listening material is short and has a special a special worksheet designed on it. There is some
amount of challenge so that the learner feels motivated to complete the task. It is through the
completion of this task that the learner gets practice in specific listening skills.
The Three Phases of a Listening Class.
There are three phases of a listening class. But a great deal of planning goes in before that. The
size of the class, the arrangement of the furniture, availability of the cassettes and recorder have to be
taken care in advance.
The Pre-Listening Phase:
In this phase the teacher sets up the activity which gives the learner a purpose for listening. A
quick look at the listening exercise helps the learner to understand the context and what s/he to listen
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for. Clarification of doubts is done by the teacher. The pre–listening activity is a very short phase. At
times the learner may be asked to predict what they will hear.
The While – Listening Phase:
During this phase the learner completes the task based on listening material. S/he concentrates on
the listening activity rather than worry about grammar or reading. The learners are encouraged to
gather as much information as they can from the passage while listening. If they fill the information
later it becomes a memory task and not a listening one. The focus of the task is on the message of the
listening task.
The Post – Listening Phase:
This activity occurs after the learners have completed their listening activity. The information or
completed chart which has been filled during the While –listening phase can now be used for
integrating with other skills. E.g. exchange of information to fill missing information
Listening activities practiced in the classroom.
Dictation.
Listening and following a route.
Listening to a sports commentary.
Listening to instructions and marking a ground plan.
Evaluation
Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis
This chapter deals with the role of errors in language learning. A workshop was organized to
Understand why learners of a second language make mistakes
Become familiar with different views about the nature and causes of
second language (L-2)
learner‘s mistakes
Get an insight into the role contrastive analysis in error prediction
Appreciate the radically different approach to such mistakes that error analysis proposes, and
Understand the notion of inter-language.
Theory:
All learners make mistakes. As someone has said: ― You can‘t learn without goofing.‖
One fumbles, goofs and makes mistakes but if one perseveres with his/her learning efforts under
proper guidance, one is able to overcome or correct his mistakes. When this happens you are said to
have learnt something. Learning a language also involves making mistakes or errors. This is true even
when one is learning one‘s mother tongue(L-1). The child as it grows up, goes through a long process
of making mistakes and correcting them till he/she reaches a stage when we can say that s/he has learnt
his/her mother tongue. That being so it is not surprising that those learning a second language often
make mistakes. However, the errors committed by the learners of a second language present a rather
more complex and interesting case because these L-2 learners have already learnt another language, i.e.
their mother tongue. Linguists and language teachers have always been interested in finding out why L2 learners make mistakes. Teachers are primarily concerned in correcting such mistakes and making
sure that their pupils do not repeat or persist with such mistakes. But it is easy to correct or remedy
something if we know the cause or reason behind it. Contrastive analysis and error analysis present two
different views about such mistakes and provide radically different explanations for them.
Why do language learners make mistakes?
Around the 1950‘s behaviourst psychology was in vogue and had tremendous impact on the
linguistic thinking of that time(popularly referred to as structural linguistics). According to this
thinking, language was thought of as a system consisting of subsystems i.e. phonology, morphology,
syntax and symentics.Learning a language ws considered a matter of forming habits, that is the system
of language could be learnt by habit formation, through imitation, constant practice and reinforcement
by way of appreciation or approval by parents and teachers. Imitation practice and reinforcement
finally led to a stage at which the language habits became fixed of automatic.
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Imitation-----Practice -------Reinforcement.
This way of thinking has very interesting implications for second language learning. The L-2
learner is, by implication, one who has already learned a set of habits relating to the system of her/his
L-1. Now, when this learner starts learning a second language L-2 s/he has to learn a fresh set of habits
pertaining to the system of the second language. The structuralist- behaviourist belief was that since a
new system had to be learned (L-2), the system that had already been learned(L-1) , would interfere
and create difficulties. I other words since each language represents a unique system, there are bound to
be differences between the systems of L-1 & L-2. For the structuralist , therefore, those features of the
system of L-2 which were different or dissimilar to the features of the system of L-1 were responsible
for the learner‘s errors or mistakes. This phenomenon was often referred to as the ‗interference‘ or
‗transfer‘ which means that the second language learners tend to carry over certain features of their L-1
into the second language they are engaged in learning. When there is similarity between the features of
the two languages there is no learning problem, but when there is a mis-match or dissimilarity, errors
arise.
The second view about second language learner‘s mistakes is based on the fundamental tenets of
cognitive psychology and the transformational –generative or the post structural thinking in linguistics.
This view consider language a thinking process rather than a set of habits. It follows therefore that
language learning
( mother tongue or second language) can best be seen as a process of problemsolving in which the learner, faced with the data(language) tries to make sense of that data. The learner
forms hypotheses about the language system that s/he is learning. S/he generalizes on the basis of these
hypotheses and forms rules.Some generalizations may turn out right , and others wrong. But these
errors do not represent a failure to learn a new set of habits or to modify an earlier set of habits. Rather,
they represent the creativity of the learner and give us valuable clues to the way his mind in working.
Code-Mixing
During the oral practices it was observed that the students and much used to code
mixing. Code mixing is a generous smattering of the lexicon of one language while talking in
another.For example, ―Mera personal opinion yeh hai ki kyon ki humein matri bhasha nehi aati hum
English words use karte hain.‖ Or it could be the mixing of two codes or two languages while
speaking. For example, ―She is maroing gup.‖ In these sentences English verb inflection –ing is added
to a Hindi verb.
Code-Switching
Code- Switching refers to the practice of alternating between two languages, that is,
uttering some sentences in one language then switching over to another.
Mother tongue Interference
Mother tongue interference happens when there is literal translation of the mother
tongue into English. While code-mixing and code switching are not
considered aberrations because they are used by those who have a working knowledge of the
two languages they mix, mother tongue interference falls in the area of errors. This phenomena occurs
when the users superimpose the mother tongue on to the second language.
Observations :
(Code-Mixing , Code- Switching and Mother Tongue Interference)
It is usually noted that code mixing and code switching is usually practiced by are bilinguals
or multilinguals i.e. they are proficient in the two languages they mix. In the given classroom it was
observed that code mixing was practiced by those students who were proficient in their mother tongue
Hindi (L-1) and not in English (L-2). The code mixing was done in order to express with fluency.
Code- Switching was seen to be practiced by only those students who were proficient in both
the languages.
Mother Tongue Interference was visible in both the learners in the initial stage and the in
students who were reasonably proficient users of the second language.
CONCLUSION
Result of the workshop
The tasks given to the students during the workshop and as a follow-up included speaking on
current topics, any incident of the past, any past experience and translations.
The results led to the following hypothesis
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Language learning implies making assumptions about the structure of the language-its
phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.
Based on these assumptions the learners formulated hypotheses about the structure of
English. Each time the students spoke they were testing
out their hypotheses.
The incorrect hypotheses gave clues about the assumptions they were making about the
structure of English.
This (errors) helped the teacher to gear her teaching to correct the
wrong assumptions
and enable the students to move closer to the
structure and system of English language.
It was also found that the errors were also due to the failure of the
students to learn a
new set of habits.
It was feared that the errors if allowed to continue, will become set
habits.
Most of the errors were caused by interference whereby features of L-1 were carried over or
transferred into the L-2 by the learner.
Positive reinforcements gave better results.
Conclusion
Language learning is a very dynamic phenomenon. Success and the lack of it in this exercise
can be influenced in many ways and by many factors, motivation and attitude being two of them. Many
people have learnt second /foreign languages successfully, in-spite of all kinds of deficiencies, because
they had a very positive attitude and they were highly motivated to learn the language. In the absence
of the right attitude and the right motivation, even the best of everything else cannot ensure success.
Amongst the students who participated in the workshops it was found that attitude and motivation were
of the positive kind in the case of first language acquisition, whereas it was not always so in the case of
second language acquisition. It was found that the students were guided by both instrumental and
integrative motivation. One always seemed to be leading to the other.
All the classroom work was done in three stages :pre task- the students were briefed about the task/ teaching that was to follow.
task-the students participated in the task by themselves or attended the class.
post task(feedback) the students shared their experience of the task with other members.
The socio-cultural background was taken into account while designing the tasks, and also in
the classrooms. All the three approaches- s-o-s, direct and humanistic had an impact on the students.
The students from the tribal areas responded to the sos (drills). The students from the urban areas
responded better to the humanistic approach. They eventually were comfortable in a non-threatening
environment once they had enough practice through the drilling method. To be able to communicate in
English the students from backward areas needed constant motivation, drilling practice guided by the
teacher and oral practice in a non threatening atmosphere facilitated by the teacher in the role of a
facilitator.
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Quarterly Vol.30:1
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Crookes, G.,& Long, M.(1992).Three Approaches to Task Based Syllabus Design.TESOL
Quarterly, 26,27-56
Cross and Carney, Teaching English in High Schools, Macmillian , New York
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Goleman , D. 1995, Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books : New York
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Jones , K (1984.) Simulations in English Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University
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Kippal,F, (1984 )Keep Talking: Communicative Fluency Activities for Language Teaching.
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Kudchedkar, S (ed) Readings in English Language Teaching in India.
Kumaravadivelu, B.(1994) The Postmethod Condition: Emerging Strategies for Second/ Foreign
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Long, M., & Robinson,P(1998). Focus on Form: Theory Research and Practice. Cambridge :
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Inc., New York.
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Mac Whinney, B. (1997) Second Language acquisition and the Competition Model.Tutorials in
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Morgan, Edith L and Dr. James M Jasper.(1985) Developing Speaking Skills. Good Apple Inc.
Moskowitz, G. (1978.) Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class: A Sourcebook on
Humanistic Techniques. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House
Nunan, D. (1988) The Learner Centered Curriculum, Cambridge University Press; Cambridge
Nunan, D, (1989). Designing Talks for the Communicative Classroom.
Cambridge
:Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D,( 1995) Language Teaching Methodology, Phonex ELT: Hertfordshire
Pattison , P.(1987 )Developing Communication Skills. Cambridge.Cambridge
University
Press.
Raman Meenakshi,(ed.)(1998) English Language Teaching Atlantic, Publishers and distributors,
New Delhi.
Rivers , W.(1983) Communicating Naturally in a Foreign Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Rost Michael,(1994) Introducing Listening. Penguin English Applied Linguistics, ed. Roland
Carter , Penguin
Rost Michael ,(1990) Listening in Language Learning, London Longman.
Skehan,P.(1998) A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford University Press: Oxford
Stevik, E.W.(1991), Humanism in Language Teaching, Oxford University Press: Oxford,
Swain M.(1995) Three functions of Output in Second Language Learning, Principle and Practice
in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983.
Underwood, M,(1989) Teaching Listening: Longman London
Wenden, A. & J. Rubin, (1987), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, Prentice Hall Int: UK
White R.(1988). The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management, Cambridge, MA:
Basil Blackwell.
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Williams Mary Young(1987) Let‘em Talk. Dale Seymour Publications.
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Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
The contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the
ELP in reading skills
Ali GÖKSU
Res. Assist., Bitlis Eren University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences,
English Language and Literature Department, BĠTLĠS, TURKEY
agoksu@beu.edu.tr
Melih KARAKUZU
Assist. Prof. Dr., Atatùrk University, Faculty of Education,
English Language Teaching Department, ERZURUM, TURKEY
karakuzu@atauni.edu.tr
Gencer ELKILIÇ
Assist. Prof. Dr., Kafkas University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences,
English Language and Literature Department, KARS, TURKEY
gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com
Ali DĠNÇER
Res. Assist., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education,
English Language Teaching Department, ERZĠNCAN, TURKEY
adincer@erzincan.edu.tr
Abstract: European Language Portfolio (ELP) recently created by the Council of Europe
not only has an important role in language education policy within Europe and the
expanding world, but also helps partners to describe the levels of proficiency req uired
by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons
between different systems of qualifications. Cambridge ESOL exams are aligned to
the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) published by the Council of
Europe. This study aims to investigate the contribution of Key English Test (KET)
from Cambridge ESOL exams to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in
reading skills. Firstly, twenty students were selected as the study group according to
the results of questionnaire which contains items of levels A2, B1 and B2 in the
CEFR. And then, self-assessment checklist in CEFR was conducted as pre-test and
post-test to cross-check the study group both at the beginning and at the end of the
fall term. Readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented
to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also applied during the
study. Besides, KET as a standardized test was also conducted as pre -test and posttest both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Then obtained scores were
analyzed by using SPSS 15. T-test analysis of KET scores was computed, and no
significant difference was found out according to the gender. The results indicated that
ELP and KET were effective to improve reading skills of foreign language learners in
Turkey.
Key Words: language teaching, reading, KET, ELP, CEFR
1. Introduction
Throughout history, people have learned and spoken foreign languages. When there was no advanced
technology, reading and reading comprehension played a major part in the learning process (Lee, 2004). Today,
foreign language learners use reading as a way of learning new vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and
cultural diversities. In addition, reading has been still cared as an important method of learning a foreign
language in non-English speaking countries throughout the foreign language learning process.
European Language Portfolio (ELP) has been created recently by the Council of Europe for a better
learning and teaching process. The European Language Portfolio is an instrument that facilitates recording,
planning, and validation of lifelong language learning both within and beyond English language teaching
(Vosicki, n.d.).
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The ELP is a tool for recording our language and intercultural experiences at school and across a
lifetime of learning in our daily life. It is also a document to illustrate our language competences as well as our
knowledge and experiences of other cultures through sample of work (Ministry of Education & Council of
Europe, 2003).
The ELP consists of three parts. These are language passport, language biography, and dossier. (1)
Language passport provides an overview of the individual‘s proficiency in different languages at a given point
in time. (2) Language biography facilitates the learner‘s involvement in planning, reflecting upon and assessing
his or her learning process and progress. (3) Dossier offers the learner the opportunity to select materials to
document and illustrate achievements or experiences recorded in the Language Biography or Passport (Council
of Europe, 2000; p.3).
The European Language Portfolio (ELP) is also connected with the Common European Framework of
Reference (CEFR) as a pedagogical language learning and reporting instrument. The CEFR is a comprehensive
descriptive scheme offering a tool for reflecting on what is involved not only in language use, but also in
language learning and teaching. It provides a common basis and a common language for the elaboration of
syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, textbooks, teacher training programmes, and for relating language
examinations to one another. It also defines foreign language proficiency at three main levels (basic user,
independent user, proficient user) in relation to five skills (listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken
production, writing) (Martyniuk, 2005).
For Cambridge ESOL Examinations which is a department of Cambridge University, CEFR offers a
valuable frame of reference for our work and for our stakeholder community. The quality of the relationship
between the CEFR and Cambridge ESOL exams is perhaps best judged by the extent to which together they
enable language learning to flourish, encourage achievements to be recognized and so enrich the lives of
individuals and communities (Taylor & Jones, 2006; p.4).
KET (Key English Test), one of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations, is a certificate that shows a person
can use everyday written and spoken English at a pre-intermediate level. These examinations are recognized by
thousands of employers throughout the world. KET is also at Level A2 of the CEFR an internationally
recognized framework (ESOL Examinations, n.d., retrieved from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/).
2. Methodology
This study is quantitative in nature, which aims to investigate the contribution of KET to achievements
of Turkish speakers of English studying with the ELP in reading skills.
2.1. Participants of the Study
This study was conducted on 45 students who were in the 9th grade in a private high school in Erzurum,
Turkey. Ages of students ranged about 14. Since there were both male and female students in the study group,
gender factor was taken into consideration. The study was implemented nearly a term from the beginning of
October to the end of December in the 2009-2010 academic year.
A questionnaire consisting of language proficiency levels A2, B1 and B2 from the self-assessment grids
in CEFR was conducted on 45 students, and according to given responses, level classes were arranged as A2, B1
or B2. The study group was the level A2 so that we would study with only a level class at school.
2.2. Instruments
Data were collected from the students at the beginning and at the end of the fall term (between October
and 2009-December 2009). In order to find out the contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying
with the ELP in reading skills; questionnaires, self assessment checklists and KET were main data instruments of
the study.
2.2.1. Questionnaire
Council of Europe (2001; p.25) expressed that self-assessment grid in the CEFR has shown major
categories of language use at each of the six levels. It is also intended to help learners to profile their main
language skills, and decide at which level they might look at a checklist of more detailed descriptors in four
basic skills in order to self-assess their level of proficiency.
In this study, questionnaire consisted of language proficiency levels such as A2, B1 and B2 from the
self-assessment grids in the CEFR. The questionnaire provided us determine the study group which we studied
together during the implementation. At the beginning of the term, the questionnaire was conducted on 45
students, and then classes were arranged as the levels A2, B1 or B2 according to the given answers.
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2.2.2
Self Assessment Checklist
Checklist is a common instrument used in ELP. Little (2006) states that checklists are important
advance for self-assessment in language learning, as they make it possible for learners assess themselves using
the same objective scales that in principle may underpin the test and examination they are required to take. In
addition, the presence of such checklists as a key element in the ELP adds a significant new dimension to
portfolio based language learning and assessment.
At the beginning and at the end of the study, self-assessment checklist consisting of sample ―Can-Do‖
statements of only reading part of the level A2 in the CEFR was conducted on study group as pre and post tests
to cross-check the level A2 again. Self-assessment checklist having the sort of five-likert scale had choices such
as (5) Always, (4) Frequently, (3) Occasionally, (2) Rarely, (1) Never. In this way, the study group was crossedcheck more detailed in their own reading skills again. Besides, it was observed whether there was a significant
difference between them.
2.2.3.
Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL Exams
CEFR plays a key role in language and education policy within Europe and the wider world – perhaps
in ways not originally envisaged by its authors. Within Europe it is believed to serve policy goals of fostering
linguistic diversity, transparency of qualifications, mobility of labour, and lifelong language learning. Beyond
Europe it is being adopted to help define language proficiency levels with resulting implications for local
pedagogy and assessment (Taylor & Jones, 2006; p.4).
Today, Cambridge ESOL Examinations are also aligned to the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages: published by the Council of Europe. This internationally recognized framework
describes language ability in a scale of levels which ranges from A1 for beginners to C2 for those who have
mastered a language. (ESOL Examinations, n.d., retrieved from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/).
KET (Key English Test) from the Cambridge ESOL Examinations has been applied around the world
by British Council. The equivalences between British Council courses and the Council of Europe levels are
shown in Table 1 (Manasseh, 2004; p.3).
Table 1. British Council courses for learners and Council of Europe levels
British Council Level
Council of Europe
Level
Beginner
A1
Starters
6–8
Elementary
A1
Movers, Flyers
6- 10
Pre Intermediate
A2
Intermediate 1
B1
Intermediate 2
B1
PET
(Preliminary English Test)
11- 16
Pre advanced
B2
FCE
(First Certificate in English)
14 – 18
Advanced 1
C1
Advanced CAE
C1
Very Advanced
C2
Very Advanced 2
C2
Cambridge exams
KET
(Key English Test)
Age ranges
10 – 16
10- 16
14 – 18
CAE
(Certificate in Advanced
English)
14 – 18
14 – 18
CPE
(Certificate of Proficiency in
English)
14 – 18
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In this study, KET was used as a standardized test from Cambridge ESOL exams. As seen in Table 1.
Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams and A2 from the Council of Europe levels are at the
same language level. The questions in the KET were prepared beforehand using in the ―Key English Test‖ of the
Cambridge ESOL Examinations (2006). The reading proficiency part of KET, which consisted of fifty questions
each of which had two points, was applied to the study group as pre and post tests both at the beginning and at
the end of the study. During the implementation of the study, readings with materials prepared for the levels in
CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also done. After the
results of both pre and post tests were compared and t-test analysis of KET scores was computed, it was
observed whether there was a significant difference between them.
2.3. Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
In this study, instruments of data collecting were questionnaire from the self-assessment grids in the
CEFR, self-assessment checklists in the CEFR as pre and post tests, and KET from Cambridge ESOL exams as
pre and post tests. The study started at the beginning of October 2009 and ended in last week of December. KET
was analyzed by using SPSS 15, while questionnaires and self-assessment checklist were analyzed
quantitatively.
3. RESULTS
3.1.
Results of the Questionnaire
At the beginning of the study, the questionnaire consisting of statements of four basic skills (reading,
listening, speaking and writing) of A2, B1 and B2 levels from the self-assessment grids in the CEFR was
conducted on 45 students in order to determine the study group. According to obtained results of questionnaire,
classes were arranged as levels A2, B1 or B2. According to the ELP, the level B2 class consists of successful
students, while level A2 consists of less successful students.
Levels of Students
11
20
A2
B1
14
B2
Figure 1. Levels of the Students
According to the results of the questionnaire shown in Figure 1, there were 20 students for the level A2,
14 students for level B1 and 11 students for level B2. We decided to study with the level A2 as a level class at
school. Because number of the students in a class at school has consisted of 20-25 students, and there were not
enough students at levels B1 or B2 to study with only a level class. As a result, questionnaire indicated that the
level of the study group was A2.
3.3.
Results of Self-Assessment Checklists
After the level of the study group determined as A2, at the beginning and at the end of the study, pre
and post self-assessment checklists consisting of sample ―Can-Do‖ statements of reading part of the level A2 in
the CEFR was conducted on the study group. These ―Can Do‖ statements used pre and post self-assessment
checklists have included more detailed than reading part of A2 used in questionnaire. Both self-assessment
checklists having the sort of five- point likert scale had choices such as (5) Always, (4) Frequently, (3)
Occasionally, (2) Rarely, (1)Never. With the help of both self-assessment checklists, it was aimed not only to
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May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
frequently
rarely
occasionally
never
frequently
rarely
occasionally
cross-check level A2 again, but also to find out whether students had any changes in their reading skills at level
A2.
Figure 2. The Results of Pre-Post Self-assessment Checklists
As shown in Figure 2. there was an important increase from pre-test to post test. According to the
results pre and post self-assessment checklists, pre and post tests confirmed again that the level of the students
was A2. In addition, when both of the self-assessment checklists were compared, it could be observed that there
was a significant difference between them. For example, 57.5% of the students said Always in the post selfassessment checklist, whereas 46% of students said Always in pre self-assessment checklist. Besides, the
students said 40% for Frequently and 2.5% for Occasionally in the post test, while the students said 34.5% for
Frequently, 16.8% for Occasionally and 2.8% for Rarely in the pre test. Therefore, we can conclude that the
percentage of the post self-assessment checklist has increased more according to the percentage of the pre-selfassessment checklist. Furthermore, students have seen themselves stronger for their reading skills at the end of
the study (term). In addition, one can observe easily that almost all students (57.5% for Always and 40% for
Frequently) in the study group studying with ELP felt better and were more successful in their own reading
skills.
3.3. Results of Key English Tests (KET)
In this study, questions in KET consisted of only reading proficiency part of KET, and they were
prepared beforehand using in the ―Key English Test‖ of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations (2006). It included
fifty questions each of which had two points. KET as a standardized test was applied to the study group as pre
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and post tests both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Furthermore, students also studied with materials
supporting KET during the study.
After the data analyzed according to the descriptive statistics, the frequencies for the KET were found.
When the results of pre and post tests were compared, it was observed that there was a significant difference
between pre and post tests.
Table 2. Paired-Samples T-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores
M
64.80
86.30
Pre-test
Post-test
N
20
20
SD
12.50
8.36
T
11.50
df
p
19
.00
A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the intervention on students` scores.
There was a statistically significant increase from pre-test
(M = 64.80, SD = 12.50) to post-test (M = 86.30,
SD= 8.36), t (19) = 11.50, p<.05.
Table 3. Difference between Pre-test and Post-test Scores according to Gender
Gender
Mann-Whitney U
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
female
male
11
9
9.09
12.22
100.00
110.00
34.000
p
.23
A Mann-Whitney U Test was run to explore if there was a significant gender difference between pretest and post-test scores. As seen from the Table 3, there is no statistically significant difference between females
and males (U = 34,000, p>.05).
It was observed that there was a significant difference between the results of pre and post tests applied
to the study group. Furthermore, according to the results of pre and post tests, KET had not only an important
role in improving learners` reading skills, but also positive effects on achievements of students studying with the
ELP in reading skills.
4. Conclusion and Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying
with the ELP in reading skills in a private high school in Erzurum, Turkey.
The questionnaire determined language levels of students. The results of the questionnaire showed the
level of the study group as A2 at the beginning of the study. With the help of the questionnaire, students could
learn English better as a foreign language in their own levels. Because, according to the ELP, everybody in the
class had the same level, and their teacher also taught them according to their levels. Therefore, the ELP can be a
significant tool to improve the reading skills of learners.
Pre and post self-assessment checklists having sort of five-point likert scale were conducted on the
study group at the beginning and at the end of the study in order to cross check in detail the study group in
reading skills. The results of both of the tests indicated again that the level of the study group was A2. Besides,
when the percentages of the pre and post self-assessment checklists were compared, it was observed that the
percentage of the post self-assessment checklist increased more according to the percentage of the pre-selfassessment checklist. Students studying with the ELP also saw stronger themselves in their reading skills at the
end of the study.
The Key English Test (KET) conducted as pre and post tests at the beginning and at the end of the study
showed us whether the KET contributed to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. The
findings analyzed with statistical program for the pre and post KET indicated that there was a significant
difference between the pre-test and post-test scores. According to analysis of t-test, there was a statistically
significant increase from pre-test to post test. Furhermore, no significant difference was found out according to
gender. In addition, it was observed that students studying with the ELP were more successful in KET when the
frequencies of pre and post tests were compared.
According to all findings obtained from the instruments, KET had an important role and contribution in
improving learners` reading skills. Besides, the ELP also provided that all learners in study group studied KET in
their own levels. Thus, ELP was both a useful and helpful tool for learners in foreign language learning process.
Moreover, all these findings also indicated that KET had a positive effect not only to improve reading skills of
students studying with the ELP, but also to increase achievement levels of the students in reading skills.
Consequently, KET contributes positively foreign language learners to improve their reading skills.
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REFERENCES
Cambridge Key English Test 4. (2006). Examinations Papers from University of Cambridge ESOL
Examinations, Cambridge University Press.
Council of Europe. (2000). European Language Portfolio (ELP): Principles and Guidelines, Document
DGIV/EDU/LANG. Strasbourg, Council of Europe.
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching,
assessment. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
Lee, C.H. (2004, January). Reading-Developing Reading Skills. Retrieved October 08, 2011 (Available from
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(CEFR). University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations: Research Notes, 24(1), 2-5.
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transnational Project. University of Lausanne: CH. Retrieved December 29, 2010, from
http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/elc/bulletin/6/en/forster.html
73
�
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14
Title
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The contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills
Author
Author
GÖKSU, Ali
KARAKUZU, Melih
ELKILIÇ, Gencer
Dinçer, Ali
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
European Language Portfolio (ELP) recently created by the Council of Europe not only has an important role in language education policy within Europe and the expanding world, but also helps partners to describe the levels of proficiency req uired by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons between different systems of qualifications. Cambridge ESOL exams are aligned to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) published by the Council of Europe. This study aims to investigate the contribution of Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. Firstly, twenty students were selected as the study group according to the results of questionnaire which contains items of levels A2, B1 and B2 in the CEFR. And then, self-assessment checklist in CEFR was conducted as pre-test and post-test to cross-check the study group both at the beginning and at the end of the fall term. Readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also applied during the study. Besides, KET as a standardized test was also conducted as pre-test and posttest both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Then obtained scores were analyzed by using SPSS 15. T-test analysis of KET scores was computed, and no significant difference was found out according to the gender. The results indicated that ELP and KET were effective to improve reading skills of foreign language learners in Turkey.
Date
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2011-05
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6880ae91dc48916aa0f8d01077690834.pdf
68a0e923ee502901e694baad8b657f9c
PDF Text
Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Bosna-Hersek‘te Türkçe
Hüseyin GÖNEL
International Burch University
Faculty of Education
Turkish Language and Literature Department
hgonel@ibu.edu.ba
Özet: Bosna-Hersek‘te Tùrkçenin varlığı bu bôlgenin Osmanlılar tarafından
fethedilmesine dayanır. Fetihten sonra devletin resmi dili olması ve din birliğinden
dolayı Tùrkçe, varlığını artırarak sùrdùrmùĢtùr. Bu sùreçte Osmanlıların fetih, iskân,
eğitim ve kùltùr politikaları ôzellikle etkili olmuĢtur. XIX. yùzyılın son çeyreğinden
baĢlamak ùzere bôlgedeki Tùrk varlığı giderek zayıflamıĢtır. Tùrkçe ise varlığını az
da olsa sùrdùrebilmiĢtir. Bu yazıda Tùrkçenin Tùrk-Ġslam kùltùrù çerçevesinde
Bosna-Hersek‘te ilk varlık gôsterdiği dônemlerden baĢlayarak gùnùmùze kadarki
durumu ele alınmıĢtır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Bosna-Hersek, Tùrkçe, Tùrk Kùltùrù, Tùrk Edebiyatı
Turkish Language in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract: The presence of Turkish Language in Bosnia and Herzegovina dates back
to the Ottoman invasion of the region. The fact that Turkish language was the formal
language of the empire and the existence of religion union greatly increased the
already existing popularity of Turkish Language. The Ottoman policy of housing,
conquest, education and culture was especially influencial on this oricess. Since the
last quarter of 19th century, Turkish presence gradually decreased in the region.
Turkish language, however, managed to survive. This article aims to Turkish
Language and its presence within the Turkish-Islamic cultural context from the early
times of its emergence to our time.
Key Words: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkish Language, Turkish Culture, Turkish
Literature
GiriĢ
Coğrafî ve Tarihî Durum
1991 yılında bağımsızlığını ilan eden Bosna-Hersek doğu ve gùneydoğuda Sırbistan ve Karadağ, kuzey
ve batıda ise Hırvatistan cumhuriyetleriyle çevrilidir. Bosna ismi aynı adı taĢıyan ırmaktan, Hersek ise Neretva
Nehri havzası ve gùney bôlgeleri içine alan bôlgede XV. yùzyıl ortalarında Bosna kralına isyan ederek kendini
―St. Sava‘nın Herseki206‖ ilan eden Stjepan Vukcic Kosaca‘nın unvanından gelir (Djurdjev, 1992:297).
Osmanlılara kadar Roma, Bizans ve yerli hanedanların hâkimiyetinde kalan bôlgeye ilk Tùrk akınları
1386 yılında baĢlar. 1392 yılında Üskùp‘ùn fethiyle birlikte artan Osmanlı nùfuzu Bosna Kralı II.Tvrtko‘nun
Osmanlı hakimiyetini kabul etmesiyle sonuçlandı (1428-1429). 1463 yılında ise Fatih Sultan Mehmet‘in
idaresindeki ordu Bosna‘yı fethetti. Fetihten sonra sancak haline getirilen bôlgenin merkezi Saraybosna oldu.
Sancak merkezi daha sonra Banaluka‘ya taĢındı. Bosna askerî ve stratejik ônemi dolayısıyla 1580 yılında eyalet
haline getirildi. 1639‘da eyalet merkezi Travnik‘e taĢındı. Bôlge Osmanlı dôneminde Bosna, Hersek, Klis,
Ġzvornik, Kırka, Zacesne, Bihaç sancaklarından oluĢuyordu (Djurdjev, 1992:298; Emecen, 1992:296).
1878‘de Avusturya-Macaristan idaresine verilen Bosna-Hersek 1908 yılında resmen Osmanlı
idaresinden çıktı. Bu tarihe kadar yaklaĢık 450 yıl sùren Osmanlı hâkimiyeti, BoĢnakların Ġslamiyeti seçmeleri
yanında halkın gùndelik hayat tarzına kadar inen derin bir kùltùrel etkiye yol açmıĢtır. Osmanlılar tarafından
kurulan veya geliĢtirilen yerleĢim yerleri birer Tùrk-Ġslam Ģehrine dônùĢmùĢtùr. Tımar sisteminin baĢarılı bir
Ģekilde uygulanması ile sosyal ve iktisadî hayatta bùyùk değiĢiklikler meydana gelmiĢtir (Djurdjev, 1992:297,
298).
206
Herzeg=Dùk
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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Bosna‘da Türk Varlığı
Yukarıda bahsettiğimiz gibi bôlgeye Osmanlı akınları her ne kadar 14.yùzyılın sonlarında baĢlamıĢ olsa
da gerçek anlamda Tùrk kùltùr ve varlığı ancak fetihten sonra kendini gôsterebilmiĢtir. Daha ônceki dônemlerde
Karadeniz‘in kuzeyinden gelen Tùrk unsurunun dil, din ve kùltùr bakımından etkisinden bahsetmek çok zor
olmakla birlikte, Ġslamî çerçeveli Osmanlı kùltùr hayatı ile mukayese edilemeyeceği de açıktır.
Tùrkçe ve Tùrk-Ġslam kùltùrùnùn Bosna‘daki varlığını Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğu ekseninde
değerlendirmek daha doğru olacaktır. Çùnkù Tùrkçe bir imparatorluk dili olarak bu topraklara gelmiĢtir.
Özellikle Ġstanbul‘un fethinden sonra bir kùltùr ve sanat merkezi hùviyetine bùrùnen baĢkent, doğulu batılı
herkesin dikkatini çekmiĢ ve beğenisini toplamıĢtır. Bosnalıların Ġslamiyeti kabulù ile birlikte devletin bir parçası
haline gelen bu toplulukta Tùrkçe doğrudan konuĢulan, benimsenen bir dil olmuĢtur.207 Devlet dilinin Tùrkçe
olması da doğal bir Ģekilde BoĢnak, Sırp ve Hırvatların bu dilden bazı alıntılar yapmaları ile sonuçlanmıĢtır. En
azından çarĢı pazarda sùrekli artan Tùrk gôçmenlerle, devlet gôrevlileriyle anlaĢmak gibi ihtiyaçlarla gùnlùk
dildeki bazı kelimeler, basit kalıplar kullanılmaya baĢlanmıĢ bôylece bu dillere de pek çok Tùrkçe kelime
girmiĢtir.208
Tùrkçenin bôlgedeki varlığı yerli dillerin varlığını tehdit etmemiĢtir. Bu durumu bôlgede hâkim olmuĢ
diğer devletlerle karĢılaĢtırmak yerinde olacaktır. Roma veya Bizans dônemlerinin Avrupa‘nın dil haritasında
bùyùk değiĢiklikler yaptığı bilinmektedir.209 Mesela Roma Ġmparatorluğunun Akdeniz, Yakın Doğu, Batı ve Orta
Avrupa‘nın bùyùk bir kısmı ve Balkanlarda tek bir siyasi kuvvet olarak hâkimiyet kurduğu 500 yıllık fùtuhat
dôneminde Romalıların dili olan Latince, ônce Ġtalya‘daki kardeĢ dillerin yerini sonra ise Ġmparatorluğun Batı
vilayetlerinde konuĢulan dillerin –Baskça hariç- yerini almıĢtır. Aynı zamanda Balkanlarda da kôk salmıĢtır. Bu
sùreçte eski dillerin kaybolması ve yeni dillerin ortaya çıkması bùyùk halk hareketleri sonucunda değil, diller
arasındaki temas ve alıĢveriĢlerin sonucudur. Yani Romalıların iĢgal ettiği vilayetlerin ahalisi aynı bôlgelerde
yaĢamaya devam etmiĢtir. Yerli halkın çoğunluğu oluĢturmasına karĢın buralara gelen asker, memur, tùccar gibi
elemanların konuĢtuğu Latince, yerli ahali tarafından gùnlùk ihtiyaçlar ve Roma kùltùrùnùn prestiji yùzùnden
gittikçe benimsenmeye baĢlandı. Avrupa‘da bu sùreçte en ônemli etken Roma‘nın kùltùr ùstùnlùğù olmuĢtur
(Hazai, http://www.osmanli.org.tr/yazi.php?bolum=7&id=200).
Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğunda Anadolu ve Rumeli‘de gôrùlen TùrkleĢme, yerli halkın Tùrk dilini gittikçe
benimsemesi ve bu sùrecin sonunda eski dilini unutmasından ziyade gôçmenlerin fetihler sonucunda bu
bôlgelere yerleĢip yaĢamaya baĢlaması anlamına gelir. Tùrkler fetihlerle oluĢan yeni siyasi yapı içinde gerek
kendi inisiyatifleri gerekse devletin iskân politikası sonucunda belirli bôlgelere gidip yerleĢmiĢlerdir. Buralarda
Tùrkçe ile yan yana yaĢayan çeĢitli diller arasında çok taraflı bir temas ve alıĢveriĢ ortaya çıkmıĢ fakat bu durum
eski dillerin kaybolmasına yol açmamıĢtır. Balkanların ĠslamlaĢmıĢ bôlgelerinde bile Pomaklar, BoĢnaklar,
Arnavutlar kendi dillerini korumuĢlardır. Yùzyıllar sùren dil bağımsızlığına Anadolu‘dan da benzer ôrnekler
verilebilir (Hazai, http://www.osmanli.org.tr/yazi.php?bolum=7&id=200).
207
XVI.-XVII. yüzyıllar içinde 22 Bosnalı sadrazam Osmanlı Devletinde görev yapmıştır (İsen, 1997d:519). Osmanlı idarî ve askerî sisteminde
önemli bir yeri olan devşirme usulü gayr-i Müslimleri kapsardı. Müslüman tebaadan olan Boşnaklar için bir istisna yapılmış ve Müslüman
olan Bosnalıların çocukları sadece saray ve Bostancı Ocağına alınmıştır. Rivayete göre Bosna halkının İslamiyeti kabullerinde n son derece
memnun olan Fatih Sultan Mehmed, kendisinden bir dilekleri olup olmadığını sormuş; onlar da padişahın hizmetinde bulunmak istediklerini
bildirmişler. Bunun üzerine Bosnalı çocukların da saray için devşirilmesi kanun olmuştur (Yakuboğlu, 2006:128). Devşirme çocuklara
Türkçenin çok iyi öğretildiği bilinmektedir. Türk ailelerin yanına verilenler veya saray hizmetine alınanlar iyi derecede Türkçe bilirlerdi. Bu
durumda başka diyarlara veya tekrar memleketine dönen bu insanların idarî ve askerî görevlerini ifa ederken Türkçe otomatik olarak
devreye girmekteydi. Türkçenin bölgede varlık göstermesinin sebeplerinden biri de bu fiili durum olarak görülebilir.
208
Sırpça, Hırvatça ve Boşnakça’ya geçen Türkçe kelimelerle ilgili yapılan bazı çalışmalar şunlardır: 1.1818 yılında Vuka Stef. Karadžid’in
“Sırpça Sözlük”ü (Srpski Rječnik) basılmıştır. Yazar bu sözlükte Türkçe kökenli olabileceğini düşündüğü kelimeleri bir yıldız ile belirtmiştir. 2.
1868 yılında Dr. Otto Blau tarafından, “Boşnakça- Türkçe Konuşma Kitabı” (Bosnisch-Türkische Sprachdenkmäler) isimli eser yayımlamıştır.
3.Yugoslav Bilim ve Sanat Akademisi’nin 1888 yılında bastırdığı Hırvatça ya da Sırpça Sözlükte çok sayıda Türkçe kelime mevcuttur. 4.1881
yılında Saraybosna’da “Bosna’da Türkçe Kökenli Kelimeler” (Turcizmi u Bosni) adında küçük bir sözlük bastırılmıştır. 5.1895 yılında ise
“Bosna-Hersek Halkının Kullandığı Türkçe, Arapça ve Farsça Kelimelerin İncelenmesi” (Tumač Turskim, Arapskim i Persijskim Riječima Koje
Narod u Bosni i Hercegovini Upotrebljuje) adlı bir çalışma yapılmıştır. 6. 1884 yılında Belgrad’da Đorđa Popovid’in “Dilimizde Kullanılan
Türkçe ve Doğu Dillerinin Kelimeleri Sözlüğü” (Turske i Druge İstočanske Reči u Našem Jeziku) bastırılmıştır. 7. Franza Miklosich,
araştırmaları 1884 yılında Viyana’da iki bölümde “Güneydoğu ve Doğu Avrupa Dillerinde Türkçe Kelimeler” (Die T ürkischen Elemente in den
Südost-und Osteuropäischen Sprachen) adıyla yayınlanmıştır. Miklosich’in araştırmalarını Theodor Korsch “Slav Flolojisi Arşivi” (Ar chiv für
Slavische Philologie) isimli gazetede (Berlin, Sayı 8 ve 9) eleştirisini yazmıştır. (Škaljid, 1965:17-18). Abdullah Škaljid tarafından 1965 yılında
Saraybosna’da basılan “Sırpça-Hırvatça Dilinde Türkçe Kökenli Kelimeler” (Turcizmi u Srpskohrvatskom Jeziku) adlı sözlüğü bu alanda en
kapsamlı ve yetkin çalışmadır. (Škaljid, 1965).
209
Doğu Avrupa, Roma ve Bizans dönemleriyle ilgili olarak sadece dil bakımından değil din bakımından da değişikliklere uğramıştır. Çünkü
bölge o dönemde Roma ve Bizans arasında tampon bölge konumundadır ve bu iki devletin bölge üzerinde din merkezli üstünlük kur ma
çabası söz konusudur. Bu konuda bölgeyle ilgili Graham E. Fuller’in “İslamsız Dünya” adlı eserindeki tespitine yer vermenin faydal ı olacağı
kanaatindeyiz: “Doğu Avrupa’da Doğu-Batı rekabeti devam ederken Sırplar, Bulgarlar, Rumenler, Ruslar ve Arnavutluğun güneyindeki nüfus
Ortodoksluğa geçirilmişti. Öte yandan Roma da boş durmayarak Polonyalılar, Çekler, Slovaklar, Hırvatlar, Slovenler ve Macarla rı Katolikliğe
geçirmeyi başarmıştı. Varlıklarını günümüze kadar koruyan bu halkların din konusunda yaptıkları seçimler gelecekteki siyasî ve kültürel
yönelimlerini de şekillendirecekti. Baltık Denizi ve eski Yugoslavya’dan Ege’ye kadar uzanan keskin bir Latin-Ortodoks fay hattının
varlığından bugün de söz etmek mümkündür.” (Fuller, 2010:81).
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Osmanlı kùltùr hayatında çeĢitli dillerin yùzyıllar boyu birlikte yaĢadığı bilinen bir gerçektir.
Dolayısıyla imparatorluğun pek çok bôlgesinde iki veya çok dilli bir yapı gôze çarpar. Bu durumda diller
arasındaki temas ve alıĢveriĢ daha da kuvvetlenmiĢ olarak karĢımıza çıkar. Balkan dillerinde geniĢ yer kaplayan
Tùrkçe alıntıların çokluğunun bu iki dillilikten kaynaklandığı açıktır. Burada asıl dikkat çeken husus Tùrkçeden
gelen bu alıntılar Tùrkçe bilmeyenler için Tùrklerle anlaĢmada basit bir ortak dil / ortak ticaret dili (lingua
franca) temelini oluĢturduğu gerçeğidir (Hazai, http://www.osmanli.org.tr/yazi.php?bolum=7&id=200). Mesela
1664 tarihinde Mostar‘ı ziyaret eden Evliya Çelebi Mostar halkının Tùrkçe, BoĢnakça ve Latince konuĢtuğunu
bildirmektedir (Aruçi, 2005:296).
Osmanlı toplumu gùnlùk konuĢma dili, din dili, edebiyat dili bakımından da doğal olarak çok dilli bir
yapıya sahipti. Medreselerde eğitim alanlar Tùrkçe, Arapça ve Farsçayı bilmek durumundaydı. Özellikle
Ġstanbul‘un fethinden sonra Tùrkçenin edebî dil olarak geliĢim gôstermesi ve 16.yùzyılda zirveye ulaĢması
mùslùman olan hemen her halktan aydınların Tùrkçe yazması sonucunu doğurmuĢtur. Tùrk dilinin bu etkisi
devletin bùtùn bôlgelerinde kendini gôstermiĢtir. Bu açıdan Bosna‘da Tùrkçe yazma geleneğinin sağlam bir
temele dayandığı çok açıktır. Aslında bu durumun sebeplerini yine Ġstanbul‘un fethinde aramak yerinde
olacaktır. Fetih sonrası yerli ahaliye din ve kùltùr serbestîsi verilmesi aynı zamanda dil bağımsızlığının da
temelini oluĢturmuĢtur denilebilir.210
Osmanlılarda ġehir ve Kültür
Osmanlı Ģehirleri karakteristik bir yapıya sahiptir. En kùçùk yerleĢim birimleri olan mahallelerden
baĢlamak ùzere Ģehirlere kadar bùtùn yapı cami merkezlidir. Osmanlı Ģehirlerinde gôrùlen benzer sosyal ve
kùltùrel yapıyı din birliğine bağlayan Mustafa Ġsen, bu birlikteliği ôzellikle Ģehirlerde gôzlemlemenin mùmkùn
olduğunu vurgular. Ġsen‘e gôre Ġslam Ģehirde doğmuĢ bir dindir ve ibadetlerin çoğu cemaatle yapılır. Bu yùzden
Mùslùman Ģehirlerin çekirdeğinde cami bulunur.211 ġehirler camiler etrafında kurulur. Ana yollar, çarĢı ve
ôğretim kurumları cami merkezlidir. Yeni yerleĢim yerlerine ihtiyaç duyulduğunda da en kùçùk yapı birimi olan
mahalleler bu usulle kurulur (Ġsen, 1997a:77-78; Ayrıca Osmanlı Ģehirlerinin teĢekkùlù hakkında bk. Halaçoğlu,
2007:154).
Camilerin bu derece merkezde olmasının sosyal hayatla da bağlantısı vardır. Çùnkù Osmanlı
toplumunda camiler sadece ibadet yeri değil aynı zamanda birer mektepti. Toplanma, karar alma ve devlet
tarafından yapılan tebligatın da açıklanma yeriydi (Halaçoğlu, 2007:154).
―Yeni bir dùĢùnce, hayat anlayıĢı ve medeniyet getiren Ġslamî ôğreti, anlaĢılması, anlatılması ve yeniden
yorumlanması için ilk dônemlerden itibaren camilerin yanında ve onlarla iç içe eğitim ôğretim merkezleri
teĢekkùl ettirmiĢtir. Daha sonra medrese adını alacak olan bu kuruluĢlar yine daha sonra teĢekkùl edecek olan
tekkelerle birlikte Ģehirlerin kùltùrel alt yapılarını oluĢturan baĢlıca kurumlardır. ġehir, coğrafî konumunun
kendisine sağladığı olumlu imkânlar ya da bağlı olduğu uygarlığın kendisine olan ihtiyacı doğrultusunda siyasî
ve ekonomik açıdan geliĢip serpilirken sôzù edilen kùltùrel kurumları da tesis eder.‖ (Ġsen, 1997a:78).
Osmanlı kùltùr kurumlarının cami, medrese, tekke merkezinde Ģekillendiğine yukarına temas edilmiĢti.
Bunların yanında çarĢı, hamam, kùtùphane vb. yerler, konumuna gôre değirmen, hastane, han ve kervansaraylar
da eklenmektedir. Bu kurumlar ise varlıklarını vakıflar sayesinde sùrdùrmektedir. Vakıf geleneği Ģehrin
imarından kùltùr hayatının devam etmesine kadar ônemli bir yere ve etkiye sahiptir. 212 Ġmaretler her milletten ve
inançtan ihtiyaç sahiplerinin buralara akın etmesine; cami, mescit, medrese, tekke, tùrbe, zaviye, han, hamam,
hastane, çarĢı, fırın, boyahane, salhane, su yolları ve kanalizasyon gibi eserler de Ģehirlere olan ilginin artmasına
sebep olmuĢtur (Halaçoğlu, 2007:103).
Bosna‘da Türkçe
Osmanlı Tùrk kùltùrù ve edebiyatı siyasî hâkimiyetin olduğu her yerde gerek halk gerekse mùnevver
zùmre arasında benimsenmiĢtir. Medrese ve tekkeler, idarî ve askerî gôrevliler, ilim adamları, tarikatlar ve
mùntesipleri, Ģair ve edip askerler vasıtasıyla kùçùk bùyùk birçok merkezden geliĢerek yayılmıĢtır (Çelebioğlu,
1994:32). Saraybosna, Mostar, Öziçe vb. Ģehirler bunlara birer ôrnektir.
Bosna‘da Tùrk-Ġslam kùltùrùnùn serpilip geliĢmesi her Ģeyden ônce BoĢnakların ĠslamlaĢmasıyla
ilgilidir. Bir diğer ônemli nokta Bosnalıların Ġslamiyeti Tùrkler ve Tùrkçe ùzerinden tanımıĢ olmalarıdır. Bu
210
Buna benzer bir uygulama da Fatih Sultan Mehmed‘in Bosnalı Fransiskenlere verdiği emannâmedir.
Camiler fonksiyonları bakımından Mùslùman bir topluluğun yaĢadığı her yerde bu bir ihtiyaç olarak gôrùlmektedir. Kule
ve derbent gibi yol gùvenliğini sağlama ve gôzetleme gôrevi gôren kùçùk yerleĢim birimlerinden birine ait 1699 tarihli bir
arĢiv belgesinde bu ihtiyaç: 1.Askerlerin Cuma ve bayram namazlarını kılmaları için, 2.Çocuklarına ilim ôğretmek için,
3.Ölùlerini defnetmek için (imam ihtiyacı) vb. sebeplerle bir cami ihtiyacı bildirilmektedir (Osmanlı Belgelerinde BosnaHersek, Belge no:135, 2009:482-483).
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Osmanlı Sosyal yapısı içinde vakıflar, Ģehrin imarı, eğitim faaliyetleri ve sosyal dayanıĢma gibi ônemli hizmetler
gôrdùğùne dair bilgi için bk. (Halaçoğlu, 2007:160-161).
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durum bir sınır (uç) bôlgesi olması dolayısıyla ayrıca ônem arz etmektedir. Sùrekli gazâ ve fetihlerde bulunulan
bu topraklar, zaman zaman baskına uğrayan, el değiĢtiren yerlerdeki maddî ve manevî gerilimin sosyal hayata
tesir etmemesi dùĢùnùlemez.213
Osmanlılarda fethedilen yerlere Tùrk nùfusun yerleĢtirilmesi bir iskân politikası olarak
uygulanmaktaydı. Tùrk gôçùyle birlikte kùltùr ve dil ôğeleri de gôç etmiĢ veya diğer bir ifadeyle fetihte
bulunmuĢtur. Özellikle derviĢlerin boĢ ve tenha araziler ùzerinde kurdukları zaviyeler yine onların himmetleriyle
bùyùk kùltùr, imar ve din merkezleri haline geliyordu (DerviĢler vasıtasıyla oluĢan yerleĢim birimleri hakkında
ayrıntılı bilgi için bk. Barkan, 2008; Ġbrahim, 2008:693). Onlar tarafından kurulan tekkeler sosyal yardımlaĢma
yanında birer imar ve iskân vasıtası, yol gùvenliği bakımından birinci derecede ônemli tesislerdir. Bu derviĢler
aynı zamanda gônùllù olarak Tùrk dil ve dinini yaymaktaydılar. (Barkan, 2008:169, 190-191). Bu bôlgelerde
evkaf kayıtlarından, vakfiyelerden anlaĢıldığına gôre Mùslùmanların yaĢadığı hemen her kôy ve kasabada bir
tekkenin var olduğundan sôz etmek mùmkùndùr (Ġbrahim, 2008:693).214 Bu kurumları takiben bilim, kùltùr ve
sanatın ilk temsilcileri bu topraklarda boy vermeye baĢlamıĢtır. Meseleye edebiyat tarihi açısından bakacak
olursak bu merkezlerden yùzlerce Ģair ve yazar yetiĢmiĢ, Tùrkçemizi zenginleĢtirmeye devam etmiĢlerdir.
Bunların içinde Tùrkçenin ses bayrakları sayılabilecek çok sayıda bùyùk sanatçı vardır (Ġsen, 1997d:515).
Fetihten sonra Bosna Ģehir ve kasabalarından bùyùk bir geliĢme meydana geldi. Anadolu‘dan ve diğer
yerlerden gelen gôçmenler vasıtasıyla Tùrk-Ġslam kaynaklı hayat tarzı hâkim oldu. Klasik Tùrk el sanatları
ziraata gôre daha fazla geliĢti.215 Osmanlı esnaf teĢkilatı ve lonca sistemi ile birlikte dericilik, kuyumculuk,
askerî malzeme ùretimi ve halkın ihtiyaçlarına yônelik esnaf kolları bùyùk ônem kazandı (Djurdjev, 1992:299).
Evliya Çelebi Saraybosna‘daki bakır iĢlemeciliğinin ve Foynica‘da demir silah aletleri yapımının bu hususta
meĢhur yerlerden daha ônde olduğunu nakleder (Evliya Çelebi, 2007:229). Bugùn bile Bosna Ģehirlerinde benzer
sanatların yaĢatıldığını gôrmek mùmkùndùr.
Tarihin her devresinde ekonomik, sosyal ve askerî bakımdan yollar ve yol gùvenliği ônemli olmuĢtur.
Gerek haberleĢme, gerek ordu sevki, gerekse ticarî malların naklinde yol ve gùzergâh emniyetine dikkat
edilmiĢtir216 (Halaçoğlu, 2007:164). ―Osmanlı imparatorluğunda bùtùn iktisadî faaliyet, yolların geçtiği yerler ile
bu yolların vardığı liman ve Ģehirlerde toplanmıĢtır.‖ (Halaçoğlu, 2007:165). Saraybosna ve Mostar gibi Ģehirler
Dubrovnik bağlantısı bakımından da ayrıca ônem taĢımaktaydı.
Osmanlı Ģehirlerinin siyasî ve coğrafî etkinliği oraların geliĢmelerinde bùyùk rol oynamıĢtır. Bosna‘da
Tùrkler tarafından kurulan Ģehirlerin tamamı haberleĢme ve nakliyatı kolaylaĢtırma amaçlı stratejik konuma
sahip yerlerde bulunuyordu. Çoğu Bosna Ģehri klasik Osmanlı Ģehircilik anlayıĢına uygun olarak çarĢı ve
mahallelere bôlùnmùĢ olarak geliĢti. Bunun yanında bazı idarecilerin giriĢimleriyle cami, medrese, han, hamam,
mektep, kùtùphane kuruldu ve vakıflar tesis edildi. Tekkelerde derviĢlerin Ģehir halkının manevî duygularına
hitap etmesi dinî kùltùrùn geliĢmesini sağladı. ―Bôylece Bosna Ģehirleri Tùrk gùcùnùn kuvvetli bir kalesi, Ġslam
kùltùrùnùn de direği oldu.‖(Djurdjev, 1992:299-300,303).217
―Balkanlarda bugùn mevcut pek çok merkezî yerleĢim birimini Ģehir haline getiren Tùrklerdir. Bu
yùzdendir ki Balkanlarda yakın zamana kadar hangi ırktan olursa olsun bir kimsenin Ģehirli sayılabilmesi Tùrkçe
bilme Ģartına bağlıydı.‖ (Ġsen, 1997d:514).
Osmanlıların 15.yùzyılda Bosna-Hersek bôlgesine geliĢleri Balkanların ileriki yıllardaki geliĢimine
damga vurmuĢtur. Bu etki sosyal hayatta, ôzellikle Ģehirlerin oluĢması ve geliĢmesinde, Ġslam‘ın yayılmasıyla
birlikte Ġslam kùltùrù, edebiyatı ve ilminin geliĢmesinde kendini gôstermiĢtir. En bùyùk geliĢim Gazi Hùsrev
Bey zamanında gerçekleĢmiĢ ve bundan dolayı bu dônem Saraybosna‘nın ‗Altın Çağı‘ olarak adlandırılmıĢtır.
Sahip olduğu yùksek mevki ve ekonomik durumu sayesinde Gazi Hùsrev Bey arkasında birçok ônemli yapıt
bırakmıĢtır. Onun eserlerinin sanatsal değeri olmakla beraber ĢehirleĢme ve inĢa alanında da etkisi olmuĢtur.
Gazi Hùsrev Bey‘in baĢlattığı bu geliĢim Osmanlı kùltùrùnùn Balkanlara taĢınmasının en uygun yolu olmuĢtur
(Zlatar, 2010:119-120).
Gazi Hùsrev Bey Vakfiyesinde cami, yanında misafirhane, tùrbe, Ģadırvan, çeĢme, caminin karĢısında
medrese, onun yanında hânkâh, kùtùphane, bezistan, TaĢlıhan, hamam, hanlar, Saraybosna çarĢısında 200‘e
213
Osmanlı Ģehirlerini birer kùltùr merkezi haline getiren etkenlerden biri de oralarda bulunan yùksek maneviyatlı, ermiĢ,
eren veya derviĢ diyebileceğimiz kiĢilerdir. Mustafa Ġsen, yol gùzergahında bulunmamasına rağmen Vardar Yenice‘sinin bir
kùltùr merkezi haline gelmiĢ olmasını akıncılara ùs olmasının yanında onları gazaya teĢvik edip coĢturan Abdullah-ı Ġlahi‘ye
(ô.1491) bağlar (Ġsen, 1997:81-83).
214
Özellikle Saraybosna‘nın kurucusu olan Ġsa Bey‘in henùz 15.yùzyılın ortalarında Saraybosna‘da Mevlevî Tekkesin i
kurmuĢ olması (Çehayiç, 2008:743) dikkat çekicidir.
215
Bu durum bôlgenin dağlık oluĢuyla ilgili olmalıdır.
216
Osmanlı devletinde yol ve seyahat emniyetinin sağlanması için tesis edilen kùçùk kale karakollarına derbent denir.
Mùstahkem derbent tesisleri dôrt tarafı duvarlarla çevrili, kùçùk kale Ģeklinde olup, yanında han, cami, mektep ve dùkkanlar
bulunan bir kasaba hùviyetindedirler (Halaçoğlu, 2007:173,174). Dubrovnik yolu ùzerindeki Poçitel Kôyù tipik bir derbent
ôrneğidir.
217
1777 tarihli arĢiv belgesinde Bosna ―Memâlik-i Mahrøse‘nin sedd-i Seddi ve serhadd-i mansørenin âhenîn-i kilidi Eyalet-i
Bosna‘da…‖ Ģeklinde Osmanlı serhaddinin kilidi Ģeklinde tarif edilmektedir (Osmanlı Belgelerinde Bosna-Hersek, Belge
no:35, 2009:145-146).
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yakın dùkkân, depo, saat kulesi, hastane en ônemli eserlerdir. Vakıf bùnyesindeki hastane Saraybosna‘daki ilk
hastane olduğundan ve dini inançları gôz ônùnde bulundurmadan herkese hizmet verdiğinden dolayı bùyùk
ônem taĢımaktadır. (Zlatar, 2010:120). Gazi Hùsrev Bey zamanındaki ĢehirleĢmenin en ônemli delili artan
mahalle sayısıdır. Ondan ônce 15 olan mahalle sayısı 16.yùzyılın sonlarında 100‘e ulaĢmıĢ bulunuyordu. Cami
merkezli bu mahallelerde mektep, çeĢme, fırın ve bakkalın bulunması zorunluydu. Bu yùzyılın sonlarına doğru
Saraybosna klasik bir Tùrk-Ġslam Ģehri gôrùntùsùne kavuĢmuĢtur. Bu zamana kadar 6 cami, 23 mescit, bir
medrese, altı tekke, ùç hamam, iki han ve Saraybosna çarĢısında çok miktarda dùkkân yapılmıĢtır. Bôylece
Saraybosna en ônemli ticaret ve kùltùr merkezi haline gelmiĢtir (Zlatar, 2010:161-166; bk.16 numaralı dipnot).
Tùrk-Ġslam kùltùrù bakımından Bosna-Hersek‘in Saraybosna‘dan sonra ikinci ônemli Ģehri olan Mostar,
ôzellikle Osmanlıların fethiyle birlikte geliĢmiĢtir. XVI. yùzyılın baĢlarında yapılan Sinan PaĢa Camii ve
Hamamı, Mùslùman nùfusun toplanmasını sağladı. Stratejik ônemi dolayısıyla Hersek bôlgesinin merkezi
haline getirilen Mostar‘a 1558‘de inĢa edilen ve cami, medrese ve kùtùphaneden oluĢan Karagôz Bey
Kùllùyesi‘nin damgasını vurduğu sôylenebilir. Ayrıca Keyvan Kâhya Camii ve Medresesi (1553), Koski
Mehmed PaĢa Camii ve Medresesi (1617) gibi kurumların da etkisi sôz konusudur. 1874 tarihli Bosna
Salnâmesi‘nde Mostar‘da 45 cami, beĢ medrese, bir rùĢdiye, 16 mektep ve 26 hanın bulunduğu kayıtlıdır (Aruçi,
2005:296). Bu sayıları Ģehirde yaĢayan Tùrk-Ġslam kùltùrùnùn belgesi olarak değerlendirmek de mùmkùndùr.
―Din birliği ùzerine kurulan bùyùk medeniyetler, içlerine aldıkları çeĢitli milletlerin kùltùrlerini az çok
mùĢterek bir hùviyete bùrùndùrùrler‖ (Ġsen, 1997a:77). Gerek Balkanlarda gerekse Bosna-Hersek‘te Tùrkçe
kelimelerin kullanılması, Tùrkçenin etkin olması bu dùĢùnceyle açıklanabilir. Diğer bir tabirle imparatorluk dili
ve din birliği avantajıyla Tùrkçe, sosyal hayatta çok etkili olmuĢ ve halk tarafından benimsenmiĢtir. Mesela
tekke geleneğinin yaygın ve hâlâ canlı olduğu Bosna‘da Tùrkçe ilahiler, kasideler, gùlbanklar, dualar varlığını
bugùn de sùrdùrmektedir.
Din merkezli etkileĢimde bazı Tùrkçe kelime ve sôz kalıpları Bosnalılar tarafından kendi dilleriymiĢ
gibi benimsenmiĢ ve kabul gôrmùĢtùr. Bugùn bile cùmle dùzeyinde bu tùr ifadelere rastlanmaktadır. 218 ―Bugùn
bile‖ tabirini Djurdjev‘in Bosnalı Mùslùmanları edebî faaliyetleri ile ilgili bir tespitine dayandırmak yerinde
olacaktır. ―1878 ôzellikle de 1918‘den sonra Bosna Mùslùmanlarının edebî faaliyetleri, Sırp-Hırvat literatùrùyle
gittikçe daha fazla kaynaĢma temayùlù gôsterdi.‖(Djurdjev, 1992:304). Bahsedilen tarihlere kadarki dônemlerde
Tùrkçenin daha canlı olduğunu sôylemek çok bùyùk bir iddia olmasa gerek.
Tùrkçenin yùksek seviyede konuĢulup yazılmasının en ônemli sebebi Osmanlı eğitim sistemidir.
Medrese geleneğinin kôklù olduğu yerleĢim birimlerinde kùltùr hayatı daha hızlı geliĢme gôstermiĢtir. Diğer bir
ifadeyle medreseler ùst bilgi sınıfını yetiĢtirmesi bakımından Ģehrin klasik kùltùr merkezi olmasında olmazsa
olmazlardan biri olmuĢtur.
Osmanlı eğitim sisteminde ôğrenci mahalle imamından baĢlayarak en ùst kademedeki medreseye
ulaĢıncaya kadar devam eden eğitim hayatında ders geçme (referans) esasına gôre yùkselirdi. Dersin hocası
kendisinden yeterli eğitimi alan ôğrencisini daha merkezî bir yere ve daha ùstùn bir hocaya tavsiye ederdi.
Bôylece Ġstanbul‘daki en yùksek eğitim kurumlarına uzanan bir teamùl oluĢmuĢ olurdu. Yùksek tahsilini
tamamlayan ôğrenciler diplomalarını aldıktan sonra en alt seviyedeki medreselerden baĢlamak suretiyle mùderris
olarak atanırlardı (Yakuboğlu, 2006:141-142). Ayrıca medreselerde eğitim tamamen parasızdı ve talebenin
yiyecek ve giyeceği de karĢılanıyordu (Halaçoğlu, 2007:138).
Osmanlı eğitim sisteminde mektep, tekke, medrese ve yùksek medrese olmak ùzere bir sıralama vardı.
BaĢarılı olan ôğrenci hocasının referansıyla daha yùksek seviyedeki okullarda okuma imkânı buluyordu. Yùksek
seviyedeki medreselerin Ġstanbul‘da oluĢu taĢradan merkeze doğru bir akıĢı da tabii olarak doğurmuĢ oluyordu.
Ġmparatorluğun hemen her yanında aynı ilim ve kùltùr havasının hâkim olmasının bir nedeni de bu durum
olmalıdır.
Saraybosnalı ôğrenciler yùksek eğitim için genellikle Ġstanbul‘a veya baĢka merkezlere gidiyorlar,
dônùĢte eğitim aldıkları dil ile birlikte kùltùrùnù de beraberlerinde getiriyorlardı. Kadı, mùderris vb. yùksek
kademelerde gôrev yapan bu kiĢiler vasıtasıyla Tùrkçe kelimeler halka kadar inmekle beraber Tùrkçe de belirgin
Ģekilde etkili oluyordu. Aynı eğitim sùrecinden geçen bu kiĢiler fikrî ve edebî zevk birliğine sahiptiler.219
Özellikle Ģair ve yazar olanlar o dônem Tùrk edebiyatının birer parçası haline geliyorlardı. Bu yùzden Tùrkçenin
Bosna‘da edebî bir dil olarak varlık gôstermesi ve geliĢmesi ağırlıklı olarak edebiyat ùrùnleri ve tekke kùltùrù
vasıtasıyla olmuĢtur.
Gazi Hùsrev Bey kùtùphanesinde bulunan yazma eserlerin çoğu Bosna ve Balkanların çeĢitli yerlerinde
istinsah edilmiĢtir. Buralarda istinsah amaçlı ôzel medreselerin bulunduğu, bunlardan birinin de ôzellikle Gazi
Hùsrev Bey Medresesi ve Hânkâhı olduğu ifade edilmektedir. (Karçiç, 1996:458). Bugùn Bosna-Hersek
218
Bayram Ģerif mùbarek olsun, Sabah hayır olsun, HoĢ geldun vb. ifadeler için bk. (Ġyiyol, 2010).
Osmanlı toplum yapısı, her tùrlù etnik ve kùltùrel zenginliği içinde barındırmakla birlikte kùltùrel yapıda hâkim bir renge
sahipti. ―Tùrk-Ġslam sentezi sayılabilecek bu renk, ôylesine hâkim bir eda taĢıyordu ki bu kùltùr dairesine giren ôrneğin
Bağdat‘ta yetiĢen Røhî ile Bosna‘da yetiĢen Kâimî, coğrafyanın olağanùstù uzaklığına rağmen ôz olarak aynı Ģeyleri dile
getiriyorlardı.‖ (Ġsen, 1997f:566).
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Kùtùphanelerinde bulunan Tùrkçe, Arapça ve Farsça yazmaların bu bôlgede çoğaltıldığı gerçeği Tùrkçenin
etkisini gôsteren bir diğer delil olarak gôrùlmelidir.
Osmanlı Devletinin dikkat çeken en ônemli ôzelliklerinden biri de hiç Ģùphesiz merkeziyetçi yapısıdır.
Aslında bu merkeziyetçi yapı pek çok alanda kendini hissettirmiĢtir. Bununla bağlantılı olarak Ġstanbul‘un bir
kùltùr ve sanat merkezi olması ortak bir edebî tavrın kôk salmasını da netice vermiĢtir. 220 Diğer bir ifadeyle tek
merkezli bu yapı imparatorluğun her yanında aynı renk ve dokuyu beslemiĢtir. Saraybosna ile ġam, Konya ile
Üskùp, Ġstanbul Tùrkçesine gôre kendilerini konumlandırmıĢlardır. Edebî metinlerde Ġstanbul‘u, Ġstanbul
Tùrkçesini ôzleyen/anan pek çok Ģaire ve Ģiire rastlamak mùmkùndùr.
Tùrkçe, Arapça ve Farsça menĢeli pek çok kelime Sırp-Hırvat dilinin konuĢulduğu yerlerdekinden daha
çok Bosna-Hersek‘te gùnlùk konuĢmalarda yer almıĢtır (Djurdjev, 1992:303). ―Bosna‘da din ya da mezhep
insanlar arasındaki kimlik ayrımının odak noktasıdır. Mùslùman olan ve Osmanlı Ġmparatorluğunun kùltùr
çevresine giren BoĢnaklar, Tùrkçe eserler vermeye baĢlamıĢlar, hatta devrin icaplarına gôre Arapça ve Farsça
kitaplar da meydana getirmiĢlerdir.‖ (Ġsen, 1997d:519). Özellikle divan ve tekke Ģairlerinin Tùrkçe yazmaları bu
dùĢùncenin tezahùrùdùr.
―Her Osmanlı eyaletinde olduğu gibi Bosna-Hersek‘te de Ġslamî eğitim ve kùltùrùn fideliklerini
mektepler ve dinî kurumlar oluĢturmuĢtu. Camilerin yanında bulunan mektepler ve medreseler Bosna
Mùslùmanlarının temel ôğretim mùesseseleriydi. (Djurdjev, 1992:304).‖ Özellikle Saraybosna‘nın ikinci
kurucusu kabul edilen Gazi Hùsrev Bey yoğun fetih ve gazâ faaliyetlerinin yanında bôlgenin ĠslamlaĢmasında
ônemli rol oynayan dinî, ticarî ve kùltùrel tesisler yaptırmıĢtır. ġehrin ortasına kurduğu kùlliyesi bir sembol
olmuĢ, yùzyıllarca topluma hizmet vermiĢ ve medresesinden pek çok kimse yetiĢmiĢtir (Okiç, 1996:454). Resmî
kayıtlara gôre Osmanlı idaresinin son dônemlerinde Bosna‘da 917 mektep, 43 medrese, 28 rùĢdiye vardı. Ayrıca
Saraybosna‘da bir askerî okul, bir ôğretmen yetiĢtirme koleji, bir ticaret mektebi bulunuyordu. (Djurdjev,
1992:304).221
Bosna‘nın Osmanlı kùltùr hayatındaki yerinin tespit edilmesini ônemlidir. ġùphesiz Ġstanbul merkezli
kùltùr hayatının birer kopyası bu bôlgelerde yaĢanmaktaydı. Fakat imparatorluğun diğer bôlgelerinde olduğu gibi
buradaki hayatın ve kùltùrel dokunun kaybolmadan gùnùmùze ulaĢmadığı aĢikârdır. En azından bunu Tùrkçe
yazan Ģair ve mùellifler için sôyleyebiliriz. Tezkirelerde 28 civarında Bosnalı divan Ģairinden bahsedilmektedir
(Ġsen, 1997e:67). Hâlbuki bugùn Tùrkçe yazan 100 civarında Ģair ve 20 kadar yazarın varlığı bilinmektedir. Bu
Ģairlerin 16 tanesi Avusturya dôneminde yaĢamıĢtır. Dolayısıyla Tùrkçe Avusturya dôneminde de yaĢamaya
devam etmiĢtir (Ġsen, 1997d:520-522; 1997f:568). Bunun yanında halk Ģairlerinden ya da tekke ve zaviyelerde
Tùrkçe sôyleyen, yazan kiĢilerden Ģimdilik sınırlı ôlçùde haberdarız. Burada Mustafa Ġsen‘in Ģair tezkirelerinde
40 Ģairle temsil edilen Diyarbakır‘ın ġevket Beysanoğlu tarafından yayınlanan Diyarbakırlı Fikir ve Sanat
Adamları (1957) adlı eserinde 200‘e ulaĢmasından hareketle zikredilen sayının beĢ katı olabileceğini, 19 Ģairle
temsil edilen Üskùp‘ùn 100 civarında Ģaire sahip olabileceği ifade etmesi (Ġsen, 1997b:128-129; 1997c:139-140)
dikkate değerdir. Dolayısıyla tezkirelerde geçen sayıya bakarak Tùrkçe yazan Bosnalı Ģair ve yazarların sayısı
150-200 civarında olması gerekir. Son araĢtırmalarda Dr. Adnan Kadriç‘in 38 adet Mostarlı Ģair ve yazardan
bahsetmesi bunun bir delili sayılmalıdır.222
Son olarak gùnùmùzde Bosna-Hersek‘te Tùrkçenin durumundan bahsedebiliriz. Özellikle bağımsızlık
sonrası iki halk arasında tarihî ve dinî birlikteliğin referansıyla bir yakınlaĢma meydana gelmiĢtir ve bu ilgi
artarak devam etmektedir. Özellikle televizyonlarda gôsterime giren Tùrk dizileri, Tùrkiye ve Tùrkçeye ilgiyi
artırmaktadır. Tarihi sùreci yakından takip edenler tarafından yapılan Ģu tespit dikkat çekicidir: ―Tùrkçe son yùz
yıldır hiç bu kadar popùler olmamıĢtı.223‖
Tùrkçenin Bosna‘da ônceki dônemlerdeki konumundan bahsetmek bugùn elbette gùçtùr. GeçmiĢte
sadece konuĢma dili değil aynı zamanda yazı dili olarak da kullanılan Tùrkçeyle yukarıda sôzù edilen Ģair ve
yazarlar pek çok edebî eser ortaya koymuĢlardır. Fakat bugùn yazı dilinin varlığından sôz etmek mùmkùn
değildir. KonuĢma dili olarak ise gùnden gùne artan ilgi yabancı bir dil ôğrenme merkezindedir. Ayrıca bugùnùn
Bosna‘sında dôrt ùniversitede Tùrkoloji bôlùmleri eğitim vermektedir.
220
Bu dùĢùnceyi desteklemesi bakımından Çehayiç‘in ―Bosna-Hersek‘te Mevlevîler‖ (2008) isimli makalesinde Farsça ve
Tùrkçe yazan Mevlevîlerle ilgili fikir ve sanat açısından yaptığı değerlendirmeyi aynen alıyoruz: ―Mevhum ve estetik
formalite açısından Farsça ve Tùrkçe yazılan bôlgemizdeki Mevlevî eserler, o dônemin Osmanlı-Tùrk edebiyatındaki
akımların ve yôntemlerin aynını ortaya aksettirmektedir.‖ (Çehayiç, 2008:749).
221
XVII.yùzyıl seyyahı Evliya Çelebi Saraybosna‘dan bahsederken: 104 mahalle, 170 mihrap, 100 adet mescit, buk‘a,
zaviye, 180 sıbyan mektebi, 47 tekke, 100‘den fazla çeĢme, 300 yerde sebil, 700 su kuyusu, 176 su değirmeni, beĢ hamam,
670 hanedan hamamı, ùç adet ùcretsiz kervansaray Ģeklinde bilgi vermektedir (Evliya Çelebi, 2007:224-226).
222
Mostarlı ġairler Antolojisi Dr. Adnan KADRĠÇ tarafından yayına hazırlanmaktadır.
223
Bu ifade BoĢnak Tùrkolog Dr. Alena Çatoviç tarafından kullanılmıĢtır.
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BARKAN, Ömer Lùtfi (2008) ―Ġstila Devirlerinin Kolonizatôr Tùrk DerviĢleri‖, Tasavvuf Kitabı, (Haz. Cemil
Çiftçi), Kitabevi Yayınları, Ġstanbul
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Tùrk Edebiyatı Üzerine Makaleler, Akçağ Yay. Ankara
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Osmanlı Belgelerinde Bosna-Hersek (2009) BaĢbakanlık Devlet ArĢivleri Genel Mùdùrlùğù, Osmanlı ArĢivi
Daire BaĢkanlığı, yayın nu:101, Ġstanbul
SKALJĠÇ, Abdullah (1965) Turcizmi u Srpskohrvatskom Jeziku, Sarajevo
YAKUBOĞLU, Kenan (2006) Osmanlı Medrese Eğitimi ve Felsefesi, Gôkkubbe Yayınları, Ġstanbul
ZLATAR, Behija (2010) Gazi Husrev-Beg, Orientalni Institut u Sarajevu, Sarajevo
636
�
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Bosna-Hersek‘te Türkçe
Author
Author
GÖNEL, Hüseyin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Bosna-Hersek‘te Tùrkçenin varlığı bu bôlgenin Osmanlılar tarafından fethedilmesine dayanır. Fetihten sonra devletin resmi dili olması ve din birliğinden dolayı Tùrkçe, varlığını artırarak sùrdùrmùĢtùr. Bu sùreçte Osmanlıların fetih, iskân, eğitim ve kùltùr politikaları ôzellikle etkili olmuĢtur. XIX. yùzyılın son çeyreğinden baĢlamak ùzere bôlgedeki Tùrk varlığı giderek zayıflamıĢtır. Tùrkçe ise varlığını az da olsa sùrdùrebilmiĢtir. Bu yazıda Tùrkçenin Tùrk-Ġslam kùltùrù çerçevesinde Bosna-Hersek‘te ilk varlık gôsterdiği dônemlerden baĢlayarak gùnùmùze kadarki durumu ele alınmıĢtır.
Date
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2011-05
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Eğitsel Oyunlar ve Etkinliklerle Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretim Yöntemi
Aynur GÜRSOY
International Burch University,
Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyat Öğretmenliği Bôlùmù Yùksek Lisans Öğrencisi,
aynurgursoy@hotmail.com
Mustafa ARSLAN
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Ġnternational Burch University,
Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyat Öğretmenliği Bôlùmù, Öğretim Üyesi,
marslan@ibu.edu.ba
Özet: Bu çalıĢma, yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde eğitsel oyun ve etkinliklerin
kullanım yôntemlerini açıklamaktadır. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde konuyla ilgili
materyal taranmıĢ ve yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde kullanılması dùĢùnùlen
yôntemlerin uygulama Ģekilleri belirlenmiĢtir. Eğitsel oyunların yabancılara
Tùrkçe ôğretiminde ôğrenci motivasyonunu sağlaması ùzerinde de durulmuĢtur.
Makalede elde edilen veriler değerlendirilmiĢ ve yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde
eğitsel oyun ve aktiviteler bir plan çerçevesinde sunulmuĢtur. Yabancılara
Tùrkçe ôğretirken ôğrenci dikkatini sağlamada problem yaĢayanlara bir fikir
vermesi bakımından bu araĢtırma ônemlidir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretimi, Eğitsel oyunlar ve etkinlikler,
yôntem, motivasyon.
GiriĢ
Öğrenilen dilin kullanılabilir bir dil olması o dilin bùtùn dil becerileri ile yeterince ele alınmasına bağlıdır.
Yabancı dil ôğretiminde geçmiĢten bu yana sùrekli yeni kuramlar, yôntemler ve metodlar geliĢtirilerek dilin dôrt
temel becerisi dinleme, konuĢma, okuma, yazma paralel olarak yùrùtùlmelidir (Demirel, 2000). Dil ôğretenin
becerisi ve elinde yeterli yôntem ve materyallerin bulunması da bu verimliliği artırmaktadır (Tarcan, 2004). Oyunla
yabancı dil ôğretimi bu temel becerilerin hepsini içine almalıdır.
Oyunla yabancı dil ôğretimi gùnùmùzùn en isteklendirici metotlarından biridir. Yabancı dil ôğretimine
çocuk yaĢlarda baĢlanması gerekliliği oyunla yabancı dil ôğretiminin ônemini ortaya koymaktadır. Dùnyada en çok
konuĢulan Ġngilizcenin oyunla ôğretimine yônelik çok farklı etkinliklerden oluĢan geniĢ bir havuzu vardır.
Tùrkiye‘nin son yıllarda yurt dıĢında çok gùçlù kùltùrel, sosyal, ekonomik vb. iliĢkiler kurmaya baĢlaması
Tùrkçenin de yabancılar tarafından ôğrenilmesini sağlamıĢtır. Ancak Tùrkçenin ôzellikle çocuklara bakan yônùyle
yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminde oyun tarzı materyal ve yôntem problemleri olduğu bir gerçektir.
Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde ôğrenci oyunun içinde olmalı ve deneme yanılma yoluyla yaparak,
yaĢayarak konuyu kavramalıdır. Bununla ilgili yapılan bir araĢtırmada bu sôzù doğrular niteliktedir. Yalın (2006,
21) kitabında, Dale‘ nin YaĢantı Konisi‘nde belirlediği modele gôre ele alınan araĢtırma sonuçlarından
bahsetmektedir. Teksas Üniversitesinde yapılan bu araĢtırma sonuçlarında; hem gôrùp hem iĢittiklerin % 50‘ sini,
sôylediklerin %70‘ini, yapıp sôylediklerinin % 90‘ını hatırlamaktadırlar. Bundan dolayı oyun etkinlikleri ile Tùrkçe
ôğrenen ôğrencinin ôğrenme sùrecine aktif olarak olarak katılımı sağlanacaktır.
Kùltùr, bir toplumu oluĢturan değerlerdir. ―…Dil, kùltùrùn aynasıdır ‖ (Aksan,1977). Bayyurt (2009)
ôğrencilere o dilin konuĢulduğu ùlkenin ve insanlarının kùltùrù ile ilgili bilgi vermek gerektiğini savunmaktadır.
Yabancı dil ôğretiminde ayrılıklar yerine kùltùrel benzerlikler ôn plana geçmeli diyen Demircan (2005), hiçbir ders
bir oyunun sağladığı doğru ve doğal diyaloğu ve ôteki etkinlikleri sağlayamaz, demektedir. Bu anlamda geleneksel
Tùrk çocuk oyunları materyal açısından YTÖ (Yabancılara dil olarak Tùrkçe Öğretimi) yapanlara kolaylık
sağlayacaktır.
YTÖ‘ nde oyunlar sınıf içi etkinlik ve sınıf dıĢı etkinlik olarak iki gruba ayrılabilir. Eğitsel oyunlar daha
çok sınıf içi etkinlikler Ģeklinde ele alınmalıdır. YTÖ‘ de iĢlenen konuların pekiĢtirilmesini sağlayan eğitsel oyunlar
her temel seviyede kullanılabilecek etkinlikler ve iletiĢim deneyimi olarak uygulanmalıdır. AĢağıda eğitsel oyunlar
alt baĢlıklarıyla sıralanmıĢ ve bu çalıĢmada açıklanmaya çalıĢılmıĢtır.
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Eğitsel Oyunlar
1. ĠletiĢim Oyunları
2. Gramer Oyunları
3. Telaffuz Oyunları
4. Geleneksel Tùrk Oyunları
1.Eğitsel Oyunlar
Öğrencilerin birbirleriyle Tùrkçe iletiĢim kurmalarını sağlamak amacıyla eğitsel oyunlara baĢvurulmalıdır.
Eğitsel oyunlar, ôğrenilen bilgilerin pekiĢtirilmesi ve ôğrencilerin kendilerini rahat ifade edebilmeleri açısından
ônemlidir. Bu oyunlar eğlendirici olması sınıf içi etkinliklere canlılık getirmektedir. Eğitsel oyunları uygularken
dikkat edilmesi gereken konu, oyunların doğru olarak seçilmesi ve bir amaca yônelik olmasıdır.
Eğitsel oyunlarda ôğretmen sùrekli kontrol etmelidir. Kuralların tam anlaĢılması için gerekirse ana dilde
açıklamalar yapmalıdır. Bu oyunlara sınıftaki herkesin aktif olarak katılımı sağlanmalıdır. Öğretmen bu oyunlara
çok dikkatli bir hazırlık yapmalı ilginç, kolay ve cazip oyunları uygulatmalıdır. Herkesin seviyesine ve yeteneğine
gôre uygulanabilecek oyunlar araĢtırılmalıdır. Demirel (1993) eğitsel oyunlara ders saatinin beĢ ya da on
dakikasının ayrılmasını ve bu etkinliklere dersin ortasında veya sonunda yer verilmesini ônermektedir.
1.1 ĠletiĢim oyunları
Bu oyunlara sınıf içi etkinliklerde bùtùn ôğrencilerin katılımı sağlanmalıdır. TanıĢma, Nasılsınız? Alfabe,
Harflerini söyle vb. gibi iletiĢim oyunları temel seviye YDT ôğrenenlere, uygulanabilecek en ônemli etkinliklerdir.
1.1.1 TanıĢma
Öğrencilerden adlarını ve soyadlarını iki kùçùk kağıda yazmaları istenmelidir. Ġsimlerden birini sıralarına,
diğerini de bir kutuya koymalıdırlar. Daha sonra ilk sıradan baĢlayarak ôğrencileri ôğretmen masasına çağırıp isim
çektirmelidir. Öğrenci, çektiği ismin sahibini bulup kağıdı ona vermelidir.
Bulduğu kiĢinin aradığı kiĢi olup olmadığından emin olmak için:
Senin adın ne?
Benim adım...
Öğrenciler bu diyaloglarla ôğrenilen dilin ilk konularını pratikte uygulama fırsatı bulurlar (Kılıçaslan,
2008).
1.1.2 Nasılsınız?
Etkinliğin amacı nasılsınız? sorusunu ve cevabını ôğretmektir.
1-Nasılsınız? kelimesinin harfleri A-4 kağıdına tek tek yazılarak sınıftaki ôğrencilere dağıtılmalıdır. Otuz saniye
içerisinde ôğrencilerden nasılsınız? kelimesini tahtanın ônùnde sıraya geçerek oluĢturmaları sağlanır.
2-Sınıfa kùçùk bir top getirilmelidir. Top ôğrencilerden birine rastgele atılmalı ve o ôğrenciye nasılsın? diye
sorulmalıdır. Cevap alındıktan sonra, elinde top olan ôğrenci topu baĢka birisine atmalıdır. Topu yakalayan ôğrenci;
nasılsın? diye sorar ve oyun zincirleme olarak devam ettirilir. Öğrenciler bu aktivite ile eğlenerek hedef dildeki
sesleri daha iyi tanımıĢ olurlar ve konuĢma becerileri geliĢtirilir.
1.1.3 Alfabe
Temel seviyede alfabeyi pekiĢtirmek amacıyla kavratmak için bùtùn sınıfa uygulanması gerekli bir
aktivitedir. Harfler ve harflerle baĢlayan kelimeler verildikten sonra bir kutuya alfabenin harfleri yazılarak
konmalıdır. Öğrenci kutudan bir harfi rastgele çekmeli ve çıkan harfi okumalıdır. Hatırlayabilirse o harfle
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baĢlayan yeni bir kelime sôylemelidir. Öğrencilerin Tùrkçedeki harfleri ve kelimeleri daha iyi tanımaları
bakımından bu etkinlik uygulanabilir (MEGEP, 2007a).
1.1.4 Harflerini Söyle
Alfabeyi kavratmak için 8-10 kiĢilik kùçùk gruplara uygulanabilecek bir oyundur. Oyuna baĢlamadan ônce
sınıfın ônceden ôğrendiği kelimelerin listesi çıkarılmalıdır. Liste tamamlandığında, 10 ôğrenci seçilmeli ve eĢit
sayıda iki takım oluĢturulmalıdır. Ġki takım sınıfın ônùnde ve karĢı karĢıya durmalıdır. Geri kalan ôğrenciler oyunu
takip ederler. Listeden seçilen ilk kelime birinci takımın ilk oyuncusuna sôylenmelidir. Öğrenci kendine sôylenen
kelimenin harflerini teker teker yùksek sesle sôylemelidir. Kelimenin harflerini doğru sôylemeyi baĢarırsa ayakta
durmaya devam edecektir. Sonra ikinci takımın ilk oyuncusuna farklı bir kelime sôylenmelidir. Öğrenci harfleri
teker teker doğru sôyleyebilirse, ayakta durmaya devam edecektir. Kelimelerin harflerini yanlıĢ sôyleyen ya da
yanlıĢ telaffuz eden ôğrenci yerine geçer. Öğrenilen dildeki seslerin doğru telaffuz edilmesi için bu aktivitelere
zaman zaman yer verilmelidir.
Örnek:
Öğretmen: Ayakkabı
Birinci ôğrenci: A-y-a-k-k-a-b-ı
Öğretmen: Ġnek
Ġkinci ôğrenci: Ġ-n-e-k
(Ġzgôren, 1999a)
1.1.5 Zaman Makinesi
Bu etkinlik ôğrencilerin hayal gùçlerini kullanarak konuĢmalarını sağlamaya yônelik bir oyundur.
Öğretmen ôğrencilere, bir zaman makinasının icat edildiğini, bu zaman makinası yardımıyla geçmiĢe ve geleceğe
gidilebilmelerinin mùmkùn olduğunu belirtmelidir. Öğrencilere, Ģimdi sizler de bu zaman makinası aracılığıyla
isterseniz geçmiĢe isterseniz geleceğe gidebilirsiniz, Ģeklinde onları oyuna motive etmelidir. Öğrencilere biraz sùre
vererek, zaman makinasıyla geçmiĢe ya da geleceğe gittiklerini hayal etmelerini sağlamalıdır. Sùre tamamlandıktan
sonra ôğrenciler, kurguladıkları hayallerini anlatmalıdırlar. Bu aĢamada ôğretmen aĢağıdaki benzer soruları
ôğrencilere yôneltmelidir.
Örnek:
Nereye gittiniz?
Hangi yıla gittiniz?
Kimlerle gôrùĢtùnùz?
Gittiğiniz yerin ôzellikleri nasıldı?
Hiç ùnlù birisine rastladınız mı?
Bu aktivitede soru-cevap yôntemiyle Tùrkçe pıratik yapmaları sağlanmıĢ olur (Ġzgôren, 1999b).
1.1.6 Rüya Adası Oyunu
Öğretmen sınıfta loĢ bir ortam oluĢturarak ôğrencileri uyumaya motive etmelidir. Öğrencilerin uykuya
dalıp hayalen rùya gôrmeleri sağlanmalıdır. Öğretmen ônceden kurguladığı bir olayı rùyanın baĢlangıcı olarak
ôğrencilerine anlatmalıdır.
Örnek :
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ġu an bir deniz kenarında yürüyorsunuz. GüneĢ en güzel haliyle ıĢıklarını denize aksettirmekte. Yüzünüze
değip geçen serin bir rüzgarın hoĢluğu mutlu ediyor sizi. Suların Ģırıltısı, ağaçların hıĢırtısı, kuĢların cıvıltısı
muhteĢem bir melodiymiĢçesine kulağınıza çalınıyor. Ve uzaklardan birinin sesi geliyor, kimin sesi acaba? diyerek
ôğretmen, rùyanın devamını ôğrencilere anlattırmalıdır. Öğrencilerin, ôğrenilen dilde kendilerini bağımsızca ifade
edebilmeleri bakımından bu tùrlù uygulamalara yer verilmelidir (Susùzer, 2006).
1.1.7 EĢini Bul
Bu uygulamada sınıf ya da grup iki kısma ayrılmalıdır. Öğrencilere ùzerinde resimler olan kartlar
dağıtılmalı ve ôğrenciler ellerindeki kartlarda bulunan resimlere gôre sınıfa sorular yônelterek aynı kartı tutan eĢini
bulmaya çalıĢmalıdır. Bu resimler ôğrencilerin dil seviyelerine gôre basit veya karmaĢık olmalıdır. Örneğin, bir
ôğrenci hayvanat bahçesi resminde hayvanları anlatabilir. Resimdeki yapıları, Ģekilleri ve renkleri Tùrkçe kelime ve
Tùrkçe cùmlelerle tarif ederek kendi kartının benzerinin kimde olduğunu bulmaya çalıĢmalıdır. Öğrencilerin
gôrdùğùnù ifade etme ve anlama becerileri bu tùr aktivitelerle pekiĢtirilmelidir ( MEGEP, 2007b).
1.1.8 Hikaye Anlatma Veya Tamamlama
Resimli bir hikaye seçilmeli ve bu resimler ôğrencilere bôlùm bôlùm dağıtılmalıdır. Her ôğrenci kendi
resmindeki hikaye parçasını anlatmalı ve bôylece hikayenin tamamı ortaya çıkarılmıĢ olur. Öğrenciler hikayenin
sonunu merak edecekleri için sonuna kadar arkadaĢlarını dikkatle dinleyeceklerdir. Bu faaliyetle ôğrencilerin
gôrdùklerini kendi cùmleleriyle anlatma ve konuĢma becerileri geliĢtirilir (Ġzgôren, 1999c).
1.1.9 Kelime Oyunları
Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminin her aĢamasında yeni kelimelerle karĢılaĢılmaktadır. Yeni ôğrenilen
kelimelerin kalıcılığını sağlamak için belli bir çerçevede sôzcùkler ôğretilmelidir. Örneğin, oyunla kelime ôğretimi
ôğrencilerin dikkatlerini hedef kelime ùzerine çekecektir (Özbay ve Melanlıoğlu, 2008 ).
Örnek :
Kelime Bulma: Sınıf gruplara ayrılmalı bu grupların sayısı en az iki olmak kaydıyla daha fazla da olabilir.
Kağıtlara yazılan bazı Tùrkçe kelimeler bir torbanın içerisine konmalıdır. Gruplardan birer temsilci ôğrenci
çağrılmalı ve her ôğrenci torbadan bir kağıt çekmelidir. Çektiği kağıtta yazan kelimeyi ôğrenci mimik,
jest ve beden dilini de kullanarak anlatmaya çalıĢmalıdır. Ġlk cevap verme hakkı ôğrencinin kendi
grubundadır. Sôzcùğù bilememeleri durumunda cevap verme hakkı diğer gruplara geçer. Bilen grubun
hanesine ônceden belirlenen puan yazılır. Bu etkinlikle ôğrencilerin konuĢma becerileri geliĢtirilmiĢ olur (
Karatay, 2007).
Zıt Kelimeyi Bulma: Sınıf, gruplara ayrılmalıdır. Zıt anlamlı Tùrkçe kelimelerin yazıldığı kartlar masanın
ùzerine dizilmeli ve her gruptan bir ôğrenci seçilmelidir. Seçilen ôğrenci kartlardan herhangi birini
açmalıdır. Örneğin oyuncunun açtığı ilk kartta uzun yazıyorsa ikinci kartta zıt anlamlısı olan kısa
sôzcùğùnù bulmak zorundadır. Bu etkinlik ôğrencilerin sôzcùk dağarcığını zenginleĢtirir ( Özerk, 2009 ).
Üç Harfli Kelime Oyunu: Öğretmen tarafından tahtaya kaldırılan ôğrenci ùç harfli bir kelime dùĢùnmeli
ve sınıftan istediği bir kiĢiye dùĢùndùğù bu kelimeyi sôylemelidir. Seçilen bu ôğrenci ùç harfli kelimenin
her harfiyle baĢlayan ayrı ayrı ùç yeni kelime tùretmeli ve belirlenen sùre içerisinde bu kelimeleri telaffuz
etmek zorundadır. Aksi halde tahtada ki ôğrencinin yerine geçmek durumundadır. Örneğin tahtaya kalkan
ôğrencinin dùĢùndùğù kelime muz olsun. Seçilen ôğrenci muz kelimesindeki harflerle baĢlayan yani masa,
uçak, zil gibi sôzcùkleri verilen sùre içerisinde sôylemeye çalıĢmalıdır. Bu etkinlikle ôğrencilerin
sôzcùkleri doğru telaffuz etme becerileri geliĢtirilir (Yalın, 2005).
1.2 Gramer Oyunları
Öğrenciler genellikle gramer konularını ôğrenirken isteksiz davranırlar. Bu uygulamalardaki amaç gramer
konularını ôğrencilerin sıkılmadan ôğrenmelerini sağlamaktır.
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1.2.1 Nazlı‘nın Kedisi Oyunu
Sıfatların ôğretiminde ôğrencilerin ilgilerini çekebilecek uygulamalardan biridir. Öğretmen, ôğrencilerin
oyunu anlamaları bakımından bir ôrnekle etkinliği açıklamalıdır. Sôzgelimi ôğretmen ôğrencilerine; ġimdi size
Nazlı‘nın kedisiyle ilgili bir cümle söyleyeceğim. Size söylediğim bu cümlede Nazlı‘ nın kedisinin bir özelliği
belirtilmektedir. Sizler benim söylediğim özellikten haraket ederek aynı harfle baĢlayan Nazlı‘nın kedisiyle ilgili
baĢka özellikler söylemelisiniz Ģeklinde açıklamada bulunmalıdır. Öğrencilerin ôn bilgilerine dayanılarak kelime
hazinelerindeki sôzcùkleri aktif hale getirmek ve sôz dağarcığına yeni kelimeler eklemek suretiyle sôzlù anlatım
becerileri geliĢtirilir (Yılmaz ve Yaman, 2002).
Örnek :
Nazlı‘ nın kedisi çok zeki bir kedidir diyerek cùmlesini kurar. Öğrenciler de z harfiyle baĢlayan ôzellikle
Nazlı‘nın kedisini nitelendirirler. Sôzgelimi ôğrenciler:
Nazlı‘ nın kedisi çok zarif bir kedidir.
Nazlı‘ nın kedisi çok zalim bir kedidir.
Nazlı‘ nın kedisi oldukça zayıf bir kedidir.
Nazlı‘ nın kedisi züğürt bir kedidir.
1.2.2 KomĢuna Mesaj Gönder
Cùmle kurma becerisinin kazandırılmasına yardımcı olabilecek bir aktivitedir. Öğretmen, ôğrencilere
sayısı 6-10 arasında değiĢen harfler vermelidir. Öğrencilerden bu harfleri kullanarak cùmleler yazmasını
istemelidir. Öğrenciler, kendilerine verilen harfleri kullanarak bu harflerle baĢlayan kelimelerden cùmleler
oluĢturmalıdırlar. Yazdıkları bu cùmleleri yanlarındaki arkadaĢlarına vermelidirler. Kendilerine mesaj gelen
ôğrenciler, sırayla ayağa kalkarak mesajlarını okumalıdırlar. Bu oyunda amaç ôğrencilerin cùmle kurgusunu
kavramalarını sağlamak ve cùmle kurma becerilerini geliĢtirmektir (Ġzgôren, 1999d).
1.3 Telaffuz Oyunları
Yabancı dil ôğretiminde telaffuz uygulamaları ônemli yer tutmaktadır. Çùnkù o dili doğru konuĢabilme ve
sôylenenleri anlayabilme telaffuz ôğretimiyle ilgilidir. Öğrencilerin konuĢma becerileri geliĢtirilirken ùzerinde
ôzellikle durulmalıdır. Vurgulama ve tonlama olan telaffuz ôğretiminde ôzellikle temel seviyede gereken ônem
verilmelidir. Telaffuz ôğretiminde ôğrencilerin dikkatlerini çekebilmek için oyun kaynaklı uygulamalara yer
verilmelidir. Bu uygulamalarla ôğrenciler Tùrkçenin ses yapısını daha iyi kavrarlar.
1.3.1 Mini Bingo
Bu uygulamada ôğretmen ôğrencilerine renkli kartlara yazılmıĢ olan kelimeler dağıtmalıdır. Bu sôzcùkler
okunuĢları birbirine yakın Tùrkçe sôzcùklerden oluĢmalıdır. Öğretmen bu sôzcùkleri okumalı ve kartlarında bu
sôzcùkler bulunan ôğrenciler, o sôzcùğù kapatmalıdır. En çok bingo yapan ôğrenci baĢarılı sayılır. Bu etkinlikle
ôğrencilerin Tùrkçe kelimeleri daha iyi tanıma becerileri geliĢtirilir (MEB Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu BaĢkanlığı,
2006).
1.3.2 Kulaktan Kulağa Oyunu
Bu aktivitede ôğretmen, ilk sırada oturan ôğrenciye diğer ôğrencilerin duymayacağı Ģekilde bir kelime
fısıldamalıdır. Bu ôğrenci kendisinden sonra gelen ôğrenciye sôzcùğù duyduğu Ģekliyle doğru telaffuz ederek
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sôylemelidir. Kelime bu Ģekilde kulaktan kulağa sınıftaki bùtùn ôğrenciler tarafından tekrarlanmalıdır. Sondan baĢa
doğru ôğrenciler duymuĢ oldukları kelimeyi sesli olarak sôylemelidirler. Bôylelikle kelimenin hangi ôğrenci
tarafından değiĢtirildiği ortaya çıkacaktır. Kelimeyi yanlıĢ aktaran ôğrenci sıranın en sonuna geçirilerek
cezalandırılır. Öğrencilerin Tùrkçe kelimeleri doğru telaffuz etmelerine bu tùr etkinlikler yardımcı olur (Fikret
Okulları, 2010).
1.3.3 Tekerlemeler
Öğrencilerin hızlı ve anlaĢılır konuĢmalarını sağlamak için tekerlemelerden faydalanılmalıdır. Bu sebeple
ôğrencilerin Tùrkçeyi doğru kullanmalarını sağlamak için onlara tekerlemeler ôğretilmelidir. Tekerleme aktiviteleri
ile Tùrkçe kelimelerin doğru ve anlaĢılır telaffuzu gerçekleĢtirilir. Öğretmen, sınıfın seviyesine ve ôğrencilerin dil
becerilerini geliĢtirmeye uygun ônceden belirlediği bir tekerlemeyi kendi sôylemelidir. Öğrencilerin, bu
tekerlemeyi doğru bir Ģekilde sôylemeleri için baĢta onlara yardımcı olmalıdır (Hisar, 2006).
Örnek:
-ġu kôĢe yaz kôĢesi, Ģu kôĢe kıĢ kôĢesi, ortada su ĢiĢesi.
-Bir berber bir berbere bre berber gel beraber berberistanda bir berber dùkkanı açalım diye bar bar bağırmıĢ.
-ġu yoğurdu sarımsaklasak da mı saklasak, sarımsaklamasak da mı saklasak?
-ĠbiĢle MemiĢ mahkemeye gitmiĢ, mahkemeleĢmiĢler mi, mahkemeleĢmemiĢler mi?
1.3.4 Bilmeceler
Bilmeceler, Tùrkçe sôzcùklerin çok anlamlılığını yansıtan dilsel oyunlardır. Bilmecelerde ki çarpıcı
benzetmeler ve buluĢlar onları ilginç hale getirmektedir. Bu dilsel ùrùnler Ģiirsel bir anlatımla ôğrencileri bir zeka
oyununa çağırır. Öğrencilerin bilgilerini yoklar, kelimeler arasında anlamsal iliĢki kurmalarını sağlar. Yabancılara
Tùrkçe ôğretiminde bilmece etkinliği orta ve ileri seviye ôğrencilerine uygulanmalıdır. Çùnkù bu seviyelerdeki
ôğrencilerin kelime hazineleri ve Tùrkçeyi kullanma becerileri geliĢmiĢtir (Gôçer, 2010).
Örnek:
Ġnim inim inler.
Bin kiĢi dinler.
(Davul)
Altı pınar içilir.
Üstù çayır biçilir.
(Koyun)
Arka arkaya ikizler.
Biri diğerini izler.
(Tren)
1.4 Geleneksel Türk Oyunları
Çocuk oyunları iletiĢim bağlamında oluĢturulan sosyo-kùltùrel gôsterimlerdir. Geleneksel Tùrk çocuk
oyunların oluĢturulmasında belli kalıp oyunlardan yararlanılabilir. Çocukların oyunlarla ilgili bilgileri kolayca
hatırladıkları ve oyunlarını oynadıkları gôzlenmiĢtir (Özdemir, 2006a).
Oyun oynayan YTÖ deki ôğrenci duygu, dùĢùnce ve hayallerini rahat bir Ģekilde açıklayabilmek ve
tecrùbelerini anlatabilmek, tahminde bulunabilmek, olayları ve durumları açıklayıp yorumlayabilmek,
problemlerin çôzùlmesinde ôneriler ùretebilmekte dilini etkin bir Ģekilde kullanabilmeyi ôğrenir. Geleneksel
Tùrk oyun tùrleri de çocukların ve yetiĢkinlerin dil geliĢmelerine yardımcı olmak amacıyla sôzlù gelenekte
oluĢturulmuĢtur. Ancak geleneksel oyun tùrlerinde içlerinde tekerleme, mani, Ģarkı sôzù, Ģiir gibi sôzlù oyunlar
olan oyunlar seçilip sınıflandırılıp YTÖ de kullanılmalıdır.
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Zengin bir yelpazesi olan geleneksel Tùrk sôzlù oyunları, materyal açısından YTÖ yapan ôğretmenlere
bùyùk yardımı olacaktır. Bununla ilgili olarak ayrı bir sınıflandırma yapılabilir. Bunlardan bazıları Ģu Ģekilde ele
alınabilir.
1.4.1 ġöyleĢmeli Oyunlar
Örnek:
ÜĢüdüm üĢüdüm oyunu
Oyun, iki takım halinde oynanır. Takımın oyuncuları kol kola girerler ve aĢağıdaki Ģekilde sôyleĢerek
birbirlerine gidip gelirler. KonuĢmanın sonunda konuĢmayı baĢlatan takımın yôneticisi, beğendiği rakip
oyuncalarından birinin yanına gidip onun alnına eliyle dokunur. Bu çocuk, diğer takıma geçer. Aynı hareket
diğer takımın yôneticisi tarafından tekrarlanır. Bùtùn çocukların takım değiĢtirmesiyle oyun sona erer.
ÜĢùdùm ùĢùdùm, a benim canım ùĢùdùm.
Kùrkùnù giy, kùrkùnù giy, a benim canım kùrkùnù giy.
Kùrkùm yok, kùrkùm yok, a benim canım kùrkùm yok.
Alsana, alsana, a benim canım alsana.
Param yok, param yok, a benim canım, param yok.
Çalsana çalsana, a benim canım, çalsana.
Asallar, keseller, en gùzelini seçerler (Özyedekçi, 1947).
1.4.2 SayıĢmacalı Oyunlar
Örnek:
Çatlak Patlak Oyunu
Oyuna katılan çocuklar bir daire oluĢturup her iki ellerinide dairenin içine doğru uzatırlar. Çocuklardan
biri aĢağıdaki sayıĢmacayı sôyler. SayıĢmacanın her kelimesinde oyuncu yanındaki oyuncunun eline eliyle vurur.
SayıĢmacanın son kelimesini sôyleyen çocuk, yanındakinin elini vurduğu takdirde, eline vurulan çocuk, oyundan
çıkar. Oyunun sonuna kadar, vurulmayan çocuk oyunun birincisi kabul edilir.
Çatlak patlak
Yùsyuvarlak
Kremalı bôrek
Sùtlù çôrek
Çek yavrum çek
Amanın dostlar çek
Elini çekmeden çek
Çek çek amca
Burnu gonca
Benden sana
Bir tabanca (Oğuz, 1992a)
1.4.3 Ezgili Oyunlar
Örnek:
Yağ Satarım Bal Satarım
Oyun 10 ile 15 yaĢ arasındaki çocuklar tarafından oynanmaktadır. Ebe halka Ģeklinde oturmuĢ
çocukların çevresini sekerek dolaĢırken Ģu tekerlemeyi sôyler.
―Yağ satarım bal satarım.
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Ustam ôlmùĢ ben satarım.
Ustamın kùrkù sarıdır.
Satsam 15 liradır.
Zambak zumbak dôn arkana iyi bak‖.
Ebe, tekerleme esnasında elindeki mendili çocukların birinin arkasına atar. Arkasındaki mendili eliyle
yoklayarak bulan çocuk, halkanın etrafında en az beĢ kez dolaĢarak ebeyi yakalamaya çalıĢır. Ebenin oyuncunun
kalktığı yere oturması gerekir. Aksi halde yeni ebe o olur. Oyun bôyle devam eder (Oğuz, 1992b).
1.4.4 Zeka Oyunları
Örnek:
Soru: Evin bahçesinde bir topal kaz otluyormuĢ. Bu sırada gôkte bir kaz sùrùsù geçiyormuĢ. Topal kaz
yukarıdakilere ―hey kazlar, kazlar, yùzler kazlar‖ diye seslenmiĢ. Havadaki kazlarda ―biz yùz kaz değiliz, bizim
kadar daha olsa, yarımız kadar daha olsa, yarımızın yarısı kadar daha olsa ve birde sen olsan, o zaman yùz kaz
oluruz. Havada kaç kaz varmıĢ?
Cevap: Havada otuzaltı kaz varmıĢ. Havadaki otuzaltı kaza, yarısı on sekiz, onun yarısı dokuz, bir de topal kaz,
toplam yùz kaz olur (Özdemir, 2006b).
Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde bu tùr oyunlar yardımıyla Tùrk kùltùrù, Tùrk edebiyatı ôğretilmiĢ olur. Tùrk
dilinin zengin dil ùrùnleriyle yabancılar Tùrkçe ôğrenirken daha da iyi motive olacaklardır. Tùrk yazının
yabancılar tarafından bilinmesi bakımından da yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde bu kaynakların kullanılması
ônemlidir.
Sonuç
Öğrenme iĢlemine katılan duyu organlarının sayısı ne kadar fazla olursa ôğrenme daha doğru
gerçekleĢir ve ôğrenilenlerin unutulması engellenmiĢ olur. Bu sebeple tùm uyarıcıları harekete geçiren
etkinliklere, oyunlara yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde yeterince yer verilmelidir.
Yabancı dil ôğrenirken unutmayı engelleyen en ônemli unsur ôğrenilenlerin kullanılması ve ôzellikle
dil ôğrenen kiĢinin gùnlùk ihtiyaçlarına cevap veriyor olmasıdır. Öğrenilenlerin oyun içinde kullanılması
ôğrencilerin dikkatlerini çekecektir.
YTÖ‘nde temel seviyede eğitsel oyunlara daha fazla ağırlık verilmelidir. Eğitsel oyunlar kısa etkinlikler
olduğu için ôğrencileri bıktırmaz. Rol alma ve dramatizasyon etkinlikleri ise daha çok orta ve ileri seviyede
uygulanmalıdır.
Modern yabancı dil eğitim anlayıĢı katılımlı bir eğitim anlayıĢı olduğu için ôğretmen merkezli eğitim
anlayıĢını kabul etmez. Oyun etkinlikleri ile ôğrencinin katılımı aktif olarak sağlanır. Yabancılara Tùrkçe
ôğretenler oyun eksenli materyalleri doğru ve yerinde kullanarak ôğrencileri motive etmelidirler.
Yabancı dil olarak Tùrkçe ôğretiminde oyun aktivitelerini daha çok kullanmak için materyel
geliĢtirilmelidir. Oyunlar; YTÖ yapan ders kitaplarında yeterince yer verilmemektedir. Öğretmenin becerisine ve
ilgisine bağlı olarak oyun etkinlikleri YTÖ‘nde kullanılmaktadır. Her konu sonuna tasarlanması durumunda
drama ve eğitsel oyunlar eklenebilir.
Egitsel oyunlar olarak geleneksel Tùrk oyunların içinde ôzellikle 0-15 yaĢ grubu için zengin oyun
çeĢitleri mevcuttur. Ancak bu oyunlar YTÖ içinde tekrar ele alınmalıdır. Özellikle içinde tekerleme olan
saymaca, sôyleĢmece, ezgili ve zeka oyunlar uygulatılmalıdır. Bu Ģekilde eğlendirerek YTÖ de ôğrenciler daha
çok motive edilecektir.
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Bayyurt, Y., vd. (2009). Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretimi. Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara, Sayfa
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Demirel, Ö. (1993). Yabancı Dil Öğretimi Ġlkeler Yöntemler Teknikler, Usem Yayınları, Ankara, Sayfa 73.
Demirel , Ö. (2000). Türkçe Öğretimi, Pegem Yayınları, Ankara, Sayfa 8.
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185
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Eğitsel Oyunlar ve Etkinliklerle Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretim Yöntemi
Author
Author
GÜRSOY, Aynur
Arslan, Mustafa
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Bu çalıĢma, yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde eğitsel oyun ve etkinliklerin kullanım yôntemlerini açıklamaktadır. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde konuyla ilgili materyal taranmıĢ ve yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde kullanılması dùĢùnùlen yôntemlerin uygulama Ģekilleri belirlenmiĢtir. Eğitsel oyunların yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde ôğrenci motivasyonunu sağlaması ùzerinde de durulmuĢtur. Makalede elde edilen veriler değerlendirilmiĢ ve yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretiminde eğitsel oyun ve aktiviteler bir plan çerçevesinde sunulmuĢtur. Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretirken ôğrenci dikkatini sağlamada problem yaĢayanlara bir fikir vermesi bakımından bu araĢtırma ônemlidir.
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2011-05
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PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Two-Level Qazan Tatar Morphology
Ercan Gökgöz
Computer Engineering Department,
Fatih University, Turkey
ercangokgoz@gmail.com
Atakan Kurt
Computer Engineering Department,
Fatih University
akurt@fatih.edu.tr
Kalmamat Kulamshaev
Contempoary Turkish Dialects & Lieteratures Dept
Fatih University, Turkey
kkulamshaev@fatih.edu.tr
Mehmet Kara
Contemporary Turkish Dialects and Literatures Department
Istanbul University, Turkey
mehkara@yahoo.com
Abstract: In this paper we present a two level description of Tatar Language. Tatar is a
Turkic language and the official language of Tataristan. It is spoken by millions of people
mostly in the world. We describe the Tatar orthography using two level rules of
Koskenniemi. These orthographic rules governing the phonology of the language during
word formation is essential to morphological parsing and generation. We then represent
the Tatar morphotactics using finite state machines. The FSMs for nominal and verbal
morphotactics describe in detail how the words of the language can be formed. The
orthographic rules and morphotactics are implemented in the Dilmac Machine
Translation Framework by encoding them in XML files in an language independent way.
Key Words: Qazan Tatar morphology, orthographic rules, two-level morphology, finite
state machines.
Introduction
Turkic languages are spoken by more than 200 million people in a vast geographic area stretching from
Eastern Europe to China. Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Turkmen, Kyrghyz, Uzbek, Tatar, Uygur dialects are among the
most spoken languages after Turkish. All Turkic languages except Turkish are computationally resource poor
languages. Computational linguistics studies on these languages are very scarce. Turkish morphology was
studied by Oflazer [101]. Turkmen morphology by Maxim et al. [90], and Tantug [91]. Azerbaijani by Ġlyas [92].
Tatar belongs the Idel-Ural (Volga-Urals) region of Kipchak subgroup of Turkic Languages [93]. Tatar, more
specifically Tatar Turkish or Qazan Tatar, is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russian
Federation. Tatar is spoken by more than 5 million people in Russia. There are about 10 million Tatars in Central
Asia, parts of Europe and Turkey. Today Tatar language has 3 dialects: Western, Eastern and Middle. The
middle dialect is spoken by Qazan Tatars. Tatars had used Arabic script until first quarter of 20 th century.
Current Tatar alphabet is based on the Cyrillic alphabet with some additional letters.
90
M. Shylov, ―Dilmaç: Turkish and Turkmen Morphological Analyzer and Machine Translation Program,‖
Master‘s thesis, Fatih University, Ġstanbul Turkey, 2008.
91
Tantuğ, A. C., Adalı, E., and Oflazer, K. 2006. Computer analysis of the Turkmen language morphology.
Advances in natural language processing, proceedings (Lecture notes in artificial intelligence), 4139 . pp. 186193.
92
Hamzaoglu, Ġ. 1993. Machine translation from Turkish to other Turkic languages and an implementation for the Azeri
language. MSc Thesis, Bogazici University, Istanbul
93
Oner, M., 2007, (In Turkish) Tatar Turkcesi; Turk Lehceleri Grameri Ed., Ahmet Ercilasun, Akcag
Publications, Ankara, Turkey.
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Turkic languages are agglutinative languages where many inflectional and derivational morphemes are
attached to root to express syntactic and semantic information. These morphemes allow one to create potentially
infinite number of words [94].
Tatar like other Turkic Languages is a resource poor language. Studies on Tatar morphology are virtually
non-existent. Books and articles on this language is usually in Tatar or Russian, and not available in English [ 95].
In this study we aim to describe Tatar morphology from the computational linguistics perspective using twolevel model. The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2 the Tatar phonology will be described using two
level orthographic rules. The orthographic rules describe the phonetic changes occurring when affixing
morphemes to words. In Section 3 Tatar morphotactics will be described from computational point of view using
Fine State Machines. In Section 4 conclusion and future work will be discussed.
Orthographic Rules of Tatar
Orthography specifies standardized path of writing system of the language. Orthography is produced by
standardized orthographic rules, although sometimes includes ambiguities. These ambiguity is usually occurs in
loanwords.
These two level rules are describes phonologic events during word formation when morphemes are affixed
to a stem or a root. The two levels are lexical and surface level of a word. Lexical level is a formulation of a
morphological parsing of a word in a written text. In lexical level the root word and the sequence of morphemes
affixed to are represented such as Noun + Plural + 1PersonPossesive. The surface level of a word is the word as
it appears in the text. Parsing is the process of attaining of lexical level from the surface level of a word. The
rules and meaning are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Orthographic Rules
Syntax
a:b lc_rc
a:b lc_rc
a:b lc_rc
a:b / lc_rc
Meaning
Lexical a is realized as surface b, only when converion‘s left side equals to lc and the
right side equals to rc
Lexical a is always realized as surface b, when converion‘s left side equals to lc and
the right side equals to rc
Lexical a always and only realized as surface b, when converion‘s left side equals to
lc and the right side equals to rc
Lexical a is never realized as surface b when converion‘s left side equals to lc and
the right side equals to rc
Tatar Alphabet
Tatar is written in Cyrillic alphabet. It is also written in unofficial Latin. In the past Tatars used Arabic
script until the revolution in 1917. In this study we will use the following Latin Tatar alphabet consisting of 35
letters which 9 of is vowel given in Table 2.
Vowels are a,e,ı,i,o,ô,u,ù,é. Consonants are b,v,g,d,n,j,z,h,y,k,l,m,y,u,y,a,p,r,s,t,u,f,x, ç,Ģ,ç,Ģ,c,ð.
Table 2 Tatar Alphabet
Cyril
Latin
Cyril
Latin
Cyril
Latin
Аа
Әə
Бб
Вв
Гг
Кк
94
Aa
Ee
Bb
Vv
Gg
Kk
Ҥҥ
Лл
Мм
Нн
Ң
Оо
Üù
Ll
Mm
Nn
Ñ
Oo
Фф
Һ
Хх
Цц
Чч
Шш
Ff
Hh
Xx
Ts ts
Çç
ġĢ
Tatar Turkcesi; Prof. Dr. Mustafa Oner, Turk Lehceleri Grameri, Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ercilasun, Akcag, 2007.
95
Poppe, N. N. (1963). Tatar manual: descriptive grammar and texts with a Tatar-English glossary. Bloomington: Indiana
University.
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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Дд
Ее
Ёѐ
Жж
Зз
Ии
Й
Dd
Éé,yé
Yo yo
Jj
Zz
Ġy iy,Ġi
Yy
Өө
Пп
Рр
Сс
Тт
Уу
Öô
Pp
Rr
Ss
Tt
Uw uw
Щщ
Ыы
Іі
Ээ
Юю
Яя
ġç Ģç
Iı
Ġi
Ee
Yu yu
Ya ya
Tatar employs vowel harmony like other Turkic languages. Like other Turkic Languages Tatar has
consonant softening, consolidation and harmony, assimilation, vowel conversion, vowel drop, vowel epenthesis,
consonant duplication. Below are lexical meta morphemes used in two level rules:
Consonants : C =(y,b,k,f,v,l,h,g,m,d,n,ç,Ģ,j,p,c,z,r,s,h,t)
Vowels: V = (a,e,é,ı,i,o,ô,ù,u)
Front Vowels: Vf = (e,i,é,ù,ô)
Back Vowels: Vb = (a,ı,o,u)
A = (a,e)
H = (ı,é)
I = (ı,i)
U = (ù,u)
L = (l,d)
M = (m,n,ð)
P = (p,b)
G = (k,g)
D = (d,t)
1. a : ı __ +:0 y
The lexical a at the end of a word is converted to ı if the preceding affix starts with y.
Lexical: sayra+y
Surface: sayrı0y
Lexical: sırla+ym
Surface: sırlı0ym
V(caw) VVI_TAORSH
sayrıy (to be caw)(ôtmek)
V(draw) VVI_TAORSH
sırlıym (draw cavity lines)(oyuk çizgiler çizmek)
4. L:n M+:0__Ar
The lexical L is converted to n, if the word ends with m, ð or n, and the preceding affix is LAr
Lexical: ùlen+LAr
Surface: ùlen0ner
N(grass)+NNI_PUL
ùlenner (grasses)(otlar)
Lexical: urman+LAr
Surface: urman0nar
8. p:b __+:0V
N(forest)+ NNI_PUL
urmanlar (forests)(ormanlar)
The lexical p at the end of a morpheme is converted to b if the preceding affix starts with a vowel.
Lexical: ùp+er
Surface: ùb0er
Lexical: kùp+rAk
Surface: kùb0érek
N(kiss)+ VVI_TAORSH
ôper(kisses)
N(more)+NNI_POSS3S
kùbérek(more than)(daha çok)
9. D:t [f|s|t|k|ç|Ģ|h|p]+:0__
If a word ending with f, s, t, k, ç, Ģ, h, or p is affixed with morpheme starting with D, then D is realized as t.
Lexical: yeĢ+DAĢ
N(age)+ NND_DAS
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Surface: yeĢ0teĢ
yeĢteĢ(contemporary)(yaĢıt)
Lexical: cinayet+DAĢ
Surface: cinayet0teĢ
N(murder)+ NND_DAS
cinayetteĢ(accomplice)
11 A:a C*VbC*+:0C*_C*
The lexical A is converted to a if the preceding vowel is a back vowel to employ vowel harmony.
Lexical: suw+LAr
Surface: suw0lar
N(water)+ NNI_PLU
suwlar (waters)
Lexical: kitap+DA
Surface: kitap0ta
N(book)+ NNI_LOC
kitapta (in the book)
20. z:s __+:0 s
The lexical z at the end of a word is converted to s if the preceding affix‘s first letter is s.
Lexical: toz+sız
Surface: tos0sız
N(salt)+ JND_SIZ
tossız(without salt)(tuzsuz)
Lexical: kùz+séz
Surface: kùs0séz
N(eye)+ JND_SIZ
kùsséz(without eye)
21. r:0 __+:0g
The lexical r at the end of a word is dropped, if the preceding affix starts with g.
Lexical: kitirir+ge
Surface: kitiri00ge
N(bring)+ NVD_GA
kitirige(to bring)(gôtùrmeye)
Lexical: éçérér+ge
Surface: éçéré00ge
N(bring)+ NVD_GA
éçérége(to bring)(içirmeye)
Tatar Mophotactics
Two-level morphology [ 96] have been applied to many languages. Tools to implement two-level morphology
such as PC-KIMMO [97] is publicly available. It was originally applied to describe finite state Finnish
morphology by Koskenniemi. A detailed description with an application to English is given by Antwort [ 98].
Two-level or finite state model later was applied to many languages such as Japanese [ 99], Korean [100], Turkish
[101], Arabic [102], Mongolian [103]. All these languages except Arabic are related linguistically. They are Altaic
languages. Like Ural languages of Finnish and Hungarian they are agglutinative. To our knowledge, Qazan Tatar
morphology is not defined before. There is a work on Crimean Tatar [104].
96
Koskenniemi, K., 1983, Two-Level Morphology: A General Computational Model of word-form recognition and
production, Tech. Rep. Publication No. 11, Department of General Linguistics, University of Helsinky.
97
Karttunen L, 1983, PC-KIMMO: A General Morphological Processor. In Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp.165-186.
98
Antworth, E.L., 1990, PC-KIMMO: A Two-level Processor of Morphological Analysis, Summer Instıtute of
Linguistics, Dallas, TX.
99
Alam, Y.S., 1983, Two-level Morphological Analysis of Japanese, Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp. 229-252.
100
Kim, D. B., Lee S. J., Choi, K.S., and Kim, G.C., 1994. A two-level morphological analysis of Korean. In
Proceedings of the 15th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1 (COLING '94), pp. 535-539.
101
Oflazer, K. 1994, Two-level description of Turkish morphology, Literary and Linguistic Computing, Literary
and Linguistic Computing Volume9, Issue2 pp. 137-148.
102
Arabic Finite State Morphological Analysis and Generation, In COLING-96, Cophenagen, pp. 89-94.
103
Jaimai, P., Zundui, T., Chagnaa, A., and Ock, C.Y., PC-KIMMO-based Description of Mongolian
Morphology, International Journal of Information Processing Systems Vol.1, No.1, 2005 pp. 41-48.
104
Kemal Altıntas, 2000. Turkish to Crimean Tatar Machine Translation System. MSc Thesis, Bilkent University, Ankara
431
�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
We describe Tatar morphology using finite state machines (FSM). A finite state machine, which in principal
is a directed graph, consists of a set of states and a set of transitions among these states. Transitions are the
edges of graph labeled with inflectional or derivational morphemes defining in what order those morphemes can
be affixed to a word. The immediate states represent words and their part of speech tagging. The initial states
represent the roots words from a lexicon and their part of speech such as noun, verb, adverb, adjective, etc. The
final states represent words that cannot take any ore morphemes. We define the nominal, verbal and adverbial
morphotactics of the language using this FSM model. In Figure 1 only a small portion of FSM is shown because
of space limitation.
+lHk, +lH, +çHk, +sHz, +çH, +DAş, +çHl, +şAr,
+çA,+çAk,+çAn, +rAk, +GHlt, +nçH, +GH,kAy
Noun
+lH, + sHz
+lAr
+lArH
Plural
+Hm
Possesive
1st Person
Single
+Hñ
Possesive
2nd
Person
Single
+sH,+H
Possesive
3rd Person
Single
+bHz
Possesive
1st Person
Plural
+gHz
Possesive
2nd
Person
Plural
+sH,+H
Possesive
3rd Person
Plural
Figure 1 Nominal Morphotactis (Partially given)
Conclusions
We described Tatar morphology using the two-level morphology model and finite state machines. A number
of two level orthographic rules are created to handle the conversion from surface to lexical level of a word
during morphological parsing. Finite state machines for representing nominal and verbal morphotactics are given
for Tatar. The model is being implemented in Dilmaç machine translation system . We conducted extensive
testing of nominal and verbal Tatar conjugations. Our final objective is to implement a morphologic machine
translation system between Tatar and Turkish.
105
58
Antworth, E.L., 1990, PC-KIMMO: A Two-level Processor of Morphological Analysis, Summer Instıtute of Linguistics,
Dallas, TX.
59
Alam, Y.S., 1983, Two-level Morphological Analysis of Japanese, Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp. 229-252.
60
Kim, D. B., Lee S. J., Choi, K.S., and Kim, G.C., 1994. A two-level morphological analysis of Korean. In Proceedings of
the 15th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1 (COLING '94), pp. 535-539.
61
Oflazer, K. 1994, Two-level description of Turkish morphology, Literary and Linguistic Computing, Literary and
Linguistic Computing Volume9, Issue2 pp. 137-148.
62
Arabic Finite State Morphological Analysis and Generation, In COLING-96, Cophenagen, pp. 89-94.
63
Jaimai, P., Zundui, T., Chagnaa, A., and Ock, C.Y., PC-KIMMO-based Description of Mongolian Morphology,
International Journal of Information Processing Systems Vol.1, No.1, 2005 pp. 41-48.
64
Kemal Altıntas, 2000. Turkish to Crimean Tatar Machine Translation System. MSc Thesis, Bilkent University, Ankara
432
�
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Title
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Two-Level Qazan Tatar Morphology
Author
Author
Gökgöz, Ercan
Kurt, Atakan
Kulamshaev, Kalmamat
Kara, Mehmet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this paper we present a two level description of Tatar Language. Tatar is a Turkic language and the official language of Tataristan. It is spoken by millions of people mostly in the world. We describe the Tatar orthography using two level rules of Koskenniemi. These orthographic rules governing the phonology of the language during word formation is essential to morphological parsing and generation. We then represent the Tatar morphotactics using finite state machines. The FSMs for nominal and verbal morphotactics describe in detail how the words of the language can be formed. The orthographic rules and morphotactics are implemented in the Dilmac Machine Translation Framework by encoding them in XML files in an language independent way.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c7cc5cf7ae9c4d0287ecb3412fc30d78.pdf
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Situation Types and Implications of Teaching Single Verb Versus Multiple
Verb Constructions of Tatar to Turkish speaking Students in Higher
Education
Fatma ġahan Güney
Department of Modern Turkic Languages and Literatures,
Faculty of Letters, Muğla University, Turkey
fsahan@mu.edu.tr
Abstract: The significance of verb semantics and aspectual distinctions of verbs within
a specific language is obvious and relevant, as much to language acquisition (Andersen
and Shirai 1996; Aksu-Koc 1978 and 1998; Gôkmen 2003 and 2004; Gôkmen and Lee
2002; Olsen 1999), as to second language acquisition (Bardovi-Harlig 1994a, 1994b,
1998 and 2000; Collins 2002; Salaberry & Shirai 2002; Slabakova 2002).
Aspect, as opposed to time /tense is considered to be non-deictic (Comrie 1979: 1-3)
and to involve three types of information, namely the lexical meaning of a verb, its
argument and inflectional structure (Smith 1983, 1986 and 1997). Specifically, the
situaiton types within aspect are important in foreign language teaching since, besides
aspectual type of a single verb, the ways in expressing aspect, and in particular the
situaiton types, also exhibit differences from one language to another. In Tatar, for
instance, the situation types, besides other aspectual information, involve double or
multiple verb constructions, which either identify or modify the aspectual type of a
sentence.
Both Tatar and Turkish are agglutinative languages having SOV word order, and belong
to Turkic linguistic family. As opposed to Turkish which is mostly a language of single
verb predicates, Tatar, though closely related to Turkish, heavily rely upon double or
multiple verb constructions in order to make aspectual distincitions within clauses and
distinctions of situation types in verb meaning.
During the instruction of Tatar courses for more than 8 yeras, based on student
homeworks, term papers and exam papers, I have observed that double verb
constructions with aspectual post verbs is one point in learning Tatar grammar which
students make most of their mistakes. In this paper, I am going to investigate if there are
any meaningful differences between the levels of learning single verb constructions on
one hand and double or multiple verb ones with aspectual post verbs on the other. In this
regard, the preliminary findings point out to the fact that the learning of double/multiple
verb constructions with aspectual post verbs by Turkish speaking students, who do not
have paralel constructions in their native language, are less successfull in comparison to
the learning of single verb perdicates.
Key Words: Semantics; Aspect; Situation Types; Second Language Learning; Adult
Students; Post Verb; Turkish; Tatar.
INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL BASIS OF THE STUDY
The significance of verb semantics and aspectual distinctions of verbs within a specific language is
obvious and relevant, as much to first language acquisition (Andersen and Shirai 1994, 1996; Li and Shirai 2000;
Aksu-Koc 1978 and 1998; Gôkmen 2003, 2004; Gôkmen and Lee 2002; Olsen 1999) as to second language
learning (Bardovi-Harlig 1994a, 1994b, 1998 and 2000; Collins 2002; Salaberry & Shirai 2002; Slabakova
2002). As Smith (1997: xv) points out, studies on Turkish by Aksu revelas that the situation types, more
specifically, the distinction between stative and non stative played role in language acquisition of children under
the age 2 (1978: s.50-52). ―They distinguished between events according to whether or not they involve changes
of state. Aksu‘s subjects used iyor past with atelic verbs and di past with telic and and change of state verbs; in
adult language these tenses appear with non-statives generally, cf 1978: 50-52‖ (Smith 1997: xv).
Aspect, as opposed to time /tense is considered to be non-deictic (Comrie 1979: 1-3). According to
Smith, ―the aspectual meaning of a sentence conveys information of two kinds: a situation is presented from a
particular perspective, or viewpoint; and the situation is indirectly classified as a state or an event.‖ (Smith 1997:
xiii). Based on this definition, the first type of aspectual information, i.e. the one through which a situation is
presented from a particular perspective is called ―viewpoint aspect‖, and the second one, in which the situation is
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classified as event or state is called ―situation type‖. There ise a relation between the two components of the
aspectual information. ―The aspectual meaning of a sentence results from interaction between (these) two
independent aspectual components, situation type and viewpoint‖ (Smith 1997: xiv).
―The term situation type refers to classes of events and states. Both are realized in linguistic
categories… Viewpoint is generally indicated morphologically, with affixes or other designated morphemes.
Situation type is conveyed more abstractly, by the verb and its arguments, or verb constellation‖ (Smith 1998:
xiv). Specifically, the situaiton types within aspect are important in foreign language teaching since, besides
aspectual type of a single verb, the ways in expressing aspect, and in particular the situaiton types, also exhibit
differences from one language to another. In Tatar, for instance, the situation types, besides other aspectual
information, involve double or multiple verb constructions, which either identify or modify the aspectual type of
a sentence. Aspect, is considered to involve three types of information, namely the lexical meaning of a verb, its
arguments and inflectional structure (Smith 1983, 1986 and 1991). As for Tatar, axuiliary verbs/post verbs also
appear to be another parameter which affect the aspectual composition/structure of a sentence.
Although Turkish and Tatar belong to the same linguistic family, which is Turkic, and share many
structral and lexical commonalities, these two languages differ in representing some semantic categories
linguistically, one of which is the aspectual category and more specifically the situation types. In this paper,
based on student translation homeworks, I am going to investigate if there are any meaningful differences
between the levels of learning single verb constructions on one hand and double or multiple verb ones with
aspectual post verbs on the other. In this regard, the findings of this study point out to the fact that the translation
of double/multiple verb constructions with aspectual post verbs by Turkish speaking students, whose native
language either lack paralel constructions or do not use them profusely, are less successfull in comparison to the
translation of single verb perdicates.
In what follows, we are going to introduce a brief information on Tatar since it is not very well known
in the lingusitic literature. Following that, we are going to introduce some information on Tatar aspectual post
verbs connecting to a main verb with either –A or –p converbial suffix in order to construct double/multiple verb
predicates. In the rest of the paper, we are going to introduce our data, our findings and discuss the results of our
study.
Introductory Remarks on Tatar and Turkish
Tatar belongs to the North-western Turkic language group, also known as the Kipchak within the Turkic
family while Turkish belongs to the south-western branch, also known as Oghuz. It is a literary language spoken
in TheRepublic of Tatarstan by one third of Tatar population living in Russia (Wertheim 2003: 4), and the rest
in neighboring republics and in other places of Russia. There are also Tatar communities living in other
countries, such as Turkey, Japan, Finland, China, USA, Australia, Uzbekstan, Kazakstan, etc. ―Tatars are the
largest ethnic minority in Russian Federation and comprise 3.8% of its population (Kondrashov 2000: ix)‖
(Wertheim 2003: 4).
Even though Tatar and Turkish belong to different branches of the Turkic family, after Crimean Tatar
which mostly concentrate both Kipchak and Oghuz features, Tatar and Turkish seem to be the most closley
related languages within their language groups, namely Kipchak and Oghuz.Though, up to day, there are no
lingusitic and statistical studies to show the degree of relation, it can be said that Tatar and Turkish are mutuallly
intelligable to a significant degree, due to the shared structural features and vocabulary, both of Turkic origin and
loan words from Arabic and Persian. Not having any instrucion of each other‘s language before hand, Tatar and
Turkish native speakers can carry out daily conversation to a significant extent, each side speaking their own
variant.
As for the linguistic structure, both Turkish and Tatar are left branching agglutunative languages having
SOV word order. Tatar and Turkish do not seperate from each other in terms of syntax and morphology, but
most significantly, in terms of phonetics. Nevertheless, unlike Turkish, which is mostly a single verb language,
though it also makes use of a few number of auxiliaries in limited contexts, Tatar frequently use double ver bor
auxiliary verb constructions in expression of various linguistic and pragmatic categories.
Similar to other North-western Turkic, i.e. Kipchak languages, besides many other non-Oghuz Turkic
languages, except Turkmen, Tatar relies heavily on double or mulltiple verbs constructed with a definite group
of aspectual, adverbial and modal postverbs. Post verbs indicate not only the aspectual but also other categories,
such as modality, version and adverbial expresions, such as manner, completeness, partial/whole distinction,
cumulativity, etc.
Tatar contrasts past-nonpast. Non past (with no specific grammatical tense marker) has grammatical
imperfective aspect only, while past contrasts imperfective-perfective aspects grammatically. There is an
imperfective –A/Iy marker which occurs productively both in past and non-past. (See Shirai 1995, 1999 for a
similar situation in Japanese!) Non past imperfective aspect is contrasted with progressive aspect by using a
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group of auxiliary verbs, which are not very productive. A specific group of telic verbs with imperfective –A/Iy
marker, in combination with -(I)p utır-, -(I)p yat- auxiliaries express resultutive (üsep utıra; ceyilip yata; etc.)
Introductory Remarks on Tatar Postverbs
Double or multiple verb constructions in Tatar is also called ―compound verbs‖, which basically
assumes that the combination of a main and a post verb is lexical, rather than syntactic. (There are also
compound verb constructions in Tatar, like atıp üter ―to shoot and kill‖, alıp kil ―to bring‖ alıp kit)
Aspect in Tatar is partly expressed by auxiliary post verbs. What we call here as ―aspectual ―post verbs‖
are not purely aspectual in nature but they interact greatly with the aspectual propeties of the primary verb they
couple with. Double or multiple verb constructions constructed with aspectual post verbs in Tatar are mostly
translated into Turkish as single verb ones; In place of the aspectual post verbs in Tatar, a bare main verb can be
sufficient or suitable adverbs may be used along with it in Turkish. The affetcs of post verbs in Tatar double or
multiple verb constructions can also be inferred from the context in Turkish.
There are many studies on post verbs, also known as ―auxiliary verbs‖ or ―helping verbs‖, in Tatar
(Ganiyev 1963; Schônig 1984) and in other Turkic languages (Anderson 2003; Nasilov 1978) are mostly
descriptive, as to explain their meaning and function. Nevertheless, only a few studies mentions the role of
complex verb constructions with aspectual (or modal, in this term) postvebrs in teaching Tatar as a second
language (see. Schamiloglu 1978).
Aspectual post verbs examined in this paper occupy V2 position. Similar to other auxiliary verbs in
Tatar, they are inflected for person, number, time/aspect/modality when in predicate position and connected to a
lexical verb V1 which precedes it through one of the adverbial (converb) suffixes
–A/(I)y or -(I)p verb. All the postverbs examined in this paper are also used as lexical verbs in the language,
meaning they are independent lexemes besides their grammatical functions as post verbs. It is necessary to
remind here that, the post verbs introduceced in thsi paper as ―aspectual‖ are npurely aspectual, but when
combined with verbs from different situation types, they fulfill various adverbial functions. The aspectual post
verbs in Tatar examined in this paper are as follows:
1. –A/(I)y baĢla- ―to begin‖:
This post verb marks the beginning of an event.
eçe poĢa baĢla- ―to get bored‖
uylıy baĢla- ―to start thinking‖
yılıy baĢla- ―to start crying‖
kaynıy baĢla- ―to start boiling‖
2. –A/(I)y bar-―to go, walk‖: This post verb express continuation or repetition of an action, which is most likely
of an event type.
koyıla bar- ―to keep falling one after the other‖
tùge bar- ―to keep pouring when moving forward‖
tôrte bar- ―to keep poking at one after the other‖
açılıp kite bar- ―to open up one after the other (intr.)‖
yaxĢıra bar- ―te get better and better‖
3. –A/(I)y bir- ―to give‖: This post verb marks durative actions. It can be translated as ―keep doing something‖.
Used mostly with activity verbs with human subjects, whic are atelic. This post verb indicates that event is
carried out with no interruption.
eĢliy bir- ―to keep working‖
4. –A/(I)y tor- ―to stand‖: With the help of the converbial suffix –A/(I)y, this post verb is only used with motion
verbs, such as ―to go‖, ―to walk‖, ―to come back‖, ―to sit‖ etc, which are all atelic:
bara tor- ―to keep going‖
kayta tor- ―to be on the way back‖
yôri tor- ―to keep wandering‖
utıra tor- ―to keep sitting‖
With verbs ambigous between stative/eventive, tor- indicates stativity;
asılınıp tor- ―to be suspended‖
kùrenep tor- ―to keep being seen‖
5. -(I)p al- ―to take‖
urap al- ―to surround, encircle‖
kırıp al- ―to scrape off‖
suwırıp al- ―to suck up‖
6. -(I)p bet- /-(I)p beter- ―to end/ to finish‖: This post verb is a completive one which indicates that the action
conveyed by the verb affects all the objects if they are plural, and entirity of the object if it is a single one. The
post verb bet- is intransitive and the post verb beter- is transitive
buyanıp bet- ―to be stained completely‖
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cıyıp beter- ―to gather up‖
aĢap beter- ―to eat up‖
utın kisep beter- ―to end wood cutting‖
7. -(I)p cibär- ―to send‖: with eventive and dynamic verbs with human subjects. Used ostly with activity verbs. It
marks sudden and usually unexpected start of an action. Unlike the post ver kit-, which indicates that event
occurs naturally, with no intention or no influence from outside; the post verb ciber requires an agent, mostly
human, to start the action. Sometimes verbs representing activities initiated by animal subjetcs may alsobe
couppled with the post verb ciber-.This postverb makes inchoative contexts when combined with certain
verbs,which are mostly activity verbs:
yılap cibär- ―to start crying‖
kôlep cibär- ―to start laughing‖
ulap ciber- ―to start howling‖
uynap ciber- ―to start dancing‖
tormıĢ korıp ciber- ―to start a new life‖
açıp ciber- ―to open up‖
Whe used with semelfactives, like tört- ―to poke‖, silten- ―to shake (intr.)‖, suk- ―to beat-― etc., which
have a culmination point like other achievement verbs, this post verb indicates single, sudden and swift
occurence of an event:
tôrtep ciber―to poke once‖
siltenep ciber―to shake once; to give a jerk‖
sugıp ciber―to hit once‖
8. -(I)p cit-―to reach‖: When used with atelic verbs, this post verb indicates telic situations. It expresses
accomplishments and completion of events. It is used mostly used with activity verbs, such as:
barıp cit- ―to arrive‖
kilep cit- ―to arrive‖
kaytıp cit- ―to return; to come home‖
ùsep cit- ―to grow up‖
9. -(I)p çık- ―to go out‖: This post verb has a completive function. It indicates that the event is fulfilled
thoroghly, in full. If the verb has an incremental object /if the object is cumulative, such as a wall, a book, etc.
this post verb indicates that the action in relation to this object is done throghly, from beginning to end:
ukıp çık- ―to read throghly, from beginning to end‖
sibep çık- ―to spread throghly‖
(bùlmelerne) karap çık- ―to look into each and every one of (the rooms)‖
saklap çık- ―to keep an eye on something for a whole period of time‖
If more than one object is involved in the event, then, this post verb indicates that the action is carried
out on each and every one of these objects.
kùrsätep çık- ―to show each and every one of something‖
10. -(I)p kal- ―to stay‖: This post verb, with the help of -(I)p converbial suffix, joins to the inchoative verbs,
which indicate change of state. However, what the postverb kal- points out is the state period which obtains after
the event whose happening setts off the state phas. As its secondary meaning, when combined with activity verbs
having human subjetcs, this post verb may also indicate unintendedness and unexpetedness in start of the state
phase.
karap kal- ―to keep looking, staring at‖
aptırap kal- ―to be astonished, be surprised‖
yoklap kal- ―to be asleep‖
saklap kal- ―to keep an eye on‖
kùrep kal- ―to see, keep seeing‖
kürep kalgan.
belmi kal- ―to be in the state of not knowing‖
cilek cıyıp kal- ―to keep gathering berries‖
kotılıp kal- ―to escape narrowly; to be safe from‖
belep kal- ―to be in state of knowing‖
11. -(I)p kit- ―to go‖: When used in its actual meaning, and with activity verbs having human subjetcs, this
postverb indicates an action away from a reference point:
çıgıp kit- ―to go out, to set on the road‖
kerep kit- ―to go in to (a room, etc.)‖
menep kit-―to go up‖
tôĢep kit- ―to go down‖
uzıp kit- ―to go past‖
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When used methaphorically, with telic verbs, this post verb denote events occuring suddenly and
unexpectedly with no involvement of an agent to start the action. The postverb kit- has a greate emphasis on the
sudden, unintended and, mostly unexpected break off of the event itself, not he state phase which obtains after:
ôzelep kit- ―to break off‖
oyanıp kit- ―to wake up‖
balkıp kit- ―to begin shining‖
nurlanıp kit- ―to become shiny‖
bayıp kit- ―to become rich‖
12. -(I)p kuy- ―to put‖: This post verb is used only with telic verbs, mostly achievements, whose main verb is
transitive having an object with patient role and a subject with agent role. It marks the beginning of a state sett
off by a telic activity event:
elep kuy- ―to hang something, suspend‖
kùmep kuy- ―to burry something‖
salıp kuy- ―to put something, place something on somewhere‖
kadap kuy- ―to stab smthing on something‖
çornap kuy- ―to coil up‖
bäyläp kuy- ―to tie up‖
Only used with telic events, since between telic and a telic versions of the verbs ―eyt-― and ―sôyle-―,
both meaning ―to tell‖, only the telic one eyt- can combine with the post verb kuy-, i.e. eytep kuy- ―to tell
everything at once‖
13. -(I)p tor- ―to stand‖: Used with atelic verbs this postverb marks durative situations. It may combine both with
state and activity verbs: Unlike tor- which is used only with state verbs, or activity verbs, both atelic, the post
verb -(I)p tor- is also used awith inchoative verbs:
aptırap tor- ―to be amazed‖
uylap tor- ―to keep thinking‖
uylanıp tor- ―to keep thinking for oneself‖
iĢetelep tor- ―to continue to be be heard‖
kurkıp tor- ―to continue to be afraid‖
biyep tor- ―to keep dancing‖
kaĢınıp tor- ―to continue to itch‖
sôyleĢep tor- ―to keep talking with smbd.‖
karap tor- ―to keep looking‖
kôtep tor- ―to keep waiting‖
torıp tor- ―to keep standing‖
14. -(I)p utır- ―to sit‖: Mostly used with state or activity verbs, this post verb marks events as durative. When the
lexical verb is activity in terms of its situation type it designates events carried out by a person in ―sitting
situation‖:
çäy eçep utır- ―to sit and have tea; to continue to drink tea‖
kurkıp utır- ―to be afraid‖
uylanıp utır- ―to be in thoughts‖
uynap utır- ―to keep playing‖
15. -(I)p yat- ―to lie, to lie down‖: Used with atelic verbs this postverb also marks durative situations. Compared
with the post verb -(I)p tor-, this post verb combines mostly with activity verbs with human subjects. (When the
post verb yat- is used in resultative function, though, it may also combine with a limited number of verbs with
non-human subjects, for instance, ceyelep yat- ―to be scattered around‖. See below for this!)
karap yat- ―to keep looking‖
tıŋlap yat- ―to keep listening‖
yoklap yat- ―to be asleep‖
yäĢerenep yat- ―to be hidden‖
16. -(I)p yôre- ―to go, walk‖: This post verb also marks situations as durative. It can combine with atelic activity
and state verbs:
(yul) ezläp yôre- ―to look for the way; to follow the way‖
belmi yôre- ―to be in state of not knowing‖
A specific group of telic verbs with imperfective –p adverbial marker, in combination with –p utır-, (I)p yat- auxiliaries express resultutive (üsep utıra; cäyelep yata; asılınıp tora; etc.):
asılınıp tora ―to be hanging‖
ùsep utıra; ―to stand (for trees and such)‖
cäyelep yata ―to be spread out‖
çäçelep yat- ―to be scattered around‖
Auxiliary post verbs in Tatar can also involve in the expression of other linguistic categories, such as:
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a) Modality:
requestive -a kürprohibitive -a kürmeabilitative -a alpossibility –p bulAttemptive –p karab) Version:
Subject version: -(I)p alObject version: -(I)p bir-
SAMPLING AND CORPUS OF THE DATA
Data has been gathered in the course of 8 year teaching of Tatar grammar courses for one semestr and
translation courses for 2 semesters each year. Similar to other Turkic language courses, such as as Uzbek,
Turkmen, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Azerbaijanian, etc., which are offered in our department, Tatar also is not structured
according to levels. While the ―Tatar‖ course, which is taught in 14 week term is required, the other two
translation courses, which are taught in the same 14 week terms each, are elective.
Translation homeworks and term papers prepared by the second level college students constitute the
corpus of this study. Narrative texts in Tatar literary language translated into Turkish by the Turkish speaking
students of Tatar Translation course have been gathered over an 8 year period. Total of 13 text fragments
translated by 15 different students hasbeen used in order to come up with the single and double verb predicates
to be tested for the puropes of this study. In order to give an idea on the length of the texts used in this study, we
can pronounce the word count, which is total of 19720.
What is analyzed in this study is two different sets of single vs. double/multiple verb constructions.
First, we have identified all the double/multiple verb predicates in original texts. Then, for purpose of the present
study, we have selected from the set of double/multiple verb constructions, the ones having auxiliary/post verbs
that were distinctly associated with aspect, and situation aspect in particular. We have come up with total of 462
such predicates presumably involving various kinds of aspectual postverbs. Selection of right constructions were
quite challenging because post verbs are also used as lexical verbs in Tatar and the same post verb may involve
in a serial verb construction as well, in which it appears in its original /lexical meaning, and not as a post verb.
In order to see if there is any meaningfull difference in the learning of single verb predicates on the one
hand and double/multiple verb ones on the other, we also identified total of 87 single verb predicates translated
into Turkish by each student. The number 87 that we have identified per each text fragment is not the whole
number of single predicates we expect to seee in the entirety of the fragment. Nevertheless, we cut down the
number of the single predicates and limited it to 87 per student or per text fragment. Total of the single
predicates we came up with was 1284 which were evaluated for the aim of this study.
FINDINGS
As the indicator of learning degree, we have tested both single and double verb predicates we came up
with by sifting throug the text fragments and by examining their translations into Turkish. We assigned either
true or false value to each predicate. While deciding if a single or double verb predicate is true or false we
evaluated the sentence in its entirety and looked into some elements which we considered to contribute to the
aspectual composition of the sentence in Turkish. Since most of the double/multiple verb constructions in Tatar
correlate to single verb predicates in Turkish and aspectual meanings of a post verb are mostly indicated by
selecting correct aspectual suffixes, using suitable adverbs or just leaving it to the context, we have checked
wether suitable aspectotemporal suffixes or adverbs are used in corresponding sentences in translation or
whether elements in a sentence are translated correctly or whether context supports the aspectual meaning ment
by the aspectual postverb. Lastly, considering that only a very limited number of post verbs, such as tor- and kalin Tatar have close counterparts in Turkish, we have labeled a double verb predicate as false which was
translated into Turkish as double verb but does not correspond to an already existing double verb construction
having an aspectual postverb.
Among 1284 single verb predicates translated into Turkish, we have identified that 1140 of them were
suitably translated into Turkish and 144 of single verb predicates were unseccessfull in terms of their
translations. Overall number of the true values is % 88.78 while the overall number of false values correspons to
11.02 percent. Below, chart 1 shows distribution of the true/false values of single verb predicates over students;
chart 2 illustrates the percentages of true/false values within the total number of single verb predicates:
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A) SINGLE VERB PREDICATES
Chart 1. True/False Values of Single Verb Predicates by Students
Chart 2. Overall True/False Values of Single Verb Predicates
Among 462 double/multiple verb predicates translated into Turkish, we have identified that 291 of them
were suitably translated into Turkish and 171 of them were unseccessfull in terms of their translations. Overall
number of true double/multiple verb predicates is % 88.78 while the overall number of false ones corresponds to
11.02 percent. Below, chart 3 shows distribution of the true/false values of double/multiple verb predicates over
postverbs; chart 4 shows distribution of the true/false values of double/multiple verb predicates over students;
and chart 5 illustrates the percentages of true/false values within the total number of double/multiple verb
predicates.
B) DOUBLE/MULTIPLE VERB PREDICATES
Chart 3. Distribution of True/False Values of Double Verb Predicates over Postverbs
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Chart 4. Distribution of True/False Values of Double Verb Predicates over Students
Chart 5. Overall True/False Values of Double/Multiple Verb Predicates
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Overall true/false values of single and double/multiple verb predicates are respresented side by side on
chart 6, in order to make the difference between the values for each predicate type more visible.
C) COMPARISON OF OVERALL TRUE/FALSE SINGLE vs. DOUBLE/MULTIPLE VERB PREDICATES
Chart 6.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
Duff & Li (2002; 417) points out that ―despite the growing body of second language acquisition (SLA)
research in recent years on the acquisition of tense/aspect in Indo-European languages such as English, Spanish,
and French (…), there has been little research on the acquisition of aspect in non-Indo-European second
languages (L2‘s), such as Mandarin, Japanese, and Korean, with a few notable exceptions‖. This fact is also
viable for Turkic languages other than Turkish, over which a growing number of researches have being
undertaken. Despite Turkish, other Turkic languages spoken by fewer numbers of people, one of them being
Tatar were almost not investigated at all in terms of second language learning. Although Turkish and Tatar are
very close structurally, we have observed that Turkish speaking lerners of Tatar also present difficulties, besides
the observed dificulties of non-Turkish speaking lerners of Tatar reported by Schamiloglu (1996) who also
teaches Tatar in the USA. In this study, we have examined the learning difficulties of Tatar by Turkish speaking
students of higher education.
This study focuses on the Turkish speakers‘ translation mistakes of Tatar double/multiple verb
predicates with aspectual post verbs. We have compared true/false values of single verb predicates translated
into Turkish by 15 students of Tatar translation course on the one hand and double or multiple verb ones on the
other. We have limited our study of double/multiple verbs to those involving aspectual post verbs only. Turkish
students‘ perceived difficulty in learning double verb phrases with aspectual post verbs was based on our
preliminary observations made over an 8-year period of Tatar grammar and translation courses. Findings of this
study substantiated our preliminary observations to a grate extent since we have found out that there is a
significant difference between the true/false values of single and double/multiple verb predicates. In that, the true
values of single verb predicates are %26 grater than the true values of double verb predicates. By contrast, the
false values of double or multiple verb predicates are % 26 percent grater than the false values of single verb
predicates translated into Turkish by the students.
The fact that Turkish does not rely on post verbs in terms of implementing aspectual, modal and other
linguistic categories as much as Tatar does seems to be one of the reasons why Turkish speakers have most
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difficulty in learning Tatar double/multiple verb costruction involving post verbs. In fact, despite the fact that
Turkish does have a few number of aspectual post verbs, the incidence of post verb use is limited and the
existing postverbs can only be used with a small number of lexical verbs. Besides limited use of post verbs in
Turkish, the fact that situation aspect is mostly a lexical property of a verb and its argument structure, though
some adverbial phrases may also modify or coerce the sitiuation type of a verb or a verb phrase, can be
considered another factor in Turkish students‘ translation mistakes of Tatar double/multiple verb predicates.
In our examination of translation texts used for the purpose of this study, we have seen that double verb
predicates have been translated into Turkish successfully by simply using single verbs carrying a suitable
tense/aspect/mood suffix. In some cases, telic/atelic aspectual adverbials have also been used appropriately in
Turkish translations, which were in accord with the situation type of the double/multiple verb in the original text.
This study did not address the question whether there is a meaningfull relation between true and false values of
double/multiple verb predicates and the type of postverb involved in their constructions. In other words, it was
not in the focus of this paper if any particular type of post verb sets any particular difficulty for Turkish speaking
lerners of Tatar language. Obviously, this kind of a study would require a larger body of of data having grater
number of postverbs.
References
Aksu-Koc, A.1998. The role of input vs. universal predispositions in the emergence of tense-aspect
morphology: evidence from Turkish. First Language 18, 255-80.
Aksu (Koç), A. 1978. Aspect and Modality in the Child's Acquisition of the Past Tense. PhD.
Thesis. Berkeley: California University.
Anderson, Gregory D. S. 2004. Auxiliary verb constructions in Altai-Sayan Turkic.Wiesbaden:
Harrassowitz
Andersen, R. and Shirai, Y. 1994. ―Discourse motivations for some cognitive acquisition principles‖.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16:133–156.
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The pidgin/creole connection. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.) Handbook of second language
acquisition, San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 527-570.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 2000. Tense and Aspect in Second Language Acquisition: Form, Meaning, and
Use.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 1998. Narrative structure and lexical aspect: Conspiring factors in second
language acquisition of tense–aspect morphology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition
20:
471–508.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 1992a. The use of adverbials and natural order in the development of temporal
expression. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 30: 4, 299-320.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 1992b. The relationship of form and meaning: a cross-sectional study of tense
and aspect in the interlanguage of learners of English as a second language. Applied
Psycholinguistics 13: 253–278.
Collins 2002; The Roles of L1 Influence and Lexical Aspect in the Acquisition of Temporal
Morphology. Language Learning 52:1, 43–94.
Comrie, B. 1979. Aspect. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Duff, Patricia A. and Li, D. 2002. The acquisition and use of perfective aspect in Mandarin
Salaberry and Shirai (Eds.) 2002. The L2 Acquisition of Tense-Aspect Morphology. pp. 417-453.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Ganiyev, F. A. 1963. Vidovaja Kharakteristika Glagolov Tatarskogo Iazyka. Kazan‘.
Gôkmen, S. 2004.Lexical aspect of child and adult language in Turkish and Korean. In: S.O. Lee,
S.H. You, J.Y. Han and M.E. Gôkmen (Eds.) Inquiries into Korean Linguistics I. Seoul: Thaehaksa
Press. pp.77-99.
Gôkmen, S. 2003. Çocuk dilinde hal tùrleri. Korea Journal of Islamic Culture 6, 153-232.
Gôkmen and Lee 2002. Aspects of the acquisition of past tense and telic aspect in Turkish and
Korean. Language Research 38, 1317-1347.
Li, P. and Shirai, Y. 2000. The acquisition of Lexical and Grammatical Aspect. Berlin & New York:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Nasilov, D. M. 1978. Formy vyrajeniia sposobov glagol'nogo deistviia v altaiskikh iazykakh (v sviazi
s problemoy glagol'nogo vida). In O. P. Sunik (ed.) Ocherki sravnitel'noi morfologii altaiskikh
iazykov. pp. 88-177. Leningrad.
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Olsen, Broman M.1999. Innateness and the acquisition of grammatical aspect via lexical aspect.
Proceedings of the Boston University Conference on Language Development.
Salaberry, R. & Shirai, Y. 2002. The L2 acquisition of tense-aspect morphology. In R. Salaberry &
Y. Shirai (Eds.), The L2 acquisition of tense-aspect morphology, pp. 1-20. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.
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Salaberry & Shirai (Eds.) 2002. The L2 Acquisition of Tense-Aspect Morphology. Amsterdam: John
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Smith, C. 1986. A speaker based view of aspect. Linguistics and Philosophy 9, 97-115.
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Wertheim, S. 2003. Linguistic purism, language shift, and contact-induced change in Tatar. PhD.
Diss. Berkeley: University of California.
1337
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Title
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Situation Types and Implications of Teaching Single Verb Versus Multiple Verb Constructions of Tatar to Turkish speaking Students in Higher Education
Author
Author
Güney, Fatma Şahan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The significance of verb semantics and aspectual distinctions of verbs within a specific language is obvious and relevant, as much to language acquisition (Andersen and Shirai 1996; Aksu-Koc 1978 and 1998; Gôkmen 2003 and 2004; Gôkmen and Lee 2002; Olsen 1999), as to second language acquisition (Bardovi-Harlig 1994a, 1994b, 1998 and 2000; Collins 2002; Salaberry & Shirai 2002; Slabakova 2002). Aspect, as opposed to time /tense is considered to be non-deictic (Comrie 1979: 1-3) and to involve three types of information, namely the lexical meaning of a verb, its argument and inflectional structure (Smith 1983, 1986 and 1997). Specifically, the situaiton types within aspect are important in foreign language teaching since, besides aspectual type of a single verb, the ways in expressing aspect, and in particular the situaiton types, also exhibit differences from one language to another. In Tatar, for instance, the situation types, besides other aspectual information, involve double or multiple verb constructions, which either identify or modify the aspectual type of a sentence. Both Tatar and Turkish are agglutinative languages having SOV word order, and belong to Turkic linguistic family. As opposed to Turkish which is mostly a language of single verb predicates, Tatar, though closely related to Turkish, heavily rely upon double or multiple verb constructions in order to make aspectual distincitions within clauses and distinctions of situation types in verb meaning. During the instruction of Tatar courses for more than 8 yeras, based on student homeworks, term papers and exam papers, I have observed that double verb constructions with aspectual post verbs is one point in learning Tatar grammar which students make most of their mistakes. In this paper, I am going to investigate if there are any meaningful differences between the levels of learning single verb constructions on one hand and double or multiple verb ones with aspectual post verbs on the other. In this regard, the preliminary findings point out to the fact that the learning of double/multiple verb constructions with aspectual post verbs by Turkish speaking students, who do not have paralel constructions in their native language, are less successfull in comparison to the learning of single verb perdicates.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2eb055604eb35ffc7c74189c0799970a.pdf
cd0570de136511423bdc4343c9030bbb
PDF Text
Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
OYUN VE BULMACA ETKĠNLĠKLERĠYLE YABANCILARA TÜRKÇE
KELĠME ÖĞRETĠM YÖNTEMĠ
Ahmet Gürdal
International Burch University, Eğitim Fakùltesi,
Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenliği Bôlùmù,
Saraybosna, Bosna-Hersek
ahmedim64@gmail.com
Mustafa Arslan
International Burch University, Eğitim Fakùltesi,
Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenliği Bôlùmù,
Saraybosna, Bosna-Hersek
marslan@ibu.edu.ba
Özet: Makalenin amacı oyun ve bulmaca etkinlikleriyle yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime
ôğretim yôntemlerini açıklamaktır. Yabancı dillerin kelime ôğretiminde ôğrenci
motivasyonun sağlanması için oyun ve benzeri etkinliklere sıkça yer verilmektedir.
Yabancıların hızlı ve kalıcı bir Ģekilde Tùrkçe kelimeleri ôğrenmelerini sağlamak
amacıyla ilgili çalıĢmalar incelenmiĢ, oyun ve bulmaca yôntemi ùzerine dikkatler
çekilmiĢtir. Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretenler ôzellikle kelime ôğretiminde bu çalıĢmada
açıklanan etkinlikleri test ederek konuyla ilgili tecrùbelerini geliĢtirebilirler.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Bulmaca ve Oyun Yôntemi, Kelime Öğretimi, Yabancılara Tùrkçe
Öğretimi
GiriĢ
Kelime ôğretimi, yabancı dil ôğretiminin ônemli unsurlarından biridir. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde kelime
ôğretim teknikleri ùzerine birçok çalıĢma yapılmıĢtır. Bu çalıĢmaların en ônemli amacı, ‗ikinci dil edinenlere en
hızlı ve kalıcı bir Ģekilde kelimeler nasıl ôğretilebilir?‘ sorusuna yanıt bulmaktır.
Bireyin kendini ifade edip iletiĢim kurabilmesi için yeterli kelime dağarcığına sahip olması
gerekmektedir (Özbay ve Melanlıoğlu, 2008). Yabancı dil ôğrenenler, ne kadar çok kelime bilirlerse, o kadar
ôğrendikleri dilde iletiĢime geçebilirler. Kelimelerin yabancı dil ôğrenenlere farklı yôntemlerle ôğretilip,
kelimeleri kavramaları sağlanmalıdır.
Dil ôğretiminde oyunlar ve bulmacalar derse ve iletiĢime çeĢitlilik katarken dersi daha ilginç ve
eğlenceli hale getirir (Kaya ve Yapıcı, 2007). Bu tùr aktiviteler farklı zekâ tùrlerine sahip kiĢilerin derse olan
ilgisini artırdığı gibi kalıcı ôğrenmeyi de sağlamaktadır.
Bu çalıĢmada oyun ve bulmaca etkinlikleriyle yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretim yôntemleri ùzerinde
durulmuĢ, ilgili kaynaklar incelenerek bu bağlamda konu açıklanmaya çalıĢılmıĢtır.
1. Oyunla Kelime Öğretimi
―Sôzcùklerin ôğretilmesi için uzun bir sùreç gerekir. Ġlk duyulduğunda kısa sùreli belleğe alınan
sôzcùkler, uzun sùreli belleğe aktarılmazlarsa çabuk unutulurlar‖ (Çetinkaya, 2005). Öğretilmesi hedeflenen
kelimeler ne kadar farklı etkinliklerle ôğrencilere kavratılırsa ôğrenme de o kadar kalıcı olacaktır. Yabancı dil
ôğretiminde oyunlarla her yaĢ grubundaki bireylere kelime ôğretilebilir ancak farklı yaĢ grupları için farklı
yôntemler kullanılmalıdır. Genel olarak bu oyunlar telaffuz ve sôzcùk bilgisini daha iyi pekiĢtirmek için sınıf
içinde uygulanan etkinliklerdir (Demirel, 2008). Uzun bir sùrede ôğretilebilecek bir kelimeyi oyunla daha kısa
bir zamanda ve meraklandırarak ôğretmek mùmkùndùr. Oyun etkinlikleriyle yabancı dil ôğrenenler kelimeleri
farkında olmadan edinirler.
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1.1 Yabancılara Türkçe Kelime Öğretiminde Kullanılan Oyunlar
Yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretiminde oyunlar etkin olarak kullanılmalıdır. Kelimelerin daha hızlı
ôğretilmesi ve kalıcı belleğe aktarılması amacıyla sınıf içinde uygulanabilecek oyun tùrleri Ģunlardır:
1.1.1 Adam Asmaca
Bu kelime oyunu grup halinde oynanabildiği gibi iki ôğrenci arasında da oynanabilmektedir. Grup
halinde oynanması durumunda ôğretmen sınıftaki ôğrenci sayısına gôre sınıfı gruplara bôlmelidir.
Adam asmaca oyunu için bulunması hedeflenen kelimenin harfleri adedince tahtaya kutucuklar
çizilmelidir. Kutucukların içine ônceden bazı ipucu harfler yazılmalıdır. Öğrenciler kutucukta yazılan kelimeyi
bulmak için sırasıyla harf sôylemelidirler. YanlıĢ sôyledikleri her harf için asılacak adamın bir parçası çizilir
(Bk. Resim 1.1). Öğrenciler çôp adamı astırmadan doğru kelimeleri sôyleyerek hedef kelimeyi tahmin
etmelidirler. Bu oyun ôğrencilerin Tùrkçedeki sesleri ve sembolleri daha iyi tanımalarını ve kelime bilgilerini
geliĢtirmelerini sağlar (Dumanlı, 2007).
Örnek:
K
T
K
Resim 1.1 Adam asmaca oyununun çizgi hâli.
1.1.2 Bilen Oturur
Bu oyun eĢanlamlı ve zıt anlamlı kelimelerin kavratılmasında etkin olarak kullanılmalıdır. Öğretmen, eĢ
anlamlı veya zıt anlamlı kelimeleri tahtaya yazmalıdır. Sınıftaki bùtùn ôğrencileri ayağa kaldırmalı ve tahtadaki
eĢ anlamlı veya zıt anlamlı kelimelerin zıddını veya eĢanlamlısını sırayla ôğrencilere sormalıdır. Doğru yanıtı
veren ayaktaki ôğrenci yerine oturur. Tahtadaki bùtùn kelimelerin eĢ ve zıt anlamlıları bulunana kadar etkinlik
devam eder (TaĢdemir, vd. 2003a).
Örnek:
EĢanlamlılar
Siyah
Beyaz
Bùyùk
Anı
Çabuk
Zıt Anlamlılar
Sıcak
Uzun
Kùçùk
Sert
YanlıĢ
1.1.3 Son Harften Kelime Türetme
Son Harften Yeni Kelime Türetme Oyunu için iki ôğrenci tahtaya kaldırılmalıdır. Ġlk ôğrencinin
sôyleyeceği kelimenin son harfiyle ikinci ôğrenci ônceden belirlenen bir sùre içinde yeni bir kelime tùretmeye
çalıĢmalıdır. Aynı kelime iki defa sôylenmemelidir. Her yeni kelime için ikinci ôğrencinin hanesine puan yazılır.
Bu uygulama ile ôğrenciler kelimelerin sôyleniĢlerini tekrar ederek pekiĢtirirler.
Örnek:
Ali
Kalem
Ayak
ġehir
Az
Nilüfer
Masa
KardeĢ
Rùya
Zil
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1.1.4 Kelime Türetme
Oyunun amacı karıĢık olarak verilen harflerden en uzun kelimeyi tùretmektir. Öğretmen tahtaya karıĢık
olarak harfler yazılmalı ve sınıfı iki gruba ayırmalıdır. Belirlenen sùrede verilen harflerden en uzun ve doğru
kelimeyi tùreten grup tùretilen kelimedeki harf adetince puan kazanır. Gruplar en uzun kelimeyi bulmak için
isterlerse bir joker harf de kullanabilirler. Öğrencilerin bu etkinlikle Tùrkçe sesleri, yazılıĢlarını ve kelimeleri
daha iyi tanımaları sağlanmıĢ olur (Yalın, 2005).
Örnek:
K-A-M-S-T-R-C-E ?(Joker)
A grubu
B grubu
H -A-S-R-E-T
R-E-S-Ġ-M
H harfi joker
Ġ harfi joker
1.1.5 EĢini Bul
EĢini bul oyunu için iki takım resimli ve isimlerin yazılmıĢ olduğu kùçùk kartlardan faydalanılmalıdır
(Bk. Resim 1.2). Bu resimler karıĢtırılarak iki ôğrenciye eĢit olarak paylaĢtırılmalıdır. Oyuna baĢlayan
ôğrencinin ortaya koyduğu kart diğer ôğrencide varsa yerdeki kartı alır. En çok kart toplayan ôğrenci baĢarılı
olur. Gôrsel içerikli kartlar yardımıyla ôğrencilerin dikkatleri kelimelere çekilir ve bu kelimeler pekiĢtirilir
(MEGEP, 2007a).
Resim 1.2 EĢini bul oyununun resimli kartları.
1.1.6 Meslek Bulma
Öğretmen daha ônce ôğretmiĢ olduğu meslek isimlerinin yazılı olduğu kâğıtları ôğrencilere
dağıtmalıdır. Öğrenciler bu kâğıtları ellerinde tutmalıdırlar. Öğretmen, ôğrencilere dağıttığı kâğıtlardaki
meslekleri iki ôğrenciye buldurmak için ipucu cùmleler sôylemelidir. Öğretmenin verdiği ipucu cùmlelerle
dağıtılan kâğıttaki kelimeyi bulan ôğrenci diğer mesleği de bulma hakkını elde eder. En çok mesleği bulan
ôğrenci etkinliği baĢarmıĢ sayılır. Öğrencilerin iĢittiklerini anlama ve muhakeme becerilerini geliĢtirmek
bakımından bu etkinliklere sıkça yer verilmelidir (Gùrbùz, 2004).
Örnek:
Doktor
Hastanede çalıĢır.
Hastaları tedavi eder.
Beyaz ônlùk giyer.
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Türkçe Öğretmeni
Okulda çalıĢır.
Ders anlatır.
Tùrkçe ôğretir.
1.1.7 Hadi Anlat Bakalım
Öğrencilerin konuĢma becerisini geliĢtirmek için ôğretmen bu etkinliği zaman zaman uygulamalıdır.
Öğretmen, sınıfı A ve B olmak ùzere iki gruba bôlmelidir. Gruptan bazı ôğrenciler sôzcù olarak belirlenmelidir.
Öğretmen, anlatılacak kelimeyi sessizce sôzcùnùn kulağına sôylemeli ve sôzcùğù anlatması için bir dakika sùre
vermelidir. Verilen sùrede sôzcù mimikleriyle ve beden dili yardımıyla kelimeyi anlatmaya çalıĢmalıdır. Verilen
sùrede ilk grup kelimeyi bilemezse ikinci gruba sôz hakkı verilir. En çok puanı alan grup ôğretmen tarafından
değiĢik Ģekillerde ôdùllendirilebilir (Demir, 2009).
1.1.8 Nazlı‘nın Kedisi
Nazlı‘nın Kedisi Oyunu‘nda ôğretmen ôncelikle ôrnek bir cùmle yazmalı ve Nazlı‘nın kedisine ait bir
ôzelliği vurgulamalıdır. Sôylediği ôzelliğin baĢ harfiyle baĢlayan yeni ôzellikler ôğrenciler tarafından
sôylenmelidir. En çok yeni ôzelliği bulan ôğrenci etkinliği baĢarıyla tamamlar. Oyun gruplar hâlinde de
uygulanabilir. Sıfatların kavratılması açısından bu etkinlik ôğrencilerin ilgisini çekecektir (Ġzgôren, 1999a).
Örnek:
Öğretmen: Nazlı‘nın kedisi çok zekidir.
Öğrenci: Nazlı‘nın kedisi çok zariftir.
Öğrenci: Nazlı‘nın kedisi çok zayıftır.
1.1.9 BaĢ Harfleri BirleĢtir
Öğretmen, bir kelime sôylemeli ve ôğrenciler bu kelimenin harflerini kullanarak yeni sôzcùkler
tùretmelidir. Bu kelimeleri kullanarak tùretilen yeni kelimeler yukarıdan aĢağıya sıralandığında baĢ harfleri
ôğretmenin verdiği ilk kelimenin harf sırasına uygun olmalıdır. Bu etkinlik daha çok gruplar oluĢturularak
yapılmalıdır. Öğrenciler bu aktivitelerle karĢılıklı olarak yeni kelimeleri ve telaffuzlarını ôğrenerek kelime
haznelerini geliĢtirirler (Ġzgôren, 1999b).
Örnek:
PENCERE
Pazar
Ev
Nar
Ceviz
Erik
Resim
El
1.1.10 Kelimelerle Beyin Fırtınası
Öğrencilere verilen bir kelimeyi çağrıĢtıran yakın kelimeleri sôylemeleri esasına dayanan bir etkinliktir.
Verilen kelimeyi anımsatan en çok sôzcùğù sôyleyen ôğrenci bu etkinliği baĢarıyla tamamlamıĢ olur (Bk. Resim
1.3). Bir bağlam çerçevesinde ôğrencilerin kelime bilgileri geliĢtirilir (TaĢdemir, vd. 2003b).
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Resim 1.3 Beyin fırtınası oyunuyla ilgili Ģekil.
1.1.11 Nesi Var?
Sınıftan ôğretmenin belirlediği bir ôğrenci sınıf dıĢına çıkarılmalıdır. Sınıftaki bùtùn ôğrenciler bir
kelime ùzerinde anlaĢmalı sonra dıĢarı gônderilen ôğrenci sınıfa davet edilmelidir. Seçilen ôğrenci, sınıf
tarafından belirlenen kelimeyi bulmak için ‗Nesi var?‘ Ģeklinde sınıfa sorular yôneltmelidir. Seçilen ôğrenci
gizlenen kelimeyi soru-cevap yôntemiyle tahmin etmeye çalıĢmalıdır. Bu etkinlikte soru–cevap metodunun
kullanılmasıyla ôğrencilerin konuĢma ve kelimeleri kullanma becerileri geliĢtirilir (MEGEP, 2007b).
Örnek:
Sınıftaki ôğrenciler, kapı kelimesi ùzerinde anlaĢmıĢlardır.
Seçilen ôğrenci sınıftaki ôğrencilere ‗Nesi var?‘ Ģeklinde sorular yôneltir.
Öğrenciler:
—
Kolu var.
—
Nesi var?
—
Açılıp kapanır.
—
Nesi var?
—
Anahtarı var.
1.1.12 Kulaktan Kulağa
Öğretmen, sıradaki ôğrencinin kulağına bir kelime fısıldamalı ve kelimeyi duyan ôğrenci hızla
yanındaki diğer ôğrencinin kulağına hedef kelimeyi doğru olarak telaffuz etmelidir. Öğretmen, en son ôğrenciye
gelindiğinde kulaktan kulağa sôylenen kelimenin doğruluğunu kontrol eder. Bu etkinlikle ôğrencilerin dinleme
ve telaffuz becerileri geliĢtirilir (MEB Özel Tevfik Fikret Okulları, 2010).
1.1.13 Zıddını Söyle
Sınıftaki A grubuna ônceden belirlenen sıfatlar yazılarak dağıtılmalıdır. Sınıftaki B grubuna ise A
grubuna dağıtılan sıfatların tam zıtları yazılarak dağıtılmalıdır. Öğretmen A grubundaki bir ôğrenciye sôz
vererek elindeki sıfatlardan birini sôylemesini ister. A grubundaki ôğrencinin sôylemiĢ olduğu kelimenin tam
zıddı olan B grubundaki ôğrenci el kaldırarak kendini belli eder. Yeni sıfatı sôyleme hakkı B grubundaki
ôğrenciye geçmiĢ olur. Bu tùr etkinlikler ôğrencilerin telaffuzlarını geliĢtirir ve dildeki gramer yapılarını
tanımalarını sağlar (Altun, 2010).
Örnek:
A Grubu
Acele
YavaĢ
Acı
Ön
B Grubu
Cahil
Korkak
Dolu
Batı
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1.1.14 Evet-Hayır
Öğretmen, ôğrencilerin ônceden ôğrendikleri kelimelerden yazarak bir kutuya koymalı ve seçtiği
ôğrenciden bu sôzcùklerden birini çekmesini istemelidir. Öğrencinin çektiği kelimeyi sınıftaki diğer ôğrenciler,
sorular yardımıyla tahmin etmeye çalıĢmalıdırlar. Seçilen ôğrenci Evet veya Hayır Ģeklinde cevaplar verir.
Doğru kelimeyi bulan ôğrenci kutudan yeni sôzcùk çekme hakkını kazanır. Bu etkinlikle ôğrencilerin soru-cevap
metoduyla Tùrkçe konuĢma becerileri geliĢtirilmiĢ olur (TaĢdemir, vd. 2003c).
Örnek:
Tahtaya kalkan ôğrenci elma kelimesini masadaki kutudan çekmiĢ olsun.
— Bu kitap mı?
— Hayır.
— Bu muz mu?
— Hayır.
— Bu gôz mù?
— Hayır.
— Bu elma mı?
— Evet.
1.1.15 Bingo
Yeni ôğretilecek veya tekrar edilmek istenen 15-20 kelime ôğretmen tarafından tahtaya yazılmalıdır.
Öğretmen, ôğrencilerden tahtada yazılı olan kelimelerden beĢ tanesini seçip defterlerine yazmasını istemelidir
(Bk. Resim 1.4). Öğretmen, tahtadaki kelimelerden rastgele birini sôyler ve ôğretmenin sôylediği kelime,
defterinde yazılı olan ôğrenci Bingo Ģeklinde seslenir ve defterindeki o kelimenin ùstùnù çizer. Defterindeki
bùtùn kelimeleri bingo yapan ôğrenci etkinliği birincilikle tamamlamıĢ olur. Bingo oyunu ôğrencilerin
telaffuzlarını geliĢtirir, dil ôğretiminin renklenmesi ve ôğrencilerin motive olması bakımından ônemli bir
etkinliktir (MEB Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu BaĢkanlığı, 2006).
Resim 1.4 Bingo oyununda tahtaya yazılan kelimeleri gôsteren Ģekil.
Öğrencinin defterine yazdığı kelimeler:
Patlıcan
Elma
Portakal
Salatalık
ViĢne
1.1.16 Tombala
Tombala oyunu ôğrencinin gôrsel ve iĢitsel belleğini geliĢtirici bir etkinliktir. Öğretmen birçok
sôzcùğùn resminden oluĢan bir kart oluĢturmalıdır (Bk. Resim 1.5). Bu kartı çoğaltarak bùtùn sınıfa dağıtmalıdır.
Bu kartta bulunan resimlerin kelimelerini kùçùk kâğıtlara yazarak bir kutu veya torbaya koymalıdır. Öğretmenin
kutu veya torbadan rastgele çektiği kelimenin resmi bulunan ôğrenciler, o resmin ùzerini kùçùk bir kâğıtla
kapatmalıdırlar. Bu Ģekilde karttaki bùtùn resimleri ilk kapatan ôğrenci birinci olur (KKTC Milli Eğitim ve
Kùltùr Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi Mùdùrlùğù, 2009).
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Resim 1.5 Tombala oyununun kartı.
1.1.17 Ġsimlere Sıfat Bulma
Öğrencilerin Tùrkçedeki sôz varlığını tanımaları bakımından bu etkinlik ônemlidir. Sınıf dôrt gruba
ayrılmalı ve grupların baĢına bir baĢkan seçilmelidir. BaĢkan grupta oyunun yôneticisi olarak bir isim sôylemeli
ve arkadaĢlarından bu isme sıfat bulmalarını istemelidir. Sırası gelen ôğrenci doğru sôylenen isme doğru bir sıfat
sôylerse ônceden belirlenen puanı kazanır. Grupta en çok puanı alan ôğrenci, o grubun birincisi olur (Ġzgôren,
1999c).
Örnek:
Ayakkabı- eski, yeni, gùzel, kirli
Hava- soğuk, sıcak, kapalı, açık
Elbise- temiz, renkli, siyah, eski
1.1.18 Alfabe Çorbası
Sınıf dôrt gruba bôlùnmeli ve her grubun bir sôzcùsù seçilmelidir. Öğretmen bir harf sôylemeli ve 20
saniye sùre tutarak bu zaman içinde sôylenen harfle baĢlayan kelimeler tùretilmesini istemelidir. En çok kelimeyi
tùreten grup, tùrettiği kelime adetince belirlenen puanı kazanır. Bu etkinlikle ôğrenciler Tùrkçedeki sesleri ve
kelimeleri daha iyi tanırlar.
Örnek:
K
Kalem
Kedi
Kurt
Kulak
Kibrit
1.1.19 Bak ve Yaz
Bu etkinlik ôğrencilerin doğru yazma becerilerini geliĢtirir. Öğretmen, ôğrencilerden projeksiyon
vasıtasıyla yansıtılan resimlerin isimlerini defterlerine yazmasını istemelidir. Gôsterilen resimdeki kelimelerin
isimlerini doğru yazan ôğrenciler ôğretmen tarafından ôdùllendirerek motive edilirler.
2. Bulmacayla Kelime Öğretimi
Bulmacayla kelime ôğretim yôntemi ôğrencilerin ilgilerini ôğrenilen dildeki kelimeler ùzerine
yoğunlaĢtıran bir yôntemdir. Dolayısıyla bulmaca yôntemi ôğrencilerin eğlenerek yeni kelimeler ôğrenmelerini
ve ôğrenilenleri tekrar etmelerini sağlar. Bu metotla yabancı dil olarak Tùrkçe ôğrenenlerin daha çok dikkatleri
derse çekilmiĢ olur. Bulmacayla kelime ôğretim yôntemiyle kelimelerin zihinde kalıcılığı artırılır. Bulmacayla
yabancılara kelime ôğretiminde kullanılabilecek aktiviteler Ģu Ģekilde gruplandırılmıĢtır:
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2.1. Kare Bulmaca
Kare bulmaca yôntemi yabancı dillerin kelime ôğretiminde en çok kullanılan etkinliktir. Yabancılara
Tùrkçe kelime ôğretiminde kullanılmak ùzere ôğrencilerin seviyelerine uygun olarak kare bulmacalar
hazırlanmalıdır. Genel olarak kare bulmacalar sağdan sola veya yukarıdan aĢağıya Ģeklindedir (Bk. Resim 2.1).
Kare bulmacayı çôzmeye istenilen yerden veya istenilen sorudan baĢlanabilir. Kare bulmacayla kelime ôğretim
yônteminde bazı sùtunlarda iki soru vardır. Birinci soru a ikinci soru b olarak belirtilmiĢtir.
Kare bulmaca temel seviye Tùrkçe ôğrenen ôğrenciler için daha basit ve anlayabilecekleri seviyede
olmalıdır. Öğrencileri sùrùkleyebilmek için birinci sorular ôğrencinin bildiği basit kelimelerden seçilmelidir.
Kare bulmacanın ilk ôrneğini ôğretmen ôğrencilerle sınıfta birlikte çôzmelidir. Evde veya boĢ zamanlarında
çôzmeleri için ôğrencilere hazır kare bulmacalar verilmelidir. Kare bulmaca yôntemi ôğrencilerin ôğrendikleri
kelimeleri tekrarlamalarını ve yeni kelimeler ôğrenmelerini sağlar (Karatay, 2007).
Resim 2.1 Kare bulmacanın resmi.
Soldan sağa
1. Bir yapıya girmeyi sağlayan veya odaları birleĢtiren ince uzun geçit.
2. a. Binme, yùk çekme ve taĢıma gibi hizmetlerde kullanılan tek tırnaklı bir hayvan.
b.
Bir
soru
3. Yakın kelimesinin zıttı.
4. a. KiĢiler veya nesneler arasında bağlantı sağlayan Ģey, vasıta.
b. Bir nota.
5.
Bir
ağaç
6. a. BaĢımızı kaplayan kıllara ne ad verilir?
b.
Çok
kelimesinin
7.
Beyaz
kelimesinin
sıfatı.
tùrù.
zıttı.
eĢanlamlısı.
Yukarıdan aĢağıya
1. .....lem yazı yazmak için kullandığımız aracın ilk iki harfi.
2. Evin bir bôlùmù ................... odası.
3. ........m bir malın fiyatını artırmaya ne ad verilir. Ġlk iki harfini boĢluklara yazınız.
4. Hastalanınca doktor reçeteye ne yazar?
5. Çakmak fiilinin emir halini yazınız.
6. a. Bir sayı.
b. Tùrk halk mùziğinde kullanılan, gôvdesi ağaçtan oyularak yapılmıĢ, telli, uzun saplı çalgı, bağlama.
7. Varlıkların, doğadaki gôrùnùĢlerinin kalem, fırça gibi araçlarla kâğıt, bez vb. ùzerinde yapılan biçimlere ne
ad
verilir?
2.2. Sarmal Bulmaca
Sarmal bulmacada hedef kelimelerin kimi harfleri bulmacanın içerisine yerleĢtirilmelidir. Öğrenciler
bu harflerden hareket ederek ilgili kelimeyi bulmaya çalıĢmalıdırlar. Bulmacada numaralandırılan boĢluklara
gelecek kelimelerin ipuçları verilmelidir (Bk. Resim 2.2). Öğretmenin birinci ipucunu okuyarak ilk ôrnek
uygulamayı kendisi yapmalıdır. Öğrencilere evde kendilerinin dolduracakları hazır sarmal bulmacalardan
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verilmelidir. Bu tùr alıĢtırmalarla ôğrencilerin okuduklarını anlama ve okuduklarından sonuca varma becerileri
geliĢtirilir (GùmùĢ, 2010).
Örnek:
Ġpuçları:
1. Elbise diker.
2. Meyve ve sebze satar.
3. Ekmek yapar ve satar.
4. Ders anlatır.
5. Ev kadını.
6. Hastaları tedavi eder.
7. Uçak ve helikopter kullanır.
8. Araba sùrer.
Resim 2.2 Sarmal bulmacanın resmi.
2.3. Kelime Avı
Kelime avında ôğretilmesi hedeflenen kelimeler ônceden tespit edilmelidir. Öğrenciler, karıĢık harf
tablosundan soldan sağa, sağdan sola, yukarıdan aĢağıya ve aĢağıdan yukarıya çizerek ilgili kelimeleri bulmaya
çalıĢırlar (Bk. Resim 2.3). Kelime avı etkinliği ilk olarak ôğretmen kontrolùnde sınıfta uygulanmalıdır. Öğrenci
çalıĢma kitabında bulunan benzer ôrnek, ôğrenciler tarafından çôzùlmelidir. Bu aktiviteyle ôğrencilerin
kelimeleri daha iyi tanımaları sağlanır ve okuma-yazma becerileri geliĢtirilir (ġengùl ve Akçin, 2010).
Resim 2.3 Kelime avıyla ilgili bulmaca resmi (Öztùrk, vd. 2010).
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2.4. Sözcük YerleĢtirme
Sôzcùk yerleĢtirme etkinliğinde iki sôzcùk bulmacanın içine yerleĢtirilmelidir. Bu sôzcùklerden hareket
ederek ônceden belirlenen diğer sôzcùklerin doğru bir Ģekilde boĢ karelere yerleĢtirilmesi sağlanır (Bk. Resim
2.4). Öğretmen ilk uygulamayı kendisi yapmalıdır. Amaç kelimelerin doğru yerleĢtirilerek ôğrenci dikkatinin
kelime ùzerine çekilmesidir. Bu alıĢtırmayla ôğrencilerin harf-kelime analizi yapmaları ve kelimeleri daha iyi
tanımaları sağlanır (YıldızbaĢ ve Parlakyıldız, 2004).
Resim 2.4 Sôzlùk yerleĢtirme bulmacasının resmi (Tural, 2010).
2.5. Nesne Bulmaca
Nesne bulmaca sadece bilgisayar ortamında uygulanabilen bir etkinliktir. Amaç bilgisayar ekranının sağ
tarafında verilen kelimeleri ekranın sol tarafındaki sınıfta bulunan eĢyalarla doğru olarak eĢleĢtirmektir (Bk.
Resim 2.5). Doğru tıklanan nesne için ôğrenci belli bir puan kazanır veya yanlıĢ tıklamada puan kaybeder.
Tekrar oyna butonuna tıklandığında ekranın sağ tarafında farklı kelimeler yer alır. Projeksiyon yardımıyla grup
etkinlikleri de yapılabilir. Öğrenciler, gôrdùkleri somut nesneleri daha çabuk kavrarlar (MEB Tebliğler Dergisi,
2000).
Resim 2.5 Nesne bulmacadan bir gôrùntù (Öztùrk, vd. 2007).
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2.6. Resimli Bulmaca
Rakamla belirtilen eĢya veya nesnelerin adının kutucuklara doğru yazılmasıyla gerçekleĢtirilen bir
etkinliktir (Bk. Resim 2.6). Bu aktivite ôğrencilerin kendi kendilerine kolaylıkla uygulayabilecekleri bir
yôntemdir. Resimli bulmacalarda gôrsel duyular harekete geçirilir ve ôğrencilerin ôğrenilen kelimeleri kolay
anımsamaları sağlanır. Ayrıca bu aktiviteyle ôğrencilerin yazma becerileri geliĢtirilir (DemirbaĢ, vd. 2010).
Resim 2.6 Resimli bulmacaya ait bir uygulama.
2.7. Piramit Bulmaca
Piramit bulmacadaki amaç ortasında O harfi olan kelimeleri yazmaktır (Bk. Resim 2.7). Öğretmen
farklı harflerin kullanıldığı ôrnek piramit bulmacalar hazırlamalıdır. Öğretmen, hazır piramit bulmacalarından
birini bùtùn ôğrencilere dağıtmalı ve bulmacayı çôzdùrmelidir. Piramit bulmaca yôntemi, sınıfta gruplar
oluĢturularak da uygulanabilir. Piramit bulmaca, ôğrencilerin kelime hazinelerini yoklamak ve yeni kelimeler
ôğrenmelerini sağlamak bakımından ônemlidir.
Resim 2.7 Piramit bulmacaya ait bir uygulama.
2.8. Resimli Kare Bulmaca
Resimli kare bulmaca bilgisayar ortamında uygulanabilen bir aktivitedir. Resimli kare bulmaca farklı
konular ùzerinde hazırlanabilir. Bulmacada soldan sağa ve yukarıdan aĢağıya olmak ùzere sorular
bulunmaktadır. Bulmacayı çôzebilmek için kutudaki sayıların ùzerine tıklanmalıdır. Örneğin, bir yazan sayıya
tıklandığında iki resim ekrana gelir. Birinci resim soldan sağa yazılacak alanla ilgilidir. Resimdeki nesnenin adı
boĢluğa yazılmalı ve tamam butonu tıklanmalıdır. Ġkinci resimde bulunan nesnenin adı ise hemen yanındaki
boĢluğa yazılıp tamam butonu tıklanmalıdır (Bk. Resim 2.8). Bulmacayı çôzen kelimeyi hatırlayamazsa ipucu
butonuna tıklandığında ilk harf ipucu olarak verilir. Etkinlik tamamlandıktan sonra Kontrol et butonuna
tıklandığında doğru ve yanlıĢlar gôsterilir. YanlıĢ cevapların tekrar yapılması gerektiği uyarısı ekrana yansır.
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Teknolojik eğitim araçlarıyla gerçekleĢtirilen aktiviteler ôğrencilerin ilgilerini konuya çekmektedir. Bu
bakımdan resimli kare bulmaca yôntemiyle ôğrencilere Tùrkçe kelimeler ôğretmek onların kelimeleri isteyerek
ôğrenmelerini sağlayacaktır.
Resim 2.8 Resimli kare bulmacaya ait bir gôrùntù.
2.9. Bu Nedir?
Bu alıĢtırmada son harfi verilen varlıkların, eĢyaların ve kavramların ipuçlarıyla bulunması amaçlanır.
Öğrenciler numaralandırılmıĢ beyaz kutuları doldurmak için ônce verilen ipuçlarını okumalıdırlar. Verilen ipucu
yardımıyla son harfi K olan varlığın, eĢyanın veya kavramın ismini boĢluklara yazmalıdırlar (Bk. Resim 2.9). Bu
etkinlik sınıfta gruplar oluĢturularak da uygulanabilir. Öğrencilerin bu alıĢtırmalarla kelimeleri doğru yazma ve
okuduklarını anlama becerileri geliĢtirilir.
Resim 2.9 ‗Bu nedir?‘ bulmacasına ait bir uygulama.
Ġpuçları:
1. Sùtùnù içtiğimiz hayvan.
2. K harfi ile baĢlayan bir sebze.
3. Acıkınca yapılan Ģey.
4. Kesmeye yarayan alet.
5. Yemek yerken kullanılır.
6. Yemek yemek için kullanılan kap.
7. Yemek yapmak için kullanılır.
8. Su içmekte kullanılır.
9. Temel gıda maddesi. Undan yapılır.
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10. Yemekten sonra geriye kalan kirli Ģeyler.
11. Ağaçların solunum yapan yeĢil gôrùnùmlù kısmı.
12. Uyuma veya dinlenmek amacıyla ùzerine yatılan eĢya.
2.10. Hatırlatmaca
Belirlenen kelimelerle baĢka kelimeleri çağrıĢtırmayı hedefleyen bir aktivitedir. NumaralandırılmıĢ
kelime gruplarının anımsattığı yeni sôzcùk bulmacadaki ilgili boĢluğa yazılmalıdır (Bk. Resim 2.10).
Öğrencilere alıĢtırmanın nasıl uygulandığı ayrıntılı olarak açıklanmalıdır. Hazırlanan ôrnek bulmaca sınıfta
ôğrencilerle birlikte çôzùlmelidir. Öğrenciler bu aktivite ile kelimeleri bir bağlam içerisinde ôğrenirler.
Resim 2.10 Hatırlatmaca bulmacaya ait bir uygulama.
Sonuç
Yabancı dil ôğretiminde sınıf içi ôğrenmenin monotonluktan kurtarılmasında sınıf içi oyunlar ve
bulmaca etkinlikleri ôğrenmeyi olumlu olarak etkilemekte ve bilinenleri uygulama imkânı sunmaktadır
(Demirel, 1978). Oyun ve bulmacayla kelime ôğretim yôntemi, ôğrencilerin derse olan ilgilerini artırmakta ve
ôğrencilerin yaparak, yaĢayarak ôğrenmelerini sağlamaktadır. Yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretimi ùzerinde
çalıĢan eğitimciler, bu tùr etkinliklerden derslerinde azami derecede istifade etmelidirler.
Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretme amacı ile hazırlanan ders kitaplarında ve çalıĢma kitaplarında oyun ve
bulmaca bôlùmù mutlaka olmalıdır. Bu konuda en dikkat çeken yayın, Dilset Yayınlarıdır. Bu tùr çalıĢmalara
diğer yayınlar da kitaplarında daha çok yer vermelidir.
Yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretiminde kullanılabilecek bulmaca kitaplarının olmaması bùyùk bir
eksikliktir. Bu tùr bulmaca kitapları diğer dillerin kelime ôğretiminde etkin olarak kullanılmaktadır.
Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretenlerin, oyun ve bulmacalarla alakalı hazırlamıĢ oldukları çalıĢmaları
paylaĢabilecekleri bir sosyal paylaĢım sitesi kurulmalı ve bu Ģekilde bilgi ve tecrùbe paylaĢımı sağlanmalıdır.
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OYUN VE BULMACA ETKĠNLĠKLERĠYLE YABANCILARA TÜRKÇE KELĠME ÖĞRETĠM YÖNTEMĠ
Author
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Gürdal, Ahmet
Arslan, Mustafa
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Makalenin amacı oyun ve bulmaca etkinlikleriyle yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretim yôntemlerini açıklamaktır. Yabancı dillerin kelime ôğretiminde ôğrenci motivasyonun sağlanması için oyun ve benzeri etkinliklere sıkça yer verilmektedir. Yabancıların hızlı ve kalıcı bir Ģekilde Tùrkçe kelimeleri ôğrenmelerini sağlamak amacıyla ilgili çalıĢmalar incelenmiĢ, oyun ve bulmaca yôntemi ùzerine dikkatler çekilmiĢtir. Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretenler ôzellikle kelime ôğretiminde bu çalıĢmada açıklanan etkinlikleri test ederek konuyla ilgili tecrùbelerini geliĢtirebilirler.
Date
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2011-05
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9e5108e3a098b52ffc40ecee5599a778.pdf
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Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Undergraduate Level EFL Student‘s Beliefs About Language
Learning
Turgay HAN
Kafkas University, Faculty of Letters and Science,
Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, TURKEY
turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr
Hüseyin EFE
Artvin Çoruh University, Faculty of Education,
Department of English Language Education, Artvin, TURKEY
hefe@atauni.edu.tr
Muzaffer BARIN
Atatùrk University, Faculty of Letters,
Department of English Language and Literature, Erzurum, TURKEY
mbarin@atauni.edu.tr
Abstract:By providing quantitative data from the modified EFL version of Beliefs
about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI) completed by the ELT undergraduate
level students in one of the Turkish Universities, the survey was aimed to obtain
generalizable conclusions about beliefs or notions about language learning of
undergraduate level EFL students. The relationships among gender and years of
education in the ELT department, as the impacting factors, and the participants‘ scores
in the BALLI were statistically analyzed. The results were discussed in terms of the
EFL students‘ the most important beliefs and the effect size of the gender and years of
education as the variables on their beliefs about language learning.
1. Introduction
Beliefs are "psychologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that
are felt to be true" (Richardson, 1996, p.102). More specifically, the term ‗beliefs‘ about language
learning are formed based on language learners‘ past experiences, background, their own culture,
learning context, and some other personal factors (Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005). Furthermore, Puchta
(1999; pp.68-69) advocates that people understand and comprehend new information meaningfully by
depending on their experience and existing knowledge and claimed that beliefs ―are generalizations
about cause and effect, and they influence our inner representation of the world around us. They help
us to make sense of that world, and they determine how we think and how we act‖. This claim is
confirmed with a specific aspect from Horwitz (1987) who states that almost every language learner
has different beliefs or notions about learning a second language, in this respect, two foci points
emerge: firstly, some of these varying beliefs and notions are the result of students‘ previous
experience as learners learn a new language, and secondly, others are the result of their own cultural
backgrounds.
Recent research on Beliefs about language learning has focused on the interaction between second
language learners‘ individual characteristics (affective and cognitive) and learners‘ success in learning
a new language. In this respect, language learners differ in metacognitive knowledge and beliefs that
have impacts on such domains as academic learning, thinking, problem solving and logic solving
(Kardash & Scholes, 1996). Moreover, learners‘ affective characteristics are related to the language
learning capability (Schumann, 1998). Language teachers are mostly concerned with affective factors
which are the feelings toward target language culture, cognitive factors such as learners‘ language
aptitude and how they process information, and finally metacognitive factors such as language learning
strategies, study skills and beliefs about language learning (Horwitz, 2008; p.7). Flavell (1979, 1981
cited in Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005) give importance to personal knowledge which is related to a
person‘s metacognitive knowledge while learning a second language; in this context, cognitive and
affective factors which have impact on learning are the components of personal knowledge.
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Delving into the learners‘ beliefs is a must as successful learners are able to develop insightful
beliefs about language learning process and discover their learning abilities and learning strategies
which act as facilitators in learning (Bernat & Lloyd, 2007; p.79). Therefore, research on beliefs about
second language acquisition is helpful in order to investigate how languages are learned and how they
should be taught (Horwitz, 2008; p14).
Research literature on beliefs about language mostly depends on how variables such as
gender, background knowledge, age and some other factors affect learners‘ beliefs about language
learning and what sort of support should be given to learners to solve their learning problems. In this
respect, Vibulphol(2004) attempted to investigate beliefs about language learning of pre-service EFL
teachers in Thailand and any relationships between the pre-service teachers‘ beliefs about language
learning and their choices of teaching assumptions. The most important results of this study indicate
that pre-service EFL teachers in Thailand possessed similar beliefs to those of EFL learners; beliefs
about language learning were influenced by learning experience as learners, beliefs relating to the use
of English were influenced by practice teaching experience and instructional practices were influenced
by beliefs about language learning. Another study comes from Bùyùkyazı (2010; p.169) who
investigated the beliefs about language learning of 156 English as a foreign language (EFL) students
and 19 EFL teachers working at one of the Turkish universities. It was aimed to find out the beliefs of
prep-class students and the difference between students and their teachers in terms of beliefs about
language learning. The study concludes that EFL learners have a broad range of conceptions both
similar to and different from those reported by their teachers. A study from Bernat and Lloyd (2007;
p.79) investigated the relationship between beliefs about language learning and gender. It was found
that males and females held similar beliefs about language learning. On the other hand, Siebert (2003)
investigated the beliefs of males and females, and reported several significant differences with a respect
to language learning and strategies that they employ. Tercanlıoğlu (2005; p.146) also investigated the
relation between gender and beliefs of pre-service EFL students studying at one of Turkish universities
and reported that there was no significant difference among males and females. Again, Bacon and
Finnemann (1992) investigated gender relation with self reported beliefs about foreign language
learning and authentic oral and written input and it was concluded that females hold a higher level of
motivation and strategy use in language learning; moreover, females are greater users of global
strategies in dealing with authentic input and they have a higher level of social interaction with the
target language group (cited in Bùyùkyazı, 2010; p.171). To our best knowledge, although there is
some research which has investigated beliefs about language learning and other factors such as strategy
use, contextual factors, and so on, there is not a certain consensus about the issue.
This study is a replication of the former studies at a point however it diverse from others as
EFL students‘ experiences in the ELLIT department is included in the study as a variance. The results
will be discussed from a general language teacher education policy of Turkey.
The main research questions that guide this study are: What beliefs about language learning do
Turkish pre-service EFL teachers report? Are there any significant difference with regard to beliefs
about language learning between males and females? and are there any significant differences among
participants with regard to years of experience in the ELT department?
2.
Methodology
2.1. Instrument
Depending on the samples of EFL version of beliefs about language learning inventory
(BALLI) used in former studies for EFL context, it was modified for Turkish EFL students. The
BALLI includes 34 items that investigate language learners‘ beliefs and 5 domains such as language
aptitude, language learning difficulties, nature of learning a language, strategies and motivation and
expectations (Horwitz, 1987). The items in BALLI were not translated into Turkish and they were
given to students in English as it was assumed that the inventory is clear enough for the participants
and it is written in simple language. Moreover, Horwitz (2008) suggests that ―if you are teaching a
different language, you can change English to any language, or you could replace it with the phrase,
‗the language I am trying to learn‘...‖ (p.232). Therefore, Cronbach alpha was not calculated for this
study.
The BALLI includes 34 items with 5-point likert-type scale. Participants indicated their
opinions from strongly agree to strongly disagree with the statements.
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2.2. Participants
Four groups of participants of this study were selected through convenience sampling method
from one of the Turkish universities. Each group of participants is consisted of undergraduate level
students studying in different years of the Department of English Language and Literature (ELLIT).
The department is a four-year program in which students are trained to gain English teacher
qualifications and also in the subjects such as British and American literatures. Both female and male
participants‘ ages range from 18 to 22.
2.3. Data Analysis
The data obtained from the survey was statistically analyzed with the SPSS software. The
results were illustrated with tables and figures at the result part. Descriptive analysis also includes
demographic information about the participants, and correlation analysis includes the relations among
the variables such as gender, the years of experience in the ELT department and responses to the items.
3. Results
Descriptive results related to the demographic information about the participants are presented on
the table 3.1., 3.2., and 3.3.
Table 3.1. The distributions of the male and female pre-service teachers according to the years of
education in the ELLIT department.
Gender
female
male
Total
1st year
26
9
35
Years of Education
2nd year
3rd year
18
24
6
5
24
29
Total
4th year
21
6
27
89
26
115
In this paper, one of the research questions is related to the effects of gender differences on the
participants‘ beliefs in view of the fact that there is little consensus about the gender as a contributing
variable to the beliefs about language learning. Only 26 out of 115 students are males. Although, in her
study, Tercanlıoğlu (2005) supposed that gender would have some impact on Turkish pre-service
teachers‘ beliefs about language learning, the researcher reported that females and males do not differ
significantly in their beliefs about language learning. However, there are some other studies that
concluded that male and females had different level of beliefs about language learning in different
areas (Bacon & Finnemann, 1992; Siebert, 2003).
Table 3.2. Females‘ and Males‘ previous teaching experiences
No, I have
never taught
before
Gender
Total
female
29
male
6
35
Teaching Experience
Yes, I have
Yes, I have
Yes, I have
taught both as
been an
taught in a
an individual
individual
tutor center
tutor and in a
tutor
tutor center
36
7
14
15
51
3
10
2
16
Others
Total
3
89
0
3
26
115
Table 3.2. indicates the pre-service teachers‘ teaching experiences in any field which are
thought to be potentially effective in forming their beliefs about language learning before being inservice teachers. About 23% of the males have reported that they had not had any teaching experience
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whereas nearly 33% of the females have no experience in teaching any subject. As these figures are
similar, the teaching experience of the participants was not included in this study.
Table 3.3. Participants‘ responses to the ―foreign language aptitude‖ items
FOREIGN LANGUAGE APTITUDE
item1. It is easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language.
item 2. Some people have a special ability for learning foreign languages
such as English.
item 3. Turkish people are good at learning foreign languages.
item 4. It is easier for someone who already speaks a foreign language to
learn another one.
item 5. People who are good at mathematics or science are not good at
learning foreign languages.
item 6.I have a special ability for learning foreign languages.
item 7. Women are better than men at learning foreign languages.
item 8. People who speak more than one language are intelligent.
item 9. Everyone can learn to speak a foreign language.
disagree
2,6
6,9
neutral
1,7
5,2
agree
95,7
87,8
26,0
6,0
53,9
9,6
19,1
84,4
53,0
20,0
27,0
5,2
27,8
25,2
20.9
18,3
19,1
28,7
20,9
76,5
53,0
46,0
58,3
The table 3.3. includes the first group of items questioning participants‘ aptitude toward
foreign language learning. Turkish EFL pre-service students who have reported in this inventory
believe that age has a determining factor for the ease of learning a foreign language [(item 1) (95,7%)];
moreover, they believe that some has special ability in learning a foreign language (87,8%) and
knowing already a foreign language may contribute to learning another foreign language
[(item4)(84,4%)].
Table 3.4. Participants‘ responses to the ―difficulty of language learning‖ items
Difficulty of language learning
item 10. Some languages are easier to learn than others.
disagree
,9
neutral
8,7
agree
90,5
item 11. I believe that I will learn to speak English well.
1,8
6,1
92,2
item 12. In learning English, it is easier to speak than to understand
what people say.
item 13. In learning English, reading and writing are easier than
speaking and listening.
26,1
24,3
49,6
13,9
15,7
70,05
Table 3.4.1. Learners‘ rating the ―Difficulty of language learning‖
I think English is..
A very difficult language
A difficult language
A language of medium difficulty
An easy language
A very easy language
Total
If someone spent one hour learning English everyday,
how long would it take him or her to speak English
well
Less than a year
1-2 years
3-5 years
Frequency
Percent
2
14
59
33
7
115
1,7
12,2
51,3
28,7
6,1
100,0
Frequency
Percent
30
46
19
26,1
40,0
16,5
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5-10 years
You can‘t learn a language in 1 hour a day
Total
7
13
115
6,1
11,3
100,0
Table 3.4 shows that nearly all Turkish EFL pre-service teachers believe that learning
difficulties depend on the type of the languages as some are easily learned [(item10)(90,5 %)]. They
also believe that they will speak target language fluently in the future [(item11)(92,2%)]. It is
interesting to note that item 12 is outscored as disagree and neutral than the other items. This may be an
outcome of the curriculum of the primary and secondary level educational institutions in Turkey; what
is more, students are selected to study EFL in Turkey through a state exam which includes only reading
comprehension, grammar and sentence completion questions but not includes performance assessment
questions. Therefore, students neglect speaking and writing skills till they are accepted to study at ELT
departments in Turkey.
Table 3.4.1. shows further information about the pre-service teachers beliefs about difficulty
of learning a foreign language. Nearly half of the participants indicates that English is a moderate level
difficult language to learn (51,3 %); that is, it is neither a very difficult language (1,7%) nor a very easy
language (6,1 %). Moreover, the table puts forward the idea that EFL learners need at least one or two
years (with a one hour study per day) to speak fluently (40%). They also reported that it is impossible
to speak English fluently by studying one hour in a day (11,3 %).
Table 3.5. Participants‘ responses to the ―nature of language learning‖ items
Nature of language learning
item 14. It is necessary to know the customs, the cultures, and the
ways of life of English-speaking people (such as the British,
Americans, or Australians) in order to speak English correctly and
appropriately in a particular context.
disagree
7
neutral
10,4
agree
82,6
item 15. It is best to learn English in an English-speaking country such
as England, the United States, or Australia.
2,6
1,7
95,6
item 16. Learning vocabulary words is an important part of learning
English.
1,7
5,2
93,0
item 17. Learning the grammar is an important part of learning
English.
13,3
9,6
85,2
item 18. Learning how to translate from Turkish is an important part
of
learning English.
7,8
19,1
73,0
item 19. Learning English is different from learning other academic
subjects.
7,0
27,0
66,0
Table 3.5. shows that participants moderately believe that learning English is different than
learning other types of materials, and in this respect it contrast with attention theories that view second
language learning as very similar to learning other types of subjects (Horwitz, 2008; p.29). Almost all
participants support the idea that learning a new language naturally, that is learning targeted language
in the second language context, will be more helpful [(item15)(95,6%)]. They also give importance to
learning vocabulary [(item16)(93 %)] and grammar (85,2 %) respectively in learning English
language(item17).
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Table 3.6. Participants‘ responses to the ―learning and communication strategies‖ items
Learning and communication strategies
disagree neutral
item 20. It is important to speak English with a correct pronunciation.
1,7
7,8
agree
90,4
item 21. We shouldn‘t say anything in English until we can say it correctly.
59,1
16,5
24,3
item 22. I enjoy practicing English with the foreigners I meet.
5,2
7,8
87,0
item 23. It‘s O.K. to guess if we don‘t know a word in English.
9,6
27,8
62,6
item 24. In learning English, it is important to practice a lot.
4,3
0,9
94,8
item 25. I feel timid speaking English with other people.
33,9
21,7
44,3
item 26. If beginning students are permitted to make errors in English, it
will be difficult for them to speak correctly later on.
33,0
21,7
45,2
item 27. In learning English, it is important to practice with cassettes or
tapes.
2,6
9,6
87,8
The above table indicates that grammatical accuracy in speech may be neglected
[(item21)(59,1%)] as practicing is considered to be the important factor in learning English [(item24)
(94,8 %)]. Furthermore, they mostly agree with the importance of correct pronunciation in speech
[(item20) (90,4 %)]. Using audio visual materials such as tapes and cassettes as practicing materials are
very helpful in learning English. Turkish learners of English report that they feel moderately shy and
hesitant while speaking in target language [(item25)(44,3 %)].
Nearly half of the pre-service teachers of English is strict on error correction and they believe
that errors may interfere with mastering new language materials and they should be corrected
[(item26)(45,2 %)].
Table 3.7. ANOVA for the effect of Gender on preservice teachers‘ language learning beliefs
Sum of
Mean
Squares
df
Square
F
Sig.
Foreign language aptitude
Between
,227
1
,227 1,188 ,278
Groups
Within Groups
21,563 113
,191
Total
21,790 114
Learning and communication
strategy
The nature of language learning
The difficulty of language
learning
Motivasyon and expectation
Between
Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between
Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between
Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between
Groups
Within Groups
Total
,428
1
16,047 113
,428 3,012 ,085
,142
16,475 114
,201
1
,201
26,387 113
,234
,861 ,355
26,588 114
,038
1
,038
32,253 113
32,291 114
,285
,220
1
24,675 113
,133 ,716
,220 1,010 ,317
,218
24,895 114
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p> ,05
Table 3.7. shows that the pre-service teachers‘ beliefs about language learning in any area of
beliefs do not differ in terms of gender; put it different words, male and females have reported similar
opinions; there is no significant difference between males and females in terms of foreign language
aptitude, learning and communication strategy, the nature of language learning, the difficulty of
language learning and motivation and expectation levels. Although some of the former studies have
reported that males and females had different beliefs (Bacon and Finnemann, 1992; Siebert, 2003, Öz,
2007); this present study concludes that there is no significant difference between males and females in
terms of beliefs (Tercanlıoğlu, 2005; Bernat &Lloyd, 2007).
Table 3.8. ANOVA for the effect of years of education on preservice teachers‘ language learning
beliefs
Sum of
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Squares
Foreign
Between Groups
,135
3
,045
,230
,875
language
Within Groups
21,655
111
,195
aptitude
Total
21,790
114
Learning
Between Groups
,695
3
,232
1,629
,187
and
Within Groups
15,780
111
,142
communicat
16,475
114
ion strategy Total
The nature
Between Groups
1,238
3
,413
1,806
,150
of language Within Groups
25,351
111
,228
learning
Total
26,588
114
The
difficulty of
language
learning
Motivasyon
and
expectation
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
1,014
3
,338
31,277
111
,282
32,291
114
,767
3
,256
24,128
111
,217
24,895
114
1,199
,313
1,176
,322
p> ,05
Table 3.8. shows that first, second, third and fourth year students do not vary in their beliefs
about language learning. There is no significant difference among students from each class. Therefore,
experience in the ELLIT department may have no effect on their beliefs about language learning. In
this context, curriculum of the department may have no or little effect on forming beliefs.
4.
Discussion and Conclusion
The results of this study which give insight into the learners‘ beliefs about language learning
have produced some interesting findings that confirm the result of some of the former studies that
reported beliefs were not gender related (Tercanlıoğlu, 2005; Bernat &Lloyd, 2007) and while they
rejected of some others that reported beliefs change based on gender (Bacon and Finnemann, 1992;
Siebert, 2003, Öz, 2007).
This paper has addressed the aims of identifying several studies on learner beliefs in the EFL
and ESL contexts and discussing them based on the recent literature. Analyses of learner beliefs are
worthy of note for the light they shed on learners‘ thinking, expectations, and actions in the foreign
language learning context. Furthermore, the beliefs held by participants in the studies in EFL/ESL
contexts have been assessed in terms of gender as a variable, and while they were found to be similar in
all categories they were found to be different in some others. Hence, the null hypothesis that ‗the
beliefs held by male and female students in the ELT departments in Turkish universities are different‘
was rejected. There were a small number of items with a discrepancy rate on agreement; two items in
the area of ―learning and communication strategy‖ (Items 25 and 26), only one item in the area of
―difficulty of language learning‖ (item12), two items in the area of ―foreign language aptitude‖ (items
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7 and 8) and none of the participants showed nearly no incongruity in the area of ―nature of language
learning‖.
Consequently, this study showed that there is no significant difference between males‘ beliefs
and females beliefs about language learning in the context of EFL pre-service teachers. Moreover, it
was concluded that students in different years of education in ELLIT department have nearly similar
beliefs. It can be said that the curriculum implemented in the English language teacher programs in
Turkey might have no effect on the pre-service teachers‘ of English as it was found that there was no
gap in terms of beliefs among students from each year. Of course, there may be varying degrees of the
impact of the curriculum of the teaching programs and syllabus of the courses and students and their
teachers‘ needs on forming the beliefs about language learning or cultural norms may be effective on
the beliefs-gender relations, so these are the limitations of the results of this study. Replication of this
study with a wider population may help to generalize the results of this study. Moreover; for analyzing
the pre-service teachers‘ beliefs about language learning in details is a very complex phenomenon,
further studies may also focus on the internal and external factors by applying triangulated research
designs.
References
Akçakaya, N. (2009). The Organization Of 8th Grade Learners‘ Beliefs Related To Learning English
As A Foreign Language. Unpublished MA thesis, Social Sciences Institute, Gaziantep University,
Gaziantep.
AktaĢ, A. (2001). Beliefs on the Nature of Language Learning: A Comparative Study of Turkish EFL
Learners‘ and Their Teachers‘ Beliefs at University Level. Master‘s of Art Thesis, EskiĢehir Anadolu
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Dublin Core
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Extent
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668
Title
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Undergraduate Level EFL Student‘s Beliefs About Language Learning
Author
Author
HAN, Turgay
EFE, Hüseyin
BARIN, Muzaffer
Abstract
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By providing quantitative data from the modified EFL version of Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI) completed by the ELT undergraduate level students in one of the Turkish Universities, the survey was aimed to obtain generalizable conclusions about beliefs or notions about language learning of undergraduate level EFL students. The relationships among gender and years of education in the ELT department, as the impacting factors, and the participants‘ scores in the BALLI were statistically analyzed. The results were discussed in terms of the EFL students‘ the most important beliefs and the effect size of the gender and years of education as the variables on their beliefs about language learning.
Date
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2011-05
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics