265 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6cf197b09fca3fd062081b42354524c5.pdf dcadd46380f800d89b362526c138fabd PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Anlambilim Çerçevesinde Kelime ve ÇağrıĢım ĠliĢkisi Nazife Burcu Erden Tùrkçe Eğitimi Bôlùmù Gazi Üniversitesi, Tùrkiye nberden@gazi.edu.tr Özet: Bu çalıĢmanın amacı; dilin anlam çerçevesinde yadsınamaz bir yeri olan çağrıĢımın, anlambilim içerisindeki yeri ve ônemini ortaya koyarak dili kullanan bireylerin kelimelerin farklı anlamlarını daha iyi kavramalarını, temel anlam dıĢındaki sôyleyiĢleri daha bilinçli kullanmalarını sağlamaktır. Bu araĢtırmada nitel araĢtırma yôntemlerinden olan dokùman analizinden yararlanılmıĢtır. AraĢtırmada anlambilimin dilbilim, ruhbilim ve mantık ile olan iliĢkisi gôz ônùne alınarak dil ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢki ortaya konmuĢtur. AraĢtırmanın sonucunda; dilbilimin konusu olan dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, geliĢim ve değiĢim sùreçleri çağrıĢım çerçevesinde incelenerek dile ait ilk kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢının, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanmasının, aktarmaların oluĢumunun çağrıĢım unsuruna bağlı olduğu ortaya konmuĢtur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Anlambilim, dilbilim, kelime, çağrıĢım. GiriĢ Zihnin çalıĢma prensibi (Buzan, 1999) olarak tanımlanan çağrıĢım ; bireyin bir kelime, kavram, olgu ya da olaydan hareketle farklı dùĢùncelere ulaĢabilmesidir. Dolayısıyla içinde yaratıcılık olan her unsur, çağrıĢımsal iliĢkilerin sonucu olarak gôrùlmektedir. DùĢùnce geliĢtirme yollarından olan benzerlik, zıtlık, yakınlık, sıklık, zaman ve mekân iliĢkisi kurma; çağrıĢım ilkeleri adı altında Aristoteles‘ten gùnùmùze geliĢerek gelmiĢ ve çoklukla felsefe, psikoloji, eğitim ve gùnùmùzde dilbilim literatùrùnde yerini almıĢtır. Insanlığın temel ihtiyaçlarından biri iletiĢimdir. ĠletiĢimi sağlayan unsurlardan biri de dildir. Dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, ilk kelimelerin icadı, bizi yùzyıllar ôncesine gôtùrse de dil oluĢumundaki temel unsur olan çağrıĢım, bugùn kelimelere ve dile yôn vermede hâlâ ônemini korumaktadır. Dilin geliĢimini ve değiĢimini inceleyen anlambilim, bu ôzelliği sebebiyle çağrıĢımı temel alan bilim dallarından biridir. Anlambilim ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢkinin ortaya konmasıyla, dilin değiĢim ve geliĢim esasları da daha net anlaĢılmıĢ alacaktır. Anlambilim Guiraud‘ a gôre ùç temel bilim dalından beslenir. Bu ùç bilim dalını, ―Niçin ve nasıl iletiĢim sağlarız? Gôsterge nedir? ĠletiĢim sırasında bizim ve karĢımızdakinin zihninde neler olup biter? Bu iĢlemin dayanağı, fizyolojik ve ruhsal dùzeneği nedir?‖ gibi soruları irdeleyen ruhdilbilim, ―Gôstergenin gerçekle bağlantıları nelerdir? Hangi koĢullarda bir gôsterge, anlatmakla gôrevli olduğu bir nesne ya da duruma uygulanabilir? Doğru bir anlamlamayı sağlayan kurallar nelerdir?‖ gibi soruları irdeleyen mantık ―Sôzcùk nedir? Bir sôzcùğùn biçim ve anlamı arasındaki bağıntılar, sôzcùklerin iliĢkileri nelerdir? Sôzcùkler iĢlevlerini nasıl yerine getirir?‖ gibi sorunlarla ilgilenen dilbilim oluĢturmaktadır (Guiraud, 1999). Dil ve anlambilim iliĢkisi içerisinde ônemli role sahip olan çağrıĢımın, yıllarca dilin geliĢiminde etkin rol oynadığı tespit edilmiĢtir; ancak litaretùrde dil ve çağrıĢım iliĢkisi ùzerinde ana hatlarıyla ôzel bir yer verilmemiĢtir. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı; anlambilim çerçevesinde çağrıĢımın dile olan etkilerini ortaya koyarak dile daha hakim bir kullanımın oluĢmasını sağlamaktır. Anlambilim ve dilbilim iliĢkisi, literatùrde sôzcùk anlambilimi olarak da yer almaktadır. Sôzcùkleri, Saussure gôstergeler olarak adlandırmakta ve gôstergeyi, bir kavramla iĢitsel bir imgeyi birleĢtiren unsur olarak tanımlamaktadır. Bu iki unsur sıkı sıkıya birbirine bağlıdır ve birbirini çağrıĢtırmaktadır (Saussure, 1998). Saussure‘e gôre, insan zihninde gôstergeler çeĢitli çağrıĢımların odak noktasıdır ve dôrt farklı koldan çeĢitli gôstergelerin çağrıĢımlarına yol açar (Aksan, 2009). Bunlar; aynı kôkten gelen ôgelerin (sev, sevgi, sevgili, sevmek, sevimli, sevimsiz vb.), anlamca yakınlığı olan ôgelerin (galeri, fuar, sergi, kermes vb.), biçim eĢliği gôsteren ôgelerin (bilgi, silgi, yergi, sevgi, vergi vb.) ve ses imgesi yakınlığı olan ôgelerin ( masa, yasa, tasa, kasa vb.) çağrıĢımlarıdır. ÇağrıĢımlar, sadece gôstergelerin değil; anlamların da oluĢum ve çeĢitlenmesinde etkin rol oynamaktadır. Anlam, gôstergelerden yola çıkılarak oluĢturulmaktadır. Gôndergesel ifadeler (temel anlam), yan anlamlar ve tasarımlar sôzcùğe dayalı bir anlam meydana getirmektedir. Wittgenstein‘in 987 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Sôzcùğùn anlamı, onun dil içindeki kullanımıdır.‖ (Wittgenstein‘den Akt. Aksan, 2009). sôzù gôstergelerin sadece tek bir temel anlama sahip olmalarına rağmen, değiĢik bağlamlar içinde farklı farklı kavramlara karĢılık geldiğinin altını çizmektedir. Bu da ôzellikle iletiĢimde, bağlamın ve dolayısıyla çağrıĢımların ne kadar ônemli olduğunu gôstermektedir. Bağlamların bizi farklı kavramlara gôtùrmesi, gôstergelerin yan ve mecaz anlamlar edinmesiyle mùmkùndùr. Yan anlam ve mecazlar, dilin anlam çerçevesini belirledikleri gibi dile zenginlik de kazandırmaktadırlar. Her ne kadar gôstergelerin nedensizliğinden bahsedilse de, dile ait ilk kelimelerin oluĢumunda bir nedenlilik gôrùlmektedir. Platon bu gôrùĢù ―Ġlk adların ortaya çıkıĢında kullanılan seslerin mutlaka doğaları gereği, objelere benzer olmaları gerekmektedir.‖ ifadesiyle anlatmaktadır. GùneĢi resmederken beyazı, gôkyùzùnde maviyi, toprakta kahverengiyi, denizde maviyi kullanmamızın sebebi ile ilk adların temsillerden oluĢması aynı temele dayanmaktadır. Yansıma olarak nitelendirilen kelimeler Platon‘un bu gôrùĢùnù destekler niteliktedir (Platon‘dan Akt. Atademir ve Yetkin, 2000). Doğadan yola çıkarak çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesi ile oluĢturulan kelimeler, dilin geliĢim sùrecinde yine aynı ilke doğrultusunda yan ve mecaz anlamlar kazanarak dile zenginlik kazandırmaktadır. Kelimelerin yapı ve anlam değiĢimleri, aktarmalar ve bunlara bağlı olarak geliĢen anlamsal olaylar çağrıĢımın ilkeleriyle alakalıdır. ÇağrıĢım ilkeleri kullanaılarak anlama ve anlatmada aynı kelimelere farklı anlamlar yùkleyerek daha geniĢ bir bakıĢ açısı oluĢturmamız mùmkùndùr. Bireyin kendini ifade etme ihtiyacının daha çok giderilebilmesi için, çağrıĢımsal iliĢkilerin oluĢturduğu ve sùrekli değiĢen dil çerçevesinin geniĢ sınırlarından haberdar olmak gerekir. Bunun için de anlambilim ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢkinin otaya konması gerekmektedir. Yöntem Bu çalıĢmada nitel araĢtırma yôntemlerinden olan dokùman inceleme yôntemi kullanılmıĢtır. Dokùman incelemesi, araĢtırılması hedeflenen olgu veya olgular hakkında bilgi içeren yazılı materyallerin analizini kapsamaktadır (Yıldırım ve Simsek, 2006). Problem Durumu Ana Problem Kelime kavramı ekseninde çağrıĢım ve anlambilimin iliĢkisi nedir? Alt Problemler ÇağrıĢımın, kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢları ve değiĢimlerindeki etkisi nedir? ÇağrıĢımın, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanmasına olan etkisi nedir? ÇağrıĢımın, aktarmalara olan etkisi nedir? Kelimelerin Ortaya ÇıkıĢı ve DeğiĢimi Kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢı ile ilgili gôrùĢ bildiren ilk isimlerden biri Platon‘dur. Platon doğalcı gôrùĢù savunan bir filozoftur. Dolayısıyla ona gôre adlar, baĢkalarına bilgi vermek ve bir Ģey ôğretmek içindir. Platon, adlar ile onların adlandırdıkları Ģeyler arasında doğal bir bağ olduğunu savunmaktadır (Platon‘dan Akt. Atademir ve Yetkin, 2000). Porzig de ―Eski çağlarda bir dildeki sesin, seda çıkaran bir Ģeyle tabii iliĢkisi olmuĢtur; ancak bu iliĢki zamanla gôrùlemez hâle gelmiĢtir.‖ (Porzig, 2003). diyerek Platon‘un bu gôrùĢùnù pekiĢtirmiĢtir. Bir kelimenin anlam değiĢimine uğraması yùzyıllar alabilmektedir (Aksan, 2009). diyen Aksan da ilk baĢlarda kurulan anlamsal iliĢkilerin sonradan fark edilemeyebileceğini bu Ģekilde ifade eder. Gùnùmùzde ―yansıma sôzcùkler‖ olarak nitelendirilenler, Porzig ve Platon‘un bu gôrùĢùne ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. Doğadan çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesiyle oluĢturulan yansıma sôzcùkler, her dilde mevcuttur. Tùrkçede kôpeğin ―havlamasına‖ ―hav hav‖ derken Ġngilizcede ―bark bark‖, Yunancada ―gav gav‖, Katalancada ―bup bup‖, Hintçede ―bho bho‖ denmesi, yansıma sôzcùklerin her dilde mevcut olduğunu ve doğayı taklit ederek oluĢturulduğunu gôstermektedir; ancak bu kelimeler sôyleniĢ ve ağız ôzelliklerine gôre farklılıklar gôstermektedir. Bununla ilgili olarak Platon, kelime oluĢturanların hepsinin aynı hecelerle iĢ gôrmemesini demircilere benzetir. Her demirci aynı amaç için aynı aleti yaparken aynı demir ùzerinde çalıĢmaz; ônemli olan ona aynı Ģekli vermektir. Aynı Ģekil verildiği sùrece ister burada, ister baĢka bir ùlkede olsun o alet yine de iĢ gôrùr (Platon‘dan Akt: Atademir ve Yetkin, 2000). 988 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Antishenes ise adların, adlandırdıkları Ģeylerin ôzlerini ya da doğalarını baĢkalarına aktarılmasını sağlayan unsurun adlar ile onların adlandırdıkları Ģeyler arasındaki iliĢki olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Ona gôre, adların zihnin duyu algısı yoluyla doğrudan bağlantı kurması ile bilinen, adlandırdıkları nesneye doğal bir benzerliği vardır ve adlandırdıkları nesneye benzemeyen adları ad olarak kabul etmemek gerekir. (Aysever, 2002). Kratylos'ta, Hermogenes'in ―Adların doğruluğunun alıĢkanlık ve anlaĢmadan baĢka bir ôlçùtù yoktur. Bir Ģeye hangi adı verirseniz doğru ad odur; sonra verdiğiniz adı bırakıp baĢka bir ad verecek olsanız bile, bu ikinci ad da en az ikincisi kadar doğru olacaktır. Hiçbir adın adlandırılan Ģeyle doğal bir bağı yoktur. Tek ôlçù onu kullanan insanların gelenekleri ve alıĢkanlıklarıdır .‖(Aysever, 2002). sôzù ise doğalcı gôrùĢten çok farklıdır; ancak her iki gôrùĢùn de ortak bir noktası vardır. Doğalcı gôrùĢe gôre kelimeler doğadaki karĢılıklarına benzer biçimde ifadelendirilmektedir. Burada, çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesi sôz konusudur. Doğalcı olmayan gôrùĢe gôre, kelimeler alıĢkanlıklar sonucu zihinde kavramlarla eĢleĢmektedir. Anlam değiĢmeleri içerisinde yer alan anlam daralması, geniĢlemesi, iyileĢmesi ve kôtùleĢmesi gibi anlambilimsel olaylar, o kelimenin toplumun zihninde ilk halinden daha farklı çağrıĢımlar uyandırması ile gerçekleĢmektedir. Yabancı dilden alınan kelimeler, anlaĢmalar sonucu dilde yeni bir kavrama karĢılık gelmesine rağmen (kelime ve karĢılığı arasında herhangi bir benzerlik iliĢkisi kurulmadan) zamanla yabancı dilden alınan kelimenin dilde farklı bir kavramı karĢılamaya baĢladığı gôrùlùr. Bunun sebebi kelimenin bireylerin zihninde ilk zamanlarda karĢıladığı kavramı çağrıĢtırmıyor olmasıdır. ÇağrıĢım, zihnin çalıĢma prensibi olarak addedilmektedir (Buzan, 1999). Dolayısıyla dile yôn veren toplum, yaptığı her değiĢimde bu prensipten bilinçsiz de olsa faydalanmaktadır. Anlamın daralması ve geniĢlemesi de bu ilkeye gôre gerçekleĢmektedir. Örneğin, ônceleri ―uĢak‖ kelimesi ―çocuk‖ kavramını karĢılarken Ģimdi ―hizmet veren kiĢi‖ olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu değiĢme, ―çocuk‖un da ―hizmet eden, sôyleneni yapan‖ kiĢi olması ve bu iki kavram arasında bôyle bir benzerlik iliĢkisi kurulması sonucu gerçekleĢmiĢtir. Bu durum anlam daralması olarak gôrùlse de gùnùmùzde yerel ağızlarda çocuk için ―uĢak‖ kelimesinin kullanımına rastlanmaktadır (Uğur, 2001). Kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢlarının yanı sıra tùremelerinde de çağrıĢımın çok ônemli bir yer tuttuğu ifade edilmelidir. Sondan eklemeli bir dil olan Tùrkçede tùremiĢ sôzcùkler, yapım eki almıĢ sôzcùkler olarak tanımlanır ve kelimeye gelen ekin yapım eki olup olmadığının anlaĢılması için, ek alarak oluĢturulan kelime ile ek almadan ônceki hâli arasında bir iliĢki olması beklenir. Örneğin ―gôz‖ kelimesi basit hâldedir ve ―-lik‖ eki alarak ―gôzlùk‖ adı verilen yeni bir kavramın karĢılığı hâline gelir. Ancak gôz ve gôrmeyi kolaylaĢtırmak için kullanılan bir araç olan gôzlùk arasında, anlamca bir iliĢki vardır. ―gôzlùk‖ kelimesi ―gôz‖ kelimesini çağrıĢtırmaktadır. ―balık‖ kelimesi ise basittir; çùnkù kelimeyi birbiriyle alakalı iki farklı kavrama ayıramayız. ―bal‖ ve ―balık‖ arasında bir anlam iliĢkisi yoktur. Bal, bize balığı çağrıĢtırmamaktadır. Buradan hareketle, çağrıĢım kurulmadığı sùrece yeni kelimeler ve anlamalardan bahsetmenin gùç olduğunu sôylemek mùmkùndùr. Kelimelerin Yan Anlam Kazanması Kelimeler kullanıldıkça karĢıladıkları kavramların baĢka nesnelerle benzerlik, yakınlık ya da iliĢkilerine dayanılarak aktarmalara baĢvurulmakta, bunlar yavaĢ yavaĢ çok anlamlı duruma gelmekte ve yan anlam kazanmaktadır. Yan anlam; somuta eklenen yeni somut kavramlar, somuta eklenen yeni soyut kavramlar, soyuta eklenen yeni soyut kavramlar ve soyuta eklenen yeni somut kavramlar olmak ùzere dôrt farklı Ģekilde oluĢmaktadır (Ünlù, 1993). Kelimelerin yan anlam kazanma sùreçlerinde genellikle temel anlam çağrıĢımı merkezini, çekirdeği oluĢturmaktadır. Kimi kez biçimsel benzerlik, kimi kez iĢlev benzerliği kimi kez de konum ortaklığı bu çağrıĢımın sinyalleri olmuĢtur (Uğur, 2001). ÇağrıĢım ile kazanılan yan anlamlar, kelimenin kullanım çeĢitliliğini arttırdığı gibi anlamı da zenginleĢtirmektedir. Doğan Aksan‘a gôre (2009) yan anlam; insanoğlunun kavramları daha etkili, daha somut, daha kolay biçimde dile getirebilmek için aralarında biçim, iĢlev, amaç iliĢkisi ve yakınlığı bulunan baĢka kavramlara dayanarak açıklamak istemesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Bu da kelimelerin farklı anlamlar kazanmasını sağlamaktadır. Todorov, yan anlamla ilgili çağrıĢımları belli bir tasnife sokmuĢtur. Yan anlamları, iĢaretleyene bağlı çağrıĢımlar ve iĢaretlenene bağlı çağrıĢımlar olmak ùzere iki temel ùzerinde çeĢitlendirmiĢtir. Bu çağrıĢımlar benzerlik ve bitiĢiklik iliĢkisine dayanmaktadır (Todorov‘dan Akt. Filizok, 2011). a) ĠĢaretlenen benzerliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Bu, eĢ anlamlılıktan doğan bir çağrıĢım Ģeklidir. Kelime bağlama dayalı olarak ya da sadece kendi temel anlamıyla iliĢkili olarak kendiyle eĢ anlama gelecek diğer kelimeyi çağrıĢtırabilmektedir. "Osmanlı zamanında okullar ùçe ayrılırdı." cùmlesinde "okul" kelimesi tarihsel bağlamdan dolayı "mektep" kelimesini çağrıĢtırabilir. b) ĠĢaretleyen benzerliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Burada ses benzerliği esas alınmaktadır. Ses 989 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo benzerliğine dayalı çağrıĢımlar ahenkle ilgili çağrıĢımlara sebep olduğu gibi eĢsesliliği de gùndeme getirmektedir. Tam veya yarım ses benzerlikleri baĢka kelimeleri çağrıĢtırır. Bôylece onlar da anlamlandırma alanına girer. Uyak, aliterasyonlar, eĢsesli kelimeler kolaylıkla çağrıĢım oluĢturabilmektedir. c) ĠĢaretleyen bitiĢikliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Bir iĢaretin kullanımı bazen eski kullanımlarını ve eski bağlamını çağrıĢtırır. Bazı devirlerin bazı edebî akımların çok tekrarlanan, değiĢmeyen bir kelime kadrosu vardır. Bir eserde bôyle bir kelimenin kullanılması eski kullanımlarına bağlı anlamları çağrıĢtırır. Bir nevi metinler arası anlam transferi gerçekleĢir. Meselâ telmih ve parodide bitiĢikliklikten doğan yan anlamlar sôz konusudur. d) ĠĢaretlenen bitiĢikliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Bazı kavramlar, yakın anlamlılığıyla birbirini çağrıĢtırır: Tilkinin kurnazlığı, suyun saflığı buna ôrnek gôsterilebilir (Todorov‘dan Akt. Filizok, 2001). ÇağrıĢım sonucu oluĢan yan anlamlar; dile zenginlik sağlamakta, kelimelere farklı anlamlar yùkledikleri için dilin anlam çerçevesini de geniĢletmektedirler. Aktarmalar Pek çok dilbilimcinin dilin temel niteliklerinden saydığı ve çokanlamlılığı doğuran etkenlerin baĢında gelen anlam olayı, aktarmalardır. Aktarmalarda benzetmelerde olduğu gibi, anlatılmak istenen kavram, onunla bir yônden iliĢkisi, benzerliği, yakınlığı olan baĢka bir kavramla anlatılmaya çalıĢılır. Bôylelikle de gôsterge yeni bir anlam kazanmıĢ olur. Etkileyici ve gùçlù anlatım sağlayan sôz sanatları arasında ele alınan aktarmalar, aynı zamanda anlam değiĢmelerine yol açmaları sebebiyle dilciler ve dùĢùnùrler tarafından o çerçevede incelenmiĢ; Reisig ve Bréal‘den baĢlayarak anlambilimcilerin ùzerinde durdukları konu olmuĢtur (Aksan, 2009). Aktarmaların gerçekleĢmesini sağlayan en ônemli nedenlerden biri de yeni sôzcùk bulma hızımızla ôğrenme hızımız arasındaki bùyùk açıktır. Her yeni gôndergeye yeni bir gôsteren bulunabilmesinin olanaksızlığı da eldeki sôzcùklerin anlamca geniĢletilmesine sebep olmuĢtur (Uğur, 2007). Bu da yine kelime oluĢumunda çağrıĢımın ônemini ortaya koymaktadır. Özellikle doğadan doğaya yapılan aktarmalarla oluĢturulan yeni kelimeler, bunun en gùzel ôrneğidir. Aktarmalar, insandan doğaya, doğadan insana, doğadan doğaya olabildiği gibi, duygular arasında ve soyut-somut kavramlar arasında da olabilmektedir. ÇağrıĢım kavramını ilkeleriyle beraber ilk kez ortaya koyan Aristoteles, Poetica adlı eserinde ―yaĢamın akĢamı‖ aktarmasıyla çağrıĢım ve aktarma arasındaki iliĢkiyi de ôrneklemiĢ olmaktadır. ―Fısıldayan ağaçlar, omuzlarına beyaz Ģal atmıĢ dağlar, suskun ormanlar, kızgın sular, neĢeli ilkbahar, kùskùn yapraklar, veda Ģarkısı sôyleyen çiçekler‖ insana ait ôzelliklerin benzerlik ilkesiyle doğadaki varlıklara aktarılmasına ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. Ağaç dal ve yapraklarının hafif bir rùzgâr esmesiyle hıĢırdaması ―fısıltı‖ yı çağrıĢtırmakta ve insandan doğaya bir aktarım sôz konusu olmaktadır. Buradaki çağrıĢımlar ne kadar gùçlùyse, aktarmalar da o denli kalıplaĢmaktadır. Bu durum daha çok doğadan insana aktarmalarda sôz konusudur.Cesur bir oğlan çocuğu için ―aslan‖, kurnaz biri için ―tilki‖ benzetmeleri bu durumu daha da somutlaĢtırmaktadır. ―kôpek, eĢek, domuz, kaz vb‖ kelimeler, aĢağılama amacıyla kullanılırken ―sert, piĢkin, tatlı, yumuĢak, yapıĢkan‖ gibi kelimeler insanların karakter ôzelliklerini ifade etmek için kullanılmaktadır. Bu kullanımlarda kùltùrel unsurlar belirleyici olmaktadır. Toplumsal kurallar, gelenek ve gôrenekler aktarmaların ve simgelerin oluĢumunda belirleyici unsurlardır ve gôstergelerle anlam arasındaki iliĢkiyi yani çağrıĢımları ortaya koymaktadırlar. Bu durum, çağrıĢımların kùltùrel değerlerle belirlendiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Doğadan doğaya aktarmalar Tùrkçede sıfat tamlamalarından ziyade birleĢik sôzcùk oluĢturmaktadır. ―kuĢburnu, keçi boynuzu, turna gagası, aslanağzı, horozibiği, aslanpençesi‖ gibi hayvanlardan bitkiye aktarmalar olabildiği gibi; ―çekiçbalığı, kılıçbalığı, kayıĢbalığı‖ gibi nesnelerden hayvanlara da aktarmalar yapmak ve yeni kelimeler oluĢturmak mùmkùndùr. Nesnelerden bitkilere aktarılarak oluĢmuĢ kelimelerden olan ―gelinfeneri çiçeği‖ incelenirse, çiçeğin eski dônemlerde yolu aydınlatmak için kullanılan gaz lambalarına benzediği ve ortasında sarı lamba gibi duran yuvarlak kısmının etrafında, tıpkı gelin duvağını andıran beyaz dantel gôrùnùmlù bir yaprağın olduğu dikkat çekmektedir. Bu çiçeği, ―gelinfeneri‖ olarak adlandırmak için gelin duvağını bilmek ve çiçeği gôrùnce bitki ve nesne arasında benzetmeye dayalı bir çağrıĢım iliĢkisi kurmak gerekmektedir. Gôrùntù ve davranıĢ benzerliği ile ―kırlangıçbalığı, kirpibalığı, kôpekbalığı‖ gibi hayvandan hayvana yapılan aktarmalar da yine benzerlik ilkesiyle yapılan çağrıĢıma ve bundan kaynaklanan kelime tùretimine ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. 990 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―viĢneçùrùğù, yavruağzı, gùlkurusu, gecemavisi, gôkmavisi‖ gibi doğadaki varlıkların, renkleri adlandırmak için kullanılması da renklerin o kavramları çağrıĢtırmasıyla alakalı olup yine çağrıĢımın kelime oluĢumundaki yerini ortaya koymaktadır. ―keskin bakıĢ, acı çığlık, tatlı sôz, yumuĢak huy‖ gibi ifadeler ise duyular arası aktarmalara ôrnektir. ―acı‖ tat alma duyumuzla algılayabileceğimiz bir hisken, ―acı çığlık‖ ifadesiyle duyma organımızın algıladığı bir duyu hâline gelmiĢtir. ―Acı‖ hissi, insanın canını yakan, onu mutsuz eden bir histir. ―Acı çığlık‖ ile de duyulan sesin insanı mutsuz ettiği, onda olumsuz duygular uyandırdığı ifade edilmektedir. Burada da yine benzerlik ilkesi etkin rol oynamaktadır. Bulgu ve Yorumlar Elde edilen bulgular çağrıĢım ve anlambilim iliĢkisi çerçevesinde, ùç baĢlık altında incelenerek yorumlanmıĢtır. Bu baĢlıklar ―kelime‖ ùst baĢlığı altında; kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢı ve değiĢimi, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanması ve aktarmalardır. 1. Kelimelerin Ortaya ÇıkıĢı Platon doğalcı bakıĢ açısıyla kelimelerin doğadaki seslerin taklidi ile oluĢtuğunu sôylemektedir. Bu da çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinin temel olduğu bir anlayıĢı ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bu durum, kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢında bir nedenlilik olduğunu gôstermektedir. Ancak bu nedenlilik daha çok yansıma kelimelerde ortaya çıkmaktadır. Doğalcı gôrùĢù savunan bir diğer isim olan Antishenes ise adlandırdıkları nesneye benzemeyen adları ad olarak kabul dahi etmemektedir. Antishenes, bu konudaki doğalcı gôrùĢùnù çok dar ve katı bir çerçeve ile sınırlandırmıĢtır. Porzig de Platon‘a yakın bir gôrùĢ bildirirken kelimelerin ilk baĢta nedenli olsa dahi bu nedenliliğin ilerleyen zamanlarda gôzden kaybolduğunu belirtmiĢtir. Örneğin ―ôlmek‖ anlamına gelen ―gergek bulmak‖ kelime grubundaki ―gerek‖ kelimesinin Eski Tùrkçede ―eksik, noksan‖ anlamına gelmektedir (NiĢanyan, 2011). Ölmek kelimesi ise ―can vermek‖ (TDK, 2005) yani bir Ģeylerin eksilmesi anlamındadır. Ölùnce ruhun bedenden ayrıldığı, eksildiğine dair inançla anlam iliĢkisi kurularak yapılan bu kelime grubunda ilk baĢta fark edilemese de esasında açık bir bilinçlilik yani nedenlilik bulunmaktadır. Hermogenes ise doğalcı gôrùĢùn karĢıtıdır ve ona gôre kelime oluĢumunu sağlayan onu kullanan insanların gelenekleri ve alıĢkanlıklarıdır. Burada nedenlilik yoktur, dolayısıyla çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinden de sôz edilemez; ancak çağrıĢımın alıĢkanlıkların oluĢmasını sağlayan sıklık ilkesinin gôz ônùne alınması gerekmektedir. Kelime kullanımının alıĢkanlıklara bağlı olması; o dili kullanan toplumun zihninde, kelimeyi duyunca o kelimeyle ilgili kavramların çağrıĢması ile alakalıdır. Yani doğalcı bakıĢ açısıyla kelimelerin oluĢumunda benzerlik ilkesiyle kendini gôsteren çağrıĢım, alıĢkanlıkların kelimelere hayat verdiğini ileri sùren gôrùĢte kendini sıklık ilkesiyle var etmektedir. 2. Kelimelerin Yan Anlam Kazanması Belli bir bağlam ve konu olmaksızın bir kelimeyle karĢılaĢıldığında zihnimizde ona ait oluĢan imgeye temel anlam denmektedir. Temel anlam, kelimelerle varlıklar arasında kurulan iliĢkilerde en sık olanıdır. ÇağrıĢımın kolay ve hızlı olmasını sağlayan sıklık faktôrù, dilde temel anlam kavramının oluĢmasını sağlamıĢtır. En sık kullanılan anlamlar en çok ve en kolay akla gelen anlamlardır. Temel anlam, çağrıĢımın sıklık ilkesiyle açıklanırken yan anlam benzerlik ilkesiyle açıklanmaktadır. Literatùr taramasında da gôrùldùğù gibi yan anlamlar, çağrıĢım temelli olarak oluĢmaktadır. Bu oluĢumlar içerisinde en çok yer tutan, çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesidir. Yan anlamlar, kelimelere farklı anlamlar yùkledikleri için dilin anlam çerçevesinin zenginleĢmesini sağlamaktadırlar. Yan anlam oluĢumunun temelinde çağrıĢımın olduğu gôz ônùne alınarak, dilin anlam çerçevesinin geniĢlemesinde çağrıĢıma dayalı bir nedenlilik olduğunu sôylemek mùmkùndùr. Dolayısıyla, yan anlam oluĢumunu sağlayan çağrıĢımın dile olan katkısını ortaya çıkarmak ônem taĢımaktadır. Yan anlam kazanan kelimeler, kelimenin temel anlamıyla mutlaka bir yônden ortaklık gôstermektedir. ―Testerenin diĢleri kırılmıĢ.‖ cùmlesindeki ―diĢ‖ kelimesi, temelde ―Çene kemiklerinin ùstùne dizili, ısırıp koparmaya ve çiğnemeye yarayan sert, beyaz organlardan her biri.‖ (TDK, 2005) olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ġnsana ait bu parçanın cansız bir nesnede kullanılması, o nesnenin ùzerinde sıra sıra dizilmiĢ, kesip koparmaya yarayan, sert parçaların insan diĢine gôrsel ve iĢlev yônùnden benzerlik gôstermesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Ġnsan diĢinin kesip koparmaya yarayan sıra sıra dizilmiĢ kısmı, testerenin kesmeye yarayan kısımlarıyla çeĢitli yônlerden bir benzerlik oluĢturmuĢ ve testerenin 991 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―diĢleri‖ insan diĢini çağrıĢtırmıĢtır. Dolayısıyla kelime artık yan anlam kazanmıĢtır. ―Bana dôrt diĢ sarımsak ver.‖ cùmlesindeki ―diĢ‖ sôzcùğù de insan diĢi gibi sıra sıra dizilmiĢ, yapı olarak uçları sivri, alt kısmı daha geniĢ ve beyaz renkte olan sarımsağın kısımlarını ifade etmek için kullanılmıĢtır. Bu ôrnekte hem renk, hem de Ģekil itibariyle bir benzerlik iliĢkisi gôrùlmektedir. ―Masanın ayağı kırılmıĢ‖ cùmlesindeki ―bacak‖ kelimesi, insanların ayakta dengede durabilmesi için gôvdenin altında bulunan bir uzuv anlamında kullanılır; ancak bu cùmlede, masanın dengede durabilmesi için masanın yùzeyinden yere uzanan kısım olarak kullanılmıĢtır. Ġnsan bacağının iĢlev ve gôrsel ôzelliği ile masanın altındaki kısımlar arasında çağrıĢım oluĢturulmuĢ ve kelime yan anlam kazanmıĢtır. ―Yolun baĢı, yokuĢun baĢı, dağın baĢı, çekmecenin gôzù, sıranın gôzù, mağaranın ağzı, bardağın ağzı, yorganın yùzù, sehpanın ayağı, kôprùnùn ayağı, kapının kolu vb‖ gibi pek çok kelime çağrıĢımlar sonucu yan anlam kazanmıĢtır. 3.Aktarmalar Aksan‘ın da belirttiği gibi, aktarmalar dilin sôyleyiĢ zenginliğini ve ifade gùcùnù arttırmaktadır. Aktarmaların doğadaki varlıklar arasında iliĢki kurarak kavramların birbiri yerine kullanılması ile oluĢtuğu dikkate alındığında çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinin, aktarmalarda çok ônemli bir yeri olduğu gôrùlmektedir. Dildeki pek çok birleĢik kelimenin, bu aktarmalar sonucu oluĢması çağrıĢımın; hem dilin kelime hazinesini hem de dilin anlam çerçevesini zenginleĢtiren ônemli bir unsur olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Sonuç ve Öneriler Sonuç Elde edilen bulgular neticesinde varılan en ônemli sonuç; kelime oluĢumu ve kelimelerin karĢıladıkları anlamların değiĢim ve geliĢim sùrecinde, nedensizlik ilkesinin var olduğu ancak pek çok kelimenin nedenlilik ilkesine bağlı olarak oluĢtuğu ve geliĢtiğidir. Bu nedenliliğin olmasını sağlayan unsur ise çağrıĢımdır. Her ùç alt probleme yônelik bulgu ve yorumlar incelendiğinde çağrıĢımın; kelime oluĢumu, değiĢimi ve geliĢimi sùrecinde etkin rol oynadığı literatùr desteğiyle tespit edilmiĢtir. Öneriler ÇağrıĢım temelli bir yan anlam ve mecaz anlam sôzlùğù hazırlanmalı ve bu anlamlar kelimenin temel anlamıyla iliĢkili olarak ortaya konmalıdır. Temel anlamla iliĢkilendirilerek ôğrenilen yan ve mecaz anlamlar daha iyi anlaĢılacaktır. Bu sôzlùğùn amacı kelime anlamlarının ne olduğunu açıklamaktan ziyade; bireylere yan ve mecaz anlamları tahmin etmeye yônelik bir yôntem sunmaktır. GeliĢen teknoloji ile birlikte dilimize giren yabancı kavramları aynen almaktansa, çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinden yola çıkarak dilde mevcut olan kelimelerle iliĢkili ôz kavramlar oluĢturmak daha faydalı olacaktır. ―computer‖ için kullanılan‖ bilgisayar‖ kavramı bu ôneriye ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. Bu ôrnekler ve oluĢumlar desteklenerek arttırılmalıdır. 992 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Referenses Aksan D. (2009). Anlambilim. (4. Basım). Engin Yayınevi. Aysever, R. L., (2001) Kratylos: Adların Doğruluğu ve Bilgi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakùltesi Dergisi, 19 l ( 2 ), 153-166. AytaĢ, G. (2009). ―Ġlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Anlama ve Kavrama ÇalıĢmalarında Kelime Hazinesinin Önemi‖. Tùrk Yurdu.. Buzan, T. (2009). MuhteĢem Hafızanızla TanıĢın, Ġstanbul: Boyut Matbaacılık. Erden, N. B. (2010). Tùrkçe Dersinde ÇağrıĢımın Kullanımı Ġle Ġlgili Gereklilikler ve Öneriler. Yùksek Lisans tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitùsù, Tùrkçe Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı. Guiraud P. (1999). Anlambilim. Çev: Vardar, B. Ġstanbul: Multilingual. Guiraud P. (1994). Gôstergebilim. Çev: Yalçın, M., Ankara: Ġmge Kitabevi. Kıran Z., Kıran, A. E. (2006). Dilbilime GiriĢ. (3. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Platon. (2001). Phaidon. Çev: Kemal Yetkin , H. Ragıp Atademir, Ġstanbul: Sosyal Yayınlar. Porzig, W. (2003). Dil Denen Mucize. Çev: Ülkù,V. Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Saussure, D. F. (1998). Genel Dilbilim Dersleri. Çev: Vardar, B. Ġstanbul: Multilingual. TDK. (2005). Tùrkçe Sôzlùk (10.Baskı). Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Uğur, N. (2007). Anlambilim. Ġstanbul: Doruk Yayımcılık. Yıldırım, A. ve Simsek, H. (2006). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel AraĢtırma Yôntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. Ünlù, M.(1993). Dil Bilgileri. Cem Yayınevi: Ġstanbul. http://www.nisanyansozluk.com/?k=gergek+bulmak, 15.04.2011 www.ege-edebiyat.org/modules.php?name=Downloads&d_op=get, 15.04.2011 993 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 565 Title A name given to the resource Anlambilim Çerçevesinde Kelime ve ÇağrıĢım ĠliĢkisi Author Author Erden, Nazife Burcu Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı; dilin anlam çerçevesinde yadsınamaz bir yeri olan çağrıĢımın, anlambilim içerisindeki yeri ve ônemini ortaya koyarak dili kullanan bireylerin kelimelerin farklı anlamlarını daha iyi kavramalarını, temel anlam dıĢındaki sôyleyiĢleri daha bilinçli kullanmalarını sağlamaktır. Bu araĢtırmada nitel araĢtırma yôntemlerinden olan dokùman analizinden yararlanılmıĢtır. AraĢtırmada anlambilimin dilbilim, ruhbilim ve mantık ile olan iliĢkisi gôz ônùne alınarak dil ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢki ortaya konmuĢtur. AraĢtırmanın sonucunda; dilbilimin konusu olan dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, geliĢim ve değiĢim sùreçleri çağrıĢım çerçevesinde incelenerek dile ait ilk kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢının, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanmasının, aktarmaların oluĢumunun çağrıĢım unsuruna bağlı olduğu ortaya konmuĢtur. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b149a0964522daee1cb8f6e05cab592e.pdf 853a76caa1407b480d99856bcac75c05 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Misrepresentations of Turks in Early Modern Drama and Motivations Underlying This Denigration M. Fatih Esen International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina fesen@ibu.edu.ba Melih Karakuzu Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey mkarakuzu@yahoo.com Abstract: There is no uncertainty about the popularity of the Ottoman Turk in Early Modern Drama. This study will discuss the biased representations of and allusions made to the Ottoman Turk in several early modern plays, the whole of which exceeds 40 in number, and a distinct focus will be drawn on the playwrights‘ exploitative attitudes and the reasons motivating such attitudes towards the Turkish material, together with their impacts on the playgoers of the time, consequently, the society in general. Key words: Early Modern Drama, misrepresentation, denigration, Ottoman, Turks Introduction Early modern Europe definitely was well aware of the existence of the Turk or Ottoman. Early modern representations of the Ottoman, its sultans and Turks in general were presented in such a manner especially through drama that it made it felt as if it was being newly introduced to the European public. The implication was assumedly due to the fact that the extensive number of plays that focused on the Turkish material and the playwright‘s consecutive productions on the theme. In fact, it is well known that the European acquaintance of the ―Turk‖ dates further back, if not earlier, to the times of crusades. However, little was known about the Ottoman. The concurrence of the flowering of the drama during Elizabeth‘s reign and the Ottoman Turks being the dominant power of the time helped the representations of this relation and acknowledgement become intensified. But these representations, having no objective foundations, were mostly allusions misrepresenting and demeaning the Ottomans. Historical context The Ottoman Turks were the dominant power in the Eastern Mediterranean and much of Eastern Europe in the early modern period. By the seventeenth century, the lands that they possessed consisted of Istanbul, Greece, the Balkans, Hungary, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North African shore. Their passage to Thrace and Balkans was before the conquest of Constantinople. Adrianople was made capital by Murad I in 1369 after taking parts of Thrace. He overcame the Serbs in 1389 in Kosovo. In 1444 ottoman were victorious in Varna which was followed by another victory at the second battle of Kosovo Ottoman powers prevailed again at Varna in 1444 and at the second battle at Kosovo in 1448. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmet II annexed Serbia (1454–1455) and took Morea from Venice (1458–1460). As Bernard Lewis remarked, the loss of Constantinople was, for most Europeans, a great historical disaster. It was a defeat of Christendom which has never been repaired (Lewis, 1953). Suleyman besieged Vienna in 1529 (without success), but his military and diplomatic strategies achieved a standoff with the Hapsburgs until Hungary, too, was annexed in 1541. The Turks took Cyprus in 1570, and a Christian fleet enjoyed a rare victory at Lepanto in 1571, but from 1575–1590, the sultans were chiefly engaged in the east, notably in a prolonged and bitter war with Persia. The empire experienced the first assassination of a reigning sultan in the early seventeenth century, followed by a brief revival under Murad IV (reigned 1623– 1640). But after Mehmed IV‘s unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683 and the defeat at Zenta, the treaty of Karlowitz (1699) effectively provided for the Ottoman withdrawal from Europe. The traces of Ottoman system ended only with the revolution of Kemal Ataturk in 1923 and the abolition of the Sultanate. However, early modern period ottoman reputation was much more different than it was in its declining period. Early modern Europe viewed ottoman as masters of a sophisticated and well administered empire. As Barbara and Charles Jelavich (1974) remarks: The negative opinion often held of Ottoman civilization is usually based on judgments made in the 18th and 19th centuries, when the state was in a period of 867 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo obvious decline. In the 15th and 16th centuries, however, Ottoman institutions may have offered the Balkan Christian a better life than he had led previously. This remark is undoubtedly one of the rare views which don‘t show a negative attitude towards the ottoman civilization. Much of the attributions used by the early modern people to refer to the ottoman as Vitkus (2000) puts it, included, ―aggression, lust, suspicion, murderous conspiracy, sudden cruelty masquerading as justice, merciless violence rather than ‗Christian charity,‘ wrathful vengeance instead of turning the other cheek‖. According to Linda McJannet (2006) ―Pejorative epithets associated with the Ottomans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries included ―bloody,‖ ―cruel,‖ and ―barbarous.‖ The Turks were compared to forces of nature (whirlwinds or floods) or beasts (wolves, vipers, boars) and depicted in bestial terms such as ―unbridled‖ or ―swarming.‖ Their rule was described as ―tyranny‖ or a ―yoke.‖‖ Certainly these derogatory epithets are only a portion of the depictions that early modern discourse used to describe the Ottoman Turks. As for Europe, particularly England, Elizabeth‘s reign marked the beginnings towards becoming an imperial power and its prestige varied from place to place. When Elizabeth I ascended the throne, Soliman the magnificent was storming towards the heart of Europe raising fear of invasion by the Turks. The ottomans were expanding rapidly throughout Europe. They posed a continuous threat to Christian monarchs in Europe between the fifteenth and the eighteenth centuries. Christian monarchs were establishing their permanent colonies in the new world while, concurrently, they were facing the threat at home of being colonized.(Vitkus, 2000) Military aggression and cultural competition between Christians and Muslims experienced at the time have been the basis for the prevailing conception of Islamic culture during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. An English writer Richard Knolles, in his History of the Turks, refers to the ottoman Turks as "the scourge of God and the present terror of the world.‖ (Hakluyt, 1905) The fear of Turkish expansion was strongly felt at the time, and any news of a Christian victory against Islam was a cause for rejoicing. In 1565, when Ottoman forces abandoned their long siege of Malta, a "form of thanksgiving" was issued by the archbishop of Canterbury that was to be read in all English churches every Sunday, Wednesday, and Friday. The service, used in celebration, closed with this prayer: ―Almightye and everlyving God … we thy disobedient and rebellious children, nowe by the juste judgemente sore afflicted and in great daunger to be oppressed, by thine and our sworne and most deadlye enemyes the Turkes, Infidels, and Miscreantes, doe make humble sute to the throne of thy grace for thy mercye.‖ The prayer characterizes the Turks as ―impure, wicked, and abhominable lyfe.‖ The Turk ―goeth aboute to set up, to extol, and to magnify that wicked monster and damned soule Mahumet.‖(Dimmock, 2005). But the defeat of the Turkish fleet at Lepanto proved to be only a temporary setback to Ottoman expansion. During the Renaissance, learned opinion was divided on how Christendom should respond to its Islamic rivals in the east, particularly with respect to the morality of war against them. As Timothy Hampton observes, ―Opinion varied . . . from the claim that the Turks must be wiped out through a new crusade, to the notion that they were a scourge sent by God to teach Christian Europe about its own sins.‖(Hampton, 1993). Criticism on Some of the Representative Plays According to anti-Islamic tales told in the West, the violence and cruelty of Turks and Moors was enacted in both public and private—on the field of battle and within the palace walls. Shakespeare's tragic hero is a Moorish warrior whose public militarism becomes, in the privacy of his bedroom, a version of the sultan's overprotective absolutism in his imperial harem. By the time Othello murders Desdemona, he has converted to erotic, Islamic evil and conformed to the European stereotype of the irascible, libidinous Muslim. He becomes a representative of the Venetians' greatest foe, the "malignant Turk" (5.2.351), and his suicide is a final effort to punish himself for his reversion to such an identity. In Othello (1604), Turkish cruelty and violence are threatened and then displaced, but it wasn‘t the only play performed in the Elizabethan and Early Stuart theater that brought Turkish villains to center stage, representing Islamic culture in the form of Moorish or Turkish characters. The best known of these plays are Marlowe's Tamburlaine, Parts I & II (1587- 88) and his Jew of Malta {1589). Examples of Islamic might, murderousness, and wealth are also found in George Peele‘s Battle of Alcazar (1588) and Soliman and Perseda (1590), Robert Greene's Alphonsus, King of Aragon (1588) and Orlando Furioso (1589), The Famous History of the Life and Death of Captain Thomas Stukeley (1596), Thomas Dekker's Lusts Dominion (1600), Thomas Heywood's The Fair Maid of the West, Part I (1602), Thomas Goffe's The Courageous Turk (1618) and The Raging Turk (1618), John Fletcher 868 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and Philip Massinger‘s The Knight of Malta (1618), Thomas Middleton and William Rowley‘s All‘s Lost by Lust (1620), as well as the three plays that Vitkus has covered in his book Three Turk Plays bookwhich are Selimus, A Christian turned Turk and The Renegado. These theatrical representations of Islamic power took the stage during a time when the Turkish Empire was at its highest posing a continuous threat to Christian Europe. For London theatergoers, the Turk was not an imaginary bogey, and the Turk plays are not simply fantasies about fictional demons lurking at the edges of the civilized world. These plays and other early modem writings dealing with the Turks express an anxious interest in Islamic power that is both complicated and overdetermined. Here forward I will try to illustrate a few of the period‘s plays and the way they represent the Ottoman sultans of course where the sultan represents the whole ottomans and in broader terms the Muslim world since the word ―Turk‖ over time came to represent and become a connotation for ―Muslim/Islam‖. The motivations underlying the adaptations and decorative additions made to the text will be discussed further in the text. One of these plays where the Ottoman Sultan was negatively portrayed is The Couragious Turk, or Amurath the First (1615-23) by Thomas Goffe. The play is about the conquest of Serbia and Bulgaria in general. However, the first two acts are depictions of how the sultan Murad, first, fell in love with a concubine named Eumorphe, then how he murdered her. And it also includes the sultan‘s murder by a wounded Christian captain, Cobelitz. Its implication is on the sensuality and volatile love affairs of the sultans. Another play which is the pioneering play of the period which can be characterized as the Turkish plays is Christopher Marlowe‘s Tamburlaine the Great part I(1587) (Steane, 1969). Marlowe was the first professional dramatist to portray an Ottoman sultan on the public stage even though there are few others written before Tamburlaine but were not performed on the stage. In Tamburlaine the Great the representation is of Bayazid I. it is based on the war of Ancora and the captivation of Bayazid with his wife Zabina. Once Bayazid‘s army was defeated and the couple was captured, they were publicly ridiculed. Bayazid was kept in a cage and was chained. He was fed with leftovers and he was used as Tamburlaine‘s foot stool as he ascended his horse. Zabina was made a servant. And according to the play, Bayazid, not being able to stand these debasements he smashed his head on the iron cage‘s bars and thus committed a suicide. It is true that Bayazid I was defeated and captured by Tamburlaine but historically he was never used as a foot stool or he would hardly have considered committing a suicide since suicide is strictly banned in Islam. Bayazid II was also hosted in Thomas Goffrey‘s (1963) The Raging Turk, or, Bayazeth the Second. The play presents a series of plots involving intrigues and treacheries between Bayazid II, his three sons, bashas and generals. Sultan Selim, who was known as Selim the Grim, was also a character which inspired a play as well. He ascended the throne of the Ottoman Empire by forcing the abdication of his father, Bayazid II, and by killing his brothers. He also defeated the Mamluks in Syria and Egypt, and thus assumed the title of ‗Caliph‘, a religious title equivalent to the vicegerent of the Prophet. With this title, he became the recognized religious head of forty million of his 'subjects' and the spiritual and temporal head of the empire. In this respect, he gained control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Selim I appears in the anonymous play Selimus, Emperor of the Turkes (1588)(Vitkus, 2000) The play presents the cruel and violent actions of Selimus, the Ottoman prince who kills his brothers Acomat and Corkut, and dethrones and poisons his father Bayazid on his way to attain sole rulership of the Ottoman Empire. The play lacks historical accuracy with regards to the events that took place in the history. It is historically not true, for example, that Selimus murdered his father or that Bayazid was poisoned. These appear to have been inserted by the author to emphasize the point of Turkish ―cruelty.‖ The first scene of the play opens with the lamenting of Bayazid about his late situation concerning the greed of Selimus and the future of the Ottoman Empire. In the same scene, through the words of Bayazid, the audience is prepared for an unmatched ―tyrant,‖ Selimus, whose ―hands do itch to have the crown,/ And he will have it—or else pull [Bayazid]down./ Is he a prince? Ah no, he is a sea,/ Into which run nought but ambitious reaches,/ Seditious complots, murther, fraud, and hate.‖ (1.77-80). In fact, these characteristics, attributed to Selimus here, were part of the dominant religious and political discourse in which the stereotypical features of the Turks were represented in early modern England. Hence, in the second scene, Selimus does not prove his father wrong in the judgement of his son as he reveals his true intentions to Sinam Bassa. If Bayazid does not hand over the crown to Selimus, his ―right hand is resolved/ To end the period with a fatal stab‖ (2. 166-167). From the very beginning, we learn that he is a Machiavellian, ready to commit patricide. When Sinam Bassa reminds him of the ―revenging God‖ who would punish him for his sins after his death (2.185-186), Selimus defies both God and religion, concluding that ―An empire, Sinam, is so sweet a thing,/ As I could be a devil to be a king‖ (2.203-204). It was a commonplace in the early modern popular fiction and drama to represent Turks as unjust, tyrannical and lusty pagans associated with Satanism. The Ottoman Sultan Selimus, with his greedy lust for power, then, becomes ―a typical example of this kind of oriental despotism‖(Vitkus, 2000). 869 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo He also appears in Christopher Marlowe‘s Jew of Malta first performed in 1589-90. Although the play centers around the Jewish character Barabas, Selim ‗Calymath‘ comes to Malta to collect the ten years tribute and the plot revolves around getting rid of this problem. (Steane, 1969) Another sultan portrayed in early modern plays is Mahomet (the Conqueror). Some borrowings are made and used in the play from the legend of Mahomet and Irene. According to this legend Mahomet (Mehmet II) falls in love with Irene, an enslaved Christian, and does not care for his responsibilities as a sultan, but later kills her to prove that his obligations are far more important and this way reattain authority over janissaries. This legendary subject was first portrayed by George Peele in the Turkish Mahomet and Hyrin the Fair Greek (1594) which has been lost (Chew, 1965). Also Gilbert Swinhoe‘s Unhappy Fair Irene (written 1640; printed 1658). The play is set in Adrianople. Irene, a Christian captive rescued from the hands of a common soldier, is presented to Mahomet by a captain. The sultan falls in love with her and summons a Mufti to marry them. Irene asks him to delay it for a week and is granted this request, but in fact, she has secretly arranged for her lover, a Greek nobleman named Paeologus, to meet her at the city gate and escape. In the meanwhile, Irene puts off the Sultan with fair promises, who becomes more and more infatuated with her. As a result, he neglects his responsibilities and the Janissaries beat upon the palace door. Mahomet, in order to restore their trust in him kills Irene. Paeologus, returning to meet her and escape, finds her corpse and commits suicide. Soliman the Lawmaker also known as ―Soliman the Magnificent‖ was maybe the most distinguished of the Ottoman sultans either because the Ottoman boundaries were at their nearest to the heart of Europe, the thought of which had been haunting the Europeans for a while then, or because the Ottoman power was at its highest, which again brought about the ambiguous feelings of fear and envy to the European senses. Soliman first appeared as ‗Solyman‘ in the Latin play Solymannidea Tragodia (1581) of unknown authorship. The play opens with a prologue by the ghost of Selymus (Selim), the father of Soliman, in which he foretells the ruin of his house through the crime of Rhode, against her stepson. Soliman is disturbed by his son Mustapha‘s popularity. Rhode, Selymus‘ mother, after consulting a wicked official named Roxanes, tries to direct events in order to win Selymus the throne, by creating hatred for Mustapha in Soliman‘s heart, instead of imprisoning him. Then Rhode and Roxanes bring accusations against Mustapha, he is deprived of his offices; but an old vow made by the Sultan is his supposed safeguard against capital punishment. However, he is poisoned without Soliman‘s knowledge. Mustapha has a dream where Mahomet tells him that he will be with him in Paradise in three days, which Mustapha interprets to mean that he will ascend the throne in the promised time. An interview follows between Soliman and his son, and the Sultan convinced of Mustapha‘s loyalty and innocence, countermands an order he has given for his execution. However, a messenger arrives, telling Soliman that twelve eunuchs have strangled Mustapha (Chew, 1965). There is also a separate play about Soliman‘s son Mustapha, named Mustapha (1608) by Fulke Greville. It is a closet drama- a play intended to be read not to be performed- about the final years of Soliman‘s reign and the murder of his son. Although it was under the influence of evil counselors and his wife Khourrem, Soliman caused the death of his son Mustapha. This was an act that exemplified ‗Turkish cruelty‘. For late sixteenth-century western Christians, the locus classicus of the raging Turk might have been Soliman the Magnificent‘s execution of his son Mustapha in 1553. Historians writing before Mustapha‘s death acknowledged Soliman‘s greatness, while often portraying him as an exception to the Ottoman rule. In executing Mustapha, however, Soliman seemed to revert from ―magnificence‖ to the alleged norm of ―Ottoman cruelty‖, thus, doubly reinforcing the stereotype. Two more tragedies where Soliman appears are Thomas Kyd‘s Soliman and Perseda (1589-1599) and William Davenant‘s The Siege of Rhodes (1656). After an unsuccessful siege in 1480, the Ottomans captured the island of Rhodes in 1523 and ruled it until 191214. This event which took place in the reign of Sultan Soliman horrified Christendom. In both tragedies, Soliman occupies a central role with Ibrahim Pasha (Erastus in Kyd‘s play, and Alphonso in Davenant‘s). Soliman and Ibrahim grew together as a child and Ibrahim rose to become a constant companion and vizier when Soliman became a Sultan. However, in the midst of a brilliant career as general, administrator, and diplomat, Ibrahim Pasha was said to be killed by Soliman‘s command in 1536 which again gives way to ill repute because the incident might set connections to much discussed notion of fratricide in Ottoman dynasty due to Ibrahim pasha and Soliman‘s closeness in their youths. In the play, Soliman and Perseda a young maiden of Rhodes, laments the absence of her lover Erastus, a Rhodian knight. She sees Lucina wearing the chain which she had given Erastus and unaware that Erastus lost it and the chain was found by Lucina‘s lover, Perseda accuses Erastus of unfaithfulness. Erastus, on his attempt to regain the chain, causes the death of Lucina‘s lover and flees to Constantinople. Perseda decides to follow Erastus but is captured by the Turks, and is presented to Soliman. On laying eyes on her, the Sultan falls in love with her, but she rejects him 870 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo threatening to commit suicide. At that moment Erastus arrives on the premises and the long lost lovers are reunited. Soliman promises their marriage and the couple leave for Rhodes. Soliman, still devoured by passion, and mortified at having allowed Perseda to leave, listens to Brusor, his counsellor, who suggests that he should get rid of Erastus by charging him with a crime. Erastus is called back by Soliman for a visit and, on his arrival, is accused of treachery and is beheaded. Perseda, to avenge his death, disguises herself as a man and puts up a brave resistance against the Turks. As the Turks advance to the walls of Rhodes, Perseda appears and defies them. She then falls but, before dying, she kills Soliman by kissing him with poisoned lips. The play, as in most ―Turkish plays‖ implicitly embroiders the stereotyped opinions onto the image of Turks and blames all the negative epithets on the Turkish sultans. Motivations Underlying Denigrations A natural feeling of curiosity arises from within after seeing considerable number of plays making references to Turks or the Ottoman Sultans most of which are denigrating and demeaning the image of Turk. One, then, feels obliged to ask, ―Why would there be so many plays about it? Why is the Turk always portrayed negatively? Is it just because of enmity? Is it just the fear of the possibility of having to confront the most mighty and powerful enemy at the battlefield? Or is it the religious difference? There could be many other questions aiming to figure out what the European concern which produced this genre of drama was. I will focus on a few of the significant motivations underlying this kind of unfair, prejudiced, undeserved libel which actually drew considerable scholarship onto the field. The major factor behind the origination of the denigration of Turks, according to the general opinion, is the fear that, especially after the fall of Constantinople, the Turks would attack Europe and enslave or, in their understanding, colonize the European territories. There have been instances that brought bishops to organize gathering of prayers to ask from God that they be protected from Turkish invasion, or they would ask the release of Christian lands under Turkish rule. Robert Schwoebel in his book The Shadow of the Crescent mentions that the bishop of Agar Athos monastery in Greece, upon the fall of Constantinople, commented that this incident was the most unfortunate event that ever happened to them and he prayed for the liberation of the people and the city under Ottoman rule (Schwoebel, 1967). However, along with this commonly held opinion which underlies the fear factor that yields such works of deflection and diversion of historical facts, there are some other factors which are presented as less important, though, when supported by evidence, makes stronger sense to readers which do not become parts with the early modern European opinion. The notion that the denigration we speak of is very much related with the religious rivalry of Christendom and Islam has also been prevalent in scholarly contexts. As Englishmen were becoming more involved with international trade and interacting more with the Ottoman and Muslim peoples, they were losing more people to Islam. People were converting to the religion of Turks and the term ―Turning Turk‖ became widely used as a connotation to conversion to Islam. As Vitkus (2000) mentions in his book: … despite more extensive contact between Englishmen and Muslims, English representations of Islamic society written at this time continue to paint an inaccurate picture. In scripts for the stage and in other accounts, the facts about Islamic or Ottoman culture and its power are often imbedded within or distorted by demonizing fantasies. Furthermore, the historical reality of the Ottoman threat and real anxieties about the Turks were rarely represented or expressed without the accompaniment of anti-Islamic polemic. To the Christian West the Ottoman Turks were the renewal and the reinforcement of Islamic power the first phase of which was at the time of Early Caliphate. Early modern Europe culture produced images of Islam as imaginary resolutions of real anxieties about Islamic wealth and might. For this reason, the rise of Islam under Turkish safeguard was seen as a force which put a weak and divided Christendom to shame. The prospect of conversion to Islam was a sensational subject. It inspired anxious fascination. Therefore, during the seventeenth century English readers and theatre-goers were offered large amount of descriptions and portrayals of the image of the Turk and the printed material on the Ottoman culture and religion increased. While Muslims or ―Mahometans‖ as they were often called were inaccurately depicted as pagans who had made an idol of their prophet, there was also a tendency to ignore their religious identity in favor of a label that signified a barbaric ethnicity. As Bernard Lewis (1993) mentions, Europeans in various parts of the continent showed a curious reluctance to call the Muslims by any name with a religious connotation, preferring to call them by ethnic names, the obvious purpose of which was to diminish their stature and significance and to reduce them to something local or even tribal. At various 871 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo times and in various places, Europeans called the Muslims Saracens, Moors, Turks, or Tatars, according to which of the Muslim peoples they have encountered. Thus far mentioned attitudes of Early modern European society which showed an eager stance to denigrate the ―every other‖ that did not conform to its general opinion resulted in producing works which often times did not see any harm in manipulating the history and adapting it in a way which would fit the public taste. I will further claim in this paper that the early modern European society did not produce distinguished literary figures whose sole purpose was to educate the public devotedly on their cause. As we can derive from the literary works of the period that this cause was to establish a uniform opinion regarding the Turks as the general enemy and Islam as the false religion. Instead, these figures exploited the interest of the public in the genre of Turk plays in which the ―terror of the world‖ was being used as a ―foot stool‖ creating in the theatergoers a feeling of exaltation and satisfaction that the enemy is a base being and the European is noble and superior. As such a reward would cling the theatre-goers to the theatre and to these theatrical works that would function as an ecstasy that would fire the public with enthusiasm to form a public unity against the ―general enemy‖ and a counter stance towards Islam reinforcing the commitment to Christendom. However, parallel to these intentions we come to notice that the theatre companies of the early modern period had other material concerns. The genre of Turk plays had a significant value for acting companies in terms of art, ideology and more importantly commerce. When the operations of the playhouses of the time are taken into account, there becomes a collective enterprise spirit visible among acting companies. Jeffrey Masten (1997) argues that ―all‖ plays, whether composed by one or more than one dramatist, are forms of collaboration. Kyd and Marlowe were influential in promoting a new playhouse culture that would flourish throughout 1590s. However, Turk narrative contributed to the material implications of this influence which makes the case for a company and inter-company approach to drama in this period. It is remarkable to note here that even in the case of Shakespeare until he wrote Othello for the King‘s Men Company, he didn‘t turn to the Ottoman material to write a Turk play; however, in 1590s he referred to the theme in at least 13 of his plays. We can conclude here that the demand from the public and the acting companies was probably so high that the distinguished playwrights of the period such as Shakespeare, Marlowe, Dekker, Greene, and Peele felt pressure to write plays dealing with the Ottoman Turks and Islam. Louis Wann (1915) claims that: With the plays of the period distributed thus widely among the important playwrights of the time, we are justified in the assertion that the production of oriental plays was not due to the fancy of any one author or group of authors, but that the interest of the Elizabethans was so considerable as to induce a majority of the main playwrights to write at least one play dealing with oriental matter. The staging of Ottoman was sustained by artistic cross-fertilization that was, for dramatists, actors, and playgoers collectively, collaborative and competitive. As Mark Hutchings (2007) states; Indeed, in one sense the notion of a play "market" currently in vogue is perhaps particularly appropriate, for if the Turkish material metaphorically (and, in the form of reusable stage properties and transferable costumes, literally) operated as part of the playhouse economy, it was both a component and a by-product of England's controversial trading partnership with the Ottoman Empire. A visual illustration of the influence of the genre in tabular form is available below. The table involves a list of plays, dates of performances and publication, the acting company and the dramatist concerned. Some plays in the list are not primarily concerned with the staging of the Ottoman. In some cases a play incidentally refers to the Turks. A distinction has been made to distinguish a text in which the Turk plays a significant role (indicated thus *) and those in which an allusion is made in passing (indicated thus#). It is worth mentioning here that allusion in text and allusion in act could be two very different and very important aspects. Representations in act could very well be used to manipulate, to convey the intended meanings. Mark Hutchings (2007) underlines this notion thus, All of these plays were part of a narrative that operated collectively, and the point is that even where a reference in a play is brief and apparently nondescript, such a "quotation" nonetheless participated in both calling up an established narrative and importing various resonances the narrative had into that play in performance; indeed, there must have been many acts of physical quotation, where a character, 872 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo play, or actor was evoked or "remembered" on stage, that have simply left no textual trace This is so important a tool for the drama which makes distortion and falsifying possible if one intends to exploit an ideology. The table below incorporates the information available on Henslowe‘s Diary. This diary is considered to be the single most important document of early modern English theatre history. It was owned by Philip Henslowe who was an Elizabethan theatrical entrepreneur. His diary is a valuable source of information on the theatre of the period. It is a collection of memoranda and notes that record payments to writers, box office takings, and lists of money lent. Also of interest are records of the purchase of expensive costumes and of stage properties. Therefore it is a valuable source which sheds light to modern day‘s interpretations of early modern theatre. It is not difficult to draw from the table how influential the Turkish genre was. * denotes text lost ** denotes fragments only extant *** denotes plot extant # denotes reference to Turks/Ottoman Empire in text Table 1 The list of Turk plays taken from Mark Hutchings, 2007 Date of earliest likely Perf. Title (Pub.) Venue Company Author c.1576-79 The Blacksmith's Daughter Theatre? Leicester's Anon* 1580 The Soldan and the Duke Court 14 Feb. of—— Derby's Anon* c.1580-1603 (MS) Tomumbeius sive Sultanici in Aegypto Imperii Eversio 1582 (MS) The Three Ladies London Solvmannidae 1587(1590) 1 Tamburlaine Rose/Theatre Admiral's Marlowe c.1587 (>1592) The Spanish Tragedy Rose? Strange's Kyd 1587(1599) Alphonsus, King of Aragon Rose? Queen's Greene 1588(1590) 2 Tamburlaine Admiral's Marlowe 1588 The Turkish Mahomet and Hiren the Fair Greek (Admiral's in 1594?) Peele* c.1588 Doctor Faustus Rose? Strange's Marlowe c.1588-92 1 Tamar Cham Rose Strange's Admiral's Anon* 1589(1594) The Battle of Alcazar Rose Admiral's Peele c.1589 (1632) The Jew of Malta Theatre? Strange's Admiral's Marlowe 1581 (1584) of Salterne Theatre? Leicester's Anon Rose/Theatre 1590(1623) Friar Bacon and Friar Strange's Bungay 1 Henry VI Rose? 1591 (1594) Orlando Furioso Rose Queen's Admiral's 1591 (1594) The Taming of the Shrew Theatre? Chamberlain's c.1589 (1594) Wilson Greene Admiral's Strange's? Shakespeare # Greene (& Rowley?) Shakespeare# 873 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1591 (1623) 1591 1591 c.1591 (1594) c.1592? (1592) 1592(1594) 1592 1592 (MS) 1593(1661) The Comedy of Errors Theatre? Edward I Richard III Theatre The True Tragedy of Richard HI Soliman and Perseda 1 Selimus Theatre? 2 Tamar Cham John of Bordeaux The Tragical History of Guy of Warwick 1594 Gesta Grayorum 1595 (1597) Richard II A Midsummer Dream c.1595 Night's Chamberlain's? Queen's? Pembroke's Shakespeare # Peele # Shakespeare Queen's Anon# Queen's Strange's Strange's? Kyd? Greene? Anon* Greene? Anon Royal Entertainment Gentlemen of Gray's Inn Theatre? Chamberlain's Theatre Chamberlain's Admiral's Bacon?. Campion. Davison** Shakespeare # Shakespeare # Anon (Heywood in part?) Greville 1596(1605) Captain Thomas Stukeley Rose 1596(1609) Mustapha Closet 1596(1600) The Merchant of Venice Theatre Chamberlain's 1597 (MS) Frederick and Basilea Admiral's Anon*; *** 1597(1598) 1597(1600) 1 Henry IV 2 Henry IV Theatre? Theatre? Chamberlain's Chamberlain's Shakespeare # Shakespeare # 1597(1602) The Merry Windsor Theatre? Chamberlain's Shakespeare # 1598 Vayvode Rose? Admiral's Chettle?* 1598(1600) 1598 1599(1600) 1599(1600) Much Ado About Nothing Every Man in His Humour Old Fortunatus Henry V Curtain Curtain? Rose /Fortune Curtain Globe Chamberlain's Chamberlain's Admiral's Chamberlain's 1599 The Love of a Grecian Lady (The Grecian Comedy 1599 Mahomet 1599 Mully Molloco Shakespeare # Jonson # Dekker Shakespeare # Anon* (Poss same play as The Turkish Mahomet andHiren the FairGreek) Anon* (Poss same play as above) Anon* (Poss same play as The Battle of Alcazar) Rose Admiral's Dekker # Globe Chamberlain's Rose Admiral's Shakespeare # Drayton. Hathway. Munday. and Wilson # Wives of 1599(1623) The Shoemaker's Holiday As You Like It 1599(1600) 1 Sir John Oldcastle c.1600 (1615) The Four Prentices of Rose? Red Bull London 1600 (1633) Alaham 1599(1600) Closet Admiral's? Queen Anne's Shakespeare # Heywood Greville 874 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1600(1655) Lust's Dominion Fortune? Admiral's 1600 (1601) Cynthia's Revels Black friars Black friars Children 1600 1600 c.1600-01 (1604) 1601 1601 (1601) 1601 (1602) 1602 1603-4 (1622) 1603-4 (1623) The Tartarian Cripple, Emperor of Constantinople Grim the Collier of Croydon Hamlet Day, Dekker, Haughton? Marston? Jonson # Anon* Globe Arabia Sitiens, or a Dream of a Dry Year (Mahomet and his Heaven, or Epimethea, Grand Empress of the deserts of Arabia, Or a Dream Dry Summer Or The WeatherWoman) George Scanderbeg Satiromastix Paul's The Capture of Stuhlweissenburg Admiral's Haughton Chamberlain's Shakespeare # Percy Oxford's Paul's Children Anon* Dekker Anon* Othello Globe Chamberlain's King's Shakespeare All's Well That Ends Well Globe Chamberlain's King's Shakespeare # Conclusion If we are to bring the case to a conclusion, the imbalance of the number of plays at different decades, distinguished playwright‘s inconsequential prolificacy, unnatural growth of drama, and theme-centered approaches of the dramatist and numerous other anomalies during the early modern period especially regarding the themes of Ottoman, Turks, and Islamic people raise the feeling of suspicion towards the literature on the specified theme. There is clear evidence that early modern playwrights mostly consulted earlier works on the field or on similar themes which were mostly histories whose reliability were in question. And there are innumerable instances that the dramatist version of an event and the historical fact often times conflicted. Moreover, it is evident now that the deflections in histories were also decorated providing them to serve biased purposes. Louis Wann (1915) clearly states: Needless to say, history was not then written in the scientific spirit. Each historian copied from his predecessor, with or without acknowledgement, and felt no compunction in coloring the narrative to increase its interest, or in mingling legend with fact, with the result that his successor honestly accepted the whole as fact and so transmitted it to his successor with his own embellishments. In the same source Wann (1915) blames all these misrepresentations on the historians whose works these dramatists consulted but that is something a reasonable mind cannot agree. Then we draw the conclusion that the integrity, sincerity, incorruptibility and righteousness of early modern dramatist whose works included or aimed misrepresentations of certain peoples exclusive of a sense of conscience while making judgments should be in question. 875 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Chew, S.,(1965). The Crescent and the Rose, New York: Octagon Books Inc. Dimmock, M.,(2005). New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England Aldershot, Ashgate Geoffrey, T., (1963). The Couragious Turk, or Amurath the First, and The Raging Turke, or Baiazet the Second, The Malone Society Reprints, Oxford: Oxford University Press, reprinted 1974 Hakluyt, R. The Principall Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation made by Sea or over Land. . . . London, 1589. Facsimile reprint. With an introduction by David Beers Quinn and Raleigh Ashlin Skelton. Cambridge: For the Hakluyt Society and the Peabody Museum of Salem, 1965. ) Hampton, T. (1993). ― ‗Turkish Dogs,‘ Rabelais, Erasmus, and the Rhetoric of Alterity,‖ Representation 41 Hutchings, M. (2007)."The 'Turk Phenomenon' and the Repertory of the Late Elizabethan Playhouse". Early Modern Literary Studies Special Issue 16 (October, 2007) 10.1-39 Retrieved from : http://purl.oclc.org/emls/si16/hutcturk.htm. Jelavich, Barbara & Charles, (1974). ―Balkans, History of the,‖ Encylopaedia Britannica Macropaedia, 15th ed. 2: 621. Lewis, B., (1953). ―Europe and the Turks: The Civilization of the Ottoman Empire‖ First published in History Today magazine, October 1953, historiographically analyzed by Roger Crowley in the October 2010 issue. Lewis, B., (1993). Islam and the West, Oxford University Press. Masten, J., (1997). Textual Intercourse: Collaboration, Authorship, and Sexualities in Renaissance Drama. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. McJannet, L., (2006). The sultan speaks, dialogue in English plays and histories about the Ottoman Turks Palgrave Macmillan, pp.16 Schwoebel, R., (1967). The Shadow of the Crescent: Renaissance Image of the Turks 1453-1517. Nieuwwkoop: B. de Graaf. Steane, J.B., (ed)( 1969). Christopher Marlowe, Jew of Malta. In Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd., reprinted 1980 Steane, J.B., (ed)( 1969). Christopher Marlowe, The First Part of Tamburlaine the Great. In Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd.; reprinted 1980. Swinhoe, G., (1658). The Tragedy of the Unhappy Fair Irene, London. Vitkus, D. J., (2000). Introduction. Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England. New York: Columbia UP. 876 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 126 Title A name given to the resource Misrepresentations of Turks in Early Modern Drama and Motivations Underlying This Denigration Author Author Esen, M. Fatih Karakuzu, Melih Abstract A summary of the resource. There is no uncertainty about the popularity of the Ottoman Turk in Early Modern Drama. This study will discuss the biased representations of and allusions made to the Ottoman Turk in several early modern plays, the whole of which exceeds 40 in number, and a distinct focus will be drawn on the playwrights‘ exploitative attitudes and the reasons motivating such attitudes towards the Turkish material, together with their impacts on the playgoers of the time, consequently, the society in general. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/91211652f363a0fd94660914435b66e9.pdf 5e92c4885f0ddceee24da9c051e7ce97 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo RUTHENIAN-SERBIAN DICTIONARY Mihajlo Fejsa Faculty of Philosopy, Department of Ruthenian University of Novi Sad, Serbia / Vojvodina feysam@eunet.rs Abstract: After publishing the biligual Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Српско-русински речник / Сербско-руски словнїк), in two volumes (Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1995; Institute for Textbooks, Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1997), the Julijan RamaĦ`s team started a new project – Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (Русинскo-српски речник / Руско-сербски словнїк). In about ten years the team that consisted of four members succeeded in accomplishing the project sponsored by the Ministry of Science. The result is a voluminous bilingual dictionary published under the same title by the Institute for Culture of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians and the Department of the Ruthenian Studies in 2010. The characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary are: 1. stating the precise meaning of Ruthenian words followed by explicite explanations in Serbian; 2. grammatical remarks, including a detailed elaboration of undeclined words; 3. the presence of abbreviations pointing to stylistic use, the use for special purposes, and the frequency of Ruthenian words; 4. tolerance in using synonyms or variants (especially those from Kucura); 5. the presence of rich Ruthenian phraseology, unregistered so far; 6. the endevour to present as many Serbian equivalents as possible. The Ruthenian philology has by all means been placed on a higher level among Slavic philologies. KEY WORDS: Bilingual dictionary, Ruthenian lexicography, Serbian lexicography, Vojvodina`s Ruthenians Introduction The Year 2010 was a historic year for the Ruthenian national community in Vojvodina / Serbia. This was the year when the long-awaited Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (Руско-сербски словнїк / Русинско-српски речник), the first one of its kind, came into being. Editor-in-chief, Prof. Dr. Julijan RamaĦ, and the authors, besides Prof. RamaĦ (prepared the letters from A to Є), and the Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa (prepared the letters from Ж to Н), M.A. Helena Meħeńi (prepared the letters from O to Р) and Prof. Dr. Oksana Timko-Đitko (prepared the letters from С to Я). The reviewers were Prof. Dr. Aleksander D. DuliĦenko from Tartu (Estonia) and Prof. Dr. Bogoljub StankoviĤ from Belgrade. Publishers were the Faculty of Philosophy - the Department of Ruthenian Studies and the Institute for Culture of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians. It is an undisputed fact that the Dictionary is a capital work of Ruthenian and Serbian lexicographies. As a matter of fact a three decades long project was completed by publishing the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary. Forty people were included in composing the first and so far the only lexicographic card file of the Ruthenian language, ten people processed the cards and four linguists finalized this great lexicographical project by preparing the manuscript. The importance of the project is even greater if we bear in mind that the Vojvodinian Ruthenians present the smallest national minority, whose language is the official language of tthe Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. According to the last 2002 census there are 15,626 members of the Ruthenian national minority in Vojvodina, representing 0.77 % of the population of Vojvodina and 15,905 members in the Republic of Serbia, representing 0.2 % of the population of Serbia (Фејса, 2010: 190). Many more numerous peoples do not have such a dictionary. Before presenting the Ruthenian-Serbian dictionary, published in one volume, we need to remind that, chronologically, the publication of another capital lexicographical work, the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Српскорусински речник / Сербско-руски словнїк) in two volumes, preceded. The work on the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary lasted two decades. In the mid seventies of the 20th century the Society for the Ruthenian Language and Literature began systematic work on a project that was expected to result in the Serbian-Ruthenian and RuthenianSerbian dictionaries. The most prominent Serbian lexicographer, academician Mitar Peńikan, was consulted in the initial phase. The project was transfered to the newly established Department for the Ruthenian Language and Literature at the University of Novi Sad in 1981. Professors Julian RamaĦ and Mihajlo Fejsa included the first generations of students of the study group in forming the lexicographic card file of the Ruthenian language. Since the lexicographic research presented a priority of all priorities, grammar and sintactic research was in a way neglected. We can say that the students of the first generations of the Department of Ruthenian studies were in a way victims of the project. The two professors of the Department who simply could not do all the work alone consciously directed them to 930 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo language investigations, namely to cultural-linguistic ones. Even the topics of the first diploma works were in connection with the main goals of the lexicographic project, for example: Ruthenian clothes, house, customs, food, religion, proverbs, making of wagons etc. Well-organized and coordinated work between students and professors brought the Ruthenian national minority in Serbia / Vojvodina the first and only lexicographic catalogue of lexemes of the Ruthenian language. The Ruthenians living in the Carpathian area - in Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Hungary, Rumania - Croatia and other countries do not have a similar. Leader of the project, Professor RamaĦ, said several times that a two-way dictionary should have been made at the beginning of the 20th century, in the times of national awakening, when the first cultural organization of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians, the Ruthenian Popular Educational Society (1919), was founded and when Dr. Havrijil Kosteljnik published the first grammar of the Ruthenian language (Граматика бачваньско-рускей бешеди, 1923; see Костельник, 1975), but at those times ―20,000 Ruthenians did not have intellectual strength the other European peoples had, and our dictionaries had to be late‖ (Хома-Цветкович, 2010: 47-48). The team consisted of Professor RamaĦ, Professor Fejsa and MA Meħeńi Helena, from the Translation Service of Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, prepared the manuscript for the 250th anniversary of the Ruthenian settlement in BaĦka. The first volume of the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Сербско-руски словнїк) was printed in 1995, and, in a few years, the second volume - in 1997. The Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary is the basis of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (2010). At the end of 90s of the 20th century, immediately after the release of the second volume of the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary, the Department for the Ruthenian Language and Literature at the Faculty of Philosophy initiated activities for compilation of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary, which was from the very beginning conceived as the second phase of the overall project. The Lexicographic card file made for Serbian entries in the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary was now given to new generations of students of the Department to make another catalogue but this time with Ruthenian entries in the first place. At the same time, Professor RamaĦ`s team (extended to Dr. Oksana Timko-Đitko from Zagreb) supplemented the card file with vernacular vocabulary and vocabulary extracted from the works of famous Ruthenian writers. Words from the literary works and magazines, which were published in the meantime, were also included in the card file. Compared with the previous two-volume dictionary, the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is one volume shorter. Partly because the authors feared that a two-volume dictionary, expanded with new entries, would be even more voluminous, and in global and domestic economic crisis it would be difficult to publish such a dictionary, and partly because of the prevailing opinion that it was necessary to include specific Ruthenian words in the RuthenianSerbian Dictionary. It was considered that professional terms from various fields, which are basically internationalisms, were not particularly important in this case. Hence, technical, botanical and other terms were not included in the manuscript; the authors paid more attention to the words from the vernacular. It was imperative not to lose those words that are specific for the Ruthenian language. Whole attention was given to the words related to the life of Ruthenians in the past, although some of them are slowly being forgotten and replaced spontaneously with the nearest equivalent from the Serbian language. For example: бабрачка (Serb. пипав посао, Engl. tedious job), байлаґовац (Serb. бактати се, Engl. work on with difficulty), висобачиц (Serb. изгрдити, испсовати; Engl. scold, repremand), кухтариц (Serb. претурати, претраживати; Engl. rummage through, search through), опаскудзиц (Serb. оскврнавити, покварити; Engl. spoil, dishonour), стирмиц (Serb. дреждати; Engl. wait for a long time), чаварґовац (Serb. препродавати, шпекулисати; Engl. resell, speculate on the stock market) (ХомаЦветкович, 2010: 49). The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is descriptive, bilingual, and translative. The authors devoted a lot of time to define semantic structure of polysemous words. Words with multiple meanings have several Serbian equivalents and each of the meanings is regularly illustrated with a few examples. The noun хижа, which has equivalents кућа and соба in the Serbian language (respectively house and room in English language), is illustrated with twelve examples (for example ~ до хладку, Serb. кућа у хладу, Engl. house in the shade; предня ~, Serb. предња соба, Engl. front room). The noun спреводзка also has two equivalents in the Serbian language – превара and лаж (Engl. fraud, deceit and lie, falsehood). Because of the numerous illustrations of polysemous lexemes the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is suitable not only for comparative and contrastive linguistic research but also for broader investigations pertaining to Ruthenian culture. It is interesting, for example, to notice that there is a developed semantic field of hygiene, and a few verbs that convey different actions in relation to washing exist in the Ruthenian language. Thus, пере ce и коса, и зуби, и одело, и суёе ... in the Serbian language, or, in other words, the verb прати is almost exclusive for the use in these situations in Serbian, whereas there are several verbs to convey the same hygienic actions in Ruthenian: умивац руки и твар, змивац власи, чухац зуби, райбац шмати, орайбовац дакого (као старатељ), помивац судзину, вимивац / виплоковац (Serb. испирањем чистити од примеса, испирати). We observe a number of verbs in English too; the verb wash (hands, face, hair, laundry) prevails, but there are verbs rinse (dishes, wash), brush (teeth), gargle (one`s throat), pan (gold) as well. On the other hand, there are not enough Ruthenian adjectives to convey all the nuances that are expressed by Serbian adjectives. This is particularly noticeable in the adjectives that create semantic fields of beautiful and terrible. For a woman who is лепa / згоднa / љупкa / дивна ... и прелепа, 931 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo предивна (beautiful / pretty / lovely / wonderful ... and most beautiful, most wonderful) there exist only adjectives красна / шумна ... и прекрасна in Ruthenian; in order to fill the gaps in the semantic fields Ruthenian speakers simply borrow the Serbian equivalents and because of that, nowadays, even writers and proofreaders are in a dilemma whether to treat the adjectives зґодна and любка as a part of standardized lexicon, or as a part of colloquial lexicon. The Ruthenian adverb страшнє (in its variants страшно, страхотно) has three equivalents in Serbian страшно, грозно and жестоко (horribly, terribly, awfully and severely), and the gaps are filled by borrowing from Serbian - ужасно, or, in teenage speech, горор, which is not noted in the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary since it is a recent borrowing from Serbian (based on English model). The authors paid special attention to interlingual homonymy, that is to identification of so-called ―false friends‖ - the words that are in the Ruthenian and Serbian languages equal or nearly equal in shape, by sound, but different in meaning. The goal was to eliminate false associations that arise when translating certain lexemes from one language to another. Let us give a few examples of ―false friends‖ for this occasion. The Ruthenian noun рок has three equivalents in Serbian: година (Engl. year), годиште (Engl. age group, generation) and год (Engl. ring on a tree); according to interlingual homonymy (or ―false friendship‖) the Serbian noun година (Engl. year) equals the Ruthenian noun годзина, but its meaning is different - час, сат (Engl. hour, clock); the noun рок enters the spoken (colloquial, non-standard) language, but the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary does not accept it in the written (literary, standard) language, as opposed to the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary, which recognized the noun рок in military (meaning deadline) and dance (< rock and roll) terminologies (as replacements for the noun, the nouns час and термин are recommended, meaning period of time, fixed or limited period of time, term). The Ruthenian verb топиц does not equal the Serbian verb топити, but the Serbian verb ложити (Engl. start a fire, heat); the synonym for топити in Serbian is отапати, аnd its Ruthenian equivalent is пущац (Engl. melt, dissolve). The Ruthenian noun облак (window) does not correspond to the Serbian noun облак (cloud), but to the Serbian noun прозор (window). The Ruthenian noun образ (icon) does not correspond to the Serbian noun образ (cheek) since it is its ―false friend‖, and its ―true fiend‖ is икона; the Ruthenian noun лїцо (cheek) also has а ―false friend‖, since its translation equivalent in Serbian is not лице (Ruthen. твар, Engl. face) but the mentioned noun образ (cheek). The Ruthenian adverb просто has four Serbian equivalents, of which two are ―false friends‖ and two are ―true friends‖: право (straight, directly), усправно (vertically, uprightly), просто, грубо (rudely, cruelly) and просто, једноставно (simply). Нєдзеля is only недеља as one of the days of the week (Saturday), and тидзень is недеља as seven days from Saturday midnight to Sunday midnight (week). The Ruthenian noun пара has the followiing equivalents: (1) Serb. пар (Engl. pair), Serb. супружник, партнер (Engl. spouse, partner), Serb. пар (Engl. match), (2) Serb. пара (Engl. steam, vapour) and (3) Serb. пара (Engl. para, one hundredth оf a dinar). There are several more characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary, which undoubtedly represent a significant contribution to the Ruthenian lexicology: 1. First and exceptionally important is the presence of rich phraseology. Editor in chief of the RuthenianSerbian Dictionary, prof. Dr. Julian RamaĦ, is also the author of the first phraseological dictionary of the Ruthenian language (see Рамач, 1987). The Ruthenian phrases from the phraseological dictionary were incorporated in both the Serbian-Ruthenian dictionary and the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary, and a lot of new ones were added. Hundreds of expressions and idioms are preserved for future generations in this way. Many of them are not frequent even today. Let us have a look at the entry dedicated to the noun Бог (Serb. Бог, Engl. God). If the authors have not provided about 50 phrases, the entry would have been like this: Бог/бог х. бог. Both Serbian and Ruthenian use the Cyrillic script and it looks as if the two nouns were the same but they are only written in the same way; there is a significant difference between the pronunciation of the consonant г in the two languages since it is velar in Serbian and glottal in Ruthenian (Serb. /bog/, Ruthen./boh/). For example: Кому ~ тому и шицки святи (Serb. Коме Бог томе и сви свети, Engl. If God helps you all the saints will help you too), Най ше ~ о нїм стара (Serb. Шта му Бог да, Engl. May God help him), Не суди боже престац (Serb. Ни конца ни краја чему, Engl. That goes on endlessly), Я о боже ти о коже (Serb. Ја у клин ти у плочу, Engl. We cannot understand each other), Дай Боже (Serb. Из твојих уста у божије уши, Engl. May God grant it), Нє дай Боже (Serb. Не дај Боже / Далеко било, Engl. God forbid) ... 2. About 38,000 entries are arranged in alphabetical order, according to the order of Ruthenian alphabet letters, and translation equivalents of the Serbian language were regularly given. On the basis of extensive lexicographic card file of the Ruthenian language the authors isolated the relevant meanings and provided explicit interpretations in parentheses. The isolated meanings are illustrated with clear and unambiguous examples. As far as examples are concerned we may say that the authors did their best to reflect the spirit of Ruthenian. 3. The authors provided valuable grammar information, which is necessary for a standard dictionary, as well. Verbal government (for example опитац ше дакому, буц одушевени з даким або з дачим, нє вериц ше наслухац дакого або дацо), aspect (зак., нєзак.), changes at the end of stems of nouns and verbs before inflectional endings (for ex. желєнїц, -нєє), and irregular comparison (for ex. positive добри, comparative лєпши) are assigned regularly. Thanks to the description of grammatical characteristics of Ruthenian words the whole language is offered to philologists-linguists worldwide to carry out researches of various kinds. 932 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. In connection with the previous we need to point out that whereas the inflected words (declinable and conjugated words: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numbers and verbs) were sufficiently dealt with by the rysinists, the uninflected words (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, exclamations and particles) were somehow forgotten and kept aside. In this dictionary, they were also examined in details. 5. The presence of acronyms says a lot about the stylistic use (беш., експр., франт., пей., ауґм., дем.), about the frequency of Ruthenian words (рид., заст., коц.), about the use in different professions (церкв., кул., анат., зоол., ист.) etc. 6. In comparison with the two-volume Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary a significant step towards modernization of the Ruthenian orthography rules was made. Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa who prepares the Orthographical Dictonary of the Ruthenian Language made certain corrections in the manuscript of the RuthenianSerbian Dictionary in the proofreading stage. Modernization of the Ruthenian orthography is particularly noticeable in loanwords that caused uncertainties of writing for years. For example, анґлийски/английски, ґранит/гранїт, мозаик/мозаїк, космонаут/космонавт, шпиюн/шпион, анеґдота/анекдота, ґрам/грам, гулиґан/хулиґан, каузални/кавзални, наивни/наївни, пиджама/пижама, Русия/Росия and many others. Since doublets generally do not express any differences in meaning they were considered redundant. However, different languages have exerted influence on Ruthenian, such as Hungarian, German, Church Slavonic, Serbian, and, in modern times, English. All of them have left traces. Influence of intermediary languages is perceived too. There are many cases when two languages have left variants and because of that unification of affixes is almost impossible. That is the reason why the authors did not unify all variants in the Ruthenian-Serbian dictionary and they left - алуминий and алуминиюм, алпинист and алпиниста, критицизм and критицизем etc. This applies to the following verbs as well: верзирац and верзировац, третовац and третировац etc. 7. Some lexical differences were brought to BaĦka 260 years ago. The Vojvodinian Ruthenians did not come from one place in the Carpathian area. They mostly came from those Austro-Hungarian counties which are today in eastern Slovakia (Ńariń and Zemplin). As a result, there are variants or synonyms in Ruthenian (see Фейса, 1996, 1997). The authors of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary showed tolerance to them and treated them as a part of the standardized language whereas Nikola N. KoĦiń so called kucurisms (variants from the village of Kucura) marked with asterisk, treating them as if they were irregular. The authors accepted both existing variants: бетелїнa and требиконїнa (Serb. детелина; Engl. clover), кичкиричu and гвиздочки (Serb. зеленкаде; Engl. daffodils), and бухти и пампушки (Serb. мекике, крофне; Engl. doughnuts). If we recall that the second volume of the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary was published only 12 years before the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (in 1998) and that the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary was prepared by only 4 lexicographers (Prof. Dr. Julijan RamaĦ, Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa, Prof. Dr. Oksana-Đitko Timko and M. A. Helena Meħeńi) it can be said that the linguists of professor RamaĦ`s team were diligent and efficient. In addition to this it is important to emphasize that this publication also represents a tangible proof that the state institutions take into account the rights of national minorities and apply the principle of positive discrimination. Although the authors were afraid that it would be almost impossible to publish the dictionary, especially in the conditions of domestic and world financial crisis, after the preparation of the manuscript it proved not to a problem. The necessary funds were provided by the Executive Council of Autonomous Province Vojvodina, Provincial Secretariat for Culture and the Provincial Secretariat for Administration, Regulations and National Minorities. The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary was printed in the printing shop of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. Special thanks are to be expressed to Janos Oros, the chief of the Interpreter Services of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is by all means a highly significant and useful product of the project that lasted three decades. It is useful for translators, journalists, teachers, and Slavists. It will certainly help all those who want to improve their Ruthenian.The capital bilingual lexicographic work places Ruthenian in a higher place in the Slavic and world philology. The Dictionary is a kind of mine for comparative lexicological researches. Apart from this the Dictionary is of particular importance for the preservation of the Ruthenian national identity in Vojvodina. Summary The paper presents the description of the conditions in which the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary was being produced and offers explanations why this work lasted so long. The Ruthenian Society for Language and Literature started the work systematically, following the propositions given by Dr. Mitar Peńikan from the Institute of the Serbian Language at the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Art. In 1981 the project was taken over by the Chair of the Ruthenian Language and Literature at the Faculty of Philosophy in Novi Sad. As a matter of fact the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (2010) represents the second phase of three decades long lexicographic work. Efforts have been made to include the complete vocabulary of the Ruthenian vernacular 933 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and literary language into the Dictionary. The authors are Prof. Dr. Julijan RamaĦ, Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa, Dr. Oksana Timko-Đitko and M.A. Helena Meħeńi. Some of the characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary are: precise stating the meaning of Ruthenian words followed by explicite explanations in Serbian; grammatical remarks, including a detailed elaboration of undeclined words; the presence of abbreviations pointing to stylistic use, the use for special purposes, and the frequency of Ruthenian words; tolerance in using synonyms or variants (especially those from Kucura); the presence of rich Ruthenian phraseology, unregistered so far; the endevour to present as many Serbian equivalents as possible. The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary has multiple significance: the team of Ruthenian linguists have learned the lexicographic trade; a systematic description of the vocabulary of the Ruthenian language has been carried out by means of Serbian vocabulary; the Dictionary opens the way for understanding the accomplishments of the Ruthenian literature and for studying Ruthenian cultural and national heritage. Generally speaking, the Dictionary has scientific, pedagogical, cultural, international significance for the Ruthenian national community, and it represents an important moment in the cultural life in Vojvodina from the viewpoint of the Serbian-Ruthenian / RuthenianSerbian cultural relations and cooperation. Its printing has financially been supported by AP Vojvodina authorities. References желєзо с. 1. гвожёе, железо; ляте ~ ливено гвожёе; сирове ~ метал. сирово гвожёе; кляпчисте ~ буд. пљошто гвожёе; бетонске ~ буд. бетонско гвожёе; 2. оп. желєзко (2); 3. (метална часц ступки) тучак; 4. желєза мн. окови, вериге; положиц дакому желєза бацити кога у окове; # ~ ше кує док є горуце гвожёе се кује док је вруће; тварди як ~ тврд као гвожёе желєзов(и) -а -о/-е гвожёевит; ~ вода гвожёевита вода желєни -а -е 1. зелен; ~ трава зелена трава; ~ очи зелене очи; ~ овоц зелено воће; ~ од єду (гнїву) зелен од једа (љутине, беса); офарбиц на желєно обојити зелено; 2. прен. зелен, жутокљун; ещи є ~ још је зелен; 3. зеленишни; ~ гной польопр. зеленишно ёубриво; # Желєни штварток церкв. Велики четвртак; ~ пасуля 934 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo боранија, махуна; ~ шено младокосно сено; желєни алѡи бот. зелене алге (Chlorophita); ~ батощкар бот. зелени бичар (Euglena viridis); ~ ящурка зоол. зелембаћ (Lacerta viridis); ~ лиска зоол. журка (Gallinula chloropus); ~ зеба (зебочка) зоол. зелентарка (Carduelis chloris) желєнїдло с. зеленило, зелен желєнїц1 -їм (фарбиц на желєно) нєзак. зеленити желєнїц2 -нєєм и -їм (поставац желєни) нєзак. зеленети; желєнєє од зависци зелени од зависти желєнїц ше -нєєм ше и -їм ше нєзак. зеленети се; желєнєю ше винїци зелене се виногради желєнкасти -а -е зеленкаст; ~ конь зеленкаст (зелени) коњ, зеленко; ~ крава зеленкаста крава, зекуља желєнкастошиви -а -е зеленкастосив желєнокадераш х. ист. зеленокадераш, зеленаш желєнооки -а -е зеленоок желєнява ж. зелен, зелениш, поврће желєнь ж. 1. рид. (желєнїдло) зелениш; 2. карт. карта са зеленим листом (у тзв. маёарским картама) жем х. 1. земља, земљиште, тле, тло; обрабяц ~ обраёивати земљу; писковита ~ песковита земља; каменїста ~ каменита земља; здрава ~ здрава земља, здравица; трешенє жеми земљотрес; 2. (держава) земља; странска ~ страна земља; 3. правн. земљиште; будовательна ~ граёевинско земљиште; 4. (глїна) глина, земља; # препаднєм до жеми земљо, отвори се (зини, пропадни, прогутај); як кед би до жеми препаднул (скапал) као да га је земља прогутала, као да је у земљу пропао; як спод жеми (зявели ше и под.) као из земље (појавише се и сл.); як нєбо и ~, як нєбо од жеми као небо и земља; нај му будзе лєгка чарна ~ лака му црна земља; анї на нєбе анї на жеми ни на небу ни на земљи, измеёу неба и земље; обецана ~ обећана земља; препаднуц до жеми од ганьби пропасти у земљу од стида (срама); Свята ~ рлґ. Света земља; зровнац зоз жему сравнити са земљом; спущиц на ~ прен. спустити на земљу; чарна ~ прен. црна земља жемасти -а -е земљаст жемиска ж. ауґм. и пейор. земљетина жемичка ж. дем. и гипок. земљица жемлїк х. земичка жемлїчок х. дем. од жемлїк жемни -а -е 1. (хтори дава жем) земни; ~ плод земни плод; ~ ѡаз земни гас; 2. оп. жемов(и) (1); # ~ ягода бот. јагода (Fragaria vulgaris); мамица (Fragaria vesca) жемов(и) -а -о/-е 1. (хтори ше одноши на роботу зоз жему) земљан; жемово роботи земљани радови; 2. земљишни; ~ рента земљишна рента; ~ (ѡрунтовна) кнїжка земљишна књига; 3. (хтори припада жеми або ше одноши на жем ) земљин; земаљски; жемова скора земљина кора; ~ куля земаљска кугла жемовласнїк и жемомаєтнїк х. земљовласник, земљопоседник жемовласнїцки и жемомаєтнїцки -а -е земљовласнички, земљопоседнички жемовяза ж. ел. земљоспој жемоуз х. ґеоґр. земљоуз, превлака жемочка ж. оп. жемичка жемски -а -е оп. жемов(и) (3) жемунїца и жемянка ж. земуница жена ж. 1. з розл. знач. жена; вжац за жену (оженїц ше) узети за жену; ти права ~ прен. ти си права жена; мужового брата ~ деверка; ~ оцового брата стрина; 2. женско; 3. чељаде; # явна ~ јавна жена; лєгка ~ лака жена; хлоп ~ човек жена, женски Петко; привесц ище єдну ~, оженїц ше на жену оженити се на жену; бегац за женми трчати за женама, женскарити женантни -а -е женантни, снебивајући женєти -а -е оп. оженєти жениска ж. женетина, жентурина, жентура(ча) женирац (ше) -ам (ше) и женировац (ше) -руєм (ше) зак. и нєзак. женирати се женїдба ж. женидба женїдбов(и) -а -о/-е женидбени женїн -а -о 1. женин; 2. женїно мн. женин род, тазбина женїска ж. оп. жениска женїц -їм нєзак. женити; ~ сина женити сина; # ~ дакого з метлу женити кога прутом (каишем и сл.) женїц ше -їм ше нєзак. 1. женити се; 2. (з даким) женити се (с киме), женити (кога); сце ше з ню женїц хоће да је жени женка ж. беш. зоол. (самица) женка женов -а -о женин; ~ род, ~ родзина оп. женїн (2) женово мн. оп. женїн (2) женозабойнїк х. женоубица женолюбец -бца х. женољубац женонєнависнїк х. женомрзац, мрзижена 935 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo женочка ж. дем. и гипок. женица, женчица, женче женскарош х. беш. женскар(ош), женар женски -а -е женски; # ~ глава (жена) женска глава; ~ род ґрам. женски род; ~ рима лит. женска рима; ~ дзецко женско дете; ~ лоза женска лоза; ~ часи менструација женскосц ж. оп. женственосц женствени -а -е женствен женственосц ж. женственост жентица ж. ист. жентица (напитак од овчијег млека) женяч х. (млоди) женик, жењеник женячка ж. рид. оп. женїдба жерсей х. жерсеј жертва ж. жертва; # принєсц жертву принети жертву жертвени -а -е жртвени жертвенїк х. жртвеник жертвованє с. жртвовање жертвовац -твуєм зак. и нєзак. жртвовати жертвовац ше -твуєм ше зак. и нєзак. жртвовати се жесц жем зак. (шицко поєсц) појести жетон х. жетон жец х. зет жецов -а -о 1. зетов, зетовљев; ~ фамелия зетова породица, зетовина; 2. оп. жецовски жецовски -а -е зетовски жецовство ж. зетство живец -вца х. живац; # страциц живци изгубити живце живи -а -е з розл. знач.жив; ище є ~ још је жив; вон барз ~ дзецко он је јако живо дете; ~ розгварка жив разговор; # ~ вага жива вага; ~ огень жива ватра (огањ); ~ вода празн. жива вода; ~ ограда (плот) жива ограда, живица; ~ рана жива рана; ~ мур живи зид; ~ существо (єство) живо биће; ~ стрибло хем. живо сребро, жива; слуп живого стрибла хем. живин стуб; масц зоз живого стрибла живина маст; ~ як живе стрибло (о нємирному дзецку) као жива; лєдво остац ~ изнети живу главу; анї ~ анї мертви ни жив ни мртав; нєт анї живей души ни живе душе нема живина ж. збир. живина живинар х. живинар живинарнїк х. живинарник живински -а -е живински живинарство с. живинарство живиц (ше) живим (ше) нєзак. заст. издржавати (се), хранити (се); # най це Бог живи нека те Бог поживи (чува) живканє с. зевање, зев живкац -ам нєзак. зевати; вон нєпреривно живка он стално зева живкац ше -ам ше нєзак. безос. зевати; живка ше ми од допитосци зевам од досаде живкнуц -нєм зак. зевнути живкнуц ше -нєм ше зак. безос. зевнути; живкло ше му зевнуо је живкнуце с. ґрам. зев, хијат живо присл. живо живодрани -а -е: цап (козак) ~ јарац живодерац живомученїк х. живомученик живооки -а -е живоок живопис х. живопис живописатель и живописец -сца х. живописац живописецки -а -е живописачки живописни -а -е живописан живописно присл. живописно живородни -а -е: ~ трава бот. жива трава (Erodium citutarium) живосц ж. живост; живахност живот х. 1. а) живот; вона ми шицко у живоце она ми је све у животу; 2. анат. утроба, изнутрица; # без живота без живота; борба на ~ и шмерц борба на живот и смрт; малженски ~ брачни живот; вични (загробни) ~ вечни (загробни) живот; врациц дакого до живота (вилїчиц) вратити некога у живот; голи ~ голи живот; давац знаки живота давати знаке живота; ~ му виши на цверенки живот му виси о концу (о нити); жертвовац свой ~ за дакого жртвовати свој живот за некога; загорчиц дакому ~ загорчати живот некоме; медзи животом и шмерцу измеёу живота и смрти; позбуц дакого живота лишити кога живота; нє ма вецей живота нема му 936 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo више живота; одняц себе ~ одузети себи живот; провадзиц ~ проводити живот; запровадзиц до живота (закон и под.) спровести у живот (закон и сл.); положиц ~ на коцку ставити живот на коцку; ступиц до живота (о закону и под.) ступити у живот; опасне за ~ опасно по живот; полни живота пун живота, животан; ; ~ на веру живот на веру REFERENCES BariĤ, E. 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Тамаш, Ю. и Сабо, С (1996), ред., Руснаци / Русини 1745-1995, Нови Сад: Завод за уџбенике и наставна средства - Филозофски факултет, Катедра за русински језик и књижевност Фейса, М. (1992), ―Tри жридла проблемох у нормованю руского язика‖, Шветлосц, 2-6, 150-160. Фейса, М. (1993), ‖Руски - бешеда, диялект чи язик‖, Studia Ruthenica, 3, Дружтво за руски язик и литературу, 83-105. Фейса, М. (1996), ―Коцуризми и норма‖ у: Руснаци / Русини 1745-1995, Нови Сад: Завод за уџбенике и наставна средства, 95-115. Фейса, М. (1997), ―Карпатскосц коцуризмох‖ у: Зборнїк роботох зоз III конґреса Русинох/Руснацох/ Лемкох, Руски Керестур: Руска матка, 155-168. Фейса, М. (2000), ―Дїєслова на суфикс -ира и одредзованє видових одношеньох у руским язику‖, Studia Ruthenica, 7, Дружтво за руски язик и литературу, 20-24. Фейса, М. (2004), «Социолинѡвистични аспект руского язика: Войводинa» у: Русиньский язик, Opole: Uniwersytet Opolski, Instytut Filologii Polskiej, 373-383. Фейса, М. (2007), ―Основни характеристики руского язика у поровнаню зоз другима славянскима язиками‖ у: Славянские литературные микроязыки и языковые контакты, Тарту: Тартуский университет, Кафедра славянской филологии - Королевская шведская академия литературы, истории и древностей, 90-100. Фейса, М. (2007), «Руско-анѡлийска контрастивистика‖ у: Русини/Руснаци/ Ruthenians (1745-2005) I, Нови Сад: Филозофски факултет - Одсек за русинистику, ИК Прометеј, КПД ДОК - Куцура. Фейса, М. (2007), ―Линѡвистична творчосц Гавриїла Г. Надя‖, Годишњак Филозофског факултета у Новом Саду, књ. XXII, Филозофски факултет, 293-302. Фейса, М. (2007), ―Характеристики линѡвистичней творчосци Гавриїла Г. Надя‖, Studia Ruthenica, 12, Дружтво за руски язик, литературу и културу, 115-124. Фейса, М. и Медєши Г. (2007), ―Правописни проблеми руского язика у Войводини‖ у: Jazyková kultúra a jaziková norma v rusìnskom jazyku, Preńov: Preńovská univerzita v Preńove , Ústav regionálnih a národnostných ńtödiì. Фейса, М. (2008), ―Руски язик у урядовей сфери‖ у: Русиньскый язык меджі двома конґресами, Пряшів: Світовый конѡрес Русинів, Інштітут русиньского языка і културы Пряшівской універзіты в Пряшові, 92-95. Фейса, М. (2009), ―Найвисши ступень меншинского образованя» у: Карпатские русины в славянском мире, Москва - Братислава: Univerzita Komenskeho v Bratislave, Filozofická fakulta, Katedra vńeobecných dejìn, Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова, Исторический факультет, Кафедра истории южных и западных славян, 257-269. Фейса, М. (2009), ―Tенденциї розвою нормованя руского язика войводянских Pуснацох» у: Труды и материалы, Москва: Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова, 177. Фейса, М. (2009), Функционованє конструкциї/форми Вø у преношеню часо-видових одношеньох у 938 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo приповедкох Гавриїла Костельника, Нови Сад: ИК Прометеј – Филозофски факултет, Оддзелєнє за русинистику. Фејса, М. (2010), Нова Србија и њена русинска мањина / Нова Сербия и єй руска меншина / The New Serbia and Its Ruthenian Minority, Нови Сад: ИК Прометеј, КПД ДОК. Хома-Цветкович, Блаженка (2010), ―Терашнїм и будуцим ѡенерациийом‖ у: Руски християнски календар, Нови Сад: Новинско-видавательна установа Руске слово, Християнски часопис Дзвони, 47-50. 939 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 558 Title A name given to the resource RUTHENIAN-SERBIAN DICTIONARY Author Author Fejsa, Mihajlo Abstract A summary of the resource. After publishing the biligual Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Српско-русински речник / Сербско-руски словнїк), in two volumes (Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1995; Institute for Textbooks, Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1997), the Julijan RamaĦ`s team started a new project – Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (Русинскo-српски речник / Руско-сербски словнїк). In about ten years the team that consisted of four members succeeded in accomplishing the project sponsored by the Ministry of Science. The result is a voluminous bilingual dictionary published under the same title by the Institute for Culture of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians and the Department of the Ruthenian Studies in 2010. The characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary are: 1. stating the precise meaning of Ruthenian words followed by explicite explanations in Serbian; 2. grammatical remarks, including a detailed elaboration of undeclined words; 3. the presence of abbreviations pointing to stylistic use, the use for special purposes, and the frequency of Ruthenian words; 4. tolerance in using synonyms or variants (especially those from Kucura); 5. the presence of rich Ruthenian phraseology, unregistered so far; 6. the endevour to present as many Serbian equivalents as possible. The Ruthenian philology has by all means been placed on a higher level among Slavic philologies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9cad8601c3e9f0fe1167f1125ff73eb4.pdf 7364156156640f846b48cfa38e6e6edb PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dreaminess in the Poetry of Baudelaire, Verlaine and Petre Stoica Ghita-Nica Florentina Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Letters and Arts Institution Address Blvd. Victoria, No.10, Sibiu, 550024, Romania County Sibiu, tel. 0269236207 floryghitanica@yahoo.com Abstract:The purpose of this paper is to highlight how the dreaminess occurs in the poetry of Petre Stoica, Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine. The method of diacronics followed by the symbolic one, have been used in the scientific stage of the work. Through an analytical approach there have been comments made on the lyrical vision, which expresses a passion for dreaming. Thus we have observed the favorable context for dreaming, that is the night. Night is the time dimension that opens an imaginary universe like a Russian doll, and poetry itself becomes a dream you do not want to ever wake up from. No wonder the poet is associated with the myth of Scheherazade, who has to tell a story every night in order to survive. The theme of death is present in the poem as it is said that during sleep the soul leaves the body and travels (this is a Romantic specific motif), from which emerged the idea that, because of its journey, the soul which returned to its body that was let to sleep, might not recognize the body and the man is fated to die. The motif of the mirror is also one that expresses duplication and also the gateway to a mysterious beyond. Thus, the dream imagery of the three poets mentioned previously is recognized by a variety of images whose isomorphisms reflect overflowing exultation. One of them is the product of an agreement by which the poetic spirit forgets its own finitude, living the bliss of integration into an indeterminate reality, which is present in the isomorphic images of light, a dreaming that integrates it. Keywords:night, mirror, dream, love, death Introduction Petre Stoica's originality of poetry is to promote neomodernist aesthetic directions such as George Badarau says: the vision of the poem is a dream, and in a dream plans can be combined with different images; literature is an area of ambiguity, of allusions, of connotation; the sentimental story is not a value in itself but is only a pretext ; the words are true characters of a sentimental story ; the theme of creation is intertwined with the theme of love ; the artist is a man with creative powers, who sublimates his passions, as he lives (2007, p.9) . Method of the Study The research method used to achieve this was the comparative essay. I noticed the way by which it is revealed the idea of dreaminess to each of the three poets: Baudelaire, Verlaine and Petre Stoica. With this first method we found a bridge between modernist and neomodernist poetry .This binder is that the modernist and neomodernist poet is, according Al.MuĢina's claim, a producer, generating reality, it is not an imitator. He produces objects that are inserted in reality with real objects that are inserted alongside the existing objects, it produces objective correlative. Moreover, what the poet produces higher (...) is reality. Wedding poems are signs of ideas. The poet is not making copies of copy, he indicates in the real world, second, the Idea (1994, p.102). Comparative method was seconded to the analytical. Through it we managed to find similar lyrical visions. AscultaţiCitiţi fonetic 502 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Findings and Discussion It is necessary to report to the symbolic importance of night, the one that provides the favorable background for the refuge in the imagination, in order to show the dream state characteristic to the lyrical self. Jean Ferre (2003, p.82) says that at the Greeks, Nyx (the Night) was the daughter of Chaos and the mother of Uranus and Gaia. Her other offsprings were the Sleep and Death. The Celts, who think that the world was in darkness at the beginning, start their day during nighttime. They also considered the nights, and not the days, like other people did. The night is the time for discretion, of the secrets, of guilty relationships. It is the nighttime when Leander joins Héro, when Léa knew, when Dagda met Boann and Uther Pendragon made love to Ygerne. However, night is obscure for a period of time. After night, day comes and there is light. James Hall (1974. p.286) himself presented this concept of night, who considers that in the vision of the Renaissance humanists, Night and Day were destructive powers which continuously showed the inexorable passage of time and even decay and death. This is why they are sometimes represented as rodents, as a white rat and a black rat, generally. Personified night floats in the sky, sometimes in a blue starry blanket. It may have a child in each arm, a white one, who is Sleep, and a black one, who is Death. Her usual attributes are a chovet, the masks (which can be worn by putti) and poppies, sometimes as a crown. Night is sometimes accompanied by Morfeus asleep, the God of Dreams, which may himself be crowned with poppies (Giordano, Riccardi Palace, Florence). She is well seated, with folded wings, her head in her hands and the two children asleep beside her. Here is how many representations and meanings the night has, so that a meaning continues the other and undoubtedly they leave their marks on the poetry in question. But, Michel Pastoureau (1992, p.134) observes that in the imaginary and the iconographic codes, the night is less colorful, less variegated than it is described in the vocabulary. It is almost always bleak: black, gray, brown and especially blue. Indeed, in picture the night is often more blue than black. It was already this case in the Age of Enlightenment in the Painture of Middle Ages and it is still in the advertising posters, in books for children (but not in children's drawings, which are almost always yellow and not black) and comics. And starting from this idea, we will highlight some night‘s associations with the dream, of the book of dreams with the world of childhood where imagination is in expansion and every event requires importance due to the force of its expressiveness. For example, the poem entitled Dreamers Who Leave written by Petre Stoica (1970, p.30) is a surrealist one, and the inverted grotesque vision of death is felt by the image of the slaughterhouse (the slaughterhouse is one of Baudelaire‘s phrases, like the dream, a phrase of Baudelaire and Verlaine, but we talk about it later): After last night's hail the road signs were changed romance number four leads to the hemlock area where at dawn I put a wreath on the tomb of Marshal Till Owl Mirror tango seven points us to the slaughterhouse under the emblem with tibia the peacock rotates invariably the disc of happiness quadrille nine points to the way to the port dreamers who go will find certainty in the belly of the shark there is also colophony listen to the propellers there are also other indicators equally accurate important is just to grease the machine for automatic thoughts otherwise you violate the traffic law and without your will you become a cavy breeder. To be absorbed by this image of death, the lyric self creates the word [Owl Mirror]. So the mirror is a motif through which it is made the passage to another world, to extramundane, although we apparently find the idea of the existence of a time machine, a machine that allows human movement in a mythical ancestral time, and why not, which is operated by the desire of the lyric self to walk through the past and future. We said earlier that there is a trinitarian similarity between Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Petre Stoica. The three, and there may be others but we have not looked at other fields, share the dream, which they include in some poems. Here it is one of Verlaine‘s poems (2008, p.36), My Familiar Dream :Ascultaţi 503 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Citiţi foneticAscultaţiCitiţi fonetic [I often have some strange and striking dreams about an unknown girl, of love we share, each time the same, each time a different air about her swirls, who understands it seems. (…) A statue‘s sightless stare, the look she gave. Voice, - still echo of friends in the grave.] And Petre Stoica's poetry parallelism (1991, p.11), The Dream Comes on the Private Staircase: (…) The one that in my life was a pillar of amethyst entered in the blood of the flowers from the cemetery I sometimes ask for her on the phone but her voice is just a short shout of lamb //(…)// the skin tattooed by kisses is wrinkled the sweet seals are harsh to the touch they look like the hooves of the devil // (…). What is the common point of the two poets? The node would be the forms taken by the love for the beloved one. If for Verlaine, the beloved woman is an oneiric, anonymous creation that is charmful due to her silence which can be compared to the statues‘ one, the girlfriend died for the Romanian lyrical self, and the idea of communicating even after death, which is an impossible thing in the objective reality, is suggested by the painful feeling of her loss. But let us not forget Charles Baudelaire (2009, p.174) with his poem entitled The Dream of a Curious Person: [Have you known such savory grief as I? Do people say "Strange fellow !" whom you meet? my amorous soul, when I was due to die, Felt longing mixed with horror; pain seemed sweet. Anguish and ardent hope (no factious whim) Were mixed; (…) I felt that dreadful dawn around me grow With no surprise or vestige of a thrill. The curtain rose and I stayed waiting still.] For the latter poet, sweet love status can be confused with that of death as he is still waiting for the one to which he was fated. Desire and horror are feelings that express the ambiguity of feelings and hidden love by the idea of suggesting a show whose curtain had risen uncovering his heart. The curtain is a metaphor of night velvet, because, as I said first, it is the main factor of dream. There are three ways to love and three ways to survive by waiting, pain and, not least, by refusing the existence. I gave these three examples to highlight the similarity Petre Stoica's poetry to the two French poets mentioned above. And not by accident I did that, but to emphasize the preference for sonnet, the fixed-form poetry, that Shakespeare loved much. But, for Petre Stoica, the sonnet failed, because his poem is mixed. He does not keep rhyme nor pace, like Verlaine and Baudelaire did. But the intensity of reading the two made him not keep the curtain‘s motif stated by Baudelaire , in the Idyllic Poem from the volume Magritte‘s Pipe (2005, p.17): It is an evening identical to yesterday evening identical to all evenings in the town that during the day is dancing as a ballerina with one leg // it is an evening with a taste of rancid lard // behind the curtains behind the words 504 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the ideals merge with the TV fluid dreams have uncertain color aspirations fit in a single bowel emptied with fervor in the morning. In his discourse on dream interpretation, Sigmund Freud (1967, p.454) confesses that we shall recognize in dream manifestations two almost independent characters from each other. One is the currently scenic figuration (outline) and its omission could be, and the other one is turning thought into visual images and speech. Therefore, the importance in highlighting the lyrical self is given by images formation, which is updated. Thus Sigmund Freud ( 1967, p. 455 ) continues by saying that the mental place corresponds to the optical device (the device that forms the image) up to a certain point. In the case of the microscope and telescope, we say that these are ideal points that do not correspond to any tangible parts of the device. So image formation is made by the visual device, that is the eye. And our perceptions are united in our memory by each other, and this above all after their first meeting in simultaneity. We call this association.(…) Our memories and you should understand the most serious of us are part of the unconscious nature. They can be played in conscious, but there is no doubt that they can deploy all the effects they have in unconscious state. What we call our nature is based on our impressions memory pathways. And these are impressions that have the largest effect on us, those of early youth, which are almost never conscious. But if memories are part of consciousness, they do not express any sensitive or very poor quality compared to perceptions. If we now find the confirmation that the memory and quality that characterizes consciousness exclude each other in the system ( 1967, p.457-458 ) we see that the unconscious has the biggest power to preserve the all these memories and to re-create them by understanding the outside world, through knowledge. But knowing the objective world involves the subjective note when the lyrical self allows the imagination to work. Repression is the one that gets the value in the lyrical text as the self splits. It hides, while creating many alter-egos, for example in the poem entitled You Can Buy a Book of Dreams written by Petre Stoica ( 1970, p. 45) , the poet is in the position of the seller, of the merchant of illusions: Since you came to the fair autumn visit my stall investigate my concept of life here ladies here dear singers I have jars with homunculi to be exposed to the offices I have mirrors that show you a pure soul you can buy a grater so that you could grate at will your intelligence and horseradish your talent rank are still untouched on the cheap you can buy a book of dreams (roses you dream under tank tracks soon you will sing) at the same affordable price / (…) . The use of the self by the possessive pronoun ―my‖ expresses selfishness. Sophie Jama ( 1997, p. 124-125 ) specifies that the staging of the dream experience through words is obligatory achieved by the personal pronoun ―I‖ and it is based on an idea which is shifted in relation to its appearance. In this case, the linguistic expression of the subject is so famous that no attention is paid to it, when it is woken up. The linguistic expression itself gains a particular interest in the events from the dream that are remembered. (...) The dream forces us to have a meeting with ourselves. And this meeting is like a certificate for our neighbor, it is also inherent for the way we express. This fundamental point requires lengthy development but it has been facilitated by understanding the presented dream experiences, namely a clear return on the border concept regarding dreams, whose status is very high. The lyrics we mention to better express the idea of Sophie Jama are the following: I have mirrors that show you a pure soul you can buy a grater so that you could grate at will your intelligence and horseradish your talent rank are still 505 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo untouched on the cheap you can buy a book of dreams (roses you dream under tank tracks soon you will sing) at the same affordable price. We insisted to repeat them because Sophie Jama (1997, p.125 ) says that this feeling of the dreamer - the physical limit of the world awaked from the delirium of its sleep - coincides with the temporal and spatial memories that are different in relation to their occurrence and storage in the memory. The images of a dream have some points in common with the images we see in the mirror, this reflective surface which is the borderline between two separate areas. We reflect with a detachment from ourselves, being surrounded by a more or less known world, even though it is slightly distorted because the unconscious (in the Freudian sense) is undoubtedly expressed. It has to be mentioned that the unconscious ignores the social time. If some tangible actions have left no path in memory (they have left no trace in memory), their revenge is a dream, by the presence of the action that has not been lived yet, but which is remembered very well. Space and time – space and time overnight – are therefore void. This is the feeling transmitted by dream, because, in order to grasp the overall situation of the human experience, it is first necessary for someone to know the sensitivity level that allows him/her to ask questions. In a phenomenology of perception, the expression of the split of individual is an essential factor for the formation of all speeches attached to dream knowledge. This ability to communicate through language has as a result the particular position of the dream, the manner it is explained leading even to the role of human beings in the universe. Conclusions and Recommendations The poetry of triumvirate : Verlaine, Baudelaire and Petre Stoica is the triumph of a dream on a frustrating existence. The only thing that survives death is love. The three poets, put the theme of love under the sign of seduction into a fascination that allows to decipher the unpredictable reality of the mysteries of life and abyss. They use this technique of focusing on detail and the stop-frame on the unusual events that generated the image. 506 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Baudelaire, Charles. (2009) Les fleurs du mal.Paris: Pocket, Translation in http://www.rottentomatoes.com/vine/showthread.php?threadid=197334 Bădărau, George . (2007) Neomodernismul românesc.IaĢi: Institutul European Ferre, Jean. (2003)Dictionnaire des symboles, des mythes et des mythologies. Paris:Rocher Freud, Sigmund . (1967)L'interpretation des rêves.Paris: Press Universitaires de France Hall, James . (1974 )Dictionnaire des mythes et des symboles.Paris: Gérard Monfort Jama, Sophie . (1997) Anthropologie du rêve.Paris: Presses Universitaires de France Musina, Al. (1994) Poetica explorării în lirica sec.XX.Bucureşti, teză de doctorat Pastoureau, Michel . (1992) Dictionnaire des couleurs de notre temps.Symbolique et société.Paris:Bonneton Stoica, Petre . (1970) A box with snakes, Bucuresti:Cartea Românească Stoica, Petre . (1991) Dream comes on service scale, Bucuresti:Cartea Românească Verlaine, Paul (2008) Mon rêve familier, in Poèmes saturniens. Paris: Librairie Générale Française Translation by Jonathan Robin 18 April 1998 in http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/my-familiar-dreamtranslations-paul-verlaine-mon-r-ve-familier/ Thanks Research conducted under Project 7706 SOPHRD growing role of PhDs and PhD competitiveness in a united Europe financed by European Social Fund Operational Programme Human Resources Development from 2007 to 2013. 507 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 76 Title A name given to the resource Dreaminess in the Poetry of Baudelaire, Verlaine and Petre Stoica Author Author Florentina, Ghita-Nica Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is to highlight how the dreaminess occurs in the poetry of Petre Stoica, Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine. The method of diacronics followed by the symbolic one, have been used in the scientific stage of the work. Through an analytical approach there have been comments made on the lyrical vision, which expresses a passion for dreaming. Thus we have observed the favorable context for dreaming, that is the night. Night is the time dimension that opens an imaginary universe like a Russian doll, and poetry itself becomes a dream you do not want to ever wake up from. No wonder the poet is associated with the myth of Scheherazade, who has to tell a story every night in order to survive. The theme of death is present in the poem as it is said that during sleep the soul leaves the body and travels (this is a Romantic specific motif), from which emerged the idea that, because of its journey, the soul which returned to its body that was let to sleep, might not recognize the body and the man is fated to die. The motif of the mirror is also one that expresses duplication and also the gateway to a mysterious beyond. Thus, the dream imagery of the three poets mentioned previously is recognized by a variety of images whose isomorphisms reflect overflowing exultation. One of them is the product of an agreement by which the poetic spirit forgets its own finitude, living the bliss of integration into an indeterminate reality, which is present in the isomorphic images of light, a dreaming that integrates it. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/60a46e6665cad8f1c63ed02e0b3a41cc.pdf 979b5f3a9f4e1c141823306d244c905a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ĠSLAMĠYET‘ĠN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠME ANALĠTĠK YAKLAġIMLARI VE ÇALIġMALARI GülĢen GAZEL Genç Yazarlar ve Sanatçılar Derneği,TURKEY gulsen.gazel@hotmail.com ÖZET: Eğitim, insanlığın var oluĢundan bu yana en bùyùk tekâmùl vasıtası olması yônùyle kadın erkek tùm fertlerin ortak yùrùtmesi gereken sosyal, kùltùrel ve bireysel sùreçlerin tùmùdùr. Eğitimin, tekâmùl sebebi olması her ferdin eĢit seviyede ona ihtiyaç duyduğunu gôstermektedir. Ne var ki dinlerin gônderildiği tarihsel sùreçte bu kavramın gereklerinden tùm insanlık faydalandırılırken dinsel hukukun uygulanmadığı dônemlerde kadınlar saf dıĢı bırakılmıĢtır. Eski ve orta çağda kadınlar eğitim ve ôğretim hakkından mahrum edilmiĢ, eğitim konusunda erkekler aktif rol ùstlenmiĢtir. Bu durum Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢine kadar da bôyle devam etmiĢtir. Ancak Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢiyle kadınlar birçok konuda olduğu gibi eğitim ve ôğretim konusunda da ôzgùrlùğe kavuĢmuĢtur. Eğitim ve ôğretim alma serbestîsinin yanı sıra verme hakkı da Ġslami kurallara dâhil edilmiĢtir. Bu nedenle Ġslam devrinde birçok eğitimci kadın yetiĢmiĢ, gerektiğinde erkeklere de eğitim ve ôğretim vermiĢlerdir. Dolayısıyla o dônemden bu yana geçirilen tarihsel sùreçte Ġslam kadınları geri kalmıĢlıkla itham edilmiĢ olsalar da gerçek bunun tam tersidir. Bu nedenle ôncelikle, ―Ġslam Öncesi Dônemde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ ardından, ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ son olarak da ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadınların Yùrùttùğù Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ irdelenerek bu gerçek kanıtlanabilir. Kadınlar sahabe dôneminden sonraki zamanlarda da aktif eğitim faaliyetlerini sùrdùrmùĢlerdir. ANAHTAR KELĠMELER:Ġslamiyet, eğitim, kadın sahabeler, hadis, sùnnet, A –ĠSLAM ÖNCESĠ DÖNEMDE KADIN VE EĞĠTĠM Dante ―Havva dilin kurucusuydu‖ der. Ona gôre kadın ile dil arasında can alıcı bir bağ vardır: Eva (Havva) sôzcùğù yaĢam anlamına gelir; fakat Havva her Ģeyden ônce insanoğlunun talihsizliğinin bir simgesidir. Ortaçağ teologları Âdem‘in Havva‘nın sôzleri karĢısında zayıflık gôsterdiğine, Eyyub‘dan daha zayıf olduğuna inanırlardı. Ondan sonra kadınlara sessiz kalmaları emredildi. (Fethi, 1992: Cilt II s. 407) Bu nedenle eski dônemler ve orta çağlarda, Yunan, Romen ve diğer milletlerde kadın, eĢya veya hayvan gibi mùtalaa edildi; herhangi bir yolla mùlkiyet hakkına da sahip değillerdi. Mirastan asla payları olmadığı gibi, eğitim ve ôğretimden de nasipleri yoktu. (Hasan, 1987: 1/238) Eski Hintlerde erkek hâkim bir eğitim anlayıĢı yaygındı. Eğitimdeki bu ayrımcılık ve zahitlik anlayıĢı, bilgi ve kurtuluĢ yolunun sadece erkeklerin tekelinde olduğu fikrini yerleĢtirdi. Eski Hintlerde kadının hiç değeri yoktu. (Ġsam, 2001: 24/83) Araplara gelince: Kadınların erkek merkezli cahiliye toplumu içinde ikinci derecede bir yere sahip olduklarını sôylemek yanlıĢ olmaz. Bunda bùyùk çoğunluğu itibariyle gôçebe bir hayat sùrmenin de rolù vardır. Çôl Ģartları içinde sık sık yer değiĢtirmek zorunda kalan, zaman zaman diğer kabilelere baskın yapma ve ganimet elde etme mecburiyetinde bulunan gôçebe kabilelerin yaĢantısında muharip sınıftan olmayan ve daha ziyade tùketici olarak gôrùlen kadının ikinci derecede bir role sahip olması ĢaĢırtıcı değildir. Bu konum bazen kadınların hayatını bile ônemsiz hale getirmiĢtir. Kız çocuklarının ailenin ve kabilenin imkânlarını tùketmesinin ônùne geçmek ya da kabileler arasındaki baskınlarda yabancıların eline geçmesinin vereceği utançtan kurtulmak için nadiren de olsa kendi ailesi tarafından ôldùrùlmesi de bunun bir kanıtını teĢkil eder. (Ġsam, 1987: 24/86) Bu veriler eski dônemlerde kadınların sosyal hayattan alabildiğine uzak tutulduğunu, eğitim alma ve vermelerinin de ônùne geçildiğini gôstermektedir. Bu noktada kutsal dinlerden Yahudilikte ve Hıristiyanlıkta da durum farklı değildir. Bir farkla ki Yahudilerin, kadınları radikal uygulamalara tabi tuttuğunu; fakat Hıristiyanlıkta bu uygulamaların biraz daha esnetilmiĢ olduğunu gôrùyoruz. Bunun nedeni Hıristiyan dùnyasının Azize Meryem‘e verdiği değerden kaynaklanmaktadır. Onlara gôre anne çocuğun ilk ôğretmeni sayılır. Ancak buna rağmen Hıristiyanlıkta da kadınlara eğitim konusunda yeteri kadar alan bırakılmamıĢtır . B – ĠSLAM‘IN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADIN VE EĞĠTĠM Ġslam ôncesi dônemde Arabistan‘da kadınların toplum hayatının her alanından dıĢlandığı gerçeği herkesçe bilinmektedir. Bu gidiĢata ancak Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢiyle karĢı duruĢ sergilenebilmiĢtir. ĠĢte eski cahiliye anlayıĢına karĢı giriĢilen bu aydınlanma hareketine kadınların da katılması olağan bir durumdur. Üstelik bu 1395 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo konuda kadınların aktif rol ùstlendiğini, toplumu kuĢatan cahilce dùĢùncelerin ônùne eğitim anlayıĢının getirilmesinde bùyùk gayretler sarf ettiklerini gôrùyoruz. (Hamidullah, 2003: 1/168) Bunu aslında kadınlar açısından eğitim noktasında bir var olma sùreci veya bir kimlik arayıĢı olarak da algılayabiliriz; çùnkù cahiliye dôneminde mahrum kalınan ilim ve marifet ufkunun ônlerine açılması ancak Hz. Muhammed‘in (a.s.m.) peygamberliğinden sonra olmuĢtur. Cahiliye dôneminde sosyal, siyasi, ailevi, bireysel ve benzeri birçok alanda son derece kısıtlanan, ôzellikle eğitim konusunda bùyùk mahrumiyetlere mahkøm edilen kadınlar, Ġslam Peygamberi‘nin rehberliğinde en az erkekler kadar eğitim ve ôğretimden faydalanmıĢlardır. Üstelik çoğu zaman erkeklerin bile rahatlıkla soramayacağı soruları Peygamber‘e sormuĢ, kimseye açamayacakları sıkıntılarını onunla paylaĢmıĢlardır. Aynı zamanda pek çok sosyal etkinliğe katılmıĢ, toplu ibadet yerlerindeki yerlerini almıĢlardır. Toplum hayatının imar edilmesinde kabiliyetlerine uygun hizmetleri gônùl rızasıyla kabul etmiĢ, Ġslam‘ın kendilerine biçtiği gôrevleri bùyùk bir titizlikle yerine getirmiĢlerdir. Ayrıca Peygamber‘den ôğrendikleri bilgileri doğrudan ailelerine aktarmıĢ, çoğu zaman da Peygamber‘le sık gôrùĢemeyen Mùslùman erkeklere bu bilgileri ulaĢtırmaya gayret etmiĢlerdir. Özellikle Efendimizin muhterem hanımları bu çeĢit eğitim çalıĢmalarında en ônde yer almıĢlardır. Mùslùmanlık dùnyası Ġslam Peygamberi‘nin aile hayatındaki sùnnetlerinin neredeyse tamamını onlar vasıtasıyla ôğrenmiĢtir.(Havva, 2008: 4/325) Bir de Allah Resølù‘ne sıkıntılarını açmak isteyen kadınların zorlandıkları noktalarda onlar devreye girmiĢ, çoğu zaman da mesele Efendimize ulaĢmadan onlar tarafından çôzùme kavuĢturulmuĢtur. Dolayısıyla kadınların Efendimize sordukları sorulardan, Efendimizin hanımlara hitaben irad ettiği sôzlerden, yine Efendimizin hanımlarının uygulamalarından, sahabe efendilerimizin kadınlarla ilgili Efendimize yônelttiği bir kısım meselelerden ve Efendimizin kadınlarla ilgili umuma yônelttiği sôzlerinden oluĢan mefhumlar, Ġslam dininin en bùyùk kaynaklarından olan hadislerin bùyùk bir bôlùmùnù oluĢturmaktadır. Bu noktada Ġslam devri kadınları sadece kendi dônemleriyle alakalı bir eğitim faaliyeti yùrùtmemiĢ aynı zamanda yazılı kaynakların oluĢmasında da etkin rol oynamıĢlardır. Nitekim hadis literatùrùnde imandan ilme, temizlikten namaza, oruçtan, zekâta, sosyal hayattan Ģahsi hayata, hukuktan tıbba, ahlaktan edebe ihtiyaç duyulan her konuda kadınların eğitim çabaları neticesinde topluma kazandırılan paha biçilemez bir baĢvuru kaynağı mevcuttur. Onlar vasıtasıyla Ġslami literatùre kazandırılan bu bilgiler gùnùmùz Ģartlarında da gùncelliğini korumakta, birçok mesele bu bilgiler sayesinde çôzùme kavuĢmaktadır. B-1 ĠSLAM‘IN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠM ÇALIġMALARI Ġslam devrinde kadın eğitimi ve kadınların eğitimciliği bizzat Peygamber tarafından onanmıĢ, bu konudaki baĢarılarından dolayı da kadınların aktif eğitim yaĢamının içinde yer almaları sağlanmıĢtır. Bu hususta hadis rivayeti, fıkıh, fetva, tarih, neseb, Ģiir rivayeti, tıp ve yıldız bilimlerinde Ģôhret bulan Mùslùman kadınlardan bahsedilebilir. Bunun en gùzel ôrneklerini yine Peygamber Efendimizin ailesinde gôrmek mùmkùndùr. Evini bir eğitim yuvası haline getiren Hazreti Peygamber, eĢlerini, ôğrenmenin yanı sıra ôğretmeye de yônlendirmiĢtir. EĢlerinin arasından Hz. Hatice gibi Ġslam devrinin ilk dônemlerine damgasını vuran bir bùyùk ùstadın yanında, yaĢamının son dônemlerinde etkin rol oynayan AiĢe gibi bùyùk bir cihan âlimi ortaya çıkmıĢtır. Hz. AiĢe eğitim konusunda en aktif aktôrlerden biridir. Hatta Resøløllah (a.s.m) onun hakkında ―Dininizin yarısını bu Hùmeyra‘dan ôğreniniz‖ buyurmuĢtur. (Hasan, 1987: 1/239) Aynı zamanda o, Peygamber‘den en fazla hadis rivayet eden hanım sahabi olup, fıkıh, edebiyat, tarih ve tıp alanındaki eĢsiz bilgileriyle Mùslùmanlara bir ilim hazinesinin kapısını açmıĢtır. Peygamber eĢleri arasında Hazreti Ümmù Seleme, Hazreti Hafsa ve Hazreti Ümmù Habibe gibi bùyùk Ġslam âlimleri de yer almaktadır. Aynı zamanda sahabe kadınlardan da Lùbabe Binti Haris, Ümmù ġerik, Ümmù Sùleym gibileri yine o devrin bùyùk kadın eğitimcileri arasında bulunmaktadır. Ġslam dôneminde eğitim alanında gayret gôsteren kadınların çalıĢmalarını kısaca Ģu Ģekilde ôzetleyebiliriz: Hazreti Hatice: Peygamberimizin, Ġslam‘ın ilk dônemlerinde evli olduğu ve o dônemdeki çalıĢmalarıyla bilinen eĢidir. Ġslam ile gelen tùm yeni bilgileri bizzat kaynağı olan Peygamber‘den ôğrenip çevresindeki kadınlara ve gôrùĢtùğù erkeklere ôğretmiĢtir. Onun sayesinde dinin gereklerini ôğrenen ve uygulamaya baĢlayan kiĢilerin sayısı hiç de az değildir. (Gazel, 2009, Gùl Kokulu Annelerimiz: 25) Hazreti AiĢe: Efendimizin Hz. Hatice‘nin vefatından sonra evlendiği en genç eĢidir. Ġslam Peygamberi‘yle evlendikten sonra ilim ôğrenme ve ôğretme konusunda bùyùk bir titizlikle hareket etmiĢ, Peygamber‘in eğitim çabalarına en bùyùk katkıyı sağlamıĢtır. Çoğu zaman Peygamber‘le birebir gôrùĢemeyen sahabe kadınların ôğrenmek istedikleri konularda onlara o yardımcı olmuĢtur. Aynı zamanda Peygamber‘in aile hayatı ile ilgili 1396 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sùnnetlerini diğer insanlara o ôğretmiĢtir. Sahabe kadınlar arasında en fazla hadis rivayet eden odur. Hz. AiĢe geniĢ bir fıkıh, edebiyat, tarih ve tıp bilgisine sahip olup hayatta olduğu sùrece bu bilgilerini insanlarla paylaĢmıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 54-55) Sahabeler onun hakkında Ģôyle sôylemiĢlerdir: ―Resøløllah‘ın (a.s.m) ashabı olan bizler, hadisler konusunda anlamadığımız kısımlar olduğunda, hemen Hazreti ÂiĢe‘ye sorardık, o bize bu hususta mutlaka bir bilgi sunar, anlamadığımız yerleri açıklardı.‖ [ Tirmizi, Menakıb (3877)] Abdullah ve Urve bin Zùbeyr gibi dahiler onun eğitimi altında yetiĢmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 62) Hz. Hafsa: Ġlmî konularda Efendimizle bazen karĢılıklı sohbetler bile yapabilen değerli hanımıdır. Peygamberimizden altmıĢtan fazla hadis rivayet etmiĢtir. Rıdvan biatı hakkında Efendimizle arasında geçen Ģu karĢılıklı konuĢma çok dikkat çekicidir. Birkaç sahabiyle otururlarken Peygamberimiz: ―Rıdvan biatına katılan hiç kimse inĢaallah cehenneme girmeyecektir‖ buyurmuĢ, bunu duyan Hz. Hafsa da: ―Hayır, ey Allah‘ın Resølù‖ deyip Ģu ayeti okumuĢtur: ―Sizden cehenneme uğramayacak yoktur. Bu, Rabbinin, yapmayı ùzerine aldığı kesinleĢmiĢ hùkùmdùr.‖ (Meryem 20/71) Bunun ùzerine Efendimiz: ―Ama Allah Ģôyle de buyurmaktadır: ‗Sonra biz, Allah‘a karĢı gelmekten sakınmıĢ olanları kurtarır, zalimleri de orada diz ùstù çôkmùĢ olarak bırakırız.‘‖ (Meryem 20/72) [Mùslim, Fedailu‘s-Sahabe 163, (2496)] Bu konuĢma Hazreti Hafsa‘nın, Kuran‘ı ne kadar iyi bildiğini gôstermektedir. Nitekim Peygamber, bùtùn ilimlere vakıfken eĢinin kendisiyle bôyle ilmî bir tartıĢmaya girmesini yadırgamamıĢ ve onun ikna olmasını sağlamıĢtır. Hz. Hafsa o dônemde okuma yazma bilen ender hanımlardan biridir. Devrinin kadınlarına kıyasla gayet bilgili ve kùltùrlù olup Kur‘an hafızı olduğu da sôylenir. Yùksek ilmi ve derin tecrùbeleriyle pek çok konuda sahabe kadınlara ve baĢta kardeĢi Abdullah olmak ùzere çevresindeki erkeklere ve ôzellikle halifeliği dôneminde babası Hz. Ömer‘e yol gôstermiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 78-79) Hz. Ümmü Seleme: Resøløllah‘a sorular soran, soru ve sorunu olan kadınların eğitimleriyle ilgilenen ve Peygamberden çok sayıda hadis rivayet eden kadınlardan biri de Ümmù Seleme‘dir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 85) HabeĢistan hicretinde de yer aldığından farklı kùltùrlerin bilgisine de sahip olup oralarda ôğrendiği faydalı bilgileri kendi memleketindeki insanlarla paylaĢmıĢtır. Ümmù Seleme, gayet bilgili ve olgun bir kadın olup eğitimci bir insanın niteliklerini haizdir. Umre seferine çıktıklarında Efendimize gôsterdiği yôn verici davranıĢı bunun en gùzel ôrneklerindendir. Nitekim mùĢriklerle yapılan Ģartları ağır antlaĢmadan dolayı ùmitsizliğe kapılan Mùslùmanlar Peygamber‘in ihramdan çıkmalarını emretmesine rağmen bunu yapmayınca Efendimiz Ümmù Seleme‘nin çadırına girip durumu ona anlatıp ùzùntùsùnù beyan edince, Ümmù Seleme: ―Ey Allah‘ın Resølù! Sôylediklerinizi insanların yapmasını istiyorsanız, ashabdan hiç kimseyle konuĢmadan, kalkıp devenizi kesin, berberi çağırıp tıraĢınızı olun‖ demiĢtir. Bunun ùzerine sôylendiği Ģekilde devesini kesip, tıraĢını olan Peygamber‘i gôren ashabı da vakit geçirmeden kurbanlarını kesip tıraĢlarını olup ihramdan çıkmıĢlardır. (Buhari, ġùrut, 15; Hac, 106, Muhsar, 3, Megazi, 35) Ümmù Seleme, Hz. AiĢe‘den sonra en fazla hadis rivayet eden hanım sahabidir. Fıkıh ve edebiyat alanında da derin bilgilere sahiptir. O dônemdeki eğitim çalıĢmalarında aktif rol ùstlenmiĢ, sonraki zamanlarda ùmmetin en meĢhur âlimleri arasında gôsterilmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 101-103) Zeynep binti CahĢ: Son derece bilgili, dindar ve takvalı bir kadın olup hayır yapmayı da seven ve nikâhını bizzat Cenab-ı Hakk‘ın kıyıp nikâhı Kuran‘da zikredilen tek Peygamber hanımıdır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 119) Yùksek ilmi, engin cômertliği ve eĢsiz Ġslamî yaĢantısıyla herkese ôrnek olmuĢ Peygamberimizden de çok sayıda hadis rivayet etmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 118) Ümmü Habibe: Hz. Ümmù Habibe, bilgisi, kùltùrù ve olgunluğu ile dônemin kadın eğitimcileri arasında yer almaktadır. Efendimizden çok sayıda hadis rivayet etmiĢ, HabeĢistan hicretinde gôrùp ôğrendiği Ģeyleri ôzellikte ev dekoru ve dizaynı gibi bilgileri çevresindeki insanlara da aktarmıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 145-146) Hz. Meymune: Efendimizin en son evlendiği eĢi olup, ôğrendiği bilgileri çevresine yayma çabalarıyla Peygamber‘in takdirini kazanmıĢtır. Peygamber‘in evinde geçirdiği zamanları eriĢilmez bir fırsat bilip ilim ôğrenme ve ôğretme konusunda bùyùk çabalar sarf etmiĢtir. Hz. Meymune ilme ve ibadetlere çok ônem veren faziletli bir kadındır. Peygamber‘in vefatından sonra birçok hadis rivayet etmenin yanında çevresindeki insanlara yol gôstermeye devam etmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 170-171) Ümmül Fadl: Asıl adı Lùbabe binti Haris olan bu kadın kız kardeĢi Meymune‘den dolayı Peygamber‘in baldızıdır. O dônemde kadınların faaliyet gôsterdiği eğitim çalıĢmalarına bizzat iĢtirak etmenin yanında Ġslam tarihinin yetiĢtirdiği en bùyùk âlimlerden biri olup kendisinden sonrakiler tarafından ―ilim denizi‖ anlamına gelen ―bahr‖ lakabıyla tanınan Abdullah bin Abbas‘ın ise annesidir. (Ġbni Kesir, 1995: 8/470) 1397 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dinin vecibelerini ilk olarak arkadaĢı Hatice‘den ôğrenmiĢ, ondan sonra da eğitim çalıĢmalarında uzunca bir sùre aktif yer almıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, Sahabi Annelerimiz: 66) Esma binti Umeys: Hazreti Esma Ġslam devrinde yaĢayan son derece olgun, bilgili ve kùltùrlù bir hanımdır. HabeĢistan‘da geçirdiği zamanlar hayatına çok Ģey katmıĢ, ona birçok konuda deneyim kazandırmıĢtır. Bu deneyimlerden biri kadınların cenazesinin tabutta taĢınması konusundadır. O zamanda cenazeler bir ôrtùye sarılır, ôylece taĢınırdı. Bildiklerini ilk olarak Peygamber‘in kızı Fatıma‘ya ôğretmiĢ, Fatıma‘nın cenazesinin tekfin ve teĢyiiyle de bizzat kendisi ilgilenmiĢtir. (Zehebi, 1994: 5/62) Hazreti Esma hadis alanında da birikimli bir kadındır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 86) Ümmü ġerik: Ümmù ġerik iman edince kendini tamamen Allah‘ın dinini yaymaya adayan eğitim gônùllùsù bir kadındır. O zamanın katlanılması zor Ģartlarına ve mùĢriklerin dayanılmaz baskılarına rağmen imanını sapasağlam koruduğu gibi tanıdığı tùm kadınlara da yeni din Ġslam‘ı anlatmıĢtır. Yorulmak bilmeyen gayretler içine girmiĢ, Mekkelilerle bildiklerini paylaĢmak için bùyùk çaba sarf etmiĢtir. Öyle ki Mekke‘de kapı kapı gezmiĢ, karĢılaĢtığı herkesi din hususunda eğitmeye çalıĢmıĢtır. Fakat bir sùre sonra mùĢrikler tarafından yakalanıp hapsedilmiĢ ardından da Mekke‘den sùrgùn edilmiĢtir. (El-Isfahani, 2000: 2/164) Ancak kendi kavmine gôtùrmeleri için verildiği kervanda meydana gelen olağanùstù olaylar neticesinde kervanda bulunanlar da onun vesilesiyle Mùslùman olmuĢtur. Bu sebeple Ümmù ġerik Ġslam devrinde bir kavmin inanmasına sebep olan kadın diye bilinirdi. Hadis ve fıkıh alanında son derece birikimliydi. (Cevzi, 2006: 386) Ümmü Süleym: Asıl adı Rumeysa olan Ümmù Sùleym Ġslam‘ın Medine‘de duyulduğu ilk zamanlarda inanıp ômrùnùn sonuna kadar insanlara yeni dini anlatmak için çalıĢan Medineli kadınlardandır. Sosyal hayattaki aktif varlığı kendisinden sonrakilere yôn verecek ôlçùde yoğundu. SavaĢlarda, kutlamalarda, ilim meclislerinde kısacası Peygamber‘in olduğu her yerde o da yer alıyor, Ġslam‘ı bizzat kaynağından ôğrenip uyguluyor ve ôğretiyordu. Hayatı Allah Resølù‘nùn en yakınında geçmiĢ, onun hayatını ve sùnnetlerini yine kendisinden ôğrenmiĢtir. O dônemde giriĢilen eğitim çalıĢmalarına bùyùk katkı sağlamıĢtır. Hatta bu konuda Peygamber‘in ôvgùsùnù de kazanmıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 116-117) Onun hayatında en ilgi çekici olay ikinci eĢi Ebu Talha ile evlenirken Mùslùman olmasını Ģart koĢup kocasının inanmasına vesile olmasıdır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 120) Ümmù Sùleym‘in yaĢamının her evresini eğitim sùreci olarak tanımlayabiliriz. Ġslam‘ın bùyùk hadis âlimlerinden Enes bin Malik‘in annesi olması bu konudaki yerini belirlemek açısından yeterlidir. Çok sayıda hadis de rivayet etmiĢtir. D – SONRAKĠ DÖNEMLERDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠM ÇALIġMALARI Ġslam dùnyasında çok erken dônemlerden itibaren Ģair, mutasavvıf ve âlim kadınların yetiĢtiği ve sonraki dônemlerde de bu alanlarda pek çok kadının hizmet verdiği bilinmektedir. Ġbni Sad‘ın sahabenin hayatına dair et Tabakatùl Kùbra‘sı ile Ġbni Hacer el-Askalani‘nin aynı mahiyetteki el-Ġsabe‘sinin son cildi, Ġbni Abdùlber en-Nemeri‘nin el-Ġsti‘ab fi Ma‘rifeti‘l-Ashab adlı dôrt bôlùmden ibaret eserinin son iki bôlùmù kadın sahabilere ayrılmıĢtır. Aynı zamanda Ġbni Hacer el-Askalani‘nin Tehzibetù‘l-Tehzib ve ed-Dùrerù‘l-Kamine adlı eserlerinde hadis ravisi ve ilim adamları arasında sahabe hanımlar haricinde pek çok kadın incelenir. Bu eserler, kadınların Ġslam kùltùr tarihinde kùçùmsenmeyecek bir yere sahip olduklarını gôstermektedir. (Ġsam, 2001: 24/92) SONUÇ Kadınlar, Ġslamiyet‘in ilk devrinde eğitim alanında aktif rol aldıkları gibi sonraki zamanlarda da bu faaliyetleri sùrdùrmùĢlerdir. Emeviler dôneminde bu çalıĢmalar biraz gerilese de kadınların sosyal yaĢama etkileri tamamen silinmemiĢtir. Aksine ilim ve kùltùr hayatında oldukça ônemli yer iĢgal etmiĢlerdir. Ġslam dùnyasında eğitimin gayrı resmi bir yapı içinde sùrdùrùlmesi ve okula değil hocaya bağlanmasının esas olması, kadınların yakın çevrelerindeki ilim adamlarından eğitim almalarını kolaylaĢtırmıĢtır. Ġlim sahibi kadınların ônemli bir kısmının ulema aileleri içinde yetiĢmesi bunun gôstergesidir. Bu arada kadınların ôzellikle hadis ilmine yôneldiği bir gerçektir. Bùyùk hadisçi Taceddin es-Sùbki‘nin hadis dinleyip ôğrendiği ùstadlar arasında on dokuz kadının adı geçmektedir. Suyuti otuz ùç, Ġbni Hacer el-Askalani elli ùç, Ġbni Asakir seksen kadından hadis ôğrenmiĢtir. (Ġsam, 2001: 24/92) 1398 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES CANAN, Prof. Dr. Ġbrahim (1988). Kütüb-i Sitte Muhtasarı, Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. CEVZĠ, Ġbnu‘l (2006). Sıfatu‘s-Saffe, Ġstanbul: Kahraman Yayınları. EL-ISFAHANĠ, Ebu Nuaym (2000). Sahabeden Günümüze Allah Dostları, Ġstanbul: ġule Yayınları. FETHĠ, Çev: Ahmet (1992). Kadınların Tarihi Ortaçağın Sessizliği, Ġstanbul: Tùrkiye ĠĢ Bankası Kùltùr Yayınları. GAZEL, GùlĢen (2009). Gül Kokulu Annelerimiz Peygamberimizin Hanımları, Ġstanbul: Gùndônùmù Yayınları. GAZEL, GùlĢen (2009). Ġmana AdanmıĢ Yürekler Sahabi Annelerimiz, Ġstanbul: Gùndônùmù Yayınları. HAMĠDULLAH, Prof Dr. Muhammed (2003). Ġslam Peygamberi, (çev: Prof Dr. Salih Tuğ), Ġstanbul: Ġrfan Yayımcılık. HASAN, Prof Dr. Hasan Ġbrahim (1987). Ġslam Tarihi, Ġstanbul: Kayıhan Yayınları. HAVVA, Said (2008). Hadislerle Ġslam Tarihi, Ġstanbul: Hikmet NeĢriyat. ĠBNĠ Kesir (1995). El-Bidaye ven-Nihaye, (çev: Mehmet Keskin), Ġstanbul: Çağrı Yayınları. ĠSAM (2001). Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Ġslam Ansiklopedisi, Ankara ZEHEBĠ, Ġmam (1994). Tarihu‘l Ġslam, (çev: Muzaffer Can), Ġstanbul: CantaĢ Yayınları 1399 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 693 Title A name given to the resource ĠSLAMĠYET‘ĠN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠME ANALĠTĠK YAKLAġIMLARI VE ÇALIġMALARI Author Author GAZEL, Gülşen Abstract A summary of the resource. Eğitim, insanlığın var oluĢundan bu yana en bùyùk tekâmùl vasıtası olması yônùyle kadın erkek tùm fertlerin ortak yùrùtmesi gereken sosyal, kùltùrel ve bireysel sùreçlerin tùmùdùr. Eğitimin, tekâmùl sebebi olması her ferdin eĢit seviyede ona ihtiyaç duyduğunu gôstermektedir. Ne var ki dinlerin gônderildiği tarihsel sùreçte bu kavramın gereklerinden tùm insanlık faydalandırılırken dinsel hukukun uygulanmadığı dônemlerde kadınlar saf dıĢı bırakılmıĢtır. Eski ve orta çağda kadınlar eğitim ve ôğretim hakkından mahrum edilmiĢ, eğitim konusunda erkekler aktif rol ùstlenmiĢtir. Bu durum Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢine kadar da bôyle devam etmiĢtir. Ancak Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢiyle kadınlar birçok konuda olduğu gibi eğitim ve ôğretim konusunda da ôzgùrlùğe kavuĢmuĢtur. Eğitim ve ôğretim alma serbestîsinin yanı sıra verme hakkı da Ġslami kurallara dâhil edilmiĢtir. Bu nedenle Ġslam devrinde birçok eğitimci kadın yetiĢmiĢ, gerektiğinde erkeklere de eğitim ve ôğretim vermiĢlerdir. Dolayısıyla o dônemden bu yana geçirilen tarihsel sùreçte Ġslam kadınları geri kalmıĢlıkla itham edilmiĢ olsalar da gerçek bunun tam tersidir. Bu nedenle ôncelikle, ―Ġslam Öncesi Dônemde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ ardından, ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ son olarak da ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadınların Yùrùttùğù Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ irdelenerek bu gerçek kanıtlanabilir. Kadınlar sahabe dôneminden sonraki zamanlarda da aktif eğitim faaliyetlerini sùrdùrmùĢlerdir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/28ab52fc0371300d970be239dea6c7bc.pdf 3a78b76c8deab17f9eb860d878b519dc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo RASUL RZA- INNOVATOR POET OF THE 20th CENTURY AZERBAIJANI LITERATURE Ph.D Etrabe GUL QAFQAZ UNĠVERSĠTY PEDAGOGY FACULTY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLĠSH LANGUAGE AND LĠTERATURE etrabegulus@hotmail.com Azerbaijan / Baki The prominent Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza (real name Rasul Ibrahim oglu Rzayev, 1910–1981 ), who wrote his epics and poems in free measure played particular role in development of poetic conscience of Azerbaijani literature. In modern Azerbaijani poetry, with his different poetical thinking, special expression skills Rasul Rza engaged a special place as he brought a new breath to an Azerbaijani literature with his innovation. His poetry carried inspirational, motivational as well as thought provoking features. In today's globalized world poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. It is undeniable that some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. In this regard the poetry of the venerable poet R.Rza was distinguished with philosophical lyricism, the vividness of the ideas and the emotions and original poetic characters. His philosophical poems from series of 'Rengler'('Colours"), lyrical epic poems 'Fuzuli' and "Gizilgul olmayaydi(If only there were not a rose)" are considered to be the best patterns of Azerbaijani poetry. Notwithstanding the new reference entailed adversities among writers, poets and readers towards him. Rasul Rza went through all hindrance and critiques, and as a deduction of his poetic experience he surmounted the difficulties and featured literary innovator school to the national literature. It must be noted that, the beginning of the 20th century, the period of massive revolutions as well as a cultural revolution, endowed with Azerbaijani literature a new form and meaning. Rasul Rza resorted to blank verse, when everybody got used to listen and recite samples of the traditional poetry. But the overturn of all casts regarding to traditional poetry was a veritable heroism done by the innovator poet, i.e. the choice of words and figures, pay attention to elements of poetic diction special to blank verse poetry demanded competence, skill, audacity and etc. Based on all aforementioned dignities, it can be concluded that the evaluation of the creativity of Rasul Rza is of paramount importance to the national heritage of Azerbaijani -Turkic people. Key Words: Rasul Rza, innovator, Azerbaijani literature, blank verse, elements of poetry One of the outstanding poets of the 20th century - Rasul Rza(1910-1981) infused a fresh spirit into the modern Azerbaijani poetry thus winning the repute as an innovative poet. The poet began publishing his works from 1927. His first poems were published in newspapers and magazines (―The Young Worker‖, ―Hujum‖, ―Revolution and Culture‖, etc.). In the late 1920s-1930s he wrote about the International struggle against fascism and colonialism. In the early 30s of the 20th century he wrote the anti-fascist poems ―The Women‖, ―Chinar‖, ―Germany‖, ―Madrid‖, etc. He got responsive on the Soviet-Germany war of 1941- 45 years by the books of poems and stories: ―Immortal Heroes‖, ―Rage and Love‖. From the 50s philosophic grounds prevailed in Rasul Rza‘s creative palette. Rasul Rza who is distinguished for his distinctive poetic realm, peculiar way of expression in the enrichment of our modern poetry, thus bringing a new breath to this poetry, stands in the most successful line of the world poetry owing to his blank verses. It should also be noted that the trend of ―blank verse‖ which triggered a number of constructive debates appeared through the program of updating the national poetry, raising it to the level of modern culture of literary thought. ―In the second half of the 1920s the blank verse found its reflection mostly in Mikayil Rafili‘s works. M.Rafili associated the blank verse with the confirmation of a new idea, a new individual, and characterized it as quite a new poetic form harmonizing with time‖ (10, 106-107). Rasul Rza‘s wide-ranging realm of poetry has an impact of lyrics with a plot. The great poet‘s poems perfect both for their content and from the literary point of view as well as his poems which seem relatively ordinary can arouse very gentle feelings in their readers. For, being a personality 451 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo with gentle, tender feelings by nature, R. Rza liked traveling to far away countries. He had been to the countries of Europe, Asia and Africa, and put down what he had seen. Thus appeared his various, interesting poems related to France, Algeria, Iraq. From this point of view, his poem ―The White Elephant‖ is interesting and characteristic. The first lines of the poem do not draw attention, but reading further one experiences a painful feeling in the heart. The tears of wistfulness shed from the eyes of a rare white elephant imprisoned in a cage shake the hearts. The poet, who describes the agonies of a caged life and imprisonment in the example of an elephant, also expresses in simple words, but very gently, at the same time philosophically the advantages of a day‘s freedom over the life behind iron bars for a hundred years. This literary piece of the poet was translated into English by Margaret Wettlin. A brief extract can give you an idea of the poem: I first saw him one hot noon in Ragoon alone white elephant in an iron cage of many colors and close-set bars. His eyes were black stars in a milky sky. He might have been any age. He looked at me as if suddenly he would begin to cry… Elephants are long lived, they say. Poor white elephant Why should you live to old age in this many – coloured, close-barred cage? Poor white elephant! Poor white elephant! (7, 46) In this small piece of his poetry Rasul Rza rings a march of uprising against those who suppress freedom and try to keep it within iron cages in the example of the rare elephant that once used to live a free life, but now is imprisoned. What is the sense of living such a long life in the cage? - he says. Rasul Rza, whose poems were published in Canada several times, has earned the love of the Anglophones, and his poems have been estimated as the most valuable example of modern world poetry. It is obvious from the articles related to those poems published in 1965 that the readers in Canada and the USA loved them judging from the way Dyson Carter, the editor-in-chief of the journal ―Northern neighbours‖, not very fond of poetry in general, described Rasul Rza‘s poetry as the outcome of a sincere and pleasant impression. As noted by the researcher N.Akhundov, ―the press of the Western hemisphere estimates R.Rza‘s poems as a new discovery, a strong literary and aesthetic means expressing artfully the feelings and emotions of modern people on an international scale‖ (6, 75). Rasul Rza‘s works were translated in Albania, Cuba, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and tens of other foreign countries, and the journal ―Tulu‖ printed by the Information Agency in the city of Karachi presented the translation of some of his poems as well as some information about his literary heritage. All this is the reflection of an extreme love to this great man of literature with rich and multi-colored literary creativity not only within our country but also beyond its boundaries. While one reason for such a strong interest in R.Rza‘s poetry is connected with the deep humanism of his creative activity, the other important reason is in his search of a system of forms and new characters reflecting the development of modern world more realistically and righteously (3, 220). For Rasul Rza‘s poetry is the achievement of the man of art who completely meets the standards of modern period, serves the enrichment of people‘s mode of thinking, and creates a new school. The Canadian people received Rasul Rza‘s poems with great love and excitement. This feeling and excitement is obvious even from the letter sent to our poet. According to the Canadian journal ―Northern Neighbours‖ published in English, Rasul Rza‘s poetry leans against the outstanding man of art with deep philosophic thinking who creates a literary chronicle and poetic map of life‖ (2, 47). It would be considered no exaggeration, if we call the Earth, the humanity as the main subject of R.Rza‘s poetry. The humanity‘s joy, sorrow, challenges, wishes, and beliefs make the poet think deeply. Freedom – the humanity‘s belief of light, love of life, last hope – is the exclamation mark of R.Rza‘s poetry. As a poet perceiving, realizing the essence of life developments profoundly and capable of transforming the important political events of the period into the materials of poetry courageously, R.Rza has reflected all this in his Oriental poetic series more vividly. According to Arif Abdullazadeh, who analyses and estimates R.Rza‘s creative activity stage by stage, ―Great universal senses and patriotic feelings put together in a small poem acquire great importance in R.Rza‘s creative activity. In this very sense , he enjoys quite an independent position in the Azerbaijani poetry‖ (3, 117). Rasul Rza‘s poetic realm with a very wide circle of themes is always concerned, is always alarmed. 452 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Rasul Rza‘s poetry is a rich and profound poetic sample with its own structural peculiarities, form and shape, alongside with its completeness of content and idea, progressive philosophic spirit, artistic expression and poeticism of thought‖ (1, 195). Rasul Rza was an extremely sensitive and touchy poet. In his lines he succeeded to create the picture once created by the most famous artists. Hence the poetic power of Rasul Rza who created his magnificent works in the form of blank verse and developed in this form of poetry, (one can dare say) who was able to express in an artistic and polished way what no other poet managed to say in our contemporary poetry, who succeeded to see and describe in a heavenly inspiration things unimaginable and hard to be noticed. Many of our poets have tried this form of poetry; however Rasul Rza‘s peak remains unattained yet. It is not a mere coincidence that the outstanding critic A.Nazim considered the blank verse as a literary phenomenon possessing the potentials of expressing the content of the period, when summarizing its peculiarities, ideational direction, aesthetic sources and providing its true definition (4, 6-7). As R.Rza‘s creative activity is targeted at realizing the world with its entirety and grasping it with its rich colors and shades, the roots of his poetry are nourished by the wonders of the world. Above all, it is a human being that makes him think. It is the love to man that throws light upon every line of his poetry. Hence the main purpose of his creative activity. According to the poet, who wishes for everyone to have their soul‘s eye in his poem ―The Third Eye‖, having a pair of eyes is a means for people to see very ordinary things. The real eye is the soul‘s eye. The absence of the soul‘s eye means ―deprivation from everything, being blind in soul, losing emotions and thoughts, losing the existence‖ (9, 133). Great man of art Rasul Rza is a philosophic poet, a powerful poet, who always makes one think, sometimes hides his idea in covert senses artistically and induces his reader to read him repeatedly in order to understand him. When speaking about the philosophic nature in Rasul Rza‘s creative activity, one remembers the series ―The Colours‖. Since Rasul Rza‘s series ―The Colours‖ is the peak of intellectual poetry in the Azerbaijani literature. He shows not only the poetic image of colours but also their social and political colour. The colours created by Rasul Rza in his poetry are absolutely impossible on canvas. No matter how talented the artist may be, he can‘t manage it. Every line in ―The Colours‖ carries some poetic function. It would be very appropriate to consider an extract from the poem: White, black, yellow, green, red, All of them are connected in some experiment. One of them reminds us of our longing, One of our trouble, another of our wish. Each of them hides some meaning, Each of them has some reason for its colour… . Or another extract from the poem ―Turquoise‖: The pain of love left in memories. The charm of the sea. The light of the lamp with a green lampshade that falls into a blue wall. The longing of a poor girl's fingers. Jafar Jabbarli's Baku. Only two eyes in the entire world. It is not enough to estimate these poetic series of the 1960s simply as a modern poem, there is a process of realizing life in them. There is a mode of approaching life philosophically here. As noted also by many researchers, ―The Colours‖ has a function of penetrating from the surface of the things, events into their inside, uncovering the invisible features of those things and events through their visible features known to us. Owing to R.Rza‘s series ―The Colours‖, the innovatory inclinations in the contemporary Azerbaijani poetry got ever stronger. Among the poems R. Rza wrote until 1980 there are many pieces which continue ―The Colours‖. His poem ―Time‖ is one of them. Time is the moment when youth symbolizing the ardent passion stands face to face with the depressed and weary old age in the paths of life. What artistic and incomparable words does the poet use when describing the early periods and the last moments of life! R.Rza‘s poetry is the poetry that has brought ―a substantial and perfect form, fine, attractive puns (cinas), original, unparalleled rhymes, rhythms, harmony‖ (5, 79) to our contemporary poetry. In the 1960s the modern poetry made just an impression of an experiment in the panorama of the Azerbaijani poetry, and thus resistance against it was natural. The reading public was not ready to accept such kind of poems yet; however, to cease that process and to prevent it were beyond one‘s power. The first 453 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Azerbaijani modernists themselves were not concerned with the results of this process. They were trying either to escape the tight cage of the traditional poetry as much as possible or create innovations within the traditional poetry. To review the path made by the modernist poem in the Azerbaijani poetry, we can say that in the Azerbaijani literary environment modern poems had a secondary place compared to traditional poems. Firstly, the foundations of the traditional poetry were very strong, from the point of view of wide audience it had earned a firm support; secondly, the defenders of the traditional poetry were eager to prove its advantage over the modernist poetry by all means, and most of the time managed it. Despite some obstacles, modernist poems turned into one of the stylistic trends of our poetry; and certainly, the supporters of the traditional poetry could not prevent this trend, and the Azerbaijani poetry could not be isolated from the world poetry. One can proudly say that the name of the Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza is on the same list with such universal poets as W.Witman, E.Verkhara, V.Nezval, N.Hikmat, P.Neruda who are creators of blank verse in the world literature. REFERENCES Abdullazadeh A. ―Uncommon individuality of a poet‖. Baki , Azerneshr, 1990. Abdullazadeh Arif. ―60s years as a turning point of Rasul Rza`s creativity‖, Azerneshr, 1990 Akhundov N., Azerbaijan Soviet Literature Abroad ―Yazichi‖, 1987. Ali Nazim . ‖We drink the Sun- turn into the Sun‖, Marif ve medeniyet. Baki, 1929. Efendiyev Asif. Poem and tradition (Responsibility of wisdom). Baki, Genjlik, 1976. Northern neighbours – Canada, 1967. Rasul Rza. On a Sguare in Algiers. Translated by Margaret Wettlin. Friendly hands (poems by Azerbaijani poets), Azerbaijan State publishing house, Baki, 1964. Rasul Rza. White elephant. Translated by Margaret Wettlin. Friendly hands (poems by Azerbaijani poets). Azerbaijan State publishing house, Baki, 1964. Seyidov Yusif. ―Poems with spirit‖. Literary criticism and language. Yazichi, 1986. Zeynalli A., Salmanov Sh.,‖Literature in modern period‖. Poetry, History of Azerbaijani Literature: 2 vol., Baki: Azerb.SSR AS., Neshriyat, 1967. 454 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 67 Title A name given to the resource RASUL RZA- INNOVATOR POET OF THE 20th CENTURY AZERBAIJANI LITERATURE Author Author GUL, Etrabe Abstract A summary of the resource. The prominent Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza (real name Rasul Ibrahim oglu Rzayev, 1910–1981 ), who wrote his epics and poems in free measure played particular role in development of poetic conscience of Azerbaijani literature. In modern Azerbaijani poetry, with his different poetical thinking, special expression skills Rasul Rza engaged a special place as he brought a new breath to an Azerbaijani literature with his innovation. His poetry carried inspirational, motivational as well as thought provoking features. In today's globalized world poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. It is undeniable that some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. In this regard the poetry of the venerable poet R.Rza was distinguished with philosophical lyricism, the vividness of the ideas and the emotions and original poetic characters. His philosophical poems from series of 'Rengler'('Colours"), lyrical epic poems 'Fuzuli' and "Gizilgul olmayaydi(If only there were not a rose)" are considered to be the best patterns of Azerbaijani poetry. Notwithstanding the new reference entailed adversities among writers, poets and readers towards him. Rasul Rza went through all hindrance and critiques, and as a deduction of his poetic experience he surmounted the difficulties and featured literary innovator school to the national literature. It must be noted that, the beginning of the 20th century, the period of massive revolutions as well as a cultural revolution, endowed with Azerbaijani literature a new form and meaning. Rasul Rza resorted to blank verse, when everybody got used to listen and recite samples of the traditional poetry. But the overturn of all casts regarding to traditional poetry was a veritable heroism done by the innovator poet, i.e. the choice of words and figures, pay attention to elements of poetic diction special to blank verse poetry demanded competence, skill, audacity and etc. Based on all aforementioned dignities, it can be concluded that the evaluation of the creativity of Rasul Rza is of paramount importance to the national heritage of Azerbaijani -Turkic people. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fbd14867484520c2bdd5dcd4ec34199f.pdf 923d12ba95726934c074ed2727e8a55f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The role of language in the process of social integration: from the ancient Cena Trimalchionis to the contemporary world. Maria Elena Galaverna Università degli Studi di Parma, Italy mariaelena.galaverna@studenti.unipr.it Abstract: The Ancient World melting pot is not so different from the globalized contemporary society, in which various people and languages are constantly meeting each others. In particular, language still plays a leading part in the process of social redemption, integration and cultural identity formation. This fact provides us a prominent opportunity to compare these two backgrounds, noticing how the hic et nunc could help explaining the past, which, in turn, could improve our analysis of the present. The proposed contribution intends to apply some of the most known linguistic models on a Latin literary text, the famous Cena Trimalchionis in Petronius‘ Satyricon, in order to investigate its sociolinguistics implications. This system can frame a further understanding of the passage, which gives back the possibility to outline some evergreen rules about the relationship between the governing and the emerging class. As the Cena shows, freedmen, who accorded a high prestige to Latin, aimed to imitate it; yet, they were at the same time also bound to their mother tongue. Their linguistic choices reveal both their wishes and their limits. According to this view, a good use of language, with the consequent sense of being member of a group, granted – and still grants nowadays – a privilege path towards emancipation to foreigners and lower classes. This presentation aims to give some examples on the different levels of communication. Key words: immigration‘s sociolinguistics aspects, actuality of ancient culture, social redemption and integration, cultural identity formation, linguistic prestige and loyalty. Introduction A parallel reading of an ancient text with the contemporary society, although they are very far from each other, however, could offer many consonances on a linguistic level: the background changes, but the dynamics of a linguistic phenomenon remain unchanged. This type of reading helps to understand the present as well as the Ancient World, offering new guidelines to interpret the text. This working hypothesis is the starting point of the following contribution, which aims to study the role of language in the process of social integration, applying some of the most known linguistic models on a Latin literary text, the famous Cena Trimalchionis in Petronius‘ Satyricon. This is a sort of experimental first realistic representation – as Auerbach (1956) 33 notes – because the characters, who do not coincide neither with the author nor with the mock narrator, are talking about what they see and think and they do that using their slang. The Cena expresses a new subjectivity because Petronius describes a sort of objective popular everyday environment through the subjective process. Therefore, it presents sociolinguistic cues to investigate. Language patterns applied Communicative Competence Every freedmen‘s word and action will be considered as a communicative act. The assessment of each one will be coherently based on the model of Communicative Competence theorized by Freddi259and provided below. 259 The reproduced graph is sourced from Freddi (1999), but this model of communication had already been studied by the same author (Freddi 1979; 1994). 797 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ling = linguistic competence SocioLing = sociolinguistic competence ParaLing = paralinguistic competence ExtraLing = extralinguistic competence Communicative competence includes four integrated skills: linguistic, sociolinguistic, paralinguistic and extralinguistic. First of all, speakers must recognize and produce grammatically correct sentences and therefore master all the three levels of language (phonology, morphology and syntax, lexicon). Secondly, sociolinguistic competence concerns diatopic, diastratic, diaphasic and diachronic language varieties, because speakers must also use appropriate codes for the socio-cultural context. Finally, they must control the prosodic elements (fluency, speech rate, pitch, stress, use of pauses), which are not strictly relevant to the linguistic level but essential to the communication, and non-verbal codes, which are used along with language or as a replacement for it. The latter ones include kinesics (body motion, gesture and facial expressions), proxemics (distance or space), artifacts (clothing, jewels, cosmetic aids) and sensory skills. A good communication needs also two higher-level competences: the semiotic-cultural one, whereby the communicative act is effective and consistent with the cultural scene in which it takes place, and the textual one, because we communicate through texts, which are extended linguistic sequences with a specific purpose and a coherent internal structure. At last, there is an important subordinate competence, the metalinguistic one, whose object is the thinking on the language. Interlanguage According to the literary and epigraphic sources, the Roman Empire involved various people and languages and its social fabric was very complex. Despite the hierarchical structure, there was a real upward social mobility both in Rome and the provinces, as Alfôldy (1987) 206-207 shows. This opportunity of emancipation led foreigners and lower classes to imitate upper classes education and modes of speech: Latin was the language of the State and of the governing class and it became the most prestigious one260. However, the natural loyalty of the emerging class to their native language – most of all Greek – and their lack of liberal education produced an imperfect linguistic and cultural acquisition. The Cena, which probably took place in a provincial town in Campania261, offers a meaningful picture of this attitude staging some upstarts, whose names reveal a humble foreign origin262, opposed to the educated guests. The same situation characterizes the globalized contemporary world, in which speakers always need to find appropriate language forms and features to their purposes. Alongside conditions of bilingualism and diglossia, they often settle the mixture of languages taking on a new code: they leave the less influential language varieties in the context in which they live, using the one in which they recognize a cultural superiority263. They start a second language learning (L2), because of its favourite role in the process of social redemption, integration and cultural identity formation. Yet, they still remain bound to their first language (L1), the mother‘s one, and this implies many interferences. For these reasons, freedmen‘s language in Petronius‘ Satyricon reveals the same features of an interlanguage, which is a language developed by a speaker, who already has its own natural language, when he starts to learn a second language. The schema reported here is taken from Freddi (1994) 76. 260 About the spread of Latin in the Empire and its consequent learning as L2 see Banfi (1991) 84. 261 The exact place is controversial, but it is certainly a Graeca urbs – as it is defined in the text (81,3) – in southern Italy, probably in Campania. See Petersmann (2000) 84-86. 262 As Priuli (1975) 25 explains, all other freedmen have a non-Latin and typical of lower condition name, excepted Fortunata, Scintilla, Primigenius and Proculus, which are anyway Latin names of humble origin. 263 The relationship between language and power is well-defined by Heller (1995) 159. 798 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo L1 L2 Interlanguage It is a personal grammar, because it depends on the assumptions that the speaker has made about the operation of the L2; it is temporary, because he aims to achieve a full acquisition of the L2; finally, it is dynamic, because it is constantly modified on the line L1,L2. Chomsky‘s generative grammar, which provides, below the superficial differences, a universal grammar as a mental and biological equipment, allows us to identify universal mental processes in language learning. This implies that the elements of a second language learning are almost identical, regardless of the language. Most errors are due to the interference mechanism: second language learners compare it with their mother tongue and this fact can both help and damage the learning process distorting the marks of the L2. Most of them are morphosyntactic, but they can also concern the phonology and the lexicon. Others can be related to physiological and psycho-emotional factors, which are the subject of psycholinguistics. In general, the awareness of these errors can be an incentive to improve or cause a fall-back of speech on more familiar codes becoming a source of shame. Analogy, which appeals to well-known forms, is one of the main features of the interlanguage, since speakers are supported from a regular basis (Astori 2007-2008 118). In contrast, hypercorrectness is very common, because they try to use elegant forms, even when not required, to demonstrate their control over the language. Yet, code-switching, borrowing, calque and neologism are frequent. It is a very concrete language and often controls the micro-language, but not the conventional expressions. Simplification is usual, as evidenced by the frequent use of modal verbs and the decomposition of a word into its primitive constituents. Analysis of freedmen‘s acts In the Cena Trimalchionis, the master of the house, Trimalchio, and the other freedmen clash with the narrator Encolpius and the other educated characters. It becomes a show – with discussions, performances, dances, music, enormous dishes and unexpected twists – in which freedmen flaunt their wealth, their social redemption and their integration into the upper-classes of society. Their purpose involves every aspect of communication, but it always reveals its limits: they are parvenu and the scholastici laugh at them because of their imperfect use of the rules. Examples of their attempts will be shown according to the different levels of Communicative Competence.264 Linguistic level [58,7] «Athana tibi irata sit, curabo, et <ei> qui te primus ―deuro de‖fecit. Non didici geometrias, critica et alogas menias, sed lapidarias litteras scio, partes centum dico ad aes, ad pondus, ad nummum. [8] Ad summam, si quid vis, ego et tu sponsiunculam: exi, defero lamnam. Iam scies patrem tuum mercedes perdidisse, quamvis et rhetoricam scis. Ecce ―qui de nobis longe venio, late venio? Solve me‖. [9] Dicam tibi, qui de nobis currit et de loco non movetur; qui de nobis crescit et minor fit. Curris, stupes, satagis, tamquam mus in matella […]».265 The libertus Hermeros is talking, in an outburst of rage against Ascyltos and Giton, who are laughing at him and his colleagues. This is an advantaged communication context in order to analyze freedmen‘s language, because in those moments they lose the control and make many errors, which follow the interlanguage pattern outlined. In this case, according to the classification of Boyce (1991) 46-54, we can see phonological peculiarities, like the doric form Athana, typical of the south Italian speech, and one syncopated form, lamnam, which is widely used in colloquial popular language. From a morphosyntactic point of view, there are several irregularities. Indeed, instead of quis nostrum, he uses qui de nobis thrice: here the partitive genitive is replaced by a prepositional construction, according to the simplification of syntax of the cases, and the interrogative pronoun quis is confused with qui. Yet, according to the same tendency, there is the simpler use of indicative (currit, movetur, crescit, fit) in indirect questions, where the literary language employs the subjunctive, and the present defero is employed in place 264 The critical edition used is edited by Mùller (1995 4), the translation by Michael Heseltine (1913). 265 [«I will bring down the wrath of Athena on you and the man who first made a minion of you. No, I never learned geometry, and criticism, and suchlike nonsense. But I know my tall letters, and I can do any sum into pounds, shillings and pence. In fact, if you like, you and I will have a little bet. Come on, I put down the metal. Now I will show you that your father wasted the fees, even though you are a scholar in rhetoric. Look here: ―what part of us am I? I come far, I come wide. Now find me‖. I can tel l you what part of us runs and does not move from its place; what grows out of us and grows smaller. Ah! You run about and look scared and hustled, like a mouse in a pot»]. 799 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of the future. About the lexicon, there are a diminutive, sponsiacula, which is common in vulgar speech, and a code  arrived in that Greek city when he was a young slave and he served there forty years, as he tells us; Greek has obviously an heavy influence on his speech. Finally, the form geometrias used in the plural form could represent an incorrect use of a word he has learned, whose specific meaning remains unknown to him. In fact, ―he contrasts his business education and practical literacy with the liberal education of the scholastici‖ (Boyce 1991 91), in order to affirm again he is proud of his gained status. Sociolinguistic level It is very difficult to choose a passage in order to demonstrate the sociolinguistic valence of freedmen‘s words, because every character has different origins, status and ambitions, which are unavoidably revealed by his language, which changes according to the context. The following example, a part of the consideration about the present time of the poor old clothes dealer, Echion, is indicative of the will to speak classical Latin, but also of the unsatisfactory result. [45,5] «Et Titus noster magnum animum habet et est caldicerebrius: aut hoc aut illud, erit quid utique. Nam illi domesticus sum, non est mixcix. [6] Ferrum optimum daturus est, sine fuga, carnarium in medio, ut amphitheater videat. Et habet unde: relictum est illi sestertium trecenties, decessit illius pater. Male! Ut quadringenta impendat, non sentiet patrimonium illius, et sempiterno nominabitur. [7] Iam Manios aliquot habet et mulierem essedariam et dispensatorem Glyconis, qui deprehensus est, cum dominam suam delectaretur. Videbis populi rixam inter zelotypos et amasiunculos. [8] Glyco autem, sestertiarius homo, dispensatorem ad bestias dedit. Hoc est se ipsum traducere. Quid servus peccavit, qui coactus est facere? Magis illa matella digna fuit quam taurus iactaret. Sed qui asinum non potest, stratum caedit. [9] Quid autem Glyco putabat Hermogenis filicem umquam bonum exitum facturam? Ille milvo volanti poterat ungues resecare; colubra restem non parit. Glyco, Glyco dedit suas; itaque quamdiu vixerit, habebit stigmam, nec illam nisi Orcus delebit. [10] Sed sibi quisque peccat. Sed subolfacio, quia nobis epulum daturus est Mammea, binos denarios mihi et meis. Quod si hoc fecerit, eripiet Norbano totum favorem. Scias oportet plenis velis hunc vinciturum. [11] Et revera, quid ille nobis boni fecit? Dedit gladiatores sestertiarios iam decrepitos, quos si sufflasses cecidissent; iam meliores bestiarios vidi. Occidit de lucerna equites, putares eos gallos gallinaceos; alter burdubasta, alter loripes, tertiarius mortuus pro mortuo, qui habe<ba>t nervia praecisa […]».266 As Boyce (1991) 82 notes, ―he is an opportunist and frustrated social climber: while he does not hesitate to attack the wealthy and famous such as Glyco and Norbanus in the most rabid and venomous fashion once they have been disgraced and their fortunes have declined, he displays a cloying obsequiousness and even affects to be on intimate terms with those who are currently in power, such as Titus and Mammea‖. Therefore, he wants to hide his lower-class origin and, with regard to language, he uses hyperurbanisms, like neuter in place of masculine (nervia) and deponent in place of active (delectaretur). However, as his political judgment is based only on popular materialistic opinions about gladiatorial combats, banquets and money (Ciaffi 1955 139), from a linguistic point of view, ―in an attempt to compensate for the popular tendencies in his speech, he commits solecisms of the opposite sort‖ (Boyce 1991 83). Moreover, despite the effort, his language is characterized by a high number of vulgarisms (Boyce 1991 4654), which reveal once again his origin and upbringing, marking his exclusion from the upper circles: the 266 [«And our good Titus has a big imagination and is hot-blooded: it will be one thing or another, something real anyway. I know him very well, and he is all against half-measures. He will give you the finest blades, no running away, butchery done in the middle, where the whole audience can see it. And he has the wherewithal; he came into thirty million when his father came to grief. If he spends four hundred thousand, his estate will never feel it, and his name will live for ever. He has already col lected some clowns, and a woman to fight from a chariot, and Glyco‘s steward, who was caught amusing Glyco‘s wife. You will see the crowd quarrel, jealous husbands against gallants. A twopenny-halfpenny fellow like Glyco goes throwing his steward to the beasts. He only gives himself away. It is not the slave‘s fault; he had to do as he was told. That filthy wife of his rather deserved to be tossed by the bull. But a man who cannot beat his donkey, beats the saddle. How did Glyco suppose that a sprig of Hermogene‘s sowing would ever come to a good end? He was one for paring the claws of a kite on the wing, and you do not gather figs from thistles. Glyco? Why, Glyco has given away his own flesh and blood. He will be branded as long as he lives, and nothing but death will wipe it out. But a man must have his faults. My nose prophesies a good meal from Mammaea, twopence each for me and mine. If he does, he will put Norbanus quite in the shade. You know he will beat him hands down. After all, what has Norbanus ever done for us? He produced some decayed twopenny-halfpenny gladiators, who would have fallen flat if you breathed on them; I have seen better ruffians turned in to fight the wild beasts, He shed the blood of some mounted infantry tha t might have come off a lamp; dunghill cocks you would have called them: one a spavined mule, the other bandy-legged, and the holder of the bye, just one corpse instead of another, and hamstrung»]. 800 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo pronunciation with o of the diphthong au (plodo); the morphological change of gender of stigma, treated as a first declension feminine noun, and of amphiteater, whose transformation from a neuter noun to the masculine does not surprise, if we advert to the universal language principles; vinciturum (from vinco) for victurum, which could be confused with the past participle of vivo, according to the tendency to simplify irregularities using analogical formations; quos si sufflasses, where the intransitive verb is used with the accusative; many syntactic errors, similar to those seen before in Hermeros language (occidit de lucerna equites; subolofacio, quia nobis epulum daturus est; eripiat; vixerit); neologisms, like the compounds burdubasta and loripes, and a borrowing, zelotypos <   (Cavalca 2001 181-182). Finally, he frequently uses proverbial expressions (qui asinum non potest, stratum caedit; ille milvo volanti poterat ungues resecare; colubra restem non parit) and some insults, like Glyco‘s wife as a filix and a matella, which represents an emotional outburst which is typical of the Lateinische Umgangssprache (Hofmann 19852 220). Paralinguistic level Few information come from the work about paralinguistic elements, because this is a written text and therefore fluency, speech rate, pitch, stress and use of pauses cannot be directly investigated, as in reverse it can be done with the spoken language. However, there are some narrator‘s remarks and some speeches which would seem to provide such an opportunity. For example, the following joke is very useful: [41,7] Ad quem sonum conversus Trimalchio «Dionyse» inquit «liber esto». Puer detraxit pilleum apro capitique suo imposuit. [8] Tum Trimalchio rursus adiecit: «non negabitis me» inquit «habere Liberum patrem. Laudavimus dictum [Trimalchionis] et circumeuntem puerum sane perbasiamus ».267 In this passage, the ambiguity of non negabitis me habere Liberum patrem can be understood only by assuming an intonation, which would highlight the word Liberum with appropriate pauses. In fact, it is both the adjective of patrem, with reference to Trimalchio as ingenuus, and the appellative of the Italic Dionysus Pater, whose figure is drawn from the action: the freedman has just freed his slave, Dionysus, who was miming the different epithets of the god (Bromius, Lyaeus, Euhius) (Gaide 1993 251-253). Extralinguistic level Also the non-verbal communication is governed by a sort of ―grammar of acts‖, which should be observed. The following example concerns the use of clothes: [32,2] Pallio enim coccineo adrasum excluserat caput circaque oneratas veste cervices laticlaviam immiserat mappam fimbriis hinc atque illinc pendentibus. [3] Habebat etiam in minimo digito sinistrae manus anulum grandem subauratum, extremo vero articulo digiti sequentis minorem, ut mihi videbatur, totum aureum, sed plane ferreis veluti stellis ferruminatum. [4] Et ne has tantum ostenderet divitias, dextrum nudavit lacertum armilla aurea cultum et eboreo circulo lamina splendente conexo. 268 Thus Trimalchio introduces himself to his guests, when he is entering for the first time in his triclinium: he wears gaudy clothes and some jewels, exhibited to show his wealth. Indeed, all the freedmen believe that richness is the main way to be admitted to the upper classes. Trimalchio reveals he knows the rules to use those objects: instead of the golden ring on the ring finger of his left hand, which he could not use, because it was distinctive of the knights, he wears surrogates with the same value. He finds gimmicks to mask his diversity, like the enormous gilt ring on the little finger, the precious bracelet and the little ring against the evil eye on the ring finger. Semiotic-cultural level [71,12] «[…]‖C. Pompeius Trimalchio Maecenatianus hic requiescit‖ […]».269 267 [Trimalchio turned round at the noise and said, «Dionysus, rise and be free». The boy took the cap of freedom off the boar, and put it on his head. Then Trimalchio went on: «I am sure you will agree that the god of liberation is my father». We applauded Trimalchio‘s phrase, and kissed the boy heartily as he went round]. 268 [His head was shaven and peered out of a scarlet cloack, and over the heavy clothes on his neck he had put on a napkin with a broad strip and fringes hanging from it all round. On the little finger of his left hand he had an enormous gilt ring, and on the top joint of the next finger a smaller ring which appeared to me to be entirely gold, but was really set all round with iron cut out in little stars. Not content with this display of wealth, he bared his right arm, where a golden bracelet shone, and an ivory bangle clasped with a plate of bright metal]. 269 [―Here lieth Caius Pompeius Trimalchio, freedman of Maecenas‖]. 801 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this part, Trimalchio is giving the instructions for his testament, tomb and epigraph, and he is using a rather high-flown language, because of the importance of these things in Roman society, according to Magnani (19972) 138. The sentence provided above is the actual inscriptio, which should have been engraved on his tomb and it aims to be perfectly appropriate to the socio-cultural background. He takes on the tria nomina, which from Caesar‘s age identified the Romans free citizens, but he adds a second famous cognomen to increase the feeling of nobility and greatness, betraying the expectations. Also the entire inscription meets the same goals: it is traditionally included in an architectural structure with a figurative element, it remembers Trimalchio‘s office of sevir in absentia and his Roman values of pietas, fortitudo and fidelitas. At the end, it presents the address to the viator, so that the dead will live in his memory. Textual level A text must respect the seven standards of textuality to be correct. According to De Beaugrande – Dessler (1984), those are cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality. If one or more of them fail, the communication can be compromised. This happens several times during the Cena, as the following example shows. [59,3] […] Mox silentio facto «scitis» inquit «quam fabulam agant? Diomedes et Ganymedes duo fratres fuerunt. [4] Horum soror erat Helena. Agamemnon illam rapuit et Dianae cervam subiecit. Ita nunc Homeros dicit quemadmodum inter se pugnent Troiani et Tarentini. [5] Vicit scilicet et Iphigeniam, filiam suam, Achilli dedit uxorem. Ob eam rem Aiax insanit et statim argumentum explicabit». 270 Trimalchio‘s speech is clearly cohesive, coherent, informative and it has a situational relevance, because he is translating the lines of Homeristae Graecis. His intent is also proper, because he wants to compare the mythic Ajax with the chef Ajax, who soon after will slice a boiled calf. But it fail in acceptability and intertextuality, because the recipients have a more correct cultural heritage and they will find incomprehensible deformations of the mythical tradition. Metalinguistic level There are two moments in which the freedmen make some remarks about their language, opposed to the Latin of the educated characters, and in both of them they feel the same sense of inferiority. However, the reactions are different: [46,1] «Videris mihi, Agamemnon, dicere: ―quid iste argutat molestus?‖. Quia tu, qui potes loquere, non loquis. Non es nostrae fasciae, et ideo pauperorum verba derides. Scimus te prae litteras fatuum esse […]».271 Against the rhetorician Agamemnon, Echion admits to speak incorrectly (as the active form of loquor and argutor, the change of pauperorum from the third to the second declension and prae with accusative show), but this perception lead him to attempt a classical Latin learning. Later, indeed, his aggression is attenuated and his tongue tries again to imitate them, qui possunt loqueri, to be part of their group. Niceros, on the contrary, refuses to stand against the educated characters and tells them a popular folktale, with a lower-class Latin: [61,4] «[…] Itaque hilaria mera sint, etsi timeo istos scholasticos, ne me [de]rideant. Viderint: narrabo tamen; quid enim mihi aufert qui ridet? Satius est rideri quam derideri».272 Conclusions 270 [Soon there was silence, and then he said, «you know the story they are doing? Diomede and Ganymede were two brothers. Helen was their sister. Agamemnon carried her off and took in Diana by sacrificing a deer to her instead. So Homer is now telling the tale of the war between Troy and Parentium. Of course he won and married his daughter Iphigenia to Achilles. That drove Ajax mad, and he will show you the story in a minute»]. 271 [«Now, Agamemnon, you look as if you were saying, ―what is this bore chattering for?‖. Only because you have the gift of tongues and do not speak. You do not come off our shelf, and so you make fun of the way we poor men talk. We know you are mad with much learning»]. 272 [«Well, it shall be pure fun then, though I am afraid your clever friends will laugh at me. Still, let them; I will tell my story; what harm does a man‘s laugh do me? Being laughed at is more satisfactory than being sneered at»]. 802 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This work is intended as a further example of the fruitful dialogue between classicism and the present. In fact, according to the modern sociolinguistic and cognitive studies, we can analyze the language shift of the Ancient together with the contemporary World in the process of social integration. The former studies 273 prove that the mechanisms are the same over time, the latter that they are universal, regardless of the language. As the analysis of the text shows, on one hand the language of the freedmen can be interpreted as an interlanguage which tends to the upper-class Latin but contains a lot of errors due to the interference mechanism and to the creativity of the speakers. On the other hand, their attempt to integrate themselves shows evergreen rules: outcast people try to imitate every kind of feature of the governing class in order to emancipate themselves, but they end up exaggerating or damaging them. Their communicative acts often mark the difference and reveal what they want to hide. However, their perceptions, their aims and their motivations can improve the outcome. According to this view, a good use of language still plays a decisive role. 273 See Giacalone Ramat (2000) 60 in her consideration about William Labov‘s statement ―use the present to explain the past‖. 803 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Adams, J.N. (2003), Bilingualism and the latin language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Alfôldy G. (1987), Storia sociale dell‘antica Roma, Bologna: il Mulino. Astori, D. (2007-2008), Sulle antinomie di ‗incipit‘… ovvero, del potere dell‘analogia, in La torre di Babele. Rivista di letteratura e linguistica 5, Parma: MUP Editore, 115-120. Auerbach, E. (1956), Mimesis. Il realismo nella letteratura occidentale, Torino: Einaudi, 30-57. Banfi, E. (1991), Alloglotti in Roma imperiale: per una definizione della storia linguistica del latino come L2, in F. Aspesi – M. Negri (a cura di), Studia linguistica amico et magistro oblata. Scritti di amici e allievi dedicati alla memoria di Enzo Evangelisti, Milano: Edizioni Unicopli, 1991, 79-105. Boyce, B. (1991), The Language of the freedmen in Petronius‘ Cena Trimalchionis, Leiden - New York – Kôln: E. J. Brill. Cavalca, M. G. (2001), I grecismi nel Satyricon di Petronio, Bologna: Pàtron Editore. Ciaffi, V. (1955), Intermezzo nella Cena petroniana (41,10-46,8), in Rivista di Filologia classica 33, 113-145. De Beaugrande, R.A. – Dressler, W.U. (1984), Introduzione alla linguistica testuale, Bologna: il Mulino. Freddi, G. (1979), Didattica delle lingue moderne, Bergamo: Minerva Italica. Freddi, G. (1994), Glottodidattica. Fondamenti, metodi e tecniche,Torino: UTET. Freddi, G. (1999), Psicolinguistica, sociolinguistica, glottodidattica. La formazione di base dell‘insegnate di lingue e di lettere, Torino: UTET. Gaide, F. (1993), L‘ambiguïté linguistique dans la Cena Trimalchionis: de la grammaire antique a l‘intuition du sens pragmatique?, in Revue de philologie, de littérature et d‘histoire anciennes 67, 251-256. Giacalone Ramat, A. (2000), Mutamento linguistico e fattori sociali: riflessioni tra presente e passato, in P. Cipriano – R. D‘Avino – P. Di Giovine (a cura di), Sociolinguistica e linguistica storica, Atti del convegno della società italiana di Glottologia, Roma: Il Calamo, 45-78. Heller, M. (1995), Code-switching and the politics of language, in L. Milroy – P. Muysken, One speaker, two languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 158-174. Heseltine, M. (1913), Petronius, with an English translation by Michael Heseltine, Loeb Classical Library, London: Heinemann. Hofmann, J.B. (19852), La lingua d‘uso latina, introduzione, traduzione italiana e note a cura di L. Ricottili, Bologna: Pàtron Editore. Magnani, L. (19972), Paura della morte, angoscia della vita di gente comune in Petronio, in N. Criniti (a cura di), Gli affanni del vivere e del morire. Schiavi, soldati, donne, bambini nella Roma imperiale, Brescia: Grafo, 131-149. Mùller, K. (19954), Petronii Arbitri Satyricon reliquiae, edited by K. Mùller, Stuttgart-Leipzig: Teubner. Petersmann, H. (2000), La latinizzazione dell‘Italia meridionale e il Satyricon di Petronio, in J. Herman – A. Marinetti (a cura di), La presistoria dell‘italiano, Atti della tavola rotonda di linguistica storica (Università Ca‘ Foscari di Venezia 11-13 giugno 1998), Tùbingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 81-92. Priuli, S. (1975), Ascyltus. Note di onomastica petroniana, Collection Latomus 140, Bruxelles: Latomus. 804 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 117 Title A name given to the resource The role of language in the process of social integration: from the ancient Cena Trimalchionis to the contemporary world. Author Author Galaverna, Maria Elena Abstract A summary of the resource. The Ancient World melting pot is not so different from the globalized contemporary society, in which various people and languages are constantly meeting each others. In particular, language still plays a leading part in the process of social redemption, integration and cultural identity formation. This fact provides us a prominent opportunity to compare these two backgrounds, noticing how the hic et nunc could help explaining the past, which, in turn, could improve our analysis of the present. The proposed contribution intends to apply some of the most known linguistic models on a Latin literary text, the famous Cena Trimalchionis in Petronius‘ Satyricon, in order to investigate its sociolinguistics implications. This system can frame a further understanding of the passage, which gives back the possibility to outline some evergreen rules about the relationship between the governing and the emerging class. As the Cena shows, freedmen, who accorded a high prestige to Latin, aimed to imitate it; yet, they were at the same time also bound to their mother tongue. Their linguistic choices reveal both their wishes and their limits. According to this view, a good use of language, with the consequent sense of being member of a group, granted – and still grants nowadays – a privilege path towards emancipation to foreigners and lower classes. This presentation aims to give some examples on the different levels of communication. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92cc31b7cdbfa5f09951d30d6276b155.pdf 3691579f0f79871c7dfdcec87f791f89 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Infringements, syntactic transgressions and disturbances: for a linguistic analysis based on a frequential study of communicative will in Vittorio Sereni's poetry. Luca Gatti Università degli Studi di Parma, Italia luca.gatti3@studenti.unipr.it Abstract: The frequency's applied linguistics to the study of corpora - already found in classical tradition - can offer itself as an ancillary tool to stylistic interpretation and con-tent production of a literary author. The proposed contribution intends to "escape" from literary critics: the frequency study of certain language particles applied to a digitized corpus allows to dig deep in the non-grammaticality of Vittorio Sereni, a twentieth-cen-tury's major Italian poet, discovering how an "other reading" could open up meanings that were broken by a "grammatically correct" reading: in other words, from the signifier to the signified. A systematic study of displacements may open new ways of interpreta-tions of defined poetic corpora. Relying on the modern concept of the textual uncon-scious, we discovered in phenomena such as agglutination, adverbial accumulation or syntactic displacements an evidence of painful entropy, not otherwise expressible. Sum-ma of these "unintentional poetics" is the astonishing little poem Un posto di vacanza. The proposed analysis' model is exportable to any other author, in the same way, with the same aims and results. Key Words: applied linguistics, particles' dislocation, textual inconscious, communicati-ve will, frequential study of corpora. Introduction The following study has essentially a psycho-linguistic and communicative approach: it aims to be a new rea-ding to a deeper and more aware access to Sereni's poetics. Like virgilian tibicines, in Sereni it is possible to notice "speaking spies" in language subtending an inner silence. The forcing of language is more justifiable if it is seen as a weaker possession: when a poet goes beyond the straight rules it marks a signal. We will try to fathom the inner forces that led to those "outgrowth" of language, but without escaping from the text-matter understanding and his communica-tive will. (Plat. Crat. 387b; Saussure 1922; Titone 1973: 5-18, 1988; Cigada-Rigotti 2000: 15-6). Inside the problematic relationship between syntax, semantics and logic, we will try - wherever possible - to assess how a change in syntax can alter the range of meanings and vice versa (Chomsky 1955: 36, 2002; Alinei: 1974 202-3, Pennisi-Perconti 2006: 124). Without claiming any ultimate solution, we will attempt to explore the text with a sort of carotaggio linguistico ("language drill", Vedovelli 1999), also to emphasize the ancillary function of linguistics and its possible contribution to the mare magnum of literary criticism. To return ab ovo, the existence of Sereni's trasgressions is clearly peculiar as well as the aesthetic pleasure of poetry is only preliminary in nature, while the real enjoyment is the tensions' liberation in mind (Musatti 1970: 199-200): a discrepancy is similar to a lapsus, or a failure to act, or a deviation, in a "scraped hypotext" (which bears but makes patent the forcing) that is not a field of words alone, but must give an account of facts (Barbieri 2007 40, Musatti 1970: 80, Astori 2009: 195). Methodological note The analysis is based on the study of Sereni's complete poetic works as a linguistic corpus: in this regard it has been carried out a preliminary scan of the digitized works (Frontiera, Diario d'Algeria, Strumenti umani, Stella variabi-le) to obtain a complex of texts amenable to frequency's studies, position's research within the verse, iuncturae, etc. Theoretical hypothesis 765 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In Sereni's poetry, in general, the displacement of some parts of the speech from the standard position would seem to show a distorted grammar, most often because the syntactic movement must come to a dead-end and could not go beyond, to compel a further recovery. The additions to the final position, almost in the form of particles' re-opening, can lead to a violence that might affect the passage's meaning in semantic area: the loss due to rules' infringments must be recovered elsewhere. We will give a short essay of the most important observed phenomena, beginning with the ana-lysis of certain particles (adverbs, etc.) and their position (and movement) within the sentence. Vittorio Sereni's short biography Sereni was born in Luino, near the swiss border, in 1913. His family moved to Brescia in 1924 and to Milano in 1932. He graduated in Italian literature in 1936, with a thesis threating Guido Gozzano. In 1941 composed Frontiera. Called to arms, became a prisoner in Algerian and Moroccan camps. From this experience he took inspiration for a later book of poetry, Diario d'Algeria, published in 1947. In 1952 he joined the Pirelli company and has been Mondadory's literary director from 1958 until his dead, occurred in 1983. In 1965 he published Gli strumenti umani; his last collection entitled Stella variabile appeared in 1981. Sereni also traslated into Italian many works of - among others - Pierre Corneille, Paul Valéry, William Carlos Williams, and René Char. Particles' analisys Più ("more") In Sereni's poetic work there are 142 occurrences of più. We found some criteria for classification, established in five basic positions within the verse: initial (I), post-initial (PI), central (C), pre-final (PF) and final (F). The fi-nal scheme (8 I; 21 PI; 62 C; 33 PF; 15 F), put into a mathematical system, leads to an end-shifted Gaussian curve. Un posto di vacanza acts as center of attraction to the violence inflicted upon the syntax. In "Vittoriovoyeur"'s narrative climax ("surviving voyeur", Un posto di vacanza V 22-23) the displaced particle più underlines a forced closure. Here is the passage (see also Matthew 4,9): "Tutto questo," dice la donna, "ti darò se prosternandoti mi adorerai". Ma l'uomo, ímpari al sogno e alla sopraffazione si disanima presto, non li solleva una musica pi÷. Un posto di vacanza III 11-12. The last fragment of hendecasyllable in a generative-transformational approach (Chomsky 1988; CigadaRi-gotti 2004: 277) emerges thus formed: [F non [SA li [SV solleva t_li [SN una musica]]] pi÷] In SVO languages the stylistic zero degree should be una musica non li solleva più ("a music does not lift them anymore"), where the distance between più and non (logically related) is justified by the lack of the alienating co-pula subject-più; or possibly, with the subject located at the bottom, non li solleva più una musica. We can see how a shift of particles from the standard position (attached to the verbal predicate) may affect grammaticality: the syntactic movement must stop and cannot go further, forcing a re-opening. An addition of the final displaced particle brings to a violence that might even, in extreme cases, affect the meaning, both in logics and semantics. Noteworthy is the presence of the tied-pronoun li ("them") in the sentence, which does not logically agree: it could refer to l'uomo ("the man"), but we would have a discrepancy in numbers. In fact it refers to i due che vanno lungo il fiume azzurri e bianchi ("The two who go along the river, blue and white", ibid. 1). It manifests itself as a logic ellissi: we may postulate (to keep pro-noun's signifiance) that deep subjects in Sereni can cross borders, as eternal ghostly presences. We will broaden its scope to the context. The movement is not stopped to the period, but continues in another strongly ungrammatical sentence, where the reversal of the standard sequence verb-participle is a strong evidence of syntactic entropy: E quasi niuna di queste cose stata fosse, torna lei quello che stata era: un'ombra del sangue e della mente e verso la marina 766 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in picciola ora si dileguarono. Un posto di vacanza III 12-17. The inconsistency in logics and semantics in a text is often a sign of uneasely approach to some author's men-tal contents (Barbieri 2007: 77). On the other hand, we note how the parts in italics (the author himself confirmed Boc-caccio's ownership, Sereni 1973: 33) appear to act as a protective shield to a potentially painful content (the sea theme, Un posto di vacanza I 15-6). Two author's sides are in internal conflict: facts and worthtelling. It is thus possible to no-tice a discrepancy in language (the "irriducibility" of the arcaisms niuna, "none", and picciola, "little") and the conse-quencial stressed syntactic developement (torna lei quello che stato era, "comes back she what been had"). The pro-blem reaches a deep complexity, as Sereni himself warns us that "can be a good simulator" (as "banks' imploring", Un posto di vacanza IV 28-29). Già ("yet", "already") E gli altri allora - mi legge nel pensiero quegli altri carponi fuori da Stalingrado mummie di già soldati dentro quel sole di sciagura fermo sui loro anni aquilonari... dopo tanti anni non è la stessa cosa? Nel vero anno zero 12-17. In this text già is deeply-grammaticalized as an adjective which strictly precedes the noun, like a temporal at-tribute. The particle, placed in genitive, loses grammaticalization (as in a magnetic field) and points to the other sub-stantive from which could receive any sense (mummie, "mummies"). It seems that Sereni perceives già as an annexion parcel to deeper meaning of soldati ("soldiers"), an adjectival past participle ([as]soldare, "engage"). The arisen link marks the elliptical nature of the verse (see also La speranza 26) and has some affinity with the highly viable type "ex - ..." (at least, Ouaknin 2004). Già is sometimes marked by a distinct temporal alogics: C'erano tutti, o quasi, i volti della mia vita compresi quelli degli andati via e altri che già erano in vista lí, a due passi dal confine non ancora nei paraggi della morte. La speranza 25-29. The christian già e non ancora ("yet and not already") is not logically contraddicted (as we are in a-logics): it is the scandal of our existence in this world and not in the other yet. The sea theme (see also Lavori in corso III 3-8) is a key (Un posto di vacanza I 1-8) to the inner and inconscious Sereni's poetics as an ever-unfinished work (see Lavori in corso). e vinto il naturale spavento ecco anche me dalla parte del mare fare con lui tutt'uno senza zavorra o schermo di parole, fendere il poco di oro che rimane sulle piccole isole postume al giorno tra le scogliere in ombra già: ancora un poco, ed è daccapo il nero. Un posto di vacanza II 62-69. The emotional and narrative turning poing is underlined by a strongly marked già: the poet is leaving behind the river-sea limbo (nel punto, per l'esattezza, dove un fiume entra nel mare, "in the point, to be exact, where a river goes into the sea, ibid. I 11) to indulge in an other-nature, leaving the "words" for "things" (chissà che di lí traguardan-do non si allacci nome a cosa, "who knows that thence goaling name would not tie to thing", ibid. I 22); the disconti-nuation is abrupt and forced, the closure is a "syntactic slap", the inversion acts on the standard perceived position: sig-nifier and signified are both damaged. In fact, as the poet states, ancora un poco, ed è daccapo il nero ("a few more, and the dark over again"). 767 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo There are other similar cases, linked by deep movements. Here is a significant one: Mi hai tolto l'aculeo, non il suo fuoco - sospiro abbandonandomi a lei in sogno con lei precipitando già. La malattia dell'olmo 29-31. La malattia dell'olmo is a central poetry of the memory-life system: it contains, inter alia, the verse that gives a title to the collection (guidami tu, stella variabile, finché puoi..., "lead me, variable star, till you can..." v. 11), a prayer that reveals the difficult relationship between life and artistic inspiration. Memory is a "never satisfied" (ibid. 25) "an-noying thorn" (ibid. 23). In her last drop we find a double reference (a lei, "to her", con lei, "with her", ibid. 30-31) in a climax bringing to an unfinishining and everlasting ictus. The hendecasyllable rythm is abruptly broken by the mono-syllabic clause, which leaves us with the evidence of an other-nature. The reversal affects the verb, a verb of unfinished aspect (precipitando, "crashing") that reveals his nominal kernel. The last two verses are supported by a structural rein-forcement of the speech by a figure of repetition (a lei, con lei), which helps to reduce the unpredictability and stabilize the experience built up through the words (Barbier 2007: 65). The syntactic structure of the sentence does not allow too many variations in particles "wandering". In Giovanna e i Beatles the diffraction effect is pushed into a strong a-grammaticality (like the famous ibis redibis non morieris in bello): Passato col loro il suo momento già? Giovanna e i Beatles 9. The verse is a clear separation between two parts: the first one recalls a listening of The Beatles (ibid. 7-8), the second one spreads out a peculiar concept, distinctive in Sereni, of musica diabolus in memoria (Un posto di vacanza II 21-23, A Vittorio Sereni 7, Sereni 1981). The climax is achieved by a syntactic inversion in the two final lines (Giovan-na e i Beatles 16-17), with the subject at the bottom interspersed with extraneous elements. The sentence lacks of a main verb, as well as già seems to substitute itself to the verb to be ("passed with theris his moment yet?"). The position of già within the verse in Frontiera, Diario d'Algeria and Gli strumenti umani (5 I, 6 PI, 13 C, 9 PF, 1 F) will be gravitationally attracted to the end in Stella variabile (2 I, 2 PI, 3 C, 0 PF, 7 F). Now we can truly un-derstand this particle's deep nature in Sereni's last collection: 4 of 5 reversals even go to coincide with già's final solu-tion. In some areas the general perception of grammaticality is clear and solid, in other ones there is "evidence of obscurity": where we find the diffraction phenomenon (Brambilla Ageno 1984: 112-3) with varied and inconclusive solutions there is always an inner difficulty. The last closure In Sereni we find a never ending search for a last closure: Pensare cosa può essere - voi che fate lamenti dal cuore delle città sulle città senza cuore cosa può essere un uomo in un paese, sotto il pennino dello scriba una pagina frusciante e dopo dentro una polvere di archivi nulla nessuno in nessun luogo mai. Intervista a un suicida 56-64. The game of chiastic tautology (now a negative sense of bitter absence) will be resumed in Un posto di vacan-za I 1-2, always correlated with inner turmoil. It is possible to see a repetition-formed climax (cosa può essere, "what can be", Intervista a un suicida 60), spaced in a chiastic structure that iterates the trend almost 768 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bombastic, declamory, suddendly chocked: e dopo ("and then", ibid. 62) is a verse made up mostly of silences. These devices are the prelude to the four-fold iteration of vacuum's theme in the final line: it is the ontological impossibility of things and man, both in space and time ("nothing nobody nowhere never"). Both forms of iteration an storage require a serial structure and rhythm that enforce in order to alleviate the de-stabilizing force of its contents (Barbieri 2007: 66): in Sereni the structural bank of language is always a shape of defen-se in particularly sensitive issues. Mai la pagina bianca o meno per sé sola invoglia tanto meno qui tra fiume e mare. Nel punto, per l'esattezza, dove un fiume entra nel mare. Un posto di vacanza I 9-11. Once again the accumulation of "negative agents" is accompanied by a syntactic entropy ("never the blank page or less for itself alone invites / neverless here between river and sea") bringing to the possibly most tragic verse of the little poem, if the "thing" is now collpased into the sea, (ibid. 8), in a more-leveled day of high tide (ibid. 1). Lì ("there") The famous Adriano's verses (Hohl 1971) are a faraway echo for a particular Sereni's locution (Conte 1974: 46): Amò, semmai servissero al disegno, quei transitanti un attimo come persone vive e intanto sull'omissione il mancamento il vuoto che si pose tra i dileguati e la sogguardante la farfugliante animula lí crebbe il mare, si smerigliò il cristallo. Un posto di vacanza IV 9-15. The comprension is strongly compromised, as well as the discontinuity point acts on border of an enjambment. The particle lí is put at the bottom but next verse-related ("among the disappeared and the glancing the / gibbering soul-ly there / grew the sea, the crystal ground"). The monosyllabic clause-solution is once again the clue for a sudden down-fall: as we surrender to sea, we lose our nature and we stop being river. The displaced and strongly marked particle lí comes again: C'erano tutti, o quasi, i volti della mia vita compresi quelli degli andati via e altri che già erano in vista lí, a due passi dal confine non ancora nei paraggi della morte. La speranza 25-29. The poetry talks about the unbearable burden of memory, which, going beyond, imprints herself to everything, even to the not-belonged: nebolous faces begin to speak as dead presences, or as "almost gone away" ones. The particle lí is on the edge, on the limit between life and death, just postponed to the enjambment, underlining the closeness to the irreversible step ("and others that were facing yet / there, a stone's throw from the border / not yet in death's neightbor-hood"). Sereni's translations Another contribute to this research may come from a study of Sereni's translations (Sereni 1981). His introduc-tive words have for us a psychological and exegetical value: Tradurre non è mai stato per me un esercizio. Qualche volta una fatica, pi÷ spes-so un piacere. Dell'esercizio ha avuto sempre qualche effetto benefico a cose fat-te, dico in senso prevalentemente psicologico. È un lavoro rasserenante, esenta dallo sgomento della famigerata pagina bianca, che in tali circostanze si apre in-vece come un invito, magari sottilmente provocante: il pi÷ è fatto da un altro, può essere affrontato anche a freddo ben sapendo che 769 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in breve il calore verrà. Un nume che ci osservava dall'alto diventa via via un ospite silenzioso ma disponibi-le e incoraggiante. Premessa VIII It is thus possible resuming with the introduction's statement: the pleasure the poet is talking about ("I always had some benefits after the fact, I mean in a mainly psychological sense") reminds us the freudian description of ars poetica's genetic processes (Musatti 1970: 199). Not by chance we find the white page's reference (Barberi 2007: 108, Sogno 6), in the iterated Fortini's verse: Sereni esile mito filo di fedeltà non sempre giovinezza è verità ......... Strappalo quel foglio bianco che tieni in mano. Un posto di vacanza I 12-14. By Sereni's words: Esiste poi, o almeno è esistito per me, un momento ulteriore nel quale non si tra-duce pi÷, semplicemente, un testo, bensí si traduce l'eco, la ripercussione che quel testo ha avuto in noi. [...] C'è di pi÷. Tra le traduzioni in cui mi sono impe-gnato molte se non tutte hanno corrisposto a precisi momenti della mia esistenza, li hanno accompagnati come può farlo un motivo musicale, abbastanza perchè il mio ricordo ne porti il tono, l'accento e il colore. E non è strano che tale aspetto risulti pi÷ durevole rispetto alla memoria di quanto si è scritto in proprio perchè la coscienza di quanto si è scritto in proprio è pi÷ rapidamente estinta dall'attesa di scrivere altro e dalla tensione che questo comporta. Premessa IX. The "own-writings' expectations and the tension carried by‖ remind us a primary lyric for the study of Sere-ni's production, which could be even a poetic declaration: Se ne scrivono ancora. Si pensa a essi mentendo ai trepidi occhi che ti fanno gli auguri l'ultima sera dell'anno. Se ne scrivono solo in negativo dentro un nero di anni come pagando un fastidioso debito che era vecchio di anni. No, non è pi÷ felice l'esercizio. Ridono alcuni: tu scrivevi per l'Arte. Nemmeno io volevo questo che volevo ben altro. Si fanno versi per scrollare un peso e passare al seguente. Ma c'è sempre qualche peso di troppo, non c'è mai alcun verso che basti se domani tu stesso te ne scordi. I versi. We should note in v. 11 the relative construct with an ellipses of subject, which may wrongly be linked to the object: the structure is redundant and muddled ("nether did I want this that I did want something else"). The discontinui-ty point is put, once again, in defence of potentially painful contents. In a René Char's translation the bottom-shift trend is clearly established, Qui l'entendit jamais se plaindre? Qualcuno l'ha sentita lamentarsi mai? Yvonne 1. 770 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo demostrating how Sereni's ludus of dispacement acts deeply even in translation's scope. Conclusions It seems that grammatical subversions could be considered a key to reach the ego of the poet, an access which is overwhelmed by the transition and suddenly closed, even among existential rubble. Clause dissolving: an oratian parallelism? quae prius multum facilis mouebat cardines. Audis minus et minus iam: ―Me tuo longas pereunte noctes, Lydia, dormis?‖ Odi I, 25, 5-8. Lidia is aging: in fact fewer and fewer fellows are disturbing her by knocking a door which once upon a time revolved easily on its hinges. We early arrive to a moment of maximum tension, driven by an ambigous plot: audis mi-nus et minus iam. They are the sentimental lover's words, who's complaining about his sadness in front of the closed house (Pasquali 1920: 445). This iam clause-posed is an unicum in Oratius's odes: it marks a point in flowing of words, as a shot change. From the hidden introspection, torn by iuvenes protervi (ibid. 2), to a bitter future, regrets, an dryness left by a living youth. Iam deeply merges già and più significations: from iam nunc to the resolutive and eternal più in negative sentence (Castiglioni 1996), like the famous nec iam poterat bellum differri (Liv. Hist. II, 30). Sereni's clauses may have a deep reference to the eternal and inner silence of ictus, a stylistic effect even present in Dante's giants (In-ferno XXXI 142-145, Chiavacci-Leonardi 1991). Anyway, Oratius's consonance is not limited to the bottom-related displacement: it is a way to tell a story, or better, to avoid it, especially choking any sea-reference (Un posto di vacanza I 31, 37-9, II 11-2; Pantarei 1967: 51-2; Barbieri 2007: 132-3). We may find some analogies between Un posto di vacanza and Oratius's (I,9) construction. Vides ut alta stet candidum Soracte nec iam sustineant onus silvae laborantes geluque flumina constiterint acuto? Dissolve frigus ligna super foco large reponens atque benignius deprome quadrimum Sabina, o Thaliarche, merum diota. ibid. 1-8. The inside-outside juxtapposition is a clear shutdown to inner contents. Oratius's psychological clause is thus present when going further is not possible anymore and it is necessary to talk about something else. The correlations keep on 9-16, where the glance skips from divinity to the inner and forthcoming (carpe diem in I, 11, 8). The poet does not name himself senex (yet in canieties... morosa, ibid. 16-7) and focuses his friend's youth, called puer (ibid. 15): in-stead of expressing directly a painful concet, a protective "verbal pillow" decreases the negative impact of that idea, event, or memory (Barbieri 2007 66). The climax is thus never achieved, as it is deviated to a small object, like a pointless appea-rance (pignusque dereptum lacertis, ibid. 22). In Sereni's little poem, the ludus of psychological enclosurers opening other issues appears in maximum ten-sion's moments, as the poet would seem to "tell the story": Chissà che di lí traguardando non si allacci nome a cosa ... (la poesia sul posto di vacanza). Un posto di vacanza I 22-23. But the closure is peremptory (non scriverò questa storia, ―I will not write this story‖, ibid. 27), and an other-talking is only left (ma uno di sinistra / di autentica sinistra (mi sorprendevo a domandarmi) / come ci sta come ci vive al mare?, ―but a left-winged / a truly left-winged (I caught myself wondering) / how does he feel on the seaside?‖, ibid. 34-36), even distorting story's time (anno: il '51. Tempo del mondo: la Corea, "year: '51. World's 771 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo time: Korea‖, ibid. 38; qua sopra c'era la linea, l'estrema linea della Gotica, ―here was the line, the extreme Gothic line‖, ibid. 49). Accompanying a disruptive moment (Un posto di vacanza III 12) and his ungrammatical consequence (ibid. 13-8), the psychological clause arises: è il teatro di sempre, è la guerra di sempre ("it is the ever-theatre, it is the ever-war", ibid. 19). Through 'displacements' and 'scraped hypotext' Sereni's displacements seem to be an ―other pulsation's clue‖, in the difficult but necessary balance between ego and what you want tell about yourself. As we all are good story-tellers (Bariberi 2007: 13), Sereni, besides being a "good simulator‖, ―will not tell this story‖: in this impossibility, always sublimely touched till the breaking up, seems to be the first unhinging engine, which acts stronger as stronger the unconscious and mystifying will is. This wants to prove how behind a morphosyntactic structure much more can be hidden: where a normative reading would be silent, the awareness carried by the disrupted sentence let us foresee beyond the erasures a clear and unequivocal communica-tive will. The displacements are thus the superficial morphology of deep processes. To conclude will be proposed, without any further comment, a Sereni's autobiographical note to Un posto di vacanza (Isella 2000: 782-3), as our last proof of "textual unconsciousness", (which bears but makes patent the forcing) that is not a field of words alone, but gives an account of facts. Chissà poi se all'indeterminatezza temporale delle parti successive non sia da ripor-tare l'appunto che una lettura sociologica, anzi, ecologica, potrebbe muovere a questi versi: la quasi totale ignoranza in essi dello stato di inquinamento di acque e coste, non risarcita dalla tardiva e forse troppo poco perspicua resipiscenza del penultimo rigo di pag. 25. Mi toccherebbe in tal caso, senza tuttavia illudermi di trovare grazia per questo, obiettare l'atemporalità del lontano movente o, se pi÷ piace, dell'origine emotiva: cioè del primo incontro con un oggetto a noi esterno, luogo o figura che sia, e della velleità competitiva (―la sfida‖) che ne risulta e che avrà poi una sua sto-ria, in qualche modo condizionata sempre da quando lo sguardo aveva creduto di co-gliere quella prima volta magari, nel caso specifico, del tutto a monte di ogni pre-occupazione ecologica. Che è quanto accade, non di rado, persino nei rapporti con le persone. References Alinei, M. (1974), La struttura del lessico, Bologna: Il Mulino. Astori, D. (2009), rec. to Barbieri 2007, in Poetiche 1 (2009), 195-201. 772 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Astori, D. (2010), ―Tradurre l'ineffabile‖, in M. Biasiolo, Olga Gogala di Leesthal, Bologna: CLUEB, 151-66. Baldini, M. (1990), Il linguaggio dei mistici, Brescia: Queriniana. Barbieri, G.L. (2007), Tra testo e inconscio. Milano: FrancoAngeli 2007. Bellinelli, E. (1967), Vent'anni del Premio letterario "Libera Stampa". Lugano: Pantarei. Brambilla-Ageno, F. (1984), L'edizione critica nei testi volgari, Padova: Antenore. Branca, V. (1992), Decameron, Torino: Einaudi. Castiglioni, L. & Mariotti, S. (1996), Vocabolario della lingua latina, Torino: Loescher. Chiavacci-Leonardi, A.M. (1991), La commedia, Milano: Mondadori. Chomsky, N. (1955), ―Logical syntax and semantics‖, in Language, XXXI 1 36-45. Chomsky, N. (1988), Language and problems of knowledge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Chomsky, N. (2002), Syntactic Structures, Berlin-New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Cigada, S. & Rigotti, E. (2004), La Comunicazione verbale, Milano: Apogeo. Conte, G.B. (1974), Memoria dei poeti e sistema letterario, Torino: Einaudi. Hohl, E. (1971), Scriptores historiae augustae, Leipzig: Teubener. Isella, D. (2000), Sereni. Poesie, Milano: Mondadori. Liggio, F. (2007), La ―preghiera‖. Azione espressiva di residuo atavico nella specie umana, Foggia: Bastogi. Moroni, G. (1995), Appunti di ritmica e metrica: in margine a una trascurata teoria musicale del ritmo poetico, Bolo-gna: CLUEB. Musatti, C.L. (1970), Freud. Con antologia freudiana, Torino: Boringhieri. Ouaknin, M.A. & Rotnemer, D. (2004), Cosí giovane e già ebreo, Casale Monferrato: Piemme. Pasquali, G. (1920), Orazio Lirico, Firenze: Le Monnier. Pennisi, A. & Perconti, P. (2006), Le scienze cognitive del linguaggio, Bologna: Il Mulino. Rabearivelo J. J (2006)., Presque songes, Saint-Maur-des-Fossés: Sépia. Reale, G. (1991), Platone. Tutti gli scritti, Milano: Rusconi. Saussure, F. (1992), Cours de linguistique générale, Paris: Payot. Sereni, V. (1973), Un posto di vacanza, Milano: All'insegna del pesce d'oro. Sereni V. (1981), Il musicante di Saint-Merry, Torino: Einaudi. Titone, R. (1973), ―A Psycholinguistic Definition of 'the Glossodynamic Model' ‖ in R.I.L.A V 1 5-18. Titone, R. (1988), Il linguaggio nella interazione didattica Roma: Bulzoni. Vedovelli, M. (1999), Indagini sociolinguistiche nella scuola e nella società italiana in evoluzione Milano: FrancoAn-geli. 773 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 113 Title A name given to the resource Infringements, syntactic transgressions and disturbances: for a linguistic analysis based on a frequential study of communicative will in Vittorio Sereni's poetry. Author Author Gatti, Luca Abstract A summary of the resource. The frequency's applied linguistics to the study of corpora - already found in classical tradition - can offer itself as an ancillary tool to stylistic interpretation and con-tent production of a literary author. The proposed contribution intends to "escape" from literary critics: the frequency study of certain language particles applied to a digitized corpus allows to dig deep in the non-grammaticality of Vittorio Sereni, a twentieth-cen-tury's major Italian poet, discovering how an "other reading" could open up meanings that were broken by a "grammatically correct" reading: in other words, from the signifier to the signified. A systematic study of displacements may open new ways of interpreta-tions of defined poetic corpora. Relying on the modern concept of the textual uncon-scious, we discovered in phenomena such as agglutination, adverbial accumulation or syntactic displacements an evidence of painful entropy, not otherwise expressible. Sum-ma of these "unintentional poetics" is the astonishing little poem Un posto di vacanza. The proposed analysis' model is exportable to any other author, in the same way, with the same aims and results. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/850e878a272504af086ba73cbeff3dcd.pdf 242b20c941db7557d0ff93ddb147472b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pedagogies of the Home and International Schools: New Models for (Inter) Cultural Education? Bela Gligorova Nova Internatiponal Schools, Macedonia Bela.gligorova@nova.edu.mk Abstract: As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with this sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un-Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘?). They seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘, a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. Key words: contact zone, cultural ventriloquism, non-places, heterotopias, quiet cosmopolitan, transnational denizenship, pedagogies of the home Introduction: Constructing a cultural identity is as easy as mastering the nuances of a foreign language while travelling to the country of its origin on an eight-hour flight. Indeed, there are gifted individuals among us who are able to carry out such a feat in less than eight hours. (Fortunately or not, they are few in number.) However, for most of us, nowadays, the process of constructing our cultural ‗selves‘ is the journey of a lifetime, as we struggle to position ourselves within a cultural space that is no longer (re)presented as monolithically uniform. We constantly enter battles with our cultural heritage (who we were before we were ‗we‘ or ‗I‘) and our cultural responses (who ‗we‘ or ‗I‘ are now that we contribute to the ‗living out‘ of the said cultural legacy), since for the most part these two notions are at odds with each other. In other words, we might be born into a certain cultural group which, in turn, due to various social, political, and or religious circumstances may have distinctly reshaped and restructured its beliefs and customs, so that it strikes the outsider as non-existent in the first place. Therefore, when such individuals decide to reaffirm their cultural identity against the background of strong ties to the indigenous culture they were born into and the greater social milieu they had assimilated to (as a result of education, religious conversion, power accessibility, etc.) the outcome may prove disheartening, both to the individuals in question, and to the larger social and familial environments. As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). Cultural historian Mary Louise Pratt was the one who originally coined the term ‗contact zone‘ (which seems to have become over the years inextricably tied to the proliferation and understanding of auto/ethnographic narratives), herself searching for a descriptively dynamic way to approach the study of social and personal relations amidst the intersecting frontiers of spaces marked by colonial encounters. In her work on the relationship between travel writing and colonized historical discourse, titled Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Pratt defines the contact zone as ―the space of colonial encounters, the space in which peoples geographically and historically separated come into contact with each other and establish ongoing relations, usually involving conditions of coercion, radical inequality and intractable conflict.‖ (Pratt, 1992, 6) By choosing a denominator (‗contact‘) that is closer to linguistics than traditional historical analysis, Pratt hopes to bring into perspective the relational side to subject formation within the terrain of the colonized frontiers, therefore allowing for the production and distribution of auto/ethnographic ‗expressions‘ that are ‗heterogeneous‘ in structure, idiom and reception. While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with any sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, border-crossing, or bo(a)rdering, so to speak, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students at international schools are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un- 239 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘ in pursuit of global human agency?). Some recent scholarship might go as far as to suggest that international schools are not unlike what French scholar Michel Foucault deemed ‗heterotopias‘, or, non-hegemonically arranged spaces which operate under the condition of ‗otherness‘. (Foucault 1986) As such, their function is to join together, on the one hand, utopian perspectives, and on the other, real spaces, intellectual or physical, which in turn, stand as sites of cultural otherness, linked yet produced in opposition to cultural hegemonies. Hence, cemeteries, gardens, movies, brothels, boarding schools. And even if the daily life of individuals in one such space is controlled, according to Foucault, by the bell and not the whistle, in truth, local students at international schools in the Balkans seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘ (Augé, 1995), a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. And with that, dangerously removed from any prospect of living an integrated cultural life. In lieu of a biographical note When I graduated from the Department of English at the Faculty of Philology within the framework of the State University in Skopje, almost a decade ago, I was certain of two things: a.) I wanted to teach literary texts (no grammar, no tenses) and b.) I wished to work solely within the medium of English. With this in mind, I applied for a position at then one of a few international high schools in Macedonia, Nova High School. Having successfully completed Professor Ekaterina Babamova‘s graduation course in ELT Methodology, I felt up to the challenge: I believed I had acquired the necessary tools that would guide me on this new path. I had also, prior to enrolling at the Faculty of Philology, graduated from a US high school, on US soil, thus the added confidence. Perhaps even cockiness. In October of 2000, I was assigned two classes, nominally called English 9 Regular and English 12. The former comprised of students (sans three) who had recently graduated from state primary schools in Macedonia, whereas the latter consisted of fifteen students who were a part of the very first class of students the said high school had enrolled in September of 1997, when the school opened its doors for the first time. Oddly enough, or so it seemed, the latter group was the more culturally diverse one, not just in terms of the ethnicity pool but also in terms of citizenship. During that very same academic year, both classes allowed me to witness a few key insights about cultural instruction in English, as well as English cultural instruction. Although the 9th graders, for instance, had nearly polished syntax, their communal insights were tied to a Macedonian context; if we were going to make any progress with a Renaissance play or a contemporary American short story, I had to engage with them at a ‗local level‘. Which in turn, would ask for a comparativist method, and a good deal of popular culture immersion. Whereas, with the 12th graders, whose English grammar skills were picked up, peace-meal by peace-meal, from native speakers who taught at this school or at various other international schools abroad that these students had attended prior to transferring, the communal insights were so varied and versatile, that there seemed to be no common denominator. These ‗third culture kids‘, or better, these ‗hybrid cosmopolitans‘ could relate to everything and nothing; it all seemed too easy, or perhaps too vast. Since then, the school‘s student population, in particular the one relating to the high school division, has quadrupled; numbers aside, what has struck me, and those who have taught/teach, especially within the Language Arts Department, is the overwhelming change local students (Macedonians, Albanians, Turks, Roma) who matriculate at Nova International Schools bring with them, through distinct epistemologies and pedagogies, which allows them to stay connected locally while thinking and writing and being internationally. Again, this staggering change, which could and should be examined thoroughly through apt statistical data, based on entrance exams‘ results and interview notes, has allowed me to conceptualize, as well as further explore, the following research questions: 1. By attempting a delocalized ‗territory of culture‘ through their respective missions and objectives, do international schools in the Balkans contribute to a (re)creation of a ‗pseudo nation-state scenario‘? 2. Even so, could their products (students) legitimately question the unspoken acceptance and affirmation of culturally determined roles, imposed on Balkan individuality by various mechanisms of compliance (governmental decisions, communal practices, tradition and gossip)? 3. Yet, when all is said and done, who is to implement a newly designed cultural mythos: individuals or institutions? On that note, in September 2005, upon return from graduate school, I started a project with a group of 25 entering 9th graders (freshmen), tentatively embedded within the context of our English 9 Honors class, yet entirely for extra credit. Throughout the 4 years I spent with this group, which indeed changed in size and circumstance, guiding them towards a successful completion of an Advanced Placement (AP) English Literature and Composition class, this ‗pet project‘ of mine, became our focal point of discussion, immersion and selfassessment; in turn, giving birth to student-initiated projects, such as the one I will discuss later on in the text. 240 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗Journal Keeping‘ Project: a ‗quilted‘ way towards a reciprocal cultural methodology The histories and lives of international students, in particular local kids from multicultural milieus attending/attempting an international education setting, are not (well) represented in the local cultural policies. Since said students have optioned out, for various reasons, to attend private schools (often deemed elitist and viewed by the public as ‗the breeding grounds for snobs‘), their presence within a non-state education facility for the duration of four years, resembles, to a point, a prolonged banishment from all matters relevant to an integrated communal life. In other words, the local community does not feel responsible for their ‗cultural upkeep‘ as they no longer exist as its young offspring. To take it a step further, according to French thinker and scholar Michel Foucault, what we are facing in this case is another example of the intricate relationship(s) existing between the production of various systems of knowledge (i.e., discourses) and the production of power within a social framework. That is to say, each society exerts different rules and regulations that would ‗lawfully‘ police and discipline ‗undesired‘ discourses, thus maintaining its hold on power. Those who are considered a viable threat to the dominant discourse and its tight grip on social structures may be dismissed as ‗mad‘, ‗non-conforming‘, to say the least. Classifying non-conforming individuals as mad eases the ‗burden‘ of ‗dealing with them‘; they could be almost surgically removed from the cultural unconscious, leaving a space which is momentarily filled up by subjects that have been instructed to conform to the norms and ideals of the dominant discourse. (However, even in a ‗well-rounded‘ oppressive social framework there is a push by the marginalized ‗mad subjects‘ to re-claim/re-map this space which has been taken away from them.) To make matters worse, once these students enter the ‗hallowed halls‘ of international schools, they expect an unconditional welcome and a chance to participate and engage, fully, within a more or less, imagined international community that would not shun their choice of being there. The expectations are great, perhaps even illusionary, hence the disappointment, when it comes, hits hard. Just because a community is more versed in politically correct discourse does not mean that it is unequivocally open and forthcoming and giving, or for that matter, ready to welcome anyone unconditionally. While students at international schools in the Balkans are indeed taken care of, namely, looked upon as individuals and not mere numbers, many international schools, due to the very nature of their missions and objectives, and endowments, focus the bulk of their resources on a sad but palpable fact, which can be best summed up as ‗teaching students to be quiet cosmopolitans‘, which in turn amounts to the creation of a subculture that ironically de-personalizes education while attempting to guide and foster intellect. This dangerous practice, whether we wish to admit to it or not, does double-harm: for one, it requires of students to see themselves as empty vessels, stripped off cultural-familial, raced, or gendered knowledge of their past (Thus, in the case of local students, there is a ‗twice removed‘ emptying which takes place) (Delgado Bernal, 2002, 2006). Consequently, it convinces students that only a positivist type of knowledge (white, male, Western) can help them succeed and thus enroll, with a scholarship, at a prestigious university abroad, which is still the principal reason why most local students (and their families) make a leap of faith and apply to international schools in the first place. While I did/do understand the reality of conformity and acculturation, I wanted to find a way, through differentiated instruction, which could allow me to bequeath my students with a means that would in turn help them understand the complexities of their two communities: the home-base and the school environment; one primarily oral, the other unquestioningly written. In a sense, I see now that I was attempting a kind of auto/ethnographic self-recovery: i.e., more than a textual representation of auto-ethno-biographical modes of contact for and in multi-vocal settings. According to ethnographer Deborah E. Reed Danahay, the editor of the first (and to this day, only) anthological work that examines this hybrid form of life-writing ethnography, titled Auto/Ethnography: Rewriting the Self and the Social, ‗autoethnography‘ is a boundary-crossing practice and product, simultaneously acting out the method behind the concept; as a method and a text, the act of auto/ethnographic representing fuses ―both a postmodern ethnography, in which the realist conventions and objective observer position of standard ethnography have been called into question, and a postmodern autobiography, in which the notion of the coherent, individual self has been similarly called into question.‖ (Reed Danahay, 1997, 2) As a result, whether or not the astute literary critic or social historian decide, respectfully, to stake their claim either with the autobiographic or the ethnographic side of the hybrid-form, ‗auto/ethnography‘ thwarts conventional story-telling practices (of the ‗realist school‘) by trespassing cultural and social boundaries, thus exerting its presence in ―form of a self-narrative that places the self in a social context.‖ (9) Enter: ‗journal keeping‘. Cultural historian Pierre Nora examined the relationship that exists between historical investment and individual memory, offering a reading of ‗historical truths‘ and ‗remembered events‘ through lieux de mémoire, that is, ‗sites of memory‘ which ―originate with the sense that there is no spontaneous memory, that we must deliberately create archives, maintain anniversaries, organize celebrations, pronounce eulogies, and notarize bills 241 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo because such activities no longer occur naturally.‖ (Nora, 1989, 12) Within contemporary social practices, such ‗sites of memory‘ appear to be a necessity, a final defense against misrepresentation and unilateral polemics in epistemologies and pedagogies. As children of history and memory, lieux de mémoire, according to Nora, are unlike any previously encountered type of history, ancient or modern, since contrary to historical objects, they are without a referent in reality. However, Nora is quick to point out that this unique trait does not leave the ‗sites of memory‘ without a referent all-together; lieux de mémoire are their own referents. Namely, they constitute a double act: they are ―a site of excess closed upon itself, concentrated in its own name, but also forever open to the full range of its possible significations.‖ (24) Bearing this in mind, I wanted to attempt a sort of historical recovery filtered through the tools of feminist scholarship, hoping to show my students an example of one such ‗site of memory‘; and with that, a way out of the slums of ‗quiet cosmopolitanism‘ and into (perhaps) the alertness of ‗transnational cultural denizenship‘ (Buff, 2001). Initially conceived as an attempt to showcase the value of written discourse, while drawing on the abundance of orally transmitted knowledge my students had grown up with, I introduced the students to the storytelling method of what Lomas and Joysmith (2005) term as ‗testimonio‘: an ethnographic genre/strategy which allows the voiceless political subject – the local student – the necessary agency to account for the connections that exist between lived experience and social (education) context.31 Namely, for a semester, my 9th grade class, each Friday, worked on a reflection piece. At first, most preferred to work on their own, while with time, groups started to form. The goal in mind: to think of a way in which their own varied experiences connect them to the particular reading of the week, may it be a poem, a short story, a play or a chapter/chapters of a novel. Thus, to use the allotted class time, and write down, in the English of their choice, the said reflection. Each student had decided to ‗safe keep‘ his or her own reflection pieces in a folder, or a file, or even a notepad. There was no word limit. No passing or failing grade, and no requirement deadline for a submission. Only a hopefulness, that with time, each student may choose to share his or her own piece with someone else. At the end of the semester, I had also hoped that each student would choose a piece to place on the class‘ cork board, so that we could all part-take in a kind of ‗testimonial‘, a quilt-making record of our unhindered critical journey through a series of English texts, i.e., texts written in the English language. A few things occurred: the contact zone which this side-project carved out presented itself as the most rewarding and equally the most challenging one I had ever dwelled into. Namely, the project took on a life of its own, branching out in ways I had not anticipated or even hoped for. Freed from the burden of testing and grading, or excessive monitoring, the quality of writing students presented had created a sense of reciprocity, both in their distinctive relationship to each other, as peers and neighbours, and in their relationship to writing, speaking, listening and thinking in English, now the formative medium of their life in international education. Students started keeping personal blogs, they wrote Facebook notes, msn-ed their thoughts, frustrations, reflections, dilemmas. When the academic semester came to an end, they asked if we could continue with our ‗Friday project‘, even if it was not possible to dedicate each Friday to its unfolding. We could meet after school, on Saturdays, during breaks, they suggested. And we did. For the next four academic years, as they matriculated through the Nova Language Arts curriculum, these 25 local students (and in time 10 more ‗transfers‘), wrote about the various points of intersectionality experienced by a Balkan native when facing the trials and tribulations of education in an international school context. In turn, this empowering practice, unburdened by the weights of grades and arbitration, propelled their written discourse in ways that no class-bound, test-teaching instruction could. In a sense, their ‗testimonio‘ storytelling practice, allowed them to conceptualize the validity of lived knowledge (a Roma girl from Tetovo) as a key strategy in the process of any scholarly enquiry (racial formation in contemporary social practices). For a class, (and a grade), over the years, they did produce nuanced and thoughtfully researched papers on an array of topics, from the seemingly mundane enquiry into popular culture‘s archetypes (think: The Simpsons), all the way to high-brow assertions on the relationship between the modern novel and masculinity discourses (think: Joyce). Not to mention, the college-application essays, and the strength of their argumentation, as individuals. For themselves, and their own contact zone, which seemed to expand with time, they initiated auxiliary projects that expanded the ‗territory of culture‘ realm of the school, such as the MIR Celebrating Literacy Project, The on-line Student-Reviewed Fanzine (The Discourse Detectives), The Reading Group Fellowship. All these projects incorporate a reciprocal cultural methodology, thus allowing all participants to bear witness to their own 31 Here, I‘d like to thank the work of a colleague, Dr. Judith Flores Carmona, formerly of The University of Utah, and now with Hampshire College, for encouraging me to make such an inter-cultural connection, one that I otherwise would not have made, had I been teaching at a state school, or at a local university. Her own work in the Adelante Oral Histories Project (AOHP) gave me the impetus and the strength to draw on the teachings of hooks, Friere, Anzaldua, as well as Elizabeta Sheleva, and see the many common themes which exist between the pedagogy of the oppressed and the reciprocal methodology in international education. 242 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo becoming of both subjects and objects of their own enquiry. And all have a longer shelf life than an academic semester. However, with all said and done, I am still concerned about the following long-term effects, namely as limitations and/or impetuses for further research: 1. While inspirational education does propel change, when exacted through the medium of a colonizing language and culture, could it affect real change within the leakage of the pipeline of local identity formation? 2. If so, by advocating for a ‗pedagogy of the home‘ (Delgado Bernal, 2001, 2002), aren‘t we, (locally-affiliated) teachers and educators in international education, reverting to an epistemology that in turn would dispossess our students from that very home we had set out to promote, and turn them into vulnerable observers (Behar, 1996), that is, reflexive insiders/outsiders bound by the within (Hill Collins, 1990, 1991)? In Lieu of a Conclusion Without the intention or the pretext of further colonization, of pedagogies or epistemologies, I do believe that culturally reciprocal methodology is the only viable means, present out there for us, to create dialogue amidst students from various and varied cultural and social milieus, yet co-habiting the same education space. What I am still debating over, however, is (the extent of) the role English language instruction should play in the creation of such an educational mythos References Augé, M. (1995). Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. Brooklyn and London: Verso Books. Behar, R. (1996). The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology That Breaks Your Heart. Massachusetts: Beacon Press. Buff, R. (2001). Immigration and the Poltical Economy of Home: Carribean Brooklyn and American Indian Minneapolis, 1945-1992. Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Delgado Bernal, D., Elenes, C.A., Godinez, F.E., Villenas, S. (Eds.) (2006). Chicana/Latina Education in Everyday Life: Feminista Perspectives on Pedagogy and Epistemology. New York: State University of New York (SUNY) Press. Delgado Bernal, D. (2002). Critical Race Theory, LatCrit Theory, and Critical Raced-Gendered Epistemologies: Recognizing Students of Color as Holders and Creators of Knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 105-126. Delgado Bernal, D. (2001). Learning and Living Pedagogies of the Home: The Mestiza Consciousness of Chicana Students. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(5), 623-639. Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Second Vintage Books Edition. Foucault, M. (1986). Of Other Spaces. Trans. By Jay Miskowiec. Diacritics. 16 (1), 22-27. Hill Collins, P. (1990). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Boston: Unwin Hyman. hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom. New York: Routledge. Joysmith, C., Lomas, C. (Eds.) (2005). One Wound for Another/Una Herida por Otra: Testimonios de Latin@s in the US Through Cyberspace (11 de Septiembre 2001 – 11 Marzo 2002). Mexico, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Nora, P. (1989). Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mémoire. Representations, 26(Spring), 7-24. Reed-Danahay, D.E. (Ed.) (1997). Auto/Ethnography: Rewriting the Self and the Social. Oxford: Berg. 117. 243 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 36 Title A name given to the resource Pedagogies of the Home and International Schools: New Models for (Inter) Cultural Education? Author Author Gligorova, Bela Abstract A summary of the resource. As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with this sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un-Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘?). They seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘, a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46ece3bbe2fbe29c8617f38bfa75e92c.pdf ad82a8b22715fa615fca8799db3d82f0 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Albanians thinking ―Greek‖. Language acquisition within acculturation process for second-generation Albanians in Greece Themistokles Gogas Epirus Institute of Technology themistokles.gogas@education.lu Abstract:The last years in Greece second generation immigrants who study at Greek schools use Greek language fluently and in many cases they speak Greek in such a proficiency that are not recognizable as non-Greeks. Primarily this means that these individuals master the mechanism of parole. Moreover, these persons meet the demands of education, which signifies the mastering of langue. In a secondary level of approach the question arising is whether the structural elements of langue i.e. the archetypes corresponding to abstract notions are similar to those of the greek native speakers. Considering that young Greeks acquire the ‗greek‘ meaning of a word, the research is focused on the examination of the way young immigrants acquire the meanings of words. More specifically, which way young immigrants perceive abstract meanings? In their own linguistic frame or through dominant language? In other words, I shall approach the production of langue in its base, i.e. in the level of the abstract notions. 1. Introductory note The story goes back to 1946. In his Clear Thinking, Jepson argued: If you translate the English word into the Russian word demokratichesky, you are, linguistically speaking, translating with perfect accuracy, but you are not, in fact, conveying meaning any more than you would be conveying meaning by using the word 'large' to describe a large inkpot or a large railway station. To us who have been trained in the Liberal tradition of some three hundred years, democracy implies the fundamentals of personal liberty.[…] But to the Russians, all these things which seem to us so precious and so essential are no more than outmoded bourgeois inhibitions. To them 'democracy' implies the classless state in which the means of production are owned in common. Despite the obvious Cold-War logic of this statement, one has to admit the apparent: the social, political, economic or cultural context within which a word acquires its meaning. Susan Gal (1987) worked on this field and examined bilingual minorities. Her approach is focused on abstract notions on domination or subordination within their historical and politico-economic context. On a similar work, Maxwell (2004) examines the ‗Magyarization‘ in Hungarian, German and Slovak languages under the Whorfian hypothesis. He concludes to the importance of political realm in the formation of the word‘s meaning. A study of Moschonas (2004) on Greek language reveals the ideological trends in a metalinguistic discourse. He also concludes to the significance of political domain in the formation of language. 2. Theoretical frame The conceptual construction of an individual about the world is based upon his/her language. Hence, young persons acquire the meanings of the words of their ‗mother tongue‘ thanks to their living experience within the limits of their linguistic (and national) community. Focal point of this paper is the different way the world is perceived by users of different languages, for as Wardhaugh (1992: 220) states: ―you perceive only what your language allows you, or predisposes you to perceive. Your language controls your ‗world-view‘. Speakers of different languages will, therefore, have different views‖. However, this principle cannot apply to the same extend in cases of immigrant communities. The young members of an immigrant community are exposed to both: the linguistic environment of their mother tongue, as well as to that of the dominant language. Which language is the decisive, i.e. that who will facilitate a specific individual to form his/her worldview? Starting from the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (LRH) given by Whorf (1956) language, thought and culture are interconnected. Stubbs (1997: 372) argued that ―[m]uch of the puzzle posed by Whorf and others remains unresolved: it is particularly difficult to escape the circularity of arguments where language is both cause and evidence‖. This peculiarity enables only approaches dealing with the socio-cultural dimensions of language (Risager, 2006), or the mechanism that creates stereotypes or assumptions (Johnson, 1972). Also, it is important to be noted here the criticism on LRH, along with hints on racism of such 1190 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo statements (Stubbs, 1997: 361). ―If Aristotle had spoken Nootka (an American Indian language) then we would have different logic‖. This statement is just an argument in the deployment of Stubbs‘ (op.cit.: 359) criticism on Whorfian hypothesis, and it is followed by a counter-argument: bilinguals speak different languages but they do not perceive the world differently. Bilingualism raises the issue of cultural dominance over language. In particular, in case of immigrant communities the acculturation process plays an important role in the perception of language. The term acculturation refers to the process of cultural contact as well as the outcome of this contact (Redfield, Linton & Herskovits, 1936: 149; Berry & Sam, 1997: 293-294; Padilla & Perez, 2003; Baldwin, Longhurst, McCracken, Ogborn, & Smith, 2004: 45). Acculturation has been studied extensively mostly in the West, since the long period of de-colonisation led researchers to investigate the adaptation of the indigenous people to the dominant culture (Hallowell, 1945; Cheung-Blunden & Juang, 2008). Additionally, western societies after the end of the ‘period of nationalism’ experienced a massive flow of immigrants, a phenomenon which ignited several researches. At this period (1990 and forth) the interesting of the research has been focused on the changes occurred in the immigrants’ culture and the process to be adapted to the culture of the local (dominant) (Beiser, 2000). Berry (2003: 19) spots the major problems of acculturation on the definition of the term itself. Also, the measurement process and the consequences it may cause on the formation of policy. He argues that major problems of acculturation are: whether acculturation influences all groups who are in contact (irrespective of their social or political status) and ii) if acculturation is an individual procedure or it takes place within larger groups. 3. The research In Greece at present lives a considerable number of immigrants. To a certain extent the second generation of them has been fully integrated into Greek schools. In most cases teachers are not in position to understand whether a pupil is immigrant or not. This is due to the perfect use of Greek language they posses (oral and written). Examining these cases, my initial question deals with the levels of Greek language they posses: definitely vocabulary, grammar and syntax are equivalent to mother tongue. The question is whether they ‗think Greek or not‘. This means not merely the composition of thoughts in the ‗Greek way‘, but additionally the structure of the abstract notions not in their mother tongue, but according to the Greek patterns. Counter to what Woolard (1985) argues, I made the hypothesis that the cultural hegemony of the dominant language remains unchallenged if (and only if) hegemony applies on the social corpus through education. 3.1. Methodology The research was based on Hoffstaetter‘s (1957) work. In this, Hofstaetter measured the psychological equivalence of abstract words on Americans and Germans. He concluded that an abstract word is perceived different by both groups. Consequently, the perception of the world has to be different. Hence, there is a gap between the psychological and the lexical correspondence when switching from one language to the other. In his research, Hofstaetter developed a tool in order to measure the impact of each word upon Americans and Germans. The individuals were given the word loneliness and asked to describe it according to a chart. In the present research, I implemented Hoffstaetter‘s method, asking the subjects to describe the word loneliness. Population of the research are the Albanian immigrants of Greece, for they possess certain attributes facilitating sampling: they are the most numerous minority group; they are scattered all over Greece; most of them live in Greece since early 90s and are well accustomed to researches; and they pay specific attention to the education of their children. The research has been conducted during the academic year 2009-2010 and took place at the same time in Greece and Albania with the assistance of students of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages. 3.1.1. Sample The sample has been chosen through random selection. Thus subject‘s groups were: Control Group 1 (CG1): Native adult Greeks, who were born in Greece, studied in Greek schools and have never been exposed to foreign linguistic environment. Control Group 2 (CG2): Native adult Albanians, who were born in Albania, studied in Albanian schools and have never been exposed to foreign linguistic environment. Experimental Group (EG): Young persons of Albanian origin who were born in Greece, completed their compulsory education in Greek schools and study at present at Greek tertiary education institutions. The student-assistants distributed a large amount of questionnaires, while CG1 responded properly on 134 questionnaires, CG2 on 98 and EG on 87. Specific attention has been paid for the exclusion of those subjects who derive from mixed marriages or those who come from the Greek Minority of South Albania. 1191 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.1.2. Tool Research tool has been selected the bipolar set of opposite qualities as given by Hofstaetter. This is based on a set of 24 bipolar attributes a word may possess. The pairs of antithetic qualities were placed on the two edges of a 10-scale chart. Below is given an example of two pairs of antithetic qualities (black-white and small-big). 1 2 Black 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 White The subject has to ‗tick‘ the position on which s/he believed the quality matches the notion. Thus in the antithetic pair ―black-white‖ ticking 1 means the subject believes that ‗loneliness‘ is totally black, 5 means is grayish, while 10 means that loneliness is totally white. The results were categorized and summed up on the chart for each one of the 3 groups. Purpose of the research was to sketch the way the word in question is perceived. It was taken for granted that adult Greeks and Albanians would provide the average ‗national sketch‘, while the results of the experimental group had to give the answer to which ‗national sketch‘ resembles the sketch of the young Albanian students. The results have been elaborated statistically: normalization of the sample, extraction of average and implementation of Pearson correlation for each pair of groups (CG1-EG; CG2-EG and CG1-EG). 3.2. Findings The answers given by the subjects were normalized, due to the different size of the sample. In Table 1 below are given the average scores for each antithetic pair for each group before the normalization (BN) and after (AN). Studying the results taken out of the antithetical pairs, one may see that for both people (i.e. for CG1 and CG2) loneliness is something big, strong, ill, sad, deep, bad, cold, abrasive, wild and old ―thing‖. Small Weak Ill Lucid Coward Empty Sad Shallow Good Quiet Fresh Nice Tense Angular Energetic Cold Abrasive Benign Near Liberal Tall Humid Unstable Young Table 1: Average scores per pair of groups before and after normalization CG1 CG2 EG BN AN BN AN BN AN 96.5 0,72015 73 0,7449 60.6 0,69655 Big 96.5 0,75373 68.2 0,69592 65.9 0,75747 Strong 46.6 0,34776 34.9 0,35612 30.7 0,35287 Healthy 95.8 0,71493 62.7 0,6398 57.2 0,65747 Blurry 52.9 0,39478 72.8 0,74286 36.3 0,41724 Daring 50.8 0,3791 50.1 0,51122 33.9 0,38966 Full 36.5 0,27293 34.8 0,3551 34.5 0,39655 Cheerful 94 0,70149 71.3 0,72755 61.1 0,7023 Deep 105.5 0,78731 77.6 0,79184 69.8 0,8023 Bad 58 0,43284 66.8 0,68163 35.2 0,4046 Loud 86.3 0,64403 70.6 0,72041 66 0,75862 Moldy 101.1 0,75448 72.4 0,73878 68 0,78161 Ugly 67.2 0,50149 41.1 0,41939 46.3 0,53281 Calm 71.2 0,53134 41.6 0,42449 47 0,54023 Round 93.6 0,69851 40.4 0,41224 48.7 0,55977 Passive 35.1 0,26194 40.5 0,41327 29.8 0,34253 Warm 41.2 0,30746 36.8 0,37551 33.5 0,38506 Gentle 100.9 0,75299 70.8 0,72245 61.2 0,70345 Ferocious 81 0,60448 53.7 0,54796 63.1 0,72529 Distant 74.3 0,55448 72 0,73459 52 0,5977 conservative 77.2 0,57612 67.3 0,68673 49.2 0,56552 Short 81.8 0,61045 64.4 0,65714 48.1 0,55287 Drought 55.8 0,41642 65.9 0,67245 32.4 0,37241 Stable 99.7 0,74403 66.6 0,67959 64.3 0,73908 Old 1192 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Unsurprisingly the EG the description matches the case. The difference is spotted on a series of attributes for which CG1 and CG2 present significant differences. Thus, Greeks believe that loneliness is coward, empty, energetic, distant and unstable, while Albanians think of something brave, full, pathetic, near and stable. Surprisingly the young Albanian students think of loneliness the greek way! Prima faciae Albanian student experience loneliness in a ‗greek way‘. Applying Pearson correlation, the results are as on Table 2. Obviously on pairs 5, 6, 10, 19, 20 and 23 CG1-EG appear similarities. On the contrary CG1-CG2 and CG2-EG present significant difference. To a lesser extend on pairs 4, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22 CG1-EG exist similarities, while CG2-EG present difference or are antithetical. There is only one pair (No 11) on which CG2-EG present higher significance than CG1-EG, but this cannot alter the overall picture Table 2. Pearson correlation values for each pair of groups No CG1-CG2 CG2- EG CG1- EG 1 Small 0,89 0,94 0,83 Big 2 Weak 0,79 0,85 0,73 Strong 3 Ill 0,85 0,78 0,84 Healthy 4 Lucid 0,51 0,47 0,79 Blurr 5 6 Coward Empty -0,41 -0,18 -0,13 -0,25 0,74 0,88 Daring Full 7 Sad 0,86 0,79 0,92 Cheerful 8 Shallow 0,93 0,86 0,89 Deep 9 Good 0,91 0,93 0,97 Bad 10 Quiet -0,04 -0,36 0,78 Loud 11 Fresh 0,47 0,92 0,31 Moldy 12 Nice 0,94 0,98 0,96 Ugly 13 Tense 0,26 0,17 0,45 Calm 14 Angular 0,31 -0,06 0,59 Round 15 Energetic -0,53 -0,34 -0,05 Passive 16 17 Cold Abrasive 0,87 0,94 0,81 0,80 0,93 0,74 Warm Gentle 18 Benign 0,93 0,91 0,95 Ferocious 19 Near -0,01 0,09 0,08 Distant 20 Liberal -0,12 -0,20 0,61 Conservative 21 Tall 0,03 -0,21 0,54 Short 22 Humid 0,44 -0,33 0,36 Drought 23 Unstable -0,48 -0,47 0,77 Stable 24 Young 0,79 0,78 0,85 Old 4. Conclusions The word ‗loneliness‘ is not merely a conventional symbol, but it possess a particular psychological ‗gravity‘. The perception of this particular word takes place through a gradual socializing process within a specific cultural and linguistic community. Thus, young Greeks acquire the ‗greek‘ vision of loneliness to the extend that young Albanians get the vision of their own socio-cultural group. In tha case under investigation, young Albanians born and bread in Greece are exposed to a dual socio-cultural environment: the maternal and the ‗dominant‘. The particularity of the case has to do with the subjects of the experimental group, who sompleted primary and secondary education in Greek schools and continue their studies in Greek tertiary academic institutions. Dittmar‘s (1976, p. 238) position describes the dialectic process within which linguistic and social behavior exist. In that sense, there is a continuous interaction, while material conditions are crucial factor for the formation of both behavioral aspects. The school is a major domain where social behavior is imposed in a 1193 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo hegemonic way. Hence, the linguistic patterns are dictated, dominating the subject and formatting his/her linguistic boundaries. The research aimed to reveal the particular power of the education through the process of acculturation in the formation of one‘s linguistic perception. Indeed, education socializes individuals according to the norms of the dominant socio-political, cultural and linguistic group. For Bourdieu (1976: 194) ―Culture is not merely a common code or even a catalogue of answers to recurring problems; it is a common set of previously assimilated master patterns from which, by an ‗art of invention‘ similar to that involved in the writing of music, an infinite number of individual patterns directly applicable to specific situations are generated‖. Education participates in this process turning the cultural patterns of the individual in order to conform with the dominant. As it seems in the present research the power of education is not limited on cognitive, behavioral or ideological matters, but it goes deeper, to the level of the construction of abstract notions. Remembering Anderson‘s (1991) Imagined Communities, Latin, in late-medieval period was a language spoken by just a few. He assumes that even fewer would have used Latin in their dreams. The final question of the present is: the youngsters of the Experimental Group in which language do they dream? References Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso. Beiser, M. (2000). Strangers at the gate, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Berry, J.W. & Sam, D.L. (1997). Acculturation and Adaptation. In J.W. Berry, M.H. Segall & C. Kagitcibasi (eds.) Handbook of cross-cultural psychology, Vol. 3, (pp. 291-326). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Berry, J.W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In G. Marin, P. Balls- Organista & K. M. Chung, & (eds) Acculturation: Advances in Theory, Measurement and Applied Research, (pp. 17-37). Washington: American Psychological Association. Bourdieu, P. (1976). Systems of education and systems of thought. In R. Dale, G. Esland & M. MacDonald (eds.) Schooling and Capitalism (pp. 192-200). London: RKP. Cheung-Blunden, V.L. & Juang, L. (2008). Expanding acculturation theory: Are acculturation models and the adaptiveness of acculturation strategies generalizable in a colonial context?. International Journal of Behavioral Development 32(1): 21-33. Dittmar, N. (1976). Sociolinguistics: A Critical Survey of Theory and Application, London: Arnold. Gal, S. (1987). Codeswitching and Consciousness in the European periphery. American Ethnologist, 14(4): 637-653. Hallowell, A.I., (1945). Sociopsychological Aspects of acculturation. In R. Lindon (ed.) The science of man in the world crisis (310-332). New York: Columbia University Press. Hofstaetter, P.R. (1957). Gruppendynamik, Hamburg: Rowohlt. Jepson, R.W. (1946). Clear Thinking, London: Longmans Green. Johnson, W. (1972). The communication process and general semantic principles. In W. Shramm (ed.) Mass Communication, (pp. 301-345). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1194 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Maxwell, A. (2004). Magyarization, language planning, and Whorf: The word uhor as a case study in linguistic relativism. Multilingua 23: 319-337. Moschonas, S.A. (2004). Relativism in Language Ideology: On Greece‘s Latest Language Issue. Journal of Modern Greek Studies 22(2): 173-206. Padilla, A. & Perez, W. (2003). Acculturation, Social identity, and Social Cognition: A New Perspective. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 25(1), pp. 35-55. Redfield, R., Linton, R. & Herskovits, M. (1936). Memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologis, 38, pp. 149-152. Risager, K. (2006). Language and Culture: Global Flows and Local Complexity, Clevendon: Multilingual Matters LTD. Stubbs, M. (1997). Language and the Mediation of Experience: Linguistic representation and Cognitive Orientation. In F. Koulmas (ed.) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics (pp. 359-373). Oxford: Blackwell. Tabouret – Keller, A. (1998). Language and Identity. In Fl. Coulmas (ed.) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics (pp. 315-326). Oxford: Blackwell. Wardhaugh, R. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd ed, Oxford: Blackwell. Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, thought and reality, Essays by B.L. Whorf. In J.B. Caroll (ed.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Woolard, K. (1985). Language Variations and Cultural Hegemony: Toward Integration of Sociolinguistic and Social theory. American Ethnologist 12(4): 738-748. 1195 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 666 Title A name given to the resource Albanians thinking ―Greek‖. Language acquisition within acculturation process for second-generation Albanians in Greece Author Author Gogas, Themistokles Abstract A summary of the resource. The last years in Greece second generation immigrants who study at Greek schools use Greek language fluently and in many cases they speak Greek in such a proficiency that are not recognizable as non-Greeks. Primarily this means that these individuals master the mechanism of parole. Moreover, these persons meet the demands of education, which signifies the mastering of langue. In a secondary level of approach the question arising is whether the structural elements of langue i.e. the archetypes corresponding to abstract notions are similar to those of the greek native speakers. Considering that young Greeks acquire the ‗greek‘ meaning of a word, the research is focused on the examination of the way young immigrants acquire the meanings of words. More specifically, which way young immigrants perceive abstract meanings? In their own linguistic frame or through dominant language? In other words, I shall approach the production of langue in its base, i.e. in the level of the abstract notions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics