264 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a36652f97c420c7a6548cba0d890ab8f.pdf bc9213503174a8980ef45e71c44e9fbf PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nastava leksike stranog jezika na akademskim studijama Jelena DrljeviĤ Katedra za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filolońki fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu drljevic@gmail.com Apstrakt: Cilj ovog rada je da pruņi teorijski uvid u dosadańnja istraņivanja koja se tiĦu metodike nastave leksike stranog jezika (L2). PolazeĤi od ovog opńeg okvira pokuńaĤemo da se u nastavku rada posebno zadrņimo na akademskoj leksiĦkoj kompetenciji stranog jezika. Naime, uzimajuĤi u obzir specifiĦan nastavni kontekst, kakav je filolońki fakultet uopńte, i ciljnu grupu, odnosno studentsku populaciju, potrudiĤemo se da definińemo leksiku stranog jezika koji se uĦi u akademskom okruņenju kao i pojedine aspekte njenog poduĦavanja. O usvajanju ovakve leksike treba razmińljati kao o neodvojivoj komponenti kurikuluma buduĤih nastavnika i prevodilaca. U tom smislu, postavljaju se brojna pitanja: Na koji naĦin moņemo najbolje da pribliņimo studentima leksiku stranog jezika? Kako organizovati plansko (odvojeno) uĦenje leksike, buduĤi da je i proces usvajanja leksike, u okviru usvajanja L2, odvojen segment? Koji je, ili kakav treba da bude, krajnji cilj uĦenja i usvajanja leksike stranog jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu? Kako Ĥe se nova leksika koristiti? Gde Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? Kada Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? i sliĦno. Dakle cilj nam je da definińemo okvire ovog bitnog jeziĦkog nivoa ali i odgovorimo na pitanje: kako treba da bude organizovana nastave leksike L2 u vezi sa potrebama studenata filolońkih studija. KljuĦne reĦi: nastava leksike, leksiĦka kompetencija L2, akademski kontekst Uvod UĦenje i usvajanje leksike kao sastavnog dela jeziĦke kompetencije u novijim lingvistiĦkim istraņivanjima zauzima veoma vaņno mesto. Da bi se na odgovarajuĤi naĦin sagledao i potom savladao sloņen i otvoren leksiĦki sistem nekog jezika neophodno je pristupiti mu organizovano i sistematiĦno. Koliko je takav zadatak teņak i koliko se istraņivaĦima interdisciplinarnih nauka Ħinio nemoguĤ u ranijim godinama svedoĦi i Ħinjenica da su plansko poduĦavanje leksike kao i organizovano prilagoħavanje njenog sistema ciljevima metodike nastave bili gotovo zanemareni sve do kraja osamdesetih i poĦetka devedesetih godina prońlog veka. PoĦev od tih godina leksika zauzima centralno mesto u istraņivanjima primenjene lingvistike i danas predstavlja neizostavni element nauĦnih diskusija u oblasti usvajanja maternjeg i stranog jezika (Scholfield, 1999: 678). 1. LeksiĦka kompetencija stranog jezika U skladu sa opńte prihvaĤenim komunikativnim pristupom u nastavi stranih jezika posebnu paņnju treba posvetiti leksici, jeziĦkoj komponenti bez Ħijeg razvoja ni sam jezik ne bi mogao da ostvari valjano svoju osnovnu funkciju: govor. Pojedini autori insistiraju na razlici izmeħu leksiĦkog znanja i leksiĦke kompetencije, termina koji se u nauĦnoj literaturi Ħesto zamenjuju i koriste za oznaĦavanje istog koncepta. Na polju psiholingvistiĦkih istraņivanja ovu razliku moņemo pojednostavljeno objasniti Ħinjenicom da se leksiĦko znanje odnosi na znanje koje uĦenik pripisuje formi, znaĦenju, gramatiĦkom korińĤenju, upotrebi u sociolingvistiĦkom kontekstu. Takvo znanje je smeńteno u generalnoj memoriji ali se nalazi izvan jedinice mentalnog leksikona. LeksiĦka kompetencija, s druge strane, oznaĦava poznavanje osnovnih leksiĦkih informacija koje su postale sastavni deo jedinice mentalnog leksikona i koje je moguĤe automatski pokrenuti u komunikaciji (Jiang, 2000: 64-66). Moņemo reĤi da je leksiĦka kompetencija dostignuta onda kada je ostvareno zadovoljavajuĤe povezivanje nekoliko uslovljenih psiholońkih procesa: uĦenik prvo primeĤuje reĦ, potom je ponovo uoĦava i prepoznaje da bi u poslednjoj fazi dońlo do samostalne i kreativne upotrebe date reĦi u odgovarajuĤem kontekstu. Iz ovoga moņemo da zakljuĦimo da leksika povezuje sve 4 jeziĦke veńtine: produktivne i receptivne, usmene i pisane (Jordan, 2000: 149). LeksiĦka kompetencija podrazumeva i izlaņenje iz Ħisto leksiĦkih okvira. Ona je neodvojiva od poznavanja ńireg koncepta, odnosno kulturolońkog konteksta u koji je jedna reĦ smeńtena i u kojem ona funkcionińe u korelaciji sa ostalim leksiĦkim jedinicama. BuduĤi da su konceptualne predstave, usled razliĦitih druńtvenih, socijalnih ili istorijskih faktora, Ħesto drugaĦije odreħene u razliĦitim jezicima, mogli bismo da zakljuĦimo da je uĦenikov zadatak da, pońto je shvatio znaĦenje nove L2 reĦi i usvojio semantiĦki ekvivalent, odredi i semantiĦku granicu u datom kontekstu. Odreħivanje ove granice usloviĤe, na kraju krajeva, pravilnu ili nepravilnu upotrebu odreħene reĦi u 680 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo nekom kontekstu. Podsetimo se lingvistiĦke postavke da »svaki jezik ureħuje svet razliĦito s obzirom na svoju leksiĦku strukturu, i da leksikalizovani koncepti i konfiguracije koncepata variraju od jezika do jezika« (Singleton, 2006: 132). LeksiĦka kompetencija se u ZajedniĦkom evropskom okviru za ņive jezike (ZEO) vrednuje i na osnovu parametra vladanja leksikom u kojem se ocenjuje kontinuitet i primerenost upotrebe odreħenih reĦi kao i teņina greńke koja bi u veĤoj ili manjoj meri mogla da utiĦe na tok konverzacije. Dakle, ova komponenta predstavlja kvalitativni aspekat poznavanja leksiĦkog fonda (Diadori, Palermo, Troncarelli, 2009: 150). 2. Nastava leksike stranog jezika Da li je opravdano pričati o didaktici koja bi se isključivo bavila samo leksikom, odvojenom od ostalih lingvističkih aspekata? Namerno smo upotrebili reĦ opravdano jer nam sama priroda leksike odnosno uĦenja i uspeńnog usvajanja novih reĦi ne dozvoljava da o njoj razmińljamo kao o sistemu koji bi bio izolovan od ostalih jeziĦkih komponenata. S druge strane, opravdanje za posebno i izdvojeno poduĦavanje leksike treba potraņiti u psiholingvistiĦkim istraņivanjima koja dokazuju da je proces usvajanja leksike drugog jezika odvojen segment unutar celokupnog procesa usvajanja L2 (Jiang, 2000, 2002, 2004). Pod nastavom leksike misli se na planski osmińljenu didaktiku u kojoj bi primena odreħenih teorijskih objańnjenja, tehnika i strategija uĦenja leksike dovela do razvoja leksiĦkog znanja i leksiĦke kompetencije kod studenata. Cilj ovakve didaktike je razvijanje sposobnosti povezivanja gramatiĦkog i semantiĦkog aspekta reĦi, lakńe uĦenje i memorisanje kao i pravilna upotreba nove leksike u odgovarajuĤem kontekstu. PonoviĤemo, meħutim, da je plansko poduĦavanje leksike dugo bilo zanemareno. Jedan od razloga verovatno je i Ħinjenica da leksiĦki sistem predstavlja mnogo otvoreniji sistem od gramatiĦkog sistema pa je samim tim i mnogo teņe regulisati ga. U planiranoj nastavi leksike treba pre svega utvrditi ciljeve jeziĦkog kursa i na osnovu njega izabrati izmeħu pisanog i govornog jezika, nivoa i naĦina predstavljanja struĦne terminologije, treba usmeriti posebnu paņnju na receptivno ili produktivno leksiĦko znanje. Potom, treba definisati potrebe uĦenika i obratiti paņnju na spoljańnje i unutrańnje faktore koji u velikoj meri mogu uticati na tok i uspeńnost tog uĦenja. U narednoj fazi treba pristupiti selekciji leksike. Kriterijumi leksiĦke selekcije mogu biti jeziĦki i nejeziĦki. U jeziĦke kriterijume ubrajamo: frekventnost odnosno broj pojavljivanja nekog elementa u ispitanom korpusu. Ovde pre svega mislimo na funkcionalne reĦi koje nemaju veliku komunikativnu funkciju ali su neophodne za gramatiĦku ispravnost (Ħlan, zamenica, predlog). Ostale frekventne reĦi su imenice, glagoli, prilozi, pridevi a potom dolaze reĦi odreħenog broja i definisanog smisla (ńkola, kuĤa, dete). Tek na kraju imamo tehniĦke termine. Ostali jeziĦki kriterijumi tiĦu se distribucije ili disperzije odnosno upotrebne vrednosti reĦi u razliĦitim vremenskim periodima i kontekstima. JeziĦke kriterijume utvrħujemo i na osnovu parametra disponibilnosti odnosno „stepena moguĤnosti sa kojim Ĥe se jedna reĦ pojaviti u datim situacijama―. U nejeziĦke kriterijume svrstavamo: savladljivost jezika, motivaciju, potrebe, ciljeve, uzrast i sliĦno ( VuĦo, 1998: 27-30). U organizovanoj nastavi leksike moņemo kao dva posebna aspekta izdvojiti predstavljanje novih reĦi, koje nastavnik varira shodno situaciji na Ħasu, ciljnoj grupi i jeziĦkom nivou, i rad na tehnikama i strategijama uĦenja leksike koje treba razvijati kod uĦenika joń u najranijoj fazi uĦenja. Takoħe, nastavnik bi trebalo da u planski osmińljenoj nastavi leksike ponudi veliki broj aktivnosti i veņbanja i implementira ih kroz tri pristupa u uĦenju leksike: spontano ili sluĦajno uĦenje (incidental learning), ciljano uĦenje (intentional learning) i razvijanje strategija (independent strategy development). SluĦajno uĦenje se odvija kroz Ħitanje i sluńanje. Ovde bi nastavnik trebalo da obezbedi dovoljno materijala za ekstenzivno Ħitanje i sluńanje. Ovakav vid usvajanja novog vokabulara najprikladniji je kod uĦenika koji veĤ vladaju osnovnim fondom reĦi i kod kojih je steĦeno znanje duboko i stabilno. Ciljano uĦenje se odvija putem eksplicitnih instrukcija i najvińe odgovara uĦenicima sa ograniĦenim leksiĦkim znanjem. Jedna od strategija koju treba razvijati kod uĦenika jeste pogaħanje znaĦenja reĦi iz konteksta. Ova strategija, prikladna takoħe i za uĦenike koji poseduju solidno i stabilno leksiĦko znanje, nije uvek uspeńna ali svakako doprinosi produbljivanju i uveĤanju vokabulara (Hunt, Alan i Beglar, 2002: 258-265). Mnogi priznati autori smatraju da je metodiku nastave leksike moguĤe uspeńno organizovati samo ako se nove reĦi naħu u ńirem kontekstu, odnosno kao deo ukupnog procesa usvajanja novog jezika. Na taj naĦin se omoguĤava prelazak reĦi u dugoroĦan, stabilan leksiĦki fond. Za usvajanje leksike neophodno je da postoji objedinjeno prouĦavanje gramatiĦkih i semantiĦkih osobenosti nove lekseme u kojem se ciljna leksema nikako ne sme naĤi sama, veĤ u paru, grozdu tj. skupu ili semantiĦkom polju (Marello, 1996: 182-183). 2.1. Nastava leksike stranog jezika na filološkim studijama Cilj univerzitetske nastave stranih jezika i filolońkih studija, kao primarnog nauĦnog i nastavnog koncepta u ovoj obrazovnoj oblasti u Republici Srbiji, jeste dostizanje i povezivanje najvińih znanja i kompetencija u oblasti jezika, kulture i knjiņevnosti. Znanja o stranom jeziku, kao glavnom predmetu, kao i usvajanje i upotreba tog jezika 681 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo predstavljaju spoj znanja iz teorijskih disciplina, ovladavanje jeziĦkim veńtinama kao i nuņno dostizanje odgovarajuĤe sociolingvistiĦke i pragmatiĦke kompetencije. LeksiĦko znanje i kompetenciju nemoguĤe je odvojiti od specifiĦnih studentskih potreba i veoma zahtevnih ciljeva nastavnog plana i programa. Studije italijanskog jezika na Filolońkom fakultetu u Beogradu, kao izmeħu ostalog i studije drugih stranih jezika, podrazumevaju odliĦno ovladavanje teorijskim disciplinama (fonetika i fonologija, leksikologija, morfologija, semantika, sintaksa, istorijska gramatika, istorija jezika, kontrastivna analiza itd.). Uz ovakav studijski program, u nastavu jezika se od 2006 godine, kada je na Filolońkom fakultetu sprovedena reforma u skladu sa naĦelima bolonjske deklaracije, uvode i posebni predmeti Ħiji je cilj razvoj osnovnih produktivnih i receptivnih jeziĦkih veńtina. Ovi predmeti obiĦno nose naziv Savremeni italijanski, engleski, nemački (SamardņiĤ, 2007: 532533). U kontekstu nańeg rada veoma je bitno pomenuti da nastava leksikologije u treĤem i Ħetvrtom semestru zauzima centralno mesto meħu jeziĦkim predmetima koji mogu doprineti uveĤanju leksiĦkog znanja i kompetencije. Bogat program ovog predmeta obuhvata izmeħu ostalog i upoznavanje sa leksikolońkom, leksiĦkom i leksikografskom terminologijom, predstavljanje osnovnih vrsta reĦnika i obuku za njihovo korińĤenje, upoznavanje sa sastavom leksike italijanskog jezika, endogenim i egzogenim izvorima reĦniĦkog bogaĤenja. Fond obuhvata dva Ħasa nedeljno, predispitne aktivnosti podrazumevaju izradu seminarskog rada i polaganje dva kolokvijuma, dok je zavrńni ispit u formi pismenog testa. 2.1.1. Anketa Cilj ankete koju smo sproveli ńkolske 2010/2011 godine bio je da ispita mińljenje grupe nastavnika italijanskog jezika o naĦinima sprovoħenja nastave leksike u fakultetskom kontekstu, ciljevima uĦenja leksike stranog jezika i ostalim aspektima usvajanja ovog jeziĦkog nivoa. Nastavnici ukljuĦeni u anketu drņe veņbe na prvoj, drugoj i treĤoj godini na predmetu savremeni italijanski jezik, dok jedan nastavnik drņi i veņbe prevoħenja sa italijanskog na srpski jezik. U anketi je uĦestvovalo ukupno 7 nastavnika sa katedre za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost. Anketa se sastojala od 21 pitanja od kojih je najveĤi broj koncipiran po principu ocenjivanja od 1 do 7, pri Ħemu 1, 2 i 3 oznaĦavaju uglavom negativan stav ili ocenu, Ħetvorka, uslovno reĦeno, predstavlja neodluĦnost ispitanika, dok 5, 6, i 7 izraņavaju pozitivan stav ispitanika. Pored ocenjivanja, nastavnici su pozvani i da obrazloņe svoju ocenu, daju eventualne predloge ili primere vezane za postavljeno pitanje. Manji broj pitanja je otvorenog tipa ili vińestrukog izbora (DA/NE ili REDOVNO/ĥESTO/PONEKAD/RETKO/NIKAD). Podaci su obraħeni kvantitativno, metodom deskriptivne analize. Za potrebe ovog rada obradili smo pitanja koja se tiĦu: - koncepta uĦenja jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu - nivoa posveĤivanja posebne paņnje nastavi leksike - eksplicitnih saveta koji se daju studentima u cilju lakńeg uĦenja nove leksike - aspekata koje je neophodno ojaĦati ili ukljuĦiti u nastavu jezika. - krajnjih ciljeva uĦenja i usvajanja leksike L2 u fakultetskom kontekstu Kako bismo opisali kontekst u kojem se uĦi italijanski jezik na Filolońkom fakultetu u Beogradu od nastavnika smo zatraņili da ocene koliko se paņnje pridaje sledeĤim aspektima jezika: gramatici, leksici, izgovoru, kulturi i razvoju jeziĦkih veńtina. Radi preglednijeg Ħitanja rezultata ovog pitanja predstavljamo histogram broj 1: Kao ńto se vidi iz histograma 86% nastavnika smatra da se najveĤa paņnja (ocena 7) u nastavi jezika posveĤuje gramatici, ńto potvrħuje i dalje centralno mesto koje teorijske discipline zauzimaju u fakultetskoj nastavi jezika. Iako u ocenjivanju paņnje koja se posveĤuje leksiĦkom aspektu uĦenja jezika generalno preovlaħuju veoma visoke ocene (4, 6 ili 7), ipak se primeĤuje primetan pad u odnosu na gramatiku. Veoma je interesantna korelacija koja postoji izmeħu posveĤivanja paņnje leksiĦkom aspektu i razvoju jeziĦkih veńtina. Iz ovog podatka bismo mogli 682 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo skromno da zakljuĦimo da povezanost ova dva jeziĦka aspekta nije sluĦajna i da moņda upravo nastava savremenog jezika ostavlja najvińe prostora za implementiranje planski osmińljene nastave leksike. Prema rezultatima ankete svi ispitanici redovno posveĤuju posebnu paņnju leksici na svojim veņbama. 57% ispitanika u najveĤoj meri (ocena 7) posebno obraħuje sa studentima ovaj aspekat jezika, dok preostalih 43% to Ħini u veoma velikoj meri (ocena 6). NajveĤi broj ispitanika navodi da se zbog same prirode predmeta (savremeni italijanski jezik) kao i udņbenika koji se u okviru njega koriste, leksici, kao i gramatici, posveĤuje puno paņnje. Pre svega se obraħuje leksika obuhvaĤena udņbenikom a potom se ona dodatno prońiruje kroz veņbanja posveĤena razvoju usmene produkcije. VeĤina ispitanika podvlaĦi da ovo prońirivanje kao i obnavljanje veĤ poznate leksike u velikoj meri zavisi i od interesovanja studenata i njihovih konkretnih pitanja. Na pitanje da li daju eksplicitne savete studentima u vezi sa lakńim uĦenjem i usvajanjem nove leksike 3 ispitanika odgovorila su da to redovno Ħine, 3 Ħesto a samo je jedan ispitanik odgovorio da ponekad daje eksplicitne savete studentima. Svi ispitanici, u najveĤoj meri, savetuju studentima da prate i van nastavne sadrņaje (film, muziku, ńtampu i sl.). 86% ispitanika najĦeńĤe savetuje studentima da Ħitaju i koriste tehnike povezivanja leksiĦkih i drugih teorijskih znanja. U 71% sluĦajeva najĦeńĤi saveti nastavnika tiĦu se ukazivanja na tehnike i strategije uĦenja novih reĦi kao i savetovanje studenata da koriste reĦnike. Samo jedan ispitanik uopńte ne daje savete koji se tiĦu tehnika i strategija uĦenja novih reĦi niti upuĤuje na naĦine povezivanja leksiĦkih i drugih teorijskih znanja. U skladu sa prethodno iznetim podacima svi ispitanici se slaņu da nastava leksike treba da bude planski osmińljena, zasnovana na teorijskim znanjima, proverenim strategijama i tehnikama uĦenja jer bi to doprinelo njenom efikasnijem i lakńem usvajanju. Posebno nam se korisno i praktiĦno Ħini mińljenje jednog ispitanika koji smatra da bi „...nastavni plan trebalo da obuhvati korpus obavezne leksike koju studenti usvajaju na odreħenom nivou uĦenja jezika, uz dopunski korpus koji bi trebalo da predstavlja uvod odnosno pripremu (informaciju, neńto ńto su Ħuli, iako ne u potpunosti usvojili) za usvajanje obaveznog leksiĦkog korpusa na vińim nivoima―. U pitanju koje se tiĦe unapreħenja aspekata nastave jezika koji su u vezi sa dostizanjem boljeg leksiĦkog znanja i kompetencije, ispitanici je trebalo da posebno ocene vaņnost konsolidovanja ili uvoħenja 6 elemenata metodike nastave leksike. U obradi podataka dobili smo sledeĤe rezultate: 100% ispitanika ocenjuje visokim ocenama (5, 6, 7) predlog uvoħenja periodiĦnih leksiĦkih testova. Kod 86% ispitanika primeĤujemo konstantu u visokom ocenjivanju (5, 6, 7) predloga da se uveĤa broj Ħasova leksiĦkih veņbanja, da se vińe insistira na upotrebi jednojeziĦnih i dvojeziĦnih reĦnika i da se bolje usklade teorijski predmeti i razvoj pragmatiĦkih i sociolingvistiĦkih kompetencija. Neophodnost veĤe integracije nastave knjiņevnosti i jezika kao i uĦestalije pruņanje eksplicitnih instrukcija/sugestija u uĦenju i usvajanju nove leksike ocenjeni su kao veoma vaņni kod 71% ispitanika. Samo 14% nastavnika primetno nisko vrednuje (ocenama od 1 do 3) vaņnost eksplicitnih instrukcija i bolje integrisanje teorijskih predmeta i pragmatiĦkih ili sociolingvistiĦkih kompetencija. Ovaj deo ankete nam dokazuje da nastavnici prepoznaju i prihvataju neophodnost izmena i dopunjavanja aspekata nastave koji se tiĦu leksike. Interesantan je, po nama, podatak da se svi ispitanici slaņu da bi uvoħenje periodiĦnih testova doprinelo boljem uspehu studenata. Ovakvo mińljenje nastavnika u skladu je sa principima bolonjske reforme koji propisuju obavezno planiranje kontrole znanja uĦenika u odreħenim vremenskim i programskim razmacima pre organizovanja krajnjeg ispita. Na otvoreno pitanje: Koji treba da bude krajnji cilj učenja i usvajanja leksike stranog jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu i kakvu leksiku shodno budućem zanimanju treba da imaju studenti po završetku filoloških studija ispitanici odgovaraju veoma opńirno i detaljno. Kod svih ispitanika preovlaħuje mińljenje da leksika koju studenti treba da poseduju po zavrńetku studija treba da se kreĤe u veoma ńirokom rasponu. To podrazumeva najńiru leksiku opńteg karaktera koja bi zadovoljila konverzacijske potrebe, specifiĦnu leksiku vezanu za knjiņevnost (na kojoj se u fakultetskom kontekstu veoma insistira) kao i osnove uskostruĦne leksike. Svi ispitani nastavnici, takoħe, dele i mińljenje da bi filolońke studije trebalo da ukljuĦe u svoj kurikulum i nastavu barem najosnovnijeg leksiĦkog fonda jezika struke. Ovakvu leksiku bi, potom, studenti razvijali u profesionalnom pravcu koji izaberu (predavaĦi, prevodioci knjiņevnih dela, usmeni prevodioci, prevodioci tehniĦkih tekstova, nauĦni radnici itd.). 2 ispitanika primeĤuju da bi jedan od naĦina uvoħenja ovakvih kurseva u fakultetsku nastavu svakako podrazumevao i osposobljavanje studenata da, na osnovu postojeĤih znanja, a uz pomoĤ tehnika i strategija uĦenja, struĦnjaka za datu oblast ili odgovarajuĤih leksikona, enciklopedija, Interneta i sliĦno, mogu samostalno da pronalaze, uĦe i primenjuju struĦnu terminologiju. ZakljuĦak U ovom radu smo najpre definisali leksiĦko znanje i leksiĦku kompetenciju. Videli smo koja je razlika izmeħu ova dva leksiĦka pojma, kako se razvija leksiĦka kompetencija i ńta ona podrazumeva. U drugom poglavlju smo se zadrņali na razliĦitim aspektima organizovanja nastave leksike. Videli smo o kojim sve parametrima treba razmińljati ukoliko ņelimo da sistemski osmislimo leksiĦki deo jeziĦkog kursa. Iz ove ńire perspektive smo potom usmerili paņnju na uĦenje i usvajanje leksike u specifiĦnom nastavnom kontekstu – filolońkom fakultetu. Prikazali smo najpre osnovne aspekte nastavnog plana i programa generalno filolońkih studija da bismo potom opisali kurikulum katedre za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost. U poslednjem delu ovog poglavlja predstavili smo rezultate nekih delova ankete koja je podeljena nastavnicima katedre za italijanski jezik i 683 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo knjiņevnost. Nańi ispitanici, u okviru predmeta savremeni italijanski jezik, rade na razvoju osnovnih jeziĦkih veńtina. Podaci koje smo dobili u tom istraņivanju pokazuju da veĤina nastavnika smatra da nastava leksike u okviru poduĦavanja stranog jezika treba da predstavlja izdvojen, planski osmińljen, aspekat. Mińljene ispitanika nam pokazuje da u metodici nastave leksike treba raditi pre svega na uvoħenju leksiĦkih testova, poveĤanju broja Ħasova leksiĦkih veņbanja i boljem usklaħivanju teorijskih disciplina sa upotrebnim komponentama jezika. Dragocen podatak tiĦe se stava nastavnika o krajnjim ciljevima uĦenja i usvajanja leksiĦkih znanja i kompetencija. Leksika koju studenti treba da poseduju po zavrńetku filolońkih studija treba da se kreĤe u ńirokom rasponu: od leksike opńteg karaktera do osnova uskostruĦne leksike Ħije bi poznavanje pomoglo buduĤim nastavnicima, pismenim i usmenim prevodiocima kao i nauĦnim radnicima da samostalno, profesionalno i kreativno obavljaju ove pozive. Ostaje da zakljuĦimo kako nastava leksike mora da predstavlja deo univerzitetskog kurikuluma i kao takva treba da bude sastavni deo jeziĦko-obrazovne politike. U takvoj nastavi imperativ treba da predstavljaju potrebe jeziĦkog kursa, studentske potrebe, zahtevi trņińta a primarno treba razmińljati o najraznovrsnijim tehnikama i strategijama leksiĦkog uĦenja jer jedino one mogu olakńati studentima uĦenje i usvajanje nove leksike i doprineti njenom kvantitetu i odgovarajuĤem akademskom kvalitetu. Summary The paper examines how the teaching of foreign lexicon is designed at the philology studies within a university concept and particularly as a part of the curriculum for future lecturers, interpreters and scientific workers. A survey conducted among Italian language teachers revealed that lexical schooling is seen as more productive if lectured in compliance with curriculum but designed as a separate and programmatic segment (whole). It has been concluded that application of certain theoretical explanations, techniques and strategies in such designed curriculum would result in better development of lexical knowledge and competence. The goal of such didactics is the development of a competency in association of grammatical and semantically dimension of a word, faster learning and acquiring as well as the contextually proper use of a lexicon. References Diadori, P., Palermo, M. i Troncarelli, D., (2009). Manuale di didattica dell‘italiano L2 (str. 149 – 152). Perugia: Guerra Edizioni. Hunt, A., Beglar, D. (2002). Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary. U Richards, J. i Renandya, W., (prir.), Methodology in Language Teaching, An Anthology of Current Practice (str. 258-265). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jiang, N. (2000). Lexical Representation and Development in a Second Language. Applied Linguistics, 21 (1), 4777. Jordan, J.J. (2000). English for Academic Purposes: A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers (str. 149-152). Cambridge University Press. Marello, C., Corda, A. (2004). Lessico. Insegnarlo e impararlo. Perugia: Guerra Edizioni. SamardņiĤ, M. (2007). MoguĤnost prilagoħavanja nastave teorijskih jeziĦkih disciplina zahtevima ZajedniĦkog Evropskog Okvira za ņive jezike. U VuĦo, J., (prir.), Savremene tendencije u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti. (str. 532540). Beograd: Ministarstvo za nauku i zańtitu ņivotne sredine. Filolońki fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. Scholfield, P. J. (1999). Vocabulary: Second Language Pedagogy. U Spolsky, B., (prir.), Concise Encyclopedia of Educational Linguistics (str. 678 – 682). Oxford: Elsevier Science, Pergamon. Singleton, D. (2006). Lexical Transfer: Interlexical or Intralexical?. U Arabski, J. (prir.), Cross-linguistic Influences in the Second Language Lexicon (str. 130-143). Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd. VuĦo, J. (1998). Leksika udţbenika stranog jezika. Podgorica: Univerzitet Crne Gore, Cetinje: Ńtamparija Obod d.d. 684 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 102 Title A name given to the resource Nastava leksike stranog jezika na akademskim studijama Author Author Drljević, Jelena Abstract A summary of the resource. Cilj ovog rada je da pruņi teorijski uvid u dosadańnja istraņivanja koja se tiĦu metodike nastave leksike stranog jezika (L2). PolazeĤi od ovog opńeg okvira pokuńaĤemo da se u nastavku rada posebno zadrņimo na akademskoj leksiĦkoj kompetenciji stranog jezika. Naime, uzimajuĤi u obzir specifiĦan nastavni kontekst, kakav je filolońki fakultet uopńte, i ciljnu grupu, odnosno studentsku populaciju, potrudiĤemo se da definińemo leksiku stranog jezika koji se uĦi u akademskom okruņenju kao i pojedine aspekte njenog poduĦavanja. O usvajanju ovakve leksike treba razmińljati kao o neodvojivoj komponenti kurikuluma buduĤih nastavnika i prevodilaca. U tom smislu, postavljaju se brojna pitanja: Na koji naĦin moņemo najbolje da pribliņimo studentima leksiku stranog jezika? Kako organizovati plansko (odvojeno) uĦenje leksike, buduĤi da je i proces usvajanja leksike, u okviru usvajanja L2, odvojen segment? Koji je, ili kakav treba da bude, krajnji cilj uĦenja i usvajanja leksike stranog jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu? Kako Ĥe se nova leksika koristiti? Gde Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? Kada Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? i sliĦno. Dakle cilj nam je da definińemo okvire ovog bitnog jeziĦkog nivoa ali i odgovorimo na pitanje: kako treba da bude organizovana nastave leksike L2 u vezi sa potrebama studenata filolońkih studija. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9518a7d250b8a778641b4e2d9a551377.pdf a472a28cd81019ea6e1a0593f9be0ee8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ABSTRACTS 1409 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo PRISONERS OF DREAMS AND DEFEATED DREAMERS: DESIRE UNDER THE ELMS VS. THE CONSUL, THE TANNER, AND THE ACTRESS Adriana Carina Duban "1 Decembrie 1918" University of Alba Iulia, Romania carina_beba@yahoo.com The present paper attempts to offer a comparative study between Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama Desire under the Elms and Diplomatul, tãbãcarul Ģi actriţa (The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress) by Carol Ardeleanu. I will undertake to compare two stories about aspiration towards high-class status, beauty, happiness, freedom, and justice paid for by sacrifice, suffering and extreme passion that dominate the characters‘ lives. Both in Desire under the Elms and in The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress the characters are prisoners of their own passions, vices and dreams. The walls, the ground, the protagonists‘ manner of speaking, etc. become signs of imprisonment as well. Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama and The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress therefore draw their ‗life‘ from what is genuine in the human experience and existence. In the end, the characters cannot find a way to escape from their houses and environments, and become prisoners of disillusionment, coffins, or unrealistic aspirations. Both authors share a tragic vision of existence, and focus on tragic stories about ―prisoners‖ of dreams and defeated romantic dreamers. Key words: imprisonment, disillusionment, vice, passion, dream 1410 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Metacognitive awareness of using reading strategies in SLA Ahmad Alhaqbani The Department of Linguistics Macquarie University, Australia alhaqbani27@gmail.com While use of reading strategies is considered beneficial to second language learners, metacognitive awareness of using reading strategies is a critical aspect to skilled reading, especially in the academic contexts. This presentation is part of a large-scale study which aims to investigate a) the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies among non-native undergraduate students of Arabic, and b) if there is any relationship between the students' awareness of the reading strategies and their reading comprehension. 122 undergraduate students, who were studying Arabic as their second language, participated in this study, which took place at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia. This presentation will start by providing a brief theoretical background of the study then an overview of the methodology will be outlined, which include the self-report questionnaire (Survey of Reading Strategies SORS) as well as the reading comprehension test. This presentation will also show the preliminary results of the study along with its implications for teaching reading strategies to second language learners of Arabic. It is anticipated that this study will provide a better understanding about the reading strategies and behaviors that those students use when reading Arabic academic texts. 1411 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Afterthoughts on Stability of Idioms Anahit Hovhannisyan Gyumri State Pedagogical Institute, Armenia a_hovhannisyan@mail.ru Recent linguistic and psychological research in this field has shown that the traditional approach to the study of idioms should be reconsidered from a new angle. In numerous publications on the subject it has been convincingly shown that in a particular context such units undergo semantic changes as a result of which the original and figurative meanings of the components are brought back to life to make a new metaphoric sense. In the frame of this presentation we‘ll make an attempt to prove that in a definite speech idioms undergo not only semantic but also structural changes. Semantic and structural aspects are considered as two sides of the same coin and therefore should be analyzed in one complexity. There has been established a set of elementary devices every one of which is metalinguistically designated: substitution, insertion, ellipsis, etc. What we actually find in speech is the combination of these devices which results in very complex metasemiotic process when a new metaphor or ―metametaphor‖ is created. The examples of various kinds account also for a much greater syntactic flexibility of an idiom that linguists used to claim: in a particular discourse situation the order of constituents is changed. Keywords: metametaphor, metasemiotic process, syntactic flexibility, discourse situation 1412 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF CROATIAN MEDICAL DISCOURSE ANAMARIJA GJURAN-COHA SCHOOL OF MEDICINEE, UNIVERSITY OF RIJEKA, Croatia agjuran@medri.hr BRIGITA BOSNAR-VALKOVIģ FACULTY FOR TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF RIJEKA, Croatia bbosnarvalkovic@fthm.hr Medical language is aimed at communication among physicians and (or) other health professionals and patients. Undoubtly, it has been affected by globalization, a process that has an impact on socioeconomic, political, cultural and language dimension of society. The development of globalization has been closely associated with the power and dominance of English. It influenced the languages for special purposes (LSP), which are liable to changes and innovations on all levels. Thje aim of this paper is to examine the linguistic features of Croatian medical discourse. Functional styles relevant to medical discourse, frequent usage of anglicisms, unnecessary abbreviations, changes on the syntactic and semantic levels will be analyzed as well as attitudes of health care professionals towards the influx of anglicisms into Croatian medical terminology. Key words: LSP, medical discourse, Croatian medical terminology, attitudes 1413 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FREQUENCY, TYPE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES OF PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN TURKEY Banu Inan English Language Teaching Department Kocaeli University, Turkey banu.inan@kocaeli.edu.tr When the basic purpose is conveying the messages and remaining in a conversation in an EFL context, communication strategies are of great significance for learners of English. Knowledge based on these strategies is extremely important for prospective teachers of English, who will teach such strategies to their students in the future. The aim of this research is to identify the difficulties and the frequency, type and effectiveness of the communication strategies used to cope with these difficulties by the prospective teachers of English at a Turkish University. The findings will be discussed in detail during the presentation. Key Words: communication strategies, prospective teachers of English 1414 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A Comparative Study of Football Commentators‘ Discourse in English and Persian Languages Biook Behnam Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran behnam_biook@yahoo.com Neda Bimesl Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran n_bimesl@yahoo.com In various contexts, different types of language are selected to make the language forms appropriate to situations. In this spirit, in sport context, without much planning time, sport commentators have to use language in a form that would make them able to quickly describe the activities as fluently and accurately as possible. Thus, a particular use of language is demanded in commentaries. Beard (1998) defines commentary as reporting simultaneously what is seen on the screen. Under time pressure, as Holmes (2008) notes, they use a telegraphic grammar which involves syntactic reductions and inversions of normal word order. According to Kuiper (2000), they also use special kind of formulas and routines in order to help them to speak fluently during a running commentary. Thus, their language follows certain linguistic formulas and has got distinctive vocabulary and grammatical features. Ferguson (1983) has suggested a framework for analyzing the language of a sport commentator. These are six selected syntactic characteristics including, simplification, inversions, result expressions, heavy noun modifiers, tense usage and routines. This study wants to compare the similarities between English and Persian commentators' language use according to Ferguson's (1983) suggested framework. Using one English and one Persian Football matches‘ transcriptions, the study will examine only three of these features including: simplifications (subject, main verb, auxiliary be and pronoun plus to be), inversions (passive construction) and heavy noun modifiers. In order to have a better picture, the frequency and percentage of similar points will be evaluated and presented through separate graphs. 1415 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REASONS FOR USING OR AVOIDING GAMES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM Danica Milovan Jerotijevic The Faculty of Philology and Arts, Serbia and Montenegro danicajerotijevic@gmail.com Miljana Stojkovic High Business School, Serbia and Montenegro nele_trajce@yahoo.com The aim of the present paper is to determine the reasons why teachers` and students`either use or avoid games in the classroom, as well as to discover the possible obstacles of using games in an EFL classroom. The research was conducted on teachers and students of the English language in Leskovac and Nis, cities in southern Serbia. The main research technique employed was a questionnaire. 197 participants, 178 students and 19 teachers, participated in the afore mentioned questionnaire. The results of the research prove that teachers as well as students have more reasons for using than for avoiding games in the classroom. Along with the research, the paper outlines certain obstacles that may appear when introducing game in the classroom which must be overcome. The results suggest that games should be introduced since both the teachers and students have found sufficient benefitial reasons for their usage. Furthermore, the research highlights some significant disadvantages of using games that teachers should beware of and try to overcome along with their students. Keywords: EFL, educational games, teachers, students 1416 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reflections on teacher trainees‘ understandings about teaching English that are gained through a kindergarten practicum Eda Üstünel English Language Teaching Muğla University, Turkey eda.ustunel@gmail.com In the teaching of very young learners, who are developing their L1 proficiency at the same time they are learning a foreign language, oral language ability and literacy skills in English are often assumed to develop concurrently and even to facilitate one another. Few studies, if any, have considered possible differences in approaches to language and literacy in teaching English as a foreign language to very young Turkish learners in the EFL classroom context. Thus, in this presentation, I suggest ways to teach very young Turkish EFL learners with a focus on oral language skills. For this purpose, 55 English language teacher trainees studying at their 3rd year at Muğla University typed reflective papers first at the beginning and then at the end of their kindergarten practicum experience. Each teacher trainee is asked to describe the following points in their reflective papers: Your knowledge about the linguistic development of children at the age of 5 in their first language (L1) and second/foreign language (L2) Any experience of teaching L1 and English to a child at the age of 5 you may have had Your thoughts and feelings on teaching English to very young learners in a Turkish EFL classroom context Your own definition of children at the age of 5 linguistically, cognitively and psychologically The reflective papers are collected and analysed by the researcher. The reflective papers show teacher trainees personal and professional growth over the semester by revising and developing points made in their ‗first day‘ writing. Moreover, each trainee is observed at his/her kindergarten practicum by the researcher. The researcher also conducts a semi-structured interview with each trainee on their first reflective paper and the teaching experience that they gain during the practicum. After the interview, each trainee is asked to write a reflective paper for the last time. Comments from these papers, classroom observations and interviews will be discussed in the light of trainees‘ understandings gained through the course and be supported with notes from their reflective papers. Keywords: Teaching English as a foreign language to very young learners, oral language development in EFL children, Turkish EFL children, kindergarten practicum, English language teacher trainees, personal and professional growth in teacher education. 1417 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Personalization in Advertising Discourse Elena Kurchenkova Volgograd State University, Russian Federation kurlena@mail.ru This article describes the concept of personalization as one of the strategies of advertising discourse. Under the personalization the author understands the use of language means in ad texts to release the recipient as an individual personality. Particular attention is paid to the tactics of dialogization, which is regarded as a special feature of personalization. 1418 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Effective Teachers' Behavior in ELT from Students' Perspectives Eyyup AKIL University of Gaziantep, Turkey e-akil@hotmail.com In this research, it was aimed to find out the ―Effective Teachers‘ Behavior (ETB)‖ used by the teachers in preparatory classes of Higher School of Foreign Languages in University of Gaziantep (HSFLUG). This study was carried out from students‘ perspective since they are at the core point of the teaching/learning process. 170 preparatory students at HSFLUG (n= 56 females and n= 114 males) participated in the study. Data was collected through a developed questionnaire which had thirty-five items. The reliability of the questionnaire was .96. The data analyses were conducted by descriptive and inferential statistics. Chi-square was applied for each item and it was understood that there were no significant difference between the English proficiency level of students and the way they evaluated their teachers. Significant difference was found only for eight items. Students‘ success was correlated with the scores that they gave to their teachers (r = -.063 and .411). As a result, no significant relationship between students‘ success and teachers‘ effectiveness was found. It was found that effective teachers‘ behavior does not have effect on students‘ success (t=14.87 and p= .62). 1419 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo MAMMA LI TURCHI: OTHERNESS IN WORLD LITERATURE Gıyasettin AYTAġ Department of Turkish Language Teaching Gazi University, Turkey giyaytas@gazi.edu.tr BaĢak Uysal Department of Turkish Language Teaching Gazi University, Turkey basakuysal@hotmail.com And now, what's going to happen to us without barbarians? They were, those people, a kind of solution. Kavafis Deep structure between societies and nations have been included much more than religious, politic and social confrontations. For analysing this deep structure there have been lots of studies in different disciplines. Literature teaching is one of the this areas, too. Image perception between cultures and societies has been recently studied in literature teaching. One of the important material about cultural perceptions for other societies in terms of others is widely-esteemed artificer's works. Because of this reason, to determine and identify image of people in determined period, these artificer's works will give us to lead. And we can gathered essential information for image perceptions from a novel, poem or any other artistic material. During historical processes societies's ways have been constantly intersected but sometimes contradicted. Even though these conflinctings have been solved, sometimes some of them have been postponed without finding a solution. Surely, these problems have been arised from confrontations in deep structure. In this study, image of Turks in 21st century world literature has been evaluated through cultural and historical backgrounds. For this aim, 10 novels from world literature have been detected and evaluated through different disciplines. These novels have been selected from African literature, American literature, Arabic literature, Asian literature, Australasian literature, English literature, European literature, Indian literature, Latin American literature and Russian literature. 21st century has been classificated a multicultural and multilingual world. In this respect, this study also has been tried to determine the term of "other" for societies and these findings will be important for multi-cultural world. 1420 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Narrativity Effect in Abstract Vocabulary Retention Hadi Farjami OfDepartment of English Language and Literature Semnan University, Iran hadifarjami@gmail.com There is considerable evidence from different studies that narratives and stories are effective assets in many areas of education, particularly those which have language as a goal. Learning the vocabulary of a language is both important and demanding. It is even more of a challenge when it comes to words with no palpable reference in the world outside, which is the case with abstract words. What proves to be an effective teaching strategy in many fields of education-- stories or narrative genre in general-- might be helpful with learning abstract words, too. So, this study investigated the effect of narrativity on the immediate and delayed retention of abstract words. The participants in the study were 40 female university students from different majors ranging from 18 to 20 in age and learning general English in a compulsory course. They participated in a two session vocabulary instruction program taught by one of the researchers. The teacher taught them fortyseven abstract words embedded in two stories and two non-narrative expository texts, which were paired two by two in terms of difficulty level and the abstract words they included. After administering a proficiency test for including homogenous subjects in the experiment, who could connect to the chosen texts and target vocabulary, the screened learners were randomly assigned to two groups of 20. During two sessions, the experimental group studied the forty-seven abstract words in the context of the two short stories, while the control group studied them through the two non-narrative passages. The results of achievement tests, administered immediately after the study sessions and after a one-week delay showed that those who studied abstract words in narrative texts outperformed those who studied them in non-narrative texts in both immediate and delayed recall. T-tests showed that the narrative group maintained a significant and substantial advantage in recall of abstract words over control students on each occasion. Key words: abstract vocabulary, narrativity, stories, vocabulary retention, text genre 1421 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Acquisition of derivational morphology in the Serbian EFL context: insights and implications Jelena Danilovic Department English, Faculty of Philology and Arts University of Kragujevac , Serbia and Montenegro jelenadanilce@gmail.com Jovana Dimitrijevic Savic Department English, Faculty of Philology and Arts University of Kragujevac , Serbia and Montenegro j.dimitrijevic.savic@gmail.com Although it has long been an under-researched topic in the field of applied linguistics, morphological knowledge is nowadays regarded as a key component of vocabulary acquisition. The past two decades have witnessed a proliferation of studies of both L1 and L2 learning contexts which shed light on various issues, ranging from morphological processing to receptive/productive knowledge of derivational and inflectional morphology. However, investigations into the acquisition of English morphology by Serbian EFL learners have, to our knowledge, been scarce. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, to explore the productive derivational knowledge of upper-intermediate Serbian EFL learners, first-year students majoring in English at the Faculty of Philology and Arts in Kragujevac, by means of three different instruments: a test focusing on the knowledge of the four main word family members (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), a test of cognate and non-cognate derivatives employing six cognate English-Serbian suffixes (-ous/-oz(a)n, -ize/-izovati, -ation/-acija, -ism/iz(a)m, -ist/-ist(a), -ity/-itet) and a contextualized word-formation skill test. A combination of a qualitative and quantitative approach to data analysis has revealed the difficulties Serbian EFL learners have been experiencing in their morphology/vocabulary classes and it has enabled us to identify common mistakes and weak spots. Our results have pedagogical implications and could be put to use in curriculum design and methodology. 1422 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Applied Linguistics University Courses Among English Language Students Jelena Markovic Department of English language and literature, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina jelenam52@gmail.com Applied linguistics is a very young interdisciplinary field, having language and linguistics as its cornerstones, but also including psychology, sociology, pedagogy. It has been enormously growing in its scope ever since it first appeared. Highly respected by most practitioners, neglected by others, it is the discipline struggling for its final recognition among scientific disciplines. Among other courses, English language students at some departments attend applied linguistics courses. It is interesting to find out what they think of these courses. Therefore the aim of this article is to explore the attitudes of English language students towards courses of applied linguistics at their BA studies. The method used is a questionnaire designed so as to provide answers to the basic groups of questions: whether students find these courses as important as linguistic courses (morphology, syntax), whether they find them interesting, and whether they would like to broaden their applied linguistics knowledge. Key Words: linguistics, applied linguistics, attitude, usefulness, students 1423 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A Comparative Study Of Compliment Responses in Russian And Turkish Jiydegul Alymidin kyzy English Language Teaching Department Fatih University, Turkey jiydegul@hotmail.com Nowadays as international relationships are increased in every area of our life the need for intercultural communication is becoming crucial. Intercultural competence is needed for an effective intercultural relationship. Especially, in foreign language teaching in order to learn a foreign language properly one needs to know the culture -the way of thinking, social values and the norms- of that society. The empirical researches carried out so far on differences in making refusals, thanking, apologizing and responding to compliments make it clear that the same speech act can be realized quite differently across different cultures. Al these studies show that not knowing the sociolinguistic rules of the target language may cause a pragmatic failure. This study investigates compliment responses (CR) among Russian Turkish and Turkish speakers. The data were collected through the use of written Discourse Completion Task (DTC), with 20 questions on 4 topics (appearance, character, ability and possession). Total 45 university students participated in the study. The study aimed at comparing and contrasting CRs in Russian and Turkish, helping students from different cultural background to understand each others better, reducing the possibility of intercultural and pragmatic failure. Key words: Compliment Responses, Intercultural Communication, Foreign Language Teaching, Pragmatic Failure 1424 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reducing The Anxiety Level While Developing Communicative Skills In English As a Foreign Language Joanna Lewińska English Philology Wszechnica Polska joanna.lewinska.net@gmail.com While developing communicative skills in a foreign language a teacher has to remember about individual preferences of students, their subjective expectations and different learning styles. Thus, a teacher has to vary the speaking techniques to offer as much opportunity as possible to make all learners find something interesting. Developing speaking skills definitely deserves a closer look. Adult students in particular during the early and intermediate stages of learning experience anxiety while speaking in a foreign language because they do not know enough words and phrases to express concepts they would like to. The causes of students‘ reluctance to speak are varied. In my presentation the major problems of Polish adult learners while speaking English will be discussed. In addition, a few effective techniques in reducing the anxiety level while speaking in English will be analysed. 1425 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Modernism vs. Postmodernism: A Study of Sam Shepard‘s Dramatic Dilemma Mehrnoosh Emamzadeh Sama College, Islamic Azad University, Iran mohnoosh20@yahoo.com The American dramatist, Sam Shepard (1943-present) has now gained a reputation as one of the icons of the postmodern aesthetics, actively engaged in American stage. In his plays, he traverses the modernist borders of logic, order and social coherence in order to picture a fractured mythic and cultural territory, filled with disintegration, loss of identity and bafflement. In some of his best dramatic works, he artistically portrays heroes who struggle to preserve their old self, while being inevitably entangled within the challenging games and rules of a wholly postmodern condition This paper attempts to analyze the various interpretive dilemmas and tensions in Sam Shepard‘s writings which can be seen as representing an unresolved conflict between modernist and postmodernist perspectives on such issues as fragmentation of language, nature of subjectivity and the search for coherence and meaning in mass culture. In doing so, attempts have been made to demonstrate how this challenging shift form modernist high arts to postmodernist embracing commercial forms, suggested in Shepard‘s discourse of popular culture, is marked by an awareness of the latter‘s limitations and obstacles and would ultimately reveal an ambivalence toward postmodernism itself .This undertaking will be an endeavor to answer these key questions: How is the erosion of distinction between high and popular culture, rendered in the conflict and tension among characters in the play? How are the dark possibilities of postmodern fractured discourse contrasted with the modernist notion of a centered and unified language? How do the plays impart the postmodern sense that subject is constituted in language and discourse? Key words: dramatic dilemma, Sam Shepard, language fragmentation 1426 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Croatian translations of Eugène Ionesco Mirna SindiĦiĤ Sabljo Department of French University of Zadar, Croatia msindici@unizd.hr Eugène Ionesco's work is present in Croatia since 1956 when his first play, The Bald Soprano, was staged in Zagreb. During the same decade two more of his plays (The Lesson, The Chairs) were also translated and staged. In the 1960‘s and 1970's a considerable number of Ionesco's essays and theoretical texts was translated, which is understandable considering the fact that Ionesco was an unofficial spokesman of the socalled the Theatre of the Absurd. Most of the translations of Ionesco‘s plays were published during and after the 1980‘s when he has already become a classic of the World literature and became a part of the School study program. The aim of this paper is to present the Croatian translations of Ionesco‘s work, taking into account a literary and historical context when the translations were made and published. A part of the paper will focus on a comparative analysis of the two existing Croatian translations of the Chairs, made by Radovan IvńiĤ and Ivan Kuńan. The paper will also consider the translation strategies (used in the translation of the titles and characters‘ names) adopted by the Croatian translators and the fact that a dramatic text cannot be translated in the same way as a prose text because its full potential is realized only in the performance. 1427 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo How Does Washback Influence Reading Comprehension in ESP Classes? Implications for Iranian Medical Students MohammadReza Kargozari Lecturer, English Department, MUMS Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran kargozarmr1@mums.ac.ir Vahideh Zolfaghari Mashhadi Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran zolfaghariv1@mums.ac.ir Mohammad Naser Shafiee Jafarabadi Head Of English Department, MUMS Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran shafieemn@mums.ac.ir Theoretical Background Good examinations are part of the education, without them education would be less effective. In fact, as Alderson (1984) mentioned, examination has a powerful influence on teaching. This influence of tests on teaching and learning is commonly referred to as washback. Literature indicates that testing washback is a complex concept that becomes even more complex under a variety of interpretations of the washback phenomenon on teaching and learning. Although it is widely perceived that washback exists, surprisingly little experimental research has been conducted into its existence in education in general, much less in language education. Aims The study has aimed to find convincing answers to the following questions: (1) Is there any relationship between continual formative tests and reading comprehension? (2) Does washback have any influence upon the EFL learners‘ English reading attitudes? Sample There are 130 medical students who enrolled at Mashhad University of Medical Sciences and have English course1 in four different classes, which two classes were randomly chosen as experimental and two classes as control group. By administering the Michigan Test of English Proficiency, in the very first session, the homogenity of two groups was approved. This test served as the pre-test for this study. At the end of the course, both groups will receive the same test as post-test to specify the effects of washback on their progress in reading comprehension. The participants‘ mother tongue is Persian, and all participants have been learning English as a foreign language at least for five years. Their age ranges between eighteen to twenty one years of age, and the average is nineteen years old. Method The material will be taught to both groups based on the method, which is prescribed by the Center for Studying and Compiling University Books in Humanities (SAMT), the researcher uses Chastain (1988) teaching reading strategies too. In experimental class after covering each lesson, students will receive a specific related formative test for that lesson. These tests meanwhile are the independent variables of this research. At the end of the course, both groups will receive post-test, to specify the effects of washback on their progress in reading comprehension. To know whether these formative tests have any effect on experimental students‘ attitudes, the data from the pre-administration of the English Reading Attitude Questionnaire (ERAQ) developed by Hung‘s (2000, cited in Chiang, 2005), which was held at the early stage of the course, will be compared with it's post administration which will be held one month after post test. Analysing of this study will have three sections in terms of treatment and measuring instruments utilized. The first section deals with reliability and descriptive statistics related to the reading comprehension tests applied. The second section discusses the students‘ performance on pre- and post-tests. Moreover, the third section reports the findings of the students‘ attitudes towards reading in English as will be measured by the English Reading Attitudes Questionnaire (ERAQ) in pre- and post-administration 1428 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Arabic-English bilingual children's metalinguistic awareness: Evidence from typological bilingualism Mohammed Nasser Alhuqbani Linguistics/Psycholinguistics King Fahd Secuirty College alhuqbani@yahoo.com This paper examined the effect of relative language typology on bilingual children's metalinguistic awareness. The participants were 37 Arabic-English bilingual children and 22 English monolingual children in grades K and 1. They received two tasks: word size judgment and lexical segmentation. Arabic-English bilinguals received similar tasks in Arabic. The English Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) was administered to all children. Arabic bilinguals were classified as balanced or unbalanced bilinguals based on their scores in the English PPVT and its equivalent test in Arabic (APVT). Overall, the results showed that children's ability to solve metalinguistic tasks improve with age and/or school experience regardless of task processing demands, bilingualism, relative language typology, or language of testing. 1429 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Global issues through intercultural communication, critical thinking & multiple intelligences Mustafa Zulkuf Altan Head of Foreign Languages Education Erciyes University, Turkey altanmz@erciyes.edu.tr English language teaching has always been accused of three important problems: lack of bringing real life to the classroom; the gap between EFL and main educational ideas; and the lack of content on its subject matter. Introducing global issues in EFL classes will not only resolve the aforementioned problems to some extent, but also will enable students to effectively acquire a foreign language while being empowered by the knowledge, skills, and commitment required by the 21st century world citizens. The presentation will introduce three areas to include global issues in EFL classes: intercultural communication, critical thinking and the theory of multiple intelligences. The presentation will especially focus and emphasize the 10th intelligence and how it relates to solving global problems. The speaker will be advocating an exciting approach which promotes global awareness, international understanding, and a commitment to working for a better world. 1430 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo One Language, Different Worlds – Aspects of Cross-Cultural Communication Training in a Business English Course Nataša Gajšt Department of Foreign Business Languages Faculty of Economics and Business University of Maribor, Slovenia natasa.gajst@uni-mb.si Verbal communication between the individuals belonging to different cultures is usually carried out in the language they all understand. Globalisation has placed English at the top of the languages used in international business. However, language is more than just vocabulary and syntax – language is a tool of communication, delivering a message. As business cooperation becomes increasingly culturally diverse, the need for understanding how ideas are expressed in individual cultures arises. Today, a vast majority of business communication in English is carried out by non-native speakers of English. The nationals of different countries use their language and speech in different ways and professionals using English for international business should be aware that the patterns of communication vary across the globe and that non-native speakers tend to apply the patterns of their native language when communicating in English. The main objective of the contribution is to highlight the differences in communication patterns of individual nations and how they relate to the use of English in international business. In our opinion, a business English course should provide the students with a core understanding of how communication differs across cultures despite being carried out in same language. The contribution first addresses the main dimensions of culture. Second, the use of language in bridging the communication gap is presented. The main focus of the paper is on different culture-specific communication patterns of business meetings, negotiations, presentations and written communication and how these aspects can be presented in a business English course. Key words: English as lingua franca, Business English, language teaching, communication patterns, specifics of culture, business meetings, business negotiations, intercultural competence 1431 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Turkish EFL Preserve Teachers‘ Characterization of EFL Teachers: A Survey Study Pinar Ersin Department of English Language Teaching Marmara University, Turkey persin@marmara.edu.tr Gokce Kurt Department of English Language Teaching Marmara University, Turkey gokcekurt@hotmail.com One of the key questions educational researchers investigate involves better understanding what it means to be a teacher. Researchers in general education have identified several universal teacher characteristics that transcend various disciplines. While educational researchers agree that these characteristics are relatively consistent across different subject matters, there is little agreement regarding discipline-specific teacher characteristics (Bell, 2005). The present study aims to investigate Turkish EFL preservice teachers‘ perceptions of the distinctive characteristics of EFL teachers. The data were collected by means of a questionnaire adopted from Lee (2009). Eighty-five freshmen level and ninety-eight senior level Turkish preservice teachers of English enrolled in a highly competitive state university in Istanbul, Turkey participated in the present study. Data were analyzed by using Statistical Package of the Social Sciences (SPSS) 13.0. The findings of the study will be discussed by referring to the relevant literature. By gaining a better understanding of what it means to be an EFL teacher in various settings, language teacher education can offer more nuanced portraits of the distinctiveness of EFL teachers in particular and English language teachers in general. 1432 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The awareness and preferences of EFL students on their perceptual learning styles Renan Saylağ English Language Instructor Bahcesehir University, Turkey renansaylag@gmail.com This study aims to examine the awareness and preferences of the students of EFL (English as a foreign language) at BahçeĢehir University Prep School on the perceptual learning styles. In this research, an interview and a learning style (VARK) inventory in a close-question format were conducted with 10 students by random sampling in order to identify the learning styles of the students. Before applying the questionnaire an interview with open-ended questions was applied in order to raise the students‘ awareness and to check out if they were aware of their own learning styles. This study also aimed to examine whether the students‘ awareness on their learning styles affects their academic performance. The results of the study showed that majority (%60) of the students are visual learners while the rest %20 appeared as auditory and the other %20 was included in both kinesthetic-visual and auditory in equal rates. 1433 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH FOCUS ON FORM IN MEANING-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION IN TWO EFL CLASSES SAEED KARIMI AGHDAM ORDAKLOU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT TEHRAN TEACHER TRAINING UNIVERSITY, IRAN S_KARIMI_AGHDAM@YAHOO.MAIL.COM This paper sets out to report on an empirical scrutinization of effects of the form-focused instruction and one of the techniques of corrective feedback viz. recast on the accuracy of the EFL learners‘ performance in using third- person possessive determiners his and her while doing meaning –focused oral tasks by intermediate EFL learners in a language institute in Tehran , Iran. This study compared two EFL classes in which 15 learners were present. One group of learners received corrective feedback concerning third-person possessive determiners in the form of intensively recast- enriched classroom activities and the other control group was merely exposed to meaning-focused instructional interventions in which frequency of recast significantly was low compared with experimental group. Over two-week period, the instructional interactions and exchanges of 12 hours between teacher and students in both classes were video-recorded and transcribed. Participants‘ knowledge of third-person possessive determiners was assessed on the pre-post test basis drawing upon oral communicative tasks and the results were compared with one another aiming at shedding light on the effects of recasts on the interlanguage (IL) development of the learners and more specifically on the accuracy of the learners` performance in using one of the most difficult aspects of English grammar for learners of English whose mother tongue is Persian. The results suggest that frequency of recast as one of the conscious-raising techniques and treatments may yield significantly more accurate third-person possessive determiners use in learners' language production whose consciousness rose about targeted grammatical structure compared with learners who just were engaged in meaning-focused interactions in EFL class. It seems, therefore, that corrective reformulations in the form of recasts entail promotion of at least short-term accuracy in language use and interlanguage development of EFL learners` communicative competence 1434 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On the compounding and derivation in English: a report of a corpus investigation Stanimir Vojislav Rakic Belgrade University, Serbia and Montenegro starakic@gmail.com In the theory of lexical phonology and morphology, phonological and morphological rules are assigned to separate levels of the lexicon which are supposed to define their domain and manner of application. According to Kiparsky (1982), lexicon is divided into hierarchically ordered levels: (1) Level 1: 1st order affixes and irregular inflection Level 2: 2nd order affixes and compounding Level 3: regular inflection Postlexical level: syntax On the bases of the corpus of more than 7000 compounds extracted from Longman (2003) I analyse the distribution of affixes in the structure of English compounds, and conclude that both the first order and the second order affixes can take part on the building of compounds, while only the second order affixes can be affixed to compounds. I further analyse the cases of conversions, backformations and paradigmatic formations involving compounds having in mind hierarchical relations shown in (1). I particularly note derivations which violate or transgress these relations. Literature Kiparsky, P. (1982) Lexical phonology and morphology, u I.S. Yung (ed.) Linguistics in the morning calm, Seoul, Hanshin Publishing Co. 1435 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Evaluating the Bridge Between the Target and Learning Needs of Students ġeyda Selen Çimen Department of Foreign Language Education Middle East Technical University-Ankara s.selen.ozkan@gmail.com AyĢegül Daloğlu Department of Foreign Language Education Middle East Technical University-Ankara daloglu@metu.edu.tr This study aims to investigate the English Language needs of the students in the Intensive English Program at the School of Foreign Languages and the first-year students at the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University. The needs analysis in the study was conducted based on the three systematic steps suggested by Brown (1995). Answers to the following research questions are sought through a needs analysis study: · What are the English target language needs of preparatory school students who will attend the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University? · What are the English language learning needs of first-year English-medium department students in the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University? · What are the differences between the target and learning needs of preparatory school and first year of English-medium department students in the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University? · What are the differences between the perceptions of preparatory school and departmental instructors on the students English language needs? Hutchinson and Waters‘ (1987; 54-55) define needs as ―the ability to comprehend and produce the linguistic features of the target situation‖ and their further distinction between target needs and learning needs are taken as the basis of this research study. The needs analysis in this study was conducted followed the three systematic steps suggested by Brown (1995): 1) Making basic decisions about the needs analysis, 2) Gathering information, and 3) Using the information. The data for the study was obtained through a questionnaire adapted from Canbay (2006) and the participants involved in the study are both instructors and students from the preparatory school and the faculty of engineering in Muğla University. SPSS14 packet program is used for analyzing the data and analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to analyze the differences between the independent groups. Frequencies and percentages demonstrate the perceptions on the target and learning needs of the students attending the preparatory school and English-medium departments of the faculty of engineering in Muğla University. And finally, conclusions are drawn and implications are identified accordingly. 1436 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Cultural Subtext of the Post-War British Cinema Tijana Parezanovic Faculty of Foreign Languages Alfa University, Serbia and Montenegro tijanaparezanovic@gmail.com This paper will aim to investigate the applicability of film to teaching English language, literature and culture, with the special focus placed on teaching British culture to university students. Although films represent original cultural phenomena, the theory of film has always been influenced by and perhaps dependent on other fields of study, including linguistics, literature and sociology. The first part of the paper deals with the analysis of cultural aspects of the classic comedies produced by Ealing Studios during the 40s and 50s. In exploring the conflict between individuals and the establishment, these comedies often made considerable use of the characteristically British humour, gallows humour and satire, the understanding of which requires comprehensive knowledge of the English language and British cultural idiosyncrasies. The Ealing Studios comedies provide a unique perspective on the spirit of post-war times, which makes them untypically useful in teaching the history and culture of the period. The second part of the paper deals with students‘ feedback on the use of films in academic courses and the analysis of the media‘s didactic value. 1437 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHONEME-PERCEPTUAL, PHONOLOGICAL AND ARTICULATION ABILITIES Tsvetanka Lukanova Tsenova Department of Special Education and Logopedics Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski", Bulgaria cenova_cc@abv.bg The report focuses on the question for the content of phoneme-perceptual and phonological abilities in preschool-age children. Old and new theories in these areas are analyzed. The author presents a research on the ability of recognition of speech sounds into words in 268 preschool-age children with and without specific (functional) articulation disorders. The purpose is to explore the ability to identify (to recognize) the sounds in words in children from both groups as an indicator of the relationship between articulation, phoneme perception and phonological knowledge; to reveal the influence of the phonetic characteristics of speech sounds (phonemes) and of sound`s position in words on their identification. Quantitative but not qualitative differences are found between the two groups - all children use common identification strategy in respect of all sounds and for all children certain sounds are easier to identify than others. Moreover the research shows the influence of psychophonetic factors on the process of recognition of speech sounds into words. The main factors are the acoustic features of the speech sound and its position into the word. The results reflected in the speech-language therapy and in the teaching of native and foreign language. Key Words: speech perception, phonological knowledge, articulation disorders, phonological disorders, recognition of speech sounds into words. 1438 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Evaluation of Technical English Course at ESOGU FLD Ümit Özkanal Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey ozkanal@gmail.com Eskisehir Osmangazi University Foreign Languages Department supplies an English preparatory program for the Mechanical, Computer and Electric-Electronics department students of the Engineering Faculty. As of 2009-2010 academic year, the FLD added an ESP course in the curriculum for the students so that they can become familiar with the technical vocabulary and phrases. The course was delivered in the second term of the academic year as two hours a week. A technical textbook was chosen for the students and the instructors delivered the course for 15 weeks. During the term 3 pop quizzes were applied and some questions related to the course were included in each mid-term. 300 students were involved in the study and they were given a Likert Type questionnaire containing questions about the course and if the course was useful in their first year academic courses. Most of the students expressed that the course was good in supplying them technical vocabulary and they felt themselves ready for the technical courses in the department. 1439 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Student Teacher‘s Professional Learning in Teaching Practicum Xiuli MA The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong musclely@gmail.com Mentorship in the teaching practicum is a key question in pre-service teacher education. The popular model is that student teachers (STs) get guidance from their teacher mentors and/or university supervisors. Distinct from the dominant global model, the practicum model of TCSL (Teaching Chinese as a Second Language) in mainland China is featured as non-mentorship, i.e., STs of TCSL are not provided with mentor support or other professional guidance in the teaching practicum. Given this context, how STs undertake their professional learning and achieve professional growth has rarely been addressed. This research aims to understand the learning experience of student teacher in a context devoid of teacher mentor. The target program in this study is a master program of TCSL in Beijing. Informed by Wenger's social learning theory and Brookfield's significant personal learning perspective, this study follows four STs during a four-month practicum and explores how they utilize resources available to undertake professional learning and achieve professional growth. Research methods in this study involve STs' reflective journal, interview and classroom observation. This paper will mainly discuss the initial finding of one case participating in this research. The findings reveal how the ST's effort to widen her professional community was demotivated by the context and how she achieved professional growth by resorting to her personal community. The findings shall shed light on the improvement of the current teacher education programmes of TCSL and also enrich our understanding towards the prospective teachers of teaching second language in diverse contexts. 1440 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 696 Title A name given to the resource PRISONERS OF DREAMS AND DEFEATED DREAMERS: DESIRE UNDER THE ELMS VS. THE CONSUL, THE TANNER, AND THE ACTRESS Author Author Duban, Adriana Carina Abstract A summary of the resource. The present paper attempts to offer a comparative study between Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama Desire under the Elms and Diplomatul, tãbãcarul Ģi actriţa (The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress) by Carol Ardeleanu. I will undertake to compare two stories about aspiration towards high-class status, beauty, happiness, freedom, and justice paid for by sacrifice, suffering and extreme passion that dominate the characters‘ lives. Both in Desire under the Elms and in The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress the characters are prisoners of their own passions, vices and dreams. The walls, the ground, the protagonists‘ manner of speaking, etc. become signs of imprisonment as well. Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama and The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress therefore draw their ‗life‘ from what is genuine in the human experience and existence. In the end, the characters cannot find a way to escape from their houses and environments, and become prisoners of disillusionment, coffins, or unrealistic aspirations. Both authors share a tragic vision of existence, and focus on tragic stories about ―prisoners‖ of dreams and defeated romantic dreamers. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/87eb3b39069a81bd5aee8053f6cf1b5f.pdf 10284cf74caab49db6002a1954bc9670 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo INTERCULTURAL COMMUNIVATIVE COMPETENCE - Intercultural Dialogue in Teaching Foreign Language LiteratureTatjana Dumitraskovic University of East sarajevo Faculty of Pedagogy,Bijeljina e-mail: tanjadumi@yahoo.com Abstract: In all European countries pluralism and diversity has become an every day reality. To ensure a harmonious interaction between people and groups with different cultural and religious identities, respect for cultural diversity, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation are becoming basic social skills needed by every European citizen. Intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, intercultural competence must be understood as one of the preconditions for individuals to cope with the new challenges of having to build societies that must be based on respecting people in their diversity. Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behaviour in an intensive way. Language is one of the most visible elements of culture and in that sense a central aspect in intercultural communication. That is why it must not be used as a means of dominance, but can be one tool of communication. Teaching foreign languages means not only teaching the language itself but to constantly develop intercultural awareness through intercultural communicative competence and intercultural skills. We cannot be competent in a foreign language if we do not understand the culture that has shaped it and how that culture relates to our first language culture. It is not only essential to have cultural awareness, but also intercultural awareness. Intercultural communicative competence is an attempt to raise students` awareness of their own culture, and in doing so, help them to understand other cultures. Key words: intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, foreign language, intercultural communicative competence INTRODUCTION In all European countries cultural pluralism and diversity has become an every day reality. To ensure a harmonious interaction between people and groups with different cultural and religious identities, respect for cultural diversity, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation are becoming basic social skills needed by every European citizen. Intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, intercultural competence must be understood as one of the preconditions for individuals to cope with the new challenges of having to build societies that must be based on respecting people in their diversity. What is meant by the word `culture`? All ideas about intercultural learning are built on an implicit or explicit idea about culture. We can define it as a way of life, a set of social practices, a system of beliefs, a shared history or set of experiences. A culture may be synonymous with a country, or a region, or a nationality or it may cross several countries or regions. The most famous model of culture was developed by Edward T. Hall in 1976. It is the iceberg analogy of culture. (Hall 1976) There are some aspects of the culture that are visible, while the larger portion is hidden beneath the surface. The external part of culture is what we see and is the tip of the iceberg. It includes behaviors and some beliefs. It is supported by the much larger part if the iceberg, underneath the water line and therefore invisible. Nonetheless, this lower part of the iceberg is the powerful foundation. It is the internal part of culture and it is below the surface of a society and includes some beliefs and the values and thought patterns that underlie behavior. According to Hall the only way to learn the internal culture of others is to actively participate in their culture. We cannot judge a new culture based only on what we see when we first enter it. We must spend more time in that new culture, get to know its individuals and interact with them. It is the only way to uncover the values and beliefs that underlie the behavior of that society. That is why it is 1169 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo difficult at times to understand people with different backgrounds – because we may spot the visible parts of `their iceberg`, but we cannot at once see what are the foundations that these parts rest upon. What is intercultural learning? The term ``intercultural learning`` can be understood on different levels. On a more literal level, intercultural learning refers to an individual process of acquiring knowledge, attitudes, or behavior that is connected with the interaction of different cultures. But, very often, intercultural learning is seen in a larger context to denote a concept of how people with different backgrounds can live peacefully, and the process that is needed to build such a society. Although there is no clearly defined educational discipline known as ―intercultural learning‖ it can be understood as the process of becoming more aware of and better understanding of one` s own culture and other cultures all around the world. The aim of intercultural learning is to increase international and cross-cultural tolerance and understanding. This can take a lot of forms - intercultural learning can be applied in all fields of education. ( Amorim 2001). Here I suggest some basic principles of importance concerning intercultural learning with special emphasis on intercultural learning in language teaching. Approaching intetrcultural learning: a question of attitude Experiencing Identity Before being able to understand other cultures, we have to know ourselves, our own background and experience. Trying to understand ourselves, our own identity, is a preriquisite to encounter others ( Claire Kramsch 1993) Confidence and Respect Building up confidence is a cornerstone of intercultural learning in order to achieve the openess necessary for a mutual learning process. It requires a lot of patience and sensitivity in order to create a learning atmosphere which enables us to listen each other's opinions and feelings as equals and to promote self-confidence and mutual trust. In this sense it is necessary to: -Give space to everybody's expression; -Value all experiences, talents and contributions; -Discuss our needs and expectations openly. In Dialogue with the «Other» Intercultural learning should be understood as aprocess towards the «other». The «other» is at the heart of understanding. It starts with dialogue and is a process that challenges us to perceive us and the «other» as different but nevertheless complementary. Constant Change and Questioning The experience of intercultural learning is one of constant change. We have open questions and will raise new ones. Therefore, we need to accept that there is not always an answer, but remain in constant search, accepting and welcoming change. So we have to prepare to question our assumptions, ideas and to break away from our old beliefs and traditions. The Potential of Conflict If we see the variety of perceptions different cultures have of time, space, social and personal relations … it appears evident that conflict is sometimes at the heart of intercultural learning. Not every conflict has necessarily a solution but it certainly needs to be expressed. An environment that creates the conditions for sel-confidence and mutual trust should also be an environment where people feel confortable about expressing their: -Insecurities -Doubts -Misunderstandings -Frustrations and -Hurt feelings At the same time these models invite us to discuss the differences without labelling it. We need to develop conflict management skills, while considering complexity when dealing with the notion of culture. Intercultural learning implies a search, means new insecurities, and that carries a natural conflictive potential. Diversity can be experienced as helpful and enriching, towards new forms and 1170 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo new solutions, consequently, we can try to unlock the constructive elements and opportunities of conflicts. Intercultural communicative competence (Intercultural dialogue in teaching foreign language literature) Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behavior in an intensive way. The comprehension of the complexity of this process demands a lot of us. Language is one of the most visible elements of culture and in that sense a central aspect in intercultural communication. But it is at the same time limited, often a source of misunderstanding. It must thereby not be used as a means of dominance – especially considering different language skills – but can be one tool of communication. That` s why teaching foreign languages means not only teaching the language itself but to constantly develop intercultural awareness through intercultural communicative competence and intercultural awareness skills. Here the role of foreign language teachers is crucial. There will have been points in most teachers` careers when we have stopped to wonder ―What am I actually doing?‖ Being an English teacher for ten years I have often asked that question myself. For too long, we have been concentrating on structures and forms, filling our students up with all the requisite grammar and vocabulary, polishing their pronunciation and encouraging their communicative skills without helping them to be able to genuinely communicate with and understand the real world outside the classroom at all. In my opinion, if our students are to use their language skills to comprehend and communicate in the global village, intercultural awareness is crucial. Intercultural awareness Intercultural awareness in language learning is often talked about as if it were a ―fifth skill‖ – the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. But, language itself is defined by a culture and culture in language teaching is not an expendable fifth skill, ―tacked on‖, to the teaching of speaking, reading, listening and writing, but the very core it. We cannot be competent in the language if we do not also understand the culture that has shaped and informed it. We cannot learn a second language if we do not have an awareness of that culture, and how that culture relates to our own first language/first culture. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also intercultural awareness. Intercultural awareness is a collection of skills and attitudes better thought of as a competence. Intercultural communicative competence is an attempt to raise students` awareness of their own culture, and in so doing, help them to interpret and understand other cultures. It is not just a body of knowledge, but a set of practices requiring knowledge, skills and attitudes. ( Alan Pulverness 2000) Raised awareness of what we do and of the vital importance of these skills already makes intercultural communicative competence a more attainable goal. Despite the fact that the competence is more than just a body of knowledge, intercultural awareness skills can be developed by designing materials which have cultural and intercultural themes as their content. Intercultural awareness and perspectives on communication It has been suggested that intercultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. ( Milton 1993). Interculturally students should be able to …. 1. look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (i.e. have a good understanding and awareness of their own culture) 2. be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures 3. understand or see the target culture from its own perspective ( i.e. understand and be aware of what other people think of their own culture) 4. be aware of how they see the target culture Ways to develop intercultural competence There is, as has been noted earlier, a great gap between knowledge and the ability to use that knowledge in terms of communication and the manipulation of that communication. In order to bridge this gap and frame a relevant syllabus its contents should be made to bear a resemblance to the social contexts. This awareness of the social context can be had from the world of literature which depicts 1171 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo society in all its hues and colors in a language as varied as it is authentic and natural. It is here that the learner might encounter his real world outside the classrooms. The syllabus should include verbal and non-verbal communication, short narratives, short stories, dialogues, conversations, and interviews. These short literary texts will, thus: • help teachers first to acquaint themselves with language use to develop their own competence and understand language as a social phenomenon, and not as an exclusive branch of learning. • transform the classrooms as the stage in which there is real practice of communicative language. • help teachers to consider language as entailing social acceptability; in other words, they can look to classroom language as carrying resemblance with the outside language. As a result, this would raise communication to the level of a social responsibility. • develop the intellectual ability of the learners and expose them to a variety of linguistic and literary expressions and communicative functions of language. • contextualize the language to help the learner to acquire grammar implicitly. • incorporate linguistic competence into communicative competence by putting language into use in different social situations. Literary texts take into account the functions of language in different realistic situations outside the conditioned atmosphere of the classrooms. The employment of such literary components such as narratives, short stories, one - person acts, fables, dialogues and short social situations, will help learners to use different forms of the language in one notion of the language. It will, more importantly, motivate and inspire the learners to know more and keep his or her interest intact. Prof. Charles Blatchford of the Department of English as a second language at the University of Hawaii(1972) opines, ―the study of English literature is a luxury that cannot be indulged during the limited a mount of time allocated to English‖( Charles Blatchford 1972) But, is it really so? Elsa Auerbach in her book, Making Meaning, Making Change says that once the teacher has identified major themes in students' lives with these "ways in," she can use a variety of ready-to-hand "tools" to draw students into the deliberate use of language to address the issues they see as important. These tools can include fables, proverbs, published works of fiction, even children's books. One of the most powerful tools is what she calls "codes," carefully scripted dialogues in which characters reveal very controversial attitudes towards pressing social questions, such as racism, crime, or sexual harassment. By involving students in discussion about these codes, they not only acquire the language to address these issues, but they also begin to learn how to take positions on these issues themselves. ( Elsa Aurbach 1992) Culture and language learning Literary texts include cultural uses of linguistic expressions such as stylistics, pragmatics and semantics. This social communication reflects the usage of different language aspects in the literary texts. Moreover, in the study of language and culture, literary study can make a valuable contribution in tracing the development of the language in all its components and skills. What is more important is that, non- native students need to be exposed to various literary texts in order to be able to consider the others' culture in their international communication. Therefore, the non-native learners' curriculum should include teaching literary texts or literature to facilitate such international communication for the students. Furthermore, literature consists of some lexical items and expressions, which cannot be found in the linguistic texts. Literary texts and literature texts contextualized and socialized language items and lead naturally to the use of actual words and expressions in real situations. As regards the learning of English as a Second language at the higher level, Prof. Blatchford says, ―there may be more justification for literary studies where English is a second rather than a foreign language.‖ ( Charles Blatchford 1973:5) It is an undeniable fact that the resources of language can be fully utilized by taking recourse to literature as an important aspect of language learning. Foreign language teachers can also develop their students` intercultural communicative competence in the foreign language classroom by encouraging them: 1. to produce a guide book, poster or webpage for visitors to their town, country or region. They should not only describe famous sites and places to visit, but also give visitors advice about what they may find strange or unusual about their own culture. 2. to read articles, short stories or extracts from books, newspapers, magazines written by people who have visited the students` town, country or region. 1172 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. to familiarize students with sources of information about the target culture. Again, apart from newspapers and websites that can be invaluable source of reading materials here, literary texts often depict and interrogate their own cultures. 4. the non-native teacher has available role to play here, being a person from one culture who has certain amount of knowledge or experience of target culture. If students have visited the target culture, they can recount their experiences by giving a written or oral presentation with advice for other students. If there is no such source available, students can do a creative writing activity – imagining a journey into the target culture with all the problems and misunderstandings they may encounter and creatively resolving them. (Milton 1993) At this step, students can measure their knowledge and awareness of the target culture at the end of a course compared to the beginning of the course. When should we introduce this? Previously, ―cultural awareness‖ has often only been seen as something for advanced learners, an extension exercise that can be ―tacked on‖ to an ordinary lesson. This is partly due to the frequent error of assuming that it is impossible to explain intellectual concepts in level one English. Intercultural awareness, as a fundamental feature of language learning, is important at all levels. How does this affect the role of the teacher? Intercultural learning gives the teacher a role of an educator. This makes many teachers feel uncomfortable, especially with the idea that we may be influencing our students in some way. Are we responsible for transmitting some kind of ideology to our students? I think not. We are just helping them to become more aware of the world around them, and to better interact with that world. These are the most important roles of the teachers. Moreover, EFL teachers tend to have a wide variety of different backgrounds in different disciplines. They may have had the experience of living in, adjusting to and understanding a different culture. It is imperative on the part of the language teacher to provide learners with interesting short stories from the finest treasures of English literature to induce in them a desire to make reading as a habit and develop text reading strategies. Foreign language learners benefit from reading target-language literature because it gives practice in the pragmatic contextualization of linguistic expression. There is a lot they can bring to a job. They are unique mediators of cultural relativity. CONCLUSION Intercultural learning aims at very deep processes and changes of attitudes and behaviors. It implies dealing most of the time with the invisible forces of culture, those beneath the surface. It is a process of discovery that implies personal engagement and questioning from both sides. It implies risks and tensions, but also opportunities and solutions. It is obviously not easy to accompany people in this process. On the one hand, we need courage to go further, to challenge ourselves and others. On the other hand, we have to be very careful and respectful to peoples` needs and the limits of these processes. It is a question of striking the right balance between challenging ourselves to move further away from our assumptions and respecting our differences as equal elements of reality. And that is not always easy. Literature or literary text can bridge, to a large extent, the acute realization of the cultural differences that is eating into our understanding of normal and natural human differences. Literature opens the windows to intercultural awareness while at the same time nurturing empathy, a tolerance for diversity, and the fostering of intelligence. Poetry would go a long way in providing language learners with the expansion of their experience of larger human reality which in turn can shape his language and provide more meaning and richness to it. But, very often a reaction of some teachers when faced with these ideas is ―Why bother?‖. There is a feeling that we help our students to communicate anyhow, and that if culture is an integral part of the language then students will just pick it up, that culture is impossible to teach, that we shouldn‘t be seen to be foisting values on our students …. I would say that in order to make our job relevant and meaningful, teaching intercultural awareness is vital. So, the answer to the question that many of us, teachers, have asked ourselves ―What am I actually doing?‖ could be: Helping our students to understand, interact with and – hopefully – change for the 1173 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo better world we all live in. Given the current global situation, there are few jobs more important than this. REFERENCES Kramsch (1993): Claire Kramsch,. Context and Culture Teaching. Oxford University Press Kramsch, (1998): Claire Kramsch. Language and Culture. Oxford University Presss Pulverness (2000): Alan Pulverness. Changing Skies. Swan Communications, Amorim (2001): Luis Amorim Intercultural Learning. Community Foundation Transatlantic Fellowship, Orientation Session, Washington D.C. June 2-4 Blatchor ( 1973) Blatchford, Charles H. Blatchford, Newspapers: Vehicles for Teaching ESOLwith a Cultural Focus, TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 2, TESOL Inc. New York Auerbach(1992) Elsa Auerbach. Making Meaning Making Change: Participatory Curriculum Development for Adult ESL Literacy, Mc Henry Inc., Illinois. Milton (1993):Bennet Milton J. ``Towards a Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity``in R. Michael Paige, ed. Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press Bennet (2000): Janet M. Bennett. ``Cultural Marginality:Identity Issues in Intercultural Training,`` in R. Michael Paige, ed. Education for Intercultural Experience. Milton J. Bennet and Janet M. Bennet 1174 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 596 Title A name given to the resource INTERCULTURAL COMMUNIVATIVE COMPETENCE - Intercultural Dialogue in Teaching Foreign Language Literature- Author Author Dumitraskovic, Tatjana Abstract A summary of the resource. In all European countries pluralism and diversity has become an every day reality. To ensure a harmonious interaction between people and groups with different cultural and religious identities, respect for cultural diversity, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation are becoming basic social skills needed by every European citizen. Intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, intercultural competence must be understood as one of the preconditions for individuals to cope with the new challenges of having to build societies that must be based on respecting people in their diversity. Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behaviour in an intensive way. Language is one of the most visible elements of culture and in that sense a central aspect in intercultural communication. That is why it must not be used as a means of dominance, but can be one tool of communication. Teaching foreign languages means not only teaching the language itself but to constantly develop intercultural awareness through intercultural communicative competence and intercultural skills. We cannot be competent in a foreign language if we do not understand the culture that has shaped it and how that culture relates to our first language culture. It is not only essential to have cultural awareness, but also intercultural awareness. Intercultural communicative competence is an attempt to raise students` awareness of their own culture, and in doing so, help them to understand other cultures. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6eb9150d28f226942a0553f753ff0768.pdf 07baada9bdb9e26d1a5bade9b37ae0b5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fransız ġâiri ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi Setter Durmaz Qafqaz Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakùltesi, Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı, Öğretim Gôrevlisi. sehdur@yahoo.com ; sdurmaz1@qu.edu.az Özet: ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da yaĢamıĢtır. Kùltùrlù bir aile ortamında yetiĢen Verne, divânında belirttiği ùzere, kısa bir sùre içinde Latince, Ġtalyanca, Ġspanyolca, Ġngilizce, Almanca, Yunanca, Arapça, Farsça ve Tùrkçe ôğrenir. Henùz çocuk denebilecek yaĢta, Doğu dilleri ve edebiyatları ile ilgilenen Verne, kendi kendine Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ni ôğrenir, ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve klâsik tarzda Tùrkçe Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Daha on bir yaĢındayken anadili olan Fransızca ile yazdığı Ģiirlerini bu yaĢlarda kitap olarak bastıran Verne; Ġtalyanca, Tùrkçe ve Farsça yazdığı Ģiirlerini de 16 yaĢında litografya usølù ile Paris‘te bastırır. Verne‘nin divânı, 112 sayfadan ibaret olup, uzun bir dibâce ile birlikte, Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirlerden oluĢur. Farsça Ģiirler, yaklaĢık 20 sayfadır. Bu makalede, ġarl Verne‘nin hayatı, Ģâirliği, dil ôğrenmeye olan merakı, ôzellikle Tùrkçe‘ye olan ilgisi, bunun ôtesinde de Klâsik Tùrk Dili‘ne olan hayranlığı ve bunun Ģiirlerine olan etkisi hakkında bilgi verilecektir. Bôylece edebiyatımızda ve cemiyetimizde Fransız tesirinin yoğun olduğu 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça ôğrenen ve her iki lisanda Ģiirler yazan genç Fransız Ģâiri ġarl Verne‘nin bir divân ortaya koyacak kadar- Tùrk diline ve kùltùrùne olan hayranlığı ortaya konmuĢ olacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: ġarl Verne, Fransa, Paris, Tùrk Dili, Klâsik ġiir, Divân. The Place and Importance of Turkish Language in Charles Verney`s Life Abstract: Charles Verney lived in France in 19th century. He was brought up in one of the civilized families, as he showed in his divan he managed to master Latin, Italian, Spanish, English, Germany, Greek, Arabic, Persian and Turkish languages in a short period of time. Though he was a child, Charles Verney was interested in the Eastern languages and literatures and he learned the Ottoman literature to himself, after he fell in love with the Turkish culture and literature and then he began to write classical poems in Turkish language. He was only 11 years old, when he published his poems book that he wrote in French in his mother tongue. He published his another poems book that he wrote in Italian, Turkish and Persian languages with lithography method when he was 16 years old, in Paris. Verney`s ―Divan-i Verne‖ in Turkish and French languages, was published with his own endeavor in Paris is on our hand. The ―Divan- i Verne‖ is composed of 112 pages with the long preamble and poems in Turkish and Persian. Poems in Persian occupy nearly 20 pages of the book. This article concerns Verne`s life, his poetry, his interest in learning a language, specially in Turkish language and Classical Turkish Literature and their influence on his poems. Thus, the admiration of Charles Verney, who was capable enough to learn Turkish and French to himself and write poems in both languages and put forward divan, towards the Turkish culture and language as well as the great French impact on our literature and society in 19th century, have been researched in this article. Key Words: Charles Verney, France, Paris, Turkish, Classical Poem, Divan. GiriĢ 1100 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Tùrk Edebiyatı‘nda Batı etkisi, 19. yùzyılda Tanzîmât Fermanı‘yla baĢlar. 1839‘da ilan edilen Tanzîmât Fermanı, Tùrk toplumu için bir dônùm noktası olur. Bu yùzyıl, Osmanlı Devleti‘nin değiĢme ihtiyacı hissetttiği bir zamandır. Bu değiĢme ihtiyacı, toplumun bùtùnùnde kendini hissettirir. Tùrk aydınları, Fransız dili ve kùltùrù vasıtasıyla Batı‘yı tanımaya baĢlarlar. Bôylece edebiyatımızda ve cemiyetimizde bu yıllarda meydana gelen Fransız tesiri kesintisiz olarak 1950‘lere kadar devam eder. Bu tarihe kadar Batı, bize Fransa yoluyla gelir. Diğer milletlere olan ilgi zaman zaman gôrùlse de ônemli ve devamlı olan Fransa ve Fransız tesiridir. Okullarda Batı dili olarak Fransızca ôğretilmektedir. Tùrk aydınları sanat, ilim, fikir gibi çok çeĢitli alanlarda Fransızca‘ya ilgi duyarlar, Fransız kùltùrùnù takip ederler ve Fransız mùelliflerini okurlar. Dùnyada geliĢmeleri Fransızca‘dan takip ederler. Siyasî, sosyal, kùltùrel alanda gôrùlen bu Fransız tesiri, siyasî iliĢkilerle izah edilebilir. Bundan baĢka Fransa‘nın, o devirde diğer Avrupa milletlerine de tesir eden ùstùn bir devlet olduğu unutulmamalıdır. (Ercilasun, 1997: 271) ĠĢte, edebiyatımızda Batı tesirinin hissdedildiği, Tùrk aydınlarının her yônden Fransa‘ya ilgi duydukları bôyle bir dônemde, Fransa‘da, klâsik Tùrk Ģiirimize hayran bir genç yetiĢir. ―ġarl Verne‖ adlı bu Fransız genci, kendi kendine ôğrendiği Tùrkçe ile henùz 14 yaĢındayken basılacak bir divançe oluĢturacak sayıda Ģiirler sôyler. 19. Yùzyıl edebiyatında dikkat çeken hadiselerden biri olarak tarihe geçen bu durum, Tùrk kùltùrùnùn Avrupa‘daki yansımalarının bu dônemde de devam ettiğini gôstermesi bakımından ônemlidir. (ġentùrk, 2004: 468) ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatı Verne‘nin hayatı ile ilgili bilgiler oldukça yetersizdir. Mevcut bilgilerin çoğunu, 1858‘de Paris‘te kendi gayretleri ile bastırdığı divânından ôğreniyoruz. ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), 1842‘de Paris‘te doğmuĢtur. Doğu Ģiirlerinde ―Verne‖, Fransız dilinde ise ―ġarl Verne‖ mahlasını kullanmıĢtır. Bu mahlasları tercih etmesinin sebebini, divânına yazdığı mukaddimede Ģu ifadesiyle açıklar: ―Familyamın ismi, yani ensâbımda nâm-ı pederi ―Verne‖ olmağla eĢ‘âr-ı Ģarkiyemde tahallusumdur. Ancak lisân-ı Fransavî‘de babamın nâmı olan adıma ―ġarl Verne‖ nâm-ı mahsûsumdur.‖ (Durmaz, 2007: 17) Babası, Paris‘in tanınmıĢ sîmâlarından olup, ilim ve irfan ehli, akıl ve hùner sahibi bir Ģahıstır. Annesi ise, kendi ifadesiyle asîl ve nezih bir kadındır. Verne, divânının ônsôzùnde anne ve babasını Ģôyle tavsif eder: ―…vâlide-i pâk-dâmenim ve nahl-i ilm ü maârif enîs-i dâniĢ, mukîm-i halvet-i sadâkat, sâkin-i kiĢver-i hüner, bu zamânede Ģâh-ı kelâm-ı mensûr-i inĢâ-yı Fransavî a‗ni be-peder-i sâhib hırednimin himmetleri ile derûn-i dilimde nuqr olunan ‗aĢqullaha âsârını fâĢ etmege kâm-bîn oldum...‖ (Durmaz, 2007: 14) Hem Fransız Edebiyatı, hem Tùrk Edebiyatı, hem de bildiği diğer dillerin edebiyatları için ônemli ve enteresan bir Ģahsiyet olan Verne, maalesef edebiyat tarihlerinde hak ettiği yeri alamamıĢtır. Tùrk edebiyatında, ancak bir iki yazıda kendisine temas edilmiĢ, onunla ilgili teferruatlı bir çalıĢma yapılmamıĢtır. Tespit edebildiğimiz kadarıyla Fransız Edebiyatı‘nda adından hiç sôz edilmemektedir. Ancak ilerleyen zamanda ve bazı imkanların elde edilmesi ile Verne‘nin doğduğu mahalle ve vaftiz edildiği kilisenin kayıtlarına ulaĢılabilirse onun hakkındaki bilgilerimiz daha da artacaktır. Verne‘nin kaç yaĢında ve nerede vefat ettiği, bu divânından baĢka eserlerinin varlığı Ģu an için bize malum değildir. (Bayram, 2002: 156 ġâirliği ve Türkçe ġiirleri Kendisini "Fransız, Ġtalyan, Tùrkî ve Fârisî Ģâir" diye tanıtan Verne, Fransızca Ģiirlerini, ilk kez 1854 yılında Paris'te basılan bir kitapta toplar. Aynı yıl III. Napolyon için 16 sayfalık bir baĢka Ģiir kitabı daha yayımlar. Bu sırada henùz 11 yaĢındadır. Henùz çocuk denebilecek yaĢta, Doğu dilleri ve edebiyatları ile de ilgilenen Verne, kendi kendine Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ni ôğrenir, ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve klâsik tarzda Tùrkçe Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Verne‘yi ―Ondôrdùnde Dâhî Bir ġâir‖ olarak anan Ġskender Pala, genç Ģâirin klâsik tarzda yazdığı Ģiirlerini, aĢağıdaki beyitleri ôrnek gôstererek Ģôyle ôver: ―Dehânın gonca-i handâna benzer Lebin bir gevher-i rahĢâna benzer 1101 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ruhun gül, kâkülün sünbül, sözün mül, Husûlî, ravza-i rıdvâna benzer‖ Bu beyitleri 14 yaĢında bir çocuğun yazdığını sôylesek Ģimdi kim inanır? Divân Ģiirinin yaygın teâmùlleri doğrultusunda ağzı, gùlen (açılmıĢ) bir goncaya; dudağı, parlak bir akike benzetip yanağa gùl, kâküle sùnbùl, (sevgilinin ağzından çıkan) söze de Ģarap etkisini yakıĢtıran bu çocuk, bùtùn bu saydıklarını cennet bahçelerinden bir kesit olarak algılayıp dinî bir kùltùrù de Ģiirine yansıtıyor. Evet, bu beyitleri ve bunlara benzer pek çok beyitleri yazan, ancak 14 yaĢında bir çocuktur. Hem de 14 yaĢındayken kendi kendine Tùrkçe ôğrenen bir Fransız çocuğu. (Pala, 2002: 191) ġiirlerinde aĢk, güzellik, ayrılık, tabiat vs. gibi klâsik Ģiirin konularını ele alan Verne, okuduğu Ģiirlerin tesirinde kalarak, benzer ifadeleri sık sık tekrar. ġiirlerinin dili standart Ģiir dilidir. Ancak Osmanlı Ģâirlerinin kullanmadığı bazı Batı kaynaklı kelimeler, Verne‘nin Ģiir dilinde yer almıĢtır. Bunlar, diploma, vapur, Napolyon, vb. kelimelerdir. Ayrıca Verne, Ģiirlerinde rediflere ağırlık vermiĢtir. Bazen bir kelime, bazen de iki ùç kelimeden oluĢan rediflerle Ģiirlerini tamamlamaya çalıĢmıĢtır. Yeni kelimeler ve ifadeler bulma zorluğu, onu daha çok redif kullanmaya sevk etmiĢ olabilir. (Durmaz, 2007: 4) Verne, Hristiyan olmasına rağmen, Ģiirlerinde ôzellikle Ġslâmî terminolojiyi elden geldiğince baĢarıyla kullanmıĢtır. (ġentùrk, 2004, 469) Onun, Ģiirlerine ―Besmele‖ ile baĢlaması, dibâcesinde Allah‘a hamd u senâ etmesi, Ġslâm kùltùrùnù de kullanmaktan çekinmediğini gôsterir. ġiirlerinin bazı kısımlarında ise, kendi dinine ait kelimeleri kullanmaktan çekinmez ve bir bakıma Ġslâm‘la ilgili kelimelerin yanında Hristiyanlık‘la ilgili ifadelerden de istifade eder: ―Bilir kim Îsevî olmakda vahdet din-i Verne‘dir Ana kâfir dese Allah‘ını bilmezlenir ol büt‖ (Divân-ı Verne, G. 14 / 7) ... ―Verne Ġncil‘i ġerif‘i oku hem tefsir et Lahn-i nutkun olacak dehre her âyetde lezîz‖ (Divân-ı Verne, G. 25 / 7) AĢağıda numøne olması açısından Verne‘ye ait bir Ģiir verilmiĢtir: ―Hikmet-i aĢkda üstâdım ben Manzar-ı hayret-i Bağdâdım ben Emr-i hattı rakam-ı kilkimdir Kâtib-i Hüsrev-i bî-dâdım ben Subh u Ģâm eĢk-feĢânlıkdır iĢim Nâzım-ı hâtır-ı nâ-Ģâdım ben Gurbet-i hicre bu dünyâda gelip MüsteĢâr-ı sefer-i yâdım ben Yazdı Verne bu gazelde hâlin Dedi sevdâ ile ber-bâdım ben.‖ (Bayram, 2002, 158) Pala da, edebiyat tarihlerinde hak ettiği yeri alamayan, -tespit edilebildiği kadarıyla- Fransız Edebiyatı‘nda adından bahsedilmeyen Verne‘yi Ģu gazeliyle yâd eder: ―Belki milletin seni unutmuĢtur. Ama biz unutmayacağız ve senin arzuna uyarak bir gazelinden beyitler okuyacağız: ―Ey dost, nâme-i gam u ahzânımı oku Tefsîr-i renc-i hâtır-ı giryânımı oku Ger bilmek istesen nola derdini gönlümün Bak levh-i sîneme varak-ı cânımı oku … Satr-ı vefâtım ile kodum temmetü‘l-kitâb Târîh-i aĢk-ı ömr-i perîĢânımı oku Ey yâr, nâm-ı Verne‘yi nisyân eyleme 1102 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Erdim kemâl-i aĢkına dîvânımı oku.‖ 1. Dostum, hùzùn ve gamlarımı yazdığım Ģu mektubumu oku da; ağlayan kalbimin sıkıntılarının tefsirini bir bir ôğren. 2. Gônlùmdeki derdin ne olduğunu bilmek istersen eğer; kalbime bak ve (orada aĢkınla dolu olan) can sayfasını oku. 3. PeriĢan ômrùmùn aĢkının tarihini oku ki; o kitabın son satırı (senin aĢkın ile) ôldùğùme dâir bir cùmleden ibarettir. 4. Ey sevgili! Sakın ola ki Verne adını unutma. Zira divânımı alıp okuyacak olursan, senin aĢkında kemâle erdiğimi gôreceksin. (Pala, 2002: 194) Divân-ı Verne Osmanlı Devleti‘ne karĢı derin bir muhabbet besleyen, Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ne bùyùk bir hayranlık duyan ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), gayretli bir çalıĢma neticesinde bir yılda Tùrkçe ôğrenir. Ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Birkaç yılda yazdığı Ģiirlerini, Paris‘te bastırıp, baĢ tarafına bir resmini de koyduğu bu Ģiir kitabına, Ģark geleneğine uygun olarak ―Divân-ı Verne‖ adını verir. Verne‘nin ―Divân-ı Verne‖ adıyla, kendi gayretleri ile Paris‘te bastırdığı Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirleri, bugùn elimizdedir. -2007 yılında, ―ġarl Verne Divânı (Ġnceleme-Metin-Sôzlùk)‖ adı altında yùksek lisans tezi olarak çalıĢtığım- Verne‘nin Divânı, 112 sayfadan ibaret olup, uzun bir dibâce ile birlikte, Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirlerden oluĢur. Farsça Ģiirler, yaklaĢık 20 sayfadır. Bir kısmı âdi talik ve litoğrafya ile, diğer kısmı nesîh ile basılmıĢtır. Kitabın kapak sayfası, ―Divân-ı Verne‖ ifadesi ile baĢlamaktadır. Sonra, ―On bir yaĢından on altı yaĢına kadar ġarl Verne‘nin inĢâ ve terkib eylediği Fransız ve Talyan ve Türkî ve Fârisî eĢ‘ârdır.‖ cùmlesi bulunmaktadır. Daha sonra ise Ġslâmî geleneğine uygun olarak ―Bismillâhirrahmânirrahîm‖ âyeti yer almaktadır. (Akùn, 1994: 422) Verne, divânına, dili ağır sayılabilecek bir dibâce ile baĢlamıĢtır. Bu dibâcenin ilk kısmında, Allah ôvgùsù ve ona Ģùkùr ifadeleri yer alır. Verne, Allah‘a olan sonsuz hamd ve Ģùkùr hislerini Ģu beyitleriyle dile getirir: ―Hamd u minnet ol hudâvend-i zemîn ü cennete ġükr-i bî-hadd ü sümâr ol hâlık-ı bî-illete‖ Dibâcenin ilerleyen kısımlarda: ―Gazeldir safâ- bahĢ-ı ehl-i nazar Gazeldir gül-i bostân-ı ehl-i hüner‖ beytiyle baĢlayan gazel bahsinde olan bir manzøme yer alır. Bu uzun dibâceden sonra, ―Ġbtidâ-yı EĢ‘âr‖ baĢlığı ile Ģiirler baĢlar. Ġlk Ģiirler, devlet bùyùklerine ôvgù mahiyetinde yazılmıĢ kasidelerdir. Bunlardan ilki Sultan Abdùlmecid‘in methine dâir bir kasidedir. AĢağıdaki beyitler o kasidedendir: ―Söyle kim açdım Fransa‘da kitab-ı ömrümü Söyle on bir yaĢda oldum Ģâir-i Ģîrin zebân Mahrem oldum hâcesiz elhamdülillah Türkî‘ye Eyledi ülfet benimle bu lisân-ı dilsitân Etmedim asla azimet belde-i Ġstanbul‘a Lîk Paris‘den beni îsal eder fikr u gümân.‖ (Divân-ı Verne, K. 1/ 27-29) Sultan Abdülmecid ôvgùsùndeki kasîdeden sonra Farsça olarak, Ġran ġahı Nasruddin hakkında, sonra sırasıyla, DıĢ ĠĢleri MüĢiri Fuad PaĢa, Maslahatgüzâr Haydar Efendi, Kıbrıslı PaĢa, Kaymakam Nasûhî Bey ôvgùsùndeki Tùrkçe Ģiirler yer almaktadır. Sonra ―elif-bâ‖ sırasına uygun olarak az miktarda Farsça gazeller, daha sonra da Türkçe gazeller vardır. Gazellerinin sayısı 84‘tùr. Gazellerden sonra bir terci-i bend ve bir de murabba yer almaktadır. Son kısım ise baĢkalarının Verne‘nin Ģiirlerini ve Ģâirliğini ôvdùkleri bazı manzømelere ayrılmıĢtır. Bu manzømeleri yazanlar, Ġran Vezir-i Âzâmı Ferruh Han, Maslahatgüzâr Haydar Efendi, Nezih Bey‘in babası Ata Bey, Nezih Bey, Emin Efendi ve Cemil Bey‘dir. Verne‘nin Ģâirliğini ve Ģiirini ôven Ata Bey onun için: 1103 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ― Fünûn u hem fütüvvetde yegâne bir hüner-verdir Mürüvvetde nazîri Avrupa‘da yok desem bâhir Fransa‘da görülmüĢ mü bu yolda Türkçe bir nâzım Ata, Örfî gibi dense sezâdır misli yok Ģâir.‖ diyecek kadar ona gùvenir ve hakkında hùsn-i muamelede bulunur. (Pala, 2002: 193) ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi Ġlk eğitimini, ailesinden alan dâhi Verne‘nin, diğer ilimlerden ziyade dil ôğrenmeye hevesi vardır. Ailesinin ona sağladığı imkânlarla, yabancı dil ôğrenme merakı daha da artar. Evlerine gelen muallimler vasıtasıyla, henùz çocuk sayılacak bir yaĢta, zengin bir asilzâde olan babasının da teĢvikiyle, birçok yabancı dili, çok kısa zamanda ôğrenmeyi baĢarmıĢtır. Verne‘nin, divânında ôğrendiğini belirttiği yabancı diller Ģunlardır: Latince, Ġtalyanca, Ġspanyolca, Ġngilizce, Almanca, Yunanca ve Yahudi dillerinin yanı sıra Arapça, Farsça ve Türkçe. Pala, Verne‘nin dil ôğrenme merakını ve ôğrendiği dilleri Ģôyle ôzetler: ―Zengin bir asilzâde olan babasının teĢvîkiyle yabancı dil ôğrenmeye heves etmiĢ. Ancak bir mùddet sonra yabancı dil zevki onun çocuk ruhunda bir sevdaya dônùĢmùĢ olmalı ki arka arkaya Ġngiliz, Alman, Ġspanyol, Ġtalyan, Grek, Yunan, Latin, Yahudi lisanlarını ôğrenivermiĢ. Malikâneye gelip giden hocalara her gùn bir yenisi eklenmiĢ. Sonra eve Arapça ve Farsça hocaları da girmiĢ. Verne, lisandan arda kalan zamanında Ģiirle meĢgul olmuĢ ve henùz 11 yaĢında iken Fransızca Ģiirlerini bir kitap olarak bastırtmıĢ. Bu arada ġark lisanları ile birlikte ġark Ģiirini de tanımıĢ. O yıllarda Mùslùman ġark‘ın en bùyùk devleti olan Osmanlı hakkında tarifi zor bir iĢtiyak duymaya baĢlamıĢ ve Osmanlı lisanına hasret çeker olmuĢ. Kim bilir ôyle bir cihan devletinin lisanı ve edebiyatı nasıl muhteĢem olmalıdır, diye bir Tùrkçe hocası aranmıĢ. Ancak bu mùmkùn olamamıĢ. Verne için bu bir engel teĢkil etmemiĢ ve oturup kendi kendisine Tùrkçe ôğrenmeye koyulmuĢ. Sıkı bir çalıĢma ile bir yılda Tùrkçe ôğrenmiĢ. Ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olmuĢ ve Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlamıĢ. Nihayet 16 yaĢına kadar yazdığı Tùrkçe Ģiirlerini Farsça Ģiirleriyle beraber litoğrafya usulùyle bastırmıĢ.‖ (Pala, 2002: 191-192) Genç Ģâir, Abdùlmecid Han‘a sunduğu bir arîzada, Paris‘te doğduğunu, Fransa‘da ikamet ettiğini, kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça‘yı ôğrendiğini Ģôyle ifade eder: ―ġevketlü mehâbetlü kerâmetlü pâdiĢâh-ı Âli Osmân Gâzi Sultân Abdülmecid Hân Hazretleri; Hak-i pây-ı Ģâhânelerine arzû beyân kılmağa bu bende-i bî-mikdârdır cesâret eder ki Paris Ģehrinde tevellüd edip ve Fransa‘da dâimâ ikâmetimle hod be hod yani hocasız elsine-i behiye-i Türkî ve Fârisîye âĢina olduğumda bu iki zebânın rüsûm-ı Ģîvesini hakîrâne tahsil eylediğimden on dört yaĢımdan on altı yaĢıma kadar tasnîf ettiğim eĢ‘ârı Fransavîye ve Ġtaliyaneyi müĢtemil diğer bir dîvânımın dahî tab‘ı neĢrolunduğu…‖ (Ġnal, 1988: 1984) Verne, Tùrkçe‘yi kaç yaĢında ve nasıl ôğrendiğini Ģu mısra ile beyan eder: ―Hâcesiz on dört yaĢında Ģâir oldum Türkî‘de.‖ Henùz 14 yaĢındayken bu dilleri ôğrenen ve bunlardan Ġtalyanca, Farsça ve Tùrkçe ile Ģiirler yazan bir Ģahsın dâhi olduğunu sôylemek herhalde hata değildir. Ġnal da Verne‘nin Tùrk dilinde gôsterdiği Ģâirlik kudretini Ģu ifadeleriyle takdir eder: ―Paris‘te kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça tahsil eden ve ùstùnde hoca hakkı olmayan bir Fransız çocuğunun, o iki lisanda nazım ve nesir yazması takdir ve taacùbe Ģayandır. Çùnkù bir çocuğun kendi lisanında nazım ve nesre -mùmkin mertebe- muktedir olması bile mùhim bir mesele iken yabancı lisanda, bâhusus çocuklukta o yolda kudret gôstermek doğrusu fevkalade bir keyfiyettir.‖ (Ġnal, 1988: 1985) Sonuç ―ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi‖ konulu bu çalıĢmadan elde edilen sonuçları Ģu maddelerde bir araya getirmek mùmkùndùr: 1. Edebiyatımızda Batı tesirinin hissededildiği bir dônemde, Fransa‘da Tùrk diline ve klâsik Tùrk Ģiirimize hayran bir genç yetiĢir. ―ġarl Verne‖ adlı bu Fransız genci, kendi kendine bir yıl gibi kısa bir sùrede Tùrkçe‘yi ôğrenir ve henùz çocuk yaĢında bir divânçe oluĢturacak sayıda Ģiirler yazar. ġâirin, çocukluğunda okuduğu tarih kitapları nedeniyle Osmanlı ile Ġran dilleri ve kùltùrlerine ilgi duyduğu sôylenmektedir. 1104 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Verne, sonradan ôğrendiği hem Tùrk, hem de Fars dilinde gùzel Ģiirler yazacak kadar Ģâir tabiatlı bir insandır. BaĢka bir ùlkede, klâsik Tùrk Ģiirinin hayâl dùnyasına aĢina olacak kadar bu kùltùrù tanımıĢ ve okuyucuya hiç de yabancılık çekmediği, mazmunları, edebî sanatları, dil ve ùslup ôzelliği ile mùkemmele yakın bir Ģiir sunmuĢtur. Verne‘nin bu Ģiir dùnyasına Tùrkçe yazılmıĢ divânları okuyarak girdiği dùĢùnùlebilir. Ayrıca, Fransa‘da bulunan Osmanlılar‘la sohbet etmiĢ ve bu Ģekilde malumat almıĢ olabilir. 3. Hem Fransız Edebiyatı, hem Tùrk Edebiyatı hem de bildiği diğer dillerin edebiyatları için ônemli ve enteresan bir Ģahsiyet olan Verne, maalesef edebiyat tarihlerinde hak ettiği yeri alamamıĢtır. Tùrk edebiyatında, ancak bir iki yazıda kendisine temas edilmiĢ, onunla ilgili teferruatlı bir çalıĢma yapılmamıĢtır. Tespit edilebildiği kadarıyla Fransız Edebiyatı‘nda adından hiç sôz edilmemektedir. Bu bakımdan 2007 yılında, Qafqaz Üniversitesi‘nde ―ġarl Verne Divânı (Ġnceleme-Metin-Sôzlùk)‖ adı altında çalıĢtığım yùksek lisans tezi, edebiyat âlemine kazandırılmıĢ bir yeniliktir. 4. Verne, Tùrk Edebiyatı Tarihi‘nde, ilk defa Ġbnùlemin Mahmut Kemâl Ġnal‘ın himmetiyle satırlara geçmiĢtir. Ġbnùlemin, ―Son Asır Türk ġâirleri‖ eserinde Verne Divânı‘ndan istihraç ettiği bilgilerle gayet gùzel bir terceme-i hâl yazmıĢ ve Verne‘yi, ôverek ihya etmiĢtir. Ġbnùlemin, onun hakkında ―Paris‘te kendi kendine Türkçe ve Farsça tahsil eden ve üstünde hoca hakkı olmayan bir Fransız çocuğunun, o iki lisanda nazım ve nesir yazması takdir ve taaccübe Ģayandır. Çünkü bir çocuğun kendi lisanında nazım ve nesre mümkün mertebe muktedir olması bile mühim bir mesele iken yabancı lisanda, bahusus çocuklukta o yolda kudret göstermesi, doğrusu fevkalâde bir keyfiyettir‖ buyurur. 5. Verne, divânından da açıkça anlaĢıldığına gôre, Ġstanbul‘a gittikçe çoğalan bir hasret duyar ve Osmanlı‘yı yakından tanıyabilmek için can atar. Hattâ bir ara PâdiĢâh‘a da -19. asır Tùrk nesrinin ideal ôrnekleri arasında yer alabilecek- bir arîze sunarak Ġstanbul‘a gelmek istediğini yazar. Divânında bu arîzeye de yer verir. Ancak daha sonra onun Ġstanbul‘a gelip gelmediği hakkında bir malumat verilmez. Yazdığı Ģiirlerde de bu konuda bir ip ucuna rastlanmaz. Bize gôre herhâlde Ġstanbul‘u gôrmeden, Osmanlı insanının hasretiyle bu dùnyaya veda etmiĢtir. Zira eğer aksi vârid olsaydı, kim bilir bôyle bir seyahatten iki ùlke adına ne mùkemmel neticeler çıkabilirdi? Belki de, eldeki divânından baĢka nice Ģiirleri ve nesir ôrnekleri, bugùn dillerde dolaĢacak ve ihtimâl ki kùltùrùmùz yeni bir Pierre Loti ve bir Aziyâde daha kazanmıĢ olacaktı. (Pala, 2002: 191-192) 6. Son olarak, bu çalıĢma ile Tùrk kùltùrùnùn 19. yùzyılda Fransa‘daki yansımalarının bir gôstergesi olan ġarl Verne‘nin Tùrk diline olan hayranlığı ve bu dildeki Ģâirlik istidâtı gùn yùzùne çıkarılmaya çalıĢılmıĢtır. 1105 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Akùn, Ömer Faruk (1994). ―Divan Edebiyatı‖, Ġslam Ansiklopedisi, C. 9., Ġstanbul: Tùrkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları. Ayverdi, Ġlhan (2006). Misâlli Büyük Türkçe Sözlük, I-II-III Cilt, Ġstanbul: Kubbealtı NeĢriyâtı. Bayram, Ömer (2002). ―Verne: Klâsik Tùrk Edebiyatına Hayran Bir ġair‖ AMEA Nizami Adına Edebiyat Ġnstitutu, Azerbaycan-Hollandiya Dostluk Cemiyeti, Anane ve GloballaĢma Uluslararası Ġlmi Sempozyumu Materyalleri, s. 156-158. Durmaz, Setter (2007). ―ġarl Verne Divânı (Ġnceleme-Metin-Sôzlùk)‖, (YayımlanmamıĢ Yùksek Lisans Tezi), Bakù: Qafqaz Üniversitesi. Ercilasun, Bilge (1997). Yeni Türk Edebiyatı Üzerine Ġncelemeler, C. 1, Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. Ġnal, Ġbnùlemin Mahmut Kemal (1988). Son Asır Türk ġairleri, C. IV. Ġstanbul: Dergâh Yayınları. Pala, Ġskender (2002). ġairlerin Dilinden, Ġstanbul: L&M Yayınları. Sami, ġemseddin (2002). Kâmûs-ı Türkî, 12. Baskı, Ġstanbul: Çağrı Yayınları. ġentùrk, Ahmet Atillâ, KARTAL, Ahmet (2004). Eski Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Ġstanbul: Dergâh Yayınları. Verne, ġarl (Charles Verney) (1858). Divân-ı Verne (Arap Alfabesi ile), Paris. 1106 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 588 Title A name given to the resource Fransız ġâiri ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi Author Author Durmaz, Setter Abstract A summary of the resource. ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da yaĢamıĢtır. Kùltùrlù bir aile ortamında yetiĢen Verne, divânında belirttiği ùzere, kısa bir sùre içinde Latince, Ġtalyanca, Ġspanyolca, Ġngilizce, Almanca, Yunanca, Arapça, Farsça ve Tùrkçe ôğrenir. Henùz çocuk denebilecek yaĢta, Doğu dilleri ve edebiyatları ile ilgilenen Verne, kendi kendine Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ni ôğrenir, ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve klâsik tarzda Tùrkçe Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Daha on bir yaĢındayken anadili olan Fransızca ile yazdığı Ģiirlerini bu yaĢlarda kitap olarak bastıran Verne; Ġtalyanca, Tùrkçe ve Farsça yazdığı Ģiirlerini de 16 yaĢında litografya usølù ile Paris‘te bastırır. Verne‘nin divânı, 112 sayfadan ibaret olup, uzun bir dibâce ile birlikte, Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirlerden oluĢur. Farsça Ģiirler, yaklaĢık 20 sayfadır. Bu makalede, ġarl Verne‘nin hayatı, Ģâirliği, dil ôğrenmeye olan merakı, ôzellikle Tùrkçe‘ye olan ilgisi, bunun ôtesinde de Klâsik Tùrk Dili‘ne olan hayranlığı ve bunun Ģiirlerine olan etkisi hakkında bilgi verilecektir. Bôylece edebiyatımızda ve cemiyetimizde Fransız tesirinin yoğun olduğu 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça ôğrenen ve her iki lisanda Ģiirler yazan genç Fransız Ģâiri ġarl Verne‘nin - bir divân ortaya koyacak kadar- Tùrk diline ve kùltùrùne olan hayranlığı ortaya konmuĢ olacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0a2ba27bbdc8d9d9edd59da318e44f2e.pdf 71bd7a69f64d3a5a918be234cf00b43f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A SITUATED LEARNING PRACTICE FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING CLASSES: TEACHING SPOKEN ENGLISH WITH AUTHENTIC SKETCHES Hüseyin EFE English Language Teaching, Artvin Çoruh University, Turkey huseyin_efe@hotmail.com Hakan DEMĠRÖZ English Language and Literature, Faculty of Letters, Cumhuriyet University, Turkey hakandemiroz@gmail.com Ahmet Selçuk AKDEMĠR English Language and Literature, Lecturer, Erzincan University, Turkey ancient---mariner@hotmail.com Abstract: Situated Learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. In this study, we aim to review ‗situational learning approach‘ in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. The language levels of the students were determined by a language proficiency test which is used as pre-test of the study. Language proficiency test composed of mainly dialogues including spoken language patterns. After 8 weeks of lectures with authentic sketches which were used as reading materials in experimental group and classical reading materials in control group, the students were given the same language proficiency test as post-test. When pre and post-test results were evaluated, we found that there was a significant difference between the pre and post-test results of the subjects on behalf of the students in the experimental group. In view of the findings obtained from the study, we can conclude that spoken language can be achieved by authentic sketches which are designed to serve as a situated learning setting. Key Words: situational learning, spoken language, language teaching, authentic sketches 1. Introduction Language teaching takes place in many settings. There are many factors influencing learning. Malamah – Thomas (1987) describes setting in terms of three levels in an education system:  The country  The school  The classroom After determining basic elements of setting, there occurs another question:  What is the relationship between ‗the role of English in the country‘ and ‗teaching in English at school‘? Whether English is spoken in the community outside the class or alternatively never heard is closely related to main problems of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT). Also the role of English in the school and its place in the curriculum is important (McDonough and Shaw, 1998). 399 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Conditions for Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) FLT has a complex structure and it involves many conditions likewise all other educational activities. An ideal grouping of these conditions can be as follows:  Proximity to spoken language  Equality of four skills  Internal and external interferences of learner  Teaching/learning materials An effective teaching is possible only when these conditions have optimal values on teaching atmosphere. The first condition – proximity to spoken language – should be as the first step for a communicative language teaching approach. Because there are many studies proving that learning is achieved by obtaining comprehensible input from original or at least authentic settings (Piske and Scholten, 2009). 3. Situated Learning Situated learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger, learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. As an instructional strategy, situated cognition has been seen as a means for relating subject matter to the needs and concerns of learners (Shor, 1987). A situated learning experience has four major premises guiding the development of classroom activities (Anderson, Reder, and Simon 1996; Wilson 1993): (1) learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations; (2) knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations; (3) learning is the result of a social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving, problem solving, and interacting in addition to declarative and procedural knowledge; and (4) learning is not separated from the world of action but exists in robust, complex, social environments made up of actors, actions, and situations. The key components of situated learning model are:  Stories  Reflection  Cognitive apprenticeship  Collaboration  Coaching  Multiple practice  Articulation of learning skills  Technology (McLellan, 1996). As an overall assessment, situated learning model can provide a valuable tool for enhancing the design and implementation of teaching/learning experiences. The efficiency of the SL model should be considered in accordance with the innovative ideas of FLT to be able to provide a good example of its application in the field. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. Situated learning is a useful model for those who are seeking a communication atmosphere to make language teaching more effective by means of communicative purposes as this learning model emphasizes the importance of real settings of knowledge. 4. Communicative Language Teaching When the subject is ‗to teach a language to communicate‘ then Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) appears to be as the inevitable and probably most appropriate approach. CLT is based on communicative competence which is described as the knowledge needed to be able to communicate effectively (Thornbury, 2006). 400 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo CLT aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of Communicative Approach (CA) by making communicative competence as the goal of language teaching and by acknowledging the interdependence of language and communication (Larsen – Freeman, 2008). In a CLT design, language functions are emphasized rather than forms and grammatical patterns of a language. All four language skills are studied to have a meaningful competence of language. Besides, CLT is generally associated with notional – functional syllabuses (Larsen – Freeman, 2008). 5. Authentic Materials 5. 1. The Description of Authentic Materials Authentic materials are those educational materials which can be used to teach authentic and natural knowledge, competences and abilities. Those materials do not need to be developed or prepared for the purpose of educational. While explaining authentic materials which are used in FLT, Widdowson (1990) emphasizes that those materials are designed to reflect the spoken language to learners. 5. 2. Some Advantages of Authentic Materials      Learners have the chance of hearing original dialogues of spoken language. Learners learn about the cultural patterns of target language. Learners learn about the change in the language. Learners learn about the daily news of that society speaking the language. Authentic materials are easy to be prepared and used in educational settings. 5. 3. Sketches as Authentic Materials Authentic materials are divided into three groups as - written materials - visual materials - audio – visual materials Sketches are the examples of written materials. Some simplified play pieces also can be used as good sources of spoken language. In a sketch dialogue, an authentic language atmosphere can be created and through this context many language patterns can be reflected. While using sketches as authentic written material to spoken language, the key points are the same as they are in all other authentic materials:  simplification  revision for cultural issues  appropriateness to the context. 6. Methods and Procedures 6. 1. Introduction The aim of this study is to review SL in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. 6. 2. Process Before starting the study, both groups were given a language proficiency test including reading comprehension and vocabulary questions as pre – test and the same test were given at the end of the study as post – test. The results of both tests were evaluated by means of answers and their percentage in whole (right – wrong - null). 401 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Basic material of the study is a sketch book which is published on line in a web site for the purpose of teaching spoken English to the speakers of other languages. Sketches were given to experimental group (14 male, 10 female; 24 students in total) beforehand the courses. During the courses, vocabulary was given to the students so that they were encouraged to use dictionary and find out the meanings of the vocabulary. Students were not obliged to act out the roles as they were freshmen and it would be embarrassing for them to act out in front of their classmates. The sketches were read by them as role – plays and during the activities they were modeled to give the meaning of the context through the intonation. Control group of the study (12 male, 11 female; 23 students in sum) were given plain texts with different topics including nearly the same vocabulary and contexts. Likewise the experimental group, those students were also encouraged to look up the vocabulary and answer reading comprehension questions. 7. Analysis and Findings 7. 1. The results of pre – test Before the reading activities that lasted 8 weeks, both groups were given a language proficiency test including vocabulary and reading comprehension questions as well as idioms. The results are as follows: Grammar questions (10 Q) Vocabulary questions (10 Q) Idioms (10 Q) questions Experimental Group (N: 240) Percentage of C: 100 correct answers: W: 120 % 40 N: 20 Percentage of C: 50 correct answers: W: 160 % 20 N: 30 Percentage of C: 12 correct answers: W: 70 % 5 N: 158 Control group (N: 230) Percentage of C: 87 correct answers: W: 108 % 38 N: 35 Percentage of C: 51 correct answers: W: 119 % 22 N: 60 Percentage of C: 12 correct answers: W: 92 % 5 N: 126 N : Number of questions in total C : Correct answers W : Wrong answers N : Null answers As it can be seen from the table, there was no significant difference by means of proficiency levels of the two groups and they are homogenous. 7. 1. The results of pre – test After 8 weeks of research conveyed with both experimental group and control group, above mentioned proficiency test was given again to determine the difference between the two groups. The results are as follows: Grammar questions (10 Q) Vocabulary questions (10 Q) Idioms (10 Q) questions Experimental Group (N: 240) Percentage of C: 95 correct answers: W: 90 % 38 N: 55 Percentage of C: 64 correct answers: W: 130 % 27 N: 46 Percentage of C: 31 correct answers: W: 81 % 13 N: 128 Control group (N: 230) Percentage of C: 97 correct answers: W: 114 % 39 N: 29 Percentage of C: 57 correct answers: W: 120 % 24 N: 53 Percentage of C: 17 correct answers: W: 103 % 7 N: 10 N : Number of questions in total C : Correct answers W : Wrong answers N : Null answers 7. 3. Overall Assessment and Students Opinions It is obvious that authentic sketches work as suitable tools of conveying spoken language patterns. During the study, the students were interviewed for the efficiency and appreciation of the process. After 8 weeks 402 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of study, the majority of the students in the experimental group expressed their appreciation for the course design provided them many language patterns and also they found those sketches very useful to learn about the cultural elements of target language. Student A: (Experimental group) ―It is interesting that I learn easily while reading and my vocabulary becomes more and more stable. When I try to remember a word for example ‗flattered‘ I manage it by remembering the sketch ‗The ticket inspector‘. It helped me try to speak.‖ Student B: (Experimental group) ―I started to feel that I am learning English and I learnt many new words.‖ Student C: (Experimental group) ―Now I know how to joke in English because I learnt an idiom while reading ‗The passport office.‖ Student D: (Control group) ―I learn the vocabulary of the text but when I have a new one generally I missed the old passages‘. I think reading is a good activity but it is very complex.‖ Student E: (Control group) ―The passages have long sentences so it is boring for me.‖ 8. Conclusion FLT is a quite challenging activity especially for those trying to teach the language in a country where the language itself is neither used nor spoken in the community for everyday needs. In a setting where comprehensible input is restricted to teaching/learning activities, it is essential to use authentic materials to develop productive skills. Authentic materials are among the main elements of a SL practice. They build up an artificial language environment and this leads an effective learning/acquisition of the language. Language learner/student needs to speak and listen to be able to master his/her productive skills. Spoken language is difficult to be reflected by using plain texts. In this study, the difficult task of teaching spoken language, expressions, idioms and vocabulary which are used vividly in daily speaking settings have been achieved by the use of authentic sketches in a SL atmosphere. As a result the students could beat their fears of learning language and they learnt many idioms, vocabulary and daily practical expressions. When the scores of both groups are compared it is obvious that this kind of teaching practices may be very effective with many advantages. 403 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H.A. (1996). Situated learning and education, Educational Researcher, 25(4), pp. 5-11. Larsen – Freeman, D. (2008). Techniques and principles in language teaching. London: Oxford University Press. McDonough, J. & Shaw, C. (1998). Materials and methods in ELT. Oxford: U.K. Blackwell Publishers. McLellan, H. (1996). Situated learning perspectives. Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey: USA Piske, T. & Young – Scholten, M. (2009) Input matters in SLA. London: U.K. Multilingual Matters/Channel and View Publication. Shomossi, N. & Ketabi, S. (2007). A critical look at the concept of authenticity. E – Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 4(1) pp: 149 –155. (http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/v4n12007/shomoossi.pdf - last access 12.04.2011) Shor, I. (1987) Critical teaching and everyday life. USA: University of Chicago Press Chicago: Thornbury, S. (2006). An A – Z of ELT. London: U.K. Macmillan Books for Teachers. Widdowson, H. G. (1990) Aspects of language teaching. Oxford: U.K. Oxford University Press. Wilson, A. (1993). The promise of situated cognition. USA : Jossey-Bass San Francisco http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-3/adult-education.html (last access: 14.04.2011) Appendix A : A Sample Sketch: The ticket inspector Scene : A compartment on a train Characters: A passenger on a train, a ticket inspector,a steward and a waiter The passenger is sitting in a compartment on a train. He is reading a newspaper. The steward opens the door. 404 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Steward: Coffee! Passenger: No. thanks. (The passenger closes the door, and continues reading. The waiter opens the door.) Waiter: Seats for dinner! Passenger: No, thanks. (The passenger closes the door again, and continues reading. The ticket inspector opens the door.) Inspector: Tickets! Passenger: No, thanks. Inspector: Pardon? Passenger: I don't want a ticket, thank you. Inspector: I'm not selling tickets, sir. Passenger: No? Inspector: No, I want to see your ticket. Passenger: Oh, I haven't got a ticket. Inspector: You haven't got a ticket? Passenger: No. I never buy a ticket. Inspector: Why not? Passenger: Well, they are very expensive, you know. Inspector: Sir, you're traveling on a train. When people travel on a train, they always buy a ticket. Passenger: Err… Inspector: And this is a first-class compartment. Passenger: Yes, it is very nice, isn't it? Inspector: No, sir. I mean: This is a first-class compartment. When people travel in a first-class compartment, they always buy a first-class ticket. (They look at each other for a moment.) Passenger: No, they don't. Inspector: What? Passenger: A lot of people don't buy tickets. The Queen doesn't buy a ticket, does she' Eh? Eh? Inspector: No, sir, but she's a famous person. Passenger: And what about you? Where's yours? Inspector: Mine? Passenger: Yes, yours. Your ticket. Have you got a ticket? Inspector: Me, sir? Passenger: Yes, you. Inspector: No, I haven't got a ticket. Passenger: Ooh, are you a famous person? Inspector: (Flattered) Famous? Well, not very (Back to normal) Sir, I am a ticket inspector. I inspect tickets. Are you going to show me your ticket? Passenger: No, I haven't got a ticket. 405 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Inspector see. (The ticket inspector puts his hand into his pocket.) Passenger: 'What are you going to do? Inspector: I'm going to write your name in my book. Passenger: Oh Inspector: What is your name, sir? Passenger: Mickey Mouse, (The inspector begins to write.) Inspector: Mickey Passenger: Mouse. M-O-U-S-E. (The inspector stops writing.) Inspector: Your name, sir? Passenger: Karl Marx? William Shakespeare? Charles Dickens? Inspector: I see, sir. Well, if you're not going to tell me your name, please leave the train, Passenger: Pardon? Inspector: Leave the train. Passenger: I can't. Inspector: You can't what? Passenger: I can't leave the train. Inspector: Why not? Passenger: It's moving, Inspector: Not now, sir. At the next station. Passenger: Oh. Inspector: It's in the book, sir. When you travel by train, you buy a ticket, and if you don't buy a ticket, you Passenger-Inspector: leave the train. Inspector: Here we are, sir. We're coming to a station. Please leave the train now. Passenger: Now? Inspector: Yes, sir. I'm sorry, but Passenger: Oh, that's OK. Inspector: it's in the book, and what did you say? Passenger: I said: That's OK.' Inspector: OK? Passenger: Yes, this is my station. Goodbye. (The passenger leaves the train.) 406 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 59 Title A name given to the resource A SITUATED LEARNING PRACTICE FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING CLASSES: TEACHING SPOKEN ENGLISH WITH AUTHENTIC Author Author EFE, Hüseyin DEMİRÖZ, Hakan AKDEMİR, Ahmet Selçuk Abstract A summary of the resource. Situated Learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. In this study, we aim to review ‗situational learning approach‘ in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. The language levels of the students were determined by a language proficiency test which is used as pre-test of the study. Language proficiency test composed of mainly dialogues including spoken language patterns. After 8 weeks of lectures with authentic sketches which were used as reading materials in experimental group and classical reading materials in control group, the students were given the same language proficiency test as post-test. When pre and post-test results were evaluated, we found that there was a significant difference between the pre and post-test results of the subjects on behalf of the students in the experimental group. In view of the findings obtained from the study, we can conclude that spoken language can be achieved by authentic sketches which are designed to serve as a situated learning setting. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a1c961ef832f6c327239148208e117f.pdf 374ad04437a1d3610c150cc97ef8709c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Use of Literature in Teaching English Grammatical Structures as well as Some Linguistic Components Assist.Prof.Dr.Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com Research Assist.GülĢen ERĠġEN Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey gulsenerisen@hotmail.com Assist.Prof.Dr.Ahmet KAYINTU Bingôl University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Bingôl, Turkey akayintu@hotmail.com Intructor Harun KARACA Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey hkaraca@hotmail.com Abstract: Literature is one of the most important resources supporting the grammatical structure of English as a Foreign Language/as a Second Language ( EFL/ESL) learners as well as the linguistic components of English language, and thus literature help students improve their English and at the same time reach communicative competence. Therefore, the aim of this study is to show how literature can be used effectively for students to improve their English and how it can support the grammatical structure of EFL/ ESL learners as well as linguistic components of English language. Throughout the study, previous research and its relationship with present study has been given in detail. Key Words: Literature, grammatical Structure, linguistic, morphology, phonology, tenses, syntax INTRODUCTION There has been a debate on different approaches for FL teaching throughout the history of language teaching. These different approaches have not been the same as a result of change in theories and methods used in FL teaching especially for the objectives of language teaching (Celce & Murcia, 2001). Furthermore, language teachers have been forced to develop and use new and different methods in the process of language teaching to be effective in laguage teaching.. Literature is, undoubtly, one of the main resources used as an effective means of language teaching. Particularly, literature was regarded as the most important part of foreign or second language teaching during the period of Grammar Translation Method. The purpose of this method was to enable language learners to read the classical texts successfully through the method of translation (Hall, 2005). This method helped language learners to learn the target language through translation of sentences from target language into the learners‘ first language and from the first language of learners into the target language. Students had a chance to practice on grammatical rules and vocabulary. Language teachers expected from their students to read and translate literary texts because these texts were assumed to represent ―models of good writing and illustrations of the grammatical rules of the language (Duff & Maley, 1990:3). On the other hand, with the emergence of other methods and approaches such as Audio-Lingual Method, Silent Way, Desuggestopedia and the Communicative Approach, literature lost its prestige. For example communicative approach focused on the language activities and effective communication. Hall explained the communicative method as ―learners negotiating meaning for themselves, learning by doing things with language in authentic contexts‖ (2005: 51). During communicative period, effective communication was important but literature was ignored and it lost its function in the field of language learning and teaching. But there was a problem about the function of Communicative approach. The main aim was to get and convey the correct message but not to be careful about the correct grammar or pronunciation. In the early 1980s, the attitude toward the use of literature in language teaching seemed more encouraging. Some language scholars and researchers such as Duff and Maley (1991), Collie and Slater (1987), Gower and Pearson (1986), Hill (1986), Brumfit and Carter (1986), Carter and Long (1991) and Lazar (1993) 490 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo explored that literature was neglected as a language learning material. Gilroy and Parkinson (1997), point out that literature as a language learning material ―never went away and has always been a large part of EFL for many learners‖ (p. 213). In addition, many language scholars stress that the language of everyday communication is significant in Communicative approach and the language of literature has no real linguistic difference. Zyngier (1994) as a language scholar also thought that ―language of literary texts was not much different from the language of everyday communication‖ (p.3). Carter and Nash (1990) also claimed that communicative language and literary language have no real difference. Problem In order to motivate learners, EFL/ESL teachers are always in a challange in the process of teaching English. Gozales (1998) points out that the important factors such as the lack of motivation of students, lack of effectiveness in the teaching resources and methodology, limited time and large classes are the main reasons of failure in language teaching. In this sense, literature is accepted as one of the most effective resource in FL teaching. Most language teachers prefer literary texts as effective materials while some language teachers hesitate to use literary texts in their classroom (Johnson,1999). For example Lazar (1990) states that not only the language teachers are reluctant to use literary texts in their language classrooms, but students are hesitant as well. The use of literature in the process of EFL/ESL teaching requires background language of the issues presented in these literary texts, so most of the language teachers remain sceptical and lack interest in using literature in their English lessons. Purpose of the Study This paper aims to show the effective role of literature as a resource supporting the grammatical structure and liguistic components of English language. Furthermore, this paper aims at emphasizing the place of literature as a means of teaching the different aspects of grammatical structures and certain linguistic categories such as prepositions, tenses, and morphological, phonological, syntaxical structures of English. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Literature is regarded as a means of reflecting the different aspect of people‘s life. It is undoubtly certain that many linguistics, critics, and authors have been in conflict over what literature is. John McRae (1994) defines the literature in a different way by distinguishing ‗the capital L‘ and ‗small l‘. Literature with a capital L represents the classical texts e.g. Marlow, Shakespeare, Dickens… and literature with a small l represents the products of popular fiction e.g. ballads, fables, elegies, lyrics… Basnett and Grundy (1993) explain that literary texts are cultural documents and reflect different aspects of society and provide deeper understanding of a country or countries. On the other hand, we cannot seperate literature from art. Hoggart (1964) stresses that ―it can never be aesthetically ‗pure‘ or abstractly comtemplative. There can be no such thing as ‗abstract literature‘ as there is such as thing as abstract painting. By its nature –because its medium, language, is used by almost everybody in all sorts of everyday situations; and because it tries both to say and to be – literature is an art which invites impurities‖ (p.34). According to Collie and Slater (1987:3-6), in the language classes literature provides valuable authentic material, developes personal involvement and help contribute the readers‘ both cultural and language enrichment. Reasons of Using Literary Texts and Extracts in Foreign Language Teaching There are many good reasons for using literary texts and extracts as materials in foreign language teaching. According to McKay (1982) and Widdowson (1984), literature is used to develop linguistic knowledge both on usage and use level. Similarly, Povey states that ―literature will extend linguistic knowledge by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and complex and exact syntax (1972: 187). Parkinson and Thomas (2000) also state that literature provide learners to see a model of good writing. Literary texts and extracts also offer learners to practice language skills- in addition to exemplifying grammatical structures and presenting a new vocabulary. Most of the present-day literary texts assume that literature can provide a basis for extending language usage. They mainly focus on the grammatical points that are salient in the text (Fassler and Lay, 1979). Another reason of using literature is about its motivating affect on learners. Collie and Slater (1987) stress the function of literature as an exhibition of real life language. And so, the real life situations, language and relations of people are motivating factors for the learners. Furthermore, literature helps learners to understand the different cultures and develop tolerance and awareness of difference. Marshall (1979: 333), in using literature with Puerto Rican students, found that as she worked to help students overcome the difficulties of the text, her own appreciation of the text was clarified and 491 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo her respect for the students‘ own cultural framework enhanced. Marshall‘s experience verifies that literature promotes a greater tolerance for cultural differences for both teacher and the student. Another reason of using literature is that it helps learners to use their imagination and lead them to develop their own creativity. The learners try to find out what happens as events and share different or similar emotion through literary text. Literature forms interaction between learner and literary text. Rich literary texts can convey multiple meaning, and cause discussions and reflection of different feelings and opinions. This can be useful for the learners in the process of language learning. The Use of Literary Texts and Extracts in Foreign Language Teaching Regarding of the crucial part of literature in maintaining the interest of the students, teachers exploit literary texts in a large number of ways in the classroom. Using the extracts from short stories novels, dramas and poems helps maintain the interest of the students in the process of language learning. Pulverness (2003) advises language teachers to maximise the use of literature in the classroom. For him, firstly, language teachers should introduce the theme of the text, and then necessary vocabulary items and use prediction tasks to arouse the curiosity of the students. Secondly, language teacher should minimize the text so as not to disturb the students‘ reading. Thirdly, language teacher should draw attention to grammar and linguistic structures used by the author. Finally, s/he should encourage students to find creative views and invite them to modify, extend or add to a text. Therefore, it is essential that language teachers bring the literature into language classroom especially for teaching structures of grammar, morphology, phonology and syntax of the target language, using their own imagination and developing the own creativity of the students. Using short stories Using short story as a material will be a useful technique for language teachers not only to provide various rules of grammar, syntax and phonology but also to improve the students‘ creativity. As all known, short story as a genre is always simple and short. Therefore, It will not distress the students and lead to understand the theme easier. According to Arıoğul (2001), short story used as amaterial in ESL\ EFL cirriculum offers these benefits: (a) provides more creative, encrypt, challenging texts that require personal exploration supported with prior knowledge for advanced level readers, (b) promotes critical thinking skills, (c) makes the students‘ reading task easier due to being simple and short when compared with other literary genres, (d) facilities teaching a foreign culture (i.e. serves as a valuable instrument in attaining cultural knowledge of the selected community…(pp 11-18). Furthermore, short story makes contribution to the development of cognitive analytical abilities by bringing the whole self to bear on a compressed account of a situation in a single place and moment (Sage, 1987: 43). A teacher can follow up these activities while using short stories in his\her lesson :  want students to predict what will happen next, or what happened just before.  want students to select familiar structures of grammar, morphology, syntax.  ask students to choose unknown words and to try to guess the meaning of them before looking at dictionary.  want them to write a background character description of one of the characters.  ask students to imagine they are in the same story as a character and ask whether they have different reaction against the events in the story. In brief, using short story give a chance to raise the students‘ awareness towards the target language and culture, and become familiar with different structures of grammar, morphology, phonology and syntax of the target language. Using poems The advantages of including poetry in teaching a foreign language can be beneficial for the students to see different uses of language in relation to vocabulary, syntax, morphology and grammar structures (Lazar, 1993:15). The activities about the use of poetry as a material in ESL\EFL cirriculum have been developed and tested by many experienced language teachers in their classrooms around the world (Bassnett&Grundy, McRae&Boardman, McRae&Pantaleoni, Maley&Moulding, Lazar, Maley&Duff, Collie&Slater, and Gower). Arnold (1999) stated that using poetry give a chance to exercise freely students‘ imaginative and cognitive ability, while working with texts creatively, subjectively, and collaborately, is very invaluable to enable them to improve their overall language and discourse competence. A teacher can follow up these activities while using poems in his\her lesson : 492 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo     ask students to check their pronunciation while they are reading the poem loudly to each other and then to do the same thing for the whole class reading in chorus. ask students to rewrite the poem using the same structures but not in the same meaning. ask students to predict the possible story behind the poem. give an opportunity to discuss on issues the poem. These ideas can be beneficial for students to be familiar with different structures of grammar, vocabulary and they can undoubtly be useful for their pronunciation. Moreover, students have a chance to exercise freely their imaginative ability and to discover their iner world. Along with the above mentioned benefits, poetry comprises so many cultural elements-allusions, vocabulary, idioms, tone that are not easy to translate into another language ( Sage, 1987: 12-13). Using plays As well known, ESL\ EFL learning becomes internalized as a direct relation of the learners to the real situations and specific purpose of communication for the learners. Through the use of drama in foreign language teaching, students learn about the daily expressions of the target language and have the chance to use both receptive and productive skills. Lenore (1993) explains that using drama in ESL\ EFL classrooms (a) promotes language development, (b) develops both critical thinking and listening skills, (c) stimulates the imagination, (d) reinforces positive self concept, (e) fosters self respect and group cooperation. A teacher can follow up these activities while using dramas in his\her lesson :  ask students to prepare a play extemporarily in company with their friends.  ask students to read out the dialogue but to give the characters special accents. It will be useful for them to acquire different aspects of pronunciation.  ask them to read out dialogues loud and listen other friends‘ dialogues.  ask them to write a new version of the play using the daily expressions used frequently. In sum, the use of plays is a very beneficial technique in today‘s ESL\ EFL classrooms. As it is a colourful language learning technique, it is also a motivating factor for the learners to promote their comprehension of grammar structures in context and verbal or nonverbal aspects of the target language. Using extracts from novels The use of extracts from novels in ESL\ EFL classrooms is a beneficial resource for language teaching. Novel as a literary genre not only reflects the daily lives of characters but it also provides to evaluate the events in different points of view. Helton et al., (1998: 1-5) stressed that the extracts used in ESL\ EFL classrooms have an important educational role as it (a) develops oral and written language skills, (b) helps students get information, identify problems and events, (c) motivates them to learn different structures of the target language without getting bored. Through the use of extracts from novels, students build vocabulary and develop their reading skills. Like other literary genres, novel is a very effective way of acquiring grammar structures, and morphological, phonological and syntactical aspects of the target language. Criteria for choosing literary texts and extracts in foreign language teaching Choosing an appropriate text to be used in ESL\ EFL classrooms should be carefully considered. Because the success in using literature in the classroom depends on the works selected for the lesson. First of all, language teachers should not forget that the aim is not to teach literature but to teach language and they must be aware of the difficulties of choosing the appropriate literary texts or extracts for students. Lazar (1993: 56) listed some criteria according to the type of course and students, and other text-related factors as follows: Type of course  level of students  students‘reasons for learning English  kinds of English required  length\ intensity of course Type of students  age  intellectual maturity 493 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo      emotional understanding interests and hobbies cultural background linguistic proficiency literary background Other text-related factors  availability\ length of text  exploitability  fit with syllabus To know about the cultural and literary background of the learners will help teacher to pay attention to the needs and abilities of the learner group. In addition, knowing the linguistic proficiency of the learners and an appropriate choice of text will provide the students with examples of many features of the written language, the structure of sentences, different usages of structures and the different ways of connecting ideas. Similarly, the use of imagination particularly while discussing literature ―enables the leamers to shift their attention beyond the more mechanical aspects of the foreign language system‖ (Collie & Slater, 1987: 5). Apart from its motivating affect, using literary texts and extracts can gain learners the awareness of different cultures. About this function, Lazar states (1993) that ―although students may find it easier to respond personally to a text from within their own culture, there is a strong arguement for saying that exposing students to literature from other cultures is an enriching and exciting way of increasing their awareness of different values, beliefs, social structures, and so on‖ (p. 63). This situation is substantial to motivate students, but language teachers should not select culturally dense texts so as not to prevent learners from understanding the essential meaning. CONCLUSION There is a known fact that literature used as a source for teaching ESL\ EFL in classroom has been in the key position. In this context, the teacher has an important role in the process of teaching English. First of all, while choosing the appropriate text for the students, the teacher should consider not only the appreciation of the student but s\he also think about her/his own appreciation. Likewise, Povey (1979) states that ―literary text is one that the teacher himself or herself enjoys‖ (p. 164). Secondly, the students‘ age, intellectual maturity, emotional understanding, motivation, needs, language proficiency, cultural and literary background should be taken into account so as not to bore them using inappropriate materials. At the same time, for many students literature has a duty of motivating them to learn English. If the literary work has simple language and short in length, this will facilitate the comprehension of the literary text and be a crucial factor for motivation of the students towards learning English. Furthermore, literature provide students to look at the situations and events from a different aspect. Custodio and Sutton (1998: 20) stated that ―literature can open horizons of possibility, allowing students to question, interpret, connect and explore‖. Apart from these benefits, ―the use of literature helps students, acquire a native-like competence in English, express their ideas in English well, learn the features of modern English, learn how the English linguistic system is used for communication, see how idiomatic expressions are used, speak clearly, precisely, and concisely, and become more proficient in English, as well as become creative, critical and analytical learners‖ (Obediat,1997: 32). There is no doubt that there are many good reasons for language teachers to use literature in ESL\ EFL classrooms. But the selection of appropriate texts and extracts is, of course, very difficult. As long as to be careful about some factors such as age, intellectual maturity, emotional understanding, motivation, needs, language proficiency, cultural and literary background of the students, teaching a foreign language won‘t be so complicated, contrarily it will be enjoyable and advantageous. 494 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Arıoğul, S. (2001). ―The Teaching of Reading Through Short Stories in Advanced Classes‖. Unpublished M.A Thesis. Ankara: Hacettepe University. Arnold, J. (Ed.). (1999). Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Brumfit, C.J., & Carter, R.A. (1986). Literature and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carter, R. & Long, M. (1991). Teaching Literature. Harlow: Longman. Carter, R. A. & Nash, W. (1990). Seeing through language: a guide for styles of English writing, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Collie, J. & Slater,S. (1987). Literature in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Custodio, B. & Sutton, M.. (1998). ―Literature-Based ESL for Secondary School Students‖ in TESOL Journal. Vol 7, No.5, p.p: 19-23. Duff, A. & Maley, A. (1990). Literature. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Fassler, D. & Lay, N. (1979). Encounters with a new world. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Gilroy, M. & Parkinson, B. (1997). Teaching literature in a foreign language. Language Teaching, 29(4), 213225. Gonzalez, D. (1998). A whole language project: Using story grammars in the EFL high schoolclassroom. English Teaching Forum, 36,1, pp.14–15. Gower, R., & Pearson, M. (1986). Reading Literature. London: Longman. Hall, G. (2005). Literature in Language Education. New York: Palgrave. Helton, C.A, Asamani, J. & Thomas, E.D. (1998). ―A ‗Novel‘ Approach to the Teaching of Reading‖. Tennessee State: Tennessee State University, p.p: 1-5, Available Internet Address: http: // www.nade.net / documents / SCP98 / SCP98.19.pdf. Hill, J. (1986). Using Literature in Language Teaching. London: Macmillan. Hoggart, R. (1957). The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working Class Life with Special Reference to Publications and Entertainments. London: Chatto andWindus. Johnson, K.E. (1999). Understanding language teaching: Reasoning in action. New York: Heinle & Heinle. Lazar, G. (1990). ―Using novels in the language-learning classroom.‖ ELT 44/3: 204-214. Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lenore, K.L. (1993). The Creative Classroom A Guide for Using Creative Drama in Classroom. U.S.A.: Elsevier, Inc. Maley, A. & Moulding, S. (1985). Poem into Poem. Cambridge UP. Marshall, M. (1979). "Love and death in Eden: Teaching English literature to ESL students." TESOL Quarterly, 13, 331-337. McKay, S. (1982). Literature in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 529-536. McRae, J. & Boardman, R. (1984). Reading between the Lines Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres. McRae, J. & Pantaleoni, L. (1994). Words on the Page, A Course in English Literature. Italy: Nuova Edizione, La Nuova Italia & Oxford University Press. Obediat, M. (1997). ―Language vs. Literature in English Departments in the Arab World‖ in English Teaching Forum. Parkinson, B. &Thomas, H.R. (2000). Teaching Literature in a Second Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Povey, J. (1972). "Literature in TESL programs: the language and the culture." In Allen, H. & R.Campbell (Eds.), Teaching English as a Second Language. New York: McGraw Hill,.187-193). Povey, J. (1979). "The teaching of literature in advanced ESL classes." In M. Celce-Murcia & L.McIntosh (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 162-186. Pulverness, A. (2003). ‗Literature' in English Teaching Professional, October, Issue 29, Modern English Publishing. Sage, H. (1987). Incorporating Literature in ESL Instruction. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Widdowson, H. (1984). Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zyngier, S. (1994). At the crossroads of language and literature: literary awareness, stylistics and the acquisition of literary skills in an EFLit context. Thesis (PhD in Applied Linguistics) – School of English, University of Birmingham, Birmingham. 495 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 74 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Literature in Teaching English Grammatical Structures as well as Some Linguistic Components Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer ERISEN, Gülşen KAYINTU, Ahmet KARACA, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. Literature is one of the most important resources supporting the grammatical structure of English as a Foreign Language/as a Second Language ( EFL/ESL) learners as well as the linguistic components of English language, and thus literature help students improve their English and at the same time reach communicative competence. Therefore, the aim of this study is to show how literature can be used effectively for students to improve their English and how it can support the grammatical structure of EFL/ ESL learners as well as linguistic components of English language. Throughout the study, previous research and its relationship with present study has been given in detail. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/895ebcd3f9780a2f0de7905bf07f23e2.pdf b023235e1f4b889131dafa9617dff2e2 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Awareness of Referential Devices in Text and Reading Comprehension Adel Ebrahimpourtaher Islamic Azad University-Ilkhchi Branch apourtaher@yahoo.com Abstract: Hassan‘s (1976) classification of these devices as personal, comparative, and demonstrative on the reading ability of the present study explored the role of learners‘ awareness of referential devices in texts based on Halliday and learners. To support this, 30 male students aged between 13 and 20 were selected out of 180 students studying English at Iran Language Institute.All the subjects were elementary 3 students and were chosen considering their final reading scores they got in elementary 2 to make the sample almost homogeneous. They were randomly divided into two groups of 15 subjects. Through a 20-session term,10 passages were taught to both experimental and control groups through a similar methodology for teaching reading at this Institute. The only difference was that we made our experimental group practice finding referents. We helped them through oral questions, group work, and also taught them specific strategies taken from TOEFL FLASH SERIES .The subjects in the control group only received the method common in the Institute. We gave them a post-test on the last session. This was a multiple-choice reading test including two short passages each followed by 5 questions. A t-test was taken to compare the mean scores of the groups. The results confirmed the hypothesis and showed a significant improvement on the reading ability of subjects in the experimental group. In the end, some pedagogical implications were made. Key Words: Reference-Cohesion-Referential Devices. Introduction Reading is discoursally viewed as an interactive process of communication between readers and writers through the text (classroom lectures on discourse analysis).A text has textual features which collectively constitute its ‗texture‘ and distinguish it from non-text. ‘Cohesion‘ of which referential devices are sub-types helps bring about a semantic continuity and is very important to deal with in reading process. Cohesion Cohesion has been defined in a number of ways. Halliday and Hassan (1976) hold the view that the primary determinant of whether a set of sentences do or do not constitute a text depends on cohesive relationships within and between sentences .They consider a text as a unified whole which is easily recognized from one which is not. In spoken and written discourses, individual clauses and utterances are semantically linked by grammatical connections (McCarthy, 1991). Malmkjar (2004, 543) defines cohesion as ―the way in which linguistic items are meaningfully connected to each other sequentially on the basis of grammatical rules.‖ Widdowson defines it in terms of the distinction that is made between the illocutionary act and the proposition. In his view (P.52), propositions, when linked together, form a "text" whereas illocutionary acts, when related to each other, create different kinds of "discourse." According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion and register enable us to create a text. Register is concerned with what a text means. It is defined by Halliday and Hasan as the "set of semantic configuration that is typically associated with a particular class of context of situation, and defines the substance of the text." Cohesion, as contrasted with register, is not concerned with what a text means. Rather, it refers to a set of meaning relations that exist within the text. These relations are not of the kind that links the components of a sentence and they differ from sentential structure. The discovery of these meaning relations is crucial to its interpretation. For instance, in the following text: Mary bought a new pencil. She put it in her drawer. The interpretation of the elements she and it is dependent on the lexical items Mary and Pencil. So, cohesion is in the semantic relation that is setup between these elements. According to Halliday and Hasan, the function of cohesion is to relate one part of a text to another part of the same text. Consequently, it lends continuity to the text. By providing this kind of text continuity, cohesion enables the reader or listener to supply all the components of the picture to its interpretation. Halliday and Hasan hold that cohesion in its normal form, is the presupposition of something that has gone before in the discourse, whether in the immediately preceding sentence or not. This form of presupposition is referred to as anaphoric. The presupposing item may point forward to something following it. This type of presupposition is called 12 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo cataphoric. On the other hand, exophoric and endophoric presuppositions refer to an item of information outside and inside the text, respectively. They recognize five sub-types of cohesive in English and in the lexicogrammatical system of the language. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. Reference, substitution, and ellipsis are grammatical; lexical cohesion is lexical; conjunction stands on the border line between the two categories. In other words, it is mainly grammatical but sometimes involves lexical selection. Constructionalists view language comprehension as an interactive process between the text and the person using the text. They assume that meaning does not exist in the text but becomes available to the reader as a result of his own contribution. Language users employ text in comprehension as a set of guidelines to the active (re)creation of meaning. Jonz (1987) in his explanation of the advantage(s) of adopting a constructionist point of view says: ... one is able to speculate on the structure of language knowledge and on the various stages in the acquisition of such structures as well as their application to the cognitive tasks involved in comprehending. From the above statement, it follows that constructionists emphasize the role of background knowledge as a feature of a text; and the cognitive tasks involved in the comprehension process. Reference One of the most considerable cohesive devices is reference. Different types of reference have been mentioned by theorists of which we choose to refer to that of Halliday and Hassan(1976).They identify three sub-types of referential devises: personal, demonstrative, and comparative. Personal reference: They serve to identify individuals and objects that are named at some other points in the text. Example: "Mary did not have to change the method. She could have chosen to teach as others did". Demonstrative reference: It is expressed through determiners and adverbs. These devices represent items ranging from a single word, a phrase, and even to a whole paragraph. Example: "Recognizing that the country had to change, the president stated some political reforms and developed some promotions. This did not happen". Comparative reference: It serves to compare items within a text In terms of identity and similarity. These are expressive adjectives and adverbs. Example: "I don‘t like these gloves. Actually, I‘d like the other gloves". Method Participants The subjects in this study were 30 male EFL learners. They were elementary 3 students and had studied almost four terms at the Iran Language Institute at the time this study was performed. They aged between 13 and 20. The subjects were selected from among 180 students in elementary 3 in spring 2010 on the basis of the scores they got in their elementary 2 reading section. Procedure During a term including 20 sessions, ten passages were taught to both groups through almost a fixed method written in advance by the research team of the Institute. The subjects in the experimental group were also trained to practice finding referents to referential devices through group work as well as putting forward appropriate oral questions. Some strategies were also taken from TOEFL Flash from the unit named ―Reference‖ and taught to them. However, the subjects in the control group only received the method of the Institute. In the last session, two short passages each followed by five multiple-choice tests were given. They were told that they would not be scored for the test to remove anxiety and motivate them for the final. A t-test was taken to compare the scores of two groups. Results To see if there is any improvement in the performance of our experimental group, a t-test was taken to compare the mean scores of subjects in both groups. The following table shows the results: Paired t-test for comparing the scores of control and experimental groups Groups N X SD Experimental 15 8.4 1.121 Control 15 7.13 .915 T-value .001 Table-1 13 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo As it is seen on the table above, a t-value of .001 is statistically very significant at the .05 level of significance to reject the stated null hypothesis. So, we can support our hypothesis that preparing students with strategies to guess the referents of referential devices and making them aware of these linking devices can improve their reading ability. Pedagogical implications Some pedagogical implications of this study can be drawn for both EFL reading and translation equivalence. As it was mentioned before, cohesion is a semantic relation and functions to pair and chain items across sentences that are related. It brings about semantic continuity in a text. It can be claimed that comprehension of a text partly depends on recovering the cohesive elements, so the reader needs to attend to them. These cohesive elements should be attended to in an EFL reading class. Translation is defined as establishing equivalence in textual material between source and target language. Newmark(in Fleet and Threadgold, 1987) states that the topic of cohesion is the most useful area of discourse analysis applicable to translation. Lotfipour-Saedi (1991) offers a discoursal framework for the characterization of translation equivalence. He states that equivalence is established in terms of eight dimensions': vocabulary, structure, texture, sentence meaning verses utterance meaning, language varieties, presuppositions, cognitive effect, and aesthetic effect. Thus, in establishing translation equivalence between the source and target language, these dimensions should be met by the translator. Of these only the third one ‗texture‘ is related to our study. References Halliday, M.A.K.and R.Hassan (1976).Cohesion in English. London. Longman. Jonz, J. (1987). "Textual Cohesion and Second Language Comprehension" in Language Learning. Vol. 37, 30. Lotfipour-Saedi, k (1991).Analyzing Literary Discourse: Implications for Literary Translation. In proceedings of Tabriz University Conference on Translation. Lotfipour-Saedi, k (1992) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis Presented at the second conference on theoretical Applied Linguistics, Tehran, Allameh Tabatabai Uuniversity. Malmkjar, k (2004).The Linguistic Encyclopedia. London: Routledge. McCarthy (1991).Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Newmark, P (1987).The Use of Systemic Linguistics in Translation Analysis and Criticism. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 5 Title A name given to the resource Awareness of Referential Devices in Text and Reading Comprehension Author Author Ebrahimpourtaher, Adel Abstract A summary of the resource. Hassan‘s (1976) classification of these devices as personal, comparative, and demonstrative on the reading ability of the present study explored the role of learners‘ awareness of referential devices in texts based on Halliday and learners. To support this, 30 male students aged between 13 and 20 were selected out of 180 students studying English at Iran Language Institute.All the subjects were elementary 3 students and were chosen considering their final reading scores they got in elementary 2 to make the sample almost homogeneous. They were randomly divided into two groups of 15 subjects. Through a 20-session term,10 passages were taught to both experimental and control groups through a similar methodology for teaching reading at this Institute. The only difference was that we made our experimental group practice finding referents. We helped them through oral questions, group work, and also taught them specific strategies taken from TOEFL FLASH SERIES .The subjects in the control group only received the method common in the Institute. We gave them a post-test on the last session. This was a multiple-choice reading test including two short passages each followed by 5 questions. A t-test was taken to compare the mean scores of the groups. The results confirmed the hypothesis and showed a significant improvement on the reading ability of subjects in the experimental group. In the end, some pedagogical implications were made. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/11f444a2bbe4625c0ab354c356389e89.pdf bed609e416bd3a504130215a4d16245d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Western pedagogical models of writing center tutorials: Can they be effective in the Middle East? Maria Eleftheriou Department of Writing Studies American University of Sharjah meleftheriou@aus.edu Abstract: This paper presents the findings of a study of writing center tutorial practices in a Middle Eastern university where the language of instruction is English. Data from stimulated recall activities, written observations, and interviews were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of writing center tutorials in a Middle-Eastern Writing Center. The data revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments, believed that their concerns had been addressed, and that they had acquired transferable skills. Most tutees assessed their tutors positively, valuing tutors who inspired confidence and were able to explain concepts clearly. Although tutees appreciated knowledgeable tutors, they valued egalitarian peer-tutoring relationships. Tutors reported that tutorial sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical of their own performance. Some tutors admitted to lacking the knowledge necessary to explain certain writing concepts, including grammatical concepts; some felt they dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees preferred the directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. This study shows that diverse tutoring models that accommodate the background and experiences of Middle Eastern students, and their particular strengths and weaknesses, should be considered. It recommends tutorial training that emphasizes flexibility and recognizes the distinctive nature of each tutorial situation and the opportunity it presents to address the needs and expectations of individual students. These findings could signal a direction for the development of writing center pedagogy that focuses on the linguistically and culturally diverse students in the Middle East. Key Words: Tutorial interaction, NNS tutorials, Middle Eastern students, Peer tutoring Introduction In recent years, educators have become increasingly aware of the importance of developing writing centers in educational institutions. In North America, most high schools, colleges, and universities today provide writing centers to help students improve their writing skills. Writing centers offer free, individualized writing assistance from trained consultants or trained peer tutors. During writing center tutorials, students and peer tutors work together on various aspects of writing, including thesis development, organization, outlining, paragraphing, sentencestructure, wording, vocabulary, and mechanics. Most writing centers strive to teach students to recognize and correct their own errors with the goal of making them more confident, self-sufficient writers (North, 1984). Writing centers in North America have typically eschewed a directive approach to instruction, preferring a non-directive, collaborative approach. With non-directive strategies, learners take an active role in the tutorial. Tutors are encouraged to promote a sense of responsibility in the student for their writing: ―Make sure that writers take ownership,‖ ―Trust the writers‘ ideas of the text,‖ ―Ask them their plans for revision,‖ and ―Keep hands off and let writers make corrections‖ (Gillespie & Lerner, 2006, p. 45). With directive tutorial strategies, the responsibility for the tutorial is placed in the tutor‘s hands. The strategies used with this approach include ―mak[ing] corrections on the page‖ and ―tell[ing] writers what to do‖ (Gillespie & Lerner, 2006, p. 45). The directive approach to instruction has been supplanted by the non-directive approach, and many tutors attempt to honor non-direction in their interactions with their writing center tutees (Blau & Hall, 2002; Brooks, 1991; Carino, 2003; Jones, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). There is a compelling amount of evidence, however, that even though tutors seek to maintain a non-directive role with their writing center tutees, in actual practice, the peer relationship reflects a more complicated dynamic. Grimm (1996) identifies the ―loss of innocence‖ among researchers and practitioners regarding the dynamic and influence of the tutor-tutee relationship in day-to-day writing center work, while Shamoon and Burns (1995) critique the notion of ―pure tutoring‖ in writing center pedagogy. Some researchers have observed that the notion of the tutor-tutee relationship that envisions an egalitarian balance and does not allow for an authoritarian aspect in the interaction is 790 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo untenable. Over the last 15 years there has been a growing movement to challenge the orthodoxy of the non-directive peer tutoring perspective and to identify and consider the real-life conduct of the peer interaction to determine its impact on the effectiveness of instruction (Clark & Healy, 1996; Grimm, 1996; Henning, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004; Weigle & Nelson, 2004). Non-Native Speaking Students in the Writing Center The questioning of the peer relationship and the effectiveness of a strictly non-directive approach to tutoring have emerged out of the growing research focus on the learning of non-native speaking (NNS) students who come to English-language writing centers (Harris & Silva, 1993; Thonus, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). Some studies indicate that NNS students may benefit from a more directive approach in their tutoring interactions (Blau & Hall, 2002; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). A study was conducted to examine the tutor-tutee relationship in an English-language writing center in the Middle East, serving students for whom English may be a second or third language. There is relatively little research on English language learning on writing center work with this population. Context of the Study The Middle East University (MEU), a pseudonym for a university located in the United Arab Emirates, receives hundreds of foreign students annually. According to the 2009 Institutional Research University Board, the student body consists of 20% Emirati students, 42% students from the rest of the Arab world including Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, and Syria and the remainder are from countries including Iran, India, and Pakistan. The university curriculum is modelled on the curriculum of American universities; it has received American accreditation, and the language of instruction is entirely in English. Approximately half the MEU students have been educated in schools where the language of instruction has not been English. Most of the students in this group have been educated in Arabic school systems. The remaining students have been educated in a number of school systems, including Urdu, Hindi, Persian, and Afghani. English is the second or third language and occasionally the fourth for many of the students. This situation is characteristic of many American, British, or Australian universities in the United Arab Emirates. All students at the university are required to take 15 credits of communications courses as part of their major programs. The challenges these students face while writing in English is a serious concern for faculty members and students. As part of an effort to address writing issues, the university established a Writing Center with a peer tutoring program in the 2004/2005 academic year. Students are strongly encouraged by their instructors to visit the MEU Writing Center where they will receive individualized instruction. Following the American writing center model, both in the use of the term peer tutoring and in the organization of the Writing Center, MEU offers one-on-one tutoring sessions by appointment or on a drop-in basis to all students throughout the university. Instructors teaching writing-intensive courses or courses with a writing component often encourage or even require their students to visit the Writing Center for supplemental help. Students can also self-refer. During the tutoring sessions, tutees and tutors work on global concerns such as improving content, organization, and tone and/or local concerns such as clarifying confusing or improperly constructed sentences, correction punctuation, grammar, and mechanics. The Nature of the Research Problem In the peer tutoring program which was implemented in 2004/2005, tutors were trained to use a nondirective, collaborative approach to tutoring. They were encouraged to promote an egalitarian relationship by establishing rapport with their tutees at the beginning of the session, sitting ―side-by side‖ with their tutees to mitigate the nature of the authoritarian tutor-tutee relationship. They were advised to encourage the tutee to be an active participant in the tutorial discussion by asking the tutee to read aloud, placing the assignment in front of the tutee, and giving the tutee control of the pen or pencil or keyboard if working at the computer. Tutors were advised to use non-directive strategies, such as asking questions about the tutees‘ goals and assignments, negotiating an agenda, outlining/mapping with the tutees, asking tutees to explain and clarify their ideas orally, asking tutees to write independently, and asking questions to develop critical self-awareness. The tutors were trained to facilitate this process by responding as readers, and by practicing the use of silence and wait time. Although tutors tried to implement the recommended strategies, it soon became increasingly clear that this approach was not always effective. Tutors expressed frustration about trying to elicit knowledge tutees did not have; they suggested the tutors were deliberately withholding information, or that they were not sufficiently knowledgeable about writing. Tutors were then advised to modify their approach and to use a directive approach when they thought the non-directive approach was not effective. Tutors were advised to use the directive approach when they felt they had no other recourse. They were cautioned against simply fixing errors and told to provide the tutee with strategies for correction. Informal 791 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo observation indicated the emergence of problems relating to the tutors‘ attempts to implement this advice. A study was designed to determine the ways in which tutees and tutors perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials when tutors who have been trained to use directive approaches are now trying to decide when and if they are appropriate. It takes into account the particular circumstances of a Middle Eastern university where the students come from ethically, culturally, and linguistically diverse backgrounds to study in an English medium university. Unlike tutors in the US who are usually native speakers (NS) of English, the tutors at MEU are native speakers of languages such as Arabic, Hindi, Urdu, and English. Most writing center scholarship and research has been conducted with NS tutees, NNS tutees, and NS tutors in North America. Research Questions Many writing center researchers emphasize the importance of improving assessment practices and maintaining a willingness to question accepted notions of writing center pedagogy across the range of NS and NNS populations (Thonus, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). This study sought to understand and evaluate the effectiveness of the interactive process of the writing center tutorial by exploring tutor and tutee perceptions of the tutorials. Discerning patterns that recur during the sessions could lead to a deeper awareness of the perceptions of the tutors and the tutees, which will help the writing center director to improve the training of tutors and maximize the benefits of the Writing Center. The following research questions were addressed within the given NNS context: 1. 2. 3. 4. How do tutees perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials? How do tutors perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials? Which type of tutoring approach (e.g. non-directive vs. directive) do tutees find most effective? Which type of tutoring approach (e.g. non-directive vs. directive) do tutors find most effective? Methodology Fifteen writing Center tutorials at the MEU Writing Center were videotaped and analyzed, and stimulated recall was conducted with the tutees and tutors within 24 hours after the tutorials. The stimulated recall was taperecorded and transcribed. Interviews were conducted with all participants within 72 hours of the stimulated recall and were also transcribed. Data for the study came from videotapes of the tutorials, stimulated recall and interviews. By coding the transcribed stimulated recall sessions and interviews with the tutors and tutees, the researcher was able to gain a clearer understanding of the following: tutors‘ and tutees‘ expectations of writing tutorials in general, their perceptions of the tutorials‘ effectiveness overall, and an understanding of which types of strategies (non-directive vs. directive) they felt were most effective. Results The findings revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments. They reported that their tutors addressed their concerns and that they had acquired transferable skills. Tutees appreciated and responded well to tutors who were able to explain concepts with clarity, accuracy and precision, but they were unsatisfied with tutors who dominated the session and with those who did not provide explanations for changes or corrections. They appreciated the authority of knowledgeable tutors, but they valued an egalitarian peer tutoring relationship. Tutors also claimed that the tutorials were effective. They reported that the sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that they believed that the tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical about their own performances. Some tutors admitted that their knowledge and understanding of certain writing concepts was insufficient; some felt they had dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees generally preferred a directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. Though many of the findings of this study are similar to findings with NNS students in North American contexts, there are some differences. NNS tutees at all levels of proficiency in this study enjoyed the peer-like aspects of the relationship with their tutors. They appreciated having a sense of control over their tutorials and did not like their tutors to dominate tutorials. Like NNS tutees in North American contexts, the tutees in this context claimed that they preferred a directive approach for lower order concerns when they did not have sufficient knowledge to respond to their tutors‘ non-directive approaches. Although there has been a greater emphasis in recent literature on the role of more directive strategies in writing center instruction (Bringhurst, 2006; Harris & Silva, 1993; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams, 2005), this study indicates that writing center practitioners should not abandon constructivist practices of collaboration and non-directive strategies; rather, they should use these strategies when it is appropriate to do so. The current evidence suggests that a combination of non-directive and directive practices may provide a solution to addressing the variety of learning needs exhibited by NNS writers in particular (Blau & Hall, 2002; 792 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Carino, 2003; Harris & Silva, 1993; Henning, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 2001; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). This study confirms that the non-directive/directive binary alternatives are too simplistic to be helpful in practice because individuals with varying abilities and experiences need tutoring approaches that can be adapted to their requirements at different times. It emphasizes the importance of flexibility, of the judicious use of both directive and non-directive strategies. This exploratory study reveals that strategies deemed successful with NS and NNS students in North American contexts may not be effective in Middle Eastern contexts. It raises questions about several well-established strategies in writing center tutorials. The strategy of silence, for instance, was generally not well received by tutees. Reading aloud, a strategy commonly used by many tutors, was also not well-received by several tutees. Determining the reasons for the tutees‘ negative assessment of these strategies warrants further research. Another finding is the tutees‘ preference for a peer tutoring, egalitarian relationship that enabled the generation of ideas through collaborative interaction and the strengths and limitations of this approach. The difference between the students in this study and those in the North American context may be explained by their experiences living in and adapting to two or more cultures and languages. The findings of this study reveal the distinctive nature of this cohort and the implications this has for future research. Implications of the Study Although tutors and tutees claimed that the tutorial sessions were generally effective, the study shows that both groups were aware of aspects of the sessions that require alteration and improvement. Emphasize the Importance of Pre-Tutorial Discussion Tutees responded positively to tutors who spent time at the beginning of the tutorial asking questions about their assignments, their concerns and negotiating an agenda for the session. This aspect of tutorials could be emphasized during training, and tutors reminded of its importance throughout their employment at the Writing Center. This information gathering is particularly important for NNS tutees who may not be sufficiently fluent in English to understand the requirements of the assignments or to explain their own intentions about the assignment. Decisions about whether or not the tutee will read the text aloud or at what points during the reading the tutor will provide feedback could be made during this section of the tutorial. This initial dialogue also gives the tutorial direction and establishes rapport between tutor and tutee. The study revealed that the tutoring relationship can be affected by many NNS students‘ unfamiliarity with the type of discussion that is typically used in the writing center. According to Bruce (2009), ―the concept of shared responsibility for writing is alien‖ to NNS students (p. 34). This study confirmed her observation and affirmed the desirability of encouraging tutors to explain the writing center approach to first time clients at the beginning of the session and to implement it with sensitivity. Avoid Appropriation Although tutees preferred a directive approach while addressing lower order concerns, they were resistant to this approach if it bordered on appropriation. Several tutees reported that their tutors occasionally assumed too much control of their papers. This situation can be ameliorated if tutors have had adequate training so that they are aware of the need to involve their tutee in each stage of the discussion and to explain suggested changes. If the directive approach is used with sound judgment, it can provide the tutees with the conventions of discourse that are expected in academic institutions giving them more control over their writing. When tutors were rushed and felt they did not have the time to explain adequately the reasons for their suggestions, the possibility of appropriation was heightened. In this situation, the tutee could be given a handout that specifically addresses the issues, directed to a relevant online site, or asked to make another appointment at the writing center at which time the specific problem could be addressed. Tutors who have been trained to value the non-directive approach and to use directive approaches only when required find it difficult to know when to intervene with a directive approach, and how to determine the extent and the effect of their interventions. They lack the experience and the expertise to confidently negotiate this indeterminate area; moreover, they have acknowledged this difficulty and asked for guidance. Although tutors have misgivings about using the directive approach because of their training, some of them realize that it has proven to be effective on several occasions. If congenial learning situations were created where tutors could reflect on the teaching styles they are developing, perhaps they could change or modify them, if necessary. Activities such as role playing, stimulated recall or close vertical transcriptions, for instance, could help them to identify their characteristic teaching patterns and the resources they require in order be more confident and effective. Provide in-Service Grammar Training 793 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This study indicates that tutors‘ knowledge of grammar and related issues such as parts of speech, sentence structure and punctuation is insufficient. Grammar training throughout tutor training and with continuous professional development may be offered to tutors throughout their employment. In his article, ―English for those who think they already know it,‖ Rafoth (2009) says that successful tutoring sessions start with appropriate tutor resources and training, and argues that a familiarity with the framework of the English language ―brings about more interesting and helpful interactions with the students we tutor‖ (p. 120). Tutors are not always able to explain the errors in the tutees‘ assignments. Brooks (1991) claims that ―fixing flawed papers is easy; showing the students how to fix their own papers is complex and difficult‖ (p. 224). Tutors who are able to identify the errors in grammar themselves and to access resources through handbooks and reliable online grammar sites, including interactive grammar sites may be better able to engage in a discussion with tutees about their papers. An understanding of grammar is one of the interrelated activities involved in writing, and once the basic grammatical elements are acquired, it would be useful to tutors to know how to access further details when they are required. In some instances NNS tutees may be more familiar with grammatical terminology than their tutors; therefore, knowledge of English grammar is a valuable tool for tutors, both to instruct their tutees, and to maintain their credibility as authorities on English writing. In addition to knowing how to access resources that explain rules of grammar, tutors could be offered workshops that focus on specific elements of grammar. Furthermore, reading student texts and discussing how to approach grammatical errors in the context of the assignment may help tutors feel more confident when addressing grammatical errors during tutorial sessions. Although tutors prepare a short grammar presentation during their peer tutoring course, this aspect of tutorials has not been emphasized during in-service training. The findings of this study reveal that a more detailed understanding of grammatical rules is necessary because the tutees requested information the tutors could not provide. If tutors have a more comprehensive understanding of lexical and syntactical aspects of grammar, they will be in a stronger position to help their tutees to achieve greater coherence, cohesion, clarity, and precision. Knowledge of grammar will enhance the students‘ ability to organize knowledge, to generate ideas and insights, and to develop persuasive arguments. Knowledge of grammar can form an important part of the recursive process of writing. Provide Tutors with Information in Contrastive Rhetoric Informal observation and the results of this study reveal that tutors do not engage their tutees in discussion about contrastive rhetoric. Raising learners‘ awareness of some of the basic differences between English and Arabic may help Arabic NS students, particularly low proficiency students, who did not attend English language high school. For example, the inclusion of a pronoun is required in relative clauses; in English, it is omitted. This tendency may result in errors such as ―Where is the book which I gave it to you last week?‖ A tutor who notices that her tutee is including a pronoun in relative clauses would be expected to explain the difference. An understanding of contrastive rhetoric and an awareness of exemplary instances can form part of the tutors‘ arsenal, but tutors should not be constrained by the rhetoric of this approach because it can lead to prescriptivism. Many researchers caution against being prescriptive (Harris & Silva, 1993): an alternative to being prescriptive is to point out to writers the choices that are available to them, including the choices native speakers of English tend to make. Although tutors should be aware of characteristic instances of contrastive rhetoric, they should not pigeonhole Arabic NS students, for instance, by assuming they will make similar errors in their writing. In addition to providing tutors with readings in contrastive rhetoric, tutors could be provided with examples of students‘ writing and the opportunity to discuss characteristic errors made by Arabic, Persian, Urdu NS students, for instance. Adopt a Flexible Approach to Tutoring This study shows that more flexible tutoring models that accommodate the experiences of our tutors and tutees and their particular strengths and weaknesses may be of value. Much of the writing center scholarship discussing NNS writers recommends more flexible tutoring models than those used with NS writers (Blau & Hall, 2002; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams, 2005; Williams & Severino, 2004). The results of this Middle Eastern study support a similar recommendation. Pedagogical models designed to accommodate NNS students in North American contexts provide valuable insights about the relation between writing and learning. Middle Eastern writing center studies can build on this body of research and develop approaches that are flexible in ways that take into account the particularities of our clientele. It is up to writing center directors, however, to be aware of writing center pedagogy as it evolves in response to research; tutors should be able to assume that advice from directors is based on such research. If this level of confidence is established, tutors may be less inclined to regard established writing center models as prescriptive and more inclined to be flexible and to take into account the disparate needs of the tutees. The study revealed, for instance, that the reading aloud strategy occasionally distracted the tutees‘ attention rather than focusing it. Future tutors will be trained to take this into account and to recognize that this change in strategy derives not from personal preference but from research. It cannot automatically be assumed that the strategy of reading aloud or other strategies will work with all tutees in all situations. 794 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Promote an Egalitarian Tutorial Relationship The peer aspect of tutorials was deemed effective by both tutors and tutees. Tutees want access to authoritative, reliable knowledge in a friendly, egalitarian atmosphere. They claimed that they liked their tutors to involve them in the discussions as much as possible. Tutors have been trained not to control and dominate the conversation, but both sets of data revealed that many had a tendency to do so. In order to make tutors aware of this tendency and of the importance of involving the tutee in the session in meaningful ways, it is necessary to draw attention to that weakness in their tutorials. It is important to promote an atmosphere of collegial collaboration so that tutors will be self-critical and willing to accept helpful suggestions. Involving tutors in self-observation so they can be aware of conversational elements such as interruptions, turn length, timed pauses, back-channels, and overlaps may help tutors notice patterns and detrimental practices in their tutoring. This study used stimulated recall activities following a recorded tutorial session. The enlightened self-criticism that was generated suggests that this method can promote an egalitarian tutorial relationship by providing a context whereby the tutors can see and hear themselves in action. Conclusion Writing center directors should be receptive to emerging research in order to continue to evolve standards of best practice. Insights derived from research and scholarship indicate the need for additional, clear-sighted research that takes into account the actual working conditions of writing centers in different countries. The tutors who are expected to be knowledgeable, flexible and sensitive to individual needs are often students themselves. They are students from a variety of disciplines who have excellent academic records and an interest in writing and tutoring. It is unreasonable, however, to assume that their education encompasses the breadth of knowledge that is required to meet the needs of individual students in the Writing Center. It is the responsibility of the writing center specialists or directors to be familiar with traditional and contemporary writing center theories and to be part of the ongoing discourse about writing in order to recognize the viability of particular strategies and the possibility of adapting them, in this case, to the requirements of a Middle Eastern university writing center. References Blau, S., Hall, J., Davis, J., & Gravitz, L. (2001). Tutoring ESL students: A different kind of session. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 25(10), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.writinglabnewsletter.org/new/ Bringhurst, D. (2006). Identifying our ethical responsibility: A criterion-based approach. In C. Murphy & B. Stay (Eds.), The writing center director‘s resource book (pp. 165-178). Englewood, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brooks, J. (1991). Minimalist tutoring: Making the student do all the work. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 15(6), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.writinglabnewsletter.org/new Bruce , S. (2009). Breaking ice and setting goals. In: S. Bruce & B. Rafoth (Eds.), ESL writers: A guide for writing center tutors (2nd ed.), (pp. 33-41). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Heinemann. Carino, P. (2003). Power and authority in peer tutoring. In M.A. Pemberton & J. Kinkead (Eds.), The center will hold: Critical perspectives on writing center scholarship (pp.96-113). Logan, UT: Utah Tate UP. Clark, I. L., & Healy, D. (1996). Are writing centers ethical? Writing Program Administration, 20(1-2), 32-38. Retrieved from http://eng1020.pbworks.com/f/Clark_Healy.pdf Gillespie, P., & Lerner, N. (2000). The Allyn and Bacon guide to peer tutoring. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Grimm, N. (1996). The regulatory role of the writing center: Coming to terms with a loss of innocence. The Writing Center Journal, 17, 5-29. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ 795 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Harris, M. (1997). Cultural conflicts in the writing center: Expectations and assumptions of ESL students. In C. Severino, J. C. Guerra, & J. E. Butler (Eds.), Writing in multicultural settings (pp. 220-235). New York: MLA. Harris, M., & Silva, T. (1993). Tutoring ESL students: Communication, 44, 525-537. doi:10.2307/358388 Issues and options. College Composition and Henning, T. (2001, March). Theoretical models of tutor talk: How practical are they? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication, Denver, CO. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED451569) Jones, C. (2001). The relationship between writing centers and improvement in writing ability: An assessment of the literature. Education, 122(1), 3-20. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3673/is_1_122/ai_n28879462/ North, S. (1984). The idea of a writing center. College English, 46, 433-446. doi:10.2307/377047 Rafoth, B. (2009). English for those who (think they) already know it. In S. Bruce & B. Rafoth (Eds.), ESL writers: A guide for writing center tutors (2nd ed.; pp. 116–131). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers. Shamoon, L., & Burns, D. (1995). A critique of pure tutoring. Writing Center Journal, 15, 134-151. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ Thonus, T. (2001). Triangulation in the writing center: Tutor, tutee, and instructor perceptions of the tutor‘s role. Writing Center Journal, 22, 59-81. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ Thonus, T. (2004). What are the differences? Tutor interactions with first- and second-language writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 227-242. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.012 Weigle, S. C., & Nelson, G. L. (2004). Novice tutors and their ESL tutees: Three case studies of tutor roles and perceptions of tutorial success. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(3), 203– 225. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.011 Williams, J. (2005). Writing center interaction: Institutional discourse and the role of peer tutors. In B. H. K. Bardovi-Harlig (Ed.), Institutional talk and interlanguage pragmatics research (pp. 37-65). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Williams, J., & Severino, C. (2004). The writing center and second language writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 165-172. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.010 796 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 116 Title A name given to the resource Western pedagogical models of writing center tutorials: Can they be effective in the Middle East? Author Author Eleftheriou, Maria Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper presents the findings of a study of writing center tutorial practices in a Middle Eastern university where the language of instruction is English. Data from stimulated recall activities, written observations, and interviews were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of writing center tutorials in a Middle-Eastern Writing Center. The data revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments, believed that their concerns had been addressed, and that they had acquired transferable skills. Most tutees assessed their tutors positively, valuing tutors who inspired confidence and were able to explain concepts clearly. Although tutees appreciated knowledgeable tutors, they valued egalitarian peer-tutoring relationships. Tutors reported that tutorial sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical of their own performance. Some tutors admitted to lacking the knowledge necessary to explain certain writing concepts, including grammatical concepts; some felt they dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees preferred the directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. This study shows that diverse tutoring models that accommodate the background and experiences of Middle Eastern students, and their particular strengths and weaknesses, should be considered. It recommends tutorial training that emphasizes flexibility and recognizes the distinctive nature of each tutorial situation and the opportunity it presents to address the needs and expectations of individual students. These findings could signal a direction for the development of writing center pedagogy that focuses on the linguistically and culturally diverse students in the Middle East. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5a8053aca7a061138d50590f66bbac2f.pdf 5787d619d74c544334bebb2dbe0ad5ab PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Process of Foreign Language Acquisition in Azerbaijani Learners of Different Ages Heydar Eminli English language and literature Qafqaz University heidar_em@yahoo.com Abstract:The research paper is dedicated to the process of foreign/second language acquisition in children and adults. The problem of foreign or second language acquisition is not only the research area of applied linguistics, but also psychology, psycholinguistics, TEFL. The process of acquiring foreign language by children and adults, the stages of this process, some problems while acquiring and learning English as a second language by Azerbaijani learners are studied in the paper. People can acquire a second or foreign language under many different circumstances. We may have learned a second language when we began elementary school, secondary school or even university. Moving to a new country usually means acquiring a new language which we call a second language. Also people live in different communities, environments or families in which more than one language is spoken and may acquire two or even more languages at the same time. No doubt that, foreign language acquisition has its historical background and aspects. Current theories of foreign or second language acquisition are based on years of research in a wide variety of fields, including linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and psycholinguistics. The article concerns one of the most important issues concerning foreign or second language acquisition in both children and adults. Key words: Second language acquisition (SLA), bilingualism, critical period hypothesis, age, cognition We can sometimes wonder how it is possible for a child to acquire two or even more languages at the same time. There are many questions, such as: doesn‘t the child confuse the two languages; how does he learn the grammatical structure of these languages; does bilingual language development take longer than monolingual development; how does acquiring two languages affect to the child‘s cognitive development; and also how does it affect to other areas beyond language? What is the role of environment and community in acquiring or learning a foreign language? There is no doubt that there are some distinctions between children‘s and adults‘ acquiring the second language. At least, young children should build their mother language structure first. Here is the most basic problem in understanding how children learn a language: The input to language acquisition consists of sounds and situations; the output is a grammar specifying, for that language, the order and arrangement of abstract entities like nouns, verbs, subjects, phrase structures. Somehow the child must discover these entities to learn the language. Language acquisition is the study of the processes through which learners acquire language. By itself, language acquisition refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants‘ acquisition of their native language, whereas second language acquisition deals with acquisition of additional languages in both children and adults. The important issue is that whether the biological factor includes capacities specific to language acquisition, which is described as universal grammar. About fifty years, linguists Noam Chomsky and after him Eric Lenneberg have argued for the hypothesis that children have innate, language-specific abilities that make language learning possible and easier and also control the process. 199 But other researchers, including Elizabeth Bates, Catherine Snow, Brian MacWhinney, and Michael Tomasello, have hypothesized that language learning results from general cognitive abilities and the interaction between learners and the community and environment surrounding them.Noam Chomsky originally theorized that children were born with a hard-wired language 199 Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon Books 611 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo acquisition device (LAD) in their brains.200 He later expanded this idea into Universal Grammar; a set of innate principles and adjustable parameters that are common to all human languages. According to N. Chomsky, the presence of Universal Grammar in the brains of children allow them to deduce the structure of their native languages from ―mere exposure‖. But according to nativism, much of the nativist position is based on the early age at which children show competency in their native grammars, as well as the ways in which they do (and do not) make errors. Some research suggests that infants are born able to distinguish between phonemes in minimal pairs, distinguishing between bit and pit, shop and chop or meat and meet for example.201 Another source of support for this viewpoint is that young children (under the age of three) do not speak in fully formed sentences, instead saying things like 'want cookie' or 'my coat.' However, they do not say things like 'want my' or 'I cookie,' statements that would break the syntactic structure of the phrase, a component of universal grammar. Children also seem remarkably immune from error correction by adults which nativists say would not be the case if children were learning from their parents.202 The term second language acquisition, or L2 acquisition, generally refers to the acquisition of a second language by someone (child or adult) who has already acquired a first language. Bilingual language acquisition refers to the simultaneous acquisition of two languages beginning in infancy, especially before the age of three years. In contrast to the bilinguals, many people are acquainted with a second language after they have achieved native competence in a first language. If we have had the experience of trying to master a second language as an adult, no doubt we found it to be a challenge quite unlike our first language experience. Unlike L1 acquisition, which is uniformly successful across children and languages, adults vary considerably in their ability to acquire an L2 completely. Some people are very talented language learners. Others are hopeless. Most people fall somewhere in the middle. Success may depend on a range of factors, including age, talent, motivation, and whether you are in the country where the language is spoken or sitting in a classroom five evenings a week with no further contact with native speakers. For all these reasons, many people, including many linguists who study L2 acquisition, believe that second language acquisition is something different from first language acquisition. This hypothesis is referred to as the fundamental difference hypothesis of L2 acquisition. Like L1ers, L2ers construct grammars. These grammars reflect their competence in the L2 at each stage and so their language at any particular point, though not native like, is rule-governed and not haphazard. The intermediate grammars that L2ers create on their way to the target have been called interlanguage grammars.203 Let‘s see word order in the interlanguage grammars of Turkic (Azerbaijani, Turkish, and Kirghiz) speakers acquiring English as a second language. The word order of the Turkic languages is Subject-Object-Verb. But in these languages word order may change the place and keep the original meaning the same. However, while transforming the elements of the syntactic structure of the Azerbaijani language into English word order significantly changes, and in the Azerbaijani language as well as in other Turkic languages, auxiliary verb does not exist in the sentence. 1. Arif qapını dôydù. ―Arif door knocked‖ (Arif knocked the door). 2. Arif indi məktub yazır. ―Arif now letter is writing‖ (Arif is writing a letter now). The research shows that Azerbaijani speakers acquire English word order in pieces. During the first stage they use English words but the S-O-V word order of their native language, as follows: Stage 1: My mum a new dress has bought. (My mum has bought a new dress) ―Anam təzə paltar alıb.‖ At the second stage, they acquired SStage 2: Otaq yoldaĢım kredit kartla ôdəməkdə mənə kômək etdi (My) roommate by a credit card to pay me helped. ―My roommate helped me (to) pay by a credit card.‖ At the third stage they acquire the negative forms in the sentence. Stage 3: Mən bu barədə heç kimə heç nə sôyləməyəcəm I about this issue nobody nothing will tell ―I won‘t tell anything to anyone about this issue.‖ At the fourth stage while acquiring possessive pronoun and subject pronoun they encounter with some problems in confusing them as in the following examples: Stage 4: Onun evi Ģəhərin kənarındadır. Onun Ģəhərin kənarında evi vardır. His house is in the suburbs. He has a house in the suburbs. 200 Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon Books Yang, Charles (2006). The Infinite Gift: How Children Learn and Unlearn All the Languages of the World. New York: Scribner 202 Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: Harper Collins. 201 203 Fromkin V, Rodman R, Hyams N. 2003. An Introduction to Language, 379-390 612 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo These stages differ from those of children acquiring English as a first language. For example, English children know from the start that language has S-V-O word order. However, like first language learners, second language learners attempt to uncover the grammar of the target language. Although English is included to the group of inflected languages, it has the elements of agglutinative languages quite much. In the English language adjective-noun agreement does not formed as in other inflected languages like Russian, which means from this point of view English does not differ from Azerbaijani and other Turkic languages: а ниже щоусе – ниже щоусес - гяшянэ ев – гяшянэ евляр; an expensive car- expensive cars – bahalı maĢın – bahalı maĢınlar; an interesting book – interesting books – maraqlı kitab – maraqlı kitablar However in Russian which is also belonged to inflected languages the adjective declines with the noun: красивый дом – красивые дома; дорогая машина – дорогие машины; интересная книга – интересные книги. These similar characteristics help the Azerbaijani learners to acquire English as a foreign language faster. Many L2 acquisition researchers reject the idea that L2 acquisition is fundamentally different from L1 acquisition. They point to different studies to show that interlanguage grammars do not generally violate principles of UG, which makes the process seem more similar to L1 acquisition. Second language acquisition (SLA), like first language acquisition, also proceeds in broadly systematic stages. The first stage is called Pre-production (Silent/Receptive) stage. The learners of the target language may have up to 500 words in their receptive vocabulary but they are not yet speaking. Some students will, however, repeat every thing you say. They are not really producing language but are parroting. They can understand and duplicate gestures and movements to show comprehension. Total Physical Response methods will work well with them. The second stage is Early Production. The student understands the main idea of what is communicated, but may not understand every word. He or she will begin to respond in small word groupings and answer yes/no and cognitively undemanding questions that require the repetition of no more than one word (i.e. would you like to drink coffee or tea? ―tea‖). This stage may last up to six months and students will develop a receptive and active vocabulary of about 1000 words. During this stage, students can usually speak in one- or two-word phrases. The third stage is Speech Emergence. Students have developed a vocabulary of about 3,000 words and can communicate with simple phrases and sentences. During this stage there is a shift of emphasis from reception to production. The student begins using simple sentences, improving pronunciation and intonation, and demonstrating and expanding vocabulary. He or she engages in relatively familiar language and tasks (developing initial reading skills, decoding and literal comprehension, writing for personal purposes - reading and writing for operational purposes - writing answers to lower level questions). Those around the learner should encourage any attempt to speak in the second language (L2), and be careful not to discourage or make fun of attempts made. Again, if the speaker is understandable there is no need to correct them on pronunciation. The fourth stage is Intermediate Fluency. At this level the student is developing academic vocabulary, and little information other than teacher and textbook is provided. English language learners at the intermediate fluency stage have a vocabulary of about 6000 active words. He or she is beginning to think in the new language instead of translating from the native language. They begin to use longer sentences and more elaborate speech patterns though they may continue to make errors in the use of new vocabulary and complex grammatical structures. At this stage the student understands academic presentations accompanied by visuals and demonstrations, participates in hands-on science activities, makes models, maps charts, graphs, solves computational and word math problems assisted by manipulatives and illustrations, participates in academic discussions, can make brief oral presentations, can use higher order comprehension skills, understands written texts through discussions, illustrations and visuals, writes simple science reports and answers higher level questions. The fifth stage is Advanced Fluency which takes students from 4-10 years to achieve cognitive academic language proficiency in a second language. Student at this stage will be near-native in their ability to perform in content area learning. Most ELLs at this stage have been exited from ESL and other support programs. At the beginning of this stage, however, they will need continued support from classroom teachers especially in content areas such as history/social studies and in writing. the student understands most (but not all) academic presentations without visuals or demonstrations, makes formal oral presentations, uses higher level reading comprehension skills including inferential and critical reading, reads for information, writes compositions, essays and research projects, solves math word problems without illustrations, and writes answers to higher level questions - can take standardized achievement tests successfully. This is the time to provide some grammar instruction and to present new information and language, including extensive vocabulary development. 613 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A great deal of the research on non simultaneous second language acquisition, in both children and adults, has focused on the interfering effects of the first and second languages. For the most part, research confirms that the linguistic and cognitive processes of second language learning in young children are in general similar to first language processes. Dulay and Burt found, for example, that 86 percent of more than 500 errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English reflected normal developmental characteristics – that is, expected intralingual strategies, not interference errors from the first language.204 Hansen-Bede examined such linguistic structures as possession, gender, word order, verb forms, questions, and negation in an English-speaking threeyear-old child who learned Urdu upon moving Pakistan. In spite of some marked linguistic contrasts between English and Urdu, the child‘s acquisition did not appear to show first language interference and, except for negation, showed similar strategies and rules for both the first and the second language.205 Some researches (Hudson, G. 2000; Douglas Brown, H. 2000) show that children acquire the second language quicker than adults do. On the other hand it is quite contrary, it is about cognitive differences: Language learning adults are obviously different from children by already having knowledge of a language: ability to talk about the language and how it works. Adults use this knowledge to try to figure things out. Finally, adults have expectations about learning. They also have metalinguistic knowledge: conscious, analytic, knowledge of their use of language, and also formal knowledge of the terminology of grammar. This gives them the means to learn in conscious and analytic ways seemingly quite different from those of children. Adults are also able to monitor their speech – comparing their utterances with their conscious knowledge, and correcting accordingly. But the learning style of children is more intuitive and we can say, it is more natural. The different learning styles of adults and children have been distinguished as ‗learning‘ and ‗acquisition‘. The conscious and analytic approach of adults has been termed language learning, and the unconscious and spontaneous approach of children language acquisition. There are some reasons for the superiority of child language acquisition. Almost all children fully succeed in learning their first language, whereas many adults fail to learn well the second languages which they study. Children acquire their first language completely fluently and without accent, whereas most adult learners continue to make errors. Adults typically have to work hard at second language learning, whereas children seem to acquire their first language almost effortlessly. It is necessary to note that there is also a biological difference acquiring language between children and adults. It concerns with critical period for language learning. It is a period during which something must be acquired or learned, for after that time the neurophysiological basis for that learning might be lost or weakened. The critical period hypothesis of brain plasticity and learning capacity has been called into question. Other factors may account for differences in adult and child language learning. Children‘s apparently effortless and rapid language acquisition may be explained by the fact that the environment is set up to engage them in frequent and optimal learning opportunities. By contrast, adults seem to have an initial advantage in their learning of vocabulary and syntax, but may never achieve native-like pronunciation. A more modern view of the Critical Period Hypothesis is represented by the University of Maryland, instructor Robert DeKeyser. He argues that although it is true that there is a critical period, this does not mean that adults cannot learn a second language perfectly, at least on the syntactic level. At the present time, the evidence from second language acquisition research has not provided unequivocal evidence for the critical period hypothesis. There is not a simple answer to the question of age and second language – it depends on how we measure second language proficiency. The best researchers can say is that young children generally learn L2 better than older children and adults, at least in the long run. Knowledge of children‘s learning of their first language provides essential insights to an understanding of the second language acquisition. Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to interference from their first language. In conclusion, I would like to say that children are luckier than adults in acquiring the second language (curiosity, ambition etc). Moreover, the advantage that younger learners display in some studies may be due to biological changes (or critical period hypothesis), environmental factors, motivation, cognitive changes, or some combination of factors. Clearly, we have much more to learn about how the capacity for language acquisition changes over the life span. While Azerbaijani language is in the group of Turkic languages and is an agglutinative language, and English is inflected and in Germanic language group, due to some similarities in both language structures, the learners of these languages acquire some features of both languages easier. 204 Dulay, Heidi C. and Burt, Marina K. 1974a. Errors and strategies in child second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly 8: 129-136 205 Hansen-Bede, Lynn. 1975. A child‘s creation of a second language. Working Papers on Bilingualism 6: 103-126 614 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: 1. Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon Books 2. Douglas Brown, H. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Fourth edition 3. Dulay, Heidi C. and Burt, Marina K. 1974a. Errors and strategies in child second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly 8: 129-136 4. Fromkin V, Rodman R, Hyams N. 2003. An Introduction to Language, 379-390 5. Hansen-Bede, Lynn. 1975. A child‘s creation of a second language. Working Papers on Bilingualism 6: 103-126 6. Hudson, G. 2000. Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK 7. Jordens, P. 1988. ―The Acquisition of Word Order in L2 Dutch and German‖ 8. Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: Harper Collins. 9. Yang, Charles (2006). The Infinite Gift: How Children Learn and Unlearn All the Languages of the World. New York: Scribner 615 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 91 Title A name given to the resource The Process of Foreign Language Acquisition in Azerbaijani Learners of Different Ages Author Author Eminli, Heydar Abstract A summary of the resource. The research paper is dedicated to the process of foreign/second language acquisition in children and adults. The problem of foreign or second language acquisition is not only the research area of applied linguistics, but also psychology, psycholinguistics, TEFL. The process of acquiring foreign language by children and adults, the stages of this process, some problems while acquiring and learning English as a second language by Azerbaijani learners are studied in the paper. People can acquire a second or foreign language under many different circumstances. We may have learned a second language when we began elementary school, secondary school or even university. Moving to a new country usually means acquiring a new language which we call a second language. Also people live in different communities, environments or families in which more than one language is spoken and may acquire two or even more languages at the same time. No doubt that, foreign language acquisition has its historical background and aspects. Current theories of foreign or second language acquisition are based on years of research in a wide variety of fields, including linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and psycholinguistics. The article concerns one of the most important issues concerning foreign or second language acquisition in both children and adults. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ee9835345b84539cb67778cf282a0692.pdf 0f611020a3a214e8fdb397efdf593976 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ORHUN ABĠDELERĠNDEKĠ TAMLAMALARIN TÜRKĠYE TÜRKÇESĠNDEKĠ KULLANIMI Selim Emiroğlu Mevlana Üniversitesi, Tùrkçe Eğitimi semiroglu@mevlana.edu.tr Özet: Orhun abideleri, Tùrk dili ve edebiyatının ilk yazılı kaynaklarıdır. Bu taĢlar, hem maddi hem de manevi bakımdan Tùrk dili, kùltùrù ve tarihinin en değerli anıtlarıdır. Gôktùrkler dôneminde ve Gôktùrkçe olarak yazılmıĢ kitabelerde gùnùmùze ıĢık tutan ônemli mesajlar bulunmaktadır. Kitabelerde Tùrk dilini tùm ôzellikleriyle bulmak mùmkùndùr. ġiir lezzetinde ve sağlam bir Tùrkçeyle Tùrklùk Ģuuru gelecek kuĢaklara aktarılmıĢtır. Ebedi taĢlar denilen kitabeler ùzerine kazınmıĢ metinler, Tùrk dilinin geçirdiği evreleri ve değiĢimi takip etmek bakımından dikkate değerdir. Orhun Abideleri ùzerinde yerli ve yabancı olmak ùzere pek çok çalıĢma vardır. Bu çalıĢmada Orhun abidelerinin ùç ônemli yazıtı olan Kùltigin, Bilge Kağan ve Tonyukuk yazıtları tamlamalar bakımından incelenmiĢ olup yazıtlardaki tamlamalar teker teker tespit edilmiĢtir. Bu tamlamaların gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki kullanımları ele alınmıĢtır. Birkaç kùçùk ses ve ek değiĢimi dıĢında tamlamaların birçoğunun tarihi sùreç içerisinde değiĢmeden gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢtığı gôrùlmùĢtùr. Anahtar Kelimeler: Orhun Abideleri, tamlamalar, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi GiriĢ Asırlar ôncesinden bugùne ulaĢmıĢ dil abideleri olan Orhun yazıtlarını ifade etmek için pek çok Ģey sôylenebilir. Bu noktada çalıĢmamıza kaynaklık etmiĢ olan Orhun Abideleri kitabının yazarı Muharrem Ergin, Orhun Abidelerini Ģu Ģekilde vasıflandırır: ―Tùrk adının, Tùrk milletinin isminin geçtiği ilk Tùrkçe metin... Ġlk Tùrk tarihi... TaĢlar ùzerine yazılmıĢ tarih... Tùrk devlet adamlarının millete hesap vermesi, milletle hesaplaĢması… Devlet ve milletin karĢılıklı vazifeleri... Tùrk nizamının, Tùrk tôresinin, Tùrk medeniyetinin, yùksek Tùrk kùltùrùnùn bùyùk vesikası... Tùrk askerî dehasının, Tùrk askerlik san'atının esasları... Tùrk gururunun ilahî yùksekliği... Tùrk feragat ve faziletinin bùyùk ôrneği... Tùrk içtimaî hayatının ulvî tablosu... Tùrk edebiyatınım ilk Ģaheseri... Tùrk hitabet san'atının eriĢilmez Ģaheseri… Hùkùmdarâne eda ve ihtiĢamlı hitap tarzı… Yalın ve keskin ùslubun ĢaĢırtıcı numunesi... Tùrk milliyetçiliğinin temel kitabı... Bir kavmi bir millet yapabilecek eser... Asırlar içinden millî istikameti aydınlatan ıĢık... Tùrk dilinin mùbarek kaynağı... Tùrk yazı dilinin ilk, fakat harikulade iĢlek ôrneği... Tùrk yazı dilinin baĢlangıcını miladın ilk asırlarına çıkartan delil… Tùrk ordusunun kuruluĢunu en az 1250 sene ôteye gôtùren vesika... Tùrklùğùn en bùyùk iftihar vesilesi olan eser… Ġnsanlık âleminin sosyal muhteva bakımından en manalı mezar taĢları… Dùnyanın bugùn belki de en bùyùk meselesi olan Çin hakkında 1250 sene evvelki Tùrk ikâzı…‖ (Ergin, 2005: 4) Abideler, Tùrk medeniyetini dùnyaya ispat eden ilk belgelerimiz kabul edilir. Tema olarak abidelerin askeri yônù ôn plana çıkmaktadır. "Bu abidelerde, Bilge Kağan'ın kardeĢi Kùl Tigin ile birlikte Çinlilere karĢı yaptıkları istiklâl savaĢı ve Tùrk milletinin bùtùnlùğùnù yeniden sağlamak için verdikleri mùcadele anlatılmaktadır." (TimurtaĢ, 2005: 23). Orhun Abidelerinin dili gùnùmùz Tùrkçesinden çok uzak değildir. ―Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinden ne kadar farklı olursa olsun, kitabelerin dilini anlamak için ne bir eğitime ne de ôzel bir gayrete ihtiyaç vardır. Birkaç kelime ve birkaç kaide bilindiği takdirde, Tùrk dilinin bu eski Ģaheserini orijinalinden okumak ve anlamak mùmkùn olacaktır.‖ (Çelikel, 2007: 7) 1068 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Orhun Abideleri, Tùrk dilinin Orhun Abidelerinden ônce de sistemli bir Ģekilde var olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bôlgede pek çok anıt ve taĢa rastlanır ama bunlar içinde en ônemlileri Orhun abideleridir. ―Orhun civarında Orhun yazısı ile yazılı daha başka kitabeler de bulunmuştur. Belli başlıları altı tanedir. Fakat bunların en büyükleri ve mühimleri bu üç tanesidir.” (Ergin, 2005: 5) Kitabeler, ôğùt veren bir ùslupta ve nutuk tùrùndedir. ―Bùyùk Tùrk komutanı Bilge Kağan bir nutuk havası içerisinde, bir vaiz, bir hatip gibi Tùrklerin tarih boyunca dikkate alması gerektiği çok ônemli uyarıları ve ôğùtleri o dônem insanının kalbine, gùnùmùze ulaĢması için de sağlam taĢlara yazdırtmıĢtır.‖ (Emiroğlu, 2010: 25) Arastırmacının Amacı Tùrk dilinin baĢlangıç noktası olan Orhun Abidelerinde Tùrkçenin gùzel ôrnek ve kullanımlarını içeren tamlamalar yer almaktadır. Ġç içe geçmiĢ veya mùstakil olarak pek çok tamlama ôrneği bulunmaktadır. Ġsim ve sıfat tamlaması olarak bunların tespit edilip gùnùmùze taĢınması gerekir. ÇalıĢma bu amaçla yapılmıĢtır. Arastirma Metodu Bu çalıĢmada Tùrk yazı dilinin dùnyaca kabul edilen ilk yazılı belgeleri olan Orhun Abideleri, tamlamalar bakımından incelenmiĢtir. ÇalıĢmada Muharrem Ergin‘in Orhun Abideleri adlı eseri esas alınmıĢtır. Eserdeki sırasıyla Kùltigin, Bilge Kağan ve Tonyukuk anıtlarındaki yazılar cephe cephe ve satır satır incelendi. Tespit edilen tamlamalar isim ve sıfat tamlamaları olmaları bakımından sınıflandırıldı. Sôz konusu tamlamalardan gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanımı bulunanlar belirlendi. Tespit ve incelemeden sonra Orhun abidelerindeki tamlamaların gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesine olan etkileri ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki kullanımı bakımından bazı değerlendirmelere ulaĢıldı. Bulgular Orhun abidelerinde isim ve sıfat tamlamaları, her bir anıtın hangi cephesine ve satırına ait olduğu yônùyle Ģu Ģekilde çıkarılmıĢtır. KÜL TĠGĠN ÂBĠDESĠ Güney Cephesi Ġsim Tamlamaları Sıfat Tamlamaları 1. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 1. Satır: Bu ôd (Bu zaman) Ġni Yiginùm (Kùçùk ġadpıt Begler (ġadpıt Beyleri) Buyruķ BeglerkardeĢ) yeğenim) Biriki oġuĢum (Bùtùn soyum) (Buyruķ Beyleri) Otuz Tatar (Otuz Tatar) 2. Satır: Toķuz Oġuz Begleri ( Dokuz Oğuz Beyleri)2. Satır: Bu sabım (Bu sôzùm) Ġçreki budun (Ġçindeki Kùn toġsık (Gùn doğusu) Kùn ortasın (Gùn ortası)millet) Kùn batsık (Gùn batısı) Tùn ortasın (Gece ortası)Bunça budun (Bunca millet) 3. Satır: Tùrk Ķaġan (Tùrk kağanı) Yinçù ôgùz (Ġnci3. Satır: Toķuz Ersin (Dokuz Ersin) 4. Satır: Ġl tutsıķ yir (Ġl tutulacak yer) nehri) Ötùken yıĢ (Ötùken ormanı) ġantung yazıkTemir Ķapıg (Demir Kapı) (ġantung ovası) 4. Satır: Yir Bayırķu (Yir Bayırku) Bu yir (Bu yer) Bunça yir (Bunca yer) 5. Satır: Sùçig sab (Tatlı sôz) YımĢak aġ (YumuĢak Ötùken yıĢipek) (Ötùken ormanı) Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Iraķ budun (Uzak millet) 5. Satır: Tabġaç budun sabı (Çin milletinin sôzù) 6. Satır: Anyıġ bilig (Kôtù Ģeyler) Edgù bilge kiĢi (Ġyi, 1069 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 6. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Çoġay yıĢbilgili insan) YımĢaķ aġı (YumuĢak ipek) Edgù alp kiĢi (Çogay ormanı) Tôgùhlù yazı (Tôgùhlù ovası) (Ġyi, cesur insan) 7. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Sùçig sab (Tatlı sôz) Bir kiĢi (Bir insan) 8. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Ötùken yir7. Satır: Anyıġ kiĢi (Kôtù insan) (Ötùken yeri) Yablaķ aġı (Kôtù mal) 10. Satır: Tùrk begler, budun (Tùrk beyleri, milleti) Bilig bilmez kiĢi (Bilgi bilmez kiĢi) Edgù aġı (iyi mal) 11. Satır: Tùrk budun begler (Tùrk milleti, beyleri) Ol sab (O sôz) ÖkùĢ kiĢi (Çok insan) Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin Kağanı) Mening sabım (Benim8. Satır: Ol yir ( O yer) sôzùm) 10. Satır: Yok çıġany budun (Aç fakir millet) Çiġany 12. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġanıng içreki bediĢci (Çin)budun (Fakir millet) Bu sab (Bu sôz) Az budun (Az Kağanının maiyetindeki resimci) On ok oġlı (On okmillet) oğlu) 11. Satır: Neng sabım (Ne sôzùm) 13. Satır: Yolluġ Tigin (Yolluğ Tigin) (Ebedî taĢ) Bu ôd (Bu zaman) Benggù taĢ Kôrùgme begler (Ġtaat eden beyler) 12. Satır: Adınçıġ bark (BambaĢka tùrbe) Adıncıġ bediz (BambaĢka resim) Kôngùlteki sab (Gônùldeki sôz) Benggù taĢ (Ebedi taĢ) 13. Satır: Erig yir (EriĢilir yer) Benggù taĢ (Ebedi taĢ) Bu bitig (Bu yazı) Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlamaları Sıfat Tamlamaları 1. Satır: KiĢi oġlın ùze (Ġnsanoğlunun ùzeri) Tùrk1. Satır: Kôk tengri (Mavi gôk) budungilin tôrùsin (Tùrk milletinin2. Satır: Tôrt bulung (Dôrt taraf) ilini, tôresini) kapı) 2. Satır: Ķadırķan yıĢ (Ķadırķan ormanı) Tôrt budungdaķı budun Yaġız yir (Yağız yer) Temir Ķapıg (Demir (Dôrt taraftaki 6. Satır: Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Tùrk budunmillet) (Tùrk milleti) 3. Satır: Ġdi oķsuz Kôk Tùrk (Pek teĢkilatsız Kôktùrk) 7. Satır: Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Tùrk beglerBilge ķaġan (Bilgili kağan) Ap ķaġan (Cesur kağan) (Tùrk beyleri) Tùrk atı (Tùrk adı) Tabġaç atı (Çin4. Satır: Kùn toġsıķ (Gùn doğusu) Kùlùg ķaġan (Ünlù adı) Tabġaç ķaġan (Çin kağanı) kağan) 8. Satır: Tùrk ķara ķamaġ (Tùrk halk kitlesi) 5. Satır: Biligsiz ķaġan (Bilgisiz kağan) Kùn toġsıķ (Gùn doğusu) Yablaķ ķaġan Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin(Kôtù kağan) kağanı) 6. Satır: Ġlledùk il (Ġl yaptığı il) 9. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin Kağanı) 7. Satır: Ķaġanladuķ ķaġan (Kağan yaptığı kağan) 10. Satır: Tùrk ıduk yiri (Tùrk mukaddes yeri) Beglik urı oġlın (Beylik erkek evlat) Tabġaçġı (Çinli Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tùrk Tengrisi (Tùrkbeyler) Tanrısı) ĠĢilik ķız oġlın (Hanımlık kız evladı) Tabġaġçı begler 11. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tengri tôpùsi(Çinli beyler) 1070 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (Gôgùn tepesi) 8. Satır: Elig yıl (Elli yıl) Temir Kapıġ (Demir Kapı) 13. Satır: Eçùm apam tôrùsi (Ecdadımın tôresi) 9. Satır: Ne ķaġanķa (Ne kağana) 14. Satır: Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Ġllig budun (Ġlli millet) Ķaġanlıġ budun (Kağanlı millet) 16. Satır: Baz Ķaġanıġ (Buz Kağanı) Tùrk budun10. Satır: Bunça iĢig kùçùg (Bunça iĢi gùcù) (Tùrk milleti) 11. Satır: Yiti yigirmi er (On yedi er) 17. Satır: TarduĢ budun (TarduĢ milleti) ġantung12. Satır: Balıķdaķı taġ (ġehirdeki dağ) yazıķ(ġantung ovası) 13. Satır: YitmiĢ er (YetmiĢ er) Yiti yùz er (Yedi yùz er) 18. Satır: TùrgiĢ ķaġan (TùrgiĢ Kağanı) Tùrk tôrisin ıçġınmıĢ budun (Tùrk tôresini bırakmıĢ millet) 19. Satır: On oķ budun (On ok kavmi) 15. Satır: Ķırķ artuķı yiti yol (Kırk yedi defa) Yigirmi 20. Satır: Ķırķız budun (Kırgız kavmi) sùngùĢ (Yirmi savaĢ) Ķaġan at (Kağan adı) Kôgmen yir (Kôgmenin16. Satır: Ol tôrù (O tôre) 17. Satır: YeĢil Ögùz (YeĢil Nehir) yeri) Temir Ķapıġ (Demir 21. Satır: Ķadırķan yıĢ (Ķadırķan ormanı) TùrkKapı) budun (Tùrk milleti) 19. Satır: Eçùmùz apamız tutmiĢ yir (Ecdadımızın tuttuğu 22. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) yer) Tùrk Oġuz begleri budun (Tùrk Oğuz beyleri, milleti)Az budun (Az millet) 23. Satır: Bilge ķaġan (Bilgili kağan) 21. Satır: Ol ôd (O zaman) Idık Ötùken yıĢ budun (Mukaddes Ötùken ormanıAnça kazganmıĢ itmiĢ ilimiz (Öyle kazanılmıĢ ilimiz halkı tôremiz) 25. Satır: Ķırķız ķaġan (Kırgız Kağanı) 23. Satır: ErmiĢ barmıĢ edgù il(Hùr, mùstakil,iyi il) Tùrk budunug atı kùsi (Tùrk milletinin adı sanı) 24. Satır: Beklig urı olun (Beylik erkek evlat) 26. Satır: Ķanġımız eçimiz ķazġanmıĢ budun atıĠĢilik kız olġun (Hanımlık kız evlat) kùsù 25. Satır: Ġl birigme Tengri (Ġl veren Tanrı) Ol tengri (O (Babamızın, amcamızın kazanmıĢ olduğu adı sanı) Tarı) 27. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 26. Satır: Neng yılsıg budun (Varlıklı, zengin millet) 28. Satır: Oġuz budun (Oğuz kavmi) Yabız yablak budun (DùĢkùn, periĢan millet) Ķıtany Tatabı budun (Kıtay, Tatabı milleti) 27. Satır: Biriki budun (Bùtùn millet) 31. Satır: Ögùm kutun katun (Annem hatunun29. Satır: Ölteci budun (Ölecek millet) Yalıng budun devleti) (Çıplak millet) Çıġany budun (Fakir millet) Er at (Er adı) (Az millet) Az budun Eçim ķaġan ilin tôrùsin (Amcam kağanın iliniIgar illig (Değerli illi) Igar ķaġanlı (Değerli kağanlı) tôresini) 32. Satır: Tôrt bulunġdaķı budun (Dôr taraftaki millet) Ong tutuķ yurçın (Ong valinin31. Satır: Altı yigirmi yaĢ (On altı yaĢ) kayınbiraderi) Tabġaç Ong tutuk (Çinli Ong vali) 33. Satır: IĢbara Yamtar boz atıg (IĢbara Yamtar‘ınBiĢ tùmen sù (Elli bin asker) Ol at (O at) boz atı) 32. Satır: Ol sùg (O ordu) Bir otuz yaĢ (Yirmi bir yaĢ) 34. Satır: Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) 33. Satır: Ol at (O at) Yùz artuk ok (Yùzden fazla ok) Tùrgi Yarġun kôl (Tùrgi Yargun gôlù) 34. Satır: Ol sùg ( O ordu) Azķınya er (Azıcık er) 35. Satır: Kôgmen yıĢ (Kôgmen ormanı) Ķırķız yıĢ36. Satır: Bir er (Bir er) Ġki er (Ġki er) Ol yıl ( O yıl) (Songa ormanı) Bayırķun aķ adġır (Bayırkunun ak37. Satır: BaĢġu boz at (Alnı beyaz at) 1071 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo aygırı) 38. Satır: Az tutuġ (Az valisi) Ol budun (O millet) 36. Satır: Bayırkunung ak adġırı (Bayırkunun ak39. Satır: Yinçù ôgùz (Ġnci nehri) Temir ķapıġ (Demir aygırı) Kapı) Ķırķız ķaġan (Kırgız kağanı) Altun yıĢ (AltınYablaķ kiĢi er (Kôtù kimse er) ormanı) 40. Satır: Alp er (Cesur kiĢi) Antag ôd (Öyle bir zaman) 37. Satır: TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ kavmi) Az er (Az er) Ulug sùngùĢ (Bùyùk savaĢ) Aķ at (Beyaz at) TùrgiĢ ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanının askeri) 38. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan Buyruķı (TùrgiĢ kağanının Buyruķu) Ķara TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ avam halkı) 39. Satır: Soğdak budun (Soğd milleti) Ķara TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ avam halkı) Bizing sù atı (Bizim askerin atı) 40. Satır: Ķara TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ avam halkı) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: KoĢu tutuk (KoĢu vali) Karluk budun1. Satır: Yiti otuz yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) (Karluk kavmi) 2. Satır: Ol sùngùĢ (O savaĢ) Ġki er (Ġki asker) Ķara Ķôl 3. Satır: Eçim ķaġan ili (Amcam Kağanın ili) (Kara Gôl) Ġzgil budun (Ġzgil milleti) Az budun (Az millet) Bir ķırķ yaĢ (Otuz bir yaĢ) 4. Satır: Ġzgil budun (Ġzgil milleti) 3. Satır: Az budun (Az millet) Toķuz Oġuz budun (Dokuz Oğuz milleti) 4. Satır: Ol at (o at) BiĢ yol (BeĢ defa) Bir yıl (Bir yıl) 5. Satır: 5. Satır: Azman aķ (Azman ak) Altı er (Altı asker) Sù tegiĢi (Asker hùcumu) 6. Satır: Ediz budun (Ediz kavmi) ÇuĢ baĢı (ÇuĢYitinç er (Yedinci er) Az yaġız ( Az yağız) Bir er (Bir baĢı) Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 7. Satır: Tigin yoġı (Tigin matemi) asker) 6. Satır: Toķuz er (Dokuz asker) Azman aķ (Azman ak) 7. Satır: Alpaġu on er (Yiğit on er) 8. Satır: Amġa ķarġan (Amga kalesi) Ebig baĢla8. Satır: Ġki er (Ġki asker) Az yaġız (Az yağız) (Evin baĢı) Ol sù (O ordu) Oġuz yaġı (Oğuz dùĢmanı) 11. Satır: Budunumun kôzi kaĢı (Milletmin gôzù9. Satır: Ögsùz ak (Öksùz ak) Toķuz er (Dokuz asker) kaĢı) Tatabı budun (Tatabı milleti) 10. Satır: Kôrùr kôz (Gôrùr gôz) Bilir bilig (Bilir akıl) 12. Satır: Bir tùmen aġı (On bin kiĢilik hazine) 12. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin Kağanı) Kùn batsıķ13. Satır: On ok oğlımı (On ok oğlumu) (Gùn batısı) Tùpùt Ķaġan (Tibet Kağanı) 13. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ Kağanı) Ķırķız Ķaġan (Kırgız Kağanı) Bark itgùçi (Tùrbe yapıcı) Bitig taĢ itgùçi (Kitabe taĢı yapıcısı) Tabġaç Ķaġan çıķanı (Çin Kağanının yeğeni) Kuzey-Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1072 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. Satır: Ķon yıl (Koyun yılı) Bitig taĢın (Kitabe1. Satır: Toķuzunçu ay (Dokuzuncu ay) Yitinç ay (Yedici taĢını) ay) Biçin yıl (Maymun yılı) Tuyġut ilteber (TurgutĶırķ artuķı yiti yaĢ(Kırk yedi yaĢ) Bunça bedizig (Bunca vali) resimciyi) Güney-Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Kùl Tigin atısı (Kùl Tigin‘in yeğeni) 1. Satır: Bunça bitig (Bunca yazı) Yigirmi kùn (Yirmi gùn) Bu taĢ (Bu taĢ) Bu tam (Bu duvar) Iġar oġlan (Değerli oğlan) Güney-Batı Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması 1. Satır: Kùl Tigining altunın kùmùĢin aġısın barımın tôrt bing yılkısın (Kùlt Tigin‘in altınını, gùmùĢùnù, hazinesini, servetini, dôrt binlik at sùrùsùnù) Batı Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması 1. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) Tarķan at (Tarkan adı) BĠLGE KAĞAN ÂBĠDESĠ Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1073 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 1. Satır: TarġtamıĢ kôz (Yere dikilmiĢ gôz) Kerkùlùg begleri (Çadırlı beyleri) Tùrk Tengri (TùrkBu ôd ( Bu zaman) Tôrt bulunġ (Dôrt taraf) Tanrısı) 24. Satır: Yiti yigirmi yaĢ (On yedi yaĢ) Tùrk begler budun (Tùrk beyleri milleti) Sekiz yigirmi yaĢ (On sekiz yaĢ) 24. Satır: Tanġut budun (Tangut milleti) 25. Satır: Ol sùg (O ordu) Yigirmi yaĢ (Yirmi yaĢ) 26. Satır: Çik budun (Çik kavmi) Tabġaç Onġtutuk (Çinli Ong Vali) 27. Satır: Kôgmen yıĢ (Kôgmen ormanı) Altın yıĢ (AltınBiĢ tùmen sùr (Elli bin asker) Ġki otuz yaĢ (Yirmi iki orman) yaĢ) Ķırķız budun (Kırgız kavmi) ĠrtiĢ ôgùz (ĠrtiĢ nehri) TùrgiĢ26. Satır: Sekiz tùmen sù (Seksen bin asker) Altı otuz budun (TùrgiĢ kavmi) TùrgiĢ ķaġan sùsi (TùrgiĢ kağanınınyaĢ (Yirmi altı yaĢ) Az budun (Az millet) Yiti otuz ordusu) yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) Sùngùg batımı kar (Mızrak 29. Satır: Ķarluķ budun (Karluk milleti) batımı kar) Mening budunum (Benim milletim) 27. Satır: Ol yıl (O yıl) 30. Satır: Tolga ôgùz (Tolġa nehri) Tùrk budun (Tùrk28. Satır: Otuz yaĢ (Otuz yaĢ) BıĢ Balıķ (BeĢ balık) milleti Altı yol (Altı defa) Ne kiĢi (Ne kadar insan) 31. Satır: Tonġ Tigin yoġ Amġı ķorġan (Amgı kalesi) Otuz artuķı bir yaĢ (Otuz bir yaĢ) 32. Satır: Üç oġuz sùsi (Üç oğuz ordusu) 29. Satır: 33. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Oġuz budun (Oğuz30. Satır: Bir yıl (Bir yıl) Tôrt yol (Dôrt defa) kavmi) 35. Satır: Alp ķaġan (Kahraman kağan) Iduk yir 34. Satır: Oġuz budun (Oğuz kavmi) (Mukaddes yer) 35. Satır: Toķuz Oġuz buddun (Dokuz oğuz kavmi) 37. Satır: Yùzçe er (Yùz kadar asker) 37. Satır: Ķarġan ķısıl (Kargan vadisi) Uyġur ilteber38. Satır: Ol yılkı (O at sùrùsù) Otuz artuķı tôrt yaĢ (Uygur valisi) (Otuz dôrt yaĢ) 38. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 39. Satır: Edgù sab (Ġyi sôz) 39. Satır: Tatabı budun (Tatabı milleti) Tabġaç ķaġan (Çin40. Satır: Bir ķorġan (Bir kale) kağanı) 41. Satır: Ķorıġu iki ùç kiĢig (Koruyucu iki ùç kiĢi) Ķadırķan yıĢ (Ķadırķan ormanı) 40. Satır: Ķarluķ budun (Karluk milleti) Ķarluķ ilteber (Karluk valisi) 41. Satır: Kara budun (Halk kitlesi) Güney – Doğu Cephesi Ġsim tamlaması Sıfat tamlaması 1. Satır: Yiti ôd (Yedi zaman) Yılıġçı er (Yağmacı asker) Güney Cephesi Ġsim tamlaması Sıfat tamlaması 1. Satır: Tabġaç atlıg (Çin sùvarisini) 1. Satır: Bir tùmen artuķı yiti bing sùg (On yedi bin 7. Satır: Tatabı budun (Çin milleti) Ġlker taġ (Ġlker dağır) asker) 8. Satır: Tônges taġ (Tônges dağı) Ġlki kùn (Ġlk gùn) Ġkinti kùn (Ġkinci gùn) 1074 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 10.Satır: Laġzın yıl (Domuz yıl) It yıl (Kôpek yılı) 2. Satır: On artuķı sekiz yaĢ (On sekiz yaĢ) 11.Satır: Yoġ yıparıġ (Yas tôreni kokusu) Çından ıġaçOtuz artuķı toķuz yaĢ (Otuz dokuz yaĢ) (Sandal ağacı) 7. Satır: Alp er (Kahraman er) Elig yaĢ (Elli yaĢ) 13. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan ( Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 8. Satır: Tôrt tùmen sù (Kırk bin asker) Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) TarduĢ begler (TarduĢ beyleri) Üç tùmen sù (Otuz bin asker) ġadpıt begler (ġadpıt beyleri) Tôlis begler (Tôlis beyleri) 9. Satır: Uluġ oġul (Bùyùk oğul) 14. Satır: ġadpıt begler (ġadpıt beyleri) Toķuz yiġirmi yıl (On dokuz yıl) 15. Satır: Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) 10.Satır: Onunç ay (Onuncu ay) BiĢinç ay (BeĢinci ay) 11. Satır: BiĢ yùz eren (BeĢ yùz yiğit) 12. Satır: Bunça budun (Bunca millet) Ķara kiĢin (Kar samusunu) Edgù ôzlùk at (Ġyi binek atı) Kôk teyeng (Mavi sincap) 15. Satır: Aġar taĢ (Ağır taĢ) Yoġun ıġ (Kalın ağaç) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim tamlaması Sıfat tamlaması 9. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ Kağanı) 9. Satır: Tôrt bulunġ (Dôrt taraf) Tôrt bulunġdaķı TùrgiĢ Ķaġan kızın (TùrgiĢ Kağanının kızı) budun 11. Satır: Kùn toġsık (Gùn doğusu) (Dôrt taraftaki millet) Uluġ tôrùn (Bùyùk tôren) 13. Satır: Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) Tùrk budun (Tùrk10. Satır: Ertingù uluġ tôrùn (Fevkalade bùyùk tôren) milleti) 11. Satır: Sarıġ altın (Sarı altın) Özlùk at (Binek at) 14. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin kağanı) Mening sabımKôzùn kôrmedik kulkakın eĢidmedik budunum (Benim sôzùm) (Gôzle gôrùlmeyen kulakla iĢitilmeyen milletim) 15. Satır: On oķ oġlı (On ok oğlu) Ķara kiĢ (Kara samur) Ķırġaġlıġ ķutay (Kenarlı ipek) Ürùng kùmùĢ (Beyaz gùmùĢ) Kinlig iĢg (Ġperkli kumaĢ) 12. Satır: Kôk teyeng (Mavi sincap) 14. Satır: Adınçıġ barķ (BambaĢka tùrbe) Adınçıġ bediz (BambaĢka resim) Kôngùlteki sab (Gônùldeki sôz) 15. Satır: Benggù taĢ (Ebedi taĢ) TaĢ barķ (TaĢ tùrbe) Güney – Batı Cephesi Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Ay artuķı tôrt kùn (Bir ay dôrt gùn) TONYUKUK ÂBĠDESĠ Birinci TaĢ- Batı Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Tabġaç ili (Çin ili) Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 4. Satır: Ġki ùlùg (Ġki kısım) Bir ùlùg (Bir kısım) Yiti 1075 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) yùz kiĢi (Yedi yùz kiĢi) 3. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tùrk Sir Budun (Tùrk5. Satır: Toruķ buķalı (Zayıf boğa) Semiz buķalı Sir Milleti) (Semiz boğa) 6. Satır: Semiz buķa (Semiz boğa) Toruķ buķa (Zayıf boğa) Güney Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Budun boġuzı (Milletin boğazı) 2. Satır: Azķınya Tùrk budun (Azıcık Tùrk milleti) 2. Satır: Kôrùg sabı (Casusun sôzù) 4. Satır: Biridin yan (Gùney taraf) Öngdin yan (Doğu Toķuz Oġuz budun (Dokuz oğuz milleti) taraf) 4. Satır: Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk Sir milleti) Yırındınta yan (Kuzey taraf) 8.Satır: Ötùken yıĢ (Ötùken ormanı) 5. Satır: Ol sab ( O sôz) Yuyka erkli (Yufka olan) 10. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 6. Satır: Yinçke erkli (Ġnce olan) 7. Satır: Ġki ùç bing sù (Ġki ùç bin asker) 8.Satır: Ötùntùk ôtùnç (Arz edilen maruzat) 10. Satır: Biriyeki budun (Gùneydeki millet) Ķurıyaķı yırıyaķı ôngreki budun (Batıdaki, kuzeydeki, doğudaki millet) Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tùrk ķaġan (Tùrk1. Satır: Ġki sù (Ġki ordu) kağanı) 2. Satır: Üç otuz balıķ (Yirmi ùç Ģehir) ġantun balıķ (ġantung nehri) 3. Satır: Ol ùç ķaġan (O ùç kağan) 2. Satır: ġantung balıķ (ġantung Ģehri) Tabġaç ķaġan5. Satır: Ol sab (Sôz) (Çinkağanı) 7. Satır: Ol yol (o yol) On oķ ķaġan (On okkağanı) 3. Satır: Ķırķız kùçùk ķaġan (Kırgızın kuvvetli kağanı) Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) Tùrk ķaġan (Tùrk kağanı) 4. Satır: TùrgiĢ ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanı) 5. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 6. Satır: Kôgmen yolı (Kôgmenin yolu) 7. Satır: Az yir yolı (Az ùlkesinin yolu) Bir at oruķı (Bir at yolu) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1076 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Satır: Anı sub (Sanı suyu) 4. Satır: Ķırķız 1. Satır: Önreki er (Öndeki er) budunı (Kırgız kavmi) Kôgmen yıĢ2. Satır: On tùn (On gece) Yantaķı tuġ (Yandaki (Kôgmen ormanı) engel) 5. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanı) 3. Satır: Ol sub (O su) 6.Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanı) On oķ budun (On6. Satır: Ol sab ( O sôz) ok milleti) Tabġaç sùsi (Çin ordusu) 7. Satır: Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) 9. Satır: Üç kôrùg (Üç casus) Ol sab (O sôz) Sù baĢı (Ordu11. Satır: Ol Sab (O sôz) komutanı) 8. Satır: Altın yıĢ (Altun ormanı) 9. Satır: On oķ sùsi (On ok ordusu) YarıĢ yazı (YarıĢ ovası) 10. Satır: Yelme ķarġu (KeĢif kolu) Ergùti urġıl (Nôbet iĢi) 11.Satır: Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) ĠrtiĢ ôgùz (ĠrtiĢ nehri (ĠrtiĢ nerhri) Batı Cephesi Ġkinci TaĢ Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: YarıĢ yazı (YarıĢ ovası) 1. Satır: On tùmen sù (Yùz bin asker) Ol sab (O sôz) 2. Satır: Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) 3. Satır: Iduk yir (Mukaddes yer) 7. Satır: Ol oķ tùn budun (O aynı gece halkı) 4. Satır: Ġkinti kùn (Ġkinci gùn) On oķ begleri (On ok beyleri) 5. Satır: Ġki uç (Ġki uç) 8. Satır: On ok sùsi (On ok ordusu) 7. Satır: Eligçe er (Elli kadar er) Ol sab ( O sôz) 9. Satır: Bengilig Ek Taġı (Mukaddes Ek dağı) 8. Satır: Keligme begler (Gelen beyler) Azça budun (Az miktarda millet) 9. Satır: Yinçù ôgùz (Ġnci nehri) Güney Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 2. Satır: Soġdaķ budun (Soğdak milleti) Tùrk budun (Tùrk1.Satır: Temir Ķapıġ (Demir Kapı) milleti) 2. Satır: Temir Ķapıġ (Demir Kapı) 6. Satır: Tùrk Bôgù Ķaġan (Tùrk Bôgù Kağanı) 3. Satır: Ol yir (O yer) Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 4. Satır: Sarıġ altun (Sarı altın) Ürùng kùmùĢ (Beyaz gùmùĢ) Ķız ķuduz (Kız kadın) Egri teb (Eğri deve) Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1077 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 1.Satır: Yiti otuz yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) 8. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 2. Satır: Ķızıl ķan (Kızıl kan) Ķara terim (Kara terim) Uzun yelmeg (Uzun keĢif kolu) 3. Satır: Yanıġma yaġı (Silahlı dùĢman) 4. Satır: Yaraķlıg yaġıġ (Silahlı dùĢmanı) Tôgùnlùg atı (Damgalı atı) 6. Satır: Neng yirdeki ķaġanlıġ budun (Herhangi bir yerdeki kağanlı millet) 7. Satır: Ne bung (Ne sıkıntısı) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması 2.Satır: Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk sir milleti) 3. Satır: Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk sir milleti) 4. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk sir milleti) Oġuz budun (Oğuz milleti) Kitabelerin her satırında dil yadigârlarımızla karĢılaĢmak mùmkùndùr. "Yazıtlar, o gùnùn Tùrkçesini ve yer yer sanatlı anlatımlarıyla Tùrk yazınının en eski ôrneklerini yansıtmaları bakımından bùyùk ônem taĢımaktadır." (Aksan, 2000: 23). Yazıtlarda yer alan ôrnekler içerisinde ise tamlamalar ôzel bir yer tutmaktadır. Tamlamalar sôz varlığının ônemli unsurlarından olup sôz dizimi içerisinde en çok karĢılaĢılan sôzcùk grubudur. Ġsim ve sıfat tamlaması olarak ikiye ayrılır. Ġsim tamlaması, isimlerle kurulur. ―Bu kelime grubunda iki isim unsuru aitlik, içinde bulunma, sınırlandırma, belirtme vb. anlam ilgileri çerçevesinde birbirine bağlanır.‖ (Karahan, 2005: 42) sıfat tamlamasında ise ismi niteleyen veya belirten bir sıfat bulunur. Abidelerde hemen hemen her satırda isim ve sıfat tamlaması bulunmaktadır. Henùz yabancı dillerden etkilenmemiĢ bir Tùrkçe ile oluĢturulan bu tamlamaların pek çoğu gùnùmùze kadar değiĢim gôstermeden ulaĢmıĢtır. Ġsim tamlamalarının belirtili ve belirtisiz isim tamlaması ôrnekleri kùçùk ek değiĢimleri dıĢında aynen korunmuĢ ve gùnùmùze ulaĢmıĢtır. ―Mening budunum‖ (Benim milletim), ―Tùrk budun‖ (Tùrk milleti)… Yer, yôn ve zaman bildiren tamlamaların tıpkı Orhun abidelerinde olduğu gibi Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanıldığı gôrùlmektedir: ―Kùn toġsık‖ (Gùn doğusu), ―Kùn ortasın‖ (Gùn ortası), ―Kùn batsık‖ (Gùn batısı), ―Tôrt bulung‖ (Dôrt taraf), ―Biridin yan‖ (Gùney taraf), ―Tùn ortasın‖ (Gece ortası), ―Yinçù ôgùz‖ (Ġnci nehri), ―Ötùken yıĢ‖ (Ötùken ormanı)… Orhun abideleri sıfat tamlamaları bakımından zengin bir içeriğe sahiptir. ―Genelde kısa cùmlelerle kesin hùkùmler bildiren yazıtlarda geniĢ bir sıfat yelpazesi ile karĢı karĢıya kalıyoruz.‖ (Kayra, 1996: 145). Sıfat tamlamaları içinde ağırlığı niteleme sıfatları oluĢturmaktadır. Tek tek tespit edip tablo halinde verdiğimiz tamlamalardan niteleme sıfatları bir sıfatla bir ismin birleĢmesinden oluĢtuğu ve genellikle sıfatın ekleĢmediği yapılar olduğu için kolayca anlaĢılmaktadır. Bu sıfat tamlamalarından bugùn için oldukça kolay bir Ģekilde anlaĢılacak olan ve Orhun abidelerinin gùnùmùze ulaĢtığını gôstermesi yônùyle Ģu tamlamalara bakılabilir: ―Alp er‖ (Cesur kiĢi), ―Aķ at‖ (Beyaz at), ―Ķara Ķôl‖ (Kara Gôl)… 1078 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Abidelerde ―bu‖ ve ―ol‖ iĢaret sıfatları ile oluĢturulmuĢ sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri gôrùlùr. ―Bu taĢ‖ (Bu taĢ) ―Bu tam‖ (Bu duvar); ―Ol tôrù‖ (O tôre), ―Ol sùg‖ (O ordu) gibi. ―Bu‖ iĢaret sôzcùğù değiĢmeden gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢmıĢken ―ol‖ sôzcùğù Ģu an ―o‖ iĢaret sôzcùğù olarak kullanılmaktadır. Abidelerde sıfat tamlaması tùrlerinden soru sıfatları da bulunmaktadır. ―Ne ķaġanķa‖ (Ne kağana), ―Ne kiĢi‖ (Ne kadar insan), Ne bung (Ne sıkıntısı). Sıfat tamlamalarından belirsizlik bildiren tamlama ôrnekleri de gôrùlùr. ―Bunça budun‖ (Bunca millet), ―Azķınya er‖ (Azıcık er), ―Bir kiĢi‖ (Bir insan, birisi) Bazı sıfat tamlamalarının sıfat fiillerle kurulduğu gôrùlùr. Sôz konusu tamlamalardaki sıfat fiil ekleri ise gùnùmùze ulaĢamamıĢtır. Ancak anlamın korunduğu ve bunu karĢılayacak sıfat fiillerin Tùrkçede Ģu an bulunduğu gôrùlùr. ―Ġl tutsıķ yir‖ (Ġl tutulacak yer), ―Erig yir‖ (EriĢilir yer)… -çe ekinden yararlanarak kùçùltme anlamı taĢıyan ve gùnùmùze anlam olarak ulaĢan sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri de bulunur. ―Yùzçe er‖ (Yùz kadar asker), ―Eligçe er‖ (Elli kadar er) Abidelerde Ģu an Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki atasôzleri içinde yer alan sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri de vardır. Örneğin ―Sùçig sab‖ (tatlı sôz). Bu tamlama gùnùmùzde ―Tatlı sôz yılanı deliğinden çıkarır.‖ (Aksoy, 1995: 283) atasôzù içinde geçmektedir. ―Kôrùr kôz‖ (Gôrùr, gôren gôz) tamlaması da yine bir atasôzùnde ―Gôren gôzùn hakkı vardır.‖ (Aksoy, 1995: 146) Ģeklinde kullanılır. Abidelerde bazı sıfat tamlamalarında tamlayanın birden fazla sıfattan oluĢtuğu gôrùlùr ve bu kullanım gùnùmùzde de yaygındır. ―Edgù bilge kiĢi‖ (Ġyi, bilgili insan), ―Edgù alp kiĢi‖ (Ġyi, cesur insan)… Bazı isim tamlamalarında ise tamlananın birden fazla kelimeden oluĢtuğu gôrùlùr. ―Tùrk begler, budun‖ (Tùrk beyleri, milleti), ―Tùrk budunug atı kùsi‖ (Tùrk milletinin adı sanı) Renk bildiren sıfat tamlamalarının aradan asırlar geçmiĢ olmasına rağmen aynen korunduğu gôrùlùr: ―Kôk tengri‖ (Mavi gôk), ―Boz at‖ (boz at), ―Sarıġ altın‖ (Sarı altın) Sayı sıfatlarının bazılarının da abidelerde olduğu gibi gùnùmùzde kullanıldığı gôrùlmektedir. ―Bir er‖ (Bir kiĢi), ―Ġki er‖ (Ġki kiĢi)), YitmiĢ er (YetmiĢ kiĢi), Yigirmi kùn (Yirmi gùn)… Ancak o zamanın sayı sistemi farklı olduğundan abidelerde gôrùlen pek çok sayı sıfatı ise değiĢen sayı sistemleri ile birlikte abidelerde kalmıĢtır. ―Yiti yigirmi er‖ (On yedi kiĢi), ―Bir otuz yaĢ‖ (Yirmi bir yaĢ), Altı yigirmi yaĢ (On altı yaĢ), Yiti otuz yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) gibi tamlamalarda onluklar arası sayı sistemi kullanılmıĢtır. ―Onluklar arası sayılar bir sonraki onluğa atılacak adımlar olarak dùĢùnùlùr ve buna gôre adlandırılır.‖ (Tekin, 2000: 129) Otuz artuķı bir yaĢ (Otuz bir yaĢ), ―Ķırķ artuķı yiti yol‖ (Kırk yedi defa) gibi sayı sıfatlarında ise baĢka bir sistem dikkati çeker. ―Asıl Orhon yazıtlarında 30‘dan sonraki sayılar genellikle katmanlı yapılardır. Bu yapılarda artukı -fazlası, artı- sôzcùğù birleĢtirici olarak kullanılır.‖ (Tekin, 2000: 130) bunun dıĢında 80 ve 90 ile yùzler ve binler niteleme yapılar olarak gôrùlùr. ―BiĢ yùz eren‖ (BeĢ yùz yiğit) Bazı tamlamaların sonradan birleĢik kelimeye dônùĢtùğù gôrùlmùĢtùr. ―Sù baĢı‖ (Ordu komutanı) tamlaması sonradan subaĢı biçiminde Osmanlı Tùrkçesinde kullanılmıĢ ve gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢmıĢtır. Abidelerde derecelendirilmiĢ ve kendi içinde karĢılaĢtırma ifade eden sıfat tamlaması ôrneği de vardır. ―Ġdi oķsuz Kôk Tùrk‖ bu tamlamayı Ergin, ―Pek teĢkilatsız Kôktùrk olarak‖ belirtmiĢtir. Buradaki pek sôzcùğù (Ġdi) sıfatın baĢına gelerek derecelendirme oluĢturmuĢtur. –ki ekiyle oluĢturulmuĢ tùremiĢ sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri bulunmaktadır ve bunlardan bazıları gùnùmùzde de benzer Ģekilde kullanılmaktadır. ―…içreki bediĢci‖ (…maiyetindeki resimci), ―Ġçreki budun‖ (Ġçindeki millet) gùnùmùzde aitlik eki olan –ki, -de bulunma hali ile yaygın olarak kullanılır: Evdeki, sokaktaki…. Sıra sayı sıfatlarının oluĢturduğu tamlamalar da kolayca anlaĢılacak açıklıktadır ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde Ģu an aynı Ģekilde kullanılmaktadır. ―Yitinç er‖ (Yedinci kiĢi), ―Toķuzunçu ay‖ (Dokuzuncu ay), ―Yitinç ay‖ (Yedinci ay)… 1079 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bazı tamlamalar gùnùmùze ulaĢmıĢ olmasına rağmen abidelerdeki Ģekliyle Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanılmamaktadır. Örneğin ―Bilig bilmez kiĢi‖ olarak geçen sıfat tamlaması ―bilgi bilmez kiĢi‖ olarak Tùrkiye Tùrkçesine çevrilir. Bu sıfat tamlamasını Orkun, ―bilir bilmez [cahil] kiĢi‖ (Orkun, 1994: 25), Ergin, ―bilgi bilmez kiĢi‖ (Ergin, 2005: ), Tekin ise ―cahil kiĢi‖ (Tekin, 2006: 23) olarak açıklamıĢtır. Gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde bilgi bilmez Ģeklinde iki kelime kullanımı yerine bilgisiz veya cahil kelimesi bulunmaktadır. Sonuc Orhun abidelerinin sôz varlığı ùzerine çeĢitli çalıĢmalar yapılabilir. Bu çalıĢmada tamlamalar esas alındı. ÇalıĢmanın bulgular bôlùmùnde ôncelikle abidelerdeki isim ve sıfat tamlamaları tablo halinde verildi. Abidelerde iç içe geçmiĢ veya tekrar eden sıfat ve isim tamlamaları sayılmazsa 250 civarında isim tamlaması, 300 civarında ise sıfat tamlaması bulunmaktadır. Tabloda verilen tamlamalar içinden isim ve sıfat tamlaması çeĢitleri olarak ve gùnùmùze ulaĢmıĢ olmaları bakımından çeĢitli ôrnekler seçildi ve sıralandı. Birçok tamlamanın herhangi bir değiĢime uğramadan dilde kullanılageldiği, bazılarının ise bir iki ek değiĢimi gôstererek ve anlamını koruyarak gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢtığı ve Ģu an Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanıldığı ortaya konuldu. Gùnùmùzde bu tamlamaların deyimlerimizde, atasôzlerimizde, yer-yôn adlarında ve gùnlùk kullanımlarda vs. bulunduğu gôrùldù. 1080 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reference Aksan, D. (2000). Her Yônùyle Dil, Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim, Ankara: Atatùrk Kùltùr, Dil ve Tarih Yùksek Kurumu Yay. Aksan. D. (1996). Tùrkçenin Sôz Varlığı. Ankara: Engin Yayınevi. Aksoy, Ö. A. (1994): Atasôzleri ve Deyimler Sôzlùğù. Ġstanbul: Ġnkılâp Kitabevi. Aksoy Ö. A., Dilçin D. (1995): Tarama Sôzlùğù, Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları: 212/II Aksoy Ö. A., Dilçin D. (1995): Tarama Sôzlùğù, Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları: 212/III Alyılmaz, C. (1994). Orhun Yazıtlarının Sôz Dizimi. Erzurum: Atatùrk Ünv. Yayınları. Çelikel, S. (2007). Orhun Kitabelerinin Gùnùmùz Tùrkçesindeki Sôz Varlığı, Trakya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitùsù. BasılmamıĢ Yùksek Lisans Tezi. Edirne. Ergin, M. (2005). Orhun Abideleri. Ġstanbul: Boğaziçi Yayınları. Emiroğlu, S. (2010). Manzum Nasihatnamelerin Eğitim Değeri Üzerine Bir Ġnceleme. Selçuk Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitùsù. BasılmamıĢ Doktora Tezi, Konya. Karahan, L. (2005) Tùrkçede Sôz Dizimi, 8. Baskı. Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. Kayra, O. K. (1996). ―Orhun Anıtlarında Sıfatlar, Sıfat Tamlamaları ve Bunlara ĠliĢkin Bazı Açıklamalar‖, TDAY Belleten, Ankara: TDK Yayınları. 145-158. Orkun, H. N. (1994). Eski Tùrk Yazıtları, Ankara: TDK Yayınları. Tekin T. (2006). Orhon Yazıtları. Ankara: TDK Yayınları. Tekin T. (2000). Orhon Tùrkçesi Grameri. Ankara: TDK Yayınları. Timurtas, F. K. (2005), Tarih Ġçinde Tùrk Edebiyatı, Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. Tùrkçe Sôzlùk 2005, 10. Baskı, Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. 1081 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 582 Title A name given to the resource ORHUN ABĠDELERĠNDEKĠ TAMLAMALARIN TÜRKĠYE TÜRKÇESĠNDEKĠ KULLANIMI Author Author Emiroğlu, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. Orhun abideleri, Tùrk dili ve edebiyatının ilk yazılı kaynaklarıdır. Bu taĢlar, hem maddi hem de manevi bakımdan Tùrk dili, kùltùrù ve tarihinin en değerli anıtlarıdır. Gôktùrkler dôneminde ve Gôktùrkçe olarak yazılmıĢ kitabelerde gùnùmùze ıĢık tutan ônemli mesajlar bulunmaktadır. Kitabelerde Tùrk dilini tùm ôzellikleriyle bulmak mùmkùndùr. ġiir lezzetinde ve sağlam bir Tùrkçeyle Tùrklùk Ģuuru gelecek kuĢaklara aktarılmıĢtır. Ebedi taĢlar denilen kitabeler ùzerine kazınmıĢ metinler, Tùrk dilinin geçirdiği evreleri ve değiĢimi takip etmek bakımından dikkate değerdir. Orhun Abideleri ùzerinde yerli ve yabancı olmak ùzere pek çok çalıĢma vardır. Bu çalıĢmada Orhun abidelerinin ùç ônemli yazıtı olan Kùltigin, Bilge Kağan ve Tonyukuk yazıtları tamlamalar bakımından incelenmiĢ olup yazıtlardaki tamlamalar teker teker tespit edilmiĢtir. Bu tamlamaların gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki kullanımları ele alınmıĢtır. Birkaç kùçùk ses ve ek değiĢimi dıĢında tamlamaların birçoğunun tarihi sùreç içerisinde değiĢmeden gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢtığı gôrùlmùĢtùr. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics